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37,046 | 1,085,160,366 | Heruli | [
{
"plaintext": "The Heruli (or Herules) were an early Germanic people. Possibly originating in Scandinavia, the Heruli are first mentioned by Roman authors as one of several \"Scythian\" groups raiding Roman provinces in the Balkans and the Aegean Sea, attacking by land, and notably also by sea. During this time they reportedly lived near the Sea of Azov.",
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"plaintext": "From the late 4th century AD the Heruli were one of the peoples that were brought into the fold of the Hunnic Confederation of Attila. By 454, after the death of Attila, they established their own kingdom on the Middle Danube, and Heruli also participated in successive conquests of Italy by Odoacer, Theoderic the Great, Narses and probably also the Longobards. However, their independent kingdom was destroyed by the Longobards by the early 6th century AD. A part of this population subsequently became established inside the Roman empire near Belgrade, and continued contributing fighting men to the Eastern Roman empire, and participating in Balkan and Italian conflicts.",
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"plaintext": "With their last kingdom eventually dominated by Rome, and smaller groups integrated into larger political entities, the Heruli disappeared from history around the time of the conquest of Italy by the Lombards.",
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"plaintext": "The name of the Heruli is sometimes spelled as Heruls, Herules, Herulians or Eruli. In the earliest mentions of them in 4th century records, they are called Eluri instead, leading to some doubts about whether they were the same people.",
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"plaintext": "The name Heruli was often written without \"h\" in Greek (Έρουλοι, 'Erouloi') and Latin (Eruli), and is sometimes thought to be Germanic and related to the English word earl (see erilaz) implying that it was an honorific military title. There is even speculation that the Heruli were not a normal tribal group but a brotherhood of mobile warriors, though there is no consensus for this old proposal, which is based only on the name etymology and the reputation of Heruli as soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "The Heruli are believed to have been Germanic-speaking. Personal names provide important evidence on the language of the Heruli. A large number of Heruli names are attested, and many of these are certainly Germanic, being similar to Gothic names.",
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"plaintext": "The Heruli are specifically believed to have spoken an East Germanic language. These languages were also spoken by the Goths, Burgundians, Rugii, Vandals, Gepids and others. It has however also been proposed that they spoke a North Germanic language.",
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"plaintext": "When first mentioned by Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, the Heruli were referred to as \"Scythians\", along with the Goths and allied tribes. The use of this term for Heruli and Goths probably began as early as Dexippus, most of whose work is now lost. The use of this term does not give us any clear linguistic classification.",
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"plaintext": "In late antiquity, the Gepids, Vandals, Rugii, Sciri, the non-Germanic Alans and the actual Goths, were all classified by Roman ethnographers as \"Gothic\" peoples, and modern historians generally consider the Heruli to be one of these. While historians such as Walter Goffart have pointed out that the Herules are never included in the lists of \"Gothic peoples\" of Procopius, Mihail Zahariade has shown that the Latin and Greek sources not only distinguish the Heruli (Elouroi in this period) from the Goths during their first 3rd century seaborne offensive (see below), but also Zonaras specifically stated that the Heruli were of Gothic stock — a categorization implied by other chroniclers of those events when they refer to Goths.",
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"plaintext": "None of these eastern peoples were considered Germanic by Roman ethnographers at the time. However, in modern scholarship the Heruli are usually classified as a Germanic people. On account of having likely spoken an East Germanic language, the Heruli are often more specifically classified as an East Germanic people.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of the Heruli are traditionally sought in north-central Europe, possibly Scandinavia.",
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"plaintext": "In his 6th century work Getica, the historian Jordanes, based in Constantinople, wrote that the Heruli had been driven out of their homeland in Scandinavia by the Danes. This has been read as implying Heruli origins in the Danish isles or southernmost Sweden. The reliability and correct interpretation of this passage in the Getica is, however, disputed. On the other hand, his contemporary Procopius recounted a migration of a sixth-century group of Heruli noblemen to Thule (which for him, but not Jordanes, was the same as Scandinavia), from their \"homeland\" on the Middle Danube. Later, Danubian Heruli found new royalty among these northern Heruli. This account has been seen as implying an old and continuous connection between the Heruli and Scandinavia, although some recent scholars are skeptical of this interpretation, and have noted that Procopius does not depict the Heruli as returning to a homeland, but as leaving their homeland.",
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"plaintext": "Ellegård has proposed that the Danish expulsion of the Heruli might have happened in the 6th century, and been an expulsion of the immigrants from the Danube: \"the only thing we can say with reasonable certainty is that a small group of Eruli lived there for some 38-40 years in the first half of the 6th century A.D.\". He proposes that the evidence makes it most likely that \"a loose group of Germanic warriors which came into being in the late 3rd century in the region north of the Danube limes that extends roughly from Passau to Vienna\".",
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"plaintext": "The Heruli are believed to have migrated towards the region north of the Black Sea in the 3rd century AD. Other Germanic peoples, such as the Rugii and the Goths, are believed to have carried out a similar migration at this time. These peoples replaced the Sarmatians as the dominant power north of the Black Sea. The Sarmatians had in the 1st century AD replaced the Bastarnae, who are believed to have been a Germanic people. The arrival of the Heruli has been seen as part of a bigger cultural shift in this region, involving the migration from the northwest of Germanic peoples, who replaced the Sarmatians as the dominant power in the region.",
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"plaintext": "The first relatively clear mention of the Heruli by Graeco-Roman writers concerns two major campaigns into the Balkans of 267/268 and 269/270. Goths, Heruli (referred to as \"Eluri\", Ἔλουροι, in the oldest sources), and other \"Scythian\" peoples from the region of the Sea of Azov, took control of Black Sea Greek cities, and gained a fleet that they used to launch raids along the northern Black Sea and as far as Greece and Asia Minor. These invasions began in the reign of Gallienus (260-268 AD), and continued until at least 269 during the reign of Marcus Aurelius Claudius, who subsequently took up the title \"Gothicus\" due to his victory.",
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"plaintext": "In 267, Heruli (Αἴρουλοι) commanded a naval attack from the Sea of Azov, past the Danube delta, and into the straits of the Bosphorus (the area of modern Istanbul). They took control of Byzantion and Chrysopolis before retreating to the Black Sea. Emerging to raid Cyzicus, they subsequently entered the Aegean Sea, where they troubled Lemnos, Skyros and Imbros, before landing in the Peloponnese. There they plundered not only Sparta, the closest city to their landing site, but also Corinth, Argos, and the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. Still within 267 they reached Athens, where local militias had to defend the city. It seems to have been the Heruli specifically who sacked Athens despite the construction of a new wall, during Valerian’s reign only a generation earlier. This was the occasion for a famous defense made by Dexippus, whose writings were a source for later historians.",
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"plaintext": "Further north, in 268, Gallienus defeated Heruli at the river Nestos using a new mobile cavalry, but as part of the surrender a Herulian chief named Naulobatus became the first barbarian known from written records to receive imperial insignia from the Romans, gaining the rank of a Roman consul. It is highly likely that these defeated Heruli were then made part of the Roman military.",
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"plaintext": "Recent researchers such as Steinacher now have increased confidence that there was a distinct second campaign which began in 269, and ended in 270. Later Roman writers reported that thousands of ships left from the mouth of the Dnieper, manned by a large force of various different Scythian peoples, including Peuci, Greutungi, Austrogothi, Tervingi, Vesi, Gepids, Celts, and Heruli. These forces divided into two parts in the Hellespont. One force attacked Thessaloniki, and against this group the Romans, led by Claudius now, had a major victory at the Battle of Naissus (Niš, Serbia) in 269. This was apparently a distinct battle from that at the Nessos. A Herulian chieftain named Andonnoballus is said to have switched to the Roman side, and this was once again a case where Heruli appear to have joined the Roman military. The second group sailed south and raided Rhodes, Crete, and Cyprus and many Goths and Heruli managed to return safely to harbor in the Crimea. Lesser attacks continued until 276.",
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"plaintext": "The Heruli are believed to have formed part of the Chernyakhov culture, which, although dominated by the Goths and other Germanic peoples, also included Bastarnae, Dacians and Carpi. The Heruli are thus archaeologically indistinguishable from the Goths.",
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"plaintext": "Jordanes reports that the Heruli in the late 4th century AD were conquered by Ermanaric, king of the Greuthungian Goths. Ermanaric's realm may also have included Finns, Slavs, Alans and Sarmatians. Before being conquered by Ermanaric, Jordanes says that the Heruli were led by their king Alaric. Herwig Wolfram has suggested that the future Visigothic king Alaric I may have been named after this Herulian king.",
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"plaintext": "Doubts have been raised about this earliest, Black Sea period in the history of the Heruli. The first author known to have equated these \"Eruli\" with the later \"Eruli\" was Jordanes, in the 6th century.",
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"plaintext": "The proposal that there may have been a Western kingdom of Heruli has posed a problem for scholars. This question arises because of the evidence of Heruli activity in the western Roman empire. The existence of this western kingdom is increasingly doubted.",
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"plaintext": "Heruli were already seen in western Europe before the empire of Attila, at the time of their first ambitious campaigns in the east. In 268 Claudius Mamertinus reported the victory of Maximian over a group of Heruli and Chaibones (known only from this one report) attacking Gaul.",
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"plaintext": "It is believed that it was from this time that the Romans instituted a Herulian auxiliary unit, the Heruli seniores, who were stationed in northern Italy. This numerus Erulorum was a lightly-equipped unit often associated with the Batavian Batavi seniores. In 366 the Batavians and Heruli fought against the Alamanni near the Rhine, under the leadership of Charietto, who died in the battle, and then against Picts and Scoti in Britain. They were subsequently sent to fight Parthians in the east.",
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"plaintext": "In 405 or 406, a large number of barbarian groups crossed the Rhine, entering the Roman empire, and the Heruli appear in the list of peoples given by the historian Jerome. However, this list is sometimes thought to have drawn on historical lists for literary effect.",
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"plaintext": "Later mentions of Heruli in western incidents where they were not clearly connected to the Roman military include two sea raids in northern Spain in the 450s, and the presence of Heruli at the Visigothic court of Euric in about 475. The raids were reported by Hydatius. Sidonius Apollinaris mentions Heruli at the Visigothic court in 476, although this is in a poetic letter. Recent scholars such as Steinacher and Halsall have pointed out that this type of evidence is consistent with the internal military conflicts that were happening in the Roman empire during this period. Halsall, for example, writes that it \"must at least be a possibility that their raid constituted part of a Romano-Visigothic offensive against the Sueves\", who had been part of an invasion of the same area. Steinacher demonstrates using examples from the period, including Charietto's life story, that barbarian soldiers could switch from being Roman soldier, to pirate, and back to soldier.",
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"plaintext": "The Greek poet Sidonius Apollinaris specifically imagined the Heruli he saw at Euric's court as oceanic sea-farers, but Steinacher argues that this raiding by sea was simply a logical strategy for Visigothic campaigns against the Iberian Suevi, and difficult to use as a proof that the Heruli had a coastal kingdom somewhere in the north.",
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"plaintext": "Given the writing style of Sidonius, this reference could also be \"nothing more than a bookish reference to 3rd-century accounts of Herules attacking from the sea\".",
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"plaintext": "In the early 5th century AD, large groups of peoples left the Middle Danube region, including the groups who crossed the Rhine in 405, many of whom eventually reached Iberia. Others crossed the Danube, like the forces of Radagaisus, who invaded Italy. During this period, the Huns and their allies begin to be found in this same area instead, having crossed the Carpathians from the east. By 450 AD, the Heruli were firmly part of the Hunnic empire of Attila. The Gepids, Rugi, Sciri and many Goths, Alans and Sarmatians were also part of Attila's empire. They were among the peoples who are reported as having fought for Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of Attila, his sons lost power over the various peoples of his empire at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The centre of this alliance was now settled upon the Roman border north of the Middle Danube. Heruli who were possibly on the winning side with the Gepids, were subsequently among the several peoples now able to form a kingdom in that area. The Herulian kingdom, was established north of modern Vienna and Bratislava, near the Morava river, and possibly extending as far east as the Little Carpathians. They ruled over a mixed population including Suevi, Huns and Alans. Compared to other Middle Danubian kingdoms in this period, Peter Heather has described this Heruli kingdom as \"middle-sized\", similar to the Rugian one, but \"clearly not as militarily powerful, say, as the Gothic, Lombard, or Gepid confederations which generated much longer-lived political entities, and into which elements of the Rugi and Heruli were eventually absorbed\".",
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"plaintext": "From this region the life story of Severinus of Noricum reports that the Heruli attacked Ioviaco near Passau in 480. The Heruli do not appear in early lists of Odoacer's allies after Nedao, but benefited from the downfall of his people the Sciri. They established control on the Roman (south) side of the Danube, north of Lake Balaton in modern Hungary when they were apparently able to take over the kingdoms of the Suevi and Sciri, who had been under pressure from the Ostrogoths, who continued to press their old allies from the south.",
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"plaintext": "Odoacer, the commander of the Imperial foederati troops who deposed the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus in 476 AD came to be seen as king over several of the Danubian peoples including the Heruli, and the Heruli were strongly associated with his Italian kingdom. The Heruli on the Danube also took control of the Rugian territories, who had become competitors to Odoacer and been defeated by him in 488. However Heruli suffered badly in Italy, as loyalists of Odoacer, when he was defeated by the Ostrogoth Theoderic.",
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"plaintext": "By 500 the Herulian kingdom on the Danube, apparently by now under a king named Rodulph, had made peace with Theoderic and become his allies. Paul the Deacon also mentions Heruli living in Italy under Ostrogothic rule. Peter Heather estimates that the Herulian kingdom could muster an army of 5,000-10,000 men.",
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"plaintext": "Theoderic's efforts to build a system of alliances in Western Europe were made difficult both by counter diplomacy, for example between Merovingian Franks and the Byzantine empire, and also the arrival of a new Germanic people into the Danubian region, the Lombards who were initially under Herule hegemony. The Herulian king Rodulph lost his kingdom to the Lombards at some point between 494 and 508.",
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"plaintext": "After the Middle Danubian Herulian kingdom was destroyed by the Lombards in or before 508, Herulian fortunes waned. According to Procopius, in 512 a group including royalty went north and settled in Thule, which for Procopius meant Scandinavia. Procopius noted that these Heruli first traversed the lands of the Slavs, then empty lands, and then the lands of the Danes, until finally settling down nearby the Geats. Peter Heather considers this account to be \"entirely plausible\" although he notes that others have labelled it a \"fairy story\", and given that it only appears in one source it is possible to deny its validity.",
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"plaintext": "Another Heruli group were assigned civil and military offices by Theoderic the Great in Pavia in north Italy.",
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"plaintext": "What happened to the main part of the Danubian Heruli has been difficult to reconstruct from Procopius, but according to Steinacher they first moved downstream on the Danube to an area where the Rugii had sought refuge in 488. Here they suffered famine. They sought refuge among the Gepids, but wanting to avoid being mistreated by them crossed the Danube came under East Roman authority.",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": "Anastasius Caesar allowed them to resettle depopulated \"lands and cities\" in the empire in 512. Modern scholars debate whether they were moved then to Singidunum (modern Belgrade), or first to Bassianae, and to Singidunum some decades later, by Justinian. This area had been re-acquired by the empire from the Goths, who now ruled Italy from Ravenna. Justinian integrated them into the empire as a buffer between the Romans and the more independent Lombards and Gepids to the north. Under his encouragement, the Herule king Grepes converted to Orthodox Christianity in 528 together with some nobles and twelve relatives. Procopius who felt that this made them somewhat gentler, also showed in his account of the wars against the African Vandals, that some of them were Arian Christians.",
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"plaintext": "The Heruli were often mentioned during the times of Justinian, who used them in his extensive military campaigns in many countries including Italy, Syria, and North Africa. Pharas was a notable Herulian commander during this period. Several thousand Heruli served in the personal guard of Belisarius throughout the campaigns, and Narses also recruited from them. They were a participant in the Byzantine-Sasanian wars, such as the Battle of Anglon.",
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{
"plaintext": "Grepes and most of his family had apparently died by the early 540s, possibly in the Plague of Justinian (541-542). Procopius related that in the 540s the Heruli who had been settled in the Roman Balkans killed their own king Ochus and, not wanting the one assigned by the emperor, Suartuas, they made contact with the Heruli who had gone to Thule decades earlier, seeking a new king. Their first choice fell sick and died when they had come to the country of the Dani, and a second choice was made. The new king Datius arrived with his brother Aordus and 200 young men. The Heruli who were sent against Suartuas defected with him and were supported by the empire. The supporters of Datius, two thirds of the Heruli, submitted to the Gepids. This period of rebellion against Rome lasted approximately 545–548, the period immediately before conflict between their larger neighbours the Gepids and Lombards broke out, but this rebellion was repressed by Justinian.",
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"plaintext": "In 549, when the Gepids fought the Romans, and Heruli fought on both sides. In any case after one generation in the Belgrade area, the Herulian federate polity in the Balkans disappears from the surviving historical records, apparently replaced by the incoming Avars.",
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"plaintext": "Peter Heather has written that: ",
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"plaintext": "Sarantis however shows that the Belgrade-region Heruli continued to be recruited, and to play a role in local conflicts involving the Gepids and Lombards, into the 550s. Suartas, a Herule general for the Romans, led Herule forces against the Gepids in 552 for example. However it appears that by this period the semi-independent Heruli near Belgrade became Roman provincials.",
"section_idx": 4,
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 566, Sinduald, a Herule military leader under Narses, was declared a king of Heruli in Trentino in northern Italy, but he was executed by Narses. Sinduald was said to be a descendant of the Herules who had already entered Italy under Odoacer.",
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"plaintext": "Paul the Deacon writes that many Heruli joined the Lombard king Alboin in their eventual conquest of Italy from the empire in the late 6th century AD.",
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"plaintext": "Along with the Rugii and Sciri, the Heruli may have contributed to the formation of the Bavarii.",
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"plaintext": "The early religion of the Heruli is vividly described by Procopius in his History of the Wars. He describes them as a polytheistic society known to practice human sacrifice. The Heruli appear to have been worshippers of Odin, and might have been responsible for the spread of such worship to Northern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "By the time of Justinian, Procopius reports that many Heruli had become Arian Christians. In any case, Justinian appears to have pursued a policy of attempting to convert them to Chalcedonian Christianity.",
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"plaintext": "Procopius writes that the Heruli practiced a form of senicide, having a non-relative kill the sick and elderly and burning the remains on a wooden pyre. Procopius also states that, following the death of their husbands, Herulian women were expected to commit suicide by hanging.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, Procopius claims that the Heruli practiced homosexuality or bestiality, depending on the interpretation:",
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"plaintext": "The translated \"especially men with asses\" is from the original Greek text (provided next to Dewing's translation) \"ἂλλας τε καί ἀνδρῶν καί ὄνων\" where ὄνων is genitive plural of ὄνος, meaning donkeys.",
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"plaintext": "It appears that Procopius disliked the Heruli and wanted to present them in as negative light as possible. His description of bestiality among the Heruli might therefore be untrue.",
"section_idx": 5,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Heruli were famous for the quality of their infantry, who were recruited as mercenaries by all other peoples. They were known particularly for their speed, and were perhaps used for the stabbing cavalry. Procopius described the Heruli in battle against Persians, carrying no protective armor save a shield and thick jacket. This form of warfare has been compared to that of the berserkers of the Viking Age.",
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"plaintext": "Herulian slaves are known to have accompanied them into combat. Slaves were forbidden from donning a shield until having proven themselves brave on the battlefield. This practice might be a relic of ancient Indo-European tradition. Steinacher has pointed out that, while this remark has reasonably been seen as evidence of an \"initiation rite\", initiation rites are so common that caution is required:",
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"plaintext": "The tumuli of the Heruli on the Middle Danube in the early 6th century are very similar to contemporary tumuli built in southern Sweden. At this time, the Heruli appears to have had close trade relations with peoples living near the Baltic Sea.",
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"plaintext": "In Getica, Jordanes writes that the Heruli claimed to be the tallest people of Scandza. Jordanes further writes that all the peoples of Scandza \"surpassed the Germans in size and spirit\". Sidonius Apollinaris wrote that the Heruli had blue-grey eyes.",
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"section_name": "Physical appearance",
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{
"plaintext": "Scholars remark that the historian Procopius had a notable fascination with the Herules, which colors his descriptions of them. As Steinacher remarks \"Procopius's Herul excursus [...] is full of stereotypes and negative attitudes towards this primitive people and its archaic conventions\". This means that caution is required when using his descriptions as evidence. In the words of Walter Goffart:",
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"section_name": "The negative excursus of Procopius",
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"plaintext": "Although Procopius praised the Herule named Pharas who brought about the surrender of the north African Vandal king Gelimer, he noted that despite being born a Herule, he did not drink excessively and was not unreliable.",
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"section_name": "The negative excursus of Procopius",
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"plaintext": "Athens",
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"plaintext": "Byzantium",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Chrysopolis",
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},
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"plaintext": "Lemnos",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Heraclea Pontica",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Places sacked by the Heruli",
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"plaintext": "Olympia",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Argos",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Skyros",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Sparta",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": "Corinth",
"section_idx": 8,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Järsberg Runestone",
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},
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"plaintext": "Troels Brandt: The Heruls in Scandinavia",
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]
| [
"Heruli",
"Early_Germanic_peoples",
"History_of_the_western_steppe",
"Barbarian_kingdoms"
]
| 220,643 | 4,689 | 228 | 210 | 0 | 0 | Heruli | historical ethnical group | [
"Herulians",
"Eruli"
]
|
37,047 | 1,106,647,798 | Akasha | [
{
"plaintext": "Akasha or Akash (Sanskrit ) means space or sky or æther in traditional Indian cosmology, depending on the religion. The term has also been adopted in Western occultism and spiritualism in the late 19th century. In many modern Indo-Aryan languages and Dravidian languages the corresponding word (often rendered Akash) retains a generic meaning of \"sky\".",
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"plaintext": "The word in Sanskrit is derived from a root kāś meaning \"to be\". It appears as a masculine noun in Vedic Sanskrit with a generic meaning of \"open space, vacuity\". In Classical Sanskrit, the noun acquires the neuter gender and may express the concept of \"sky; atmosphere\" (Manusmrti, Shatapatha Brahmana).",
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"plaintext": "In Vedantic philosophy, the word acquires its technical meaning of \"an ethereal fluid imagined as pervading the cosmos\".",
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"plaintext": "In Vedantic Hinduism, akasha means the basis and essence of all things in the material world; the first element created. A Vedic mantra \"pṛthivyāpastejovāyurākāśāt\" indicates the sequence of initial appearance of the five basic gross elements. Thus, first appeared the space, from which appeared air, from that fire or energy, from which the water, and therefrom the earth. It is one of the Panchamahabhuta, or \"five gross elements\"; its main characteristic is Shabda (sound). The direct translation of akasha is the word meaning \"upper sky\" or 'space' in Hinduism.",
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"plaintext": "The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophy state that akasha or aether is the fifth physical substance, which is the substratum of the quality of sound. It is the one, eternal, and all-pervading physical substance, which is imperceptible.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "According to the Samkhya school, akasha is one of the five Mahābhūtas (grand physical elements) having the specific property of sound.",
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"plaintext": "In the Shiva Purana, it identifies akasha as having \"the only attribute of sound\".",
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"plaintext": "In the Linga Purana, akasha is translated as \"firmament\" and listed as one of the 1,008 names of Lord Shiva.",
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"plaintext": "Adherents of the heterodox Cārvāka or Lokāyata philosophy held that this world is made of four elements only. They exclude the fifth, akasha, because its existence cannot be perceived.",
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"plaintext": "Akasha is space in the Jain conception of the cosmos. Akasha is one of the six dravyas (substances) and it accommodates the other five, namely sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient substance or matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), and the principle of time (kāla).",
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},
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"plaintext": "It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite space-points.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "It falls into the Ajiva category, divided into two parts: Loakasa (the part occupied by the material world) and Aloakasa (the space beyond it which is absolutely void and empty). In Loakasa the universe forms only a part. Akasha is that which gives space and makes room for the existence of all extended substances.",
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"plaintext": "At the summit of the lokākāśa is the Siddhashila (abode of the liberated souls).",
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"plaintext": "In Buddhist phenomenology, akasha is divided into limited space (ākāsa-dhātu) and endless space (ajatākasā).",
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"plaintext": "The Vaibhashika, an early school of Buddhist philosophy, hold the existence of akasha to be real.",
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"plaintext": "Ākāsa is identified as the first arūpa jhāna, but usually translates as \"infinite space.\"",
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{
"plaintext": "The Western mystic-religious philosophy called Theosophy has popularized the word akasha as an adjective, through the use of the term \"Akashic records\" or \"Akashic library\", referring to an etheric compendium of all knowledge and history.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern reception",
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{
"plaintext": "Scott Cunningham (1995) uses the term akasha to refer to \"the spiritual force that Earth, Air, Fire, and Water descend from\".",
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"section_name": "Modern reception",
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{
"plaintext": "Ervin László in Science and the Akashic Field: An Integral Theory of Everything (2004), based on ideas by Rudolf Steiner, posits \"a field of information\" as the substance of the cosmos, which he calls \"Akashic field\" or \"A-field\".",
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"plaintext": " Ākāśagarbha – a Bodhisattva associated with akasha",
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| 1,994,694 | 10,530 | 84 | 41 | 0 | 0 | Akash | term for space or æther in traditional Indian cosmology | []
|
37,051 | 1,095,083,422 | Faery_Wicca | [
{
"plaintext": "Faery Wicca is a modern tradition of Wicca founded by author Kisma Stepanich. Adherents of Stepanich's Faery Wicca claim that it recovers the traditions of the Tuatha De Danaan, the mythological precursors to the Celtic people; however, this is disputed by those familiar with ancient Celtic polytheism and mythology. Stepanich's Faery Wicca draws liberally on some degree of Irish mythology, from the author's interpretation of Celtic history, legend, pseudohistory, imagination, and a variety of non-Celtic sources.",
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"plaintext": "Faery Wicca is not related to the late Victor Anderson's Feri Tradition of witchcraft, which is sometimes also spelled Faery or Fairy, nor is it directly related to the gay men's group, the Radical Faeries. Though Faery Wicca may draw inspiration from some of the customs practiced among the ancient and modern Celts, it shares more with other modern Wiccan traditions than with the \"Fairy Faith\" as it is known in traditional Gaelic cultures.",
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"plaintext": " Faerie faith",
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| 3,064,414 | 816 | 5 | 15 | 0 | 0 | Faery Wicca | []
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|
37,053 | 1,102,310,933 | Maunder_Minimum | [
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"plaintext": "The Maunder Minimum, also known as the \"prolonged sunspot minimum\", was a period around 1645 to 1715 during which sunspots became exceedingly rare. During a 28-year period (1672–1699) within the minimum, observations revealed fewer than 50 sunspots. This contrasts with the typical 40,000–50,000 sunspots seen in modern times over a similar timespan.",
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"plaintext": "The Maunder Minimum was first noted by Gustav Spörer in publications in 1887 and 1889, work that was relayed to the Royal Astronomical Society in London, and then expanded on, by solar astronomers Edward Walter Maunder (1851–1928), and his wife Annie Russell Maunder (1868–1947), who also studied how sunspot latitudes changed with time. Two papers were published in Edward Maunder's name in 1890 and 1894, and he cited the two earlier papers written by Gustav Spörer. Because Annie Maunder had not received a university degree, restrictions at the time caused her contribution not to be publicly recognized. The term Maunder Minimum was popularised by John A. Eddy, who published a landmark paper in Science in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "The Maunder Minimum occurred within the Little Ice Age, a long period of lower-than-average European temperatures. The reduced solar activity may have contributed to the climatic cooling, although the cooling began before the solar minimum and its primary cause is believed to be volcanic activity.",
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"plaintext": "The Maunder Minimum occurred between 1645 and 1715 when very few sunspots were observed. That was not because of a lack of observations, as during the 17th century, Giovanni Domenico Cassini carried out a systematic program of solar observations at the Observatoire de Paris, thanks to the astronomers Jean Picard and Philippe de La Hire. Johannes Hevelius also performed observations on his own. Here is the total of sunspots recorded, by example, in the decennial years (omitting Wolf numbers):",
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"plaintext": "During the Maunder Minimum enough sunspots were sighted so that 11-year cycles could be determined from the count. The maxima occurred in 1676–1677, 1684, 1695, 1705 and 1718. Sunspot activity was then concentrated in the southern hemisphere of the Sun, except for the last cycle when the sunspots appeared in the northern hemisphere. According to Spörer's law, spots appear at high latitudes at the start of a cycle, subsequently moving to lower latitudes until they average about latitude 15° at solar maximum. The average then continues to drift lower to about 7° and after that, while spots of the old cycle fade, new cycle spots start appearing again at high latitudes. The visibility of these spots is also affected by the velocity of the Sun's surface rotation at various latitudes:",
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"plaintext": "Visibility is somewhat affected by observations being done from the ecliptic. The ecliptic is inclined 7° from the plane of the Sun's equator (latitude 0°).",
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"plaintext": "In his highly influential paper, John A. Eddy discussed solar eclipses during the Maunder Minimum. From text of eye-witness reports of events in 1652, 1706 and 1715, he concluded that the solar corona was weak in intensity and unstructured during the Maunder Minimum. However, no graphical evidence of these events was available to him. A few representations of these events were available in political cartoons and on coins and medals but these were, almost certainly, not drawn by observers who had actually witnessed the events. There were two prints made by witnesses of the 1706 event but these were made for commercial reasons and not by trained astronomers. Then in 2012 Markus Heinz of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin discovered two paintings of the 1706 eclipse that were known to have existed but were thought lost. They were by a trained and skilful astronomer and observer, Maria Clara Eimmart, the daughter of the director of an observatory housed on a bastion of the walls of Nürnberg castle. The paintings were in excellent agreement with detailed text description of the event by Johann Philipp Wurzelbau (also in Nürnberg) and by French mathematician and cartographer Jean de Clapiès and astronomer François de Plantade who observed the same event from the Babote Tower in Montpellier. This confirmed Eddy's conclusion about a weak and structureless corona during the Maunder minimum and agreed with simulations of the structureless F-corona, with no detected K-corona that is ordered by the magnetic field, as has been modelled for low coronal magnetic flux. A full discussion of these observations of the Maunder minimum corona and how the K-corona had partially returned by the time of the 1715 event is given by Hayakawa et al. (2020) ",
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"plaintext": "The Maunder Minimum roughly coincided with the middle part of the Little Ice Age, during which Europe and North America experienced colder than average temperatures. Whether there is a causal relationship, however, is still under evaluation. The current best hypothesis for the cause of the Little Ice Age is that it was the result of volcanic action. The onset of the Little Ice Age also occurred well before the beginning of the Maunder Minimum, and northern-hemisphere temperatures during the Maunder Minimum were not significantly different from the previous 80 years, suggesting a decline in solar activity was not the main causal driver of the Little Ice Age.",
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"plaintext": "The correlation between low sunspot activity and cold winters in England has been analyzed using the longest existing surface temperature record, the Central England Temperature record. A potential explanation of this has been offered by observations by NASA's Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment, which suggest that solar ultraviolet light output is more variable over the course of the solar cycle than scientists had previously thought. A 2011 study found that low solar activity was linked to jet stream behavior, resulting in mild winters in some places (southern Europe and Canada/Greenland) and colder winters in others (northern Europe and the United States). In Europe, examples of very cold winters are 1683–84, 1694–95, and the winter of 1708–09.",
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"plaintext": "Past solar activity may be recorded by various proxies, including carbon-14 and beryllium-10. These indicate lower solar activity during the Maunder Minimum. The scale of changes resulting in the production of carbon-14 in one cycle is small (about one percent of medium abundance) and can be taken into account when radiocarbon dating is used to determine the age of archaeological artifacts. The interpretation of the beryllium-10 and carbon-14 cosmogenic isotope abundance records stored in terrestrial reservoirs such as ice sheets and tree rings has been greatly aided by reconstructions of solar and heliospheric magnetic fields based on historic data on Geomagnetic storm activity, which bridge the time gap between the end of the usable cosmogenic isotope data and the start of modern spacecraft data.",
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"plaintext": "Other historical sunspot minima have been detected either directly or by the analysis of the cosmogenic isotopes; these include the Spörer Minimum (1450–1540), and less markedly the Dalton Minimum (1790–1820). In a 2012 study, sunspot minima have been detected by analysis of carbon-14 in lake sediments. In total, there seem to have been 18 periods of sunspot minima in the last 8,000 years, and studies indicate that the Sun currently spends up to a quarter of its time in these minima.",
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"plaintext": "A paper based on an analysis of a drawing by John Flamsteed suggests that the Sun's surface rotation slowed in the deep Maunder Minimum (1684).",
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"plaintext": "During the Maunder Minimum aurorae had been observed seemingly normally, with a regular decadal-scale cycle. This is somewhat surprising because the later, and less deep, Dalton sunspot minimum is clearly seen in auroral occurrence frequency, at least at lower geomagnetic latitudes. Because geomagnetic latitude is an important factor in auroral occurrence, (lower-latitude aurorae requiring higher levels of solar-terrestrial activity) it becomes important to allow for population migration and other factors that may have influenced the number of reliable auroral observers at a given magnetic latitude for the earlier dates. Decadal-scale cycles during the Maunder Minimum can also be seen in the abundances of the beryllium-10 cosmogenic isotope (which unlike carbon-14 can be studied with annual resolution) but these appear to be in antiphase with any remnant sunspot activity. An explanation in terms of solar cycles in loss of solar magnetic flux was proposed in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "The fundamental papers on the Maunder Minimum have been published in Case studies on the Spörer, Maunder and Dalton Minima.",
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"plaintext": " What's wrong with the sun? (Nothing)",
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"plaintext": " Solar poles to become quadrupolar in May 2012 (Hinode)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " HistoricalClimatology.com, further links and resources, updated 2014",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Climate History Network, network of historical climatologists, updated 2014",
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"Maunder_Minimum",
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| 827,568 | 5,002 | 90 | 53 | 0 | 0 | Maunder Minimum | The period starting about 1645 and continuing to about 1715 when sunspots were exceedingly rare | []
|
37,056 | 1,107,874,671 | Sexual_revolution | [
{
"plaintext": "The sexual revolution, also known as a time of sexual liberation, was a social movement that challenged traditional codes of behavior related to sexuality and interpersonal relationships throughout the United States and the developed world from the 1960s to the 1970s. Sexual liberation included increased acceptance of sex outside of traditional heterosexual, monogamous relationships (primarily marriage). The normalization of contraception and the pill, public nudity, pornography, premarital sex, homosexuality, masturbation, alternative forms of sexuality, and the legalization of abortion all followed.",
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"plaintext": "Several other periods in Western culture have been called the \"first sexual revolution\", to which the 1960s revolution would be the second (or later). The term \"sexual revolution\" itself has been used since at least the late 1920s. The term appeared as early as 1929; the book Is Sex Necessary? Or, Why You Feel the Way You Do by James Thurber and E. B. White, has a chapter titled \"The Sexual Revolution: Being a Rather Complete Survey of the Entire Sexual Scene\". According to Konstantin Dushenko, the term was in use in Soviet Russia in 1925.",
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"plaintext": "When speaking of the sexual revolution, historians make a distinction between the first and the second sexual revolution. In the first sexual revolution (1870–1910), Victorian morality lost its universal appeal. However, it did not lead to the rise of a \"permissive society\". Exemplary for this period is the rise and differentiation in forms of regulating sexuality.",
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"plaintext": "Classics professor Kyle Harper uses the phrase \"first sexual revolution\" to refer to the displacement of the norms of sexuality in Ancient Rome with those of Christianity as it was adopted throughout the Roman Empire. Romans accepted and legalized prostitution, bisexuality, and pederasty. Male promiscuity was considered normal and healthy as long as masculinity was maintained, associated with being the penetrating partner. On the other hand, female chastity was required for respectable women, to ensure the integrity of family bloodlines. These attitudes were replaced by Christian prohibitions on homosexual acts and any sex outside marriage (including with slaves and prostitutes).",
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"plaintext": "History professor Faramerz Dabhoiwala cites the Age of Enlightenment—approximately the 18th century—as a major period of transition in the United Kingdom. During this time, the philosophy of liberalism developed and was popularized, and migration to cities increased opportunities for sex and made enforcement of rules more difficult than in small villages. Sexual misconduct in the Catholic Church (called the \"Whore of Babylon\" by some Protestant critics) undermined the credibility of religious authorities, and the rise of urban police forces helped distinguish crime from sin. Overall, toleration increased for heterosexual sex outside marriage, including prostitution, mistresses, and pre-marital sex. Though these acts were still condemned by many as libertine, infidelity became more often a civil matter than a criminal offense receiving capital punishment. Masturbation, homosexuality, and rape were generally less tolerated. Women went from being considered as lustful as men to passive partners, whose purity was important to reputation.",
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"plaintext": "Commentators such as history professor Kevin F. White have used the phrase \"first sexual revolution\" to refer to the Roaring Twenties. Victorian Era attitudes were somewhat destabilized by World War I and alcohol prohibition in the United States. At the same time the women's suffrage movement obtained voting rights, the subculture of the flapper girl included pre-marital sex and \"petting parties\".",
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"plaintext": "Indicators of non-traditional sexual behavior (e.g., gonorrhea incidence, births out of wedlock, and births to teenagers) began to rise dramatically in the mid to late 1950s. It brought about profound shifts in attitudes toward women's sexuality, homosexuality, pre-marital sexuality, and the freedom of sexual expression.",
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"plaintext": "Psychologists and scientists such as Wilhelm Reich and Alfred Kinsey influenced the changes. As well, changing mores were both stimulated by and reflected in literature and films, and by the social movements of the period, including the counterculture, the women's movement, and the gay rights movement. The counterculture contributed to the awareness of radical cultural change that was the social matrix of the sexual revolution.",
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"plaintext": "The sexual revolution was initiated by those who shared a belief in the detrimental impact of sexual repression, a view that had previously been argued by Wilhelm Reich, D. H. Lawrence, Sigmund Freud, and the Surrealist movement.",
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"plaintext": "The counterculture wanted to explore the body and mind, and free the personal self from the moral and legal sexual confines of modern America, as well as from the 1940s–50s morals in general. The sexual revolution of the 1960s grew from a conviction that the erotic should be celebrated as a normal part of life and not repressed by family, industrialized sexual morality, religion and the state.",
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"plaintext": "The development of the birth control pill in 1960 gave women access to easy and reliable contraception. Another likely cause was a vast improvement in obstetrics, greatly reducing the number of women who died due to childbearing, thus increasing the life expectancy of women. A third, more indirect cause was the large number of children born in the 1940s and early 1950s all over the western world—the \"Baby Boom Generation\"—many of whom would grow up in relatively prosperous and safe conditions, within a middle class on the rise and with better access to education and entertainment than ever before. By their demographic weight and their social and educational background, they came to trigger a shift in society towards more permissive and informalized attitudes.",
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"plaintext": "The discovery of penicillin led to significant reductions in syphilis mortality, which, in turn, spurred an increase in non-traditional sex during the mid to late 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "There was an increase in sexual encounters between unmarried adults. Divorce rates were dramatically increasing and marriage rates were significantly decreasing in this time period. The number of unmarried Americans aged twenty to twenty-four more than doubled from 4.3million in 1960 to 9.7million in 1976. Men and women sought to reshape marriage by instilling new institutions of open marriage, mate swapping, swinging, and communal sex. ",
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"plaintext": "Sigmund Freud of Vienna believed human behavior was motivated by unconscious drives, primarily by the libido or \"Sexual Energy\". Freud proposed to study how these unconscious drives were repressed and found expression through other cultural outlets. He called this therapy \"psychoanalysis\".",
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"plaintext": "While Freud's ideas were sometimes ignored or provoked resistance within Viennese society, his ideas soon entered the discussions and working methods of anthropologists, artists and writers all over Europe, and from the 1920s in the United States. His conception of a primary sexual drive that would not be ultimately curbed by law, education or standards of decorum spelled a serious challenge to Victorian prudishness, and his theory of psychosexual development proposed a model for the development of sexual orientations and desires; children emerged from the Oedipus complex, a sexual desire towards their parent of the opposite sex. The idea of children having their parents as their early sexual targets were particularly shocking to Victorian and early 20th-century society.",
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"plaintext": "According to Freud's theory, in the earliest stage of a child's psychosexual development, the oral stage, the mother's breast became the formative source of all later erotic sensation. Much of his research remains widely contested by professionals in the field, though it has spurred critical developments in the humanities.",
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"plaintext": "Anarchist Freud scholars Otto Gross and Wilhelm Reich (who famously coined the phrase \"Sexual Revolution\") developed a sociology of sex in the 1910s to 1930s in which the animal-like competitive reproductive behavior was seen as a legacy of ancestral human evolution reflecting in every social relation, as per the Freudian interpretation, and hence the liberation of sexual behavior a mean to social revolution.",
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"plaintext": "The 1928 publication of anthropologist Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa brought the sexual revolution to the public scene, as her thoughts concerning sexual freedom pervaded academia. Mead's ethnography focused on the psychosexual development of adolescents in Samoa. She recorded that their adolescence was not, in fact, a time of \"storm and stress\" as Erikson's stages of development suggest, but that the sexual freedom experienced by the adolescents actually permitted them an easy transition from childhood to adulthood. Mead called for a change in the suppression of sexuality in America, and her work directly resulted in the advancement of the sexual revolution in the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Mead's findings were later criticized by anthropologist Derek Freeman, who investigated her claims of promiscuity and conducted his own ethnography of Samoan society.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Alfred C. Kinsey published two surveys of modern sexual behavior. In 1948 AlfredC.Kinsey and his co-workers, responding to a request by female students at Indiana University for more information on human sexual behavior, published the book Sexual behavior in the Human Male. They followed this five years later with Sexual behavior in the Human Female. These books began a revolution in social awareness of, and public attention given to, human sexuality.",
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"plaintext": "It is said that public morality severely restricted open discussion of sexuality as a human characteristic, and specific sexual practices, especially sexual behaviors that did not lead to procreation. Kinsey's books contained studies about controversial topics such as the frequency of homosexuality, and the sexuality of minors aged two weeks to fourteen years. Scientists working for Kinsey reported data that led to the conclusion that people are capable of sexual stimulation from birth. Furthermore, Kinsey's method of researching sexuality differs significantly from today's methods. Kinsey would watch his research subjects engage in sexual intercourse, sometimes engaging with his subjects as well. He would also encourage his research team to do the same, and encouraged them to engage in intercourse with him, too.",
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"plaintext": "These books laid the groundwork for Masters and Johnson's life work. A study called Human Sexual Response in 1966 revealed the nature and scope of the sexual practices of young Americans.",
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"plaintext": "In 1953, Chicago resident Hugh Hefner founded Playboy, a magazine which aimed to target males between the ages of 21 and 45. The coverpage and nude centerfold in the first edition featured Marilyn Monroe, then a rising sex symbol. Featuring cartoons, interviews, short fiction, Hefner's \"Playboy Philosophy\" and unclothed female \"Playmates\" posing provocatively, the magazine became immensely successful.",
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"plaintext": "In 1960, Hefner expanded Playboy Enterprises, opening the first Playboy Club in Chicago, which grew to a chain of nightclubs and resorts. The private clubs offered relaxation for members, who were waited on by Playboy Bunnies.",
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"plaintext": "While Hefner claimed his company contributed to America's more liberal attitude towards sex, others believe he simply exploited it.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States in the years 1959 through 1966, bans on three books with explicit erotic content were challenged and overturned. This also occurred in the United Kingdom starting with the 1959 Obscene Publications Act and reaching a peak with the LCLcourt case.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to this time, a patchwork of regulations (as well as local customs and vigilante actions) governed what could and could not be published. For example, the United States Customs Service banned James Joyce's Ulysses by refusing to allow it to be imported into the United States. The Roman Catholic Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum carried great weight among Catholics and amounted to an effective and instant boycott of any book appearing on it. Boston's Watch and Ward Society, a largely Protestant creation inspired by Anthony Comstock, made \"banned in Boston\" a national by-word.",
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"plaintext": "In 1959 Grove Press published an unexpurgated version of the 1928 novel Lady Chatterley's Lover by D. H. Lawrence. The U.S. Post Office confiscated copies sent through the mail. Lawyer Charles Rembar sued the New York City Postmaster, and won in New York and then on federal appeal.",
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"plaintext": "Henry Miller's 1934 novel, Tropic of Cancer, had explicit sexual passages and could not be published in the United States; an edition was printed by the Obelisk Press in Paris and copies were smuggled into the United States. In 1961 Grove Press issued a copy of the work, and dozens of booksellers were sued for selling it. The issue was ultimately settled by the U.S. Supreme Court's 1964 decision in Grove Press, Inc. v. Gerstein.",
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"plaintext": "In 1963 Putnam published John Cleland's 1750novel Fanny Hill. Charles Rembar appealed a restraining order against it all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court and won. In Memoirs v. Massachusetts, 383 U.S.413, the court ruled that sex was \"a great and mysterious motive force in human life\", and that its expression in literature was protected by the First Amendment.",
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"plaintext": "By permitting the publication of Fanny Hill, the U.S. Supreme Court set the bar for any ban so high that Rembar himself called the 1966 decision \"the end of obscenity\". Only books primarily appealing to \"prurient interest\" could be banned. In a famous phrase, the court said that obscenity is \"utterly without redeeming social importance\"—meaning that, conversely, a work with any redeeming social importance or literary merit was arguably not obscene, even if it contained isolated passages that could \"deprave and corrupt\" some readers.",
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"plaintext": "The court decisions that legalized the publication of Fanny Hill had an even more important effect: freed from fears of legal action, nonfiction works about sex and sexuality started to appear more often. These books were factual and in fact, educational, made available in mainstream bookstores and mail-order book clubs to a mainstream readership, and their authors were guests on late-night talk shows. Earlier books such as What Every Girl Should Know (Margaret Sanger, 1920) and A Marriage Manual (Hannah and Abraham Stone, 1939) had broken the silence and, by the 1950s, in the United States, it had become rare for women to go into their wedding nights not knowing what to expect.",
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"plaintext": "The open discussion of sex as pleasure, and descriptions of sexual practices and techniques, was revolutionary. There were practices which, perhaps, some had heard of. But many adults did not know for sure whether they were realities, or fantasies found only in pornographic books. The Kinsey report revealed that these practices were, at the very least, surprisingly frequent. These other books asserted, in the words of a 1980 book by Dr. Irene Kassorla, that Nice Girls Do – And Now You Can Too.",
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"plaintext": "In 1962, Helen Gurley Brown published Sex and the Single Girl: The Unmarried Woman's Guide to Men, Careers, the Apartment, Diet, Fashion, Money and Men.",
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"plaintext": "In 1969 Joan Garrity, identifying herself only as \"J.\", published The Way to Become the Sensuous Woman, with information on exercises to improve the dexterity of one's tongue and how to have anal sex.",
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"plaintext": "The same year saw the appearance of Dr.David Reuben's book Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask). Despite the dignity of Reuben's medical credentials, this book was light-hearted in tone.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970 the Boston Women's Health Collective published Women and Their Bodies, reissued a year later as Our Bodies, Ourselves). Though not an erotic treatise or sex manual, the book included frank descriptions of sexuality, and contained illustrations that could have caused legal problems just a few years earlier.",
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"plaintext": "Alex Comfort's The Joy of Sex: A Gourmet Guide to Love Making appeared in 1972. In later editions, Comfort's exuberance was tamed in response to AIDS.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975 Will McBride's Zeig Mal! (Show Me!), written with psychologist Helga Fleichhauer-Hardt for children and their parents, appeared in bookstores on both sides of the Atlantic. Appreciated by many parents for its frank depiction of pre-adolescent sexual discovery and exploration, it scandalized others and was pulled from circulation in the United States and some other countries. The book was followed in 1989 by Zeig Mal Mehr! (\"Show Me More!\").",
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"plaintext": "In 1969, Blue Movie, directed by Andy Warhol, was the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States. The film helped inaugurate the \"porno chic\" phenomenon in modern American culture. According to Warhol, Blue Movie was a major influence in the making of Last Tango in Paris, starring Marlon Brando, and released a few years after Blue Movie was made.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970, Mona the Virgin Nymph became the second film to gain wide release. The third, Deep Throat, despite being rudimentary by the standards of mainstream filmmaking, achieved major box office success, following mentions by Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show, and Bob Hope on television as well. In 1973, the far-more-accomplished (though still low-budget) The Devil in Miss Jones was the seventh-most-successful film of the year, and was well received by major media, including a favorable review by film critic Roger Ebert.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, The Opening of Misty Beethoven (based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw) was released theatrically and is considered by Toni Bentley the \"crown jewel\" of \"the golden age of porn.\"",
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"plaintext": "By the mid-1970s and through the 1980s, newly won sexual freedoms were being exploited by big businesses looking to capitalize on an increasingly permissive society, with the advent of public and hardcore pornography. ",
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"plaintext": "Swedish filmmakers like Ingmar Bergman and Vilgot Sjöman contributed to sexual liberation with sexually themed films that challenged conservative international standards. The 1951 film Hon dansade en sommar (She Danced One Summer AKA One Summer of Happiness) displayed explicit nudity, including bathing in a lake.",
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"plaintext": "This film, as well as Bergman's Sommaren med Monika (The Summer with Monika, 1951) and Tystnaden (The Silence, 1963), caused an international uproar, not least in the United States, where the films were charged with violating standards of decency. Vilgot Sjöman's film I Am Curious (Yellow), also was very popular in the United States. Another of his films, 491, highlighted homosexuality. Kärlekens språk (The Language of Love) was an informative documentary about sex and sexual techniques that featured the first real act of sex in a mainstream film.",
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"plaintext": "From these films, the myth of \"Swedish sin\" (licentiousness and seductive nudity) arose. The image of \"hot love and cold people\" emerged, with sexual liberalism seen as part of the modernization process that, by breaking down traditional borders, would lead to the emancipation of natural forces and desires. In Sweden and nearby countries at the time, these films, by virtue of being made by directors who had established themselves as leading names in their generation, helped delegitimize the idea of habitually demanding that films should avoid overtly sexual subject matter. The films eventually progressed the public's attitude toward sex, especially in Sweden and other northern European countries, which today tend to be more sexually liberal than others.",
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"plaintext": "The somewhat more open and commercial circulation of pornography was a new phenomenon. Pornography operated as a form of \"cultural critique\" insofar as it transgresses societal conventions. Manuel Castells claims that the online communities, which emerged (from the 1980s) around early bulletin-board systems, originated from the ranks of those who had been part of the counterculture movements and alternative way of life emerging out of the sexual revolution.",
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"plaintext": "Lynn Hunt points out that early modern \"pornography\" (18th century) is marked by a \"preponderance of female narrators\", that the women were portrayed as independent, determined, financially successful (though not always socially successful and recognized) and scornful of the new ideals of female virtue and domesticity, and not objectification of women's bodies as many view pornography today. The sexual revolution was not unprecedented in identifying sex as a site of political potential and social culture. It was suggested that the interchangeability of bodies within pornography had radical implications for the meaning of gender differences, roles and norms.",
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"plaintext": "In 1971 Playboy stopped airbrushing pubic hair out of its centerfold picture spreads; this new addition caused the magazine to hit its all-time peak circulation of more than seven million copies in 1972 and men started having more choices when it came to magazines.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972 Deep Throat became a popular movie for heterosexual couples. The movie played all over America and was the first porn movie to earn a gross of a million dollars.",
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"plaintext": "Pornography was less stigmatized by the end of the 1980s, and more mainstream movies depicted sexual intercourse as entertainment. Magazines depicting nudity, such as the popular Playboy and Penthouse magazines, won some acceptance as mainstream journals, in which public figures felt safe expressing their fantasies.",
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"plaintext": "Some figures in the feminist movement, such as Andrea Dworkin, challenged the depiction of women as objects in these pornographic or \"urban men's\" magazines. Other feminists such as Betty Dodson went on to found the pro-sex feminist movement in response to anti-pornography campaigns.",
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"plaintext": "In India, an organization named Indians For Sexual Liberties is advocating the legalization of the porn business in India. The organization's founder, Laxman Singh, questioned the reasoning behind deeming as illegal the depiction of legal acts.",
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"plaintext": "The Industrial Revolution during the nineteenth century and the growth of science and technology, medicine and health care, resulted in better contraceptives being manufactured. Advances in the manufacture and production of rubber made possible the design and production of condoms that could be used by hundreds of millions of men and women to prevent pregnancy at little cost. Advances in chemistry, pharmacology, and biology, and human physiology led to the discovery and perfection of the first oral contraceptives, popularly known as \"the Pill.\"",
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"plaintext": "All these developments took place alongside and combined with an increase in the world literacy and a decline in religious observance. Old values such as the biblical notion of \"be fruitful and multiply\" were cast aside as people continued to feel alienated from the past and adopted the lifestyles of progressive modernizing cultures.",
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"plaintext": "Another contribution that helped bring about this modern revolution of sexual freedom were the writings of Herbert Marcuse and Wilhelm Reich, who took the philosophy of Karl Marx and similar philosophers.",
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"plaintext": "The women's movement redefined sexuality, not in terms of simply pleasing men but recognizing women's sexual satisfaction and sexual desire. The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm (1970) by Anne Koedt illustrates an understanding of a women's sexual anatomy including evidence for the clitoral orgasm, arguing against Freud's \"assumptions of women as inferior appendage to man, and her consequent social and psychological role.\" The women's movement was able to develop lesbian feminism, freedom from heterosexual act, and freedom from reproduction. Feminist Betty Friedan published the Feminine Mystique in 1963, concerning the many frustrations women had with their lives and with separate spheres which established a pattern of inequality.",
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"plaintext": "The Gay Rights Movement started when the Stonewall riots of 1969 crystallized a broad grass-roots mobilization. New gay liberationist gave political meaning to \"coming out\" by extending the psychological-personal process into public life. During the 1950s the most feared thing of the homosexual culture was \"coming out\", the homosexual culture of the 1950s did everything they could to help keep their sexuality a secret from the public and everyone else in their lives, but Alfred Kinsey's research on homosexuality alleged that 39% of the unmarried male population had had at least one homosexual experience to orgasm between adolescence and old age.",
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"plaintext": "Since the beginning of the sexual liberation movement in the Western world, which coincided with second-wave feminism and the women's liberation movement initiated in the early 1960s, new religious movements and alternative spiritualities such as Modern Paganism and the New Age began to grow and spread across the globe alongside their intersection with the sexual liberation movement and the counterculture of the 1960s, and exhibited characteristic features, such as the embrace of alternative lifestyles, unconventional dress, rejection of Abrahamic religions and their conservative social mores, use of cannabis and other recreational drugs, relaxed attitude, sarcastic humble or self-imposed poverty, and laissez-faire sexual behavior. The sexual liberation movement was aided by feminist ideologues in their mutual struggle to challenge traditional ideas regarding female sexuality, male sexuality, and queer sexuality. Elimination of undue favorable bias towards men and objectification of women, as well as support for women's right to choose their sexual partners free of outside interference or societal judgment, were three of the main goals associated with sexual liberation from the feminist perspective. Since during the early stages of feminism, women's liberation was often equated with sexual liberation rather than associated with it. Many feminist thinkers believed that assertion of the primacy of sexuality would be a major step towards the ultimate goal of women's liberation, thus women were urged to initiate sexual advances, enjoy sex and experiment with new forms of sexuality.",
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"plaintext": "The feminist movements insisted and focused on the sexual liberation for women, both physical and psychological. The pursuit of sexual pleasure for women was the core ideology, which subsequently was to set the foundation for female independence. Although whether or not sexual freedom should be a feminist issue is currently a much-debated topic, the feminist movement overtly defines itself as the movement for social, political, and economic equality of men and women. Feminist movements are also involved the fight against sexism and since sexism is a highly complex notion, it is difficult to separate the feminist critique toward sexism from its fight against sexual oppression.",
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"plaintext": "The feminist movement has helped create a social climate in which LGBT people and women are increasingly able to be open and free with their sexuality, which enabled a spiritual liberation of sorts with regards to sex. Rather than being forced to hide their sexual desires or feelings, women and LGBT people have gained and continue to gain increased freedom in this area. Consequently, the feminist movement to end sexual oppression has and continues to directly contribute to the sexual liberation movement.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, among many feminists, the view soon became widely held that, thus far, the sexual freedoms gained in the sexual revolution of the 1960s, such as the decreasing emphasis on monogamy, had been largely gained by men at women's expense. In A Feminist Perspective on the Sexual Revolution, Sheila Jeffreys asserted that the sexual revolution on men's terms contributed less to women's freedom than to their continued oppression, an assertion that has both commanded respect and attracted intense criticism. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, feminist sex wars broke out due to disagreements on pornography , on prostitution, and on BDSM, as well as sexuality in general.",
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"plaintext": "As birth control became widely accessible, men and women began to have more choice in the matter of having children than ever before. The 1916 invention of thin, disposable latex condoms for men led to widespread affordable condoms by the 1930s; the demise of the Comstock laws in 1936 set the stage for the promotion of available effective contraceptives such as the diaphragm and cervical cap; the 1960s introduction of the IUD and oral contraceptives for women gave a sense of freedom from barrier contraception. The Catholic Church under Pope Paul VI (1968) published Humanae vitae (Of Human Life), which was a declaration that banned the use of artificial contraception. Churches allowed for the rhythm method, which was a method of regulating fertility that pushed men and women to take advantage of the \"natural cycles\" of female fertility, during which women were \"naturally infertile.\" The opposition of Churches (e.g.Humanae vitae) led people who felt alienated from or not represented by religion to form parallel movements of secularization and exile from religion. Women gained much greater access to birth control in the Griswold \"girls world\" decision in 1965.",
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"plaintext": "The 1965 Supreme Court case Griswold v. Connecticut ruled that the prohibition of contraception was unconstitutional on the grounds that it violated peoples' rights to marital privacy. In addition, in the 1960s and 1970s, the birth control movement advocated for the legalization of abortion and large scale education campaigns about contraception by governments. The Griswold v. Connecticut case and subsequent birth control movements created a precedent for later cases granting rights to birth control for unmarried couples (Eisenstadt v. Bair), 1972), rights to abortion for any woman (Roe v. Wade, 1973), and the right to contraception for juveniles (Carey v. Population Services International, 1977). The Griswold case was also influential in and cited as precedent for landmark cases dealing with the right to homosexual relations (Lawrence v. Texas, 2003) and the right to same-sex marriage (Obergefell v. Hodges, 2015).",
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"plaintext": "Free love is a social movement that accepts all forms of love. The movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It stated that such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.",
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"plaintext": "Free love continued in different forms throughout the 1970s and into the early 1980s, but its more assertive manifestations faced increased pushback in the mid-1980s, when the public first became aware of AIDS, a deadly sexually-transmitted disease.",
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"plaintext": "Premarital sex, heavily stigmatized for some time, became more widely accepted. The increased availability of birth control (and the legalization of abortion in some places) helped reduce the chance that pre-marital sex would result in unwanted children. By the mid-1970s the majority of newly married American couples had experienced sex before marriage.",
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"plaintext": "Central to the change was the development of relationships between unmarried adults, which resulted in earlier sexual experimentation reinforced by a later age of marriage. On average, Americans were gaining sexual experience before entering into monogamous relationships. The increasing divorce rate and the decreasing stigma attached to divorce during this era also contributed to sexual experimentation. By 1971, more than 75% of Americans thought that premarital sex was acceptable, a threefold increase from the 1950s, and the number of unmarried Americans aged twenty to twenty-four more than doubled from 1960 to 1976. Americans were becoming less and less interested in getting married and settling down and as well less interested in monogamous relationships. In 1971, 35% of the country said they thought marriage was obsolete.",
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"plaintext": "The idea of marriage being outdated came from the development of casual sex between Americans. With the development of the birth control pill and the legalization of abortion in 1973, there was little threat of unwanted children out of wedlock. Also, during this time every known sexually transmitted disease was readily treatable.",
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"plaintext": "Swinger clubs were organizing in places ranging from the informal suburban home to disco-sized emporiums that offered a range of sexual possibilities with multiple partners. In New York City in 1977, Larry Levenson opened Plato's Retreat, which eventually shut down in 1985 under regular close scrutiny by public health authorities.",
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"plaintext": "Fraenkel (1992) believes that the \"sexual revolution\", which the West supposedly experienced in the late 1960s, is a misconception/misnomer, and that sex is never actually enjoyed freely as such, being rather observed in all fields of culture: a stance adopted toward human behavior referable to the concept of \"repressive desublimation\". According to this concept or interpretation (first evolved by Marxist philosopher Herbert Marcuse), the 'sexual revolution' would be an instance of a conservative force masquerading under the guise of liberation – a force sapping energies (here sexual) which would otherwise be available for a true social critique of a given behavior – and thus an impediment to any real political change which might emancipate the individual from \"totalitarian democracy\". (See also Bread and circuses, False consciousness and Frankfurt School). Put baldly, the pursuit of \"sexual freedom\" may be construed as a distraction from the pursuit of actual freedom.",
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"plaintext": "Allyn argues that the sexual optimism of the 1960s waned with the economic crises of the 1970s, the massive commercialization of sex, increasing reports of child exploitation, disillusionment with the counter-culture and the New Left, and a combined left-right backlash against sexual liberation as an ideal. The discovery of herpes escalated anxieties rapidly and set the stage for the nation's panicked response to AIDS.",
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"plaintext": "Among radical feminists, the view soon became widely held that, thus far, the sexual freedoms gained in the sexual revolution of the 1960s, such as the decreasing emphasis on monogamy, had been largely gained by men at women's expense. In Anticlimax: A Feminist Perspective on the Sexual Revolution, Sheila Jeffreys asserted that the sexual revolution on men's terms contributed less to women's freedom than to their continued oppression, an assertion that has both commanded respect and attracted intense criticism. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, feminist sex wars broke out due to disagreements on pornography, on prostitution, and on BDSM, as well as sexuality in general.",
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"plaintext": "Although the rate of teenage sexual activity is hard to record, the prevalence of teenage pregnancy in developed nations such as Canada and the UK have seen a steady decline since the 1990s. For example, in 1991 there were 61.8 children born per 1,000 teenage girls in the United States. By 2013, this number had declined to 26.6 births per 1,000 teenage girls.",
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"plaintext": "Women and men who lived with each other without marriage sought \"palimony\" equal to the alimony. Teenagers assumed their right to a sexual life with whomever they pleased, and bathers fought to be topless or nude at beaches.",
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"plaintext": " Indecent exposure",
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"plaintext": " Radical and Liberal feminism",
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"plaintext": " Sex in the American Civil War",
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"plaintext": " Sex-positive feminism",
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"plaintext": " Social Darwinism",
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"plaintext": " Spring break",
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"plaintext": " Underwear as outerwear",
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"plaintext": " Fraenkel, Boris (1936). Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf. Erre emme (pub).",
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"plaintext": " Klepacki, Linda (2008). A Look at the Sexual Revolution in the United States . Focus on the Family Action, Inc. Retrieved 2008-04-20.",
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"plaintext": " 70's Origin War & Sex — Seventies Origin History war & sex.",
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"plaintext": " Richardson, Diane (2000). Critical Social Policy, Vol. 20, No. 1, 105–135. \"Constructing sexual citizenship: theorizing sexual rights\". Sage Journals Online. Retrieved 2008-04-20.",
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"plaintext": " Time (1967-07-07). \"The Hippies\". Retrieved 2008-04-20.",
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"plaintext": " Mahdavi, Pardis (2008). Passionate Uprisings. Stanford University Press. Retrieved 2021-12-30.",
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| 465,467 | 25,241 | 498 | 266 | 0 | 0 | sexual revolution | 20th century social movement | []
|
37,062 | 1,107,910,046 | Industrial_Workers_of_the_World | [
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"plaintext": "In the 1910s and early 1920s, the IWW achieved many of their short-term goals, particularly in the American West, and cut across traditional guild and union lines to organize workers in a variety of trades and industries. At their peak in August 1917, IWW membership was estimated at more than 150,000, with active wings in the United States, the UK, Canada, and Australia. The extremely high rate of IWW membership turnover during this era (estimated at 133% per decade) makes it difficult for historians to state membership totals with any certainty, as workers tended to join the IWW in large numbers for relatively short periods (e.g., during labor strikes and periods of generalized economic distress).",
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"plaintext": "Membership declined dramatically in the late 1910s and 1920s. There were conflicts with other labor groups, particularly the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which regarded the IWW as too radical, while the IWW regarded the AFL as too conservative and opposed their decision to divide workers on the basis of their crafts. Membership also declined due to government crackdowns on radical, anarchist, and socialist groups during the First Red Scare after World War I. In Canada the IWW was outlawed by the federal government by an Order in Council on September 24, 1918.",
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"plaintext": "Probably the most decisive factor in the decline in IWW membership and influence was a 1924 schism in the organization, from which the IWW never fully recovered.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW promotes the concept of \"One Big Union\", and contends that all workers should be united as a social class to supplant capitalism and wage labor with industrial democracy. It is known for the Wobbly Shop model of workplace democracy, in which workers elect their own managers and other forms of grassroots democracy (self-management) are implemented. The IWW does not require its members to",
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"plaintext": "work in a represented workplace, neither does it exclude membership in another labor union.",
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"plaintext": "The first meeting to plan the IWW was held in Chicago in 1904. The six attendees were Clarence Smith and Thomas J. Hagerty of the American Labor Union, George Estes and W. L. Hall of the United Brotherhood of Railway Employees, Isaac Cowan of the U.S. branch of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, and William E. Trautmann of the United Brewery Workmen. Eugene Debs, formerly of the American Railway Union, and Charles O. Sherman of the United Metal Workers were involved but were unable to attend the meeting.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW was officially founded in Chicago, Illinois in June 1905. A convention was held of 200 socialists, anarchists, Marxists (primarily members of the Socialist Party of America and Socialist Labor Party of America), and radical trade unionists from all over the United States (mainly the Western Federation of Miners) who strongly opposed the policies of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The IWW opposed the AFL's acceptance of capitalism and its refusal to include unskilled workers in craft unions.",
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"plaintext": "The convention had taken place on June 27, 1905, and was referred to as the \"Industrial Congress\" or the \"Industrial Union Convention\". It would later be known as the First Annual Convention of the IWW. ",
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"plaintext": "The IWW's founders included William D. (\"Big Bill\") Haywood, James Connolly, Daniel De Leon, Eugene V. Debs, Thomas Hagerty, Lucy Parsons, Mary Harris \"Mother\" Jones, Frank Bohn, William Trautmann, Vincent Saint John, Ralph Chaplin, and many others.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW aimed to promote worker solidarity in the revolutionary struggle to overthrow the employing class; its motto was \"an injury to one is an injury to all\". They saw this as an improvement upon the Knights of Labor's creed, \"an injury to one is the concern of all\" which the Knights had spoken out in the 1880s. In particular, the IWW was organized because of the belief among many unionists, socialists, anarchists, Marxists, and radicals that the AFL not only had failed to effectively organize the U.S. working class, but it was causing separation rather than unity within groups of workers by organizing according to narrow craft principles. The Wobblies believed that all workers should organize as a class, a philosophy which is still reflected in the Preamble to the current IWW Constitution:",
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"plaintext": "The working class and the employing class have nothing in common. There can be no peace so long as hunger and want are found among millions of the working people and the few, who make up the employing class, have all the good things of life.",
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"plaintext": "Between these two classes a struggle must go on until the workers of the world organize as a class, take possession of the means of production, abolish the wage system, and live in harmony with the Earth.",
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"plaintext": "We find that the centering of the management of industries into fewer and fewer hands makes the trade unions unable to cope with the ever growing power of the employing class. The trade unions foster a state of affairs which allows one set of workers to be pitted against another set of workers in the same industry, thereby helping defeat one another in wage wars. Moreover, the trade unions aid the employing class to mislead the workers into the belief that the working class have interests in common with their employers.",
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"plaintext": "These conditions can be changed and the interest of the working class upheld only by an organization formed in such a way that all its members in any one industry, or in all industries if necessary, cease work whenever a strike or lockout is on in any department thereof, thus making an injury to one an injury to all.",
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"plaintext": "Instead of the conservative motto, \"A fair day's wage for a fair day's work,\" we must inscribe on our banner the revolutionary watchword, \"Abolition of the wage system.\"",
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"plaintext": "It is the historic mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, but also to carry on production when capitalism shall have been overthrown. By organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old.",
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"plaintext": "The Wobblies, as they were informally known, differed from other union movements of the time by promotion of industrial unionism, as opposed to the craft unionism of the AFL. The IWW emphasized rank-and-file organization, as opposed to empowering leaders who would bargain with employers on behalf of workers. The early IWW chapters' consistently refused to sign contracts, which they believed would restrict workers' abilities to aid each other when called upon. Though never developed in any detail, Wobblies envisioned the general strike as the means by which the wage system would be overthrown and a new economic system ushered in, one which emphasized people over profit, cooperation over competition.",
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"plaintext": "One of the IWW's most important contributions to the labor movement and broader push towards social justice was that, when founded, it was the only American union to welcome all workers, including women, immigrants, African Americans and Asians, into the same organization. Many of its early members were immigrants, and some, such as Carlo Tresca, Joe Hill and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, rose to prominence in the leadership. Finns formed a sizable portion of the immigrant IWW membership. \"Conceivably, the number of Finns belonging to the I.W.W. was somewhere between five and ten thousand.\" The Finnish-language newspaper of the IWW, Industrialisti, published in Duluth, Minnesota, a center of the mining industry, was the union's only daily paper. At its peak, it ran 10,000 copies per issue. Another Finnish-language Wobbly publication was the monthly Tie Vapauteen (\"Road to Freedom\"). Also of note was the Finnish IWW educational institute, the Work People's College in Duluth, and the Finnish Labour Temple in Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, which served as the IWW Canadian administration for several years. Further, many Swedish immigrants, particularly those blacklisted after the 1909 Swedish General Strike, joined the IWW and set up similar cultural institutions around the Scandinavian Socialist Clubs. This in turn exerted a political influence on the Swedish labor movement's left, that in 1910 formed the Syndicalist union SAC which soon contained a minority seeking to mimick the tactics and strategies of the IWW. One example of the union's commitment to equality was Local 8, a longshoremen's branch in Philadelphia, one of the largest ports in the nation in the WWI era. Led by Ben Fletcher, an African American, Local 8 had more than 5,000 members, the majority of whom were African American, along with more than a thousand immigrants (primarily Lithuanians and Poles), Irish Americans, and numerous white ethnics.",
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"plaintext": "In 1908 a group led by Daniel DeLeon argued that political action through DeLeon's Socialist Labor Party (SLP) was the best way to attain the IWW's goals. The other faction, led by Vincent Saint John, William Trautmann, and Big Bill Haywood, believed that direct action in the form of strikes, propaganda, and boycotts was more likely to accomplish sustainable gains for working people; they were opposed to arbitration and to political affiliation. Haywood's faction prevailed, and De Leon and his supporters left the organization, forming their own version of the IWW. The SLP's \"Yellow IWW\" eventually took the name Workers' International Industrial Union, which was disbanded in 1924.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW first attracted attention in Goldfield, Nevada in 1906 and during the Pressed Steel Car Strike of 1909 at McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania. Further fame was gained later that year, when they took their stand on free speech. The town of Spokane, Washington, had outlawed street meetings, and arrested Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a Wobbly organizer, for breaking this ordinance. The response was simple but effective: when a fellow member was arrested for speaking, large numbers of people descended on the location and invited the authorities to arrest all of them, until it became too expensive for the town. In Spokane, over 500 people went to jail and four people died. The tactic of fighting for free speech to popularize the cause and preserve the right to organize openly was used effectively in Fresno, Aberdeen, and other locations. In San Diego, although there was no particular organizing campaign at stake, vigilantes supported by local officials and powerful businessmen mounted a particularly brutal counter-offensive.",
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"plaintext": "By 1912 the organization had around 25,000 members, concentrated in the Northwest, among dock workers, agricultural workers in the central states, and in textile and mining areas. The IWW was involved in over 150 strikes, including the Lawrence textile strike (1912), the Paterson silk strike (1913), the Tucker Utah strike (June 14, 1913), the Studebaker strike (1913), and the Mesabi range (1916). They were also involved in what came to be known as the Wheatland Hop Riot on August 3, 1913.",
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"plaintext": "In its first decades, the IWW created more than 900 unions located in more than 350 cities and towns in 38 states and territories of the United States and 5 Canadian provinces. Throughout the country, there were 90 newspapers and periodicals affiliated with the IWW, published in 19 different languages. Members of the IWW were active throughout the country and were involved in the Seattle General Strike of 1919, were arrested or killed in the Everett Massacre, organized among Mexican workers in the Southwest, became a large and powerful longshoremen's union in Philadelphia, and more.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW assumed a prominent role in 1906 and 1907 in the gold-mining boom town of Goldfield, Nevada. At that time, the Western Federation of Miners was still an affiliate of the IWW (the WFM withdrew from the IWW in the summer of 1907). In 1906, the IWW became so powerful in Goldfield that it could dictate wages and working conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Resisting IWW domination was the AFL-affiliated Carpenters Union. In March 1907, the IWW demanded that the mines deny employment to AFL Carpenters, which led mine owners to challenge the IWW. The mine owners banded together and pledged not to employ any IWW members. The mine and business owners of Goldfield staged a lockout, vowing to remain shut until they had broken the power of the IWW. The lockout prompted a split within the Goldfield workforce, between conservative and radical union members.",
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"plaintext": "The mine owners persuaded the Nevada governor to ask for federal troops. Under the protection of federal troops, the mine owners reopened the mines with non-union labor, breaking the influence of the IWW in Goldfield.",
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"plaintext": "Leaders of the Western Federation of Miners such as Bill Haywood and Vincent St. John were instrumental in forming the IWW, and the WFM affiliated with the new union organization shortly after the IWW was formed. The WFM became the IWW's \"mining section\". However, many in the rank and file of the WFM were uncomfortable with the open radicalism of the IWW, and wanted the WFM to maintain its independence. Schisms between the WFM and IWW had emerged at the annual IWW convention in 1906, when a majority of WFM delegates walked out.",
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"plaintext": "When WFM executives Bill Haywood, George Pettibone, and Charles Moyer were accused of complicity in the murder of former Idaho governor Frank Steunenberg, the IWW used the case to raise funds and support, and paid for the legal defense. However, even the not guilty verdicts worked against the IWW, because the IWW was deprived of martyrs, and at the same time, a large portion of the public remained convinced of the guilt of the accused. The trials caused a bitter split between Haywood and Moyer. The Haywood trial also provoked a reaction within the WFM against violence and radicalism. In the summer of 1907, the WFM withdrew from the IWW, Vincent St. John left the WFM to spend his time organizing the IWW.",
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"plaintext": "Bill Haywood for a time remained a member of both organizations. His murder trial had made Haywood a celebrity, and he was in demand as a speaker for the WFM. However, his increasingly radical speeches became more at odds with the WFM, and in April 1908, the WFM announced that the union had ended Haywood's role as a union representative. Haywood left the WFM, and devoted all his time to organizing for the IWW.",
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"plaintext": "Historian Vernon H. Jensen has asserted that the IWW had a \"rule or ruin\" policy, under which it attempted to wreck local unions which it could not control. From 1908 to 1921, Jensen and others have written, the IWW attempted to win power in WFM locals which had once formed the federation's backbone. When it could not do so, IWW agitators undermined WFM locals, which caused the national union to shed nearly half its membership.",
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"plaintext": "The Western Federation of Miners left the IWW in 1907, but the IWW wanted the WFM back. The WFM had made up about a third of the IWW membership, and the western miners were tough union men, and good allies in a labor dispute. In 1908, Vincent St. John tried to organize a stealth takeover of the WFM. He wrote to WFM organizer Albert Ryan, encouraging him to find reliable IWW sympathizers at each WFM local, and have them appointed delegates to the annual convention by pretending to share whatever opinions of that local needed to become a delegate. Once at the convention, they could vote in a pro-IWW slate. St. Vincent promised: \"... once we can control the officers of the WFM for the IWW, the big bulk of the membership will go with them.\" But the takeover did not succeed.",
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"plaintext": "In 1914, Butte, Montana, erupted into a series of riots as miners dissatisfied with the Western Federation of Miners local at Butte formed a new union, and demanded that all miners join the new union, or be subject to beatings or worse. Although the new rival union had no affiliation with the IWW, it was widely seen as IWW-inspired. The leadership of the new union contained many who were members of the IWW, or agreed with the IWW's methods and objectives. However, the new union failed to supplant the WFM, and the ongoing fight between the two factions had the result that the copper mines of Butte, which had long been a union stronghold for the WFM, became open shops, and the mine owners recognized no union from 1914 until 1934.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW clashed with the United Mine Workers union in April 1916, when the IWW picketed the anthracite mines around Scranton, Pennsylvania, intending, by persuasion or force, to keep UMWA members from going to work. The IWW considered the UMWA too reactionary, because the United Mine Workers negotiated contracts with the mine owners for fixed time periods; the IWW considered that contracts hindered their revolutionary goals. In what a contemporary writer pointed out was a complete reversal of their usual policy, UMWA officials called for police to protect United Mine Workers members who wished to cross the picket lines. The Pennsylvania State Police arrived in force, prevented picket line violence, and allowed the UMWA members to peacefully pass through the IWW picket lines.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1916, the 10th convention of the IWW authorized an organizing drive in the Arizona copper mines. Copper was a vital war commodity so mines were working day and night. During the first months of 1917, thousands joined the Metal Mine Workers' Union #800. The focus of the organizing drive was Bisbee, Arizona, a small town near the Mexican border. Nearly 5000 miners worked in Bisbee's mines. On June 27, 1917, Bisbee's miners went on strike. The strike was effective and non-violent. Demands included the doubling of pay for surface workers, most of them recent immigrants from Mexico, as well as changes in working conditions to make the mines safer. The six hour day was raised agitationally but held in abeyance. In the early hours of July 12, hundreds of armed vigilantes rounded up nearly two thousand strikers, of whom 1186 were deported in cattle cars and dumped in the desert of New Mexico. In the following days, hundreds more were ordered to leave. The strike was broken at gunpoint.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1915 and 1917, the IWW's Agricultural Workers Organization (AWO) organized more than a hundred thousand migratory farm workers throughout the Midwest and western United States, often signing up and organizing members in the field, in rail yards and in hobo jungles. During this time, the IWW member became synonymous with the hobo riding the rails; migratory farmworkers could scarcely afford any other means of transportation to get to the next jobsite. Railroad boxcars, called \"side door coaches\" by the hobos, were frequently plastered with silent agitators from the IWW.",
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"plaintext": "Building on the success of the AWO, the IWW's Lumber Workers Industrial Union (LWIU) used similar tactics to organize lumberjacks and other timber workers, both in the deep South and the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada, between 1917 and 1924. The IWW lumber strike of 1917 led to the eight-hour day and vastly improved working conditions in the Pacific Northwest. Though mid-century historians would give credit to the US Government and \"forward thinking lumber magnates\" for agreeing to such reforms, an IWW strike forced these concessions.",
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"plaintext": "From 1913 through the mid-1930s, the IWW's Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union (MTWIU), proved a force to be reckoned with and competed with AFL unions for ascendance in the industry. Given the union's commitment to international solidarity, its efforts and success in the field come as no surprise. Local 8 of the Marine Transport Workers was led by Ben Fletcher, who organized predominantly African-American longshoremen on the Philadelphia and Baltimore waterfronts, but other leaders included the Swiss immigrant Walter Nef, Jack Walsh, E.F. Doree, and the Spanish sailor Manuel Rey. The IWW also had a presence among waterfront workers in Boston, New York City, New Orleans, Houston, San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Eureka, Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, Vancouver as well as in ports in the Caribbean, Mexico, South America, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and other nations. IWW members played a role in the 1934 San Francisco general strike and the other organizing efforts by rank-and-filers within the International Longshoremen's Association up and down the West Coast.",
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"plaintext": "Wobblies also played a role in the sit-down strikes and other organizing efforts by the United Auto Workers in the 1930s, particularly in Detroit, though they never established a strong union presence there.",
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"plaintext": "Where the IWW did win strikes, such as in Lawrence, they often found it hard to hold onto their gains. The IWW of 1912 disdained collective bargaining agreements and preached instead the need for constant struggle against the boss on the shop floor. It proved difficult, however, to maintain that sort of revolutionary enthusiasm against employers. In Lawrence, the IWW lost nearly all of its membership in the years after the strike, as the employers wore down their employees' resistance and eliminated many of the strongest union supporters. In 1938, the IWW voted to allow contracts with employers, so long as they would not undermine any strike.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW's efforts were met with \"unparalleled\" resistance from Federal, state and local governments in America; from company management and labor spies, and from groups of citizens functioning as vigilantes. In 1914, Wobbly Joe Hill (born Joel Hägglund) was accused of murder in Utah and, on what many regarded as flimsy evidence, was executed in 1915. On November 5, 1916, at Everett, Washington, a group of deputized businessmen led by Sheriff Donald McRae attacked Wobblies on the steamer Verona, killing at least five union members (six more were never accounted for and probably were lost in Puget Sound). Two members of the police force—one a regular officer and another a deputized citizen from the National Guard Reserve—were killed, probably by \"friendly fire\". At least five Everett civilians were wounded.",
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"plaintext": "Many IWW members opposed United States participation in World War I. The organization passed a resolution against the war at its convention in November 1916. This echoed the view, expressed at the IWW's founding convention, that war represents struggles among capitalists in which the rich become richer, and the working poor all too often die at the hands of other workers.",
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"plaintext": "An IWW newspaper, the Industrial Worker, wrote just before the U.S. declaration of war: \"Capitalists of America, we will fight against you, not for you! There is not a power in the world that can make the working class fight if they refuse.\" Yet when a declaration of war was passed by the U.S. Congress in April 1917, the IWW's general secretary-treasurer Bill Haywood became determined that the organization should adopt a low profile in order to avoid perceived threats to its existence. The printing of anti-war stickers was discontinued, stockpiles of existing anti-war documents were put into storage, and anti-war propagandizing ceased as official union policy. After much debate on the General Executive Board, with Haywood advocating a low profile and GEB member Frank Little championing continued agitation, Ralph Chaplin brokered a compromise agreement. A statement was issued that denounced the war, but IWW members were advised to channel their opposition through the legal mechanisms of conscription. They were advised to register for the draft, marking their claims for exemption \"IWW, opposed to war.\"",
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"plaintext": "In spite of the IWW moderating its vocal opposition, the IWW's antiwar stance made it highly unpopular. Frank Little, the IWW's most outspoken war opponent, was lynched in Butte, Montana, in August 1917, just four months after war had been declared.",
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"plaintext": "During World War I the U.S. government moved strongly against the IWW. On September 5, 1917, U.S. Department of Justice agents made simultaneous raids on dozens of IWW meeting halls across the country. Minutes books, correspondence, mailing lists, and publications were seized, with the U.S. Department of Justice removing five tons of material from the IWW's General Office in Chicago alone. This seized material was scoured for possible violations of the Espionage Act of 1917 and other laws, with a view to future prosecution of the organization's leaders, organizers, and key activists.",
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"plaintext": "Based in large measure on the documents seized September 5, one hundred and sixty-six IWW leaders were indicted by a Federal Grand Jury in Chicago for conspiring to hinder the draft, encourage desertion, and intimidate others in connection with labor disputes, under the new Espionage Act. One hundred and one went on trial en masse before Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis in 1918. Their lawyer was George Vanderveer of Seattle. They were all convicted—including those who had not been members of the union for years—and given prison terms of up to twenty years. Sentenced to prison by Judge Landis and released on bail, Haywood fled to the Soviet Union where he remained until his death.",
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"plaintext": "In 1917, during an incident known as the Tulsa Outrage, a group of black-robed Knights of Liberty tarred and feathered seventeen members of the IWW in Oklahoma. The attack was cited as revenge for the Green Corn Rebellion, a preemptive attack caused by fear of an impending attack on the oil fields and as punishment for not supporting the war effort. The IWW members had been turned over to the Knights of Liberty by local authorities after they were beaten, arrested at their headquarters and convicted of the crime of vagrancy. Five other men who testified in defense of the Wobblies were also fined by the court and subjected to the same torture and humiliations at the hands of the Knights of Liberty.",
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"plaintext": "In 1919, an Armistice Day parade by the American Legion in Centralia, Washington, turned into a fight between legionnaires and IWW members in which four legionnaires and a Centralia deputy sheriff were shot dead. Which side initiated the violence of the Centralia massacre is disputed. A number of IWWs were arrested, one of whom, Wesley Everest, was lynched by a mob that night.",
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"plaintext": "Members of the IWW were prosecuted under various State and federal laws and the 1920 Palmer Raids singled out the foreign-born members of the organization.",
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"plaintext": "IWW quickly recovered from the setbacks of 1919 and 1920, with membership peaking in 1923 (58,300 estimated by dues paid per capita, though membership was likely somewhat higher as the union tolerated delinquent members). But recurring internal debates, especially between those who sought either to centralize or decentralize the organization, ultimately brought about the IWW's 1924 schism.",
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"plaintext": "The twenties witnessed the defection of hundreds of Wobbly leaders (including Harrison George, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, John Reed, George Hardy, Charles Ashleigh, Earl Browder and, in his Soviet exile, Bill Haywood) and, following a path recounted by Fred Beal, thousands of Wobbly rank-and-filers to the Communists and Communist organizations.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the 1949 Smith Act trials, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover was disappointed when prosecutors indicted fewer CPUSA members than he had hoped, and—recalling the arrests and convictions of over one hundred IWW leaders in 1917—complained to the Justice Department, stating, \"the IWW as a subversive menace was crushed and has never revived. Similar action at this time would have been as effective against the Communist Party and its subsidiary organizations.\"",
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"plaintext": "After the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act in 1946 by Congress, which called for the removal of Communist union leadership, the IWW experienced a loss of membership as differences of opinion occurred over how to respond to the challenge. In 1949, US Attorney General Tom C. Clark placed the IWW on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations in the category of \"organizations seeking to change the government by unconstitutional means\" under Executive Order 9835, which offered no means of appeal, and which excluded all IWW members from Federal employment and federally subsidized housing programs (this order was revoked by Executive Order 10450 in 1953).",
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"plaintext": "At this time, the Cleveland local of the Metal and Machinery Workers Industrial Union (MMWIU) was the strongest IWW branch in the United States. Leading figures such as Frank Cedervall, who had helped build the branch up for over ten years, were concerned about the possibility of raiding from AFL-CIO unions if the IWW had its legal status as a union revoked. In 1950, Cedervall led the 1500-member MMWIU national organization to split from the IWW, as the Lumber Workers Industrial Union had almost thirty years earlier. Unfortunately for the MMWIU, this act would not save it. Despite its brief affiliation with the Congress of Industrial Organizations, it would face serious raiding from AFL and CIO and would be defunct by the late 1950s, less than ten years after separating from the IWW.",
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"plaintext": "The loss of the MMWIU, at the time the IWW's largest industrial union, was almost a deathblow to the IWW. The union's membership fell to its lowest level in the 1950s during the Second Red Scare, and by 1955, the union's fiftieth anniversary, it was near extinction, though it still appeared on government lists of Communist-led groups.",
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"plaintext": "The 1960s civil rights movement, anti-war protests, and various university student movements brought new life to the IWW, albeit with many fewer new members than the great organizing drives of the early part of the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "The first signs of new life for the IWW in the 1960s would be organizing efforts among students in San Francisco and Berkeley, which were hotbeds of student radicalism at the time. This targeting of students would result in a Bay Area branch of the union with over a hundred members in 1964, almost as many as the union's total membership in 1961. Wobblies old and new would unite for one more \"free speech fight\": Berkeley's Free Speech Movement. Riding on this high, the decision in 1967 to allow college and university students to join the Education Workers Industrial Union (IU 620) as full members spurred campaigns in 1968 at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, and the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. The IWW would send representatives to Students for a Democratic Society conventions in 1967, 1968, and 1969, and as the SDS collapsed into infighting, the IWW would gain members who were fleeing this discord. These changes would have a profound effect on the union, which by 1972 would have sixty-seven percent of members under the age of thirty, with a total of nearly five hundred members.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW's links to the 60s counterculture led to organizing campaigns at counterculture businesses, as well as a wave of over two dozen co-ops affiliating with the IWW under its Wobbly Shop model in the 1960s to 1980s. These businesses were primarily in printing, publishing, and food distribution; from underground newspapers and radical print shops to community co-op grocery stores. Some of the printing and publishing industry co-ops and job shops included Black & Red (Detroit), Glad Day Press (New York), RPM Press (Michigan), New Media Graphics (Ohio), Babylon Print (Wisconsin), Hill Press (Illinois), Lakeside (Madison, Wisconsin), Harbinger (Columbia, South Carolina), Eastown Printing in Grand Rapids, Michigan (where the IWW negotiated a contract in 1978), and La Presse Populaire (Montréal). This close affiliation with radical publishers and printing houses sometimes led to legal difficulties for the union, such as when La Presse Populaire was shut down in 1970 by provincial police for publishing pro-FLQ materials, which were banned at the time under an official censorship law. Also in 1970, the San Diego, California, \"street journal\" El Barrio became an official IWW shop. In 1971 its office was attacked by an organization calling itself the Minutemen, and IWW member Ricardo Gonzalves was indicted for criminal syndicalism along with two members of the Brown Berets.",
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"plaintext": "These ties to anti-authoritarian and radical artistic and literary currents would link the IWW even more heavily to the 60s counterculture, exemplified by the publication in Chicago in the 1960s of Rebel Worker by the surrealists Franklin and Penelope Rosemont. One edition was published in London with Charles Radcliffe, who went on to become involved with the Situationist International. By the 1980s, the Rebel Worker was being published as an official organ again, from the IWW's headquarters in Chicago, and the New York area was publishing a newsletter as well.",
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"plaintext": "Invigorated by the arrival of enthusiastic new members, the IWW began a wave of organizing drives. These largely took a regional form and they, as well as the union's overall membership, concentrated in Portland, Chicago, Ann Arbor, and throughout the state of California, which when combined accounted for over half of union drives from 1970 to 1979. In Portland, Oregon, the IWW led campaigns at Winter Products (a brass plating plant) in 1972, at a local Winchell's Donuts (where a strike was waged and lost), at the Albina Day Care (where key union demands were won, including the firing of the director of the day care), of healthcare workers at West Side School and the Portland Medical Center, and of agricultural workers in 1974. The latter effort led to the opening of an IWW union hall in Portland to compete with extortionate hiring halls and day labor agencies. Organizing efforts led to a growth in membership, but repeated loss of strikes and organizing campaigns would anticipate the decline of the Portland branch after the mid-1970s, a stagnancy period which would last until the 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "In California, union activities were based in Santa Cruz, where in 1977 the IWW engaged in one of its most ambitious campaigns of the 1970s: an attempt in 1977 to organize 3,000 workers hired under the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) in Santa Cruz County. The campaign led to pay raises, the implementation of a grievance procedure, and medical and dental coverage, but the union failed to maintain its foothold, and in 1982 the CETA program would be replaced by the Job Training Partnership Act. The IWW would win some lasting victories in Santa Cruz, however, with successful campaigns at the Janus Alcohol Recovery Center, the Santa Cruz Law Center, Project Hope, and the Santa Cruz Community Switchboard.",
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"plaintext": "Elsewhere in California, the IWW was active in Long Beach in 1972, where it organized workers at International Wood Products and Park International Corporation (a manufacturer of plastic swimming pool filters) and went on strike after the firing of one worker for union-related activities. Finally, in San Francisco, the IWW ran campaigns for radio station and food service workers.",
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"plaintext": "In Chicago, the IWW was an early opponent of so-called urban renewal programs, and supported the creation of the \"Chicago People's Park\" in 1969. The Chicago branch also ran citywide campaigns for healthcare, food service, entertainment, construction, and metal workers, and its success with the latter led to an attempt to revive the national Metal and Machinery Workers Industrial Union, which twenty years earlier had been a major component of the union. Metalworker organizing would largely end in 1978 after a failed strike at Mid-American Metal in Virden, Illinois. The IWW also became one of the first unions to try to organize fast food workers, with an organizing campaign at a local McDonald's in 1973.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW also built on its existing presence in Ann Arbor, which had existed since student organizing began at the University of Michigan, to launch an organizing campaign at the University Cellar, a college bookstore. The union won National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) certification there in 1979 following a strike, and the store would become a strong job shop for the union until it was closed in 1986. The union launched a similar campaign at another local bookstore, Charing Cross Books, but was unable to maintain its foothold there despite reaching a settlement with management.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1970s, the IWW came to regional prominence in entertainment industry organizing, with an Entertainment Workers Organizing Committee being founded in Chicago in 1976, followed by campaigns organizing musicians in Cleveland in 1977 and Ann Arbor in 1978. The Chicago committee published a model contract which was distributed to musicians in the hopes of raising industry standards, as well as maintaining an active phone line for booking information. IWW musicians such as Utah Phillips, Faith Petric, Bob Bovee, and Jim Ringer also toured and promoted the union, and in 1987 an anthology album, Rebel Voices, was released.",
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"plaintext": "Other IWW organizing campaigns of the 1970s included a ShopRite supermarket in Milwaukee, at Coronet Foods in Wheeling, West Virginia, chemical and fast food workers (including KFC and Roy Rogers) in State College, Pennsylvania, and hospital workers in Boston, all in 1973;",
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"plaintext": "shipyards in Houston, Texas, and restaurant workers in Pittsburgh in 1974; unsuccessful campaigns at the Prospect Nursing Home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a Pizza Hut in Arkadelphia, Arkansas, in 1975; and a construction workers organizing drive in Albuquerque, New Mexico, in 1978.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1990s, the IWW was involved in many labor struggles and free speech fights, including Redwood Summer, and the picketing of the Neptune Jade in the port of Oakland in late 1997.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, the IWW launched an organizing drive against Borders Books in Philadelphia. In March, the union lost an NLRB certification vote by a narrow margin but continued to organize. In June, IWW member Miriam Fried was fired on trumped-up charges and a national boycott of Borders was launched in response. IWW members picketed at Borders stores nationwide, including Ann Arbor; Washington, D.C.; San Francisco; Miami; Chicago; Palo Alto; Portland, OR; Portland, ME; Boston; Philadelphia; Albany; Richmond; St. Louis; Los Angeles; and other cities. This was followed up with a National Day of Action in 1997, where Borders stores were again picketed nationwide, and a second organizing campaign in London, England.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 1996, the IWW began organizing at Wherehouse Music in El Cerrito, California. The campaign continued until 1997, when management fired two organizers and laid off over half the employees, as well as reducing the hours of known union members. This directly affected the NLRB certification vote which followed, where the IWW lost over 2:1.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, the IWW chartered a San Francisco branch of the Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union (MTWIU), which trained hundreds of waterfront workers in health and safety techniques and attempted to institutionalize these safety practices on the San Francisco waterfront.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, the IWW chartered a local branch of the Education Workers Industrial Union in Boston, Massachusetts, which started to organize workers at local colleges and universities.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, IWW organizing drives in the late 90s included a strike at the Lincoln Park Mini Mart in Seattle in 1996, Keystone Job Corps, the community organization ACORN, various homeless and youth centers in Portland, Oregon, sex industry workers, and recycling shops in Berkeley, California. IWW members were also active in the building trades, shipyards, high tech industries, hotels and restaurants, public interest organizations, railroads, bike messengers, and lumber yards.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW stepped in several times to help the rank and file in mainstream unions, including saw mill workers in Fort Bragg in California in 1989, concession stand workers in the San Francisco Bay Area in the late 1990s, and shipyards along the Mississippi River.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 2000s, the IWW organized Stonemountain and Daughter Fabrics, a fabric shop in Berkeley, California. The shop continues to remain an IWW organized shop.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Berkeley's recycling is picked up, sorted, processed and sent out all through two different IWW-organized enterprises.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, the IWW began organizing street people and other non-traditional occupations with the formation of the Ottawa Panhandlers Union. A year later, the Panhandlers Union led a strike by the homeless. Negotiations with the city resulted in the city government promising to fund a newspaper written and sold by the homeless.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2003 and 2006, the IWW organized unions at food co-operatives in Seattle, Washington and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The IWW represents administrative and maintenance workers under contract in Seattle, while the union in Pittsburgh lost 22–21 in an NLRB election, only to have the results invalidated in late 2006, based on management's behavior before the election.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, an IWW union was organized in a New York City Starbucks. In 2006, the IWW continued efforts at Starbucks by organizing several Chicago area shops.",
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"plaintext": "In Chicago the IWW began an effort to organize bicycle messengers.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2004, IWW-organized short haul truck drivers in Stockton, California walked off their jobs and went on a strike. Nearly all demands were met. Despite early victories in Stockton, the truck driver union ceased to exist in mid-2005.",
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"plaintext": "In New York City, the IWW has organized immigrant foodstuffs workers since 2005. That summer, workers from Handyfat Trading joined the IWW, and were soon followed by workers from four more warehouses. Workers at these warehouses made gains such as receiving the minimum wage and being paid overtime.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, the IWW moved its headquarters to Cincinnati, Ohio, and in 2010, headquarters was moved back to Chicago, Illinois.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2006, the IWW Bay Area Branch organized the Landmark Shattuck Cinemas. The Union had been negotiating for a contract with the goal of expanding workplace democracy.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2007, the NYC warehouse workers came together with the Starbucks Workers Union to form The Food and Allied Workers Union IU 460/640. In the summer of 2007, the IWW organized workers at two new warehouses: Flaum Appetizing, a Kosher food distributor, and Wild Edibles, a seafood company. Over the course of 2007–08, workers at both shops were illegally terminated for their union activity. In 2008, the workers at Wild Edibles actively fought to get their jobs back and to secure overtime pay owed to them by the boss. In a workplace justice campaign called Focus on the Food Chain, carried out jointly with Brandworkers International, the IWW workers won settlements against employers including Pur Pac, Flaum Appetizing and Wild Edibles.",
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"plaintext": "Besides IWW's traditional practice of organizing industrially, the Union has been open to new methods such as organizing geographically: for instance, seeking to organize retail workers in a certain business district, as in Philadelphia.",
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"plaintext": "The union has also participated in worker-related issues as protesting involvement in the war in Iraq, opposing sweatshops and supporting a boycott of Coca-Cola for that company's support of the suppression of workers rights in Colombia.",
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"plaintext": "On July 5, 2008, the Grand Rapids, Michigan, Starbucks Workers Union and CNT-AIT in Seville, Spain, organized a global day of action against alleged Starbucks union busting, in particular the firing of two union members in Grand Rapids and Seville. According to the Grand Rapids Starbucks Workers Union website, pickets were held in several dozen cities in more than a dozen countries.",
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"plaintext": "The Portland, Oregon General Membership Branch is one of the largest and most active branches of the IWW. The branch holds three contracts currently, two with Janus Youth Programs and one with Portland Women's Crisis Line. There has been some debate within the branch about whether or not union contracts such as this are desirable in the long run, with some members favoring solidarity unionism as opposed to contract unionism and some members believing there is room for both strategies for organizing. The branch has successfully supported workers wrongfully fired from several different workplaces in the last two years. Due to picketing by Wobblies, these workers have received significant compensation from their former employers. Branch membership has been increasing, as has shop organizing. As of 2005, the 100th anniversary of its founding, the IWW had around 5,000 members, compared to 13 million members in the AFL-CIO. Other IWW branches are located in Australia, Austria, Canada, Ireland, Germany, Uganda and the United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2011, Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker announced a budget bill which the IWW held would effectively outlaw unions for state or municipal workers. In response, there was an emergency meeting of the Midwestern IWW member organizations. IWW members presented a proposal at a meeting of South-Central Federation of Labor (SCFL) which would endorse a general strike and create an ad hoc Committee to instruct affiliated locals in preparations for the general strike. The IWW proposal passed nearly unanimously. The Madison branch made an international appeal translating various materials concerning the strike into Arabic, French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. Additionally, an appeal was made to European unions (CNT – Spain, CGT – Spain and CGT – France) to send organizers to Madison who could present their experience of general strikes at union meetings and help organize the strike in other ways. The CNT (France) sent letters of solidarity to the IWW. This was considered the largest and most successful intervention in a working-class struggle that the IWW has undertaken since the 1930s. In the aftermath, the strike was said by some to be 'The General Strike that didn't happen' because eventually ongoing efforts at industrial action were \"completely overwhelmed by the recall effort\" against the governor during the crisis.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-2010s, Wobblies in the United States were focused on campaigns to organize the multinational coffeehouse chain Starbucks, the franchised sandwich fast food restaurant chain Jimmy John's, and the multinational supermarket chain Whole Foods Market. The union had about 3,000 members. The IWW moved its headquarters to 2036 West Montrose, Chicago, in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW waged an organizing campaign at Chicago-Lake Liquors in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 2013. The store, which advertises itself as the highest-volume liquor store in Minnesota, had a wage cap of $10.50 per hour, but in the face of IWW demands for the wage cap to be lifted, store management fired five organizers. On April 6, the Twin Cities branch of the union responded with a picket around the store informing customers of the situation. This was followed by a second picket on May 4, a day which customarily had heavy business at the store. The union claimed to have made \"what should have been an extremely busy Saturday into a quiet afternoon inside the store\". After several months, the National Labor Relations Board announced that it found merit in the union's unfair dismissal complaint. As a result, the union and store management agreed to a $32,000 settlement as a form of compensation to the fired workers and the campaign officially ended.",
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"plaintext": "Workers at the Paulo Freire Social Justice Charter School in Holyoke, Massachusetts were organized with the IWW in 2015, hoping to address the \"authoritarian leadership\" of the school administration and perceived racial bias in hiring.",
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"plaintext": "On September 14, 2015, after a year-long organizing campaign, workers at Sound Stage Production in North Haven Connecticut declared their membership in the IWW. Within a week they were threatened with legal action and fired. After several months of negotiation through the National Labor Relations Board, a settlement was reached and the workers agreed to back pay and severance compensation. As part of the campaign, the workers formed the Production Services Collective and continue as a workers cooperative and organizing with IWW-CT.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW announced the Burgerville Workers Union (BVWU) in April 2016, which focuses on workers at the Oregon regional fast food chain, Burgerville. A subsidiary of the IWW, the BVWU went public on April 26 at a rally of workers and supporters outside a Portland, Oregon Burgerville location. Upon going public, the BVWU was endorsed by a number of local Oregon community organizations, including union locals, the Portland Solidarity Network, and food and racial justice organizations. It was also endorsed by then-Democratic presidential candidate Senator Bernie Sanders (I-Vt.). The union received pushback with a letter from Burgerville's CEO, Jeff Harvey, being distributed to workers discouraging them from joining the union. In June 2017, Burgerville paid a settlement of $10,000 after an investigation by the Oregon Bureau of Labor and Industries, which found that the company had violated state-mandated break periods for workers. In April and May 2018 the IWW won NLRB elections in 2 Burgerville Locations.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2016, workers at Ellen's Stardust Diner in Manhattan formed Stardust Family United (SFU) under the IWW, driven by the firing of thirty employees, as well as an unpopular new scheduling system. After going public, the union accused Stardust management of retaliatory firings and posting anti-union materials in the restaurant.",
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"plaintext": "On September 9, 2016, the 45th anniversary of the Attica Prison Riots, 900 incarcerated workers organized by the IWW and many other prisoners participated in the 9/9 National Prison Strike declared by the IWW's Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee. Supported by a number of anti-incarceration and prisoners' organizations such as the Free Alabama Movement, the strike focused on the poor conditions in many American prisons and the low rates of prisoner pay for maintaining prisons and engaging in commercial production of goods for third-party companies. The strike affected an estimated twenty prisons in eleven states and was strongest at the William C. Holman Correctional Facility in Alabama. Estimates of the number of inmates affected range from 20,000, to 50,000, to as high as 72,000, with David Fathi of the ACLU National Prison Project judging it to be the \"largest prisoner strike in recent memory\". Initial media coverage was slow, with strike organizers complaining of a \"mainstream-media blackout\", which could be attributed to the difficulty in communicating with prisoners, as many prisons went on lockdown either in response to prisoner strike activity or in anticipation of it.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW also organized workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. In May 2020 the IWW established the Voodoo Doughnut Workers Union (DWU) in Portland. The newly formed union delivered a letter to management announcing the formation of a union and demanding higher wages, safety improvements and severance packages for employees laid off because of the coronavirus and Oregon's ongoing \"shelter-in-place\" order. In February 2021, after months of organizing, DWU workers officially filed for a union certification election with the National Labor Relations Board.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW also publicly announced the Second Staff (2S) workers union in May 2020 at the Faison school, a private school serving students on the autism spectrum in Richmond in response to what the union called a \"reckless endangerment of staff and students\" in trying to force the school to open too soon. March 2021 saw a rash of organizing with the IWW. On March 9, workers at Moe's Books, an independent used bookstore in Berkeley, announced that they received voluntary recognition from Moe's Books management, officially unionizing with the IWW.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after, on March 13, the IWW announced that it was organizing workers at the Socialist Rifle Association (SRA). The union was voluntarily recognized by the SRA the following day. Two days later, on March 16, staff at the Ohio Valley Environmental Coalition (OVEC) announced their intent to unionize with the IWW, and requested voluntary recognition from management. In organizing, the OVEC workers seek to gain \"a standardized pay scale, an equitable discipline policy, and the right to union representation at any meeting wherein matters affecting staff pay, hours, benefits, advancement, or layoffs may be discussed or voted on.\"",
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"plaintext": "The IWW is the first union to get a fast-food union contract ratified. Five Oregon locations of Burgerville are unionized.",
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"plaintext": "Australia encountered the IWW tradition early. In part, this was due to the local De Leonist Socialist Labor Party following the industrial turn of the US SLP. The SLP formed an IWW Club in Sydney in October 1907. Members of other socialist groups also joined it, and the relationship with the SLP soon proved to be a problem. The 1908 split between the Chicago and Detroit factions in the United States was echoed by internal unrest in the Australian IWW from late 1908, resulting in the formation of a pro-Chicago local in Adelaide in May 1911 and another in Sydney six months later. By mid-1913 the \"Chicago\" IWW was flourishing and the SLP-associated pro-Detroit IWW Club in decline. In 1916 the \"Detroit\" IWW in Australia followed the lead of the US body and renamed itself the Workers' International Industrial Union.",
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"plaintext": "The early Australian IWW used a number of tactics from the US, including free speech fights. However, the Australian IWW tended to co-operate where possible with existing unions rather than forming its own, and in contrast with the US body took an extremely open and forthright stand against involvement in World War One. The IWW cooperated with many other unions, encouraging industrial unionism and militancy. In particular, the IWW's strategies had a large effect on the Australasian Meat Industry Employees Union. The AMIEU established closed shops and workers councils and effectively regulated management behavior toward the end of the 1910s.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW was well known for opposing the First World War from 1914 onwards, and in many ways was at the front of the anti-conscription fight. A narrow majority of Australians voted against conscription in a very bitter hard-fought referendum in October 1916, and then again in December 1917, Australia being the only belligerent in World War One without conscription. In very significant part this was due to the agitation of the IWW, a group which never had as many as 500 members in Australia at its peak. The IWW founded the Anti-Conscription League (ACL) in which members worked with the broader labor and peace movement, and also carried on an aggressive propaganda campaign in its own name; leading to the imprisonment of Tom Barker (1887–1970) the editor of the IWW paper Direct Action, sentenced to twelve months in March 1916. A series of arson attacks on commercial properties in Sydney was widely attributed to the IWW campaign to have Tom Barker released. He was released in August 1916, but twelve mostly prominent IWW activists, the so-called Sydney Twelve were arrested in NSW in September 1916 for arson and other offenses. (Their trial and eventual imprisonment would become a cause célèbre of the Australian labor movement on the basis that there was no convincing evidence that any of them had been involved in the arson attacks.) A number of other scandals were associated with the IWW, a five-pound note forgery scandal, the so-called Tottenham tragedy in which the murder of a police officer was blamed on the IWW, and above all it was blamed for the defeat of the October 1916 conscription referendum. In December 1916, the Commonwealth government led by Labour Party renegade Billy Hughes declared the IWW an illegal organization under the Unlawful Associations Act. Eighty six members immediately defied the law and were sentenced to six months imprisonment. Direct Action was suppressed, its circulation was at its peak of something over 12,000. During the war over 100 members Australia-wide were sentenced to imprisonment on political charges, including the veteran activist Monty Miller.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW continued illegally operating with the aim of freeing its class war prisoners and briefly fused with two other radical tendencies—from the old Socialist parties and Trades Halls—to form a larval communist party at the suggestion of the militant revolutionist and Council Communist Adela Pankhurst. The IWW, however, left the CPA shortly after its formation.",
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"plaintext": "By the early 1930s, most Australian IWW branches had dispersed as the Communist Party grew in influence. ",
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"plaintext": "The Australian IWW has grown since the 1940s, but have been unsuccessful in securing union representation. As an extreme example of the integration of ex-IWW militants into the mainstream labor movement one might instance the career of Donald Grant, one of the Sydney Twelve sentenced to fifteen years imprisonment for conspiracy to commit arson and other crimes. Released from prison in August 1920, he would soon break with the IWW over its anti-political stand, standing for the NSW Parliament for the Industrial Socialist Labour Party unsuccessfully in 1922 and then in 1925 for the mainstream Australian Labor Party (ALP) also unsuccessfully. However, this reconciliation with the ALP and the electoral system did not prevent him being imprisoned again in 1927 for street demonstrations supporting Sacco and Vanzetti. He would eventually represent the ALP in the NSW Legislative Council in 1931–1940 and the Australian Senate 1943–1956. No other member of the Australian IWW actually entered Parliament but Grant's career is emblematic in the sense that the ex-IWW militants by and large remained in the broader labor movement.",
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"plaintext": "\"Bump Me Into Parliament\" is the most notable Australian IWW song, and is still current. It was written by ship's fireman William \"Bill\" Casey, later Secretary of the Seaman's Union in Queensland.",
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"plaintext": "Australian influence was strong in early 20th century left-wing groups, and several founders of the New Zealand Labour Party (e.g. Bob Semple) were from Australia. The trans-Tasman interchange was two-way, particularly for miners. Several Tasmanian Labour \"groupings\" in the 1890s cited their earlier New Zealand experience of activism e.g. later premier Robert Cosgrove, and also Chris Watson from New South Wales.",
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"plaintext": "\"Wobbly\" activists in New Zealand pre-WWI were John Benjamin King and H. M. Fitzgerald (an adherent of the De Leon school) from Canada. Another was Robert Rivers La Monte from America, who was (briefly) an organizer for the New Zealand Socialist Party (as was Fitzgerald). IWW strongholds were Auckland \"a city with the demographic characteristics of a frontier town\"; Wellington where a branch survived briefly and in mining towns, on the wharves and among laborers.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW was active in Canada from a very early point in the organization's history, especially in Western Canada, primarily in British Columbia. The union was active in organizing large swaths of the lumber and mining industry along the coast, in the Interior of British Columbia, and Vancouver Island. Joe Hill wrote the song \"Where the Fraser River Flows\" during this period when the IWW was organizing in British Columbia. Some members of the IWW had relatively close links with the Socialist Party of Canada. Canadians who went to Australia and New Zealand before WWI included John Benjamin King and H. M. Fitzgerald (an adherent of the De Leon school).",
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"plaintext": "Arthur \"Slim\" Evans, organizer in the Relief Camp Workers' Union and the On-to-Ottawa Trek of 1935 was once a Wobbly, although during the On-to-Ottawa Trek he was with the One Big Union. He was also a friend of another well-known Canadian, Ginger Goodwin, who was shot in Cumberland, British Columbia, by a Dominion Police constable when he was resisting the First World War. The impact of Ginger Goodwin influenced various left and progressive groups in Canada, including a progressive group of MPs in the House of Commons called the Ginger Group.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the IWW being banned as a subversive organization in Canada during the First World War, the organization rebounded swiftly after being unbanned after the war, reaching a post-WWI high of 5600 Canadian members in 1923. The union entered a short \"golden age\" in Canada with an official Canadian Administration located at the Finnish Labour Temple in Port Arthur (now Thunder Bay, Ontario) and a strong base among immigrant laborers in Northern Ontario and Manitoba, especially Finns, which included harvest workers, lumberjacks, and miners. During this period, the IWW would compete for members with a number of other radical and socialist organizations such as the Finnish Organization of Canada (FOC), with the IWW's Industrialisti newspaper competing with the FOC's Vapaus for attention and readership. During this period. Membership slowly decreased during the 1920s and 30s despite continued organizing and strike activity as the IWW lost ground to the One Big Union and Communist Party-controlled organizations such as the Workers' Unity League (WUL). Despite this competition, the IWW and WUL cooperated during strikes, such as at the Abitibi Pulp & Paper Company near Sault Ste. Marie in 1933, where the Finnish workers in the IWW and WUL faced discrimination and violence from the Anglo citizens of the town. The IWW also successfully unionized Ritchie's Dairy in Toronto and formed a fishery workers' branch in MacDiarmid (now Greenstone, Ontario).",
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"plaintext": "In 1936, the IWW in Canada supported the Spanish Revolution and began to recruit for the militia of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), in direct conflict with Communist Party recruiters for the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion, a conflict which resulted in a number of violent clashes at recruitment rallies in Northern Ontario. Several Canadian IWW members were killed in the Spanish Civil War and the CNT's ensuing defeat at the hands of both Fascist and Republican forces. By the middle of the Second World War, IWW membership had dropped to 500, but had rebounded to 2000 by 1946. After this, the IWW entered a long period of decline, with the Canadian Administration slowly shrinking back to its traditional strongholds in Port Arthur and Vancouver, and becoming more of a social club and mutual aid society of mostly Finnish members in Port Arthur and the co-operative businesses they controlled. An Education Workers Industrial Union branch was established at the University of Waterloo in 1968, but failed to achieve success and dissolved. As well, in 1970 La Presse Populaire du Montréal, an IWW-run print shop, was shut down under the War Measures Act due to its support for the FLQ during the October Crisis. As a sign of the times, the old Canadian Administration in Port Arthur was dissolved in 1973 and replaced by a Canadian Regional Organizing Committee, meaning that Canadian branches would be administrated by the General Administration in the United States. IWW activity in Canada began to shift largely toward strike support and labor activism, such as support for the 1973 Artistic Woodwork strike in Toronto. By the 1980s, the Vancouver branch was supporting unemployed activism through the Vancouver Unemployed Action Centre by helping to shut down the scam operation Vancouver Job Mart and supporting the campaign for a fixed-income transit pass.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the 1990s, the IWW in Canada was following the general pattern of ascendancy, winning government recognition at Harvest Collective in Manitoba, the first shop certified in Canada since 1919. During the 2000s, branches were chartered in several new cities, and existing branches were revitalized. The dissolved Canadian Regional Organizing Committee was refounded in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, after Starbucks established policies that would mean demotions and loss of salary for some workers, the Quebec branches of Montreal and Sherbrooke helped found the Starbucks Workers' Union (STTS) which made a breakthrough in Quebec City at an establishment in Sainte-Foy. Leaders Simon Gosselin, Dominic Dupont and Andrew Fletcher were harassed in the months following unionization, and union efforts were defeated by law firm Heenan Blaike in the series of hearings before Quebec Labor Relations Board.",
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"plaintext": "Today the IWW remains active in the country with branches in Vancouver, Vancouver Island, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Ottawa/Outaouais, Toronto, Windsor, Sherbrooke, Québec City and Montréal. In August 2009, Canadian members voted to ratify the constitution of the Canadian Regional Organizing Committee (CanROC) to improve inter-branch coordination and communication. Affiliated branches are Winnipeg, Ottawa-Outaouais, Toronto, Windsor, Sherbrooke, Montréal and Québec City. Each branch elects a representative to make decisions on the Canadian board. There were originally three officers, the Secretary-Treasurer, Organizing Department Liaison, and Editor of the Canadian Organizing Bulletin. In 2016, CanROC members voted to split the Secretary-Treasurer role into separate Regional Secretary and Regional Treasurer positions.",
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"plaintext": "There are currently five job shops in Canada: Libra Knowledge and Information Services Co-op in Toronto, ParIT Workers Cooperative in Winnipeg, the Windsor Button Collective, the Ottawa Panhandlers' Union and the Street Labourers of Windsor (SLOW). The Ottawa Panhandlers' Union continues a tradition in the IWW of expanding the definition of worker. The union members include anyone who makes their living in the street, including buskers, street vendors, the homeless, scrappers and panhandlers. In the summer of 2004, the Union led strike by the Homeless (the Homeless Action Strike) in Ottawa. The strike resulted in the city agreeing to fund a newspaper created and sold by the Homeless on the street. On May 1, 2006, the Union took over the Elgin Street Police Station for a day. A similar IWW organization, the Street Labourers of Windsor (SLOW), has garnered local, provincial, and national news coverage for its organizing efforts in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, the IWW has also engaged in campaigns among harm reduction workers (resulting in the Toronto Harm Reduction Workers Union in 2014) and workers at the Québec fast food chain Frite Alors! in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "The largest Canadian General Membership Branch of the IWW is located in Montréal, Québec, where it officially operates under the name of Syndicat Industriel des Travailleurs et Travailleuses de Montréal (IWW-SITT). Between 2015 and 2017, the IWW-SITT hosted a radio program titled Action en Direct (Direct Action) which was broadcast from Radio Centre-Ville 102.3FM before moving to CHOQ radio at the Université du Québec à Montréal and being placed on hiatus. The IWW-SITT maintains several active union locals in Montreal, including a freelancers union S'ATTAQ (Le syndicat associatif des travailleu.ses.rs autonome du Québec), and a union for employees of student union, and student-union owned enterprises (Les travailleurs et les travailleuses des milieux associatifs en éducation).",
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"plaintext": "The IWW started to organize in Germany following the First World War. Fritz Wolffheim played a significant role in establishing the IWW in Hamburg.",
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"plaintext": "A German Language Membership Regional Organizing Committee (GLAMROC) was founded in December 2006 in Cologne. It encompasses the German-language area of Germany, Luxembourg, Austria, and Switzerland with branches or contacts in 16 cities. In 2015, the GLAMROC is reported as having 200 members in good standing",
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"plaintext": "The regional body of the union in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland is the Wales, Ireland, Scotland, England Regional Administration (WISERA). Formerly known as the Britain and Ireland Regional Administration (BIRA), its name was changed as a result of a referendum vote by WISERA members.",
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"plaintext": "The British Advocates of Industrial Unionism, founded in 1906, supported the IWW. This group split in 1908, with the majority supporting Daniel De Leon and a minority supporting E. J. B. Allen founding the Industrialist Union and developing links with the Chicago-based IWW. Allen's group soon disappeared, but the first IWW group in Britain was founded by members of the Industrial Syndicalist Education League led by Guy Bowman in 1913.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW was present, to varying extents, in many of the struggles of the early decades of the 20th century, including the UK General Strike of 1926 and the dockers' strike of 1947. During the Spanish Civil War, a Neath Wobbly, who had been active in Mexico, trained volunteers in preparation for the journey to Spain, where they joined the International Brigades to fight against Franco.",
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"plaintext": "During the decade after World War II, the IWW had two active branches in London and Glasgow. These soon died off, before a modest resurgence in northwest England during the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2001 and 2003, there was a marked increase in UK membership, with the creation of the Hull General Membership Branch. During this time the Hull branch had 27 members of good standing; at that time the largest branch outside of the United States. By 2005, there were around 100 members in the United Kingdom. For the IWW's centenary, a stone was laid (51°41'598N 4°17.135W Geocacher), in a public access forest in Wales, commemorating the centenary of the union. As well, Sequoias were planted as a memorial to US IWW and Earth First! activist Judi Bari. 2006 saw the IWW formally registered by the UK government as a recognised trade union.",
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"plaintext": "The IWW currently has a presence in several major urban areas as well as regional centers, with chartered branches in London, Glasgow (Clydeside GMB), Bradford, Bristol, Dorset, Edinburgh, Ireland, Leeds, Leicestershire, Manchester, Northamptonshire and Warwickshire, Northumbria, Nottingham, Reading, Sheffield, Wales, in the Tyne and Wear and West Midlands areas.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, membership has increased rapidly; in 2014, the union reported a total UK membership of 750, which increased to 1000 by April 2015. In 2016, the 1,500 member limit was passed.",
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"plaintext": "IWW members were involved in the Liverpool dockers' strike that took place between 1995 and 1998, and numerous other events and struggles throughout the 1990s and 2000s, including the successful unionizing of several workplaces, such as support workers for the Scottish Socialist Party.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, the IWW has focused its efforts on health and education workers, publishing a national industrial newsletter for health workers and a specific bulletin for workers in the National Blood Service. In 2007 it launched a campaign alongside the anti-capitalist group No Sweat which attempted to replicate some of the successes of the US IWW's organizing drives amongst Starbucks workers. In the same year its health-workers' network launched a national campaign against cuts in the National Blood Service, which is ongoing.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2007, IWW branches in Glasgow and Dumfries were a key driving force in a successful campaign to prevent the closure of one of Glasgow University's campuses, (The Crichton) in Dumfries. The campaign united IWW members, other unions, students and the local community to build a powerful coalition. Its success, coupled with the National Blood Service campaign, has raised the IWW's profile significantly since then.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, the IWW representing cleaners at the Guildhall won back-pay and the right to collective negotiation with their employers, Ocean. Also in 2011, branches of the IWW were set up in Lincoln, Manchester and Sheffield (notably workers employed by Pizza Hut).",
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"plaintext": "The Edinburgh General Membership Branch of the IWW along with other branches of the IWW's Scottish section voted in 2014 to become a signatory to the \"From Yes to Action Statement\" produced by the Autonomous Centre of Edinburgh. In 2015, along with similar groups such as the Edinburgh Coalition Against Poverty and Edinburgh Anarchist Federation, they joined the Scottish Action Against Austerity network.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, WISERA promoted a campaign targeting couriers working for companies such as Deliveroo.",
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"plaintext": "An Iceland Regional Organizing Committee (IceROC) was chartered in 2015. The union has become a trailblazer in supporting sex workers in Iceland, who lack access to services which do not automatically treat them as victims of abuse. In particular, the IWW in Iceland has taken a strong position against the Swedish model of policing sex work, where sex workers are not criminalized but their customers are, and instead has argued in favor of \"organizing all workers without moral or legal judgement\".",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2015, a Greek Regional Organizing Committee (GreROC) was chartered. In July of that year, it released a statement condemning the Greek government's response to the results of the 2015 Greek bailout referendum, saying that \"despite the Left tone of dignity that the Left governmental administrators use, this is a one-way blackmail. We need a radical change of shift, not in words but in action.\"",
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"plaintext": "The IWW has a rich and complex history in South Africa, with an original South African IWW organization being founded in 1910 and existing through most of the 1910s until disintegrating by around 1916. The union's insistence on multiracial unionism set it at odds with the white trade union movement and brought severe political repression from the apartheid-era South African government. The major South African port of Durban was an important link in the IWW's international network which was largely maintained by its Marine Transport Workers Industrial Union, that connected the mainline North American IWW to ports in Africa, India, South America, and Australasia.",
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"plaintext": "After the collapse of the formal IWW organization in South Africa, it would be succeeded by an Industrial Socialist League, the Industrial Workers of Africa, and finally the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU), which would become the major black union in South Africa in the 1920s and 30s. Nevertheless, IWW and syndicalist influences would decline as the black workers' movement was brought into the trade union fold and came under the domination of the Communist Party of South Africa, which opposed syndicalist tendencies in the unions.",
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"plaintext": "Almost a hundred years later, multiple attempts were made to rebuild the South African IWW, with a short-lived South African Regional Organizing Committee being founded in the early 2000s in Durban and attempts made to build a branch in Cape Town in the early 2010s, with neither resulting in success.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, there was a total of 3,240 workers in Sierra Leone, mostly miners, who registered themselves as IWW members in Sierra Leone government records largely independently of the international General Administration in Chicago (i.e. without the official issuing of membership cards or taking of dues). Contact between the Sierra Leone members and headquarters was lost after a military coup which was an episode in the Sierra Leone Civil War, which would last until 2002. The intensification of the civil war caused a number of IWW members, including the only official union delegate in the country, to flee to Guinea.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, IWW members in Uganda formed a Ugandan Regional Organizing Committee (ROC) and began to raise funds to establish a Ugandan office for the IWW. However, it was discovered that the union officers in Uganda had been violating the Constitution of the IWW in multiple ways, such as by permitting employers to join the union, and the ROC was dissolved.",
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"plaintext": "One Wobbly characteristic since their inception has been a penchant for song. To counteract management sending in the Salvation Army band to cover up the Wobbly speakers, Joe Hill wrote parodies of Christian hymns so that union members could sing along with the Salvation Army band, but with their own purposes. For example, \"In the Sweet By and By\" became \"There'll Be Pie in the Sky When You Die (That's a Lie)\". From that start in exigency, Wobbly song writing became common because they \"articulated the frustrations, hostilities, and humor of the homeless and the dispossessed.\" The IWW collected its official songs in the Little Red Songbook and continues to update this book to the present time. In the 1960s, the American folk music revival in the United States brought a renewed interest in the songs of Joe Hill and other Wobblies, and seminal folk revival figures such as Pete Seeger and Woody Guthrie had a pro-Wobbly tone, while some were members of the IWW. Among the protest songs in the book are \"Hallelujah, I'm a Bum\" (this song was never popular among members), \"Union Maid\", and \"I Dreamed I Saw Joe Hill Last Night\". Perhaps the best known IWW song is \"Solidarity Forever\". The songs have been performed by dozens of artists, and Utah Phillips performed the songs in concert and on recordings for decades. Other prominent IWW songwriters include Ralph Chaplin who authored \"Solidarity Forever\", and Leslie Fish.",
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"plaintext": "The Finnish IWW community produced several folk singers, poets and songwriters, the most famous being Matti Valentine Huhta (better known as T-Bone Slim), who penned \"The Popular Wobbly\" and \"The Mysteries of a Hobo's Life\". Slim's poem, \"The Lumberjack's Prayer\" was recorded by Studs Terkel on labor singer Bucky Halker's Don't Want Your Millions. Hiski Salomaa, whose songs were composed entirely in Finnish (and Finglish), remains a widely recognized early folk musician in his native Finland as well as in sections of the Midwest United States, Northern Ontario, and other areas of North America with high concentrations of Finns. Salomaa, who was a tailor by trade, has been referred to as the Finnish Woody Guthrie. Arthur Kylander, who worked as a lumberjack, is a lesser known, but important Finnish IWW folk musician. Kylander's lyrics range from the difficulties of the immigrant laborer's experience to more humorous themes. Arguably, the wanderer, a recurring theme in Finnish folklore dating back to pre-Christian oral tradition (as with Lemminkäinen in the Kalevala), translated quite easily to the music of Huhta, Salomaa, and Kylander; each of whom has songs about the trials and tribulations of the hobo.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the plot of the U.S. trilogy, a series of three novels by American writer John Dos Passos—comprising the novels The 42nd Parallel (1930), 1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936)—is devoted to the IWW, and several of the more sympathetic characters are its members. Written at the time when Dos Passos was politically on the Left, the novels reflect the author's sympathy, at the time of writing, for the IWW and his outrage at its suppression, for which he expresses his deep grudge for President Woodrow Wilson.",
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"plaintext": "Karl Marlantes's 2019 novel Deep River explores labor issues in the early 1900s in the US and the consequences for an immigrant Finnish family. The book focuses on a female family member who becomes an organizer for the IWW in the dangerous logging industry. Both pro- and anti-labor viewpoints are examined, with special attention given to IWW strikes and the backlash against the labor movement during World War I.",
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"plaintext": "Wobbly lingo is a collection of technical language, jargon, and historic slang used by the Wobblies, for more than a century. Many Wobbly terms derive from or are coextensive with hobo expressions used through the 1940s. The origin of the name \"Wobbly\" itself is uncertain. For several decades, many hobos in the United States were members of, or were sympathetic to, the IWW. Because of this, some of the terms describe the life of a hobo such as \"riding the rails\", living in \"jungles\", dodging the \"bulls\". The IWW's efforts to organize all trades allowed the lingo to expand to include terms relating to mining camps, timber work, and farming.",
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"plaintext": "Some words and phrases believed to have originated within Wobbly lingo have gained cultural significance outside of the IWW. For example, from Joe Hill's song \"The Preacher and the Slave\", the expression pie in the sky has passed into common usage, referring to a \"preposterously optimistic goal\".",
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"plaintext": "Former lieutenant governor of Colorado David C. Coates was a labor militant, and was present at the founding convention, although it is unknown if he became a member. It has long been rumored, but not yet proven, that baseball legend Honus Wagner was also a Wobbly. Senator Joe McCarthy accused Edward R. Murrow of having been an IWW member, which Murrow denied. Some of the organization's most famous recent members include Noam Chomsky, Tom Morello, mixed martial arts fighter Jeff Monson, Andy Irvine, and late anthropologist David Graeber.",
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"plaintext": " Industrial Workers of the World philosophy and tactics",
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"plaintext": " Seattle General Strike",
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"plaintext": " Industrial Workers of the World Archives. Archives contain over 40 archival collections spanning 1903–1996, containing the records of the International Union, several local branches, and numerous personal papers including those of Joe Hill, William Trautmann, and Matilda Robbins. Located at the Walter P. Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs.",
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"plaintext": " Documents, Essays and Analysis for a History of the Industrial Workers of the World. Online archive at the Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved April 16, 2005.",
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"plaintext": " Industrial Workers of the World Records, 1906–1972, undated. Approximately 0.19 cubic feet of textual materials, 1 microfilm cassette (negative). At the Labor Archives of Washington State, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.",
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"plaintext": " Industrial Workers of the World Photograph Collection. Circa 1910s-1940s. 122 Photographs (2 boxes); varying sizes.",
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"plaintext": " John Leonard Miller Papers. 1923–1986. circa 4.11 cubic feet plus 2 sound cassettes.",
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"plaintext": " Eugene Barnett Oral History Collection. 1940–1961. 0.21 cubic feet (1 box), 3 sound cassettes (154 min.), 1 transcript (24 pages).",
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"plaintext": " Pacific Northwest Labor History Association Records. 1971–1995. 1.83 cubic feet (3 boxes).",
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"plaintext": " IWW Publications and Ephemera at Newberry Library",
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"plaintext": " Fred Thompson Papers at Newberry Library",
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"plaintext": " Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention of the Industrial Workers of the World, Held at Chicago, Illinois, September 17 to October 3, 1906. Chicago: Industrial Workers of the World, 1906.",
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"plaintext": " Proceedings of the Tenth Convention of the Industrial Workers of the World, Held at Chicago, Illinois, Nov. 20 to Dec. 1, 1916. Chicago: Industrial Workers of the World, 1917.",
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"plaintext": " With Drops of Blood the History of the Industrial Workers of the World Has Been Written. n.c. [Chicago]: Industrial Workers of the World, n.d. [1919].",
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},
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"plaintext": " Raids! Raids!! Raids!!! n.c. [Chicago]: Industrial Workers of the World, n.d. [Dec. 1919].",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dubofsky, Melvyn. A History of the Industrial Workers of the World. [1969] First paperbound edition. New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Books, 1973.",
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"plaintext": " The One Big Union Monthly, launched 1919",
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"plaintext": " The Wobblies. Directed by Stewart Bird, Deborah Shaffer, 1979. DVD 2006 NTSC English 90 minutes. (Includes interviews with 19 elderly Wobblies.)",
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"plaintext": " An Injury to One. A film by Travis Wilkerson, 2003 First Run Icarus Films. English 53 minutes. Chronicles the 1917 unsolved murder of Wobbly organizer Frank Little in Butte, Montana, during a strike by 16,000 miners against the Anaconda Copper Company. The film connects \"corporate domination to government repression, local repression to national repression, labor history to environmental history, popular culture to the history of class struggle\", according to one review. ()",
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{
"plaintext": " IWW History Project, including timeline and maps, from the University of Washington",
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176931
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"plaintext": " Industrial Workers of the World Records at Wayne State University Walter P. Reuther Library",
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"plaintext": "The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA), , was introduced to the United States Congress in April 1995 as a Senate Bill (). The bill was presented by then-Senate Majority Leader Bob Dole and passed with broad bipartisan support by Congress (91–8 in the US Senate, 293–133 in the U.S. House of Representatives) following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. It was signed into law by President Bill Clinton.",
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"plaintext": "Although controversial for its changes to the law of habeas corpus in the United States (Title I), upheld in Felker v. Turpin, , it also contained a number of provisions to \"deter terrorism, provide justice for victims, provide for an effective death penalty, and for other purposes,\" in the words of the bill summary.",
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"plaintext": "funding changes and jurisdiction clarifications for law enforcement related to terrorism threats (Title VIII),",
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"plaintext": "AEDPA had a significant impact on the law of habeas corpus. One provision of AEDPA limits the power of federal courts to grant habeas corpus relief to state prisoners, unless the state court's adjudication of the claim resulted in a decision that was ",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the modifications that pertain to all habeas corpus cases, AEDPA enacted special review provisions for capital cases from states that enacted quality controls for the performance of counsel in the state courts in the post-conviction phase. States that enacted the quality controls would see strict time limitations enforced against their death-row inmates in federal habeas proceedings coupled with extremely deferential review to the determinations of their courts regarding issues of federal law. , no states had successfully opted in to this provision, though Arizona and Texas had petitions pending to do so.",
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"plaintext": "Soon after it was enacted, AEDPA endured a critical test in the Supreme Court. The basis of the challenge was that the provisions limiting the ability of persons to file successive habeas petitions violated Article I, Section 9, Clause 2, of the United States Constitution, the Suspension Clause. The Supreme Court held unanimously, in Felker v. Turpin, , that the limitations did not unconstitutionally suspend the writ.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, the Ninth Circuit indicated that it was willing to consider a challenge to the constitutionality of AEDPA on separation of powers grounds under City of Boerne v. Flores and Marbury v. Madison, but it has since decided that the issue had been settled by circuit precedent.",
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"plaintext": "Basketball player and later coach Steve Kerr and his siblings and mother sued the Iranian government under the Act for the 1984 killing of Kerr's father, Malcolm H. Kerr, in Beirut, Lebanon.",
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"plaintext": "On June 21, 2022, the Supreme Court reinforced in Shoop v. Twyford that the power of federal courts to grant habeas corpus is restricted by AEDPA.",
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"plaintext": "Other, more recent criticism centers on the deference that the law requires of federal judges in considering habeas petitions. In Sessoms v. Grounds (Ninth Circuit), the majority of the judges believed that the state erred in not throwing out testimony made in the absence of the defendant's attorney after he had requested counsel, but they were forced to overturn his appeal. The dissenting opinion said that federal courts can only grant habeas relief if \"there is no possibility fair-minded jurists could disagree that the state court's decision conflicts with [the Supreme] Court's precedents\".",
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"plaintext": "On March 6, 2022, in the main segment of his show Last Week Tonight called Wrongful Convictions, John Oliver advocated for the abolition of AEDPA based on how difficult it makes for convicts to appeal, by citing the cases of several wrongfully convicted individuals, most notably, Melissa Lucio (who is on death row in Texas for the murder of one of her children, which she claims was a household accident. She has been granted a stay of execution as the courts examine new evidence.).",
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"plaintext": "Timeline of Passage ",
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"plaintext": "Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996: A Summary (broken link), Charles Doyle, American Law Division, Federation of American Scientists, June 3, 1996.",
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37,067 | 1,106,016,820 | Peter_Debye | [
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"plaintext": "Peter Joseph William Debye (; ; March 24, 1884 – November 2, 1966) was a Dutch-American physicist and physical chemist, and Nobel laureate in Chemistry.",
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"plaintext": "Born Petrus Josephus Wilhelmus Debije in Maastricht, Netherlands, Debye enrolled in the Aachen University of Technology in 1901. In 1905, he completed his first degree in electrical engineering. He published his first paper, a mathematically elegant solution of a problem involving eddy currents, in 1907. At Aachen, he studied under the theoretical physicist Arnold Sommerfeld, who later claimed that his most important discovery was Peter Debye.",
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"plaintext": "In 1906, Sommerfeld received an appointment at Munich, Bavaria, and took Debye with him as his assistant. Debye got his Ph.D. with a dissertation on radiation pressure in 1908. In 1910, he derived the Planck radiation formula using a method which Max Planck agreed was simpler than his own.",
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"plaintext": "In 1911, when Albert Einstein took an appointment as a professor at Prague, Bohemia, Debye took his old professorship at the University of Zurich, Switzerland. This was followed by moves to Utrecht in 1912, to Göttingen in 1913, to ETH Zurich in 1920, to University of Leipzig in 1927, and in 1934 to Berlin, where, succeeding Einstein, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (now named the Max-Planck-Institut) whose facilities were built only during Debye's era. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1935. From 1937 to 1939 he was the president of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1914 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and in December of the same year he became foreign member.",
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"plaintext": "Peter Debye was described as a martinet when it came to scientific principles, yet was always approachable and made time for his students. His personal philosophy emphasized a fulfillment of purpose and enjoyment in one's work. Debye was an avid trout fisherman and gardener, collector of cacti, and was \"always known to enjoy a nice cigar\".",
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"plaintext": "While in Berlin as an assistant to Arnold Sommerfeld, Debye became acquainted with Mathilde Alberer. Mathilde was the daughter of the proprietor of the boarding house in which Debye was staying. Mathilde would soon change her citizenship and in 1913, Debye married Mathilde Alberer. Debye would enjoy working in his rose garden with Mathilde Albere late into his years. They had a son, Peter P. Debye (1916-2012), and a daughter, Mathilde Maria (born 1921). Peter became a physicist and collaborated with Debye in some of his researches, and had a son who was also a chemist.",
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"plaintext": "Debye was a faithful Catholic who insisted his family go to church.",
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"plaintext": "His first major scientific contribution was the application of the concept of dipole moment to the charge distribution in asymmetric molecules in 1912, developing equations relating dipole moments to temperature and dielectric constant. In consequence, the units of molecular dipole moments are termed debyes in his honor. Also in 1912, he extended Albert Einstein's theory of specific heat to lower temperatures by including contributions from low-frequency phonons. See Debye model.",
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"plaintext": "In 1913, he extended Niels Bohr's theory of atomic structure, introducing elliptical orbits, a concept also introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld. In 1914–1915, Debye calculated the effect of temperature on X-ray diffraction patterns of crystalline solids with Paul Scherrer (the \"Debye–Waller factor\").",
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"plaintext": "In 1923, together with his assistant Erich Hückel, he developed an improvement of Svante Arrhenius' theory of electrical conductivity in electrolyte solutions. Although an improvement was made to the Debye–Hückel equation in 1926 by Lars Onsager, the theory is still regarded as a major forward step in our understanding of electrolytic solutions. Also in 1923, Debye developed a theory to explain the Compton effect, the shifting of the frequency of X-rays when they interact with electrons.",
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"plaintext": "From 1934 to 1939 Debye was director of the physics section of the prestigious Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. From 1936 onwards he was also professor of Theoretical Physics at the Frederick William University of Berlin. These positions were held during the Nazi Germany in Germany and, from 1938 onward, Austria.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939 Debye traveled to the United States to deliver the Baker Lectures at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. After leaving Germany in early 1940, Debye became a professor at Cornell, chaired the chemistry department for 10 years, and became a member of Alpha Chi Sigma. In 1946 he became an American citizen. Unlike the European phase of his life, where he moved from city to city every few years, in the United States Debye remained at Cornell for the remainder of his career. He retired in 1952, but continued research until his death.",
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"plaintext": "Much of Debye's work at Cornell concerned the use of light-scattering techniques (derived from his X-ray scattering work of years earlier) to determine the size and molecular weight of polymer molecules. This started as a result of his research during World War II on synthetic rubber, but was extended to proteins and other macromolecules.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1966, Debye suffered a heart attack, and in November of that year a second one proved fatal. He is buried in the Pleasant Grove Cemetery (Ithaca, New York, US).",
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"plaintext": "In January 2006, a book (in Dutch) appeared in The Netherlands, written by Sybe Rispens, entitled Einstein in the Netherlands. One chapter of this book discusses the relationship between Albert Einstein and Debye. Rispens discovered documents that, as he believed, were new and proved that, during his directorship of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, Debye was actively involved in cleansing German science institutions of Jewish and other \"non-Aryan elements\". Rispens records that on December 9, 1938, Debye wrote in his capacity as chairman of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (DPG) to all the members of the DPG:",
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"plaintext": "In light of the current situation, membership by German Jews as stipulated by the Nuremberg laws, of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft cannot be continued. According to the wishes of the board, I ask of all members to whom these definitions apply to report to me their resignation. Heil Hitler!",
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"plaintext": "Many biographies published before Rispens' work, state that Debye moved to the US because he refused to accept German citizenship forced on to him by the Nazis. He planned his departure from Germany during a visit with his mother in Maastricht in late 1939, boarded a ship in Genoa in January 1940 and arrived in New York in early February 1940. He immediately sought a permanent position in the US and accepted such an offer from Cornell in June 1940. That month, he crossed the US border into Canada and returned within days on an immigration visa. He was able to get his wife out of Germany and to the US by December 1940. Although his son already was in the US before he departed, Peter Debye's 19-year-old daughter and his sister-in-law did not leave. They lived in his official residence in Berlin and were supported by Debye's official Berlin wages (he carefully maintained an official leave of absence for this purpose).",
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"plaintext": "Further, Rispens alleges that Albert Einstein in the first half of 1940 tried to prevent Debye from being appointed in the United States at Cornell. Einstein allegedly wrote to his American colleagues: \"I know from a reliable source that Peter Debye is still in close contact with the German (Nazi) leaders\" and, according to Rispens, called upon his colleagues to do \"what they consider their duty as American citizens\". To support this, Rispens refers to a well-known letter from Debye to Einstein and Einstein's response to it. Van Ginkel investigated 1940 FBI reports on this matter and traced the \"reliable source\" to a single letter directed to Einstein and written by someone whose name is lost. This person was not known personally to Einstein and, according to Einstein, probably did not know Debye personally either. Moreover, this accusatory letter did not reach Einstein directly but was intercepted by British censors who showed it to Einstein. Einstein sent the British agent with the letter to Cornell, and the Cornell authorities told Debye about the affair. Thereupon Debye wrote his well-known 1940 letter to Einstein to which Einstein answered. The latter two letters can be found in the published Einstein correspondence.",
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"plaintext": "Rispens alleges that Debye sent a telegram to Berlin on 23 June 1941 informing his previous employers that he was able and willing to resume his responsibilities at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut, presumably in order to maintain his leave of absence and keep the Berlin house and wages available for his daughter. A copy of this telegram has not been recovered thus far. In summer 1941, Debye filed his intent to become a US citizen and was quickly recruited in the US to participate in the Allied War research.",
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"plaintext": "It has been well documented in many biographies, and also in Rispens' book, that Debye and Dutch colleagues helped his Jewish colleague Lise Meitner in 1938–1939 (at great risk to himself and his family) cross the Dutch-German border to escape Nazi persecution and eventually obtain a position in Sweden.",
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"plaintext": "Predating Rispens' work, and in contrast to it, an article by Rechenberg appeared 18 years earlier concerning Debye's letter. The article describes Debye's missive in more detail and presents a very favorable picture of Debye in his efforts to resist the Nazi activists. Moreover, this article points out that Max von Laue, well known for his anti-Nazi views, gave his approval to the letter from the DPG chairman.",
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"plaintext": "Debye's son, Peter P. Debye, interviewed in 2006 at age 89 recollects that his father was completely apolitical and that in the privacy of their home politics were never discussed. According to his son, Debye just wanted to do his job at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute and as long as the Nazis did not bother him was able to do so. He recalls that his mother urged him (the son) to stay in the US in the event of war. Debye's son had come to the US on a planned 2-month vacation during the summer of 1939 and never returned to Germany because war did, indeed, break out.",
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"plaintext": "In an opinion article published on the Debye Institute website, Dr. Gijs van Ginkel, until April 2007 Senior Managing Director of the VM Debye Instituut in Utrecht deplored this decision. In his article he cites scholars who point out that the DPG was able to retain their threatened staff as long as could be expected under increasing pressure from the Nazis. He also puts forward the important argument that when Debye in 1950 received the Max Planck medal of the DPG, nobody objected, not even the known opponent of the national socialists Max von Laue, who would have been in a position to object. Also Einstein, with his enormous prestige, was still alive, as were other Jewish scientists such as Lise Meitner and James Franck who both knew Debye intimately. None of them protested against Debye's receiving the highest German scientific distinction. In fact, Albert Einstein, after many years of not participating in the voting for the Max Planck Medal nominees, joined the process again to vote for Debye.",
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"plaintext": "Maastricht University also announced that it was reconsidering its position on the Peter Debye Prijs voor natuurwetenschappelijk onderzoek (Peter Debye Prize for scientific research).",
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"plaintext": "In a reply on the DPG website, Dieter Hoffmann and Mark Walker also conclude that Debye was not a Nazi activist. They remark that Max von Laue also was required and obliged (as a civil servant) to sign letters with Heil Hitler. They also state that the DPG was one of the last scientific societies to purge the Jewish members and only very reluctantly. They quote the response of the Reich University Teachers League (a National Socialist organization) to the Debye letter:",
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"plaintext": "Obviously the German Physical Society is still very backward and still clings tightly to their dear Jews. It is in fact remarkable that only \"because of circumstances beyond our control\" the membership of Jews can no longer be maintained",
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"plaintext": "In May 2006, the Dutch Nobel Prize winner Martinus Veltman who had written the foreword to the Rispen book, renounced the book's description of Peter Debye, withdrew his foreword, and asked the Board of Directors of Utrecht University to rescind their decision to rename the Debye Institute.",
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"plaintext": "Various historical investigations, both in The Netherlands and in the US, have been carried out subsequent to the actions of the University of Maastricht. The earliest of these investigations, carried out by the Cornell University's department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology released a report on 31 May 2006, which states that:",
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"plaintext": "Based on the information to-date, we have not found evidence supporting the accusations that Debye was a Nazi sympathizer or collaborator or that he held anti-Semitic views. It is important that this be stated clearly since these are the most serious allegations.",
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"plaintext": "It goes on to declare:",
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"plaintext": "Thus, based on the information, evidence and historical record known to date, we believe that any action that dissociates Debye's name from the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Cornell is unwarranted.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2006, it was reported that the scientific director of the (formerly) Debye Institute had been reprimanded by the Board of Directors of the University of Utrecht for a new publication on Debye's war years on the grounds that it was too personally biased with respect to the Institute's naming dispute. According to the board, the book should have been published not as a Debye Institute publication, but as a personal one. The book was banned by the University of Utrecht and both Directors of the (former) Debye Institute were forbidden to have any further contact with the press. A dozen professors of the Physics Faculty, amongst whom Cees Andriesse, openly protested against the interventions of the Board and the censorship of their protest by the university.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2007, the universities of Utrecht and Maastricht announced that a new committee headed by Jan Terlouw would advise them regarding the name change. Also, in the beginning of 2007 an official report was announced, to be published by the NIOD and authorized by the Dutch Education Ministry (then scheduled for fall 2007).",
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"plaintext": "The report describes Rispens' presentation of Debye, as an opportunist who had no objection to the Nazis, as a caricature.",
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"plaintext": "[I]t can be stated that Debye was rightly called an opportunist after his arrival in the United States. We have seen that he showed himself to be loyal to the dominant political system, first in the Third Reich and then in the United States, while at the same time keeping the back door open: in the Third Reich by retaining his Dutch nationality, in the United States by attempting to secretly maintain some contacts with Nazi Germany via the Foreign Office.",
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"plaintext": "It concludes that Debye's actions in 1933–45 were based on the nineteenth-century positivist view of science which saw research in physics as generating blessings for humankind. The report states that, by his contemporaries, Debye was considered an opportunist by some and as a man of highest character by others. The report asserts that Debye was not coerced by the Nazis into writing the infamous DPG Heil Hitler letter and that he also did not follow the lead of other societies in doing so but, rather, other societies followed his lead. The NIOD report also concludes that Debye felt obliged to send the letter and that it was, for him, simply a confirmation of an existing situation. The report argues that Debye, in the Third Reich, developed a survival method of ambiguity which allowed him to pursue his scientific career despite the political turmoil. Crucial to this survival method was the need to keep ready an escape hatch, for example in his secret dealings with the Nazis in 1941, if needed.",
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"plaintext": "Yet, the report also states that the picture of Debye should not be oversimplified as Debye's actions were also motivated by his loyalty to his daughter, who had remained in Berlin. In general, Debye developed a survival method of ambiguity, that \"could pull the wool over people's eyes\".",
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"plaintext": "In January 2008 the Terlouw Commission advised the Boards of Utrecht and Maastricht Universities to continue to use Peter Debye’s name for the chemistry and physics institute in Utrecht, and to continue awarding the science prize in Maastricht. The Commission concluded that Debye was not a party member, was not an anti-semite, did not further Nazi propaganda, did not cooperate with the Nazi war machine, was not a collaborator, and yet also was not a resistance hero. He was a rather pragmatic, flexible, and brilliant scientist, idealistic with respect to the pursuit of science, but only superficially oriented in politics. With respect to sending out the DPG letter, the Commission concluded that Debye found the situation inescapable. The Commission pointed out that the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences also took away Albert Einstein's honorary membership, emphasizing the circumstances in which these decisions had been taken. The Commission stated that now, seventy years later, no judgment can be made concerning the decision of Debye to sign this letter in the exceptionally difficult circumstances in which he then found himself. Nevertheless, the Commission describes the DPG letter as an extraordinarily unpleasant fact, forming a dark page in his life history. Finally, the Commission concluded that based on the NIOD report since no bad faith on Debye’s part has been demonstrated, his good faith must be assumed and recommended that the University of Utrecht retain the name of the Debye Institute of NanoMaterials Science and that the University of Maastricht continue to associate itself with the Peter Debye Prize. Utrecht University accepted the recommendation, Maastricht University did not. But in February 2008, the Hustinx Foundation (Maastricht), originator and sponsor of the Peter Debye Prize, announced that it will continue to have the prize awarded. The City of Maastricht, Debye's birthplace, declared that it sees no reason to change the names of Debye Street and Debye Square.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2010 publication Jurrie Reiding asserts that Debye may have been an MI6 spy. Reiding discovered that Debye was befriended by the well-documented spy Paul Rosbaud. They first met around 1930 when they were both working as editors for two scientific journals. They collaborated in the escape of Lise Meitner in 1938. According to Reiding, Debye was well connected in German scientific and industrial circles and could have provided MI6 with valuable information. For example, as board member of the German Academy for Aviation Research he was acquainted with Hermann Göring. Reiding also offers an explanation for Debye's hasty departure on 16 January 1940 for the United States: the date coincided with the planned (but later delayed) German invasion of the Netherlands a day later, information possibly passed on to him by Rosbaud.",
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"plaintext": "This hypothesis is contested by Philip Ball, as he notes that friendship with Rosbaud is no gauge of Debye's political stance. Rosbaud was well-connected with many people and Debye, while he was a friend of Rosbaud's, seems to have also felt regard for geologist Friedrich Drescher-Kaden, an ardent Nazi.",
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"plaintext": "1930 – Rumford Medal for work relating to specific heats and X-ray spectroscopy",
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"plaintext": "1937 – Franklin Medal from The Franklin Institute.",
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"plaintext": "1936 – Nobel Prize in Chemistry (entry at nobelprize.org) \"for his contributions to the study of molecular structure,\" primarily referring to his work on dipole moments and X-ray diffraction",
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"plaintext": "1982 - Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame",
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"plaintext": "Debye–Waller factor – A measure of disorder in a crystal lattice.",
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"plaintext": "30852 Debye – A minor planet (originally named 1991 TR6).",
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"plaintext": "Lorenz–Mie–Debye theory Theory of light scattering by a spherical particle.",
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"plaintext": "Debye (crater) – A lunar crater located on the far side and in the northern hemisphere of the moon.",
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"plaintext": "Rotational Brownian motion",
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"plaintext": " Debye Biography – Institute of Chemistry, Hebrew University",
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"plaintext": " including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1936 Methods to Determine the Electrical and Geometrical Structure of Molecules",
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"plaintext": " Debye Biography – IUCr",
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"plaintext": " – Museum Boerhaave",
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"plaintext": " Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (DPG)",
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"plaintext": " Kennislink",
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"plaintext": " Debye Institute",
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"plaintext": " Oral History interview transcript with Peter Debye on 3 May 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session I",
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"plaintext": " Oral History interview transcript with Peter Debye on 3 May 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session II",
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"plaintext": " Oral History interview transcript with Peter Debye on 4 May 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session III",
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"plaintext": " National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir",
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37,068 | 1,102,279,103 | The_War_Game | [
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"plaintext": "The War Game is a 1966 British pseudo-documentary film that depicts a nuclear war and its aftermath. Written, directed and produced by Peter Watkins for the BBC, it caused dismay within the BBC and also within government, and was subsequently withdrawn before the provisional screening date of 6 October 1965. The corporation said that \"the effect of the film has been judged by the BBC to be too horrifying for the medium of broadcasting. It will, however, be shown to invited audiences...\"",
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"plaintext": "The film eventually premiered at the National Film Theatre in London, on 13 April 1966, where it ran until 3 May. It was then shown abroad at several film festivals, including the Venice one where it won the Special Prize. It also won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 1967.",
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"plaintext": "The narrator opens with how Britain's nuclear deterrent policy threatens a would-be aggressor with devastation from Victor and Vulcan Mk II nuclear bombers of the British V bomber force. In a crisis, these would be dispersed throughout the country; in a war, so would the thermonuclear strikes against them, on top of already extensive bombardment of major cities.",
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"plaintext": "On Friday, 16 September, the UK declares a state of emergency. The Chinese have invaded South Vietnam, and the Americans have authorised their forces there to use tactical nuclear warfare. The Soviets and East Germans threaten to invade West Berlin if the US does not withdraw its decision. In the southeast county of Kent, emergency committees of city and borough councillors are faced with receiving a mass evacuation of children, mothers, and the infirm. Homeowners are forced to billet and feed the arrivals under threat of imprisonment, and unoccupied homes are requisitioned. Ration cards are issued. The following day, civil defence distributes a booklet detailing the hazards of nuclear war; the booklet had been available for some years, but didn't sell very well. The emergency siren system is tested; it's estimated that by the time an attack could be confirmed to the system, there'd remain some 2.5–3 minutes to impact, or in the case of a submarine attack, possibly under thirty seconds. There's a run on construction supplies, and price gouging puts them out of the reach of many.",
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"plaintext": "The US does not acquiesce to communist demands and the invasion takes place. Two US Army divisions attempt to fight their way into Berlin, but the Russian and East German forces overwhelm them. President Johnson authorises the NATO commanders to use their tactical nuclear weapons, and they soon do so. The film remarks that many Soviet strategic IRBMs are believed to be liquid-fueled and stored above ground, making them extremely vulnerable. It hypothesises that the Soviet Union would be obliged to fire all of them in a very early stage of a nuclear exchange to avoid their destruction.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 September, a doctor pays a house call to a family in Canterbury, Kent, along with two civil defence workers as he's now on staff of one of the emergency medical aid units being established. At 9:13 am the air-raid sirens start to wail in the distance, followed by a klaxon horn from a police car. The family and visitors frantically try to move furniture into a makeshift shelter. At 9:16 am a one-megaton Soviet thermonuclear warhead overshoots Manston Airfield, 12 miles away, and airbursts six miles away. One of the defence workers is bringing a boy in from the yard, and both are struck by the heat wave at a distance to cause third-degree burns, and \"melting of the upturned eyeball.\" The people inside frantically try to put out the fires until the shock front hits.",
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"plaintext": "27 miles away, seeing the explosion gives a small child severe retinal burns. His father scoops him up and the family hide under a table as their house trembles from the blast wave, then the one from Gatwick Airport, Sussex, 41 miles away. Rochester burns from a missile that exploded off-course on its way to London Airport. Firemen take severe casualties from the >100mph winds of the firestorm. As the firestorm's center rises to 800°C, and it consumes oxygen and replaces it with methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, responders and civilians alike collapse from heat stroke and the gases and die where they stood. By 10:47 am, British V-bombers near Russia's border to inflict the same on its people.",
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"plaintext": "The film also features a voice-over narration that describes the events depicted as plausible occurrences during and after a nuclear war. The narration attempts to instil in the viewing audience that the civil defence policies of 1965 have not realistically prepared the public for such events, particularly suggesting that the policies neglected the possibility of panic buying that would occur for building materials to construct improvised fallout shelters.",
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"plaintext": "The public are generally depicted as lacking all understanding of nuclear matters with the exception of the individual with a double-barrelled shotgun who successfully implemented the contemporary civil defence advice, and heavily sandbagged his home, but the docudrama does not return to this modestly prepared individual; instead, for the rest of the drama, it focuses primarily on individuals who did not understand the preparations to be made in advance or otherwise failed to make such preparations, and follows the pandemonium these individuals go on to experience.",
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"plaintext": "The film contains this quotation from the Stephen Vincent Benét poem \"Song for Three Soldiers\":",
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"plaintext": "Of his intent, Peter Watkins said:",
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"plaintext": " ... Interwoven among scenes of \"reality\" were stylized interviews with a series of \"establishment figures\" – an Anglican Bishop, a nuclear strategist, etc. The outrageous statements by some of these people (including the Bishop) – in favour of nuclear weapons, even nuclear war – were actually based on genuine quotations. Other interviews with a doctor, a psychiatrist, etc. were more sober, and gave details of the effects of nuclear weapons on the human body and mind. In this film I was interested in breaking the illusion of media-produced \"reality\". My question was – \"Where is 'reality'? ... in the madness of statements by these artificially-lit establishment figures quoting the official doctrine of the day, or in the madness of the staged and fictional scenes from the rest of my film, which presented the consequences of their utterances?",
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"plaintext": "To this end, the docudrama employs juxtaposition by, for example, quickly cutting from the scenes of horror after an immediate escalation from military to city nuclear attacks to a snippet of a recording of a calm lecture by a person resembling Herman Kahn, a renowned RAND strategist, hypothesizing that a counterforce (military) nuclear war would not necessarily escalate immediately into countervalue-targeted (i.e. civilian-targeted) nuclear war. The effect of this juxtaposition is to make the speaker appear out of touch with the \"reality\" of rapid escalation, as depicted immediately before his contribution.",
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"plaintext": "The film was shot in the Kent towns of Tonbridge, Gravesend, Chatham and Dover. The cast was almost entirely made up of non-actors, as was Watkins' preference, casting having taken place via a series of public meetings several months earlier. Much of the filming of the post-strike devastation was shot at the Grand Shaft Barracks, Dover. The narration was provided by Peter Graham with Michael Aspel reading the quotations from source material.",
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"plaintext": "The War Game itself finally saw television broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC2 on 31 July 1985, as part of a special season of programming entitled After the Bomb (which had been Watkins's original working title for The War Game). After the Bomb commemorated the 40th anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The broadcast was preceded by an introduction from Ludovic Kennedy.",
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"plaintext": "On August 27, 1968, nearly 250 people at a peace rally in the Edwin Lewis Quadrangle in Philadelphia, attended the screening of the film sponsored by the Pennsylvania Coalition. Like the United Kingdom, the film was also banned from National Educational Television in the United States due to its theme.",
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"plaintext": "Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life of society and the state without discrimination or repression.",
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"plaintext": "Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with economic, social, and cultural rights comprising the second portion). The theory of three generations of human rights considers this group of rights to be \"first-generation rights\", and the theory of negative and positive rights considers them to be generally negative rights.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase \"civil rights\" is a translation of Latin jus civis (right of the citizen). Roman citizens could be either free (libertas) or servile (servitus), but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these rights included the freedom of religion; however, in 380, the Edict of Thessalonica required all subjects of the Roman Empire to profess Catholic Christianity. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of universal rights could still be made based on Christian doctrine. According to the leaders of Kett's Rebellion (1549), \"all bond men may be made free, for God made all free with his precious blood-shedding.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights. The Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. It was one of the influences drawn on by George Mason and James Madison when drafting the Virginia Declaration of Rights in 1776. The Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U.S. Bill of Rights (1789).",
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"plaintext": "The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a \"civil disability\". In early 19th century Britain, the phrase \"civil rights\" most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, with many politicians agreeing with the existing civil disabilities of Catholics. The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights.",
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"plaintext": "T. H. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights and still later by social rights. In many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in international human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.",
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"plaintext": "Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected. However, most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil and political rights. Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that \"a free people [claim] their rights as derived from the laws of nature, and not as the gift of their chief magistrate.\"",
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"plaintext": "The question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. Although in many countries citizens have greater protections against infringement of rights than non-citizens, civil and political rights are generally considered to be universal rights that apply to all persons.",
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"plaintext": "According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr., analyzing the causes of and lack of protection from human rights abuses in the Global South should be focusing on the interactions of domestic and international factors—an important perspective that has usually been systematically neglected in the social science literature.",
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"plaintext": "Custom also plays a role. Implied or unenumerated rights are rights that courts may find to exist even though not expressly guaranteed by written law or custom; one example is the right to privacy in the United States, and the Ninth Amendment explicitly shows that there are other rights that are also protected.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including \"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness\". It is considered by some that the sole purpose of government is the protection of life, liberty and property.",
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"plaintext": "Some thinker have argued that the concepts of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the medicine one takes, the habit one indulges.",
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"plaintext": "Civil rights guarantee equal protection under the law. When civil and political rights are not guaranteed to all as part of equal protection of laws, or when such guarantees exist on paper but are not respected in practice, opposition, legal action and even social unrest may ensue.",
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"plaintext": "Civil rights movements in the United States gathered steam by 1848 with such documents as the Declaration of Sentiment. Consciously modeled after the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments became the founding document of the American women's movement, and it was adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention, July 19 and 20, 1848.",
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"plaintext": "Worldwide, several political movements for equality before the law occurred between approximately 1950 and 1980. These movements had a legal and constitutional aspect, and resulted in much law-making at both national and international levels. They also had an activist side, particularly in situations where violations of rights were widespread. Movements with the proclaimed aim of securing observance of civil and political rights included:",
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"plaintext": " the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, formed in 1967 following failures in this province of the United Kingdom to respect the Roman Catholic minority's rights; and",
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"plaintext": " movements in many Communist countries, such as the Prague Spring and Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia and the uprisings in Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "Most civil rights movements relied on the technique of civil resistance, using nonviolent methods to achieve their aims. In some countries, struggles for civil rights were accompanied, or followed, by civil unrest and even armed rebellion. While civil rights movements over the last sixty years have resulted in an extension of civil and political rights, the process was long and tenuous in many countries, and many of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives.",
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"plaintext": "Questions about civil and political rights have frequently emerged. For example, to what extent should the government intervene to protect individuals from infringement on their rights by other individuals, or from corporations—e.g., in what way should employment discrimination in the private sector be dealt with?",
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"plaintext": "Political theory deals with civil and political rights. Robert Nozick and John Rawls expressed competing visions in Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia and Rawls' A Theory of Justice. Other influential authors in the area include Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, and Jean Edward Smith.",
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"plaintext": "First-generation rights, often called \"blue\" rights, deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political in nature, as well as strongly individualistic: They serve negatively to protect the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial, (in some countries) the right to keep and bear arms, freedom of religion, freedom from discrimination, and voting rights. They were pioneered in the seventeenth and eighteenth-century during the Age of Enlightenment. Political theories associated with the English, American, and French revolutions were codified in the English Bill of Rights in 1689 (a restatement of Rights of Englishmen, some dating back to Magna Carta in 1215) and more fully in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 and the United States Bill of Rights in 1791.",
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"plaintext": "They were enshrined at the global level and given status in international law first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.",
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"plaintext": "There are current organizations that exist to protect people's civil and political rights in case they are infringed upon. The ACLU, founded in 1920, is a well-known non-profit organization that helps to preserve freedom of speech and works to change policy. Another organization is the NAACP, founded in 1909, which focuses on protecting the civil rights of minorities. The NRA is a civil rights group founded in 1871 that primarily focuses on protecting the right to bear arms. These organizations serve a variety of causes one being the AFL-CIO, which is America's union that represent the working-class people nationwide.",
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"plaintext": " Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle ~ an online multimedia encyclopedia presented by the King Institute at Stanford University, includes information on over 1000 civil rights movement figures, events and organizations",
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"plaintext": " Encyclopædia Britannica: Article on Civil Rights Movement",
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37,072 | 1,105,424,062 | Russian_roulette | [
{
"plaintext": "Russian roulette () is a potentially lethal game of chance in which a player places a single round in a revolver, spins the cylinder, places the muzzle against the head or body (the opponent or themselves), and pulls the trigger. If the loaded chamber aligns with the barrel, the weapon will fire, killing or severely injuring the player.",
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"plaintext": "Russian refers to the supposed country of origin, and roulette to the element of risk-taking and the spinning of the revolver's cylinder, similar to a roulette wheel.",
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"plaintext": "According to Andrew Clarke, the first trace of Russian roulette can be found in the short story \"The Fatalist\", which was written in 1840, and was part of the collection A Hero of Our Time by Mikhail Lermontov, a Russian poet and writer. In the story, which is set in a Cossack village, the protagonist, Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin, claims that there is no predestination and proposes a bet in order to prove it, emptying about twenty gold pieces onto the table. A lieutenant of the dragoons of the Tsar, Vulič, a man of Serbian origins with a passion for gambling, accepts the challenge and randomly takes one of a number of pistols of various calibres from its nail, cocks it and pours gunpowder onto the pan. Nobody knows if the pistol is loaded or not. Vulič asks: \"Gentlemen! Who will pay 20 gold pieces for me?\", putting the muzzle of the pistol to his forehead. He then asks Grigory to throw a card in the air, and when this card touches the ground, he pulls the trigger. The weapons fails to fire, but when Vulič cocks the pistol again and aims it at a service cap hanging over the window, a shot rings out and smoke fills the room.",
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"plaintext": "The term Russian roulette was possibly first used in a 1937 short story of the same name by Georges Surdez:",
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"plaintext": "The game is commonly associated with six-shot revolvers. ",
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"plaintext": "With this variant, turn order is essential, because the probability of losing decreases the later one's turn is.",
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"plaintext": "Given a six-shot revolver, for any given single trial (pull), the probability of losing is . However, since all players only come into the game if and when each of the players before them has caught an empty chamber, the all-game loss probability for player (starting from 0) is reduced to . The all-game loss probabilities for each of the six players are hence, in order, , , , , , and to 1 decimal place. More generally, for a revolver with chambers, player 's all-game loss probability is .",
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"plaintext": "The probability of the revolver having fired after six pulls is , or about . More generally, for a revolver with chambers, the probability of the revolver having fired after pulls is , as this would be an instance of a geometric distribution where the success probability is .",
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"plaintext": "The average number of pulls for the gun to fire in this variant is (6 for a six-shot revolver).",
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"plaintext": "With this variant, turn order has no effect on the all-game loss probability, which remains the same for all players, but influences the single-pull probability, which increases with each pull.",
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"plaintext": "Given a six-shot revolver, at pull (starting from 0), the fact that all previously tested chambers were empty reduces the total number of possible locations of the bullet to , and the loss probability is therefore . The single-pull loss probabilities for each of the six players are hence, in order, , , , , , and to 1 decimal place. More generally, for a revolver with chambers, the loss probability at pull (starting from 0) is .",
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"plaintext": "However, since, like in the re-spinning variant, all players only come into the game if and when each of the players before them has caught an empty chamber, the all-game loss probability for player is for and for . Hence, the all-game loss probability for all players is to 1 decimal place.",
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"plaintext": "The probability of the revolver having fired after six pulls is or in this variant (meaning the revolver will fire when the trigger is pulled). And, more generally, after pulls, it is .",
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"plaintext": "The average number of pulls for the gun to fire would be (3.5 pulls for a six-shot revolver) in this variant.",
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"plaintext": " In a 1946 U.S. legal case, Commonwealth v. Malone, 47 A.2d 445 (1946), a Pennsylvania teenager's conviction for murder in the second degree as a result of shooting a friend was upheld by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. In this case, the teenagers involved played a modified version of Russian roulette, called Russian poker, in which they took turns aiming and pulling the trigger of the revolver at each other, rather than at their own heads. The court ruled that \"When an individual commits an act of gross recklessness without regard to the probability that death to another is likely to result, that individual exhibits the state of mind required to uphold a conviction of manslaughter even if the individual did not intend for death to ensue.\"",
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"plaintext": " In The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Malcolm X recalls an incident during his burglary career when he once played Russian roulette, pulling the trigger three times in a row to convince his partners in crime that he was not afraid to die. In the epilogue to the book, Alex Haley states that Malcolm X revealed to him that he palmed the round. The incident is portrayed in the 1992 film adaptation of the autobiography.",
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"plaintext": " On December 25, 1954, American blues musician Johnny Ace killed himself in Texas, after a gun he pointed at his own head discharged. A report in The Washington Post attributed this to Russian roulette, but this was disputed by two witnesses.",
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"plaintext": " Graham Greene relates in his first autobiography, A Sort of Life (1971), that he played Russian roulette, alone, a few times as a teenager.",
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"plaintext": "On July 24, 1973, Dallas Police Officer Darrell L. Cain murdered Santos Rodriguez, a 12-year-old Mexican-American child, while interrogating him and his brother about a burglary. Cain shot Rodriguez while conducting Russian roulette on the brothers in an attempt to force a confession from them.",
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"plaintext": " On September 10, 1976, Finnish magician killed himself in front of a crowd while performing his Russian roulette act in Hartola. He had been performing the act for about a year, selecting six bullets from a box of assorted live and dummy ammunition.",
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"plaintext": " John Hinckley, Jr., who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan in 1981, was known to have played Russian roulette, alone, on two occasions. Hinckley also took a picture of himself in 1980, pointing a gun at his head.",
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"plaintext": "The 1978 film The Deer Hunter depicts captured South Vietnamese and American soldiers being forced to play Russian roulette as their Viet Cong captors bet on who will survive. Several teen deaths following the movie's release caused both police and the media to accuse the film of inspiring the youths.",
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"plaintext": " On October 12, 1984, while waiting for filming to resume on Cover Up (1985), actor Jon-Erik Hexum played Russian roulette with a .44 Magnum revolver loaded with a blank. The blast fractured his skull and caused massive cerebral hemorrhaging when bone fragments were forced through his brain. He was rushed to Beverly Hills Medical Center, where he was pronounced brain-dead.",
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"plaintext": " PBS claims that William Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor and winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, had attempted suicide by playing a solo game of Russian roulette.",
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"plaintext": " On October 5, 2003, psychological illusionist Derren Brown appeared to take part in a game of Russian roulette live on UK television. Two days later, a statement by the police said they had been informed of the arrangements in advance, and were satisfied that \"There was no live ammunition involved and at no time was anyone at risk.\"",
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"plaintext": " The BBC program Who Do You Think You Are?, on 13 September 2010, featured the actor Alan Cumming investigating his grandfather Tommy Darling, who he discovered had died playing Russian roulette while serving as a police officer in British Malaya. The family had previously believed he had died accidentally while cleaning his gun.",
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"plaintext": " On June 11, 2016, MMA fighter Ivan \"JP\" Cole apparently killed himself by playing Russian roulette.",
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"plaintext": "There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette. The game involves six shot glasses filled by a non-player: five are filled with water, but the sixth with vodka. Among some groups, low quality vodka is preferred, as it makes the glass representing the filled chamber less desirable. The glasses are arranged in a circle, and players take turns choosing a glass to take a shot from at random.",
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"plaintext": "There is also a game called \"Beer Hunter\" (titled after the Russian roulette scenes in the film The Deer Hunter). In this game, six cans of beer are placed between the participants: one can is vigorously shaken, and the cans are scrambled. The participants take turns opening the cans of beer right under their noses; the person who opens the shaken can (and thus sprays beer up their nose) is deemed the loser.",
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"plaintext": " Counterphobic attitude",
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| 201,045 | 28,353 | 209 | 66 | 0 | 0 | Russian roulette | lethal game of chance in which a player places a single round in a revolver, spins the cylinder, places the muzzle against a person and pulls the trigger | []
|
37,073 | 1,103,382,849 | Civil_disobedience | [
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"plaintext": "Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government (or any other authority). By some definitions, civil disobedience has to be nonviolent to be called \"civil\". Hence, civil disobedience is sometimes equated with peaceful protests or nonviolent resistance.",
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"plaintext": "Henry David Thoreau's essay Resistance to Civil Government, published posthumously as Civil Disobedience, popularized the term in the US, although the concept itself has been practiced longer before. It has inspired leaders such as Susan B. Anthony of the U.S. women's suffrage movement in the late 1800s, Saad Zaghloul in the 1910s culminating in Egyptian Revolution of 1919 against British Occupation, and Mahatma Gandhi in 1920s India in their protests for Indian independence against the British Raj. Martin Luther King Jr.'s and James Bevel's peaceful protests during the civil rights movement in the 1960s United States contained important aspects of civil disobedience. Although civil disobedience is rarely justifiable in court, King regarded civil disobedience to be a display and practice of reverence for law: \"Any man who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust and willingly accepts the penalty by staying in jail to arouse the conscience of the community on the injustice of the law is at that moment expressing the very highest respect for the law.\"",
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"plaintext": "An early depiction of civil disobedience is in Sophocles' play Antigone, in which Antigone, one of the daughters of former King of Thebes, Oedipus, defies Creon, the current King of Thebes, who is trying to stop her from giving her brother Polynices a proper burial. She gives a stirring speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with (and eventually carries out), but she is afraid of how her conscience will smite her if she does not do this.",
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"plaintext": "Étienne de La Boétie's thought developed in his work Discours de la servitude volontaire ou le Contr'un (1552) was also taken up by many movements of civil disobedience, which drew from the concept of rebellion to voluntary servitude the foundation of its instrument of struggle. Étienne de La Boétie was one of the first to theorize and propose the strategy of non-cooperation, and thus a form of nonviolent disobedience, as a really effective weapon.",
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"plaintext": "In the lead-up to the Glorious Revolution in Britain, when the 1689 Bill of Rights was documented, the last Catholic monarch was deposed, and male and female joint-co-monarchs elevated. The English Midland Enlightenment had developed a manner of voicing objection to a law viewed as illegitimate and then taking the consequences of the law. This was focused on the illegitimacy of laws claimed to be \"divine\" in origin, both the \"divine rights of kings\" and \"divine rights of man\", and the legitimacy of laws acknowledged to be made by human beings.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Peterloo massacre of 1819, the poet Percy Shelley wrote the political poem The Mask of Anarchy later that year, that begins with the images of what he thought to be the unjust forms of authority of his time—and then imagines the stirrings of a new form of social action. According to Ashton Nichols, it is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, and later by Gandhi in his doctrine of Satyagraha. Gandhi's Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelley's nonviolence in protest and political action. In particular, it is known that Gandhi often quoted Shelley's Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India.",
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"plaintext": "If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, that I do not pursue them sitting upon another man's shoulders. I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated. I have heard some of my townsmen say, \"I should like to have them order me out to help put down an insurrection of the slaves, or to march to Mexico;—see if I would go;\" and yet these very men have each, directly by their allegiance, and so indirectly, at least, by their money, furnished a substitute.",
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"plaintext": "By the 1850s, a range of minority groups in the United States: African Americans, Jews, Seventh Day Baptists, Catholics, anti-prohibitionists, racial egalitarians, and others—employed civil disobedience to combat a range of legal measures and public practices that to them promoted ethnic, religious, and racial discrimination. Pro Public and typically peaceful resistance to political power remained an integral tactic in modern American minority rights politics.",
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"plaintext": "In Ireland starting from 1879 the Irish \"Land War\" intensified when Irish nationalist leader Charles Stewart Parnell, in a speech in Ennis proposed that when dealing with tenants who take farms where another tenant was evicted, rather than resorting to violence, everyone in the locality should shun them. Following this Captain Charles Boycott, the land agent of an absentee landlord in County Mayo, Ireland, was subject to social ostracism organized by the Irish Land League in 1880. Boycott attempted to evict eleven tenants from his land. While Parnell's speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, as well as in his house. Local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The movement spread throughout Ireland and gave rise to the term to Boycott, and eventually led to legal reform and support for Irish independence.",
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"plaintext": "Egypt saw a massive implementation on a nation-wide movement starting 1914 and peaking in 1919 as the Egyptian Revolution of 1919. This was then adopted by other native peoples who objected to British occupation from 1920 and on. This was not used with native laws that were more oppressive than the British occupation, leading to problems for these countries today. Zaghloul Pasha, considered the mastermind behind this massive civil disobedience, was a native middle-class, Azhar graduate, political activist, judge, parliamentary and ex-cabinet minister whose leadership brought Christian and Muslim communities together as well as women into the massive protests. Along with his companions of Wafd Party, who have achieved an independence of Egypt and a first constitution in 1923.",
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"plaintext": "Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have revolted against what they deem to be unfair laws. It has been used in many nonviolent resistance movements in India (Mahatma Gandhi's campaigns for independence from the British Empire), in Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution, in early stages of the Bangladeshi independence movement against Pakistani colonialism and in East Germany to oust their Stalinist government. In South Africa during the leftist campaign against the far-right Apartheid regime, in the American civil rights movement against Jim Crow laws, in the Singing Revolution to bring independence to the Baltic countries from the Soviet Union, and more recently with the 2003 Rose Revolution in Georgia, the 2004 Orange Revolution and the 2013–2014 Euromaidan revolution in Ukraine, the 2016–2017 Candlelight Revolution in South Korea, and the 2020–2021 Belarusian protests, among many other various movements worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Henry David Thoreau's 1849 essay \"Resistance to Civil Government\" was eventually renamed \"Essay on Civil Disobedience\". After his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreau's lectures were first published under the title \"Civil Disobedience\", in 1866, four years after his death, the term had achieved fairly widespread usage.",
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"plaintext": "It has been argued that the term \"civil disobedience\" has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, \"It has been used to describe everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. Indeed, for Vice President Spiro Agnew it has become a code-word describing the activities of muggers, arsonists, draft evaders, campaign hecklers, campus militants, anti-war demonstrators, juvenile delinquents and political assassins.\"",
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"plaintext": "LeGrande writes that",
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"plaintext": "He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience.",
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"plaintext": "In a letter to P.K. Rao, dated 10 September 1935, Gandhi disputes that his idea of civil disobedience was derived from the writings of Thoreau:",
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"plaintext": "The statement that I had derived my idea of Civil Disobedience from the writings of Thoreau is wrong. The resistance to authority in South Africa was well advanced before I got the essay... When I saw the title of Thoreau's great essay, I began to use his phrase to explain our struggle to the English readers. But I found that even \"Civil Disobedience\" failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase \"Civil Resistance.\"",
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"plaintext": "In seeking an active form of civil disobedience, one may choose to deliberately break certain laws, such as by forming a peaceful blockade or occupying a facility illegally, though sometimes violence has been known to occur. Often there is an expectation to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities. Protesters often undergo training in advance on how to react to arrest or to attack.",
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"plaintext": "Civil disobedience is usually defined as pertaining to a citizen's relation to the state and its laws, as distinguished from a constitutional impasse, in which two public agencies, especially two equally sovereign branches of government, conflict. For instance, if the head of government of a country were to refuse to enforce a decision of that country's highest court, it would not be civil disobedience, since the head of government would act in his or her capacity as public official rather than private citizen.",
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"plaintext": "This definition is disputed by Thoreau's political philosophy on the conscience vs. the collective. The person is the final judge of right and wrong. More than this, since only people act, only a person can act unjustly. When the government knocks on the door, it is a person in the form of a postman or tax collector whose hand hits the wood. Before Thoreau's imprisonment, when a confused taxman had wondered aloud about how to handle his refusal to pay, Thoreau had advised, \"Resign\". If a man chose to be an agent of injustice, then Thoreau insisted on confronting him with the fact that he was making a choice. He admits that government may express the will of the majority but it may also express nothing more than the will of elite politicians. Even a good form of government is \"liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it\". If a government did express the voice of most people, this would not compel the obedience of those who disagree with what is said. The majority may be powerful but it is not necessarily right.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1971 book, A Theory of Justice, John Rawls described civil disobedience as \"a public, non-violent, conscientious yet political act contrary to law usually done with the aim of bringing about change in the law or policies of the government\".",
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"plaintext": "Ronald Dworkin held that there are three types of civil disobedience:",
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"plaintext": " \"Integrity-based\" civil disobedience occurs when a citizen disobeys a law they feel is immoral, as in the case of abolitionists disobeying the fugitive slave laws by refusing to turn over escaped slaves to authorities.",
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"plaintext": " \"Justice-based\" civil disobedience occurs when a citizen disobeys laws to lay claim to some right denied to them, as when Black people illegally protested during the civil rights movement.",
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"plaintext": " \"Policy-based\" civil disobedience occurs when a person breaks the law to change a policy they believe is dangerously wrong.",
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"plaintext": "Some theories of civil disobedience hold that civil disobedience is only justified against governmental entities. Brownlee argues that disobedience in opposition to the decisions of non-governmental agencies such as trade unions, banks, and private universities can be justified if it reflects \"a larger challenge to the legal system that permits those decisions to be taken\". The same principle, she argues, applies to breaches of law in protest against international organizations and foreign governments.",
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"plaintext": "It is usually recognized that lawbreaking, if it is not done publicly, at least must be publicly announced to constitute civil disobedience. But Stephen Eilmann argues that if it is necessary to disobey rules that conflict with morality, we might ask why disobedience should take the form of public civil disobedience rather than simply covert lawbreaking. If a lawyer wishes to help a client overcome legal obstacles to securing their natural rights, he might, for instance, find that assisting in fabricating evidence or committing perjury is more effective than open disobedience. This assumes that common morality does not have a prohibition on deceit in such situations. The Fully Informed Jury Association's publication \"A Primer for Prospective Jurors\" notes, \"Think of the dilemma faced by German citizens when Hitler's secret police demanded to know if they were hiding a Jew in their house.\" By this definition, civil disobedience could be traced back to the Book of Exodus, where Shiphrah and Puah refused a direct order of Pharaoh but misrepresented how they did it. (Exodus 1: 15–19)",
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"plaintext": "There have been debates as to whether civil disobedience must necessarily be non-violent. Black's Law Dictionary includes nonviolence in its definition of civil disobedience. Christian Bay's encyclopedia article states that civil disobedience requires \"carefully chosen and legitimate means\", but holds that they do not have to be non-violent. It has been argued that, while both civil disobedience and civil rebellion are justified by appeal to constitutional defects, rebellion is much more destructive; therefore, the defects justifying rebellion must be much more serious than those justifying disobedience, and if one cannot justify civil rebellion, then one cannot justify a civil disobedient's use of force and violence and refusal to submit to arrest. Civil disobedients' refraining from violence is also said to help preserve society's tolerance of civil disobedience.",
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"plaintext": "The philosopher H. J. McCloskey argues that \"if violent, intimidatory, coercive disobedience is more effective, it is, other things being equal, more justified than less effective, nonviolent disobedience.\" In his best-selling Disobedience and Democracy: Nine Fallacies on Law and Order, Howard Zinn takes a similar position; Zinn states that while the goals of civil disobedience are generally nonviolent,",
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"plaintext": "Zinn rejects any \"easy and righteous dismissal of violence\", noting that Thoreau, the popularizer of the term civil disobedience, approved of the armed insurrection of John Brown. He also notes that some major civil disobedience campaigns which have been classified as non-violent, such as the Birmingham campaign, have actually included elements of violence.",
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"plaintext": "Non-revolutionary civil disobedience is a simple disobedience of laws on the grounds that they are judged \"wrong\" by a person's conscience, or as part of an effort to render certain laws ineffective, to cause their repeal, or to exert pressure to get one's political wishes on some other issue. Revolutionary civil disobedience is more of an active attempt to overthrow a government (or to change cultural traditions, social customs or religious beliefs). Revolution does not have to be political, i.e. \"cultural revolution\", it simply implies sweeping and widespread change to a section of the social fabric. Gandhi's acts have been described as revolutionary civil disobedience. It has been claimed that the Hungarians under Ferenc Deák directed revolutionary civil disobedience against the Austrian government. Thoreau also wrote of civil disobedience accomplishing \"peaceable revolution\". Howard Zinn, Harvey Wheeler, and others have identified the right espoused in the US Declaration of Independence to \"alter or abolish\" an unjust government to be a principle of civil disobedience.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest recorded incidents of collective civil disobedience took place during the Roman Empire. Unarmed Jews gathered in the streets to prevent the installation of pagan images in the Temple in Jerusalem. In modern times, some activists who commit civil disobedience as a group collectively refuse to sign bail until certain demands are met, such as favourable bail conditions, or the release of all the activists. This is a form of jail solidarity. There have also been many instances of solitary civil disobedience, such as that committed by Thoreau, but these sometimes go unnoticed. Thoreau, at the time of his arrest, was not yet a well-known author, and his arrest was not covered in any newspapers in the days, weeks and months after it happened. The tax collector who arrested him rose to higher political office, and Thoreau's essay was not published until after the end of the Mexican War.",
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"plaintext": "Civil disobedients have chosen a variety of different illegal acts. Hugo A. Bedau writes,",
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"plaintext": "Bedau also notes, though, that the very harmlessness of such entirely symbolic illegal protests toward public policy goals may serve a propaganda purpose. Some civil disobedients, such as the proprietors of illegal medical cannabis dispensaries and Voice in the Wilderness, which brought medicine to Iraq without the permission of the US government, directly achieve a desired social goal (such as the provision of medication to the sick) while openly breaking the law. Julia Butterfly Hill lived in Luna, a -tall, 600-year-old California Redwood tree for 738 days, preventing its felling.",
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"plaintext": "In cases where the criminalized behaviour is pure speech, civil disobedience can consist simply of engaging in the forbidden speech. An example is WBAI's broadcasting of the bit \"Filthy Words\" from a George Carlin comedy album, which eventually led to the 1978 Supreme Court case of FCC v. Pacifica Foundation. Threatening government officials is another classic way of expressing defiance toward the government and unwillingness to stand for its policies. For example, Joseph Haas was arrested for allegedly sending an email to the Lebanon, New Hampshire, city councillors stating, \"Wise up or die.\"",
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"plaintext": "More generally, protesters of particular victimless crimes often see fit to openly commit that crime. Laws against public nudity, for instance, have been protested by going naked in public, and laws against cannabis consumption have been protested by openly possessing it and using it at cannabis rallies.",
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"plaintext": "Some forms of civil disobedience, such as illegal boycotts, refusals to pay taxes, draft dodging, distributed denial-of-service attacks, and sit-ins, make it more difficult for a system to function. In this way, they might be considered coercive; coercive disobedience has the effect of exposing the enforcement of laws and policies, and it has even operated as an aesthetic strategy in contemporary art practice. Brownlee notes that \"although civil disobedients are constrained in their use of coercion by their conscientious aim to engage in moral dialogue, nevertheless they may find it necessary to employ limited coercion to get their issue onto the table\". The Plowshares organization temporarily closed GCSB Waihopai by padlocking the gates and using sickles to deflate one of the large domes covering two satellite dishes.",
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"plaintext": "Electronic civil disobedience can include web site defacements, redirects, denial-of-service attacks, information theft and data leaks, illegal web site parodies, virtual sit-ins, and virtual sabotage. It is distinct from other kinds of hacktivism in that the perpetrator openly reveals his identity. Virtual actions rarely succeed in completely shutting down their targets, but they often generate significant media attention.",
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"plaintext": "Dilemma actions are designed to create a \"response dilemma\" for public authorities \"by forcing them to either concede some public space to protesters or make themselves look absurd or heavy-handed by acting against the protest.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some disciplines of civil disobedience hold that the protester must submit to arrest and cooperate with the authorities. Others advocate falling limp or resisting arrest, especially when it will hinder the police from effectively responding to a mass protest.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the same decisions and principles that apply in other criminal investigations and arrests arise also in civil disobedience cases. For example, the suspect may need to decide whether to grant a consent search of his property, and whether to talk to police officers. It is generally agreed within the legal community, and is often believed within the activist community, that a suspect's talking to criminal investigators can serve no useful purpose, and may be harmful. Some civil disobedients are compelled to respond to investigators' questions, sometimes by a misunderstanding of the legal ramifications or a fear of seeming rude. Also, some civil disobedients seek to use the arrest as an opportunity to make an impression on the officers. Thoreau wrote,",
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"plaintext": "Some civil disobedients feel it is incumbent upon them to accept punishment because of their belief in the validity of the social contract, which is held to bind all to obey the laws that a government meeting certain standards of legitimacy has established, or else suffer the penalties set out in the law. Other civil disobedients who favour the existence of government still do not believe in the legitimacy of their particular government or do not believe in the legitimacy of a particular law it has enacted. Anarchistic civil disobedients do not believe in the legitimacy of any government, so see no need to accept punishment for a violation of criminal law.",
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"plaintext": "An important decision for civil disobedients is whether to plead guilty. There is much debate on this point, as some believe that it is a civil disobedient's duty to submit to the punishment prescribed by law, while others believe that defending oneself in court will increase the possibility of changing the unjust law. It has also been argued that either choice is compatible with the spirit of civil disobedience. ACT UP's Civil Disobedience Training handbook states that a civil disobedient who pleads guilty is essentially stating, \"Yes, I committed the act of which you accuse me. I don't deny it; in fact, I am proud of it. I feel I did the right thing by violating this particular law; I am guilty as charged\", but that pleading not guilty sends a message of, \"Guilt implies wrong-doing. I feel I have done no wrong. I may have violated some specific laws, but I am guilty of doing no wrong. I, therefore, plead not guilty.\" A plea of no contest is sometimes regarded as a compromise between the two. One defendant accused of illegally protesting nuclear power, when asked to enter his plea, stated, \"I plead for the beauty that surrounds us\"; this is known as a \"creative plea\", and will usually be interpreted as a plea of not guilty.",
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"plaintext": "When the Committee for Non-Violent Action sponsored a protest in August 1957, at the Camp Mercury nuclear test site near Las Vegas, Nevada, 13 of the protesters attempted to enter the test site knowing that they faced arrest. At an announced time, one by one they crossed a line and were immediately arrested. They were put on a bus and taken to the Nye County seat of Tonopah, Nevada, and arraigned for trial before the local Justice of the Peace, that afternoon. A civil rights attorney, Francis Heisler, had volunteered to defend the accused, advising them to plead nolo contendere rather than guilty or not guilty. They were found guilty and given suspended sentences, conditional on not reentering the test site.",
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"plaintext": "Howard Zinn writes,",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes the prosecution proposes a plea bargain to civil disobedients, as in the case of the Camden 28, in which the defendants were offered an opportunity to plead guilty to one misdemeanour count and receive no jail time. In some mass arrest situations, the activists decide to use solidarity tactics to secure the same plea bargain for everyone. But some activists have opted to enter a blind plea, pleading guilty without any plea agreement in place. Mahatma Gandhi pleaded guilty and told the court, \"I am here to... submit cheerfully to the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime and what appears to me to be the highest duty of a citizen.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some civil disobedience defendants choose to make a defiant speech, or a speech explaining their actions, in allocution. In U.S. v. Burgos-Andujar, a defendant who was involved in a movement to stop military exercises by trespassing on US Navy property argued to the court in allocution that \"the ones who are violating the greater law are the members of the Navy\". As a result, the judge increased her sentence from 40 to 60 days. This action was upheld because, according to the US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, her statement suggested a lack of remorse, an attempt to avoid responsibility for her actions, and even a likelihood of repeating her illegal actions. Some of the other allocution speeches given by the protesters complained about mistreatment from government officials.",
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"plaintext": "Tim DeChristopher gave an allocution statement to the court describing the US as \"a place where the rule of law was created through acts of civil disobedience\" and arguing, \"Since those bedrock acts of civil disobedience by our founding fathers, the rule of law in this country has continued to grow closer to our shared higher moral code through the civil disobedience that drew attention to legalized injustice.\"",
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"plaintext": "Steven Barkan writes that if defendants plead not guilty, \"they must decide whether their primary goal will be to win an acquittal and avoid imprisonment or a fine, or to use the proceedings as a forum to inform the jury and the public of the political circumstances surrounding the case and their reasons for breaking the law via civil disobedience.\" A technical defence may enhance the chances for acquittal but increase the possibility of additional proceedings and of reduced press coverage. During the Vietnam War era, the Chicago Eight used a political defence, but Benjamin Spock used a technical defence. In countries such as the United States, whose laws guarantee the right to a jury trial but do not excuse lawbreaking for political purposes, some civil disobedients seek jury nullification. Over the years, this has been made more difficult by court decisions such as Sparf v. United States, which held that the judge need not inform jurors of their nullification prerogative, and United States v. Dougherty, which held that the judge need not allow defendants to openly seek jury nullification.",
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"plaintext": "Governments have generally not recognized the legitimacy of civil disobedience or viewed political objectives as an excuse for breaking the law. Specifically, the law usually distinguishes between criminal motive and criminal intent; the offender's motives or purposes may be admirable and praiseworthy, but his intent may still be criminal. Hence the saying that \"if there is any possible justification of civil disobedience it must come from outside the legal system.\"",
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"plaintext": "One theory is that, while disobedience may be helpful, any great amount of it undermines the law by encouraging general disobedience which is neither conscientious nor of social benefit. Therefore, conscientious lawbreakers must be punished. Michael Bayles argues that if a person violates a law to create a test case as to the constitutionality of a law, and then wins his case, then that act did not constitute civil disobedience. It has also been argued that breaking the law for self-gratification, as in the case of a homosexual or cannabis user who does not direct his act at securing the repeal of amendment of the law, is not civil disobedience. Likewise, a protester who attempts to escape punishment by committing the crime covertly and avoiding attribution, or by denying having committed the crime, or by fleeing the jurisdiction, is generally not called a civil disobedient.",
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"plaintext": "Courts have distinguished between two types of civil disobedience: \"Indirect civil disobedience involves violating a law which is not, itself, the object of protest, whereas direct civil disobedience involves protesting the existence of a particular law by breaking that law.\" During the Vietnam War, courts typically refused to excuse the perpetrators of illegal protests from punishment on the basis of their challenging the legality of the Vietnam War; the courts ruled it was a political question. The necessity defence has sometimes been used as a shadow defence by civil disobedients to deny guilt without denouncing their politically motivated acts, and to present their political beliefs in the courtroom. Court cases such as United States v. Schoon have greatly curtailed the availability of the political necessity defence. Likewise, when Carter Wentworth was charged for his role in the Clamshell Alliance's 1977 illegal occupation of the Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, the judge instructed the jury to disregard his competing harms defence, and he was found guilty. Fully Informed Jury Association activists have sometimes handed out educational leaflets inside courthouses despite admonitions not to; according to the association, many of them have escaped prosecution because \"prosecutors have reasoned (correctly) that if they arrest fully informed jury leafleters, the leaflets will have to be given to the leafleter's own jury as evidence.\"",
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"plaintext": "Along with giving the offender his just deserts, achieving crime control via incapacitation and deterrence is a major goal of criminal punishment. Brownlee argues, \"Bringing in deterrence at the level of justification detracts from the law's engagement in a moral dialogue with the offender as a rational person because it focuses attention on the threat of punishment and not the moral reasons to follow this law.\" British judge Lord Hoffman writes, \"In deciding whether or not to impose punishment, the most important consideration would be whether it would do more harm than good. This means that the objector has no right not to be punished. It is a matter for the state (including the judges) to decide on utilitarian grounds whether to do so or not.\" Hoffman also asserted that while the \"rules of the game\" for protesters were to remain non-violent while breaking the law, the authorities must recognize that demonstrators are acting out of their conscience in pursuit of democracy. \"When it comes to punishment, the court should take into account their personal convictions\", he said.",
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303522
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240127
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"plaintext": " Hunt sabotage",
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161022
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3283676
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},
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"plaintext": " Mass incidents in China",
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44446767
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1,
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1,
19
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},
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149119,
5955
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1,
14
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34,
51
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"plaintext": " Non-conformists of the 1930s",
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12644515
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29
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1,
22
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},
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22
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1,
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"plaintext": " Protest art",
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"plaintext": " Satyagraha",
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1,
11
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},
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"plaintext": " Tree sitting",
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315811
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1,
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1,
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"plaintext": " Dodd, Lynda G. \"Parades, Pickets, and Prison: Alice Paul and the Virtues of Unruly Constitutional Citizenship.\" Journal of Law and Politics 24 (2008): 339–433. online, woman suffrage in the United States in 1917.",
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| [
"Civil_disobedience",
"Activism_by_type",
"Community_organizing",
"Direct_action",
"Dissent",
"Nonviolence"
]
| 47,217 | 18,853 | 1,194 | 248 | 0 | 0 | civil disobedience | active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power | []
|
37,076 | 1,091,928,124 | Phrack | [
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"plaintext": "In 2000, the future editor gained control of the domain phrack.org (then registered at gandi.net, and not related to phrack.com) and started hosting all phrack releases (#1-#56) on a new website. Phrack.org became the de facto location for the Phrack Magazine after 2000. The previous editor (route) transferred control of phrack.com to the new staff in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2001 Phrack is edited under the alias Phrackstaff to hide the identity of the true chief editor for the magazine. During the period from 2002 to 2005, a rival group referring itself as the Phrack High Council, \"proud supporters of Project Mayhem\",[14] protested against the supposed white hat behavior of certain members of the Phrackstaff and of some previous editorial staff members[15] mainly on the Full-Disclosure mailing list. However none of their files were actually incorporated in the official Phrack magazine as it had been the case after the Phrack Classic/Diet Phrack controversy.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, a former editor took the initiative to announce \"the end of Phrack\" despite a new team of editors having been formed. That announcement generated, as intended, quite some noise around issue #63. However, the announcement was actually more about the end of some major German/Austrian hacking groups such as TESO from which some of the 2001 to 2005 staff originated. Some of the staff re-grouped in 2007 with other members from the hacking community to continue Phrack.",
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"plaintext": "[[Image:Phrack.png|right|thumb|Phrack logo used on Phrack'''s website.]]",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, it was announced that Phrack was to come to an end, with the 63rd issue as its last. To commemorate Phracks final appearance, this issue was to be a hardback edition, released simultaneously at the DEF CON and What the Hack conventions on July 29. An e-zine version of the release followed on August 1. The European printer for the hardcopies of Phrack to be distributed at Defcon refused to fulfil the order once they realized that they were printing a Hacking book. Two University of Arizona students filled the gap and printed between 100 and 200 copies of Phrack 63 in time for release at Defcon 13.",
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"plaintext": "Copies of Phrack 63 distributed at Defcon 13 are each stamped with a \"serial\" number on the inside of the last page. It is believed that there are 100 numbered copies of Phrack 63 distributed at Defcon. All copies were hand cut and bound; unnumbered copies may be unreleased \"extras\", or may have cutting errors that deemed them unfit for distribution.",
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"plaintext": "Issue 63 told readers to \"expect a new release,\" and on May 27, 2007, issue 64 was released by a new board of editors referring to themselves as \"The Circle of Lost Hackers\". (TCLH). TCLH eventually released issue #65 of Phrack on April 11, 2008. On June 11, 2009, TCLH released another issue of Phrack, bringing the count up to 66. On March 15, 2010, it was announced that the 67th issue would be released on July 11, yet it was later postponed.",
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"plaintext": "Phrack issues are released irregularly, and like academic publications issues are grouped into volumes. Each issue comprises a number of Philes: stand-alone text files of very technical or counter-cultural content. Philes are submitted by members of the hacker underground community, and are reviewed by the editors.",
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"plaintext": "Having an article published in Phrack is seen as prestigious by hackers, and often allowed access to more sources of information.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to technical articles, Phrack also provided a focus for news and gossip among the hacker community.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1990 National Computer Security Conference, Sheldon Zenner and Dorothy Denning suggested that Phrack articles contained the same factual content in computer and security magazines, but differed in tone.",
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"plaintext": " \"\\/\\The Conscience of a Hacker/\\/ (aka the Hacker Manifesto)\" by The Mentor has been an inspiration to young hackers since the 1980s, having been published in the 7th issue of Phrack.",
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"plaintext": " \"Smashing The Stack For Fun And Profit\" by Aleph One, published in issue 49, is the \"classic paper\" on stack buffer overflows, partly responsible for popularizing the vulnerability.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Art of Scanning\" by Fyodor, published September 1, 1997 in Issue 51 introduced the nmap Internet scanning tool.",
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"plaintext": " Prophile - the presentation of a very influential character from the hacking underground.",
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"plaintext": " Loopback - answers to the most original (or stupid) emails received by the phrack staff.",
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"plaintext": " Phrack World News - a compilation of reports on the latest counter-culture events.",
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"plaintext": " International Scenes - a compilation of testimonies from hackers all around the world focusing on national and international activities.",
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"plaintext": " the entire run of PHRACK on textfiles.com",
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"plaintext": "Phrack 63 Hardcover PDF",
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37,077 | 1,065,894,291 | Godfrey_Reggio | [
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"plaintext": "From the age of 14, Reggio spent the next fourteen years in fasting, times of silence, and prayer, training to be a friar within the Congregation of Christian Brothers, a Roman Catholic pontifical teaching order. During his time with the order, Reggio co-founded La Clinica de la Gente, a facility that provided medical care to 12,000 community members in Santa Fe, New Mexico, and La Gente, a community-organizing project in northern New Mexico's barrios. In 1963 he co-founded Young Citizens for Action, a community organization project that aided juveniles in the street gangs of Santa Fe. After he left the order, he co-founded the Institute for Regional Education in Santa Fe, a non-profit foundation focused on media development, the arts, community organization, and research, in 1972.",
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37,080 | 1,105,967,582 | Thought | [
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"plaintext": "According to Platonism, thinking is a spiritual activity in which Platonic forms and their interrelations are discerned and inspected. This activity is understood as a form of silent inner speech in which the soul talks to itself. Platonic forms are seen as universals that exist in a changeless realm different from the sensible world. Examples include the forms of goodness, beauty, unity, and sameness. On this view, the difficulty of thinking consists in being unable to grasp the Platonic forms and to distinguish them as the original from the mere imitations found in the sensory world. This means, for example, distinguishing beauty itself from derivative images of beauty. One problem for this view is to explain how humans can learn and think about Platonic forms belonging to a different realm. Plato himself tries to solve this problem through his theory of recollection, according to which the soul already was in contact with the Platonic forms before and is therefore able to remember what they are like. But this explanation depends on various assumptions usually not accepted in contemporary thought.",
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"plaintext": "It has been argued against these views that they have problems in accounting for the logical form of thought. For example, to think that it will either rain or snow, it is not sufficient to instantiate the essences of rain and snow or to evoke the corresponding concepts. The reason for this is that the disjunctive relation between the rain and the snow is not captured this way. Another problem shared by these positions is the difficulty of giving a satisfying account of how essences or concepts are learned by the mind through abstraction.",
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"plaintext": "Inner speech theories claim that thinking is a form of inner speech. This view is sometimes termed psychological nominalism. It states that thinking involves silently evoking words and connecting them to form mental sentences. The knowledge a person has of their thoughts can be explained as a form of overhearing one's own silent monologue. Three central aspects are often ascribed to inner speech: it is in an important sense similar to hearing sounds, it involves the use of language and it constitutes a motor plan that could be used for actual speech. This connection to language is supported by the fact that thinking is often accompanied by muscle activity in the speech organs. This activity may facilitate thinking in certain cases but is not necessary for it in general. According to some accounts, thinking happens not in a regular language, like English or French, but has its own type of language with the corresponding symbols and syntax. This theory is known as the language of thought hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": "Inner speech theory has a strong initial plausibility since introspection suggests that indeed many thoughts are accompanied by inner speech. But its opponents usually contend that this is not true for all types of thinking. It has been argued, for example, that forms of daydreaming constitute non-linguistic thought. This issue is relevant to the question of whether animals have the capacity to think. If thinking is necessarily tied to language then this would suggest that there is an important gap between humans and animals since only humans have a sufficiently complex language. But the existence of non-linguistic thoughts suggests that this gap may not be that big and that some animals do indeed think.",
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"plaintext": "There are various theories about the relation between language and thought. One prominent version in contemporary philosophy is called the language of thought hypothesis. It states that thinking happens in the medium of a mental language. This language, often referred to as Mentalese, is similar to regular languages in various respects: it is composed of words that are connected to each other in syntactic ways to form sentences. This claim does not merely rest on an intuitive analogy between language and thought. Instead, it provides a clear definition of the features a representational system has to embody in order to have a linguistic structure. On the level of syntax, the representational system has to possess two types of representations: atomic and compound representations. Atomic representations are basic whereas compound representations are constituted either by other compound representations or by atomic representations. On the level of semantics, the semantic content or the meaning of the compound representations should depend on the semantic contents of its constituents. A representational system is linguistically structured if it fulfills these two requirements.",
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"plaintext": "The language of thought hypothesis states that the same is true for thinking in general. This would mean that thought is composed of certain atomic representational constituents that can be combined as described above. Apart from this abstract characterization, no further concrete claims are made about how human thought is implemented by the brain or which other similarities to natural language it has. The language of thought hypothesis was first introduced by Jerry Fodor. He argues in favor of this claim by holding that it constitutes the best explanation of the characteristic features of thinking. One of these features is productivity: a system of representations is productive if it can generate an infinite number of unique representations based on a low number of atomic representations. This applies to thought since human beings are capable of entertaining an infinite number of distinct thoughts even though their mental capacities are quite limited. Other characteristic features of thinking include systematicity and inferential coherence. Fodor argues that the language of thought hypothesis is true because it explains how thought can have these features and because there is no good alternative explanation. Some arguments against the language of thought hypothesis are based on neural networks, which are able to produce intelligent behavior without depending on representational systems. Other objections focus on the idea that some mental representations happen non-linguistically, for example, in the form of maps or images.",
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"plaintext": "Computationalists have been especially interested in the language of thought hypothesis since it provides ways to close the gap between thought in the human brain and computational processes implemented by computers. The reason for this is that processes over representations that respect syntax and semantics, like inferences according to the modus ponens, can be implemented by physical systems using causal relations. The same linguistic systems may be implemented through different material systems, like brains or computers. In this way, computers can think.",
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"plaintext": "An important view in the empiricist tradition has been associationism, the view that thinking consists in the succession of ideas or images. This succession is seen as being governed by laws of association, which determine how the train of thought unfolds. These laws are different from logical relations between the contents of thoughts, which are found in the case of drawing inferences by moving from the thought of the premises to the thought of the conclusion. Various laws of association have been suggested. According to the laws of similarity and contrast, ideas tend to evoke other ideas that are either very similar to them or their opposite. The law of contiguity, on the other hand, states that if two ideas were frequently experienced together, then the experience of one tends to cause the experience of the other. In this sense, the history of an organism's experience determines which thoughts the organism has and how these thoughts unfold. But such an association does not guarantee that the connection is meaningful or rational. For example, because of the association between the terms \"cold\" and \"Idaho\", the thought \"this coffee shop is cold\" might lead to the thought \"Russia should annex Idaho\".",
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"plaintext": "One form of associationism is imagism. It states that thinking involves entertaining a sequence of images where earlier images conjure up later images based on the laws of association. One problem with this view is that we can think about things that we cannot imagine. This is especially relevant when the thought involves very complex objects or infinities, which is common, for example, in mathematical thought. One criticism directed at associationism in general is that its claim is too far-reaching. There is wide agreement that associative processes as studied by associationists play some role in how thought unfolds. But the claim that this mechanism is sufficient to understand all thought or all mental processes is usually not accepted.",
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"plaintext": "According to behaviorism, thinking consists in behavioral dispositions to engage in certain publicly observable behavior as a reaction to particular external stimuli. On this view, having a particular thought is the same as having a disposition to behave in a certain way. This view is often motivated by empirical considerations: it is very difficult to study thinking as a private mental process but it is much easier to study how organisms react to a certain situation with a given behavior. In this sense, the capacity to solve problems not through existing habits but through creative new approaches is particularly relevant. The term \"behaviorism\" is also sometimes used in a slightly different sense when applied to thinking to refer to a specific form of inner speech theory. This view focuses on the idea that the relevant inner speech is a derivative form of regular outward speech. This sense overlaps with how behaviorism is understood more commonly in philosophy of mind since these inner speech acts are not observed by the researcher but merely inferred from the subject's intelligent behavior. This remains true to the general behaviorist principle that behavioral evidence is required for any psychological hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": "One problem for behaviorism is that the same entity often behaves differently despite being in the same situation as before. This problem consists in the fact that individual thoughts or mental states usually do not correspond to one particular behavior. So thinking that the pie is tasty does not automatically lead to eating the pie, since various other mental states may still inhibit this behavior, for example, the belief that it would be impolite to do so or that the pie is poisoned.",
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"plaintext": "Computationalist theories of thinking, often found in the cognitive sciences, understand thinking as a form of information processing. These views developed with the rise of computers in the second part of the 20th century, when various theorists saw thinking in analogy to computer operations. On such views, the information may be encoded differently in the brain, but in principle, the same operations take place there as well, corresponding to the storage, transmission, and processing of information. But while this analogy has some intuitive attraction, theorists have struggled to give a more explicit explanation of what computation is. A further problem consists in explaining the sense in which thinking is a form of computing. The traditionally dominant view defines computation in terms of Turing machines, though ",
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"plaintext": "contemporary accounts often focus on neural networks for their analogies. A Turing machine is capable of executing any algorithm based on a few very basic principles, such as reading a symbol from a cell, writing a symbol to a cell, and executing instructions based on the symbols read. This way it is possible to perform deductive reasoning following the inference rules of formal logic as well as simulating many other functions of the mind, such as language processing, decision making, and motor control. But computationalism does not only claim that thinking is in some sense similar to computation. Instead, it is claimed that thinking just is a form of computation or that the mind is a Turing machine.",
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"plaintext": "Computationalist theories of thought are sometimes divided into functionalist and representationalist approaches. Functionalist approaches define mental states through their causal roles but allow both external and internal events in their causal network. Thought may be seen as a form of program that can be executed in the same way by many different systems, including humans, animals, and even robots. According to one such view, whether something is a thought only depends on its role \"in producing further internal states and verbal outputs\". Representationalism, on the other hand, focuses on the representational features of mental states and defines thoughts as sequences of intentional mental states. In this sense, computationalism is often combined with the language of thought hypothesis by interpreting these sequences as symbols whose order is governed by syntactic rules.",
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"plaintext": "Various arguments have been raised against computationalism. In one sense, it seems trivial since almost any physical system can be described as executing computations and therefore as thinking. For example, it has been argued that the molecular movements in a regular wall can be understood as computing an algorithm since they are \"isomorphic to the formal structure of the program\" in question under the right interpretation. This would lead to the implausible conclusion that the wall is thinking. Another objection focuses on the idea that computationalism captures only some aspects of thought but is unable to account for other crucial aspects of human cognition.",
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"plaintext": "A great variety of types of thinking are discussed in the academic literature. A common approach divides them into those forms that aim at the creation of theoretical knowledge and those that aim at producing actions or correct decisions. But there is no universally accepted taxonomy summarizing all these types. In some cases, the same particular thought may belong to different categories at the same time. It may also depend on one's definition of thought whether some of the types listed here actually qualify as thought.",
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"plaintext": "Thinking is often identified with the act of judging. A judgment is a mental operation in which a proposition is evoked and then either affirmed or denied. It involves deciding what to believe and aims at determining whether the judged proposition is true or false. Various theories of judgment have been proposed. The traditionally dominant approach is the combination theory. It states that judgments consist in the combination of concepts. On this view, to judge that \"all men are mortal\" is to combine the concepts \"man\" and \"mortal\". The same concepts can be combined in different ways, corresponding to different forms of judgment, for example, as \"some men are mortal\" or \"no man is mortal\".",
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"plaintext": "Other theories of judgment focus more on the relation between the judged proposition and reality. According to Franz Brentano, a judgment is either a belief or a disbelief in the existence of some entity. In this sense, there are only two fundamental forms of judgment: \"A exists\" and \"A does not exist\". When applied to the sentence \"all men are mortal\", the entity in question is \"immortal men\", of whom it is said that they do not exist. Important for Brentano is the distinction between the mere representation of the content of the judgment and the affirmation or the denial of the content. The mere representation of a proposition is often referred to as \"entertaining a proposition\". This is the case, for example, when one considers a proposition but has not yet made up one's mind about whether it is true or false. The term \"thinking\" can refer both to judging and to mere entertaining. This difference is often explicit in the way the thought is expressed: \"thinking that\" usually involves a judgment whereas \"thinking about\" refers to the neutral representation of a proposition without an accompanying belief. In this case, the proposition is merely entertained but not yet judged. Some forms of thinking may involve the representation of objects without any propositions, as when someone is thinking about their grandmother.",
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"plaintext": "Reasoning is one of the most paradigmatic forms of thinking. It is the process of drawing conclusions from premises or evidence. Types of reasoning can be divided into deductive and non-deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is governed by certain rules of inference, which guarantee the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true. For example, given the premises \"all men are mortal\" and \"Socrates is a man\", it follows deductively that \"Socrates is mortal\". Non-deductive reasoning, also referred to as defeasible reasoning or non-monotonic reasoning, is still rationally compelling but the truth of the conclusion is not ensured by the truth of the premises. Induction is one form of non-deductive reasoning, for example, when one concludes that \"the sun will rise tomorrow\" based on one's experiences of all the previous days. Other forms of non-deductive reasoning include the inference to the best explanation and analogical reasoning.",
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"plaintext": "Fallacies are faulty forms of thinking that go against the norms of correct reasoning. Formal fallacies concern faulty inferences found in deductive reasoning. Denying the antecedent is one type of formal fallacy, for example, \"If Othello is a bachelor, then he is male. Othello is not a bachelor. Therefore, Othello is not male\". Informal fallacies, on the other hand, apply to all types of reasoning. The source of their flaw is to be found in the content or the context of the argument. This is often caused by ambiguous or vague expressions in natural language, as in \"Feathers are light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore, feathers cannot be dark\". An important aspect of fallacies is that they seem to be rationally compelling on the first look and thereby seduce people into accepting and committing them. Whether an act of reasoning constitutes a fallacy does not depend on whether the premises are true or false but on their relation to the conclusion and, in some cases, on the context.",
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"plaintext": "Concepts are general notions that constitute the fundamental building blocks of thought. They are rules that govern how objects are sorted into different classes. A person can only think about a proposition if they possess the concepts involved in this proposition. For example, the proposition \"wombats are animals\" involves the concepts \"wombat\" and \"animal\". Someone who does not possess the concept \"wombat\" may still be able to read the sentence but cannot entertain the corresponding proposition. Concept formation is a form of thinking in which new concepts are acquired. It involves becoming familiar with the characteristic features shared by all instances of the corresponding type of entity and developing the ability to identify positive and negative cases. This process usually corresponds to learning the meaning of the word associated with the type in question. There are various theories concerning how concepts and concept possession are to be understood.",
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"plaintext": "According to one popular view, concepts are to be understood in terms of abilities. On this view, two central aspects characterize concept possession: the ability to discriminate between positive and negative cases and the ability to draw inferences from this concept to related concepts. Concept formation corresponds to acquiring these abilities. It has been suggested that animals are also able to learn concepts to some extent, due to their ability to discriminate between different types of situations and to adjust their behavior accordingly.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of problem solving, thinking aims at reaching a predefined goal by overcoming certain obstacles. This process often involves two different forms of thinking. On the one hand, divergent thinking aims at coming up with as many alternative solutions as possible. On the other hand, convergent thinking tries to narrow down the range of alternatives to the most promising candidates. Some researchers identify various steps in the process of problem solving. These steps include recognizing the problem, trying to understand its nature, identifying general criteria the solution should meet, deciding how these criteria should be prioritized, monitoring the progress, and evaluating the results.",
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"plaintext": "An important distinction concerns the type of problem that is faced. For well-structured problems, it is easy to determine which steps need to be taken to solve them, but executing these steps may still be difficult. For ill-structured problems, on the other hand, it is not clear what steps need to be taken, i.e. there is no clear formula that would lead to success if followed correctly. In this case, the solution may sometimes come in a flash of insight in which the problem is suddenly seen in a new light. Another way to categorize different forms of problem solving is by distinguishing between algorithms and heuristics. An algorithm is a formal procedure in which each step is clearly defined. It guarantees success if applied correctly. The long multiplication usually taught in school is an example of an algorithm for solving the problem of multiplying big numbers. Heuristics, on the other hand, are informal procedures. They are rough rules-of-thumb that tend to bring the thinker closer to the solution but success is not guaranteed in every case even if followed correctly. Examples of heuristics are working forward and working backward. These approaches involve planning one step at a time, either starting and the beginning and moving forward or starting at the end and moving backward. So when planning a trip, one could plan the different stages of the trip from origin to destiny in the chronological order of how the trip will be realized, or in the reverse order.",
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"plaintext": "Obstacles to problem solving can arise from the thinker's failure to take certain possibilities into account by fixating on one specific course of action. There are important differences between how novices and experts solve problems. For example, experts tend to allocate more time for conceptualizing the problem and work with more complex representations whereas novices tend to devote more time to executing putative solutions.",
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"plaintext": "Deliberation is an important form of practical thinking. It aims at formulating possible courses of action and assessing their value by considering the reasons for and against them. This involves foresight to anticipate what might happen. Based on this foresight, different courses of action can be formulated in order to influence what will happen. Decisions are an important part of deliberation. They are about comparing alternative courses of action and choosing the most favorable one. Decision theory is a formal model of how ideal rational agents would make decisions. It is based on the idea that they should always choose the alternative with the highest expected value. Each alternative can lead to various possible outcomes, each of which has a different value. The expected value of an alternative consists in the sum of the values of each outcome associated with it multiplied by the probability that this outcome occurs. According to decision theory, a decision is rational if the agent chooses the alternative associated with the highest expected value, as assessed from the agent's own perspective.",
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"plaintext": "Various theorists emphasize the practical nature of thought, i.e. that thinking is usually guided by some kind of task it aims to solve. In this sense, thinking has been compared to trial-and-error seen in animal behavior when faced with a new problem. On this view, the important difference is that this process happens inwardly as a form of simulation. This process is often much more efficient since once the solution is found in thought, only the behavior corresponding to the found solution has to be outwardly carried out and not all the others.",
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"plaintext": "When thinking is understood in a wide sense, it includes both episodic memory and imagination. In episodic memory, events one experienced in the past are relived. It is a form of mental time travel in which the past experience is re-experienced. But this does not constitute an exact copy of the original experience since the episodic memory involves additional aspects and information not present in the original experience. This includes both a feeling of familiarity and chronological information about the past event in relation to the present. Memory aims at representing how things actually were in the past, in contrast to imagination, which presents objects without aiming to show how things actually are or were. Because of this missing link to actuality, more freedom is involved in most forms of imagination: its contents can be freely varied, changed, and recombined to create new arrangements never experienced before. Episodic memory and imagination have in common with other forms of thought that they can arise internally without any stimulation of the sensory organs. But they are still closer to sensation than more abstract forms of thought since they present sensory contents that could, at least in principle, also be perceived.",
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"plaintext": "Conscious thought is the paradigmatic form of thinking and is often the focus of the corresponding research. But it has been argued that some forms of thought also happen on the unconscious level. Unconscious thought is thought that happens in the background without being experienced. It is therefore not observed directly. Instead, its existence is usually inferred by other means. For example, when someone is faced with an important decision or a difficult problem, they may not be able to solve it straight away. But then, at a later time, the solution may suddenly flash before them even though no conscious steps of thinking were taken towards this solution in the meantime. In such cases, the cognitive labor needed to arrive at a solution is often explained in terms of unconscious thoughts. The central idea is that a cognitive transition happened and we need to posit unconscious thoughts to be able to explain how it happened.",
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"plaintext": "It has been argued that conscious and unconscious thoughts differ not just concerning their relation to experience but also concerning their capacities. According to unconscious thought theorists, for example, conscious thought excels at simple problems with few variables but is outperformed by unconscious thought when complex problems with many variables are involved. This is sometimes explained through the claim that the number of items one can consciously think about at the same time is rather limited whereas unconscious thought lacks such limitations. But other researchers have rejected the claim that unconscious thought is often superior to conscious thought. Other suggestions for the difference between the two forms of thinking include that conscious thought tends to follow formal logical laws while unconscious thought relies more on associative processing and that only conscious thinking is conceptually articulated and happens through the medium of language.",
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"plaintext": "Phenomenology is the science of the structure and contents of experience. The term \"cognitive phenomenology\" refers to the experiential character of thinking or what it feels like to think. Some theorists claim that there is no distinctive cognitive phenomenology. On such a view, the experience of thinking is just one form of sensory experience. According to one version, thinking just involves hearing a voice internally. According to another, there is no experience of thinking apart from the indirect effects thinking has on sensory experience. A weaker version of such an approach allows that thinking may have a distinct phenomenology but contends that thinking still depends on sensory experience because it cannot occur on its own. On this view, sensory contents constitute the foundation from which thinking may arise.",
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"plaintext": "An often-cited thought experiment in favor of the existence of a distinctive cognitive phenomenology involves two persons listening to a radio broadcast in French, one who understands French and the other who does not. The idea behind this example is that both listeners hear the same sounds and therefore have the same non-cognitive experience. In order to explain the difference, a distinctive cognitive phenomenology has to be posited: only the experience of the first person has this additional cognitive character since it is accompanied by a thought that corresponds to the meaning of what is said. Other arguments for the experience of thinking focus on the direct introspective access to thinking or on the thinker's knowledge of their own thoughts.",
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"plaintext": "Phenomenologists are also concerned with the characteristic features of the experience of thinking. Making a judgment is one of the prototypical forms of cognitive phenomenology. It involves epistemic agency, in which a proposition is entertained, evidence for and against it is considered, and, based on this reasoning, the proposition is either affirmed or rejected. It is sometimes argued that the experience of truth is central to thinking, i.e. that thinking aims at representing how the world is. It shares this feature with perception but differs from it in the way how it represents the world: without the use of sensory contents.",
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"plaintext": "One of the characteristic features often ascribed to thinking and judging is that they are predicative experiences, in contrast to the pre-predicative experience found in immediate perception. On such a view, various aspects of perceptual experience resemble judgments without being judgments in the strict sense. For example, the perceptual experience of the front of a house brings with it various expectations about aspects of the house not directly seen, like the size and shape of its other sides. This process is sometimes referred to as apperception. These expectations resemble judgments and can be wrong. This would be the case when it turns out upon walking around the \"house\" that it is no house at all but only a front facade of a house with nothing behind it. In this case, the perceptual expectations are frustrated and the perceiver is surprised. There is disagreement as to whether these pre-predicative aspects of regular perception should be understood as a form of cognitive phenomenology involving thinking. This issue is also important for understanding the relation between thought and language. The reason for this is that the pre-predicative expectations do not depend on language, which is sometimes taken as an example for non-linguistic thought. Various theorists have argued that pre-predicative experience is more basic or fundamental since predicative experience is in some sense built on top of it and therefore depends on it.",
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"plaintext": "Another way how phenomenologists have tried to distinguish the experience of thinking from other types of experiences is in relation to empty intentions in contrast to intuitive intentions. In this context, \"intention\" means that some kind of object is experienced. In intuitive intentions, the object is presented through sensory contents. Empty intentions, on the other hand, present their object in a more abstract manner without the help of sensory contents. So when perceiving a sunset, it is presented through sensory contents. The same sunset can also be presented non-intuitively when merely thinking about it without the help of sensory contents. In these cases, the same properties are ascribed to objects. The difference between these modes of presentation concerns not what properties are ascribed to the presented object but how the object is presented. Because of this commonality, it is possible for representations belonging to different modes to overlap or to diverge. For example, when searching one's glasses one may think to oneself that one left them on the kitchen table. This empty intention of the glasses lying on the kitchen table are then intuitively fulfilled when one sees them lying there upon arriving in the kitchen. This way, a perception can confirm or refute a thought depending on whether the empty intuitions are later fulfilled or not.",
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"plaintext": "The mind–body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. The main aim of philosophers working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes, and how—or even if—minds are affected by and can affect the body.",
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"plaintext": "Human perceptual experiences depend on stimuli which arrive at one's various sensory organs from the external world and these stimuli cause changes in one's mental state, ultimately causing one to feel a sensation, which may be pleasant or unpleasant. Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants. The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how someone's propositional attitudes (e.g. beliefs and desires) can cause that individual's neurons to fire and his muscles to contract in exactly the correct manner. These comprise some of the puzzles that have confronted epistemologists and philosophers of mind from at least the time of René Descartes.",
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"plaintext": "The above reflects a classical, functional description of how we work as cognitive, thinking systems. However the apparently irresolvable mind–body problem is said to be overcome, and bypassed, by the embodied cognition approach, with its roots in the work of Heidegger, Piaget, Vygotsky, Merleau-Ponty and the pragmatist John Dewey.",
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"plaintext": "This approach states that the classical approach of separating the mind and analysing its processes is misguided: instead, we should see that the mind, actions of an embodied agent, and the environment it perceives and envisions, are all parts of a whole which determine each other. Therefore, functional analysis of the mind alone will always leave us with the mind–body problem which cannot be solved.",
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"plaintext": "Psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language; all of which are used in thinking. The school of thought arising from this approach is known as cognitivism, which is interested in how people mentally represent information processing. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who provided a theory of stages/phases that describes children's cognitive development.",
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"plaintext": "Cognitive psychologists use psychophysical and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. They study various aspects of thinking, including the psychology of reasoning, and how people make decisions and choices, solve problems, as well as engage in creative discovery and imaginative thought. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems either take the form of algorithms: rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or of heuristics: rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. Cognitive science differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that are intended to simulate human behavior are implemented or implementable on a computer. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.",
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"plaintext": "In developmental psychology, Jean Piaget was a pioneer in the study of the development of thought from birth to maturity. In his theory of cognitive development, thought is based on actions on the environment. That is, Piaget suggests that the environment is understood through assimilations of objects in the available schemes of action and these accommodate to the objects to the extent that the available schemes fall short of the demands. As a result of this interplay between assimilation and accommodation, thought develops through a sequence of stages that differ qualitatively from each other in mode of representation and complexity of inference and understanding. That is, thought evolves from being based on perceptions and actions at the sensorimotor stage in the first two years of life to internal representations in early childhood. Subsequently, representations are gradually organized into logical structures which first operate on the concrete properties of the reality, in the stage of concrete operations, and then operate on abstract principles that organize concrete properties, in the stage of formal operations. In recent years, the Piagetian conception of thought was integrated with information processing conceptions. Thus, thought is considered as the result of mechanisms that are responsible for the representation and processing of information. In this conception, speed of processing, cognitive control, and working memory are the main functions underlying thought. In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, the development of thought is considered to come from increasing speed of processing, enhanced cognitive control, and increasing working memory.",
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"plaintext": "Positive psychology emphasizes the positive aspects of human psychology as equally important as the focus on mood disorders and other negative symptoms. In Character Strengths and Virtues, Peterson and Seligman list a series of positive characteristics. One person is not expected to have every strength, nor are they meant to fully capsulate that characteristic entirely. The list encourages positive thought that builds on a person's strengths, rather than how to \"fix\" their \"symptoms\".",
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"plaintext": "The \"id\", \"ego\" and \"super-ego\" are the three parts of the \"psychic apparatus\" defined in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche; they are the three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described. According to this model, the uncoordinated instinctual trends are encompassed by the \"id\", the organized realistic part of the psyche is the \"ego\", and the critical, moralizing function is the \"super-ego\".",
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"plaintext": "For psychoanalysis, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, rather only what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what the person is averse to knowing consciously. In a sense this view places the self in relationship to their unconscious as an adversary, warring with itself to keep what is unconscious hidden. If a person feels pain, all he can think of is alleviating the pain. Any of his desires, to get rid of pain or enjoy something, command the mind what to do. For Freud, the unconscious was a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects—it expresses itself in the symptom.",
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"plaintext": "The collective unconscious, sometimes known as collective subconscious, is a term of analytical psychology, coined by Carl Jung. It is a part of the unconscious mind, shared by a society, a people, or all humanity, in an interconnected system that is the product of all common experiences and contains such concepts as science, religion, and morality. While Freud did not distinguish between \"individual psychology\" and \"collective psychology\", Jung distinguished the collective unconscious from the personal subconscious particular to each human being. The collective unconscious is also known as \"a reservoir of the experiences of our species\".",
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"plaintext": "In the \"Definitions\" chapter of Jung's seminal work Psychological Types, under the definition of \"collective\" Jung references representations collectives, a term coined by Lucien Lévy-Bruhl in his 1910 book How Natives Think. Jung says this is what he describes as the collective unconscious. Freud, on the other hand, did not accept the idea of a collective unconscious.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, the term \"laws of thought\" refers to three fundamental laws of logic: the law of contradiction, the law of excluded middle, and the principle of identity. These laws by themselves are not sufficient as axioms of logic but they can be seen as important precursors to the modern axiomatization of logic. The law of contradiction states that for any proposition, it is impossible that both it and its negation are true: . According to the law of excluded middle, for any proposition, either it or its opposite is true: . The principle of identity asserts that any object is identical to itself: . There are different conceptions of how the laws of thought are to be understood. The interpretations most relevant to thinking are to understand them as prescriptive laws of how one should think or as formal laws of propositions that are true only because of their form and independent of their content or context. Metaphysical interpretations, on the other hand, see them as expressing the nature of \"being as such\".",
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"plaintext": "While there is a very wide acceptance of these three laws among logicians, they are not universally accepted. Aristotle, for example, held that there are some cases in which the law of excluded middle is false. This concerns primarily uncertain future events. On his view, it is currently \"not ... either true or false that there will be a naval battle tomorrow\". Modern intuitionist logic also rejects the law of excluded middle. This rejection is based on the idea that mathematical truth depends on verification through a proof. The law fails for cases where no such proof is possible, which exist in every sufficiently strong formal system, according to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Dialetheists, on the other hand, reject the law of contradiction by holding that some propositions are both true and false. One motivation of this position is to avoid certain paradoxes in classical logic and set theory, like the liar's paradox and Russell's paradox. One of its problems is to find a formulation that circumvents the principle of explosion, i.e. that anything follows from a contradiction.",
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"plaintext": "Some formulations of the laws of thought include a fourth law: the principle of sufficient reason. It states that everything has a sufficient reason, ground, or cause. It is closely connected to the idea that everything is intelligible or can be explained in reference to its sufficient reason. According to this idea, there should always be a full explanation, at least in principle, to questions like why the sky is blue or why World War II happened. One problem for including this principle among the laws of thought is that it is a metaphysical principle, unlike the other three laws, which pertain primarily to logic.",
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"plaintext": "Counterfactual thinking involves mental representations of non-actual situations and events, i.e. of what is \"contrary to the facts\". It is usually conditional: it aims at assessing what would be the case if a certain condition had obtained. In this sense, it tries to answer \"What if\"-questions. For example, thinking after an accident that one would be dead if one had not used the seatbelt is a form of counterfactual thinking: it assumes, contrary to the facts, that one had not used the seatbelt and tries to assess the result of this state of affairs. In this sense, counterfactual thinking is normally counterfactual only to a small degree since just a few facts are changed, like concerning the seatbelt, while most other facts are kept in place, like that one was driving, one's gender, the laws of physics, etc. When understood in the widest sense, there are forms of counterfactual thinking that do not involve anything contrary to the facts at all. This is the case, for example, when one tries to anticipate what might happen in the future if an uncertain event occurs and this event actually occurs later and brings with it the anticipated consequences. In this wider sense, the term \"subjunctive conditional\" is sometimes used instead of \"counterfactual conditional\". But the paradigmatic cases of counterfactual thinking involve alternatives to past events.",
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"plaintext": "Counterfactual thinking plays an important role since we evaluate the world around us not only by what actually happened but also by what could have happened. Humans have a greater tendency to engage in counterfactual thinking after something bad happened because of some kind of action the agent performed. In this sense, many regrets are associated with counterfactual thinking in which the agent contemplates how a better outcome could have been obtained if only they had acted differently. These cases are known as upward counterfactuals, in contrast to downward counterfactuals, in which the counterfactual scenario is worse than actuality. Upward counterfactual thinking is usually experienced as unpleasant, since it presents the actual circumstances in a bad light. This contrasts with the positive emotions associated with downward counterfactual thinking. But both forms are important since it is possible to learn from them and to adjust one's behavior accordingly to get better results in the future.",
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"plaintext": "Thought experiments involve thinking about imaginary situations, often with the aim of investigating the possible consequences of a change to the actual sequence of events. It is a controversial issue to what extend thought experiments should be understood as actual experiments. They are experiments in the sense that a certain situation is set up and one tries to learn from this situation by understanding what follows from it. They differ from regular experiments in that imagination is used to set up the situation and counterfactual reasoning is employed to evaluate what follows from it, instead of setting it up physically and observing the consequences through perception. Counterfactual thinking, therefore, plays a central role in thought experiments.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinese room argument is a famous thought experiment proposed by John Searle. It involves a person sitting inside a closed-off room, tasked with responding to messages written in Chinese. This person does not know Chinese but has a giant rule book that specifies exactly how to reply to any possible message, similar to how a computer would react to messages. The core idea of this thought experiment is that neither the person nor the computer understands Chinese. This way, Searle aims to show that computers lack a mind capable of deeper forms of understanding despite acting intelligently.",
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"plaintext": "Thought experiments are employed for various purposes, for example, for entertainment, education, or as arguments for or against theories. Most discussions focus on their use as arguments. This use is found in fields like philosophy, the natural sciences, and history. It is controversial since there is a lot of disagreement concerning the epistemic status of thought experiments, i.e. how reliable they are as evidence supporting or refuting a theory. Central to the rejection of this usage is the fact that they pretend to be a source of knowledge without the need to leave one's armchair in search of any new empirical data. Defenders of thought experiments usually contend that the intuitions underlying and guiding the thought experiments are, at least in some cases, reliable. But thought experiments can also fail if they are not properly supported by intuitions or if they go beyond what the intuitions support. In the latter sense, sometimes counter thought experiments are proposed that modify the original scenario in slight ways in order to show that initial intuitions cannot survive this change. Various taxonomies of thought experiments have been suggested. They can be distinguished, for example, by whether they are successful or not, by the discipline that uses them, by their role in a theory, or by whether they accept or modify the actual laws of physics.",
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"plaintext": "Critical thinking is a form of thinking that is reasonable, reflective, and focused on determining what to believe or how to act. It holds itself to various standards, like clarity and rationality. In this sense, it involves not just cognitive processes trying to solve the issue at hand but at the same time meta-cognitive processes ensuring that it lives up to its own standards. This includes assessing both that the reasoning itself is sound and that the evidence it rests on is reliable. This means that logic plays an important role in critical thinking. It concerns not just formal logic, but also informal logic, specifically to avoid various informal fallacies due to vague or ambiguous expressions in natural language. No generally accepted standard definition of \"critical thinking\" exists but there is significant overlap between the proposed definitions in their characterization of critical thinking as careful and goal-directed. According to some versions, only the thinker's own observations and experiments are accepted as evidence in critical thinking. Some restrict it to the formation of judgments but exclude action as its goal.",
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"plaintext": "A concrete everyday example of critical thinking, due to John Dewey, involves observing foam bubbles moving in a direction that is contrary to one's initial expectations. The critical thinker tries to come up with various possible explanations of this behavior and then slightly modifies the original situation in order to determine which one is the right explanation. But not all forms of cognitively valuable processes involve critical thinking. Arriving at the correct solution to a problem by blindly following the steps of an algorithm does not qualify as critical thinking. The same is true if the solution is presented to the thinker in a sudden flash of insight and accepted straight away.",
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"plaintext": "Critical thinking plays an important role in education: fostering the student's ability to think critically is often seen as an important educational goal. In this sense, it is important to convey not just a set of true beliefs to the student but also the ability to draw one's own conclusions and to question pre-existing beliefs. The abilities and dispositions learned this way may profit not just the individual but also society at large. Critics of the emphasis on critical thinking in education have argued that there is no universal form of correct thinking. Instead, they contend that different subject matters rely on different standards and education should focus on imparting these subject-specific skills instead of trying to teach universal methods of thinking. Other objections are based on the idea that critical thinking and the attitude underlying it involve various unjustified biases, like egocentrism, distanced objectivity, indifference, and an overemphasis of the theoretical in contrast to the practical.",
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"plaintext": "Positive thinking is an important topic in positive psychology. It involves focusing one's attention on the positive aspects of one's situation and thereby withdrawing one's attention from its negative sides. This is usually seen as a global outlook that applies especially to thinking but includes other mental processes, like feeling, as well. In this sense, it is closely related to optimism. It includes expecting positive things to happen in the future. This positive outlook makes it more likely for people to seek to attain new goals. It also increases the probability of continuing to strive towards pre-existing goals that seem difficult to reach instead of just giving up.",
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"plaintext": "The effects of positive thinking are not yet thoroughly researched, but some studies suggest that there is a correlation between positive thinking and well-being. For example, students and pregnant women with a positive outlook tend to be better at dealing with stressful situations. This is sometimes explained by pointing out that stress is not inherent in stressful situations but depends on the agent's interpretation of the situation. Reduced stress may therefore be found in positive thinkers because they tend to see such situations in a more positive light. But the effects also include the practical domain in that positive thinkers tend to employ healthier coping strategies when faced with difficult situations. This effects, for example, the time needed to fully recover from surgeries and the tendency to resume physical exercise afterward.",
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"plaintext": "But it has been argued that whether positive thinking actually leads to positive outcomes depends on various other factors. Without these factors, it may lead to negative results. For example, the tendency of optimists to keep striving in difficult situations can backfire if the course of events is outside the agent's control. Another danger associated with positive thinking is that it may remain only on the level of unrealistic fantasies and thereby fail to make a positive practical contribution to the agent's life. Pessimism, on the other hand, may have positive effects since it can mitigate disappointments by anticipating failures.",
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"plaintext": "Positive thinking is a recurrent topic in the self-help literature. Here, often the claim is made that one can significantly improve one's life by trying to think positively, even if this means fostering beliefs that are contrary to evidence. Such claims and the effectiveness of the suggested methods are controversial and have been criticized due to their lack of scientific evidence. In the New Thought movement, positive thinking figures in the law of attraction, the pseudoscientific claim that positive thoughts can directly influence the external world by attracting positive outcomes.",
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"plaintext": " Animal cognition",
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"plaintext": " Freethought",
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"plaintext": " Outline of thought – topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more",
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"plaintext": " Outline of human intelligence – topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more",
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"plaintext": " Rethinking",
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"plaintext": "The State of the Union Address (sometimes abbreviated to SOTU) is an annual message delivered by the president of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress near the beginning of each calendar year on the current condition of the nation. The State of the Union Address generally includes reports on the nation's budget, economy, news, agenda, achievements and the president's priorities and legislative proposals.",
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"plaintext": "The address fulfills the requirement in Article II, Section 3, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution for the president to periodically \"give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient.\" During most of the country's first century, the president primarily submitted only a written report to Congress. After 1913, Woodrow Wilson, the 28th U.S. president, began the regular practice of delivering the address to Congress in person as a way to rally support for the president's agenda. With the advent of radio and television, the address is now broadcast live in all United States time zones on many networks.",
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"plaintext": "Starting 1981, Ronald Reagan, the 40th U.S. president, began the practice of newly inaugurated presidents delivering an address to Congress in the first year of their term, but not designating that speech an official \"State of the Union\".",
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"plaintext": "The practice arises from a duty of the president under the State of the Union Clause of the U.S. Constitution:",
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"plaintext": "Though the language of the clause is not specific, since the 1930s, the president has made this report annually in late January or early February. Between 1934 and 2022 the date has been as early as January 3, and as late as March 1.",
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"plaintext": "While not required to deliver a speech, every president since Woodrow Wilson, with the notable exception of Herbert Hoover, has made at least one State of the Union report as a speech delivered before a joint session of Congress. Before then, most presidents delivered the State of the Union as a written report.",
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"plaintext": "Since Franklin Roosevelt, the State of the Union is given typically each January before a joint session of the United States Congress and is held in the House of Representatives chamber of the United States Capitol. Newly inaugurated presidents generally deliver an address to Congress in February of the first year of their term, but this speech is not officially considered to be a \"State of the Union\".",
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"plaintext": "What began as a communication between president and Congress has become in effect a communication between the president and the people of the United States. Since the advent of radio, and then television, the speech has been broadcast live in all United States time zones on most networks, preempting scheduled programming. Since at least the 1960s, in order to reach the largest audience, the speech has typically been given at 9 p.m. (Eastern Time, UTC-5).",
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"plaintext": "George Washington delivered the first regular annual message before a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1790, in New York City, then the provisional U.S. capital. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson discontinued the practice of delivering the address in person, regarding it as too monarchical (similar to the Speech from the Throne). Instead, the address was written and then sent to Congress to be read by a clerk until 1913 when Woodrow Wilson re-established the practice despite some initial controversy, and an in-person address to Congress has been delivered nearly every year since. However, there have been exceptions to this rule, with some messages being given solely in writing, and others given both in writing and orally (either in a speech to Congress or through broadcast media). The last president to give a written message without a spoken address was Jimmy Carter in 1981, days before his term ended after his defeat by Ronald Reagan.",
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"plaintext": "For many years, the speech was referred to as \"the President's Annual Message to Congress\". The actual term \"State of the Union\" first emerged in 1934 when Franklin D. Roosevelt used the phrase, becoming its generally accepted name since 1947.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to 1934, the annual message was delivered at the end of the calendar year, in December. The ratification of the 20th Amendment on January 23, 1933, changed the opening of Congress from early March to early January, affecting the delivery of the annual message. Since 1934, the message or address has been delivered to Congress in January or February.",
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"plaintext": "The Twentieth Amendment also established January 20 as the beginning of the presidential term. In years when a new president is inaugurated, the outgoing president may deliver a final State of the Union message, but none has done so since Jimmy Carter sent a written message in 1981. In 1953 and 1961, Congress received both a written State of the Union message from the outgoing president and a separate State of the Union speech by the incoming president. Since 1981, in recognition that the responsibility of reporting the State of the Union formally belongs to the president who held office during the past year, newly inaugurated presidents have not officially called their first speech before Congress a \"State of the Union\" message.",
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"plaintext": "Warren Harding's 1922 speech was the first to be broadcast on radio, albeit to a limited audience, while Calvin Coolidge's 1923 speech was the first to be broadcast across the nation. President Roosevelt's address in 1936 was the first delivered in the evening, but this precedent was not followed again until the 1960s. Harry S. Truman's 1947 address was the first to be broadcast on television. In 1968, television networks in the United States for the first time imposed no time limit for their coverage of a State of the Union address. Delivered by Lyndon B. Johnson, this address was followed by extensive televised commentary by, among others, Daniel Patrick Moynihan and Milton Friedman. Bill Clinton's 1997 address was the first broadcast available live on the World Wide Web.",
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"plaintext": "Ronald Reagan's 1986 State of the Union Address was the first to have been postponed. He had planned to deliver the speech on January 28, 1986, but it was delayed for a week following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster that morning. Reagan instead addressed the nation from the Oval Office about the disaster.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, Bill Clinton became the first president to deliver an in-person State of the Union address while standing trial for impeachment; the speech occurred the same day that Clinton's defense team made its opening statement, though he did not mention the proceeding.",
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"plaintext": "On January 23, 2019, the 2019 State of the Union speech by Donald Trump, originally planned for January 29 was canceled after an exchange of letters with Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi in which she stated she would not proceed with a vote on a resolution to permit him to deliver the speech in the House chamber until the end of 2018–19 United States federal government shutdown. This decision rescinded an earlier invitation from the speaker, reportedly the first time in American history that a Speaker had \"disinvited\" the president from delivering the address. They later agreed to hold the speech on February 5.",
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"plaintext": "Because the address is made to a joint session of Congress, the House and Senate must each pass a resolution setting a date and time for the joint session. Then, a formal invitation is made by the speaker of the House to the president typically several weeks before the appointed date.",
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"plaintext": "Every member of Congress can bring one guest to the State of the Union address. The president may invite up to 24 guests to be seated in a box with the First Spouse. The speaker of the House may invite up to 24 guests in the speaker's box. Seating for Congress on the main floor is by a first-in, first-served basis with no reservations. The Cabinet, Supreme Court justices, members of the Diplomatic Corps, and military leaders (the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Commandant of the Coast Guard) have reserved seating.",
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"plaintext": "By approximately 8:30p.m. on the night of the address, the members of the House have gathered in their seats for the joint session. Then, the Deputy Sergeant at Arms addresses the speaker and loudly announces the vice president and members of the Senate, who enter and take the seats assigned for them.",
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"plaintext": "The speaker, and then the vice president, specify the members of the House and Senate, respectively, who will escort the president into the House chamber. The Deputy Sergeant at Arms addresses the speaker again and loudly announces, in order, the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps, the Chief Justice of the United States and the Associate Justices, and the Cabinet, each of whom enters and takes their seats when called. The justices take the seats nearest to the speaker's rostrum and adjacent to the sections reserved for the Cabinet and the members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.",
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"plaintext": "Just after 9:00pm, as the president reaches the door to the chamber, the House Sergeant at Arms stands just inside the doors, faces the speaker, and waits until the president is ready to enter the chamber. When the president is ready, the Sergeant at Arms announces the entrance, loudly stating the phrase: \"Madam [or Mister] Speaker, the president of the United States!\"",
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"plaintext": "As applause and cheering begin, the president slowly walks toward the speaker's rostrum, followed by members of the congressional escort committee. The president's approach is slowed by pausing to shake hands, hug, kiss, and autograph copies of the speech for Members of Congress. After taking a place at the House Clerk's desk, the president hands two manila envelopes, previously placed on the desk and containing copies of the speech, to the speaker and vice president.",
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"plaintext": "After continuing applause from the attendees has diminished, the speaker introduces the president to the representatives and senators, typically stating: \"Members of Congress, I have the high privilege and distinct honor of presenting to you the president of the United States.\" This leads to a further round of applause and, eventually, the beginning of the address by the president.",
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"plaintext": "Customarily, one cabinet member (the designated survivor) does not attend the speech, in order to provide continuity in the line of succession if a catastrophe disables the president, the vice president, and other succeeding officers gathered in the House chamber. Additionally, since the September 11 attacks in 2001, a few members of Congress have been asked to relocate to undisclosed locations for the duration of the speech to form a rump Congress in the event of a disaster. Since 2003, each chamber of Congress has formally named a separate designated survivor.",
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"plaintext": "Both the speaker and the vice president sit at the speaker's desk, behind the President for the duration of the speech. If either is unavailable, the next highest-ranking member of the respective house substitutes. Once the chamber settles down from the President's arrival, the speaker officially presents the President to the joint session of Congress. The president then delivers the speech from the podium at the front of the House Chamber.",
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"plaintext": "For the 2011 address, Senator Mark Udall of Colorado proposed a break in the tradition of seating Republicans and Democrats on opposite sides of the House; this was in response to the 2011 Tucson Shooting in which Representative Gabby Giffords was shot and wounded in an assassination attempt. Approximately 60 legislators signed on to Udall's proposal; a similar plan for the 2012 address garnered bipartisan seating commitments from more than 160 lawmakers. Efforts to intersperse the parties during the State of the Union have since waned, and by the 2016 address, seating had largely returned to the traditional partisan arrangement.",
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"plaintext": "The contents of the speeches typically contain information and status updates of the country and federal government during the incumbent president's administration. It has become customary to use the phrase \"The State of the Union is strong,\" sometimes with slight variations, since President Ronald Reagan introduced it in his 1983 address. It has been repeated by every president in nearly every year since, with the exception of George H. W. Bush. Gerald Ford's 1975 address had been the first to use the phrasing \"The State of the Union is...\", though Ford completed the sentence with \"not good.\"",
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"plaintext": "Since Reagan's 1982 address, it has also become common for presidents of both parties to honor special guests sitting in the gallery, such as American citizens or visiting heads of state. During that 1982 address, Reagan acknowledged Lenny Skutnik for his act of heroism following the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. Since then, the term \"Lenny Skutniks\" has been used to refer to individuals invited to sit in the gallery, and then cited by the president, during the State of the Union.",
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"plaintext": "State of the Union speeches usually last a little over an hour, partly because of the large amounts of applause that occur from the audience throughout. The applause is often political in tone, with many portions of the speech being applauded only by members of the president's own party. As non-political officeholders, members of the Supreme Court or the Joint Chiefs of Staff rarely applaud in order to retain the appearance of political impartiality. In recent years, the presiding officers of the House and the Senate, the speaker and the vice president, respectively, have departed from the neutrality expected of presiding officers of deliberative bodies, as they, too, stand and applaud in response to the remarks of the president with which they agree.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1966, the speech has been followed on television by a response or rebuttal by a member of the major political party opposing the president's party. The response is typically broadcast from a studio with no audience. In 1970, the Democratic Party put together a TV program with their speech to reply to President Nixon, as well as a televised response to Nixon's written speech in 1973. The same was done by Democrats for President Reagan's speeches in 1982 and 1985. The response is not always produced in a studio; in 1997, the Republicans for the first time delivered the response in front of high school students. In 2010, Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell gave the Republican response from the House of Delegates chamber of the Virginia State Capitol in Richmond, in front of about 250 attendees.",
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"plaintext": "Although much of the pomp and ceremony behind the State of the Union address is governed by tradition rather than law, in modern times, the event is seen as one of the most important in the US political calendar. It is one of the few instances when all three branches of the US government are assembled under one roof: members of both houses of Congress constituting the legislature, the president's Cabinet constituting the executive, and the Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme Court constituting the judiciary. In addition, the military is represented by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, while foreign governments are represented by the Dean of the Diplomatic Corps. The address has also been used as an opportunity to honor the achievements of some ordinary Americans, who are typically invited by the president to sit with the First Lady.",
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"plaintext": "Certain U.S. states have a similar annual address given by the governor. For most of them, it is called the State of the State address. In Iowa, it is called the Condition of the State Address; in Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, the speech is called the State of the Commonwealth address. The mayor of the District of Columbia gives a State of the District address. American Samoa has a State of the Territory address given by the governor. Puerto Rico has a State Address given by the governor. In Guam, the governor delivers an annual State of the Island Address.",
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"plaintext": " The Four Freedoms were goals first articulated by Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 6, 1941. In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech, he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people \"everywhere in the world\" ought to enjoy: freedom of speech and expression, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.",
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"plaintext": " During his State of the Union Address on January 11, 1944, FDR proposed the Second Bill of Rights. Roosevelt's argument was that the \"political rights\" guaranteed by the constitution and the Bill of Rights had \"proved inadequate to assure us equality in the pursuit of happiness\". This was technically a \"Message\" and not a speech, as Roosevelt had \"a case of the grippe\" and could not come; there was no joint session, and the Clerk of the Senate read the message. (Although he did manage to read it as a Fireside Chat over the radio, from his office that same day.)",
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"plaintext": " During his State of the Union address on January 8, 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson introduced legislation that would come to be known as the \"War on Poverty\". This legislation was proposed by Johnson in response to a national poverty rate of around nineteen percent. The speech led the United States Congress to pass the Economic Opportunity Act, which established the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to administer the local application of federal funds targeted against poverty.",
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"plaintext": " During his State of the Union address on January 15, 1975, Gerald R. Ford very bluntly stated that \"the state of the Union is not good: Millions of Americans are out of work...We depend on others for essential energy. Some people question their Government's ability to make hard decisions and stick with them; they expect Washington politics as usual.\" Ford said he didn't \"expect much if any, applause. The American people want action, and it will take both the Congress and the president to give them what they want. Progress and solutions can be achieved, and they will be achieved.\"",
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"plaintext": " During his State of the Union address on January 29, 2002, President Bush identified North Korea, Iran, and Iraq as representing significant threats to the United States. He said, \"States like these and their terrorist allies constitute an axis of evil, arming to threaten the peace of the world\". In this speech, he would outline the objectives for the War on Terror.",
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"plaintext": " The American Presidency Project: State of the Union Messages \"Established in 1999 as a collaboration between John Woolley and Gerhard Peters at the University of California, Santa Barbara,\" currently (January 2010), the APP \"archives contain 87,448 documents related to the study of the Presidency\".",
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"plaintext": "In event-driven computer programs, an event cascade occurs when an event handler causes another event to occur which also triggers an event handler. This can be a tricky source of program errors (see computer bug).",
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"plaintext": "Some software bugs have been linked to disasters. Bugs in code that controlled the Therac-25 radiation therapy machine were directly responsible for patient deaths in the 1980s. In 1996, the European Space Agency's US$1billion prototype Ariane 5 rocket was destroyed less than a minute after launch due to a bug in the on-board guidance computer program. In 1994, an RAF Chinook helicopter crashed, killing 29; this was initially blamed on pilot error, but was later thought to have been caused by a software bug in the engine-control computer. Buggy software caused the early 21st century British Post Office scandal, the most widespread miscarriage of justice in British legal history.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, a study commissioned by the US Department of Commerce's National Institute of Standards and Technology concluded that \"software bugs, or errors, are so prevalent and so detrimental that they cost the US economy an estimated $59billion annually, or about 0.6 percent of the gross domestic product\".",
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"plaintext": "Baffle Ball, the first mechanical pinball game, was advertised as being \"free of bugs\" in 1931. Problems with military gear during World War II were referred to as bugs (or glitches). In a book published in 1942, Louise Dickinson Rich, speaking of a powered ice cutting machine, said, \"Ice sawing was suspended until the creator could be brought in to take the bugs out of his darling.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Open Technology Institute, run by the group, New America, released a report \"Bugs in the System\" in August 2016 stating that U.S. policymakers should make reforms to help researchers identify and address software bugs. The report \"highlights the need for reform in the field of software vulnerability discovery and disclosure.\" One of the report's authors said that Congress has not done enough to address cyber software vulnerability, even though Congress has passed a number of bills to combat the larger issue of cyber security.",
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"plaintext": "While the use of the term \"bug\" to describe software errors is common, many have suggested that it should be abandoned. One argument is that the word \"bug\" is divorced from a sense that a human being caused the problem, and instead implies that the defect arose on its own, leading to a push to abandon the term \"bug\" in favor of terms such as \"defect\", with limited success. Since the 1970s Gary Kildall somewhat humorously suggested to use the term \"blunder\".",
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"plaintext": "Bugs usually appear when the programmer makes a logic error. Various innovations in programming style and defensive programming are designed to make these bugs less likely, or easier to spot. Some typos, especially of symbols or logical/mathematical operators, allow the program to operate incorrectly, while others such as a missing symbol or misspelled name may prevent the program from operating. Compiled languages can reveal some typos when the source code is compiled.",
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"plaintext": "Several schemes assist managing programmer activity so that fewer bugs are produced. Software engineering (which addresses software design issues as well) applies many techniques to prevent defects. For example, formal program specifications state the exact behavior of programs so that design bugs may be eliminated. Unfortunately, formal specifications are impractical for anything but the shortest programs, because of problems of combinatorial explosion and indeterminacy.",
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"plaintext": "Open source development allows anyone to examine source code. A school of thought popularized by Eric S. Raymond as Linus's law says that popular open-source software has more chance of having few or no bugs than other software, because \"given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow\". This assertion has been disputed, however: computer security specialist Elias Levy wrote that \"it is easy to hide vulnerabilities in complex, little understood and undocumented source code,\" because, \"even if people are reviewing the code, that doesn't mean they're qualified to do so.\" An example of an open-source software bug was the 2008 OpenSSL vulnerability in Debian.",
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"plaintext": "Programming languages include features to help prevent bugs, such as static type systems, restricted namespaces and modular programming. For example, when a programmer writes (pseudocode) , although this may be syntactically correct, the code fails a type check. Compiled languages catch this without having to run the program. Interpreted languages catch such errors at runtime. Some languages deliberately exclude features that easily lead to bugs, at the expense of slower performance: the general principle being that, it is almost always better to write simpler, slower code than inscrutable code that runs slightly faster, especially considering that maintenance cost is substantial. For example, the Java programming language does not support pointer arithmetic; implementations of some languages such as Pascal and scripting languages often have runtime bounds checking of arrays, at least in a debugging build.",
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"plaintext": "Tools for code analysis help developers by inspecting the program text beyond the compiler's capabilities to spot potential problems. Although in general the problem of finding all programming errors given a specification is not solvable (see halting problem), these tools exploit the fact that human programmers tend to make certain kinds of simple mistakes often when writing software.",
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"plaintext": "Tools to monitor the performance of the software as it is running, either specifically to find problems such as bottlenecks or to give assurance as to correct working, may be embedded in the code explicitly (perhaps as simple as a statement saying ), or provided as tools. It is often a surprise to find where most of the time is taken by a piece of code, and this removal of assumptions might cause the code to be rewritten.",
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"plaintext": "Software testers are people whose primary task is to find bugs, or write code to support testing. On some projects, more resources may be spent on testing than in developing the program.",
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"plaintext": "Measurements during testing can provide an estimate of the number of likely bugs remaining; this becomes more reliable the longer a product is tested and developed.",
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"plaintext": "Finding and fixing bugs, or debugging, is a major part of computer programming. Maurice Wilkes, an early computing pioneer, described his realization in the late 1940s that much of the rest of his life would be spent finding mistakes in his own programs.",
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"plaintext": "Usually, the most difficult part of debugging is finding the bug. Once it is found, correcting it is usually relatively easy. Programs known as debuggers help programmers locate bugs by executing code line by line, watching variable values, and other features to observe program behavior. Without a debugger, code may be added so that messages or values may be written to a console or to a window or log file to trace program execution or show values.",
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"plaintext": "However, even with the aid of a debugger, locating bugs is something of an art. It is not uncommon for a bug in one section of a program to cause failures in a completely different section, thus making it especially difficult to track (for example, an error in a graphics rendering routine causing a file I/O routine to fail), in an apparently unrelated part of the system.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes, a bug is not an isolated flaw, but represents an error of thinking or planning on the part of the programmer. Such logic errors require a section of the program to be overhauled or rewritten. As a part of code review, stepping through the code and imagining or transcribing the execution process may often find errors without ever reproducing the bug as such.",
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"plaintext": "More typically, the first step in locating a bug is to reproduce it reliably. Once the bug is reproducible, the programmer may use a debugger or other tool while reproducing the error to find the point at which the program went astray.",
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"plaintext": "Some bugs are revealed by inputs that may be difficult for the programmer to re-create. One cause of the Therac-25 radiation machine deaths was a bug (specifically, a race condition) that occurred only when the machine operator very rapidly entered a treatment plan; it took days of practice to become able to do this, so the bug did not manifest in testing or when the manufacturer attempted to duplicate it. Other bugs may stop occurring whenever the setup is augmented to help find the bug, such as running the program with a debugger; these are called heisenbugs (humorously named after the Heisenberg uncertainty principle).",
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"plaintext": "Since the 1990s, particularly following the Ariane 5 Flight 501 disaster, interest in automated aids to debugging rose, such as static code analysis by abstract interpretation.",
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"plaintext": "Some classes of bugs have nothing to do with the code. Faulty documentation or hardware may lead to problems in system use, even though the code matches the documentation. In some cases, changes to the code eliminate the problem even though the code then no longer matches the documentation. Embedded systems frequently work around hardware bugs, since to make a new version of a ROM is much cheaper than remanufacturing the hardware, especially if they are commodity items.",
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"plaintext": "To facilitate reproducible research on testing and debugging, researchers use curated benchmarks of bugs:",
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"plaintext": " the Siemens benchmark",
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"plaintext": " ManyBugs is a benchmark of 185 C bugs in nine open-source programs.",
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"plaintext": " Defects4J is a benchmark of 341 Java bugs from 5 open-source projects. It contains the corresponding patches, which cover a variety of patch type.",
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"plaintext": " BEARS is a benchmark of continuous integration build failures focusing on test failures. It has been created by monitoring builds from open-source projects on Travis CI.",
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"plaintext": "Bug management includes the process of documenting, categorizing, assigning, reproducing, correcting and releasing the corrected code. Proposed changes to software– bugs as well as enhancement requests and even entire releases– are commonly tracked and managed using bug tracking systems or issue tracking systems. The items added may be called defects, tickets, issues, or, following the agile development paradigm, stories and epics. Categories may be objective, subjective or a combination, such as version number, area of the software, severity and priority, as well as what type of issue it is, such as a feature request or a bug.",
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"plaintext": "A bug triage reviews bugs and decides whether and when to fix them. The decision is based on the bug's priority, and factors such as project schedules. The triage is not meant to investigate the cause of bugs, but rather the cost of fixing them. The triage happens regularly, and goes through bugs opened or reopened since the previous meeting. The attendees of the triage process typically are the project manager, development manager, test manager, build manager, and technical experts.",
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"plaintext": "Severity is the intensity of the impact the bug has on system operation. This impact may be data loss, financial, loss of goodwill and wasted effort. Severity levels are not standardized. Impacts differ across industry. A crash in a video game has a totally different impact than a crash in a web browser, or real time monitoring system. For example, bug severity levels might be \"crash or hang\", \"no workaround\" (meaning there is no way the customer can accomplish a given task), \"has workaround\" (meaning the user can still accomplish the task), \"visual defect\" (for example, a missing image or displaced button or form element), or \"documentation error\". Some software publishers use more qualified severities such as \"critical\", \"high\", \"low\", \"blocker\" or \"trivial\". The severity of a bug may be a separate category to its priority for fixing, and the two may be quantified and managed separately.",
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"plaintext": "Priority controls where a bug falls on the list of planned changes. The priority is decided by each software producer. Priorities may be numerical, such as 1 through 5, or named, such as \"critical\", \"high\", \"low\", or \"deferred\". These rating scales may be similar or even identical to severity ratings, but are evaluated as a combination of the bug's severity with its estimated effort to fix; a bug with low severity but easy to fix may get a higher priority than a bug with moderate severity that requires excessive effort to fix. Priority ratings may be aligned with product releases, such as \"critical\" priority indicating all the bugs that must be fixed before the next software release.",
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"plaintext": "It is common practice to release software with known, low-priority bugs. Bugs of sufficiently high priority may warrant a special release of part of the code containing only modules with those fixes. These are known as patches. Most releases include a mixture of behavior changes and multiple bug fixes. Releases that emphasize bug fixes are known as maintenance releases, to differentiate it from major releases that emphasize feature additions or changes.",
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"plaintext": "Reasons that a software publisher opts not to patch or even fix a particular bug include:",
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"plaintext": " A deadline must be met and resources are insufficient to fix all bugs by the deadline.",
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"plaintext": " The bug is already fixed in an upcoming release, and it is not of high priority.",
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"plaintext": " The changes required to fix the bug are too costly or affect too many other components, requiring a major testing activity.",
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"plaintext": " It may be suspected, or known, that some users are relying on the existing buggy behavior; a proposed fix may introduce a breaking change.",
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"plaintext": " The problem is in an area that will be obsolete with an upcoming release; fixing it is unnecessary.",
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"plaintext": " \"It's not a bug, it's a feature\". A misunderstanding has arisen between expected and perceived behavior or undocumented feature.",
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"plaintext": "In software development projects, a mistake or error may be introduced at any stage. Bugs arise from oversight or misunderstanding by a software team during specification, design, coding, configuration, data entry or documentation. For example, a relatively simple program to alphabetize a list of words, the design might fail to consider what should happen when a word contains a hyphen. Or when converting an abstract design into code, the coder might inadvertently create an off-by-one error which can be a \"<\" where \"<=\" was intended, and fail to sort the last word in a list.",
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"plaintext": "Another category of bug is called a race condition that may occur when programs have multiple components executing at the same time. If the components interact in a different order than the developer intended, they could interfere with each other and stop the program from completing its tasks. These bugs may be difficult to detect or anticipate, since they may not occur during every execution of a program.",
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"plaintext": "Conceptual errors are a developer's misunderstanding of what the software must do. The resulting software may perform according to the developer's understanding, but not what is really needed. Other types:",
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"plaintext": "In operations on numerical values, problems can arise that result in unexpected output, slowing of a process, or crashing. These can be from a lack of awareness of the qualities of the data storage such as a loss of precision due to rounding, numerically unstable algorithms, arithmetic overflow and underflow, or from lack of awareness of how calculations are handled by different software coding languages such as division by zero which in some languages may throw an exception, and in others may return a special value such as NaN or infinity.",
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"plaintext": "Control flow bugs are those found in processes with valid logic, but that lead to unintended results, such as infinite loops and infinite recursion, incorrect comparisons for conditional statements such as using the incorrect comparison operator, and off-by-one errors (counting one too many or one too few iterations when looping).",
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"plaintext": " Incorrect API usage.",
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"plaintext": " Incorrect protocol implementation.",
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"plaintext": " Incorrect hardware handling.",
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"plaintext": " Incorrect assumptions of a particular platform.",
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"plaintext": " Incompatible systems. A new API or communications protocol may seem to work when two systems use different versions, but errors may occur when a function or feature implemented in one version is changed or missing in another. In production systems which must run continually, shutting down the entire system for a major update may not be possible, such as in the telecommunication industry or the internet. In this case, smaller segments of a large system are upgraded individually, to minimize disruption to a large network. However, some sections could be overlooked and not upgraded, and cause compatibility errors which may be difficult to find and repair.",
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"plaintext": " Incorrect code annotations",
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"plaintext": " Deadlock, where task A cannot continue until task B finishes, but at the same time, task B cannot continue until task A finishes.",
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"plaintext": " Race condition, where the computer does not perform tasks in the order the programmer intended.",
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"plaintext": " Concurrency errors in critical sections, mutual exclusions and other features of concurrent processing. Time-of-check-to-time-of-use (TOCTOU) is a form of unprotected critical section.",
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103
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133
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"plaintext": " Null pointer dereference.",
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"plaintext": " Using an uninitialized variable.",
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"plaintext": " Using an otherwise valid instruction on the wrong data type (see packed decimal/binary-coded decimal).",
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"plaintext": " Access violations.",
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"plaintext": " Resource leaks, where a finite system resource (such as memory or file handles) become exhausted by repeated allocation without release.",
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"plaintext": " Buffer overflow, in which a program tries to store data past the end of allocated storage. This may or may not lead to an access violation or storage violation. These are known as security bugs.",
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160
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193
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"plaintext": " Excessive recursion which—though logically valid—causes stack overflow.",
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"plaintext": " Use-after-free error, where a pointer is used after the system has freed the memory it references.",
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"plaintext": " Double free error.",
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"plaintext": " Use of the wrong token, such as performing assignment instead of equality test. For example, in some languages will set the value of x to 5 while will check whether x is currently 5 or some other number. Interpreted languages allow such code to fail. Compiled languages can catch such errors before testing begins.",
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"plaintext": " Unpropagated updates; e.g. programmer changes \"myAdd\" but forgets to change \"mySubtract\", which uses the same algorithm. These errors are mitigated by the Don't Repeat Yourself philosophy.",
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"plaintext": " Comments out of date or incorrect: many programmers assume the comments accurately describe the code.",
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"plaintext": " Differences between documentation and product.",
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"plaintext": "The amount and type of damage a software bug may cause naturally affects decision-making, processes and policy regarding software quality. In applications such as human spaceflight, aviation, nuclear power, health care, public transport or automotive safety, since software flaws have the potential to cause human injury or even death, such software will have far more scrutiny and quality control than, for example, an online shopping website. In applications such as banking, where software flaws have the potential to cause serious financial damage to a bank or its customers, quality control is also more important than, say, a photo editing application. NASA's Software Assurance Technology Center managed to reduce the number of errors to fewer than 0.1 per 1000 lines of code (SLOC) but this was not felt to be feasible for projects in the business world.",
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"plaintext": "According to a NASA study on \"Flight Software Complexity\", \"an exceptionally good software development process can keep defects down to as low as 1 defect per 10,000 lines of code.\"",
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"plaintext": "Other than the damage caused by bugs, some of their cost is due to the effort invested in fixing them. In 1978, Lientz et al. showed that the median of projects invest 17 per cent of the development effort in bug fixing. In research in 2020 on GitHub repositories showed the median is 20%.",
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"plaintext": "A number of software bugs have become well-known, usually due to their severity: examples include various space and military aircraft crashes. Possibly the most famous bug is the Year 2000 problem or Y2K bug, which caused many programs written long before the transition from 19xx to 20xx dates to malfunction, for example treating a date such as \"25 Dec 04\" as being in 1904, displaying \"19100\" instead of \"2000\", and so on. A huge effort at the end of the 20th century resolved the most severe problems, and there were no major consequences.",
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"plaintext": "The 2012 stock trading disruption involved one such incompatibility between the old API and a new API.",
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"plaintext": " In both the 1968 novel A Space Odyssey and the corresponding 1968 film A Space Odyssey, a spaceship's onboard computer, HAL 9000, attempts to kill all its crew members. In the follow-up 1982 novel, Odyssey Two, and the accompanying 1984 film, 2010, it is revealed that this action was caused by the computer having been programmed with two conflicting objectives: to fully disclose all its information, and to keep the true purpose of the flight secret from the crew; this conflict caused HAL to become paranoid and eventually homicidal.",
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"plaintext": " In the English version of the Nena 1983 song 99 Luftballons (99 Red Balloons) as a result of \"bugs in the software\", a release of a group of 99 red balloons are mistaken for an enemy nuclear missile launch, requiring an equivalent launch response, resulting in catastrophe. ",
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"plaintext": " In the 1999 American comedy Office Space, three employees attempt (unsuccessfully) to exploit their company's preoccupation with the Y2K computer bug using a computer virus that sends rounded-off fractions of a penny to their bank account—a long-known technique described as salami slicing.",
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37,086 | 1,098,639,493 | Battle_of_Lechfeld | [
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"plaintext": "The Battle of Lechfeld was a series of military engagements over the course of three days from 10–12 August 955 in which the Kingdom of Germany led by king Otto I the Great annihilated the Hungarian army led by harka Bulcsú and the chieftains Lél and Súr. With this German victory further invasions by the Magyars into Latin Europe were ended.",
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"plaintext": "The Hungarians invaded the Duchy of Bavaria in late June or early July 955 with 8,000–10,000 horse archers, infantry, and siege engines, intending to draw the main German army under Otto I into battle in the open field and destroy it. The Hungarians laid siege to Augsburg on the river Lech. Otto I advanced to relieve the city with an army of 8,000 heavy cavalry, divided into eight legions.",
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"plaintext": "As Otto I approached Augsburg on 10 August, a Hungarian surprise attack destroyed the Duchy of Bohemia rearguard legion. The Hungarian force stopped to plunder the German camp and Conrad, Duke of Lorraine led a counter-attack with heavy cavalry, dispersing the Hungarians. Otto I then brought his army into battle against the main Hungarian army that barred his way to Augsburg. The German heavy cavalry defeated the lightly armed and armored Hungarians in close combat, but the latter retreated in good order. Otto I did not pursue, returning to Augsburg for the night and sending out messengers to order all local German forces to hold the river crossings in Eastern Bavaria and prevent the Hungarians from returning to their homeland. On 11 and 12 August, the Hungarian defeat was transformed into disaster, as heavy rainfall and flooding slowed the retreating Hungarians and allowed German troops to hunt them down and kill them all. The Hungarian leaders were captured, taken to Augsburg and hanged.",
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"plaintext": "The German victory preserved the Kingdom of Germany and halted nomad incursions into Western Europe for good. Otto I was proclaimed emperor and father of the fatherland by his army after the victory and he went on to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 largely on the basis of his strengthened position after the Battle of Lechfeld.",
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"plaintext": "The most important source is a monograph commissioned by Ulrich of Augsburg, which describes the series of actions from the German point of view. Another source is the chronicler Widukind of Corvey, who provides some important details.",
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"plaintext": "After having put down a rebellion by his son Liudolf, Duke of Swabia and his son-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, the king of East Francia Otto I moved his troops to Saxony, his duchy. In early July he received Hungarian legates, who claimed to come in peace, but who the Germans suspected were actually assessing the outcome of the rebellion. After a few days, Otto I let them go with some small gifts.",
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"plaintext": "Soon, couriers from Otto I's brother Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, arrived to inform Otto I in Magdeburg of a Hungarian invasion. The couriers added that the Hungarians were seeking a battle with Otto I. The Hungarians had already invaded once before during the course of the rebellion. This occurred immediately after he had put down a revolt in Franconia. Because of unrest among the Polabian Slavs on the lower Elbe, Otto I had to leave most of his Saxons at home. In addition, Saxony was distant from Augsburg and its environs, and considerable time would have elapsed waiting for their arrival. The battle took place six weeks after the first report of an invasion, and historian Hans Delbrück asserts that they could not have possibly made the march in time.",
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"plaintext": "The King ordered his troops to concentrate on the Danube, in the vicinity of Neuburg and Ingolstadt. He did this in order to march on the Hungarian line of communications and catch them in their rear while they were raiding northeast of Augsburg. It was also a central point of concentration for all the contingents that were assembling. Strategically, therefore, this was the best location for Otto I to concentrate his forces before making the final descent upon the Hungarians.",
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"plaintext": "There were other troops that had an influence on the course of the battle. On previous occasions, in 932 and 954 for example, there had been Hungarian incursions that had invaded the German lands to the south of the Danube, and then retreated back to their native country via Lotharingia, to the West Frankish Kingdom and finally, through Italy. That is to say, a wide sweeping U-turn that initially started westward, then progressed to the south, and then finally to the east back to their homeland; and thus escaping retribution in German territory. The King was aware of the escape of these Hungarians on the above-mentioned occasions, and was determined to trap them. He therefore ordered his brother, Archbishop Bruno, to keep the Lotharingian forces in Lotharingia. With a powerful force of knights pressing them from the west, and an equally strong force of knights chasing them from the east, the Hungarians would be unable to escape.",
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"plaintext": "Located south of Augsburg, the Lechfeld is the flood plain that lies along the river Lech. The battle appears as the second Battle of Augsburg in Hungarian historiography. The first Battle of Lechfeld happened in the same area forty-five years earlier.",
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"plaintext": "Gerhard writes that the Hungarian forces advanced across the Lech to the river Iller and ravaged the lands in between. They then withdrew from the Iller and placed Augsburg, a border city of Swabia, under siege. Augsburg had been heavily damaged during a rebellion against Otto I in 954. The city was defended by Bishop Ulrich. He ordered his contingent of soldiers to not fight the Hungarians in the open and reinforce the main south gate of the fortress instead. He motivated them with the 23rd Psalm (\"Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death\"). While this defense was going on, the King was raising an army to march south. A major action took place on 8 August at the eastern gate, which the Hungarians tried to storm in large numbers. Ulrich led his professional milites soldiers out into the field to engage the enemy in close combat. Ulrich was unarmed, wearing only a stola while mounted on a warhorse. The soldiers killed the Hungarian commander, forcing the Hungarians to withdraw to their camp.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 August the Hungarians attacked with siege engines and infantry, who were driven forward by the whips of the Hungarian leaders. During the battle, Berchtold of Risinesburg arrived to deliver word of the approach of the German army. At the end of the day, the siege was suspended, and the Hungarian leaders held a war council. The Hungarians decided to destroy Otto I's army, believing that all of Germany would fall to them as a result. As the Hungarians departed, Count Dietpald of Dillingen used the opportunity to lead soldiers to Otto I's camp during the night.",
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"plaintext": "According to Widukind, Otto I had at his disposal eight legiones (divisions) that included three from Bavaria, two from Swabia, one from Franconia under Duke Conrad and one well-trained legion from Bohemia, under a prince of an unknown name, son of Boleslaus I. The eighth division, commanded by Otto I, and slightly larger than the others, included Saxons, Thuringians, and the King's personal guard, the legio regia. The King's contingent consisted of hand-picked troops. A late Roman legion had 1,000 men, so Otto I's army may have numbered 7,000–9,000 troops. Augsburg was defended by professional milites (soldiers).",
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"plaintext": "The Hungarians, also known as the Magyars, had a very different structure and fighting style than the Ottonian military. The Magyars preferred fighting at a distance with mounted archers over fighting in close combat with melee weapons, furthermore, the Magyars wore much lighter armor than Otto I's men. While there is some debate as to the number of mounted archers included in the Magyar forces, historians believe there was anywhere between 8,000 - 10,000 mounted archers. While this fighting style was effective, especially during raids against small villages and small military forces, historians have pointed out some weaknesses. One such weakness is the difficulty that came with raising horses that were suited for battle. Not only do horses require a large area to graze, but training them to be comfortable in battle takes a significant amount of time. This weakness was the biggest factor that limited the number of mounted archers available for the Hungarians. Another weakness is the fact that the bows used by the Magyars proved ineffective during inclement weather like rain. Without the ability to play to their strength, the Magyars would be forced to rely on melee combat, which was another weakness for them.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 August, the German scouts reported that the Hungarian army was in the vicinity. Otto I deployed his army for battle the next day. The order of march of the German army was as follows: the three Bavarian contingents, the Frankish contingent under Duke Konrad, the royal unit (the center), the two contingents of Swabians and the Bohemian contingent guarding the supply train in the rear. The Bavarians were placed at the head of column, according to Delbrück, because they were marching through Bavarian territory and they therefore knew the territory best. All of these were mounted. The German army marched through woodland that protected them from the Hungarian arrowstorm but also made it more difficult to see the Hungarian movements.",
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"plaintext": "According to the chronicler Widukind of Corvey, Otto I \"pitched his camp in the territory of the city of Augsburg and joined there the forces of Henry I, Duke of Bavaria, who was himself lying mortally ill nearby, and by Duke Conrad with a large following of Franconian knights. Conrad's unexpected arrival encouraged the warriors so much that they wished to attack the enemy immediately.\"",
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"plaintext": "The arrival of Conrad, the exiled Duke of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and Otto I's son-in-law, was particularly heartening because he had recently thrown in his lot with the Magyars, but now returned to fight under Otto I; in the ensuing battle he lost his life. A legion of Swabians was commanded by Burchard III, Duke of Swabia, who had married Otto I's niece Hedwig. Also among those fighting under Otto I was Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia. Otto I himself led the legio regia, stronger than any of the others in both numbers and quality.",
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"plaintext": "The main Hungarian army blocked Otto I's way to Augsburg. A contingent of Hungarian horse-archers crossed the river west of Augsburg and immediately attacked the Bohemian legion from the flank. The Bohemians were routed and the two Swabian legions were badly damaged. The Hungarians stopped to plunder the German baggage train and Duke Conrad the Red used the opportunity to attack the vulnerable Hungarians and shatter them. Conrad returned to Otto I with captured Hungarian banners. Conrad's victory prevented the German army from being encircled.",
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"plaintext": "Otto I rallied his men with a speech in which he claimed the Germans had better weapons than the Hungarians. Otto I then led the German army into battle with the main Hungarian force, defeating them. How the main Ottonian military defeated the Hungarians, however, is somewhat unclear. This is because Widukind's account of the battle is remarkably short and lacking in detail, which is surprising considering the significance of the battle. This has left some historians to speculate how the battle played out based on the strategies outlined in Vegetius's Epitome of Military Science, which heavily influenced Ottonian strategy. According to these historians, while the infantry approached the center of the Magyar formation, Conrad's cavalry, posted on the left wing and protected on its flank from nearby cliffs, would stay out of range of the Hungarian archers but would also attempt to draw them more to their right. Meanwhile the royal legion, under Otto I's personal leadership, engaged the enemy from the right. Although the King's forces suffered losses from the archers, this gave the royal legion the opportunity to directly assault the Magyars in close combat, which was not the Magyar's area of strength. Conrad's forces would then wheel in from Otto I's left wing, putting the Hungarians in danger of being enveloped. Seeing the day going against them, the Hungarians retreated in ordered formations across the Lech to the east. Otto I's army pursued, killing every captured Hungarian. The Germans took the Hungarian camp, liberating prisoners and reclaiming booty.",
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"plaintext": "However, Otto I did not chase the Magyars much longer that day and for several reasons. This proved to be a wise decision. Although the Hungarians suffered heavy losses, so did the King's forces. Three legions, in the rear of the relief column, had been decimated. Furthermore, because of their heavy equipment, Otto I's men were no doubt more affected by the stifling heat than their lightly armored opponents. Simply put, the King and his men were in no position to pursue and destroy the Magyars that day, leaving the initial battle a draw. The Magyars were also known to pull off feigned retreats, when they would lure their opponents into more advantageous positions, like open fields, then they would turn and defeat them. A notable example occurred in 910 against East Frankish forces. This time the King instead opted to spend the night after the battle in Augsburg. On 11 August he specifically issued the order that all river crossings were to be held. This was done so that as many of the Hungarians as possible and specifically their leaders, could be captured and killed. This strategy proved successful, as Duke Henry of Bavaria captured a number of their leaders and killed them. Some Hungarians tried to flee across an unknown river but were swept away by the current. The destruction of the Hungarian army continued on 12 August, when heavy rainfall and flooding allowing the German troops, operating from nearby fortifications, to kill almost all the fleeing Hungarian soldiers. The majority of these fortifications had been built and fortified during the reign of Otto I's father, Henry I of Saxony, as part of his defense-in-depth strategy against enemy invaders. If these had not been in place, it is very likely that the Hungarians could have completed an orderly retreat once the floodwaters receded and the Battle of Lechfeld would have remained a draw, furthermore, it is entirely possible that the Hungarians would have eventually returned and continue raiding Latin Christendom.",
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"plaintext": "The captured Magyars were either executed, or sent back to their ruling prince, Taksony, missing their ears and noses. The Hungarian leaders Lél, Bulcsú and Súr, who were not Árpáds, were executed after the battle. Duke Conrad was also killed, after he loosened his mail armour in the summer heat and one arrow struck his throat.",
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"plaintext": "Upon destruction of the Hungarian forces, the German army proclaimed Otto I father of the fatherland and emperor. In 962, on the strength of this, Otto I went to Rome and had himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII.",
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"plaintext": "The Hungarian leaders Bulcsú, Lehel and Súr were taken to Regensburg and hanged with many other Hungarians.",
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"plaintext": "The German annihilation of the Hungarian army definitively ended the attacks of Magyar nomads against Latin Europe. The Hungarian historian Gyula Kristó calls it a \"catastrophic defeat\". After the defeat, the Hungarians reached the end of almost a century as Europe's dominant military.",
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"plaintext": "After 955, the Hungarians completely ceased all campaigns westwards. In addition, Otto I did not launch any further military campaigns against them; their leader Fajsz was dethroned following their defeat, and was succeeded as Grand Prince of the Hungarians by Taksony.",
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"plaintext": "This battle has been viewed as a symbolic victory for the knightly cavalry, who would define European warfare in the High Middle Ages, over the nomadic light cavalry that characterized warfare during the Early Middle Ages in Central and Eastern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Paul K. Davis writes, the \"Magyar defeat ended more than 90 years of their pillaging western Europe and convinced survivors to settle down, creating the basis for the state of Hungary.\"",
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"plaintext": " Partial previews are at the and the .",
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"plaintext": " Reprinted: ",
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"plaintext": "A think tank, or policy institute, is a research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most think tanks are non-governmental organizations, but some are semi-autonomous agencies within government or are associated with particular political parties, businesses or the military. Think-tank funding often includes a combination of donations from wealthy individuals and personal contributions, with many also accepting government grants.",
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"plaintext": "Think tanks publish articles, studies or even draft legislation on particular matters of policy or society. This information is then used by governments, businesses, media organizations, social movements or other interest groups. Think tanks range from those associated with highly academic or scholarly activities to those that are overtly ideological and pushing for particular policies, with a wide range among them in terms of the quality of their research. Later generations of think tanks have tended to be more ideologically oriented. Modern think tanks began as a phenomenon in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with most of the rest being established in other English-speaking countries. Prior to 1945, they tended to focus on the economic issues associated with industrialization and urbanization. During the Cold War, many more American and Western think tanks were established, which often guided governmental Cold War policy. Since 1991, more think tanks have been established in non-Western parts of the world. More than half of all think tanks that exist today were established after 1980.",
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"plaintext": "This article lists global policy institutes according to continental categories and then sub-categories by country within those areas. These listings are not comprehensive, given that more than 7,500 think tanks exist worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "According to historian Jacob Soll, while the term \"think tank\" is modern, its concept \"can be traced to the humanist academies and scholarly networks of the 16th and 17th centuries.\" Soll writes that \"in Europe, the origins of think tanks go back to the 800s when emperors and kings began arguing with the Catholic Church about taxes. A tradition of hiring teams of independent lawyers to advise monarchs about their financial and political prerogatives against the church spans from Charlemagne all the way to the 17th century, when the kings of France were still arguing about whether they had the right to appoint bishops and receive a cut of their income.\" Soll cites as an early example the , created in Paris around 1620 by the brothers Pierre and and also known after 1635 as the . The Club de l'Entresol, active in Paris between 1723 and 1731, was another prominent example of an early independent think tank focusing on public policy and current affairs, especially economics and foreign affairs.",
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"plaintext": "Several major current think tanks were founded in the 19th century. The Royal United Services Institute was founded in 1831 in London, and the Fabian Society in 1884. The oldest American think tank, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, was founded in Washington, D.C., in 1910 by philanthropist Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie charged trustees to use the fund to \"hasten the abolition of international war, the foulest blot upon our civilization.\" The Brookings Institution was founded shortly thereafter in 1916 by Robert S. Brookings and was conceived as a bipartisan \"research center modeled on academic institutions and focused on addressing the questions of the federal government.\"",
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"plaintext": "After 1945, the number of policy institutes increased, with many small new ones forming to express various issues and policy agendas. Until the 1940s, most think tanks were known only by the name of the institution. During the Second World War, think tanks were often referred to as \"brain boxes\" after the slang term for skull.",
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"plaintext": "Before the 1950s, the phrase \"think tank\" did not refer to organizations. From its first appearances in the 1890s up to the 1950s, the phrase was most commonly used in American English to colloquially and pejoratively refer to the human brain itself when commenting on an individual's failings (in the sense that something was wrong with that person's \"think tank\"). Around 1958, the first organization to be regularly described in published writings as \"the Think Tank\" (note the capitalization and the use of the definite article) was the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. However, the Center does not count itself as and is not perceived to be a think tank in the contemporary sense. During the 1960s, the phrase \"think tank\" was attached more broadly to meetings of experts, electronic computers, and independent military planning organizations. The prototype and most prominent example of the third category was the RAND Corporation, which was founded in 1946 as an offshoot of Douglas Aircraft and became an independent corporation in 1948. In the 1970s, the phrase became more specifically defined in terms of RAND and its ilk. During the 1980s and 1990s, the phrase evolved again to arrive at its broader contemporary meaning of an independent public policy research institute.",
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"plaintext": "For most of the 20th century, such institutes were found primarily in the United States, along with much smaller numbers in Canada, the UK, and Western Europe. Although think tanks had also existed in Japan for some time, they generally lacked independence, having close associations with government ministries or corporations. There has been a veritable proliferation of \"think tanks\" around the world that began during the 1980s as a result of globalization, the end of the Cold War, and the emergence of transnational problems. Two-thirds of all the think tanks that exist today were established after 1970 and more than half were established since 1980.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of globalisation on the proliferation of think tanks is most evident in regions such as Africa, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and parts of Southeast Asia, where there was a concerted effort by other countries to assist in the creation of independent public policy research organizations. A survey performed by the Foreign Policy Research Institute's Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program underscores the significance of this effort and documents the fact that most of the think tanks in these regions have been established since 1992. , there were more than 4,500 of these institutions worldwide. Many of the more established think tanks, having been created during the Cold War, are focused on international affairs, security studies, and foreign policy.",
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"plaintext": "Think tanks vary by ideological perspectives, sources of funding, topical emphasis and prospective consumers. Funding may also represent who or what the institution wants to influence; in the United States, for example, \"Some donors want to influence votes in Congress or shape public opinion, others want to position themselves or the experts they fund for future government jobs, while others want to push specific areas of research or education.\"",
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"plaintext": "A new trend, resulting from globalization, is collaboration between policy institutes in different countries. For instance, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace operates offices in Washington, D.C., Beijing, Beirut, Brussels and Moscow.",
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"plaintext": "The Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program (TTCSP) at the University of Pennsylvania, led by Dr. James McGann, annually rates policy institutes worldwide in a number of categories and presents its findings in the Global Go-To Think Tanks rating index. However, this method of the study and assessment of policy institutes has been criticized by researchers such as Enrique Mendizabal and Goran Buldioski, Director of the Think Tank Fund, assisted by the Open Society Institute.",
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"plaintext": "Several authors have indicated a number of different methods of describing policy institutes in a way that takes into account regional and national variations. For example:",
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"plaintext": " Independent civil society think tanks established as non-profit organisations—ideologically identifiable or not;",
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"plaintext": " Policy research institutes affiliated with a university;",
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"plaintext": " Governmentally created or state sponsored think tanks;",
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{
"plaintext": " Corporate created or business affiliated think tanks;",
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"section_name": "Types",
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{
"plaintext": " Political party think tanks and legacy or personal think tanks;",
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"section_name": "Types",
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"plaintext": " Global (or regional) think tanks (with some of the above).",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, one could use some of the following criteria:",
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"plaintext": " Size and focus: e.g., large and diversified, large and specialized, small and specialized;",
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"plaintext": " Evolution of stage of development: e.g., first (small), second (small to large but more complex projects), and third (larger and policy influence) stages;",
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"plaintext": " Strategy, including: Funding sources (individuals, corporations, foundations, donors/governments, endowments, sales/events) and business model (independent research, contract work, advocacy); The balance between research, consultancy, and advocacy; The source of their arguments: Ideology, values or interests; applied, empirical or synthesis research; or theoretical or academic research (Stephen Yeo); The manner in which the research agenda is developed—by senior members of the think tank or by individual researchers, or by the think tank of their funders; Their influencing approaches and tactics (many researchers but an interesting one comes from Abelson) and the time horizon for their strategies: long term and short term mobilisation; Their various audiences of the think tanks (audiences as consumers and publi provides a good framework for China); and Affiliation, which refers to the issue of independence (or autonomy) but also includes think tanks with formal and informal links to political parties, interest groups and other political players.",
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"plaintext": "In some cases, corporate interests, military interests and political groups have found it useful to create policy institutes, advocacy organizations, and think tanks. For example, The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition was formed in the mid-1990s to dispute research finding an association between second-hand smoke and cancer. Military contractors may spend a portion of their tender on funding pro-war think tanks. According to an internal memorandum from Philip Morris Companies referring to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), \"The credibility of the EPA is defeatable, but not on the basis of ETS environmental tobacco smoke alone,... It must be part of a larger mosaic that concentrates all the EPA's enemies against it at one time.\"",
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"plaintext": "According to the Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, both left-wing and right-wing policy institutes are often quoted and rarely identified as such. The result is that think tank \"experts\" are sometimes depicted as neutral sources without any ideological predispositions when, in fact, they represent a particular perspective. In the United States, think tank publications on education are subjected to expert review by the National Education Policy Center's \"Think Twice\" think tank review project.",
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"plaintext": "A 2014 New York Times report asserted that foreign governments buy influence at many United States think tanks. According to the article: \"More than a dozen prominent Washington research groups have received tens of millions of dollars from foreign governments in recent years while pushing United States government officials to adopt policies that often reflect the donors' priorities.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ghana's first president, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, set up various state-supported think tanks in the 1960s. By the 1990s, a variety of policy research centers sprang up in Africa set up by academics who sought to influence public policy in Ghana.",
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"plaintext": "One such think tank was The Institute of Economic Affairs, Ghana, which was founded in 1989 when the country was ruled by the Provisional National Defence Council. The IEA undertakes and publishes research on a range of economic and governance issues confronting Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa. It has also been involved in bringing political parties together to engage in dialogue. In particular it has organised Presidential debates every election year since the Ghanaian presidential election, 1996.",
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"plaintext": "Notable think tanks in Ghana include:",
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"plaintext": "IMANI Centre for Policy and Education",
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"plaintext": " The Institute of Economic Affairs, Ghana (IEA)",
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"plaintext": " AMAQUEN, founded in 2003, is a think tank in the field of education through its publications (rapports), international scientific journal The Journal of Quality in Education, and international events (CIMQUSEF). According to Marianne Republic, AMAQUEN is a leading think tank for education-related topics.",
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"plaintext": " Heritage Institute for Policy Studies",
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"plaintext": " Puntland Development Research Center",
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"plaintext": " Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa",
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"plaintext": " Free Market Foundation",
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"plaintext": " FW de Klerk Foundation",
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"plaintext": " Helen Suzman Foundation",
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"plaintext": " Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa (IDASA)",
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"plaintext": " Institute for Justice and Reconciliation",
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"plaintext": " Institute for Security Studies",
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"plaintext": " South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA)",
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"plaintext": " South African Institute of Race Relations",
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"plaintext": "Afghanistan has a number of think tanks that are in the form of governmental, non-governmental, and corporate organizations.",
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"plaintext": "Afghanistan Analysts Network",
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"plaintext": "Centre for Conflict and Peace Studies",
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"plaintext": "According to the Global Go Think Tank Report 2012, there are 14 think tanks in Armenia, the majority of which are located in Yerevan. Notable think tanks in Armenia include the Economic Development and Research Center (EDRC) and International Center for Human Development (ICHD).",
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"plaintext": "Bangladesh has a number of think tanks that are in the form of governmental, non-governmental, and corporate organizations.",
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"plaintext": " Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS)",
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"plaintext": " Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs (BILIA)",
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"plaintext": " Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies (BIPSS)",
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"plaintext": " Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD)",
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"plaintext": " International Growth Centre (IGC)",
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"plaintext": " Making Our Economy Right (MOER)",
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"plaintext": " Bangladesh Institute of Labour Studies (BILS)",
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"plaintext": "In the People's Republic of China a number of think tanks are sponsored by governmental agencies like Development Research Center of the State Council, but still retain sufficient non-official status to be able to propose and debate ideas more freely. In January 2012, the first non-official think tank in China, South Non-Governmental Think-Tank, was established in the Guangdong province. In 2009 the China Center for International Economic Exchanges was founded.",
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"plaintext": "In Hong Kong, early think tanks established in the late 1980s and early 1990s focused on political development, including the first direct Legislative Council members election in 1991 and the political framework of \"One Country, Two Systems\", manifested in the Sino-British Joint Declaration. After the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997, more think tanks were established by various groups of intellectuals and professionals. They have various missions and objectives including promoting civic education; undertaking research on economic, social and political policies; and promoting \"public understanding of and participation in the political, economic, and social development of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region\".",
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"plaintext": "Think tanks in Hong Kong include:",
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"plaintext": "Bauhinia Foundation Research Centre",
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"plaintext": "Business and Professionals Federation of Hong Kong",
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"plaintext": "Central Policy Unit",
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"plaintext": "Civic Exchange",
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"plaintext": "The Global Institute for Tomorrow",
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"plaintext": "HKGolden50",
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"plaintext": "Hong Kong Christian Industrial Committee",
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"plaintext": "Hong Kong Democratic Foundation",
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"plaintext": "Hong Kong People's Council on Housing Policy",
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"plaintext": "The Lion Rock Institute",
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},
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"plaintext": "New Century Forum",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Our Hong Kong Foundation",
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"target_page_ids": [
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24
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},
{
"plaintext": "One Country Two Systems Research Institute",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": "Path of Democracy",
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},
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"plaintext": "Policy Innovation and Co-ordination Unit",
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"plaintext": "Professional Commons",
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"plaintext": "India has the world's second-largest number of think tanks. Most are based in New Delhi, and a few are government-sponsored. There are few think tanks that promote environmentally responsible and climate resilient ideas like Centre for Science and Environment, Centre for Policy Research and World Resources Institute. There are other prominent think tanks like Observer Research Foundation, Tillotoma Foundation and Centre for Civil Society.",
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"plaintext": "In Mumbai, Strategic Foresight Group is a global think tank that works on issues such as Water Diplomacy, Peace and Conflict and Foresight (futures studies). Think tanks with a development focus include those like the National Centre for Cold-chain Development ('NCCD'), which serve to bring an inclusive policy change by supporting the Planning Commission and related government bodies with industry-specific inputs – in this case, set up at the behest of the government to direct cold chain development. Some think tanks have a fixed set of focus areas and they work towards finding out policy solutions to social problems in the respective areas.",
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"plaintext": "Initiatives such as National e-Governance Plan (to automate administrative processes) and National Knowledge Network (NKN) (for data and resource sharing amongst education and research institutions), if implemented properly, should help improve the quality of work done by think tanks.",
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"plaintext": "ThinkTanks in India are growing across the length and breadth of the country as it is no more limited to metro cities. The youth age think tanks like RisingIndia ThinkTank has emerged from one of the smallest city in Rajasthan state of India.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Centre for Strategic and International Studies",
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"plaintext": " Setara Institute",
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"plaintext": "There are over 50 recently emerged think tanks in Iraq, particularly in the Kurdistan Region. Iraq's leading think tank is the Middle East Research Institute (MERI), based in Erbil. MERI is an independent non-governmental policy research organization, established in 2014 and publishes in English, Kurdish, and Arabic. It was listed in the global ranking by the United States's Lauder Institute of the University of Pennsylvania as 46th in the Middle East.",
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},
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"plaintext": "There are many think tank teams in Israel, including:",
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"plaintext": " Shaharit - Creating Common Cause",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Jerusalem Institute for Market Studies (JIMS)",
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"target_page_ids": [
5361499
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},
{
"plaintext": " Reut Institute",
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},
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"plaintext": " Israel Council on Foreign Relations",
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"plaintext": " The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs",
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},
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"plaintext": " Adva Center",
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},
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"plaintext": " Israel Democracy Institute",
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12047861
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},
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"plaintext": " Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute",
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"plaintext": " Floersheimer Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem",
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229168
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"plaintext": " Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem",
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229168
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},
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"plaintext": " International Institute for Counter-Terrorism – IDC Herziliya",
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"plaintext": " Israel Center for Third Sector Research, Ben Gurion University of the Negev",
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"plaintext": " IPCRI – Israel/Palestine Center for Research and Information",
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"plaintext": " The Milken Institute",
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{
"plaintext": " Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, Tel Aviv University",
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"plaintext": " The Begin-Sadat Center – Bar Ilan University",
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"plaintext": " The Center for the Study of Philanthropy in Israel at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem",
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Israel Institute for Advanced Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem",
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"plaintext": " The Jewish Arab Center (JAC), University of Haifa",
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"plaintext": " The Jewish People Policy Institute (JPPI)",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Shalem Center",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Institute for National Security Studies, affiliated with Tel Aviv University.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Japan has over 100 think tanks, most of which cover not only policy research but also economy, technology and so on. Some are government related, but most of the think tanks are sponsored by the private sector. ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Institute of World Economics and Politics (IWEP) at the Foundation of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan was created in 2003. IWEP activities aimed at research problems of the world economy, international relations, geopolitics, security, integration and Eurasia, as well as the study of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and its contribution to the establishment and strengthening of Kazakhstan as an independent state, the development of international cooperation and the promotion of peace and stability.",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the RK (KazISS) was established by the Decree of the President of RK on 16 June 1993. Since its foundation the main mission of the Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as a national think tank, is to maintain analytical and research support for the President of Kazakhstan.",
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{
"plaintext": "Most Malaysian think tanks are related either to the government or a political party. Historically they focused on defense, politics and policy. However, in recent years, think tanks that focus on international trade, economics, and social sciences have also been founded.",
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"plaintext": "Notable think tanks in Malaysia include:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Institute for Democracy and Economic Affairs (IDEAS)",
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},
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"plaintext": "Institute for Pioneering of Education and Economic Excellence (INSPIRE)",
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"plaintext": "Maritime Institute of Malaysia (MIMA)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Jauhar Academy of Social Sciences (JASS)",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Jeffrey Cheah Institute on Southeast Asia (JCI)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Malaysian Industry-Government Group for High Technology (MIGHT)",
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},
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"plaintext": "Islamic Renaissance Front (IRF)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pakistan's think tanks mainly revolve around social policy, internal politics, foreign security issues, and regional geo-politics. Most of these are centered on the capital, Islamabad. One notable think tank is the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI), which focuses on policy advocacy and research particularly in the area of environment and social development. Another notable policy research institute based in Islamabad is the Institute of Social and Policy Sciences (I-SAPS) which works in the fields of education, health, disaster risk reduction, governance, conflict and stabilization.",
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"plaintext": "Think tanks in the Philippines could be generally categorized in terms of their linkages with the national government. Several were set up by the Philippine government for the specific purpose of providing research input into the policy-making process.",
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"plaintext": "Sri Lanka has a number of think tanks that are in the form of governmental, non-governmental and corporate organizations.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Lakshman Kadirgamar Institute of International Relations and Strategic Studies is a policy-studies institute that is often referred to as a think tank.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "LIRNEasia is a think tank working across the Asia-Pacific on regulatory and policy issues. Their main focus is the ICT sector, although they do work in other sectors, such as agriculture and health, which can benefit from ICT.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Verité Research is an interdisciplinary think tank in Colombo.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "There are several think tanks in Singapore that advise the government on various policies and as well as private ones for corporations within the region. Many of them are hosted within the local public educational institutions.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Among them are the Singapore Institute of International Affairs (SIIA), Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), and the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 2017 Taiwan had 58 think tanks, the 25th most in the world. Like in most countries there is a mix of government funded and privately funded Think Tanks.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Taiwanese think tanks in alphabetical order:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Institute for National Defense and Security Research",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prospect Foundation",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Taiwan Asia Exchange Foundation",
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},
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"plaintext": " Taiwan Competitiveness Forum",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Taiwan Foundation for Democracy",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Taiwan Institute of Economic Research",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Thailand Development Research Institute",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "iLaw",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The UAE has been a center for political oriented think tanks which concentrate on both regional and global policy. Notable think tank have emerged in the global debate on terrorism, education & economical policies in the MENA region. Think tanks include:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Al Mesbar Studies and Research Centre",
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Dubai Economic Council",
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0,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Gulf Research Center",
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0,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Orient Research Centre",
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": " CED – Center for Economic Development (Центр Содействия Экономическому Развитию) is a think tank whose major tasks are: analytic support in economic reforming and development in Uzbekistan; improving knowledge and skills of the subjects of economic development; assistance in productive dialogue between the government, civil society and private sectors on the economic development matters.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Key projects: Preparation of the National human development report for Uzbekistan, Sociological \"portrait\" of the Uzbek businessman, Preparation of an analytical report on export procedures optimization in Uzbekistan,",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "various industry and marketing researches in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Institute for Policy Studies and Media Development(IPS). ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Vietnam Center for Economic and Strategic Studies(VESS).",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Most Australian think tanks are based at universities – for example, the Melbourne Institute – or are government-funded – for example, the Productivity Commission or the CSIRO.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Private sources fund about 20 to 30 \"independent\" Australian think tanks. The best-known of these think tanks play a much more limited role in Australian public and business policy-making than do their equivalents in the United States. However, in the past decade the number of think tanks has increased substantially. Prominent Australian conservative think tanks include the Centre for Independent Studies, the Sydney Institute and the Institute of Public Affairs. Prominent leftist Australian think tanks include the McKell Institute, Per Capita, the Australia Institute, the Lowy Institute and the Centre for Policy Development. In recent years regionally-based independent and non-partisan think tanks have emerged. Some, such as the Illawarra's i-eat-drink-think, engage in discussion, research and advocacy within a broader civics framework. Commercial think tanks like the Gartner Group, Access Economics, the Helmsman Institute, and others provide additional insight which complements not-for-profit organisations such as CEDA, the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, and the Australian Institute of Company Directors to provide more targeted policy in defence, program governance, corporate governance and similar.",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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{
"plaintext": "Listed in alphabetical order, think tanks based in Australia include:",
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"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Air Power Australia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Asia Education Foundation",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
28720603
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Asialink",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
28630482
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Australia Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
5892850
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Fabian Society",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
1821296
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Institute of International Affairs",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
2485930
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Institute of Policy & Science",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
18242103
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Strategic Policy Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
7466968
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Brisbane Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
3017396
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Centre for Independent Studies",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
1920106
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Centre for Policy Development",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
18442580
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chifley Research Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
2534612
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Committee for Economic Development of Australia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
3426520
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Consumer Policy Research Centre (CPRC)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Crowther Centre for Learning and Innovation",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
18694411
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Development Policy Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
38540756
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Doctors Reform Society of Australia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
7654662
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Evatt Foundation",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
8296262
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grattan Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
26467943
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " H. R. Nicholls Society",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
5693839
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Infrastructure Partnerships Australia",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
36838118
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Institute for Economics and Peace",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
26944363
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Institute of Public Affairs",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
1458330
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " International Energy Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
31160742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " International WaterCentre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
31589602
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Issues Deliberation Australia/America",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
9333594
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Laboratory for Visionary Architecture",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
35702172
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lowy Institute for International Policy",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
4250804
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mannkal Economic Education Foundation",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
33520528
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Green Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
65069378
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The McKell Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
35988474
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
5556637
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Menzies Research Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
5893121
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " National Civic Council",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
8400424
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New South Wales Institute for Educational Research",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
23281446
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Per Capita",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
8272373
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel Griffith Society",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
16203820
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Strategic and Defence Studies Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
10139033
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sydney Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
3942994
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Transport and Logistics Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
2869644
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " United States Studies Centre",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
18069542
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Western Australia Policy Forum",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
18875643
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Think tanks based in New Zealand include:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Centre for Strategic Studies New Zealand",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
6602755
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Child Poverty Action Group (Aotearoa New Zealand)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
7253058
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Helen Clark Foundation",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
60347279
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maxim Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
1031066
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " McGuinness Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
23951534
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Motu Economic and Public Policy Research",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
34852829
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New Zealand Centre for Global Studies",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " New Zealand Initiative",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
1458523
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New Zealand Institute of Economic Research",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
17396406
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Brussels hosts most of the European Institutions, hence a large number of international think tanks are based there. Notable think tanks are Bruegel, the Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), Centre for the New Europe (CNE), the European Centre of International Political Economy (ECIPE), the European Policy Centre (EPC), the Friends of Europe, the Global Governance Institute (GGI), Liberales, and Sport and Citizenship, among others.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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[
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[
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355,
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],
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],
[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Bulgaria has a number of think tanks providing expertise and shaping policies, including Institute of Modern Politics.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " The European Values Think-Tank",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
47678126
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"anchor_spans": [
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5,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Prague Security Studies Institute (PSSI)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
5674417
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"anchor_spans": [
[
5,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " CEPOS is a classic liberal/free-market conservative think tank in Denmark.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
1876206
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
6
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Finland has several small think tanks that provide expertise in very specific fields. Notable think tanks include:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Åland Islands Peace Institute",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
12925585
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Demos Helsinki",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
67558443
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
55655936
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Crisis Management Initiative (CMI)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
2879510
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Research Institute of the Finnish Economy (Etla)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
6520355
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Finnish Institute of International Affairs",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
17402744
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In addition to specific independent think tanks, the largest political parties have their own think tank organizations. This is mainly due to support granted by state for such activity. The corporate world has focused their efforts to central representative organization Confederation of Finnish Industries, which acts as think tank in addition to negotiating salaries with workers unions. Furthermore, there is the Finnish Business and Policy Forum (Elinkeinoelämän valtuuskunta, EVA). Agricultural and regional interests, associated with The Central Union of Agricultural Producers and Forest Owners (Maa- ja metsätaloustuottajain Keskusliitto, MTK) and the Centre Party, are researched by Pellervo Economic Research (Pellervon taloustutkimus, PTT). The Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions (Suomen Ammattiliittojen Keskusjärjestö, SAK) and the Social Democratic Party are associated with the Labour Institute for Economic Research (Palkansaajien tutkimuslaitos, PT). The Finns Party established its own think tank, Suomen Perusta, in 2012. Each of these organizations often release forecasts concerning the national economy.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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"plaintext": "The French Institute of International Relations (IFRI) was founded in 1979 and is the third oldest think tank of western Europe, after Chatham House (UK, 1920) and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (Sweden, 1960). The primary goals of IFRI are to develop applied research in the field of public policy related to international issues, and foster interactive and constructive dialogue between researchers, professionals, and opinion leaders. France also hosts the European Union Institute for Security Studies (EUISS), a Paris-based agency of the European Union and think tank researching security issues of relevance for the EU. There are also a number of pro-business think tanks, notably the Paris-based Fondation Concorde. The foundation focuses on increasing the competitiveness of French SME's and aims to revive entrepreneurship in France.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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{
"plaintext": "On the left, the main think tanks in France are the Fondation Jean-Jaurès, which is organizationally linked to the French Socialist Party, and Terra Nova. Terra Nova is an independent left-leaning think tank, although it is nevertheless considered to be close to the Socialists. It works on producing reports and analyses of current public policy issues from a progressive point of view, and contributing to the intellectual renewal of social democracy.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [
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153
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{
"plaintext": "The only French Think Tank mentioned in the \"think tanks to watch\" list of the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report is a French think tank created by Gaspard Koenig in 2013, independent from all political parties, which aims at promoting freedoms in France, in terms of fundamental rights, economics and societal issues. GenerationLibre is described as being able to connect to the right on pro business freedom and regulations issues but also to the left on issues such as basic income, gay marriage and the legalization of marijuana.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In Germany all of the major parties are loosely associated with research foundations that play some role in shaping policy, but generally from the more disinterested role of providing research to support policymakers than explicitly proposing policy. These include the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (Christian Democratic Union-aligned), the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (Social Democratic Party-aligned), the Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung (Christian Social Union-aligned), the Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (aligned with the Greens), Friedrich Naumann Foundation (Free Democratic Party-aligned) and the Rosa Luxemburg Foundation (aligned with Die Linke).",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Global think tanks",
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"plaintext": "The German Institute for International and Security Affairs is a foreign policy think tank. Atlantic Community is an independent, non-partisan and non-profit organization set up as a joint project of Atlantische Initiative e.V. and Atlantic Initiative United States. The Institute for Media and Communication Policy deals with media-related issues. Transparency International is a think tank on the role of corporate and political corruption in international development.",
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"plaintext": "In Greece there are many think tanks, also called research organisations or institutes.",
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"plaintext": " The Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) is an independent research institute in Dublin, Ireland. Its research focuses on Ireland's economic and social development to inform policy-making and societal understanding.",
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"plaintext": " The Institute of International and European Affairs (IIEA) focuses on European and International affairs.",
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"plaintext": " The Iona Institute is a conservative, Catholic think tank.",
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"plaintext": " TASC (Think tank for Action on Social Change) is an Irish left-wing think tank.",
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"plaintext": " Transhuman Corporation is a research think tank that focuses on cyber and technology development.",
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{
"plaintext": " Bruno Leoni Institute",
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"plaintext": " Future Italy",
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"plaintext": " ISPI – Italian Institute for International Political Studies",
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"plaintext": " Istituto Affari Internazionali",
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"plaintext": " Trinità dei Monti",
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"plaintext": "While think tanks are not widespread in Latvia, as opposed to single issue advocacy organizations, there are several noticeable institutions in the Latvian think tank landscape:",
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"plaintext": " The oldest think tank in Latvia is the Latvian Institute of International Affairs. LIIA is a non governmental and non partisan foundation, established in 1992, and their research and advocacy mainly focuses on Latvian foreign policy; Transatlantic relations; European Union policies, including its neighborhood policy and Eastern Partnership; and multilateral and bilateral relations with Russia.",
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"plaintext": " Centre for Public policy PROVIDUS is a non governmental and non partisan association, established in 2002. Providus focuses their work (both research and advocacy) on topics especially relevant in transition and post-transition environments and Latvia in particular: good governance; criminal justice policy; tolerance and inclusive public policy and European policy.",
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"plaintext": "There are several think tanks that are established and operate under the auspices of Universities, such as:",
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"plaintext": " Centre for European and transition studies is a think tank working under the auspices of the University of Latvia, the largest public university in the country. CETS was established in 2000.",
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"plaintext": " or Defense research centre in 1992 under the auspices of the National Academy of Defense.",
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"plaintext": "Vilnius Institute for Policy Analysis (VIPA) is an independent non-governmental, non-profit, non-partisan policy think tank in Lithuania whose mission is to stand for the principles of open society, liberal democracy, rule of law and human rights. VIPA acts via advocacy for strong and safe European Union, analyzing and advocating for anti-authoritarian, transparent, and open governance ideas in Central and Eastern Europe, is an opinion leader offering an alternative opinion to the public versus populism, radicalism, and authoritarian trends, reinforcing active citizens' participation in decision making, analyzing fake news, disinformation, and offering media literacy initiatives, putting forward solutions to improve the accountability, transparency, and openness of Lithuania's public sector, building a network of open society values oriented experts, civil activists and NGO's.",
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"plaintext": "All major political parties in the Netherlands have state-sponsored research foundations that play a role in shaping policy. The Dutch government also has its own think tank: the Scientific Council for Government Policy. The Netherlands furthermore hosts the Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael, or Clingendael Institute, an independent think tank and diplomatic academy which studies various aspects of international relations.",
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"plaintext": "There is a large pool of think tanks in Poland on a wide variety of subjects. The oldest state-sponsored think tank is The Western Institute in Poznań (Polish: Instytut Zachodni). The second oldest is the Polish Institute of International Affairs (PISM) established in 1947. Another notable state-sponsored think tank is the Centre for Eastern Studies (OSW), which specializes in the countries neighboring Poland and in the Baltic Sea region, the Balkans, Turkey, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Among the private think tanks notable organizations include the Institute for Structural Research (IBS) on economic policy, The Casimir Pulaski Foundation on foreign policy, the Institute of Public Affairs (ISP) on social policy, and the Sobieski Institute.",
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"plaintext": "Founded in 1970, the SEDES is one of the oldest Portuguese civic associations and think tanks. Contraditório think tank was founded in 2008. Contraditório is a non-profit, independent and non-partisan think tank.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian Academic Society (SAR), founded in 1996, is a Romanian think tank for policy research.",
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"plaintext": "The Foundation for the Advancement of Economics (FREN) was founded in 2005 by the Belgrade University's Faculty of Economics.",
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"plaintext": "Besides the international think tanks present in the surrounding countries as well (with Open Society Foundations being the most notable one) Slovakia has a host of its own think tanks as well. Some of the think tanks in Slovakia focus on public policy issues, such as Institute for Public Affairs (Slovakia) (Inštitút pre verejné otázky or IVO in Slovak) or Central European Labour Studies Institute (Stredoeurópsky inštitút pre výskum práce or CELSI in Slovak). Others specialize on human rights issues such as minority protection, for example Forum Minority Research Institute (Fórum Kisebbségkutató Intézet or Fórum Intézet in Hungarian and Fórum inštitút pre výskum menšín or Fórum inštitút in Slovak). Since some of the Slovak think tanks are perceived to be associated with right-wing and liberal parties of Slovakia (with the perception being particularly strong among Slovak nationalists), findings and proposals made by these organizations are generally resented or ignored by left-wing supporters and nationalists.",
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"plaintext": "The Elcano Royal Institute was created in 2001 following the example of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) in the UK, although it is closely linked to (and receives funding from) the government in power.",
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"plaintext": "More independent but clearly to the left of the political spectrum are the Centro de Investigaciones de Relaciones Internacionales y Desarrollo (CIDOB) founded in 1973; and the Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE) established in 1999 by Diego Hidalgo and main driving force behind projects such as the Club de Madrid, a group of democratic former heads of state and government, the Foreign Policy Spanish Edition and DARA.",
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"plaintext": "Former Prime Minister José Maria Aznar presides over the Fundación para el Analisis y los Estudios Sociales (FAES), a policy institute that is associated with the conservative Popular Party (PP). Also linked to the PP is the Grupo de Estudios Estratégicos (GEES), which is known for its defense- and security-related research and analysis. For its part, the Fundación Alternativas is independent but close to left-wing ideas. The Socialist Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE) created Fundación Ideas in 2009 and dissolved it in January 2014. Also in 2009, the centrist Union, Progress and Democracy (UPyD) created Fundación Progreso y Democracia (FPyD).",
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"plaintext": "Timbro is a free market think tank and book publisher based in Stockholm.",
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"plaintext": "Think tanks based within Switzerland include:",
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"plaintext": "Avenir Suisse, founded in 1999 by fifteen of the largest Swiss companies. It is supported by over 130 companies to date.",
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"plaintext": "DCAF, the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, founded in 2000 to research security sector governance and reform.",
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"plaintext": "Gottlieb Duttweiler Institute (GDI), conceived by the Migros-founder Gottlieb Duttweiler in 1946.",
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"plaintext": "Horasis, which hosts the annual Horasis Global Meeting",
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"plaintext": "Liberal Institute, founded in 1979.",
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"plaintext": "There are more than 100 registered think tanks in Ukraine. For example:",
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"plaintext": " Centre of Policy and Legal Reform (CPLR)",
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"plaintext": " Razumkov Centre is a non-governmental think tank founded in 1994. It carries out research of public policy in the following spheres: domestic policy; state administration; economic policy; energy; land relations; foreign policy; social policy; international and regional security; national security and defense.",
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"plaintext": "In Britain, think tanks play a similar role to the United States, attempting to shape policy, and indeed there is some cooperation between British and American think tanks. For example, the London-based think tank Chatham House and the Council on Foreign Relations were both conceived at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 and have remained sister organisations.",
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"plaintext": "The Bow Group, founded in 1951, is the oldest centre-right think tank and many of its members have gone on to serve as Members of Parliament or Members of the European Parliament. Past chairmen have included Conservative Party leader Michael Howard, Margaret Thatcher's longest-serving Cabinet Minister Geoffrey Howe, Chancellor of the Exchequer Norman Lamont and former British Telecom chairman Christopher Bland.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2000, a number of influential centre right think tanks have emerged including Policy Exchange, Centre for Social Justice and most recently Onward.",
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"plaintext": "According to research done by the University of Pennsylvania, there are a total of 12 think tanks in Azerbaijan.",
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"plaintext": "The Center for Economic and Social Development, or CESD; in Azeri, Azerbaijan, İqtisadi və Sosial İnkişaf Mərkəzi (İSİM) is an Azeri think tank, non-profit organization, NGO based in Baku, Azerbaijan. The center was established in 2005. CESD focuses on policy advocacy and reform, and is involved with policy research and capacity building.",
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"plaintext": "The Economic Research Center (ERC) is a policy-research oriented non-profit think tank established in 1999 with a mission to facilitate sustainable economic development and good governance in the new public management system of Azerbaijan. It seeks to do this by building favorable interactions between the public, private and civil society and working with different networks both in local (EITI NGO Coalition, National Budget Group, Public Coalition Against Poverty, etc.) and international levels (PWYP, IBP, ENTO, ALDA, PASOS, WTO NGO Network etc.).",
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"plaintext": "The Center for Strategic Studies under the President of Azerbaijan is a governmental, non-profit think tank founded in 2007. It focusses on domestic and foreign policy.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Foreign Policy Research Institute, Russia has 112 think tanks, while Russian think tanks claimed four of the top ten spots in 2011's \"Top Thirty Think Tanks in Central and Eastern Europe\".",
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"plaintext": "Notable Russian think tanks include:",
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"plaintext": " Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation",
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"plaintext": " Carnegie Moscow Center",
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"plaintext": "Institute for US and Canadian Studies",
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"plaintext": "Institute of World Economy and International Relations",
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"plaintext": "Moscow State Institute of International Relations",
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"plaintext": "Turkish think tanks are relatively new. There are at least 20 think tanks in the country, both independent and supported by government. Many of them are sister organizations of political parties, universities or companies some are independent and others are supported by government. Most Turkish think tanks provide research and ideas, yet they play less important roles in policy making than American think tanks. Turksam, Tasam and the Journal of Turkish Weekly are the leading information sources.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest and most influential think tank in Turkey is ESAM (The Center for Economic and Social Research; ) which was established in 1969 and has headquarters in Ankara. There are also branch offices of ESAM in Istanbul, Bursa, Konya and elsewhere. ESAM has strong international relationships, especially with Muslim countries and societies. Ideologically it performs policies, produces ideas and manages projects in parallel to Milli Görüş and also influences political parties and international strategies. The founder and leader of Milli Görüş, Necmettin Erbakan, was very concerned with the activities and brainstorming events of ESAM. In The Republic of Turkey, two presidents, four prime ministers, various ministers, many members of the parliament, and numerous mayors and bureaucrats have been members of ESAM. Currently the General Chairman of ESAM is Recai Kutan (former minister for two different ministries, former main opposition party leader, and founder and General Chairman of the Saadet Party).",
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"plaintext": "The Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV) is another leading think thank. Established in 1994, TESEV is an independent non-governmental think tank, analyzing social, political and economic policy issues facing Turkey. TESEV has raised issues about Islam and democracy, combating corruption, state reform, and transparency and accountability. TESEV serve as a bridge between academic research and policy-making. Its core program areas are democratization, good governance, and foreign policy.",
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"plaintext": "Other notable Turkish think tanks are the International Strategic Research Organisation (USAK), the Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research (SETA), and the Wise Men Center for Strategic Studies (BİLGESAM).",
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"plaintext": "Canada has many notable think tanks (listed in alphabetical order). Each has specific areas of interest with some overlaps.",
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{
"plaintext": " Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada",
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"plaintext": " Atlantic Institute for Market Studies",
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"plaintext": "CIDAC – The Center of Research for Development (Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo, Asociación Civil) is a not-for-profit think tank that undertakes research and proposes viable policy options for Mexico's economic and democratic development. The organization seeks to promote open, pluralistic debate pursuing: the Rule of Law & Democracy, market economics, social development, and strengthening Mexico-United States relations.",
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"plaintext": "CIDE – The Center of Research and Economics Teaching (Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas) is a think tank institute focussing on \"public policies\", \"public choice\", \"democracy\", and \"economy\".",
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"plaintext": "COMEXI – The Mexican Council of International Affairs (Consejo Mexicano de Asuntos Internacionales).",
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"plaintext": "As the classification is most often used today, the oldest American think tank is the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, founded in 1910. The Institute for Government Research, which later merged with two organizations to form the Brookings Institution, was formed in 1916. Other early twentieth century organizations now classified as think tanks include the Hoover Institution (1919), The Twentieth Century Fund (1919, and now known as the Century Foundation), the National Bureau of Economic Research (1920), the Council on Foreign Relations (1921), and the Social Science Research Council (1923). The Great Depression and its aftermath spawned several economic policy organizations, such as the National Planning Association (1934), the Tax Foundation (1937), and the Committee for Economic Development (1943).",
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"plaintext": "In collaboration with the Douglas Aircraft Company, the Air Force set up the RAND Corporation in 1946 to develop weapons technology and strategic defense analysis.",
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"plaintext": "The Hudson Institute is a conservative American think tank founded in 1961 by futurist, military strategist, and systems theorist Herman Kahn and his colleagues at the RAND Corporation. Recent members include Mike Pompeo, the former secretary of state under Donald Trump who joined in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, progressive and liberal think tanks have been established, most notably the Center for American Progress and the Center for Research on Educational Access and Leadership (CREAL). The organization has close ties to former United States President Barack Obama and other prominent Democrats.",
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"plaintext": "Think tanks help shape both foreign and domestic policy. They receive funding from private donors, and members of private organizations. By 2013, the largest 21 think tanks in the US spent more than $1billion per year. Think tanks may feel more free to propose and debate controversial ideas than people within government. The progressive media watchgroup Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) has identified the top 25 think tanks by media citations, noting that from 2006 to 2007 the number of citations declined 17%. The FAIR report reveals the ideological breakdown of the citations: 37% conservative, 47% centrist, and 16% liberal. Their data show that the most-cited think tank was the Brookings Institution, followed by the Council on Foreign Relations, the American Enterprise Institute, The Heritage Foundation, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, in response to scrutiny about think tanks appearing to have a \"conflict of interest\" or lack transparency, executive vice president, Martin S. Indyk of Brookings Institution – the \"most prestigious think tank in the world\" admitted that they had \"decided to prohibit corporations or corporate-backed foundations from making anonymous contributions.\" In August 2016, The New York Times published a series on think tanks that blur the line. One of the cases the journalists cited was Brookings, where scholars paid by a seemingly independent think tank \"push donors' agendas amplifying a culture of corporate influence in Washington.\" For example, in exchange for hundreds of thousands of dollars the Brookings Institution provided Lennar – one of the United States' largest home builders – with a significant advantage in pursuing a US$8billion revitalization project in Hunters Point, San Francisco. In 2014, Lennar's then-regional vice president in charge of the San Francisco revitalization, Kofi Bonner was named as a Brookings senior fellow – a position as 'trusted adviser' that carries some distinction. Bruce Katz, a Brookings vice president, also offered to help Lennar \"engage with national media to develop stories that highlight Lennar's innovative approach.\"",
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"plaintext": "Government think tanks are also important in the United States, particularly in the security and defense field. These include the Center for Technology and National Security Policy at the National Defense University, the Center for Naval Warfare Studies at the Naval War College, and the Strategic Studies Institute at the U.S. Army War College.",
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"plaintext": "The government funds, wholly or in part, activities at approximately 30 Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs). FFRDCs, are unique independent nonprofit entities sponsored and funded by the United States government to meet specific long-term technical needs that cannot be met by any other single organization. FFRDCs typically assist government agencies with scientific research and analysis, systems development, and systems acquisition. They bring together the expertise and outlook of government, industry, and academia to solve complex technical problems. These FFRDCs include the RAND Corporation, the MITRE Corporation, the Institute for Defense Analyses, the Aerospace Corporation, the MIT Lincoln Laboratory, and other organizations supporting various departments within the United States Government.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to the above quasi-governmental organizations are Federal Advisory Committees. These groups, sometimes referred to as commissions, are a form of think tank dedicated to advising the US Presidents or the Executive branch of government. They typically focus on a specific issue and as such, might be considered similar to special interest groups. However, unlike special interest groups these committees have come under some oversight regulation and are required to make formal records available to the public. As of 2002, about 1,000 of these advisory committees were described in the FACA searchable database.",
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"plaintext": "Research done by Enrique Mendizabal shows that South American think tanks play various roles depending on their origins, historical development and relations to other policy actors. In this study, Orazio Bellettini from Grupo FARO suggests that they:",
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"plaintext": " Seek political support for policies.",
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"plaintext": " Legitimize policies – This has been clearer in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru. New governments in Ecuador and Peru have approached policy institutes for support for already defined policies. In Bolivia, the government of Evo Morales has been working with Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and other research institutes to do the same. However, in Chile, many think tanks during the 1990s seemed to endorse and maintain the legitimacy of policies implemented during the previous decade by the military dictatorship headed by Pinochet.",
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"plaintext": " Spaces of debate – In this case think tanks serve as sounding boards for new policies. In Chile, during the Pinochet dictatorship, many left wing intellectuals and researchers found 'asylum' in think tanks. In Ecuador, think tanks are seen as spaces where politicians can test the soundness of their policies and government plans.",
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"plaintext": " Financial channels for political parties or other interest groups – In Ecuador and Bolivia, German foundations have been able to provide funds to think tanks that work with certain political parties. This method has provided support to the system as a whole rather than individual CSOs.",
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"plaintext": " Expert cadres of policy-makers and politicians – In Peru after the end of the Fujimori regime, and in Chile after the fall of Pinochet, think tank staff left to form part of the new governments. In the United States, the role of major think tanks is precisely that: host scholars for a few months or years and then lose them to government employ.",
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"plaintext": "How a policy institute addresses these largely depends on how they work, their ideology vs. evidence credentials, and the context in which they operate including funding opportunities, the degree and type of competition they have and their staff.",
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"plaintext": "This functional method addresses the inherit challenge of defining a think tank. As Simon James said in 1998, \"Discussion of think tanks...has a tendency to get bogged down in the vexed question of defining what we mean by 'think tank'—an exercise that often degenerates into futile semantics.\" It is better (as in the Network Functions Approach) to describe what the organisation should do. Then the shape of the organisation should follow to allow this to happen. The following framework (based on Stephen Yeo's description of think tanks' mode of work) is described in Enrique Mendizabal's blog \"onthinktanks\":",
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"plaintext": "First, policy institutes may work in or base their funding on one or more of:",
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"plaintext": " Independent research: this would be work done with core or flexible funding that allows the researchers the liberty to choose their research questions and method. It may be long term and could emphasize 'big ideas' without direct policy relevance. However, it could emphasize a major policy problem that requires a thorough research and action investment.",
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"plaintext": " Consultancy: this would be work done by commission with specific clients and addressing one or two major questions. Consultancies often respond to an existing agenda.",
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"plaintext": " Influencing/advocacy: this would be work done by communications, capacity development, networking, campaigns, lobbying, etc. It is likely to be based on research based evidence emerging from independent research or consultancies.",
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"plaintext": "Second, policy institutes may base their work or arguments on:",
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"plaintext": " Ideology, values or interests",
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"plaintext": " Applied, empirical or synthesis research",
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"plaintext": " Theoretical or academic research",
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"plaintext": "According to the National Institute for Research Advancement, a Japanese policy institute, think tanks are \"one of the main policy actors in democratic societies ..., assuring a pluralistic, open and accountable process of policy analysis, research, decision-making and evaluation\". A study in early 2009 found a total of 5,465 think tanks worldwide. Of that number, 1,777 were based in the United States and approximately 350 in Washington, DC, alone.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2009, Argentina is home to 122 think tanks, many specializing in public policy and economics issues. Argentina ranks fifth in the number of these institutions worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Working on public policies, Brazil hosts, for example, Instituto Liberdade, a University-based Center at Tecnopuc inside the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, located in the South Region of the country, in the city of Porto Alegre. Instituto Liberdade is among the Top 40 think tanks in Latin America and the Caribbean, according to the 2009 Global Go To Think Tanks Index a report from the University of Pennsylvania's Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program (TTCSP).",
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"plaintext": "Fundação Getulio Vargas (Getulio Vargas Foundation (FGV)) is a Brazilian higher education institution. Its original goal was to train people for the country's public- and private-sector management. Today it hosts faculties (Law, Business, Economics, Social Sciences and Mathematics), libraries, and also research centers in Rio, São Paulo and Brasilia. It is considered by Foreign Policy magazine to be a top-five \"policymaker think tank\" worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "The Igarapé Institute is a Brazilian think tank focusing on public, climate, and digital security.",
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"plaintext": " Collective intelligence",
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"plaintext": " Futurists",
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"plaintext": " Internet think tanks",
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"plaintext": " List of think tanks",
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"plaintext": " Lobbying",
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"plaintext": " Mass collaboration",
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"plaintext": " Mass communication",
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"plaintext": " Overton window",
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"plaintext": " Strategic studies",
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"plaintext": " TED (conference)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Abelson, Donald E. Do Think Tanks Matter? Assessing the Impact of Public Policy Institutes. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Arin, Kubilay Yado: Think Tanks, the Brain Trusts of US Foreign Policy. Wiesbaden: VS Springer 2013.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Boucher, Stephen, et al., Europe and its think tanks; a promise to be fulfilled. An analysis of think tanks specialised in European policy issues in the enlarged European Union, Studies and Research No 35, October, Paris, Notre Europe, 2004 PDF",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cockett, Richard, Thinking the unthinkable: think tanks and the economic counter revolution; 1931–1983, London: Fontana, 1995.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Dickson, Paul. \"Think Tanks\". New York: Ballantine Books, 1972. 397 pages.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Goodman, John C. \"What is a Think Tank?\" National Center for Policy Analysis, 2005.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fan, Maureen. \"Capital Brain Trust Puts Stamp on the World\", Washington Post (16 May 2005): B01.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Patrick Dixon. Futurewise – Six Faces of Global Change – issues covered by Think Tanks and methodology for reviewing trends, impact on policy 2003): Profile Books",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
3419871,
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"plaintext": " Kelstrup, Jesper Dahl (2016): The Politics of Think Tanks in Europe. Abingdon & New York: Routledge.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lakoff, George. Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don't. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
46135,
68818
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
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17,
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"plaintext": " Ladi, Stella. Globalisation, Policy Transfer And Policy Research Institutes, Edward Elgar, 2005.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " McGann, James (2006) Comparative Think Tanks, Politics And Public Policy, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mendizabal, Enrique and Kristen Sample (2009) \"Dime a quien escuchas... Think Tanks y Partidos Politicos en America Latina\", ODI/IDEA: Lima",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Medvetz, Thomas (2012) \"Think Tanks in America\", Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Phelps, Richard P. (2015). The Gauntlet: Think Tanks and Federal Research Centers Misrepresent and Suppress Other Education Research New Educational Foundations, 4.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ranquet, Robert. Think Tanks and the National Security Strategy Formulation Process: A Comparison of Current American and French Patterns, 1997. PDF",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Smith, James. A. The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite, New York: The Free Press, 1991.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Snider, J.H. \"Strengthen Think Tank Accountability\", Politico (3 February 2009).",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Stone, Diane. Knowledge actors and transnational governance: The private-public policy nexus in the global agora. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Stone, Diane. Capturing the Political Imagination: Think Tanks and the Policy Process, London: Frank Cass, 1996",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Stone, Diane, and Andrew Denham, eds. Think Tank Traditions: Policy Research and the Politics of Ideas. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Struyk, Raymond J. Managing Think Tanks: Practical Guidance for Maturing Organizations, Budapest, Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative Washington DC., Urban Institute 2002",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " UNDP – United Nations Development Program. Thinking the Unthinkable, Bratislava, UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 2003",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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37,104 | 1,107,703,790 | Emissions_trading | [
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"plaintext": "Emissions trading is a market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for reducing the emissions of pollutants. The concept is also known as cap and trade (CAT) or emissions trading scheme (ETS). Carbon emission trading for and other greenhouse gases has been introduced in China, the European Union and other countries as a key tool for climate change mitigation. Other schemes include sulfur dioxide and other pollutants.",
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"plaintext": "In an emissions trading scheme, a central authority or governmental body allocates or sells a limited number (a \"cap\") of permits that allow a discharge of a specific quantity of a specific pollutant over a set time period. Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions. Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them.",
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"plaintext": "Emissions trading is a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations and markets to decide how best to meet policy targets. This is in contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology (BAT) standards and government subsidies.",
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"plaintext": "Pollution is a prime example of a market externality. An externality is an effect of some activity on an entity (such as a person) that is not party to a market transaction related to that activity. Emissions trading is a market-based approach to address pollution. The overall goal of an emissions trading plan is to minimize the cost of meeting a set emissions target.",
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"plaintext": "In an emissions trading system, the government sets an overall limit on emissions, and defines permits (also called allowances), or limited authorizations to emit, up to the level of the overall limit. The government may sell the permits, but in many existing schemes, it gives permits to participants (regulated polluters) equal to each participant's baseline emissions. The baseline is determined by reference to the participant's historical emissions. To demonstrate compliance, a participant must hold permits at least equal to the quantity of pollution it actually emitted during the time period. If every participant complies, the total pollution emitted will be at most equal to the sum of individual limits. Because permits can be bought and sold, a participant can choose either to use its permits exactly (by reducing its own emissions); or to emit less than its permits, and perhaps sell the excess permits; or to emit more than its permits, and buy permits from other participants. In effect, the buyer pays a charge for polluting, while the seller gains a reward for having reduced emissions.",
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"plaintext": "In many schemes, organizations which do not pollute (and therefore have no obligations) may also trade permits and financial derivatives of permits.",
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"plaintext": "In some schemes, participants can bank allowances to use in future periods. In some schemes, a proportion of all traded permits must be retired periodically, causing a net reduction in emissions over time. Thus, environmental groups may buy and retire permits, driving up the price of the remaining permits according to the law of demand. In most schemes, permit owners can donate permits to a nonprofit entity and receive a tax deductions. Usually, the government lowers the overall limit over time, with an aim towards a national emissions reduction target.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Environmental Defense Fund, cap-and-trade is the most environmentally and economically sensible approach to controlling greenhouse gas emissions, the primary cause of global warming, because it sets a limit on emissions, and the trading encourages companies to innovate in order to emit less.",
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"plaintext": "\"International trade can offer a range of positive and negative incentives to promote international cooperation on climate change (robust evidence, medium agreement). Three issues are key to developing constructive relationships between international trade and climate agreements: how existing trade policies and rules can be modified to be more climate friendly; whether border adjustment measures (BAMs) or other trade measures can be effective in meeting the goals of international climate agreements; whether the UNFCCC, World Trade Organization (WTO), hybrid of the two, or a new institution is the best forum for a trade-and-climate architecture.\"",
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"plaintext": "A nation that lacks an ETS (Emissions Trading System) does not properly account for the degree of natural and human resources involved in the production activities of the market, furthermore it fails to consider the negative externalities of environmental costs. Emissions Trading results in the incorporation of economic costs into the costs of production which incentivizes corporations to consider investment returns and capital expenditure decisions with a model that includes the price of carbon and greenhouse gases (GHG). There are active trading programs in several air pollutants. For GHG, which cause climate change, carbon emission trade has been introduced in China, the European Union, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, some US states, and other countries.",
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"plaintext": "The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides. Recent reduction in California's GHG emissions are not attributed to carbon trading but to other factors such as renewable portfolio standards and energy efficiency policies; the 'cap' in California has been and continues to be larger than actual emission rates. GHG emissions increased at more than half of industrial point sources regulated by California's cap and trade program from 2013 to 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the traditional model of cap and trade policies that effectively reduces GHG emissions by commodifying pollution and limiting supply, California's recent success is the result of an emissions trading scheme that reinvests funds raised from its cap and trade program back into GHG reduction initiatives. Building on AB-32, current legislation, SB-32 defines target emissions reductions to be achieved by 2030. SB-32 establishes a clearly defined emissions reduction goal without providing a plan to achieve target reductions. Carrying over from the original law, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) is tasked with overseeing GHG reduction targets and ensuring goals are met by the state. CARB implemented a cap and trade program as a market mechanism to reduce GHG emissions; however, the program seeks to reach target reductions by emphasizing the \"trade\" rather than the \"cap\" aspect of cap and trade. California's cap and trade program enacts a \"cap\" on the emissions produced by private companies by issuing individual entities a fixed number of carbon credits. In addition, the state reserves a set number of credits to generate revenue through the sale of these credits in allowance auction or reserve sales.",
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"plaintext": "California Climate Investments (CCI) designates the investment program using cap and trade revenue to fund GHG emissions reduction efforts. Proceeds are received by the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund (GGRF) and appropriated to specific programs via governor and legislature authorization. Currently, the majority of GGRF appropriations are awarded to public transportation and affordable housing and sustainable communities. Remaining funds are allocated to a variety of programs such as the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project which incentivizes residents to purchase zero-emissions vehicles. Another highlighted project is forest health management run by the California Conservation Corps.",
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"plaintext": "The efficiency of what later was to be called the \"cap-and-trade\" approach to air pollution abatement was first demonstrated in a series of micro-economic computer simulation studies between 1967 and 1970 for the National Air Pollution Control Administration (predecessor to the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Air and Radiation) by Ellison Burton and William Sanjour. These studies used mathematical models of several cities and their emission sources in order to compare the cost and effectiveness of various control strategies. Each abatement strategy was compared with the \"least-cost solution\" produced by a computer optimization program to identify the least-costly combination of source reductions in order to achieve a given abatement goal. In each case it was found that the least-cost solution was dramatically less costly than the same amount of pollution reduction produced by any conventional abatement strategy. Burton and later Sanjour along with Edward H. Pechan continued improving and advancing these computer models at the newly created U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The agency introduced the concept of computer modeling with least-cost abatement strategies (i.e., emissions trading) in its 1972 annual report to Congress on the cost of clean air. This led to the concept of \"cap and trade\" as a means of achieving the \"least-cost solution\" for a given level of abatement.",
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"plaintext": "The development of emissions trading over the course of its history can be divided into four phases:",
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"plaintext": " Gestation: Theoretical articulation of the instrument (by Coase, Crocker, Dales, Montgomery etc.) and, independent of the former, tinkering with \"flexible regulation\" at the US Environmental Protection Agency.",
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"plaintext": " Proof of Principle: First developments towards trading of emission certificates based on the \"offset-mechanism\" taken up in Clean Air Act in 1977. A company could get allowance from the Act on a greater amount of emission when it paid another company to reduce the same pollutant.",
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"plaintext": " Prototype: Launching of a first \"cap-and-trade\" system as part of the US Acid Rain Program in Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act, officially announced as a paradigm shift in environmental policy, as prepared by \"Project 88\", a network-building effort to bring together environmental and industrial interests in the US.",
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"plaintext": " Regime formation: branching out from the US clean air policy to global climate policy, and from there to the European Union, along with the expectation of an emerging global carbon market and the formation of the \"carbon industry\".",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the acid rain related emission trading system was principally conceived by C. Boyden Gray, a G.H.W. Bush administration attorney. Gray worked with the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF), who worked with the EPA to write the bill that became law as part of the Clean Air Act of 1990. The new emissions cap on NOx and gases took effect in 1995, and according to Smithsonian magazine, those acid rain emissions dropped 3 million tons that year.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was the first major agreement to reduce greenhouse gases. 38 developed countries (Annex 1 countries) committed themselves to targets and timetables.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible for a country to reduce emissions using a command-and-control approach, such as regulation, direct and indirect taxes. The cost of that approach differs between countries because the Marginal Abatement Cost Curve (MAC)—the cost of eliminating an additional unit of pollution—differs by country.",
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"plaintext": "Coase (1960) argued that social costs could be accounted for by negotiating property rights according to a particular objective. Coase's model assumes perfectly operating markets and equal bargaining power among those arguing for property rights. ",
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"plaintext": "In Coase's model, efficiency, i.e., achieving a given reduction in emissions at lowest cost, is promoted by the market system. This can also be looked at from the perspective of having the greatest flexibility to reduce emissions. Flexibility is desirable because the marginal costs, that is to say, the incremental costs of reducing emissions, varies among countries. Emissions trading allows emission reductions to be first made in locations where the marginal costs of abatement are lowest (Bashmakov et al., 2001). Over time, efficiency can also be promoted by allowing \"banking\" of permits (Goldemberg et al., 1996, p.30). This allows polluters to reduce emissions at a time when it is most efficient to do so.",
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"plaintext": "One of the advantages of Coase's model is that it suggests that fairness (equity) can be addressed in the distribution of property rights, and that regardless of how these property rights are assigned, the market will produce the most efficient outcome. In reality, according to the held view, markets are not perfect, and it is therefore possible that a trade off will occur between equity and efficiency (Halsnæs et al., 2007).",
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"plaintext": "In an emissions trading system, permits may be traded by emitters who are liable to hold a sufficient number of permits in system. Some analysts argue that allowing others to participate in trading, e.g., private brokerage firms, can allow for better management of risk in the system, e.g., to variations in permit prices (Bashmakov et al., 2001). It may also improve the efficiency of system. According to Bashmakov et al. (2001), regulation of these other entities may be necessary, as is done in other financial markets, e.g., to prevent abuses of the system, such as insider trading.",
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"plaintext": "Emissions trading gives polluters an incentive to reduce their emissions. However, there are possible perverse incentives that can exist in emissions trading. Allocating permits on the basis of past emissions (\"grandfathering\") can result in firms having an incentive to maintain emissions. For example, a firm that reduced its emissions would receive fewer permits in the future (IMF, 2008, pp.25–26). There are costs that emitters do face, e.g., the costs of the fuel being used, but there are other costs that are not necessarily included in the price of a good or service. These other costs are called external costs (Halsnæs et al., 2007). This problem can also be criticized on ethical grounds, since the polluter is being paid to reduce emissions (Goldemberg et al., 1996, p.38). On the other hand, a permit system where permits are auctioned rather than given away, provides the government with revenues. These revenues might be used to improve the efficiency of overall climate policy, e.g., by funding energy efficiency programs (ACEEE 2019) or reductions in distortionary taxes (Fisher et al., 1996, p.417).",
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"plaintext": "In Coase's model of social costs, either choice (grandfathering or auctioning) leads to efficiency. In reality, grandfathering subsidizes polluters, meaning that polluting industries may be kept in business longer than would otherwise occur. Grandfathering may also reduce the rate of technological improvement towards less polluting technologies (Fisher et al., 1996, p.417).",
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"plaintext": "William Nordhaus argues that allocations cost the economy as they cause the under utilisation an efficient form of taxation. Nordhaus argues that normal income, goods or service taxes distort efficient investment and consumption, so by using pollution taxes to generate revenue an emissions scheme can increase the efficiency of the economy.",
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"plaintext": "Form of allocation",
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"plaintext": "The economist Ross Garnaut states that permits allocated to existing emitters by 'grandfathering' are not 'free'. As the permits are scarce they have value and the benefit of that value is acquired in full by the emitter. The cost is imposed elsewhere in the economy, typically on consumers who cannot pass on the costs.",
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"plaintext": "Some economists have urged the use of market-based instruments such as emissions trading to address environmental problems instead of prescriptive \"command-and-control\" regulation. Command and control regulation is criticized for being insensitive to geographical and technological differences, and therefore inefficient; however, this is not always so, as shown by the WWII rationing program in the U.S. in which local and regional boards made adjustments for these differences.",
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"plaintext": "After an emissions limit has been set by a government political process, individual companies are free to choose how or whether to reduce their emissions. Failure to report emissions and surrender emission permits is often punishable by a further government regulatory mechanism, such as a fine that increases costs of production. Firms will choose the least-cost way to comply with the pollution regulation, which will lead to reductions where the least expensive solutions exist, while allowing emissions that are more expensive to reduce.",
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"plaintext": "Under an emissions trading system, each regulated polluter has flexibility to use the most cost-effective combination of buying or selling emission permits, reducing its emissions by installing cleaner technology, or reducing its emissions by reducing production. The most cost-effective strategy depends on the polluter's marginal abatement cost and the market price of permits. In theory, a polluter's decisions should lead to an economically efficient allocation of reductions among polluters, and lower compliance costs for individual firms and for the economy overall, compared to command-and-control mechanisms.",
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"plaintext": "Assuring compliance with an emissions trading scheme requires measuring, reporting and verification (MRV). These measurements are reported to a regulator. For greenhouse gases, all trading countries maintain an inventory of emissions at national and installation level; in addition, trading groups within North America maintain inventories at the state level through The Climate Registry. For trading between regions, these inventories must be consistent, with equivalent units and measurement techniques.",
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"plaintext": "In some industrial processes, emissions can be physically measured by inserting sensors and flowmeters in chimneys and stacks, but many types of activity rely on theoretical calculations instead of measurement. Depending on local legislation, measurements may require additional checks and verification by government or third party auditors, prior or post submission to the local regulator.",
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"plaintext": "Enforcement methods include fines and sanctions for polluters that have exceeded their allowances. Concerns include the cost of MRV and enforcement, and the risk that facilities may lie about actual emissions.",
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"plaintext": "An emission license directly confers a right to emit pollutants up to a certain rate.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, a pollution license for a given location confers the right to emit pollutants at a rate which will cause no more than a specified increase at the pollution-level. For concreteness, consider the following model.",
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"plaintext": " There are agents each of which emits pollutants.",
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"plaintext": " There are locations each of which suffers pollution .",
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"plaintext": " The pollution is a linear combination of the emissions. The relation between and is given by a diffusion matrix , such that: .",
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"plaintext": "As an example, consider three countries along a river (as in the fair river sharing setting).",
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"plaintext": " Pollution in the upstream country is determined only by the emission of the upstream country: .",
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"plaintext": " Pollution in the middle country is determined by its own emission and by the emission of country 1: .",
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"plaintext": " Pollution in the downstream country is the sum of all emissions: .",
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"plaintext": "So the matrix in this case is a triangular matrix of ones.",
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"plaintext": "Each pollution-license for location permits its holder to emit pollutants that will cause at most this level of pollution at location . Therefore, a polluter that affects water quality at a number of points has to hold a portfolio of licenses covering all relevant monitoring-points. In the above example, if country 2 wants to emit a unit of pollutant, it should purchase two permits: one for location 2 and one for location 3.",
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"plaintext": "Montgomery shows that, while both markets lead to efficient license allocation, the market in pollution-licenses is more widely applicable than the market in emission-licenses.",
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"plaintext": "Emissions trading through Gains from Trade can be more beneficial for both the buyer and the seller than a simple emissions capping scheme.",
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"plaintext": "Consider two European countries, such as Germany and Sweden. Each can either reduce all the required amount of emissions by itself or it can choose to buy or sell in the market.",
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"plaintext": "Suppose Germany can abate its CO2 at a much cheaper cost than Sweden, i.e. MACS > MACG where the MAC curve of Sweden is steeper (higher slope) than that of Germany, and RReq is the total amount of emissions that need to be reduced by a country.",
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"plaintext": "On the left side of the graph is the MAC curve for Germany. RReq is the amount of required reductions for Germany, but at RReq the MACG curve has not intersected the market emissions permit price of CO2 (market permit price = P = λ). Thus, given the market price of CO2 allowances, Germany has potential to profit if it abates more emissions than required.",
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"plaintext": "On the right side is the MAC curve for Sweden. RReq is the amount of required reductions for Sweden, but the MACS curve already intersects the market price of CO2 permits before RReq has been reached. Thus, given the market price of CO2 permits, Sweden has potential to make a cost saving if it abates fewer emissions than required internally, and instead abates them elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "In this example, Sweden would abate emissions until its MACS intersects with P (at R*), but this would only reduce a fraction of Sweden's total required abatement.",
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"plaintext": "After that it could buy emissions credits from Germany for the price P (per unit). The internal cost of Sweden's own abatement, combined with the permits it buys in the market from Germany, adds up to the total required reductions (RReq) for Sweden. Thus Sweden can make a saving from buying permits in the market (Δ d-e-f). This represents the \"Gains from Trade\", the amount of additional expense that Sweden would otherwise have to spend if it abated all of its required emissions by itself without trading.",
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"plaintext": "Germany made a profit on its additional emissions abatement, above what was required: it met the regulations by abating all of the emissions that was required of it (RReq). Additionally, Germany sold its surplus permits to Sweden, and was paid P for every unit it abated, while spending less than P. Its total revenue is the area of the graph (RReq 1 2 R*), its total abatement cost is area (RReq 3 2 R*), and so its net benefit from selling emission permits is the area (Δ 1-2-3) i.e. Gains from Trade",
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"plaintext": "The two R* (on both graphs) represent the efficient allocations that arise from trading.",
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"plaintext": " Germany: sold (R* - RReq) emission permits to Sweden at a unit price P.",
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"plaintext": " Sweden bought emission permits from Germany at a unit price P.",
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"plaintext": "If the total cost for reducing a particular amount of emissions in the Command Control scenario is called X, then to reduce the same amount of combined pollution in Sweden and Germany, the total abatement cost would be less in the Emissions Trading scenario i.e. (X— Δ 123 - Δ def).",
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"plaintext": "The example above applies not just at the national level, but also between two companies in different countries, or between two subsidiaries within the same company.",
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"plaintext": "The nature of the pollutant plays a very important role when policy-makers decide which framework should be used to control pollution. CO2 acts globally, thus its impact on the environment is generally similar wherever in the globe it is released. So the location of the originator of the emissions does not matter from an environmental standpoint.",
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"plaintext": "The policy framework should be different for regional pollutants (e.g. SO2 and NOx, and also mercury) because the impact of these pollutants may differ by location. The same amount of a regional pollutant can exert a very high impact in some locations and a low impact in other locations, so it matters where the pollutant is released. This is known as the Hot Spot problem.",
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"plaintext": "A Lagrange framework is commonly used to determine the least cost of achieving an objective, in this case the total reduction in emissions required in a year. In some cases, it is possible to use the Lagrange optimization framework to determine the required reductions for each country (based on their MAC) so that the total cost of reduction is minimized. In such a scenario, the Lagrange multiplier represents the market allowance price (P) of a pollutant, such as the current market price of emission permits in Europe and the USA.",
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"plaintext": "Countries face the permit market price that exists in the market that day, so they are able to make individual decisions that would minimize their costs while at the same time achieving regulatory compliance. This is also another version of the Equi-Marginal Principle, commonly used in economics to choose the most economically efficient decision.",
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"plaintext": "There has been longstanding debate on the relative merits of price versus quantity instruments to achieve emission reductions.",
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"plaintext": "An emission cap and permit trading system is a quantity instrument because it fixes the overall emission level (quantity) and allows the price to vary. Uncertainty in future supply and demand conditions (market volatility) coupled with a fixed number of pollution permits creates an uncertainty in the future price of pollution permits, and the industry must accordingly bear the cost of adapting to these volatile market conditions. The burden of a volatile market thus lies with the industry rather than the controlling agency, which is generally more efficient. However, under volatile market conditions, the ability of the controlling agency to alter the caps will translate into an ability to pick \"winners and losers\" and thus presents an opportunity for corruption.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, an emission tax is a price instrument because it fixes the price while the emission level is allowed to vary according to economic activity. A major drawback of an emission tax is that the environmental outcome (e.g. a limit on the amount of emissions) is not guaranteed. On one hand, a tax will remove capital from the industry, suppressing possibly useful economic activity, but conversely, the polluter will not need to hedge as much against future uncertainty since the amount of tax will track with profits. The burden of a volatile market will be borne by the controlling (taxing) agency rather than the industry itself, which is generally less efficient. An advantage is that, given a uniform tax rate and a volatile market, the taxing entity will not be in a position to pick \"winners and losers\" and the opportunity for corruption will be less.",
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"plaintext": "Assuming no corruption and assuming that the controlling agency and the industry are equally efficient at adapting to volatile market conditions, the best choice depends on the sensitivity of the costs of emission reduction, compared to the sensitivity of the benefits (i.e., climate damage avoided by a reduction) when the level of emission control is varied.",
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"plaintext": "Because there is high uncertainty in the compliance costs of firms, some argue that the optimum choice is the price mechanism. However, the burden of uncertainty cannot be eliminated, and in this case it is shifted to the taxing agency itself.",
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"plaintext": "The overwhelming majority of climate scientists have repeatedly warned of a threshold in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide beyond which a run-away warming effect could take place, with a large possibility of causing irreversible damage. With such a risk, a quantity instrument may be a better choice because the quantity of emissions may be capped with more certainty. However, this may not be true if this risk exists but cannot be attached to a known level of greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration or a known emission pathway.",
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"plaintext": "A third option, known as a safety valve, is a hybrid of the price and quantity instruments. The system is essentially an emission cap and permit trading system but the maximum (or minimum) permit price is capped. Emitters have the choice of either obtaining permits in the marketplace or buying them from the government at a specified trigger price (which could be adjusted over time). The system is sometimes recommended as a way of overcoming the fundamental disadvantages of both systems by giving governments the flexibility to adjust the system as new information comes to light. It can be shown that by setting the trigger price high enough, or the number of permits low enough, the safety valve can be used to mimic either a pure quantity or pure price mechanism.",
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"plaintext": "All three methods are being used as policy instruments to control greenhouse gas emissions: the EU-ETS is a quantity system using the cap and trading system to meet targets set by National Allocation Plans; Denmark has a price system using a carbon tax (World Bank, 2010, p.218), while China uses the CO2 market price for funding of its Clean Development Mechanism projects, but imposes a safety valve of a minimum price per tonne of CO2.",
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"plaintext": "Cap and trade is the textbook example of an emissions trading program. Other market-based approaches include baseline-and-credit, and pollution tax. They all put a price on pollution (for example, see carbon price), and so provide an economic incentive to reduce pollution beginning with the lowest-cost opportunities. By contrast, in a command-and-control approach, a central authority designates pollution levels each facility is allowed to emit. Cap and trade essentially functions as a tax where the tax rate is variable based on the relative cost of abatement per unit, and the tax base is variable based on the amount of abatement needed.",
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"plaintext": "In a baseline and credit program, polluters can create permits, called credits or offsets, by reducing their emissions below a baseline level, which is often the historical emissions level from a designated past year. Such credits can be bought by polluters that have a regulatory limit.",
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"plaintext": "Emissions fees or environmental tax is a surcharge on the pollution created while producing goods and services. For example, a carbon tax is a tax on the carbon content of fossil fuels that aims to discourage their use and thereby reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The two approaches are overlapping sets of policy designs. Both can have a range of scopes, points of regulation, and price schedules. They can be fair or unfair, depending on how the revenue is used. Both have the effect of increasing the price of goods (such as fossil fuels) to consumers. A comprehensive, upstream, auctioned cap-and-trade system is very similar to a comprehensive, upstream carbon tax. Yet, many commentators sharply contrast the two approaches.",
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"plaintext": "The main difference is what is defined and what derived. A tax is a price control, while a cap-and-trade system is a quantity control instrument. That is, a tax is a unit price for pollution that is set by authorities, and the market determines the quantity emitted; in cap and trade, authorities determine the amount of pollution, and the market determines the price. This difference affects a number of criteria.",
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"plaintext": "Responsiveness to inflation: Cap-and-trade has the advantage that it adjusts to inflation (changes to overall prices) automatically, while emissions fees must be changed by regulators.",
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"plaintext": "Responsiveness to cost changes: It is not clear which approach is better. It is possible to combine the two into a safety valve price: a price set by regulators, at which polluters can buy additional permits beyond the cap.",
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"plaintext": "Responsiveness to recessions: This point is closely related to responsiveness to cost changes, because recessions cause a drop in demand. Under cap and trade, the emissions cost automatically decreases, so a cap-and-trade scheme adds another automatic stabilizer to the economy—in effect, an automatic fiscal stimulus. However, a lower pollution price also results in reduced efforts to reduce pollution. If the government is able to stimulate the economy regardless of the cap-and-trade scheme, an excessively low price causes a missed opportunity to cut emissions faster than planned. Instead, it might be better to have a price floor (a tax). This is especially true when cutting pollution is urgent, as with greenhouse gas emissions. A price floor also provides certainty and stability for investment in emissions reductions: recent experience from the UK shows that nuclear power operators are reluctant to invest on \"un-subsidised\" terms unless there is a guaranteed price floor for carbon (which the EU emissions trading scheme does not presently provide).",
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"plaintext": "Responsiveness to uncertainty: As with cost changes, in a world of uncertainty, it is not clear whether emissions fees or cap-and-trade systems are more efficient—it depends on how fast the marginal social benefits of reducing pollution fall with the amount of cleanup (e.g., whether inelastic or elastic marginal social benefit schedule).",
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"plaintext": "Other: The magnitude of the tax will depend on how sensitive the supply of emissions is to the price. The permit price of cap-and-trade will depend on the pollutant market. A tax generates government revenue, but full-auctioned emissions permits can do the same. A similar upstream cap-and-trade system could be implemented. An upstream carbon tax might be the simplest to administer. Setting up a complex cap-and-trade arrangement that is comprehensive has high institutional needs.",
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"plaintext": "Command and control is a system of regulation that prescribes emission limits and compliance methods for each facility or source. It is the traditional approach to reducing air pollution.",
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"plaintext": "Command-and-control regulations are more rigid than incentive-based approaches such as pollution fees and cap and trade. An example of this is a performance standard which sets an emissions goal for each polluter that is fixed and, therefore, the burden of reducing pollution cannot be shifted to the firms that can achieve it more cheaply. As a result, performance standards are likely to be more costly overall. The additional costs would be passed to end consumers.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from the dynamic development in carbon emission trading, other pollutants have also been targeted.",
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"plaintext": "An early example of an emission trading system has been the sulfur dioxide (SO2) trading system under the framework of the Acid Rain Program of the 1990 Clean Air Act in the U.S. Under the program, which is essentially a cap-and-trade emissions trading system, SO2 emissions were reduced by 50% from 1980 levels by 2007. Some experts argue that the cap-and-trade system of SO2 emissions reduction has reduced the cost of controlling acid rain by as much as 80% versus source-by-source reduction. The SO2 program was challenged in 2004, which set in motion a series of events that led to the 2011 Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR). Under the CSAPR, the national SO2 trading program was replaced by four separate trading groups for SO2 and NOx.",
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"plaintext": "SO2 emissions from Acid Rain Program sources have fallen from 17.3 million tons in 1980 to about 7.6 million tons in 2008, a decrease in emissions of 56 percent. A 2014 EPA analysis estimated that implementation of the Acid Rain Program avoided between 20,000 and 50,000 incidences of premature mortality annually due to reductions of ambient PM2.5 concentrations, and between 430 and 2,000 incidences annually due to reductions of ground-level ozone.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began to administer the Budget Trading Program (NBP) under the State Implementation Plan (also known as the \"NOx SIP Call\"). The Budget Trading Program was a market-based cap and trade program created to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from power plants and other large combustion sources in the eastern United States. NOx is a prime ingredient in the formation of ground-level ozone (smog), a pervasive air pollution problem in many areas of the eastern United States. The NBP was designed to reduce NOx emissions during the warm summer months, referred to as the ozone season, when ground-level ozone concentrations are highest. In March 2008, EPA again strengthened the 8-hour ozone standard to 0.075 parts per million (ppm) from its previous 0.08 ppm.",
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"plaintext": "Ozone season emissions decreased by 43 percent between 2003 and 2008, even while energy demand remained essentially flat during the same period. CAIR will result in $85 billion to $100 billion in health benefits and nearly $2 billion in visibility benefits per year by 2015 and will substantially reduce premature mortality in the eastern United States.",
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"plaintext": "NOx reductions due to the Budget Trading Program have led to improvements in ozone and PM2.5, saving an estimated 580 to 1,800 lives in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "A 2017 study in the American Economic Review found that the Budget Trading Program decreased emissions and ambient ozone concentrations. The program reduced expenditures on medicine by about 1.5% ($800 million annually) and reduced the mortality rate by up to 0.5% (2,200 fewer premature deaths, mainly among individuals 75 and older).",
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"plaintext": "In the United States the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) as gases emitted from certain solids and liquids that may have adverse health effects. These VOCs include a variety of chemicals that are emitted from a variety of different products. These include products such as gasoline, perfumes, hair spray, fabric cleaners, PVC, and refrigerants; all of which can contain chemicals such as benzene, acetone, methylene chloride, freons, formaldehyde.",
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"plaintext": "VOCs are also monitored by the United States Geological Survey for its presence in groundwater supply. The USGS concluded that many of the nations aquifers are at risk to low-level VOC contamination. The common symptoms of short levels of exposure to VOCs include headaches, nausea, and eye irritation. If exposed for an extended period of time the symptoms include cancer and damage to the central nervous system.",
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"plaintext": "In an effort to reverse the adverse consequences of air pollution, in 2006, China started to consider a national pollution permit trading system in order to use market-based mechanisms to incentivize companies to cut pollution. This has been based on a previous pilot project called the Industrial emission trading pilot scheme, which was launched in 2002. Four provinces, three municipalities and one business entity was involved in this pilot project (also known as the 4+3+1 project). They are Shandong, Shanxi, Jiangsu, Henan, Shanghai, Tianjin, Liuzhou and China Huaneng Group, a state-owned company in the power industry. This pilot project did not turn into a bigger scale inter-provincial trading system, but it stimulated numerous local trading platforms.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, when the Chinese government started considering a national level pollution permit trading system again, there were more than 20 local pollution permit trading platforms. The Yangtze River Delta region as a whole has also run test trading, but the scale was limited. In the same year, the Chinese government proposed establishing a carbon market, focused on CO2 reduction later in the decade, and it is a separate system from the pollution permit trading.",
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"plaintext": "A 2021 study in PNAS found that China's emissions trading system effectively reduced firm emissions despite low carbon prices and infrequent trading. The system reduced total emissions by 16.7% and emission intensity by 9.7%.",
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"plaintext": "The EU Emission Trading System was established in the year 2005 - in line with the commitment period of the Kyoto protocol. It follows the cap and trade model where one allowance permits the holder to emit 1 ton of (tCO2). The scheme was said to cover energy and heat generation industries and around 11,186 plants participated in the first stage. These plants only accounted for 45% of all European emissions at the time. More than 90% of all these allowances were free of cost in both periods to build a strong base of abatements for the future phases. This free allocation resulted in the volume and value of allowances growing three-fold over 2006 with the price moving from €19/tCO₂ in 2005 to its peak of €30/tCO₂ which revealed a new problem. The overallocation of allowances caused the price to drop to €1/tCO₂ in the first few months of 2007 which created market price instabilities for businesses to reinvest in low carbon technologies.",
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"plaintext": "Renewable Energy Certificates (occasionally referred to as or \"green tags\"), are a largely unrelated form of market-based instruments that are used to achieve renewable energy targets, which may be environmentally motivated (like emissions reduction targets), but may also be motivated by other aims, such as energy security or industrial policy.",
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"plaintext": "For example, in the popular science magazine New Scientist, Lohmann (2006) argued that trading pollution allowances should be avoided as a climate stabilization policy for several reasons. First, climate change requires more radical changes than previous pollution trading schemes such as the US SO2 market. It requires reorganizing society and technology to \"leave most remaining fossil fuels safely underground\". Carbon trading schemes have tended to reward the heaviest polluters with 'windfall profits' when they are granted enough carbon credits to match historic production. Expensive long-term structural changes will not be made if there are cheaper sources of carbon credits which are often available from less developed countries, where they may be generated by local polluters at the expense of local communities.",
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"plaintext": "The US Congressional Budget Office (CBO, 2009) examined the potential effects of the American Clean Energy and Security Act on US households. This act relies heavily on the free allocation of permits. The Bill was found to protect low-income consumers, but it was recommended that the Bill be made more efficient by reducing welfare provisions for corporations, and more resources be made available for consumer relief. A cap-and-trade initiative in the U.S. Northeast caused concerns it would be regressive and poorer households would absorb most of the new tax.",
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"plaintext": "The current state of ETS shows that roughly 22% of global greenhouse emissions are covered by 64 carbon taxes and emission trading systems as of 2021. This means that there are still several member states that have not ratified the Kyoto Protocol. This is a cause of concern for energy intensive industries that are covered by such instruments that claim that there is a loss of competitiveness. Such corporations are thereby forced to take strategic production decisions that contribute to the issue of carbon leakage.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, the U.S. state of California and the Canadian province of Québec successfully linked their systems. In 2015, the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba agreed to join the linked system between Quebec and California. On 22 September 2017, the premiers of Quebec and Ontario, and the Governor of California, signed the formal agreement establishing the linkage.",
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"plaintext": " Dr. Daniel Fine of the New Mexico Center for Energy Policy on Cap and Trade",
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"plaintext": " \"The Making of a Market-Minded Environmentalist\", article by Fred Krupp in Strategy+Business'' (registration required) that articulates some of the reasoning and history behind emissions trading in California",
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37,105 | 1,077,698,572 | Metin_Kaçan | [
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"plaintext": "Metin Kaçan (15 November 1961 – 6 January 2013) was a Turkish author, who is best known for his novel Ağır Roman (Cholera Street), which was translated into German (Kaçan 2003), and a movie (Ağır Roman), directed by Mustafa Altıoklar (1999), was based on it.",
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"plaintext": "Besides Ağır Roman, Kaçan is also the author of the novel Fındık Sekiz, a collection of short stories, \"A ship to the Islands\" (Adalara Vapur, Kaçan 2002), and a book written in a mixed style between prose and poetry, entitled \"The Tiger at Withdrawal\" (Harman Kaplan, Kaçan 1999).",
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"plaintext": "Much of Kaçan's writings deals with life in Istanbul, in particular its poor quarter Dolapdere (not far from Taksim Square). To Dolapdere, he sarcastically gave the name \"Cholera\" (Kolera in Turkish) in Ağır Roman, thereby recalling both its shabbiness and the fact that the great Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz died there from the cholera in 1855. Mickiewicz Museum at Dolapdere, still open to visitors today, figures in \"Ağır Roman\". The title of this novel plays ingeniously with the polysemy of the Turkish word Roman, which means both \"gypsy\" and \"novel\". Also, together with the adjective ağır, which means \"heavy\" or \"slow\" in Turkish, Roman is the designation for a special kind of street music, played by some of the novel's protagonists.",
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"plaintext": "Ağır Roman tells the tragic story of a young hero, who grows up in Cholera quarter but finally fails and commits suicide. His failure parallels the failure of the quarter itself, whose ancient structures as well as its multi-ethnic and multi-religious composition disintegrate.",
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"plaintext": "Fındık Sekiz tells a story about two cars, that appear sometimes as personified figures, and that take the semi-autobiographical protagonist Meto on a mystical journey. At the same time, Meto's conflict with a woman, who manages to have him thrown into prison through fraudulent statements, is related, which might reflect some of Kaçan's own experiences.",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan's style is heavily imbued with Turkish slang. This choice gives his writings a non-conformistic, frequently vulgar, but overall extremely vivid and creative tone, which has been hailed, among others, by Yıldız Ecevit. Other characteristics of his writing are the personification of natural phenomena",
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"plaintext": "and inanimate items such as cars (in particular in Fındık Sekiz), autobiographical details (Kaçan grew up in Dolapdere), the blurring of the limitations of poetry and prose, and references to mysticism, in particular Muslim mysticism (Sufism). His best-selling novel, Ağır Roman was translated into French by Actes Sud in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Kaçan was arrested for torturing and raping his ex-girlfriend. He was released on bail pending the outcome of the trial, which ended five years later with a prison sentence of eight years and nine months. The appeals court upheld Kaçan's conviction. In 2006, he was caught by the police in his hometown while attending the funeral of a relative and sent to prison to serve his sentence. After spending close to four years in prison, the remainder of his sentence was commuted.",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan committed suicide by jumping from the Bosphorus Bridge on 6 January 2013. On that day, he took a cab in Esenler on the European side of Istanbul and requested to be driven to Üsküdar on the Asian side. He asked the driver to stop on the bridge so that he could take photographs. He got out of the vehicle, ran to the edge of the bridge, and threw himself off. His brother confirmed the suicide on 8 January. His body washed ashore on 18 January, twelve days after his disappearance, on the coast of Marmara Sea at Beylikdüzü. Kaçan was 51 years old.",
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"plaintext": "Jaklaban-Andante Graffiti (1989) Istanbul, Joker Yayınları",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin et Kemal Aratan İstedikleri Yere Gidenler (1991) Istanbul, Joker Yayınları",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin Ağır Roman (1995) Istanbul, Can Yayınları.",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin Fındık Sekiz (1997) Istanbul, Can Yayınları",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin Harman Kaplan (1999) Istanbul, Can Yayınları",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin Cholera Blues (2003) Berlin, Dağyeli",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin Cervantesin Yeğeni (2005) Istanbul, Can Yayınları",
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"plaintext": "Kaçan, Metin Haselnuss 8 (2008) Berlin, Dağyeli",
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"plaintext": "Hess 1998a. Hess, Michael Reinhard: Ağır Roman. Istanbuler Almanach 2 (1998). 64–66.",
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"plaintext": "Hess 1998b. Hess, Michael Reinhard: A Glance at the Wilder Side of Turkey: Ağır Roman. Orientalia Suecana 67 (1998). 55–67.",
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"plaintext": "Ecevit 2004. Ecevit, Yıldız: Türk Romanında Postmodernist Açılımlar [Postmodern Tendencies in the Turkish novel]. 3rd ed. Istanbul: Iletisim Yayınları.",
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"plaintext": "Hess 2005. Hess, Michael Reinhard: The Turkish Car Novel on a Trip: fındık sekiz by Metin Kaçan. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 95 (2005). 87–118.",
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"plaintext": "The United Nations Foundation is a charitable organization headquartered in Washington, DC, that supports the United Nations and its activities. It was established in 1998 with a $1 billion gift to the United Nations by philanthropist Ted Turner, who believed the UN was crucial for addressing the world's problems. Originally primarily a grantmaker, the UN Foundation has evolved into a strategic partner to the UN, mobilizing support to advance the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and help the UN address issues such as climate change, global health, gender equality, human rights, data and technology, peace, and humanitarian responses. The UN Foundation's main work occurs through building public-private partnerships, communities, initiatives, campaigns, and alliances to broaden support for the UN and solve global problems. The UN Foundation has helped build awareness and advocate for action on, among others, antimicrobial resistance, regional action on climate change, local implementation of the SDGs, as well as global campaigns such as Nothing But Nets against malaria, the Measles & Rubella Initiative, the Clean Cooking Alliance, Girl Up, Shot@Life, and the Digital Impact Alliance, among others. In March 2020, the UN Foundation was also a key founder of the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund on behalf of the World Health Organization (WHO), helping to raise over $200 million USD within the first six weeks to support the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation was founded with the intent to build support for UN causes and to advocate for the United States to honor its financial commitments to the UN. Since then, the UN Foundation and its U.S. advocacy sister organization, the Better World Campaign, have built advocacy campaigns, provided grants, connected experts, advocates, and decision-makers, and driven public awareness in order to support the UN and its priorities and programs worldwide. The UN Foundation is now supported by a variety of philanthropic, corporate, government, and individual donors, and it continues to serve as a substantial source of private funding to the United Nations. In conjunction with the UN, it established the United Nations Fund for International Partnerships to serve as the UN counterpart to the Foundation.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation has made a cumulative disbursement of more than $1.5 billion in grants to the UN system. The UN Foundation also works with UN partners in order to provide policy, advocacy, event, and communications recommendations and support. The UN Foundation's budgetary breakdown in 2019 was $95.8 million to program services, $5.7 million to fundraising, and $8.9 million going to management and overhead.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, Ted Turner, an American media proprietor, producer, and philanthropist, announced his decision to make a $1 billion contribution to the United Nations at the annual United Nations Association of the USA gala dinner, with then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan present. This $1 billion donation was used to establish the United Nations Foundation.",
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"plaintext": "Beyond his philanthropy work, Turner is best known for founding cable television network CNN, as well as the Turner Broadcasting System (TBS) and Turner Entertainment Company. Turner chose to donate to the UN and create the UN Foundation because he was a prior donor to similar causes and felt strongly that the UN was critical to solve the world’s most pressing challenges. Turner’s gift was also inspired by the fact that the UN was underfunded at the time because the U.S. government had not met its allocated financial contribution to the UN due to a lack of sufficient appropriations in the federal budget. Prior to his $1 billion donation to the UN, Turner was already an active philanthropist and had been a proponent for the protection of the environment, especially in combating global warming. Turner believed that his $100 million per year donation over the course of 10 years would make a difference to the United Nations, and that he could use this donation to encourage other wealthy members of society to make financial contributions to the work of the UN. In 1996, Turner was worth $3.2 billion due to his shares in Time Warner (which had bought TBS that year). By giving away nearly a third of his wealth while still living, Ted Turner became a noted participant in the Giving Pledge movement.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation is led by President and Chief Executive Officer Elizabeth Cousens, who stepped into the role in January 2020 after serving for four years as Deputy CEO. Prior to her time at the UN Foundation, Cousens served as U.S. Ambassador to the UN Economic and Social Council, and Alternate Representative to the UN General Assembly where she led U.S. negotiations on the SDGs. Kathy Calvin, the former President of AOL Time Warner Foundation, served as the UN Foundation’s prior President and CEO from 2013 through 2019. Timothy E. Wirth, a former United States Congressman, U.S. Senator, and the first Undersecretary of State for Global Affairs in U.S. President Bill Clinton's administration, served as the UN Foundation's first President from 1998 to 2013. Ted Turner serves as the chairman of the board. Other current board members include Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of Jordan, former Deputy Secretary-General of the UN Mark Malloch-Brown, Founder and Chairman Emeritus of Infosys N. R. Narayana Murthy, Master of University College Oxford Valerie Amos, CEO of Verizon Communications Hans Vestberg, Former Prime Minister of Norway Gro Harlem Brundtland, Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus, President of the University of Miami Julio Frenk, Chairman of Endeavor Brazil Fábio Colletti Barbosa, Senior Partner of the Southbridge Group Dr. Frannie Léautier, Chair of the Captain Planet Foundation Laura Turner Seydel, and former UN Foundation Presidents Timothy E. Wirth and Kathy Calvin.",
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"plaintext": "When the UN Foundation was founded, it was created to assist the UN with a variety of key issues, and bring attention to particular global problems. A top priority was to build upon previously-successful UN programs, including children's health, population and family planning issues, global environmental agreements, and the safe removal of land-mines. Additionally, it aimed to work with the private sector to raise funding for UN causes, and to raise awareness of the UN and its programs amongst the American population.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation has had a close relationship with the UN and its leadership from the beginning in order to set goals and provide funding for particular programs. Over time, the UN Foundation evolved from being a simple funding conduit to creating and fostering its own initiatives and communities, which enabled it to support UN priorities more deeply and diversely. At present, it continues to build and expand its role as a strategic partner to the UN across multiple sectors. The UN Foundation’s current main issue areas include the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), gender equality, climate and environment, global health, and enhancing global cooperation. The Foundation has also continued working in areas of US-UN engagement and advancing data and technology for the SDGs.",
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"plaintext": "One of the UN Foundation’s overarching goals is to share awareness, advance progress, understand critical gaps, and activate communities in support of the Sustainable Development Goals. The SDGs, a set of 17 interlinked goals designed to be a \"blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all,\" were adopted in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly as a successor to the Millennium Development Goals. While all of the UN Foundation’s programs connect to at least one SDG (and often multiple), the Foundation also works to foster awareness and support of the SDGs among civil society, the private sector, academia, and engaged communities. The Foundation is also a key partner in Global Goals Week, which runs parallel to the UN General Assembly week and engages diverse partnerships for the SDGs. The Foundation also houses the Business Council for the United Nations, which creates connections between the private sector and the UN in support of the UN’s priorities and the SDGs.",
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"plaintext": "Global health, often with a focus on women and children, has been one of the UN Foundation’s key global issue areas. Over the Foundation’s first 20 years, 72% of grants fell under the issue area of global health. The Foundation works closely with private sector partners and UN agencies in order to address a variety of health issues including universal health coverage, antimicrobial resistance, and the response and recovery from COVID-19. In addition, the UN Foundation has built partnerships and campaigns to address issues such as measles and rubella, childhood vaccination, and malaria.",
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"plaintext": "The Measles & Rubella Initiative, launched in 2001, is a partnership between the UN Foundation, the American Red Cross, UNICEF, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the World Health Organization (WHO) in order to provide measles vaccinations to children across the African continent. This campaign not only focuses on vaccinating children, but also putting into place health infrastructure, and promoting better access to health-care across the continent. In ten years, the initiative has protected more than 5.5 billion children from measles.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation also runs the Nothing But Nets Campaign, which is targeted at reducing malaria across the African continent. This campaign originally started when Sports Illustrated writer Rick Reilley published an article asking his readers to donate money to a campaign to buy mosquito nets for those in Africa suffering from malaria. With support from the UN Foundation, Reilley's project got off the ground, and has to-date provided over 13 million nets across Africa. Today, the campaign also encourages Americans to learn about, advocate for, and donate to malaria eradication efforts.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation's Shot@Life campaign educates, connects and empowers Americans to champion vaccines as one of the most cost-effective ways to save the lives of children in developing countries. The campaign encourages Americans to learn about, advocate for, and donate vaccines to decrease vaccine-preventable childhood deaths. As of 2019, Shot@Life had protected over $4.1 billion in U.S. funding for global childhood immunization programs and helped provide more than 82 million vaccines through direct grant support to UN partners.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation is a communications and advocacy partner for the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, a partnership that includes Rotary International, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, UNICEF, CDC, and WHO. The initiative is dedicated to globally eradicating polio through vaccinations and has protected 2 billion children from polio. ",
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"plaintext": "Every Woman Every Child was launched by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon during the United Nations Millennium Development Goals Summit in 2010 and aims to save and improve the lives of millions of women, children and adolescents around the world by 2030. It is a global effort to mobilize international and national action by governments, multilaterals, the private sector and civil society to address health challenges facing women and children around the world.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2020, at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the UN Foundation launched the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund in partnership with the Swiss Philanthropy Foundation to raise funds for WHO’s COVID-19 response. The fund raised over $200 million within six weeks, which went toward WHO’s efforts to track and understand the spread of the virus, to mobilize protective equipment to frontline health workers, and to develop vaccines, tests, and treatments. Beneficiaries of the fund were later expanded to include UNICEF, the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), the World Food Programme (WFP), the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR), and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). The foundation also helped raise funds for the Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator campaign by accepting donations through the ACT Together Fund.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2020, the UN Foundation launched its Unite for Health campaign, focused on the need for global collaboration amidst the disruption of health systems and services due to COVID-19, and the rollback of global health progress it brought. ",
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"plaintext": "Gender equality is another one of the Foundation’s key issue areas. The Foundation has several campaigns and initiatives that address gender issues; their work includes girls’ leadership and empowerment, family planning and contraceptive access, maternal health, and gender data. All its work on gender equality is represented by the Equal Everywhere brand and campaign that calls for all levels of society to make equality the reality of every girl and woman.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation launched the Girl Up campaign in September 2010. This \"for girls, by girls\" campaign offers leadership development and education opportunities for adolescent girls. Through Girl Up's support, girls create middle school, high school, or campus clubs, which then plan events to raise money and awareness for the importance of women's issues. Money raised by the clubs is often used to support girls in developing countries so that they have the opportunity to become educated, healthy, safe, counted, and positioned to be the next generation of leaders.",
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"plaintext": "The Universal Access Project works to achieve universal access to reproductive health care by convening donors and advocates to protect and strengthen global sexual and reproductive health and rights. Its goal is to increase and maintain the U.S. involvement and funding for global family planning by protecting key investments.",
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"plaintext": "Family Planning 2020, an outcome of the 2012 London Summit on Family Planning, addresses the policy, financing, delivery and socio-cultural barriers to women accessing contraceptive information, services and supplies. Led by an 23-member Reference Group, operated daily by a Secretariat, and hosted by the United Nations Foundation, FP2020 is based on the principle that all women, no matter where they live should have access to lifesaving contraceptives.",
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"plaintext": "Data2X, a collaborative technical and advocacy platform, was formed after former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton called for its creation in a policy speech in July of 2012 and cited the lack of reliable and regular data on the lives of women and girls. Through research, advocacy and communications, Data2X works to improve the availability, quality, and use of gender data to make a practical difference in the lives of women and girls worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation’s priorities include tackling global climate change, advancing climate diplomacy and negotiations, building cross-issue intersections, and communicating climate science to the public. The Foundation’s climate team works with partners in the NGO sector, the UN, governments, and private corporations to come up with solutions and provide funding to programs related to this issue. The UN Foundation also advocates for the Paris Agreement on climate change, particularly in the United States where it supports the U.S. Climate Alliance, a bipartisan coalition of states and unincorporated self-governing territories that are committed to upholding the objectives of the 2015 Paris Agreement.",
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"plaintext": "The UN Foundation also fosters the Clean Cooking Alliance, an initiative supporting large-scale adoption of clean and safe household cooking solutions as a way to save lives, improve livelihoods, empower women, and reduce climate change emissions. The alliance works with public, private, and non-profit partners to overcome market barriers that hamper the production, deployment, and use of clean cookstoves and fuels in the developing world. It works to develop standards for cleaner stoves and to increase public and policymaker awareness of the health and environmental benefits of improved stoves.",
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"plaintext": " +SocialGood, a global community of changemakers who connect with each other and the UN, share ideas, and advance solutions to achieve the SDGs in their communities.",
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"plaintext": " 3D Program for Girls and Women, a program addressing gender equality among local governments and through civil society and private sector partnerships.",
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"plaintext": " Digital Impact Alliance, an alliance that identifies digital solutions to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.",
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"plaintext": " United Nations Association of the United States of America, an association of U.S. based chapters that promote political and public support for the United Nations among Americans.",
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37,118 | 1,107,762,064 | Arabic_calligraphy | [
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"plaintext": "Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice of handwriting and calligraphy based on the Arabic alphabet. It is known in Arabic as khatt (), derived from the word 'line', 'design', or 'construction'. Kufic is the oldest form of the Arabic script.",
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"plaintext": "From an artistic point of view, Arabic calligraphy has been known and appreciated for its diversity and great potential for development. In fact, it has been linked in the Arabic culture to various fields such as religion, art, architecture, education and craftsmanship, which in return have played an important role in its advancement.",
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"plaintext": "Although most Islamic calligraphy is in Arabic and most Arabic calligraphy is Islamic, the two are not identical. Coptic or other Christian manuscripts in Arabic, for example, have made use of calligraphy. Likewise, there is Islamic calligraphy in Persian or the historic Ottoman language.",
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"plaintext": "The Arabic alphabet is known to be used by one of the most widely used language scripts in the world. Many scholars believe that the alphabet was created around the 4th century CE. The alphabet consists of 28 letters written from right to left. Each letter can be written in four ways, depending on where the letter is placed in a sentence. These four locations are also known as initial, medial, final and isolated.",
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"plaintext": "The pens used for Arabic calligraphy vary from Latin calligraphy. The tools used for calligraphy are different assortments of pens and calligraphy ink. The most common calligraphy pen used is Qalam.",
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"plaintext": "The Khamish pen also known as a reed pen is used by Arab, Turkish, and Iranian calligraphers. The reed of the pen is grown along rivers. Although this pen has been used for over 500 years, preparing the pen is a lengthy process.",
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"plaintext": "Bamboo pens are one of the oldest pens used for calligraphy. The edge of bamboo pens allow the performance of calligraphy to be in full movement.",
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"plaintext": "The Java pen is known for the tool's hardness and ability to create sharp edges. The pen is good to use for small scripts.",
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"plaintext": "The Handam pen consists of the same strength that the Java pen has. The pen is good to use for all kinds of scripts.",
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"plaintext": "The Celi pen is used for large writing in Arabic calligraphy. These pens are made from hardwood and cut and drilled.",
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"plaintext": "The two most popular scripts used for Arabic calligraphy are Kufic and Naskh. Kūfic was derived from Iraq and initially used for inscription on stone and metal. Naskhī originated from Mecca and Medina. The script is used as a cursive script, for example on papyrus and paper.",
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"plaintext": "The Thuluth and Nasta'liq and Diwani script are other scripts used for Arabic scripting.",
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"plaintext": "The Thuluth script used during the medieval times is known as one of the oldest scripts to exist. The script was used on mosques and for Quranic text due to the appearance of the text.",
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"plaintext": "The Nasta'liq script is used more for Persian than Arabic scripting. Because of the upward slant to the left, the script is seen as different from the other scripts. The cursive look creates an elegant look when creating.",
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"plaintext": "The Diwani Script was created during the Ottoman era. The lining and lettering of this script creates a sense of closeness when writing. Due to this reason, it's difficult to read since the letters intertwine.",
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"plaintext": "Some classical calligraphers:",
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{
"plaintext": "Ibn Muqla (d. 939/940)",
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"plaintext": "Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022)",
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"plaintext": "Fakhr-un-Nisa (12th century)",
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"plaintext": "Shaykh Hamdullah (1436–1520)",
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"plaintext": "Hamid Aytaç (1891-1982)",
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"plaintext": "Seyyid Kasim Gubari (d. 1624)",
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"plaintext": "Hâfiz Osman (1642–1698)",
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"plaintext": "Mustafa Râkim (1757–1826)",
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"plaintext": "Mehmed Shevki Efendi (1829–1887)",
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"plaintext": " Hasan Çelebi (b. 1937), Turkey",
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"plaintext": " Ali Adjalli (b. 1939), Iran",
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"plaintext": " Wijdan Ali (b. 1939), Jordan",
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"plaintext": " Hashem Muhammad al-Baghdadi, Iraq ",
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{
"plaintext": " Everitte Barbee (b. 1988), United States of America",
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{
"plaintext": " Mohammad Hosni Syria",
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"plaintext": " Shakkir Hassan Al Sa'id (1925-2004) in Iraq",
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"plaintext": " Madiha Omar Iraqi-American",
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"plaintext": " Hassan Massoudy Iraqi-French (b. 1944) ",
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"plaintext": " Sadequain Naqqash (1930-1987), Pakistan",
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"plaintext": " Ibrahim el-Salahi (b. 1930), Sudan",
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"plaintext": " Mouneer Al-Shaarani (b. 1952), Syria",
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"plaintext": " Mahmoud Taha (b. 1942), Jordan",
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"plaintext": " Mohamed Zakariya (b. 1942), United States of America",
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"plaintext": "Uthman Taha (b. 1934), Syria",
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"plaintext": "Shafiq-Uz-Zaman Khan Pakistan",
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"plaintext": "Arabic calligraphy serves as a major source of inspiration for Arabic typography. For example, the Amiri typeface is inspired by the Naskh script used at the Amiri Press in Cairo.",
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"plaintext": "The shift from Arabic calligraphy to Arabic typography presents technical challenges, as Arabic is essentially a cursive script with contextual shapes.",
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"plaintext": "EL Seed, a French-Tunisian graffiti artist, makes use of Arabic calligraphy in his various art projects, in a style called calligraffiti.",
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"plaintext": "The Hurufiyya ( letters) movement, since its beginnings in the early 20th century, uses the artistic manipulation of Arabic calligraphy and typography in abstraction.",
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"plaintext": "Taking Shape: Abstraction From the Arab World, 1950s-1980s, a 2020 installation at New York University's Grey Art Gallery, explored how Arabic calligraphy, with its ancient presence in visual art, influenced abstract art in the Arab world. For Madiha Omar, the Arabic alphabet was a means of expressing a secular identity and appropriating Western painting, while Omar El-Nagdi explored the inherent divinity of Arabic calligraphy.",
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"plaintext": " Islamic calligraphy",
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"plaintext": " Abu Saymeh",
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|
37,120 | 1,107,145,228 | Nigger | [
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"plaintext": "In the English language, the word nigger is an ethnic slur used against black people, especially African Americans. Because it is considered extremely offensive, even if only mentioned and not used as a slur, it is often referred to by the euphemism . It also may be used with a more neutral meaning among African Americans, primarily as nigga. ",
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"plaintext": "The word originated in the 18th century as an adaptation of the Spanish word negro, a descendant of the Latin adjective niger, which means \"black\". Over time it took on a derogatory connotation and became a racist insult by the 20th century. Accordingly, it began to disappear from general popular culture. Its inclusion in classic works of literature has sparked controversy and ongoing debate.",
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"plaintext": "The variants neger and negar derive from various Romance words for 'black', including the Spanish and Portuguese word (black) and the now-pejorative French . Etymologically, , , , and nigger ultimately derive from , the stem of the Latin ('black').",
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"plaintext": "In its original English-language usage, nigger (also spelled niger) was a word for a dark-skinned individual. The earliest known published use of the term dates from 1574, in a work alluding to \"the Nigers of Aethiop, bearing witnes\". According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first derogatory usage of the term nigger was recorded two centuries later, in 1775.",
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"plaintext": "In the colonial America of 1619, John Rolfe used negars in describing the African slaves shipped to the Virginia colony. Later American English spellings, neger and neggar, prevailed in New York under the Dutch and in metropolitan Philadelphia's Moravian and Pennsylvania Dutch communities; the African Burial Ground in New York City originally was known by the Dutch name (Cemetery of the Negro). An early occurrence of neger in American English dates from 1625 in Rhode Island. Lexicographer Noah Webster suggested the neger spelling in place of negro in his 1806 dictionary.",
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"plaintext": "During the late 18th and early 19th century, the word \"nigger\" also described an actual labor category, which African American laborers adopted for themselves as a social identity, and thus white people used the descriptor word as a distancing or derogatory epithet, as if \"quoting black people\" and their non-standard language. During the early 1800s to the late 1840s fur trade in the Western United States, the word was spelled \"niggur\", and is often recorded in the literature of the time. George Fredrick Ruxton used it in his \"mountain man\" lexicon, without pejorative connotation. \"Niggur\" was evidently similar to the modern use of \"dude\" or \"guy\". This passage from Ruxton's Life in the Far West illustrates the word in spoken form—the speaker here referring to himself: \"Travler, marm, this niggur's no travler; I ar' a trapper, marm, a mountain-man, wagh!\" It was not used as a term exclusively for blacks among mountain men during this period, as Indians, Mexicans, and Frenchmen and Anglos alike could be a \"niggur\". \"The noun slipped back and forth from derogatory to endearing.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 1859 the term was clearly used to offend, in an attack on abolitionist John Brown.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"colored\" or \"negro\" became a respectful alternative. In 1851, the Boston Vigilance Committee, an abolitionist organization, posted warnings to the Colored People of Boston and vicinity. Writing in 1904, journalist Clifton Johnson documented the \"opprobrious\" character of the word nigger, emphasizing that it was chosen in the South precisely because it was more offensive than \"colored\" or \"negro\". By the turn of the century, \"colored\" had become sufficiently mainstream that it was chosen as the racial self-identifier for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In 2008 Carla Sims, its communications director, said \"the term 'colored' is not derogatory, [the NAACP] chose the word 'colored' because it was the most positive description commonly used [in 1909, when the association was founded]. It's outdated and antiquated but not offensive.\"",
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"plaintext": "Mark Twain, in the autobiographic book Life on the Mississippi (1883), used the term within quotes, indicating reported speech, but used the term \"negro\" when writing in his own narrative persona. Joseph Conrad published a novella in Britain with the title The Nigger of the \"Narcissus\" (1897); in the United States, it was released as The Children of the Sea: A Tale of the Forecastle; the original had been called \"the ugliest conceivable title\" in a British review and American reviewers understood the change as reflecting American \"refinement\" and \"prudery.\" ",
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"plaintext": "A style guide to British English usage, H. W. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, states in the first edition (1926) that applying the word nigger to \"others than full or partial negroes\" is \"felt as an insult by the person described, & betrays in the speaker, if not deliberate insolence, at least a very arrogant inhumanity\"; but the second edition (1965) states \"N. has been described as 'the term that carries with it all the obloquy and contempt and rejection which whites have inflicted on blacks'\". The quoted formula goes back to the writings of the American journalist Harold R. Isaacs, who used it in several writings between 1963 and 1975. Black characters in Nella Larsen's 1929 novel Passing view its use as offensive; one says \"I'm really not such an idiot that I don't realize that if a man calls me a nigger, it's his fault the first time, but mine if he has the opportunity to do it again.\"",
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"plaintext": "By the late 1960s, the social change brought about by the civil rights movement had legitimized the racial identity word Black as mainstream American English usage to denote black-skinned Americans of African ancestry. President Thomas Jefferson had used this word of his slaves in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), but \"Black\" had not been widely used until the later 20th century. (See Black Pride, and, in the context of worldwide anti-colonialism initiatives, Négritude.)",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, the term \"African American\" was advanced analogously to the terms \"German American\" and \"Irish American\", and was adopted by major media outlets. Moreover, as a compound word, African American resembles the vogue word Afro-American, an early-1970s popular usage. Some Black Americans continue to use the word nigger, often spelled as nigga and niggah, without irony, either to neutralize the word's impact or as a sign of solidarity.",
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"plaintext": "The history of the word varies in other British, or formerly British, territories in the Americas. In Bermuda, which was settled by England through misadventure (the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture) as an extension of Virginia, and which maintained close links with Virginia and the other continental colonies thereafter (though remaining part of British North America after independence of the colonies that formed the United States), the word remains purely offensive, despite the influence locally of United States media. Although initially the economy focused on growing tobacco for export (by the end of the 17th Century Bermuda would be wholly devoted to maritime activities), a steady supply of indentured servants from England under the administration of the Somers Isles Company meant there was little reliance on slavery. Nonetheless, enslaved Afro-Hispanics and Native Americans trickled into Bermuda during the first half of the 17th Century from shipwrecks and prizes of Bermuda-based privateers. By the mid-17th Century, free Afro-Hispanics were immigrating in larger numbers as indentured servants from Spanish West Indian colonies that were annexed into the English Empire.",
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"plaintext": "The 1834 abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire brought an end to the importation of blacks to Bermuda. Meanwhile, free blacks were coerced to emigrate and those holding enslaved persons were encouraged to export them. Despite this, the coloured population (in Bermuda, the population was divided into \"white\" and \"coloured\", with anyone not entirely of European heritage defined as coloured. From the 1840s, a third demographic, \"Portuguese\", was added with immigration of agricultural labourers from Azores and other Portuguese Atlantic islands) continued to grow, primarily through the merging together of the various 17th Century demographic groups, including the Irish and part of the English. White and coloured Bermudians lived close together, worked together, and inevitably intermarried or otherwise interbred. ",
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"plaintext": "Since the start of the 19th Century, coloured Bermudians have been in the majority. Given the small size of the community and the close quarters, and despite the general prejudice among whites against coloured people, Bermudians have always placed a great emphasis on politeness and social cohesion compared to their continental cousins, and Bermudian language is characterised by euphemisms (Bermudians, by example, generally avoid describing outsiders as foreigners, preferring non-Bermudians. Residents is generally used when referring to the population of the archipelago, unless it is required to distinguish between Bermudians and ex-pats. Tourist is perceived as slightly rude, and the preferred alternative is visitors).",
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"plaintext": "Susette Harriet Lloyd, who travelled to Bermuda as part of a party with the Church of England's Archdeacon of Bermuda Aubrey Spencer and remained for two years, detailed Bermudians in ‘’Sketches of Bermuda’’, published in 1835, immediately following the abolition of slavery in Bermuda and the remainder of the British Empire in 1834 (Bermuda elected to end slavery immediately, becoming the first colony to do so, though all other British colonies except for Antigua availed themselves of an allowance made by the Imperial government enabling them to phase slavery out gradually). Lloyd's book gives a rare contemporary account of Bermudian society immediately prior to the abolition of slavery. Among her observations of coloured Bermudians, she wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Decades later, Christiana Rounds wrote in Harper's Magazine (re-published in an advertising pamphlet by A.L Mellen, the Proprietor of the Hamilton Hotel in 1876):",
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"plaintext": "Given this history, the use of the word \"nigger\" in Bermuda has not followed the same path as in the United States, despite most of Bermuda's media and most of its visitors being from the United States. The word is generally unutterable, not just for whites. Bermuda sustained considerable immigration during the course of the 20th Century, including from the British West Indies, and there may be cultural differences between the older Bermudian families and those resulting from more recent immigration depending on the degree to which they have integrated into the larger community.",
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"plaintext": "The Progressive Labour Party, the first party formed in 1963 before party politics was legalised, quickly came to be dominated by West Indians and West Indian Bermudians such as Lois Browne-Evans and Rolfe Commissiong (son of Trinidadian musician Rudolph Patrick Commissiong), and is still derided by many white and blacks Bermudians as promoting racially divisive, black nationalist \"plantation politics\" (a term with double meaning in traditionally sea-faring Bermuda where there remains a strong stigma against agricultural work), which contributed to its not winning an election for more than three decades despite its claim to be the party of the black majority. There was considerable animosity between many coloured Bermudians and West Indians throughout the 20th Century, with the former disparaging the latter as jump-ups. This partly resulted from cultural differences, but also partly from the perception that West Indian immigrants competed for jobs and lowered the cost of labour. Many coloured West Indians were perceived as troublesome and fractious, and also rude (although Bermudians tend to find most non-Bermudians rude). Although the perception of the PLP as West Indian dominated has diminished over the decades, and it has won a few elections, it has never succeeded in becoming the party of black voters (it has attracted a handful of white politicians and voters despite its black nationalist agenda), and its politicians have lashed out at blacks who do not support it with phrases imported from the former plantation colonies that had often been used by black West Indians to refer to black Bermudians, including \"Uncle Tom\" and, most shockingly to Bermudian ears, \"house nigger\", attracting wide condemnation.",
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"plaintext": "Surveys from 2006 showed that the American public widely perceived usage of the term to be wrong or unacceptable, but that nearly half of whites and two-thirds of blacks knew someone personally who referred to blacks by the term. Nearly one-third of whites and two-thirds of blacks said they had personally used the term within the last five years.",
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"plaintext": "\"Niggers in the White House\" was written in reaction to an October 1901 White House dinner hosted by Republican President Theodore Roosevelt, who had invited Booker T. Washington—an African-American presidential adviser—as a guest. The poem reappeared in 1929 after First Lady Lou Hoover, wife of President Herbert Hoover, invited Jessie De Priest, the wife of African-American congressman Oscar De Priest, to a tea for congressmen's wives at the White House. The identity of the author—who used the byline \"unchained poet\"—remains unknown.",
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"plaintext": "In explaining his refusal to be conscripted to fight the Vietnam War (1955–75), professional boxer Muhammad Ali said, \"No Vietcong [Communist North Vietnamese] ever called me nigger;\" later, his modified answer was the title of a documentary, No Vietnamese Ever Called Me Nigger (1968), about the front-line lot of the U.S. Army Black soldier in combat in Vietnam. An Ali biographer reports that, when interviewed by Robert Lipsyte in 1966, the boxer actually said, \"I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong.\"",
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"plaintext": "On February 28, 2007, the New York City Council symbolically banned the use of the word nigger; however, there is no penalty for using it. This formal resolution also requests excluding from Grammy Award consideration every song whose lyrics contain the word; however, Ron Roecker, vice president of communication for the Recording Academy, doubted it will have any effect on actual nominations.",
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"plaintext": "The word can be invoked politically for effect. When Detroit mayor Kwame Kilpatrick came under intense scrutiny for his conduct in 2008, he deviated from an address to the city council, saying, \"In the past 30 days, I've been called a nigger more than any time in my entire life.\" Opponents accused him of \"playing the race card\" to save his political life.",
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"plaintext": "The implicit racism of the word nigger has generally rendered its use taboo. Magazines and newspapers typically do not use this word but instead print censored versions such as \"n*gg*r\", \"n**ger\", \"n——\" or \"the N-word\"; see The N-word euphemism.",
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"plaintext": "The use of nigger in older literature has become controversial because of the word's modern meaning as a racist insult. One of the most enduring controversies has been the word's use in Mark Twain's novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). Huckleberry Finn was the fifth most challenged book during the 1990s, according to the American Library Association. The novel is written from the point of view, and largely in the language, of an uneducated white boy, who is drifting down the Mississippi River on a raft with an adult escaped slave, Jim. The word \"nigger\" is used (mostly about Jim) over 200 times. Twain's advocates note that the novel is composed in then-contemporary vernacular usage, not racist stereotype, because Jim, the black man, is a sympathetic character.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, a new edition published by NewSouth Books replaced the word \"nigger\" with \"slave\" and also removed the word \"injun\". The change was spearheaded by Twain scholar Alan Gribben in the hope of \"countering the 'pre-emptive censorship that results from the book's being removed from school curricula over language concerns. The changes sparked outrage from critics Elon James, Alexandra Petrie and Chris Meadows.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1999 memoir All Souls, Irish-American Michael Patrick MacDonald describes how many white residents of the Old Colony Housing Project in South Boston used this meaning to degrade the people considered to be of lower status, whether white or black.",
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"plaintext": "The word's usage in literature has led to it being a point of discussion in university lectures as well. In 2008, Arizona State University English professor Neal A. Lester created what has been called \"the first ever college-level class designed to explore the word 'nigger. Starting in the following decade, colleges struggled with attempts to teach material about the slur in a sensitive manner. In 2012, a sixth grade Chicago teacher Lincoln Brown was suspended after repeating the contents of a racially charged note being passed around in class. Brown later filed a federal civil rights lawsuit against the headmaster and the Chicago public schools. A New Orleans high school also experienced controversy in 2017. Such increased attention prompted Elizabeth Stordeur Pryor, the daughter of Richard Pryor and a professor at Smith College, to give a talk opining that the word was leading to a \"social crisis\" in higher education.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to Smith College, Emory University, Augsburg University, Southern Connecticut State University, and Simpson College all suspended professors in 2019 over referring to the word \"nigger\" by name in classroom settings. In two other cases, a professor at Princeton decided to stop teaching a course on hate speech after students protested his utterance of \"nigger\" and a professor at DePaul had his law course cancelled after 80% of the enrolled students transferred out. Instead of pursuing disciplinary action, a student at the College of the Desert challenged his professor in a viral class presentation which argued that her use of the word in a lecture was not justified.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the head of the media company Netflix, Reed Hastings, fired his chief communications officer, Jonathan Friedland, for using the word twice during internal discussions about sensitive words. In explaining why, Hastings wrote:",
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"plaintext": "The following year, screenwriter Walter Mosley turned down a job after his human resources department took issue with him using the word to describe racism that he experienced as a black man.",
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"plaintext": "While defending Laurie Sheck, a professor who was cleared of ethical violations for quoting I Am Not Your Negro by James Baldwin, John McWhorter wrote that efforts to condemn racist language by white Americans had undergone mission creep. Similar controversies outside the United States have occurred at the University of Western Ontario in Canada and the Madrid campus of Syracuse University. In June 2020, Canadian news host Wendy Mesley was suspended and replaced with a guest host after she attended a meeting on racial justice and, in the process of quoting a journalist, used \"a word that no-one like me should ever use\". In August 2020, BBC news, with the agreement of victim and family, mentioned the slur when reporting on a physical and verbal assault on the black NHS worker and musician K-Dogg. Within the week the BBC received over 18,600 complaints, the black radio host David Whitely resigned in protest, and the BBC apologized.",
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"plaintext": "In 2021, in Tampa, Florida, a 27-year-old black employee at a Dunkin' Donuts punched a 77-year-old white customer after the customer had repeatedly called the employee the word. The customer fell to the floor and hit his head. Three days later, he died. An autopsy report said he suffered a skull fracture and brain contusions. The employee was arrested, and charged with manslaughter. In a plea bargain, the employee pled guilty to felony battery, and was sentenced to two years of house arrest. In 2022, in explaining why the employee did not receive any jail time, the Washington Post quoted Grayson Kamm, a spokesman for Hillsborough State Attorney Andrew Warren, as saying, \"Two of the primary factors were the aggressive approach the victim took toward the defendant and everyone working with the defendant, and that the victim repeatedly used possibly the most aggressive and offensive term in the English language.\"",
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"plaintext": "Black listeners often react to the term differently, depending on whether it is used by white speakers or by Black speakers. In the former case, it is regularly understood as insensitive or insulting; in the latter, it may carry notes of in-group disparagement, and is often understood as neutral or affectionate, a possible instance of reappropriation.",
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"plaintext": "In the Black community, nigger is often rendered as nigga. This usage has been popularized by the rap and hip-hop music cultures and is used as part of an in-group lexicon and speech. It is not necessarily derogatory and is often used to mean homie or friend.",
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"plaintext": "Acceptance of intra-group usage of the word nigga is still debated, although it has established a foothold amongst younger generations. The NAACP denounces the use of both nigga and nigger. Usage of nigga by mixed-race individuals is still largely considered taboo, albeit not as inflammatory as nigger. As of 2001, trends indicated that usage of the term in intragroup settings is increasing even amongst white youth, due to the popularity of rap and hip hop culture. Linguist Keith Allan rejects the view that nigger is always a slur, arguing that it is also used as a marker of camaraderie and friendship, comparable to the British and Australian term \"mate\" or the American \"buddy\".",
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"plaintext": "According to Arthur K. Spears in Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 2006:",
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"plaintext": "Kevin Cato, meanwhile, observes:",
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"plaintext": "Addressing the use of nigger by Black people, philosopher and public intellectual Cornel West said in 2007:",
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"plaintext": "In the 2010s, \"nigger\" in its various forms saw use with increasing frequency by African Americans amongst themselves or in self-expression, the most common swear word in hip hop music lyrics. Ta-Nehisi Coates suggested that it continues to be unacceptable for non-Blacks to utter while singing or rapping along to hip-hop, and that by being so restrained it gives white Americans (specifically) a taste of what it is like to not be entitled to \"do anything they please, anywhere\". A concern often raised is whether frequent exposure will inevitably lead to a dilution of the extremely negative perception of the word among the majority of non-Black Americans who currently consider its use unacceptable and shocking.",
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"plaintext": "In several English-speaking countries, \"Niggerhead\" or \"nigger head\" was used as a name for many sorts of things, including Commercial products, Place names, Nature, as a descriptive term (lit. 'Black person's head'). It also is or was a colloquial technical term in industry, mining, and seafaring. Nigger as \"defect\" (a hidden problem), derives from \"nigger in the woodpile\", a US slave-era phrase denoting escaped slaves hiding in train-transported woodpiles. In the 1840s, the Morning Chronicle newspaper report series London Labour and the London Poor, by Henry Mayhew, records the usages of both \"nigger\" and the similar-sounding word \"niggard\" denoting a false bottom for a grate.",
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"plaintext": "In American English, \"nigger lover\" initially applied to abolitionists, then to white people sympathetic towards Black Americans. The portmanteau word wigger ('White' + 'nigger') denotes a white person emulating \"street Black behavior\", hoping to gain acceptance to the hip hop, thug, and gangsta sub-cultures. Norman Mailer wrote of the antecedents of this phenomenon in 1957 in his essay The White Negro.",
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"plaintext": "The euphemism the N-word became mainstream American English usage during the racially contentious O. J. Simpson murder case in 1995.",
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"plaintext": "Key prosecution witness Detective Mark Fuhrman, of the Los Angeles Police Department—who denied using racist language on duty—impeached himself with his prolific use of nigger in tape recordings about his police work. The recordings, by screenplay writer Laura McKinney, were from a 1985 research session wherein the detective assisted her with a screenplay about LAPD policewomen. Fuhrman excused his use of the word saying he used nigger in the context of his \"bad cop\" persona. Media personnel who reported on Fuhrman's testimony substituted the N-word for nigger.",
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"plaintext": " (Latin for \"black\") occurs in Latinate scientific nomenclature and is the root word for some homophones of nigger; sellers of niger seed (used as bird feed), sometimes use the spelling Nyjer seed. The classical Latin pronunciation sounds similar to the English , occurring in biologic and anatomic names, such as Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane), and even for animals that are in fact not black, such as Sciurus niger (fox squirrel).",
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"plaintext": " is the Latin feminine form of (black), used in biologic and anatomic names such as substantia nigra (black substance).",
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"plaintext": "The word niggardly (miserly) is etymologically unrelated to nigger, derived from the Old Norse word (stingy) and the Middle English word . In the US, this word has been misinterpreted as related to nigger and taken as offensive. In January 1999, David Howard, a white Washington, D.C., city employee, was compelled to resign after using niggardly—in a financial context—while speaking with Black colleagues, who took umbrage. After reviewing the misunderstanding, Mayor Anthony A. Williams offered to reinstate Howard to his former position. Howard refused reinstatement but took a job elsewhere in the mayor's government.",
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"plaintext": "The denotations of nigger also comprehend non-Black/non-White and other disadvantaged people. Some of these terms are self-chosen, to identify with the oppression and resistance of Black Americans; others are ethnic slurs used by outsiders.",
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"plaintext": "Jerry Farber's 1967 essay collection, The Student as Nigger, used the word as a metaphor for what he saw as the role forced on students. Farber had been, at the time, frequently arrested as a civil rights activist while beginning his career as a literature professor.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1968 autobiography White Niggers of America: The Precocious Autobiography of a Quebec \"Terrorist\", Pierre Vallières, a Front de libération du Québec leader, refers to the oppression of the Québécois people in North America.",
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"plaintext": "In 1969, in the course of being interviewed by the British magazine Nova, artist Yoko Ono said \"woman is the nigger of the world;\" three years later, her husband, John Lennon, published the song of the same name—about the worldwide phenomenon of discrimination against women—which was socially and politically controversial to US sensibilities.",
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"plaintext": "Sand nigger, an ethnic slur against Arabs, and timber nigger and prairie nigger, ethnic slurs against Native Americans, are examples of the racist extension of nigger upon other non-white peoples.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, singer Patti Smith used the word in \"Rock N Roll Nigger\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1979, English singer Elvis Costello used the phrase white nigger in \"Oliver's Army\", a song describing the experiences of working-class soldiers in the British military forces on the \"murder mile\" (Belfast during The Troubles), where white nigger was a common British pejorative for Irish Catholics. Later, the producers of the British talent show Stars in Their Eyes forced a contestant to censor one of its lines, changing \"all it takes is one itchy trigger – One more widow, one less white nigger\" to \"one less white figure\".",
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"plaintext": "Historian Eugene Genovese, noted for bringing a Marxist perspective to the study of power, class, and relations between planters and slaves in the South, uses the word pointedly in The World the Slaveholders Made (1988).",
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"plaintext": "The editor of Green Egg, a magazine described in The Encyclopedia of American Religions as a significant periodical, published an essay entitled \"Niggers of the New Age\". This argued that Neo-Pagans were treated badly by other parts of the New Age movement.",
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"plaintext": "Other languages, particularly Romance languages, have words that sound similar to nigger (are homophones), but do not mean the same. Just because the words are cognate, i.e. from the same Latin stem as Etymology and history, does not mean they have the same denotation (dictionary meaning) or connotation (emotional association). Whether a word is abusive, pejorative, neutral, affectionate, old-fashioned, etc. depends on its cultural context. How a word is used in English does not determine how a similar-sounding word is used in another language. Conversely, many languages have ethnic slurs that disparage \"other\" people, i.e. words that serve a similar function to nigger, but these usually stem from completely different roots.",
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"plaintext": "Some examples of how other languages refer to a Black person in a neutral and in a pejorative way include:",
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"plaintext": "Dutch: ('Negro') used to be neutral, but many now consider it to be avoided in favor of ('Black'). ('little black one') can be amicably or offensively used. is always pejorative.",
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"plaintext": "Finnish: ('Negro'), as a word loan ('Neger') from the Swedish language appeared for the first time in a book published in 1771. The use of the Finnish equivalent ('neekeri') began in the late 19th century. Until the 1980s, it was commonly used and generally not yet considered derogatory, although a few instances of it being considered to be so have been documented since the 1950s; by the mid-1990s the word was considered racist, especially in the metropolitan area and among the younger population. It has since then usually been replaced by the metonym 'musta' ('Black [person]'). In a survey conducted in 2000, Finnish respondents considered the term 'Neekeri' to be among the most offensive of minority designations. ",
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"plaintext": "French: is now derogatory, although is the standard term for a ghostwriter. Some white Frenchmen have the surname . The word can still be used as a synonym of \"sweetheart\" in some traditional Louisiana French creole songs.",
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"plaintext": " is dated and now considered offensive. ('Black [person]') or (\"colored [person]\") is more neutral.",
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"plaintext": " is used for any man in general, regardless of skin color (like dude in American English). Haitian Creole derives predominantly from French.",
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"plaintext": "Italian has three variants: , and . The first one is the most historically attested and was the most commonly used until the 1960s as an equivalent of the English word \"negro\". It was gradually felt as offensive during the 1970s and replaced with and . was considered a better translation of the English word black, while is a loan translation of the English word colored.",
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"plaintext": "Portuguese: and are neutral; nevertheless can be offensive or at least \"politically incorrect\" and is almost never proudly used by Afro-Brazilians. and are always extremely pejorative.",
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"plaintext": "Polish: Murzyn is used as a word for a Black person. Similarly to the Russian негр, it can also be used for ghostwriters or underpaid workers.",
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"plaintext": "Russian: the word негр () has been commonly used to describe Black people. It can also be used as a synonym for underpaid worker, \"литературный негр\" ('literaturny negr') means ghostwriter. () means a negro child. For example, the mystery novel And Then There Were None by Agatha Christie, originally called Ten Little Niggers, is known in Russia as Десять негритят (). In the 16th and 17th centuries, the word ('moor') was used to describe people with dark skin. Nowadays, a black person would often be described neutrally as \"\", literally \"black-skinned\". The word (, 'black') is often used as a derogatory word for peoples of the Caucasus and, less often, Black people.",
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"plaintext": "List of ethnic slurs",
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"plaintext": "List of ethnic group names used as insults",
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"plaintext": "Kaffir (ethnic slur)",
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"plaintext": "Blackfella",
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"plaintext": "Cultural appropriation",
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"plaintext": "Guilty or Innocent of Using the N Word, a 2006 documentary",
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"plaintext": "List of topics related to Black and African people",
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"plaintext": "Taboo word",
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"plaintext": "\"With Apologies to Jesse Jackson\", an episode of South Park with a plot revolving around the word's extreme offensiveness",
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| 1,455,718 | 124,975 | 647 | 238 | 0 | 0 | nigger | slur against black people | [
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|
37,123 | 1,069,925,396 | Theories_of_political_behavior | [
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"plaintext": "Theories of political behavior, as an aspect of political science, attempt to quantify and explain the influences that define a person's political views, ideology, and levels of political participation. Political behavior is the subset of human behavior that involves politics and power. Theorists who have had an influence on this field include Karl Deutsch and Theodor Adorno.",
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"plaintext": "Interaction with the political views of parental figures is often thought of as the primary long-term influence on political orientation and willingness to take part in the political system.",
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"plaintext": "Teachers and other educational authority figures are also often thought to have a significant impact on political orientation. During the 2003–2004 school year, In the United States, students spent an average of 180.4 days in primary and secondary education each year, with a school day being defined as approximately 6.7 class hours. This means that on average a student will spend around 1,208.68 hours in class each year. Post-secondary education appears to have an impact on both voting rates and political identification; as a study of 9,784,931 college students found that they voted at a rate of 68.5% in the 2016 Presidential Election compared to the average of 46.1% for citizens aged 18–29 who voted.",
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"plaintext": "Peers also affect political orientation. Friends often, but not necessarily, have the advantage of being part of the same generation, which collectively develops a unique set of societal issues; Eric L. Dey has argued that \"socialisation is the process through which individuals acquire knowledge, habits, and value orientations that will be useful in the future.\" The ability to relate on this common level is what fuels and enables future ideological growth.",
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"plaintext": "Sociologists and political scientists debate the relationship between age and the formation of political attitudes. The impressionable years hypothesis postulates that political orientation is solidified during early adulthood. By contrast, the \"increasing persistence hypothesis\" posits that attitudes become less likely to change as individuals become older, while the \"life-long openness hypothesis\" proposes that the attitudes of individuals remain flexible regardless of age.",
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"plaintext": "Short-term factors also affect voting behavior; the media and the impact of individual election issues are among these factors. These factors differ from the long-term factors as they are often short-lived. However, they can be just as crucial in modifying political orientation. The ways in which these two sources are interpreted often relies on the individuals specific political ideology formed by the long-term factors.",
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"plaintext": "Most political scientists agree that the mass media have a profound impact on voting behavior. One author asserts that \"few would argue with the notion that the institutions of the mass media are important to contemporary politics ... in the transition to liberal democratic politics in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe the media was a key battleground.\"",
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"plaintext": "Second, there are election issues. These include campaign issues, debates and commercials. Election years and political campaigns can shift certain political behaviors based on the candidates involved, which have different degrees of effectiveness in influencing voters.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, some political scientists have been interested in many studies which aimed to analyze the relation between the behavior of social groups and the political outcomes. Some of the social groups included in their studies have been age demographics, gender, and ethnic groups. This can be understood through the lenses of pluralism or social identity theory.",
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"plaintext": "For example, in U.S. politics, the effect of ethnic groups and gender has a great influence on the political outcomes. Hispanic Americans have a profound social impact on the political outcome of their vote and are emerging as a strong up-and-coming political force. The most noticeable increase in Hispanic American voting was in the 2000 presidential election, although the votes did not share a socially common political view at that time. In the 2006 election, the Hispanic American vote aided tremendously in the election of Florida Senator Mel Martinez, although in the 2004 presidential election, about 44% of Latin Americans voted for Republican President George W. Bush. However, Hispanic Americans have the lowest voting rate in the United States, with only 47.6% voting in the 2016 Presidential Election in the United States. Currently illegal immigration has been claiming the most attention and Hispanic Americans, although not completely unanimous, are concerned with the education, employment and deportation of illegal immigrants in the United States. Although the majority of Hispanic Americans vote for Democratic candidates, Cuban Americans are likely the most conservative of Latinos, with 54% of Cuban American voters casting ballots for Donald Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election, compared to an average of 35% of all Latinos who voted. Although this was represents a net decrease in support for the Republican Party among Cuban Americans, it continues a trend created by the exile of many Cubans after the Cuban Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "African Americans have the second highest voting rates in the United States and even surpassed white voters in the 2008 Presidential Election, although this has declined in the 2016 Presidential Election. In the 2008 Presidential Election and 2012 Presidential election, African Americans voted overwhelmingly for Democratic candidate, Barack Obama. This trend of African Americans voting for candidates of the Democratic Party continued into the 2016 Presidential Election.",
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"plaintext": "Women in the United States have, in the past 30 years, surpassed male voting rates, with the 2016 Presidential Election having a ratio between females and males of 52 to 48. This trend is often referred to as the Gender Gap and when combined with the tendency of women to vote for Democratic candidates, their effect on political outcomes is extremely important.",
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"plaintext": "Interdisciplinary studies in biology and political science aim to identify correlates of political behavior with biological aspects, for example the linkage of biology and political orientation, but also with other aspects like partisanship and voting behavior. This field of study is typically referred to genopolitics although it is sometimes referred to as biopolitics, although the term also has other meanings originating from the work of Michel Foucault.",
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"plaintext": "The study of possible genetic bases of political behavior has grown since the 1980s. The term genopolitics was coined by political scientist James Fowler in the early-2000s to describe research into identifying specific transporter/receptor genes responsible for ideological orientation beyond the sociopsychological realm of political socialisation.",
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"plaintext": "Political scientists also aim to understand what drives individuals to participate in the democratic process, either by voting, volunteering for campaigns, signing petitions or protesting. Participation cannot always be explained by rational behavior. The voting paradox, for example, points out that it cannot be in a citizen's self-interest to vote because the effort it takes to vote will almost always outweigh the benefits of voting, particularly considering a single vote is unlikely to change an electoral outcome. Political scientists instead propose that citizens vote for psychological or social reasons. Studies show, for example, that individuals are more likely to vote if they see their friends have voted or if someone in their household has received a nudge to vote.",
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37,124 | 1,107,620,923 | Austin_Powers_(character) | [
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"plaintext": "Sir Austin Danger Powers is a fictional character from the Austin Powers series of films, and is created and portrayed by Mike Myers. He is the protagonist of International Man of Mystery (1997), The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999) and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002).",
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"plaintext": "This group made a number of live club and television performances in character. Myers' then wife, Robin Ruzan, encouraged him to write a film based on Austin Powers. Obituaries of Simon Dee (1935–2009), the radio and BBC television presenter, stated that his \"Sixties grooviness\" made him the inspiration for the character.",
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"plaintext": " Powers is feature in an episode of the web show Epic Rap Battles of History. He is performed by the series co-creactor Nice Peter.",
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"plaintext": "Matt Helm as played in 1960s films by Dean Martin shares many qualities with Austin Powers, including his cover profession as a fashion photographer.",
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37,125 | 1,102,381,109 | Australian_Security_Intelligence_Organisation | [
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"plaintext": "Following the end of World War II, the joint United States-UK Venona project uncovered sensitive British and Australian government data being transmitted through Soviet diplomatic channels. Officers from MI5 were dispatched to Australia to assist local investigations. The leak was eventually tracked to a spy ring operating from the Soviet Embassy in Canberra. Allied Western governments expressed disaffection with the state of security in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 March 1949, Prime Minister Ben Chifley created the post of Director-General of Security and appointed South Australian Supreme Court Justice Geoffrey Reed to the post. On 16 March 1949, Chifley issued a Directive for the Establishment and Maintenance of a Security Service. The Security Service's first authorised telephone interceptions were in June 1949, followed in July by a raid on the Sydney office of the Communist Party of Australia. In August 1949, Reed advised the Prime Minister that he had decided to name the service the 'Australian Security Intelligence Organization' .",
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"plaintext": "The new service was to be modelled on the Security Service of the United Kingdom MI5 and an MI5 liaison team (including Sir Roger Hollis) was attached to the fledgling ASIO during the early 1950s. Historian Robert Manne describes this early relationship as \"special, almost filial\" and continues \"ASIO's trust in the British counter-intelligence service appears to have been near-perfect\".",
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"plaintext": "The Labor Government was defeated at the December 1949 federal election, and in March 1950 the new prime minister, Robert Menzies, appointed the Deputy Director of Military Intelligence, Charles Spry, as the second Director-General of Security, commencing on 9 July 1950. Wake resigned shortly after Spry's appointment. On 6 July 1950, a Directive of Prime Minister Menzies set out the Charter of the Australian Security Intelligence Organization, which expanded on Chifley's 1949 Directive. ASIO was converted to a statutory body on 13 December 1956 by the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1956 (later repealed by the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979, the current legislation as amended to 2007). Spry would continue to hold the post until January 1970. The spelling of the organisation was amended by legislation in 1999 to bring it into line with the Australian standard form 'organisation'.",
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"plaintext": "The operation to crack the Soviet spy ring in Canberra consumed much of the resources of ASIO during the 1950s. This operation became internally known as \"The Case\". Among the prime suspects of the investigations were Wally Clayton, a prominent member of the Australian Communist Party, and two diplomats with the Department of External Affairs, Jim Hill and Ian Milner. However, no charges resulted from the investigations, because Australia did not have any laws against peacetime espionage at the time.",
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"plaintext": "5 February 1951 saw the arrival in Sydney of Vladimir Mikhaylovich Petrov, Third Secretary of the Soviet Embassy. An ASIO field officer identified Petrov as a possible 'legal', an agent of the Soviet Ministry of State Security (MGB, a forerunner to the KGB) operating under diplomatic immunity. The Organisation began gently cultivating Petrov through another agent, Dr. Michael Bialoguski, with the eventual goal of orchestrating his defection. Ultimately, Petrov was accused by the Soviet Ambassador of several lapses in judgement that would have led to his imprisonment and probable execution upon his return to the Soviet Union. Petrov feared for his life and accepted the defection life-line provided by ASIO.",
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"plaintext": "The actual defection occurred on 3 April 1954. Petrov was spirited to a safe house by ASIO officers, but his disappearance and the seeming reluctance of Australian authorities to search for him made the Soviets increasingly suspicious. Fearing a defection by Petrov, MVD officers dramatically escorted his wife Evdokia to a waiting aeroplane in Sydney. There was doubt as to whether she was leaving by choice or through coercion and so Australian authorities initially did not act to prevent her being bundled into the plane. However, ASIO was in communication with the pilot and learned through relayed conversations with a flight attendant that if Evdokia spoke to her husband she might consider seeking asylum in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "An opportunity to allow her to speak with her husband came when the Director-General of Security, Charles Spry, was informed that the MVD agents had broken Australian law by carrying firearms on an airliner in Australian airspace and so could be detained. When the aeroplane landed in Darwin for refuelling, the Soviet party and other passengers were asked to leave the plane. Police, acting on ASIO orders, quickly disarmed and restrained the two MVD officers and Evdokia was taken into the terminal to speak to her husband via telephone. After speaking to him, she became convinced he was alive and speaking freely and asked the Administrator of the Northern Territory for political asylum.",
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"plaintext": "The affair sparked controversy in Australia when circumstantial links were noted between the leader of the Australian Labor Party and the Communist Party of Australia (and hence to the Soviet spy ring). H.V. Evatt, the leader of the Labor Party at the time, accused Prime Minister Robert Menzies of arranging the Petrov defection to discredit him. The accusations lead to a disastrous split in the Labor party.",
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"plaintext": "Petrov was able to provide information on the structure of the Soviet intelligence apparatus in the mid-1950s, information that was highly valuable to the United States. It was by obtaining this information that the Organisation's reputation in the eyes of the United States was greatly enhanced.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, when Brigadier Spry retired, the Deputy Director of the CIA sent the following tribute:",
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"plaintext": "\"The relationship between the CIA and ASIO started as a very personal one. The real substantive relationship started with Sir Charles' visit in 1955... Since Sir Charles' first visit, the relationships with ASIO have continued to become closer and closer until today we have no secrets, regardless of classification or sensitivity, that are not made available to ASIO if it is pertinent to Australia’s internal security... I feel, as does the Director, a type of mutual trust in dealing with ASIO that is exceeded by no other service in the world today\".",
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"plaintext": "ASIO's counter-intelligence successes continued throughout the Cold War. Following an elaborate investigation between 1961 and 1963, ASIO recommended the ejection of the First Secretary of the Soviet Embassy, Ivan Skripov, and his declaration as persona non-grata. Skripov had been refining an Australian woman as an agent for Soviet intelligence; however, she was in fact an agent of ASIO.",
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"plaintext": "In April 1983, ASIO uncovered more Soviet attempts at espionage and Valery Ivanov, who also held the post of First Secretary at the Soviet Embassy, was declared persona non-grata. He was ejected from Australia on the grounds that he had performed duties in violation of his diplomatic status.",
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"plaintext": "These successes were marred, however, by the penetration of ASIO by a KGB mole in the 1970s. Due to the close defence and intelligence ties between Australia and the United States, ASIO became a backdoor to American intelligence. Upon realising ASIO was compromised, the United States pulled back on the information it shared with Australia.",
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"plaintext": "Following a strenuous internal audit and a joint Federal Police investigation, George Sadil was accused of being the mole. Sadil had been a Russian interpreter with ASIO for some 25 years and highly classified documents were discovered in his place of residence. Federal Police arrested Sadil in June 1993 and charged him under the Crimes Act 1914 with several espionage and official secrets related offences. However, parts of the case against him collapsed the following year.",
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"plaintext": "Sadil was committed to trial in March 1994, but the Director of Public Prosecutions decided not to proceed with the more serious espionage-related charges after reviewing the evidence against him. Sadil's profile did not match that of the mole and investigators were unable to establish any kind of money trail between him and the KGB.",
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"plaintext": "Sadil pleaded guilty in December 1994 to thirteen charges of removing ASIO documents contrary to his duty, and was sentenced to three months imprisonment. He was subsequently released on a 12-month good behaviour bond. It is believed that another ASIO officer, now retired, is suspected of being the mole but no prosecution attempts have been made.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2004, former KGB Major-General Oleg Kalugin confirmed to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Four Corners programme that the KGB had in fact infiltrated ASIO in the late 1970s and early 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "ASIO acknowledged in October 2016 that it had been infiltrated.",
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"plaintext": "ASIO began planning for the 2000 Olympic and Paralympic Games, held in Sydney, as early as 1995. A specific Olympics Coordination Branch was created in 1997, and began recruiting staff with \"specialised skills\" the following year. In 1998, ASIO \"strengthened information collection and analytical systems, monitored changes in the security environment more broadly, improved its communications technology and provided other agencies with strategic security intelligence assessments to assist their Olympics security planning\".",
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"plaintext": "The Olympics Coordination Branch also began planning for the Federal Olympic Security Intelligence Centre (FOSIC) in 1998. FOSIC was to \"provide security intelligence advice and threat assessments to State and Commonwealth authorities during the Sydney 2000 Games\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2012 it was reported that ASIO had been monitoring the actions of Australians protesting against the coal industry, and was increasing its efforts from previous years. Minister Martin Ferguson said that he was particularly concerned about protests relating to the Hazelwood power station in Victoria. An unnamed security source told The Age newspaper that \"providing advice and intelligence to safeguard [critical infrastructure] is clearly within ASIO's responsibilities... ASIO has a clear role, including protection against sabotage. And it's clear [environmental] activists pose a greater threat to energy facilities than terrorists.\" A spokesperson for Attorney General Nicola Roxon described ASIO's responsibility in monitoring political action groups as \"limited to activity that is, or has the potential to be, violent for the purposes of achieving a political objective\". Australian Greens party leader Bob Brown described ASIO monitoring environmentalists as a \"political weapon\" used by the Government for the benefit of \"foreign-owned mining corporations\".",
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"plaintext": "Nicola Roxon, the Attorney-General of Australia, blocked Chinese, state-owned company Huawei from seeking a supply contract for the National Broadband Network, on the advice of the ASIO. The Australian government feared Huawei would provide backdoor access for Chinese cyber espionage.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2013, ABC News claimed that China stole blueprints to the headquarters of the ASIO.",
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"plaintext": "Sheri Yan and Roger Uren were investigated by ASIO on suspicion of spying for China. Uren, former Assistant Secretary responsible for the Asia section of the Office of National Assessments, was found to have removed documents pertaining to Chinese intelligence operations in Australia, and kept them in his apartment. Yan was suspected of undertaking influence operations on behalf of the Chinese Communist Party, and introducing Colonel Liu Chaoying, a military intelligence officer, to Australian contacts.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 August 1974, Prime Minister Gough Whitlam announced the establishment of the Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security to inquire into Australia’s intelligence agencies. Justice Robert Hope of the Supreme Court of New South Wales was appointed as Royal Commissioner. In 1977 the First Hope Commission made many findings about, and recommendations on, ASIO in the Fourth Report, some of which had been preempted by the Whitlam and Fraser governments. The commission marked the first review of the organisation and was fundamental to securing it as part of Australia's state defensive apparatus. In a secret supplementary report, much of which remains classified, Hope indicated his belief that ASIO's past conduct was the result of its infiltration by a hostile foreign intelligence agency. In a 1998 interview Hope stated that saw some of his major recommendations as having been wrong.",
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"plaintext": "The Commission found that ASIO provided the CIA with information about prominent Australian politicians and government officials. The information included accusations of subversive activities and details of private lives.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Sydney Hilton bombing of 1978, the government commissioned Justice Hope with conducting a review into national protective security arrangements and into co-operation between Federal and State authorities in regards to security. In the report concluded in 1979, Justice Hope designated ASIO as the agency responsible for national threat assessments in terrorism and politically motivated violence. He also recommended that relations between ASIO and State and Territory police forces be regulated by arrangements between governments.",
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"plaintext": "Following the publicity surrounding the expulsion of Valery Ivanov, First Secretary at the Soviet Embassy in Canberra, the Government established a Royal Commission to review the activities of Australian Security and Intelligence Agencies. Justice Hope was again Royal Commissioner.",
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"plaintext": "Justice Hope completed his report in December 1984. His recommendations included that:",
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"plaintext": "the security related activities which ASIO should investigate be redefined. References to subversion and terrorism be removed and replaced with politically motivated violence, attacks on Australia’s defence system and promoting communal violence;",
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"plaintext": "ASIO be given additional functions of collecting foreign intelligence and providing protective security advice; and that",
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"plaintext": "a separate office of Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security be established.",
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"plaintext": "Justice Hope also recommended that amendments to the ASIO Act provide that “it is not the purpose of the Act that the right of lawful advocacy, protest or dissent should be affected or that exercising those rights should, by themselves, constitute activity prejudicial to security”.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1992, Prime Minister Paul Keating commissioned a review “of the overall impact of changes in international circumstances on the roles and priorities of the Australian intelligence agencies”. In the Prime Minister’s statement of 21 July 1992, Mr Keating said:",
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"plaintext": "Consistent with the philosophy of a separation of the assessment, policy and foreign intelligence collection functions, the Government considers that the existing roles of the individual agencies remain valid in the 1990s. The rationale outlined by Mr Justice Hope for ASIO as a freestanding, non-executive, advisory intelligence security agency remains relevant in the 1990s and the Government has therefore decided that ASIO should continue to have the roles and responsibilities laid down in existing legislation.",
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"plaintext": "The Soviet threat certainly formed an important component of ASIO’s activities, but threats from other sources of foreign interference and politically motivated violence have been important to ASIO for some time, and will remain so. However, the implications for ASIO of the changes in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe are more far-reaching than for the other agencies. The Government has therefore decided that while ASIO’s capacity to meet its responsibilities must be maintained, there is scope for resource reductions.",
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"plaintext": "The resource reductions mentioned were a cut of 60 staff and a $3.81 million budget decrease.",
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"plaintext": "Following the trial of George Sadil over the ASIO mole scandal and from concern about the implications of material having been removed from ASIO without authority, the Prime Minister announced the appointment of Mr Michael Cook AO (former head of the Office of National Assessments) to inquire into various aspects of national security. The review was completed in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "The Parliamentary Joint Committee completed several reviews and inquiries into ASIO during the 1990s. The first concerned the security assessment process. Another was held in September into “The nature, scope and appropriateness of the way in which ASIO reports to the Australian public on its activities.” The Committee concluded that “the total package of information available to the Australian community about ASIO's operations exceeds that available to citizens in other countries about their domestic intelligence agencies.” Pursuant to this, recommendations were made regarding the ASIO website and other publicly accessible information.",
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"plaintext": "ASIO has been accused of executing an agenda against the Left of politics since its inception. In the 1960s, ASIO was also accused of neglecting its proper duties because of this supposed preoccupation with targeting the Left. Like other Western domestic security agencies, ASIO actively monitored protesters against the Vietnam War, Labor politicians and various writers, artists and actors who tended towards the Left. Other claims go further, alleging that the Organisation compiled a list of some 10,000 suspected Communist sympathisers who would be interned should the Cold War escalate.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "Further accusations against ASIO were raised by the Attorney-General following a series of bombings from 1963 to 1970 on the consulate of Communist Yugoslavia in Australia by Croatian far-right militia. Attorney-General Lionel Murphy alleged that ASIO had withheld information on the group which could have led to preventative measures taken against further bomb attacks (however, Murphy was a member of the recently sworn-in Labor government, which still held a deep-seated suspicion of ASIO).",
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"plaintext": "On 15 March 1973, Murphy and the Commonwealth Police raided the ASIO offices in Melbourne. While some claim the raid was disastrous, serving little purpose other than to shake-up both ASIO and the Whitlam government, the findings of such investigations were not published.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 February 1978, the Sydney Hilton Hotel was bombed, one of the few domestic terrorist incidents on Australian soil. The Hotel was the location for the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). Three people in the street were killed – two council workers and a policeman – and several others injured. Former police officer Terry Griffiths, who was injured in the explosion, provided some evidence that suggested ASIO might have orchestrated the bombing or been aware of the possibility and allowed it to proceed. In 1985, the Director-General of Security issued a specific denial of the allegation. In 1991 the New South Wales parliament unanimously called for a joint State-Federal inquiry into the bombing. However, the Federal government vetoed any inquiry.",
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"plaintext": "A few weeks after the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States, mistakes led ASIO to incorrectly raid the home of Bilal Daye and his wife. It has been revealed that the search warrant was for a different address. The couple subsequently sought damages and the embarrassing incident was settled out of court in late 2005, with all material relating to the case being declared strictly confidential.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2004, Kim Beazley was accused of having a \"special relationship\" with Ratih Hardjono when he was defence minister. Hardjono was allegedly accused of \"inappropriately\" photographing a secure Australian Defence facility, working with the embassy ID, and having a close working relationship with her uncle, a senior officer in BAKIN (Indonesian Intelligence). In July, journalist Greg Sheridan contacted the then head of ASIO, Dennis Richardson, and discussed a classified operational investigation. Later in July members of the Attorney General's department were still investigating the original allegation, making Richardson's comments premature and inaccurate. The whole episode was a salient reminder to politicians in Canberra of the British experience of 'agents of influence' and honeypots. Ratih Hardjono was married to Bruce Grant in the 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2005, the visa of American citizen, Scott Parkin, was cancelled after Director-General of Security, Paul O'Sullivan, issued an adverse security assessment of the visiting peace activist. Parkin was detained in Melbourne and held in custody for five days before being escorted under guard to Los Angeles, where he was informed that he was required to pay the Australian Government A$11,700 for the cost of his detention and removal. Parkin challenged the adverse security assessment in the Federal Court in a joint civil action with two Iraqi refugees, Mohammed Sagar and Muhammad Faisal, who faced indefinite detention on the island of Nauru after also receiving adverse security assessments in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to his removal, Parkin had given talks on the role of U.S. military contractor Halliburton in the Iraq war and led a small protest outside the Sydney headquarters of Halliburton subsidiary KBR. The Attorney-General at that time, Philip Ruddock, refused to explain the reasons for Parkin's removal, leading to speculation that ASIO had acted under pressure from the United States. This was denied by O'Sullivan before a Senate committee, where he gave evidence that ASIO based its assessment only on Parkin's activities in Australia. O'Sullivan refused to answer questions before a later Senate committee hearing after his legal counsel told the Federal Court that ASIO did not necessarily base its assessment solely on Parkin's activities in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 November 2007, the Supreme Court of New South Wales dismissed charges brought against a young medical student, Izhar ul-Haque. ASIO and the Australian Federal Police had investigated ul-Haque for allegedly training with Lashkar-e-Toiba in Pakistan, a declared terrorist organisation under the Security Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002. However, the case against the medical student collapsed when it was revealed that ASIO officers had engaged in improper conduct during the investigation. Justice Michael Adams determined that because ul-Haque was falsely led to believe that he was legally compelled to comply with the ASIO officers, the conduct of at least one of the investigating ASIO officers constituted false imprisonment and kidnap at common law, and therefore key evidence against ul-Haque was inadmissible.",
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"plaintext": "Non-current ASIO files are stored at the National Archives of Australia, and can be released to the public under the Archives Act 1983 after 30 years, unless if they fall into any of 16 exemption categories itemised in section 33 of the Archives Act.",
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"plaintext": " Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS)",
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"plaintext": " Defence Intelligence Organisation (DIO)",
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"plaintext": " Australian Geospatial-Intelligence Organisation (AGO)",
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"plaintext": " Oversight bodies",
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"plaintext": " Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security (PJCIS)",
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"plaintext": " Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (IGIS)",
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"plaintext": " Relevant legislation",
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"plaintext": " Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 (ASIO Act)",
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"plaintext": " Intelligence Services Act 2001 (ISA)",
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"plaintext": " Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004",
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"plaintext": "Overseas counterparts",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Canada: Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS)",
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{
"plaintext": " China: Chinese Ministry of State Security (MSS)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " New Zealand: New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " UK: Security Service (MI5) and GCHQ",
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"plaintext": " US: National Security Branch of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (NSB/FBI)",
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"plaintext": " Russia: Federal Security Service (FSB)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Japan: Japanese National Police Agency and Public Security Intelligence Agency (PSIA)",
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"anchor_spans": [
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8,
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},
{
"plaintext": "No Ribbons or Medals: The story of \"Hereward\", an Australian counter espionage officer, published by Jacobyte Books, South Australia, 2004 available from Digital Print, South Australia.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "McKnight, David. Australia's Spies and Their Secrets. Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1994. .",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Fowler, Andrew: \"Trust and Betrayal\" (transcripts), Four Corners'' (ABC TV), 1 November 2004.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Website: ASIO Website",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
{
"plaintext": "PDF Document: Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 (Commonwealth)",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
{
"plaintext": "PDF Document: Statement of Procedures – warrants issued under Division 3 of Part III of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Open Australia Search: Parliamentary records mentioning ASIO.",
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| 782,740 | 5,196 | 359 | 179 | 0 | 0 | Australian Security Intelligence Organisation | Australian domestic intelligence agency | [
"ASIO"
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|
37,126 | 1,107,002,863 | Australian_Secret_Intelligence_Service | [
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"plaintext": "The Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS ) is the foreign intelligence agency of Australia, tasked with the covert collection of information overseas through personal contacts and other means of human intelligence. It is part of the Australian Intelligence Community and is also responsible for counter-intelligence and liaising with the intelligence agencies of other countries. ASIS was formed in 1952 but its existence remained secret within much of the government until 1972. ASIS is compared to the American CIA and the British MI6.",
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"plaintext": "ASIS is part of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) portfolio and has its headquarters in Canberra. Its director-general, currently Paul Symon, reports to the minister for foreign affairs.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 May 1952, in a meeting of the Executive Council, Prime Minister Robert Menzies established ASIS by executive order under s 61 of the Constitution, appointing Alfred Deakin Brookes as the first director-general of ASIS. The existence of ASIS remained secret even within the Government until 1972.",
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"plaintext": "Its Charter of 15 December 1954 described ASIS's role as 'to obtain and distribute secret intelligence, and to plan for and conduct special operations as may be required'. ASIS was expressly required to 'operate outside Australian territory'. A Ministerial Directive of 15 August 1958 indicated that its special operations role included conducting 'special political action'. It also indicated that the organisation would come under the control and supervision of the Minister for External Affairs rather than the Minister for Defence. At the time, ASIS was substantially modelled on the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service, also known as MI6. ASIS was at one time referred to as MO9.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 November 1972, the existence of ASIS was sensationally exposed by The Daily Telegraph which ran an exposé regarding recruitment of ASIS agents from Australian universities for espionage activities in Asia. Soon after The Australian Financial Review published a more in-depth piece on ASIS, the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO), and the then Joint Intelligence Organisation (JIO), Defence Signals Division (DSD) and Office of National Assessments (ONA). It stated that '[t]he ASIS role is to collect and disseminate facts only. It is not supposed to be in the analytical or policy advising business though this is clearly difficult to avoid at times'. The Ministerial Statement of 1977 stated that the 'main function' of ASIS was to 'obtain, by such means and subject to such conditions as are prescribed by the Government, foreign intelligence for the purpose of the protection or promotion of Australia or its interests'.",
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{
"plaintext": "On 21 August 1974, Prime Minister Gough Whitlam established the First Hope Commission (1974–77) to investigate the country's intelligence agencies. On 25 October 1977, Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser publicly announced the existence of ASIS and its functions on a recommendation of the Hope Royal Commission.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992 two reports were prepared on ASIS by officers within the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet and Office of National Assessments for the Secretaries Committee on Intelligence and Security (SCNS) and the National Security Committee (NSC). The Richardson Report in June examined the roles and relationships of the collection agencies (ASIO, ASIS and DSD) in the post Cold War era. The Hollway Report in December examined shortfalls in Australia's foreign intelligence collection. Both reports endorsed the structure and roles of the organisations and commended the performance of ASIS.",
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"plaintext": "The Intelligence Services Act 2001 (ISA) converted ASIS to a statutory body. The Act set out the functions of ASIS and the limits on those functions. Use of weapons by ASIS were prohibited (except for self-defence). Conduct of violent or para-military operations was also curtailed. The Act authorised the responsible minister to issue directions to the agency. Ministerial authorisation is required for intelligence collection activities involving Australians but limited the circumstances in which this could be done. The Act requires the responsible minister to make rules regulating the communication and retention of intelligence information concerning Australian persons, and provides for the establishment of a parliamentary oversight committee, then called the Parliamentary Joint Committee on ASIO, ASIS and DSD.",
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"plaintext": "The Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004 removed ISA prohibitions on ASIS operatives carrying firearms, but only for protection; and allows ASIS to work with foreign intelligence agencies (such as the CIA or MI6) in the planning of paramilitary and violent operations provided ASIS is not involved in the execution of the operations.",
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"plaintext": "Three Royal Commissions have examined, among other things, ASIS and its operations: in 1974 and 1983 (the Hope Royal Commissions), and in 1994 (the Samuels and Codd Royal Commission).",
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"plaintext": "On 21 August 1974, the Whitlam Government appointed Justice Robert Hope to conduct a Royal Commission into the structure of Australian security and intelligence services, the nature and scope of the intelligence required and the machinery for ministerial control, direction and coordination of the security services. The Hope Royal Commission delivered eight reports, four of which were tabled in Parliament on 5 May 1977 and 25 October 1977. Aside from the observation that ASIS was 'singularly well run and well managed', the report(s) on ASIS were not released. Results from the other reports included the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979, the establishment of the ONA, and the passage of the Office of National Assessments Act 1977.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 May 1983 the Hawke Government reappointed Justice Hope to conduct a second Royal Commission into Australia's intelligence agencies. The inquiry was to examine progress in implementing the previous recommendations; arrangements for developing policies, assessing priorities and coordinating activities among the organisations; ministerial and parliamentary accountability; complaints procedures; financial oversight and the agencies' compliance with the law. As with the first Hope Royal Commission, the reports on ASIS and DSD, which included draft legislation on ASIS, were not made public.",
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"plaintext": "In response to a Four Corners program aired on 21 February 1994, on 23 February 1994, the Minister for Foreign Affairs Gareth Evans announced a 'root and branch' review of ASIS. The Government appointed Justice Gordon Samuels and Mike Codd to inquire into the effectiveness and suitability of existing arrangements for control and accountability, organisation and management, protection of sources and methods, and resolution of grievances and complaints. The Royal Commission reported in March 1995.",
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"plaintext": "Four Corners reporter Ross Coulthart made allegations regarding intelligence held by ASIS on Australians. He claimed that 'ASIS secretly holds tens of thousands of files on Australian citizens, a database completely outside privacy laws'. This allegation was investigated and denied by Samuels and Codd (see below), but the Minister did acknowledge that ASIS maintained files. The Minister said: 'ASIS does have some files, as one would expect in an organisation of that nature, even though its brief extends to activities outside the country rather than inside. They are essentially of an administrative nature.'",
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"plaintext": "However, Samuels and Codd did find that certain grievances of the former officers were well founded. They appeared to support the officers' concerns regarding the grievance procedures:",
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"plaintext": "Bearing in mind the context in which the members of ASIS work, it is not surprising that there should develop a culture which sets great store by faithfulness and stoicism and tends to elevate conformity to undue heights and to regard the exercise of authority rather than consultation as the managerial norm.",
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"plaintext": "However, Samuels and Codd observed that the information published in the Four Corners program was 'skewed towards the false', that 'the level of factual accuracy about operational matters was not high', and, quoting an aphorism, that 'what was disturbing was not true and what was true was not disturbing'. They concluded that the disclosure of the information was unnecessary and unjustifiable and had damaged the reputation of ASIS and Australia overseas. The commissioners stated that 'evidence presented to us of action and reaction in other countries satisfies us that the publication was damaging': They rejected any suggestion that ASIS was unaccountable or 'out of control'. They said, 'its operational management is well structured and its tactical decisions are thoroughly considered and, in major instances, subject to external approval'. They recommended that complaints regarding ASIS operations continue to be handled by the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (IGIS) but that staff grievances be handled by the Administrative Appeals Tribunal.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to their recommendations, Samuels and Codd put forward draft legislation to provide a statutory basis for ASIS and to protect various information from disclosure. The Samuels and Codd Bill, like the bulk of the reports, was not made public.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2004, ASIS has been running anti-people smuggling operations inside countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Indonesia.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, intelligence provided by ASIS was crucial to the capture after a 14-month manhunt of a rogue soldier from the Afghan National Army, who had killed three Australian soldiers. The joint operation involved ASIS, AGO, the Defence Intelligence Organisation and Australian Signals Directorate, along with Britain's MI6 and Special Air Service, the United States' CIA and National Security Agency, and Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence.",
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415,
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{
"plaintext": "In 2021, ASIS had deployed a small team to provide security and to help with the evacuation of Australian nationals during Kabul airlift in Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "An ASIS station was established in Chile out of the Australian embassy in July 1971 at the request of the CIA and authorised by then Liberal Party Foreign Minister William McMahon. New Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was informed of the operation in February 1973 and signed a document ordering the closure of the operation several weeks later. On 1 July 1973, the ASIS station in Chile reported that it had shut down and destroyed all records. It appears, however, the last ASIS agent did not leave Chile until October 1973, one month after the CIA-backed 1973 Chilean coup d'état had brought down the Allende Government. There were also two officers of ASIO based in Santiago, working as migration officers during this period.",
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{
"plaintext": "It is one of two incidents that caused a confrontation between Whitlam and Bill Robertson, the director-general of ASIS, resulting in Robertson's sacking on 21 October 1975, with effect on 7 November, just four days before Whitlam's own dismissal in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis. Whitlam said Robertson had disobeyed instructions by delaying the closure of the ASIS station in Chile in 1973 and not informing Whitlam that ASIS had an active agent in East Timor in 1975. Robertson disputes the details in a personal statement lodged with the National Archives in 2009.",
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{
"plaintext": "ASIS' involvement in Chile was revealed in 1974 when Whitlam set up the First Hope Commission to investigate Australia's security services. Whitlam told parliament that 'when my government took office, Australian intelligence personnel were working as proxies of the CIA in destabilising the government of Chile'. After the coup by Augusto Pinochet, Whitlam's government created a special program for Chilean refugees to come to Australia. Under the program, about 6,000 Chileans came to Australia between 1974 and 1981 and hundreds more joined them as part of a family reunion program.",
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{
"plaintext": "The National Archives of Australia holds documents related to ASIS operations to help the CIA undermine the government of Allende in the years 1971-1974. In 2021, the archives refused a request from Clinton Fernandes, professor of International and Political Studies at the University of New South Wales, to access records relating to ASIS operations in Chile. Heavily redacted versions of some documents were released to Fernandes in June 2021. The documents show that the ASIS base in Chile assisted the CIA's destabilisation of Allende's government by handling CIA-recruited Chilean assets and filing intelligence reports to CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia. In November 2021, the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (AAT) upheld the archives' decision to reject Fernandes' request for access to the documents. The AAT said the release of documents would 'cause damage to the security, defence or international relations of the Commonwealth'. Most of the AAT hearing was held behind closed doors, because Attorney-General Michaelia Cash issued a public interest certificate, suppressing the disclosure of evidence provided by ASIS, ASIO and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.",
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"plaintext": "During the lead up to Indonesia's invasion of East Timor in 1975, the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) paid a Dili-based Australian businessman Frank Favaro for information on local political developments. The leaking of his identity in late 1975 was another factor in the confrontation between Whitlam and Robertson. Bill Robertson disputed the reason for his dismissal in documents lodged with the National Archives in 2009.",
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{
"plaintext": "On 30 November 1983, ASIS garnered unwanted negative attention when a training operation held at the Sheraton Hotel, now the Mercure (Spring Street), in Melbourne went wrong. The exercise was to be a mock surveillance and hostage rescue of foreign intelligence officers. In March 1983, ASIS had begun training a covert team of civilians, including a female, at Swan Island in Victoria whose role was to protect or release Australians who may be threatened or captured by terrorists overseas. The military in 1981 had established a counter-terrorist unit for operations only in Australia. The personnel involved in the training operation included ten operators, four ASIS officers and six ASIS civilian trainees, and two commandos from the Army Reserve 1st Commando Regiment with only the sergeant participating as an observer in the hotel foyer.",
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"plaintext": "The training operation involved junior officers who had undergone three weeks prior training and who were given considerable leeway in planning and executing the operation. The mock hostage rescue was staged on the 10th floor of the hotel without the permission of the hotel's owner or staff. When ASIS operators were refused entry into a hotel room, they broke down the door with sledgehammers. The hotel manager, Nick Rice, was notified of a disturbance on the 10th floor by a hotel guest. When he went to investigate, he was forced back into the lift by an ASIS operator who rode the lift down to the ground floor and forcibly ejected Rice into the lobby. Believing a robbery was in progress, Rice called the police. When the lift started returning to the ground floor, ASIS operators emerged wearing masks and openly brandishing 9mm Browning pistols and Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns, two of them with silencers. They forced their way through the lobby to the kitchen, where two getaway cars were waiting outside the kitchen door. Police stopped one of the cars and arrested the occupants, two ASIS officers and three ASIS civilian trainees, who refused to produce any form of identification.",
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"plaintext": "Within two days the minister for foreign affairs, Bill Hayden announced that an 'immediate and full' investigation would be conducted under the auspices of the second Hope Royal Commission on Australian Security and Intelligence Agencies, which was still in progress. A report was prepared and tabled by February 1984. It described the exercise as being 'poorly planned, poorly supervised and poorly run' and recommended that measures be taken in training to improve planning and eliminate adverse impacts on the public.",
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{
"plaintext": "The Victoria Police conducted their own investigation but were frustrated because ASIS Director-General John Ryan refused to cooperate. Bill Hayden offered to provide the real names of the seven officers involved in confidence. Premier of Victoria John Cain told Hayden that 'as far as the police were concerned, there was no such thing as information in confidence'.",
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"plaintext": "Following the incident, The Sunday Age disclosed the names, or the assumed names, of five of the operators involved. The journalist noted that 'according to legal advice taken by The Sunday Age there is no provision that prevents the naming of an ASIS agent'. Although not included within the public version of the report, the Royal Commission headed by Justice Hope prepared an appendix which would appear to have dealt with the security and foreign relations consequences of disclosure of participants' names by The Sunday Age. Subsequently, in A v Hayden, the High Court held that the Commonwealth owed no enforceable duty to ASIS officers to maintain confidentiality of their names or activities.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of the Sheraton Hotel incident, the extant Ministerial Directive permitted ASIS to undertake 'covert action', including 'special operations' which, roughly described, comprised 'unorthodox, possibly para-military activity, designed to be used in case of war or some other crisis'. Following the incident and the recommendations of the Royal Commission, the covert action function was apparently abolished. The functions of ASIS can be found in section 6 of the Intelligence Services Act, as can those functions which are proscribed by the act.",
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"plaintext": "Ultimately, in executing the operation, the operators were found to have used considerable force, menacing a number of the staff and guests with weapons and physically assaulting the hotel manager. Hope found Ryan to be at fault for authorising the training operation in a public place using concealed weapons. Ryan resigned in February 1984. Hope said it was not part of his Terms of Reference to make findings or recommendations on whether any individual had committed any offence. However, he did note that the individuals could potentially be prosecuted by the State of Victoria with a long list of criminal offences, including possession of firearms without a licence, possession of prohibited implements (including machine guns, silencers and housebreaking tools), aggravated burglary in possession of a firearm, common assault, wilful damage to property, possession of a disguise without lawful excuse and numerous motor vehicle offences. More than a year after the raid, the Victorian Director of Public Prosecutions concluded that while certain offences had been committed, including criminal damage and assault with a weapon, there was insufficient evidence to charge any person with a specific offence.",
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{
"plaintext": "Victorian Holdings Ltd, the company managing the hotel, subsequently took legal action against the Commonwealth on behalf of itself and 14 hotel staff. The matter was settled out of court with the hotel being offered $300,000 in damages. The total payout to the hotel and staff was $365,400.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Between 1989 and 1991 ASIS came under scrutiny following allegations relating to its role and activities in Papua New Guinea. It was alleged that ASIS had been involved in training Papua New Guinean troops to suppress independence movements in Irian Jaya and Bougainville. (In 1997 it was alleged that ASIS and DSD had failed to collect, or the Government had failed to act upon, intelligence regarding the role and presence of Sandline contractors in relation to the independence movement in Bougainville.)",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of 1993 ASIS became the subject of media attention after allegations were made by former ASIS officers that ASIS was unaccountable and out of control. One newspaper alleged that 'ASIS regularly flouted laws, kept dossiers on Australian citizens ... and hounded agents out of the service with little explanation'. In particular it alleged that agents were being targeted in a purge by being threatened with criminal charges relating to their official conduct, reflecting a pattern which suggested to some that ASIS or a senior ASIS officer had been 'turned' by a foreign intelligence service.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 February 1994 Four Corners ran a program which aired the key allegations. Two former ASIS officers made claims regarding cultural and operational tensions between ASIS and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. They claimed that embassy staff had maliciously or negligently compromised activities involving the running of foreign informants and agents and the defection of foreign agents to Australia. They claimed that their grievances were ignored and that they were 'deserted in the field' and made scapegoats by ASIS.",
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"plaintext": "The officers and the reporter Ross Coulthart also made brief claims regarding operational activities and priorities. The officers personally claimed that ASIS advice had been ignored by DFAT. The reporter repeated claims regarding ASIS operations aimed at destabilising the Aquino Government in the Philippines. He also made claims regarding ASIS assistance to MI6 in the Falkland conflict, in Hong Kong and in Kuwait for the benefit of British interests (including commercial interests) and potentially to the detriment of Australian interests.",
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"plaintext": "The bulk of the personal statements by the officers concerned their private grievances. They raised two issues of public interest regarding the effect of secrecy on the operation of grievance procedures and the extent to which the Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade was aware of or in control of ASIS operations. The reporter directly raised the issue of the appropriateness of ASIS operations particularly with respect to priority setting in overseas postings and operations, cooperation with foreign intelligence services, and the privacy of Australian persons and organisations. By implication, the program queried the extent to which ASIS is or should be accountable to the Minister, to Government and to Parliament.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The following day, the Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs called for an independent judicial inquiry into the allegations. He expressed particular concern about the nature of ASIS cooperation with foreign agencies and the defects in ASIS grievance procedures. He later called for the inquiry to examine the 'poisoned relationship between ASIS and DFAT'. The Democrats spokeswoman called for a standing parliamentary committee.",
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{
"plaintext": "Two days after the program aired, the Samuels and Codd Royal Commission was formed by Minister for Foreign Affairs Gareth Evans.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On 19 February 2000, Singapore journalist Susan Sim accused Ratih Harjono of working for her Uncle a senior BAKIN's (Indonesian intelligence service) Intelligence Officer whilst working for the Indonesian President. Earlier in her career as 'Journalist', Ratih was Married to Bruce Grant. During this period Bruce Grant was senior policy advisor to Gareth Evans. Co-Authoring the book: (1992) Australia's Foreign Relations: In the World of the 1990s. Gareth Evans was one of Australia's longest serving Foreign Ministers. Evans was responsible for ASIS from 1988 to 1996. In 2004 Ratih Hardjono was accused of being an Indonesian Agent of Influence.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, The Bulletin ran an article based on allegations by serving ASIS officers that alluded to gross mismanagement of intelligence operations, staff assignments, and taskings, particularly with respect to the war on terrorism.",
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"plaintext": "The unnamed officers pointed out various problems within the agency that were plaguing the organisation's ability to collect vital and timely intelligence, such as the pitting of '...young mostly white university educated agents with limited language skills and little knowledge of Islam against poor, zealous extremists intent on becoming suicide bombers', the 'inappropriate' assignment of '...young female IOs (intelligence officers) against Islamic targets...', poor staff retention rates, and general lack of officers possessing meaningful field experience.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The officers also cite a lack of proper support given to IOs tasked against terrorist targets, and the doctoring of intelligence by ASIS management, as also contributing to the lack of progress of the agency in the war on terrorism.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "It was revealed in 2013 that the ASIS planted listening devices to listen to the East Timorese government during negotiations over the Greater Sunrise oil and gasfields. This is known as the Australia–East Timor spying scandal.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "ASIS was created in 1952 by executive order and was converted to a statutory body by the Intelligence Services Act 2001, headed by the Director-General. The Act sets out the functions of ASIS and the limits on those functions.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Use of weapons by ASIS was prohibited (except for self-defence). Conduct of violent or para-military operations was also curtailed. The Act authorised the responsible minister to issue directions to the agency. Ministerial authorisation is required for intelligence collection activities involving Australians but limited the circumstances in which this could be done. The Act requires the responsible minister to make rules regulating the communication and retention of intelligence information concerning Australian persons, and provides for the establishment of a parliamentary oversight committee, then called the Parliamentary Joint Committee on ASIO, ASIS and DSD.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Intelligence Services Amendment Act 2004 passed Parliament on 1 April 2004, and removes ISA prohibitions on ASIS operatives carrying firearms, but only for protection; and allows ASIS to work with foreign intelligence agencies (such as the CIA or MI6 in the planning of paramilitary and violent operations provided ASIS is not involved in the execution of the operations).",
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{
"plaintext": "Australian intelligence agencies",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A large portion of the history of ASIS was adapted from the Parliament of Australia Bills Digest No. 11 of 2001–02 of Intelligence Services Act 2001",
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"section_name": "Credit",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "ASIS home page",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Open Australia Search: Parliamentary records mentioning ASIS.",
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}
]
| [
"Australian_intelligence_agencies",
"1952_establishments_in_Australia",
"Government_agencies_established_in_1952",
"Commonwealth_Government_agencies_of_Australia",
"Cold_War_history_of_Australia"
]
| 181,694 | 6,318 | 116 | 105 | 0 | 0 | Australian Secret Intelligence Service | Australian foreign intelligence agency | [
"ASIS"
]
|
37,127 | 1,104,424,221 | Australian_Signals_Directorate | [
{
"plaintext": "Australian Signals Directorate (ASD; until 2013: Defence Signals Directorate, DSD) is the Australian government agency responsible for foreign signals intelligence, support to military operations, cyber warfare, and information security. ASD is part of the Australian Intelligence Community. ASD's role within UKUSA Agreement (Five Eyes) is to monitor SIGINT in South and East Asia. The ASD also houses the Australian Cyber Security Centre.",
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"plaintext": "The unit was established in 1947 by executive order as the Defence Signals Bureau within the Department of Defence, and underwent several name changes until its current name ASD was adopted in 2013. ASD was converted to a statutory body by the Intelligence Services Act 2001. ASD is based in Canberra, at the Defence Department Headquarters at Russell Offices. As of February 2020, Rachel Noble is the Director-General of ASD, replacing Mike Burgess, who was appointed Director-General of Security in September 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2018, a proposal to empower ASD to collect intelligence on Australians was backed by former Minister for Home Affairs Peter Dutton, but is strongly opposed by some in Cabinet who argue it is not necessary. Under legislation, the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) and the Australian Federal Police (AFP) are already allowed to seek assistance from ASD in conducting investigations on Australian citizens and businesses.",
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"plaintext": "The Directorate has operated under a number of different names since its founding:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1947 – Defence Signals Bureau established within the Department of Defence",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1949 – name changed to Defence Signals Branch",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1964 – name changed to Defence Signals Division",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 1977 – name changed to Defence Signals Directorate on recommendation of the Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security (Hope Commission) ",
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"plaintext": " 2013 – name changed to Australian Signals Directorate",
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},
{
"plaintext": "ASD commissioned an official history in 2019, which will cover the organisation's history from its establishment to 2001.",
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"plaintext": "The principal functions of ASD are to collect and disseminate foreign signals intelligence (SIGINT) and to provide information security products and services to the Australian Government and Australian Defence Force (ADF), its foreign partners and militaries.",
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"plaintext": "ASD operates at least three receiving stations: ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " the Australian Defence Satellite Communications Station (ADSCS), located at Kojarena, near Geraldton, Western Australia,",
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"plaintext": " the Shoal Bay Receiving Station, located at Shoal Bay, Northern Territory, and ",
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"plaintext": " a small station on the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.",
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"plaintext": "ASD also maintains a workforce at Pine Gap in central Australia.",
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"plaintext": "ADSCS and Shoal Bay are part of the United States signals intelligence and ECHELON analysis network. These stations also contribute signals intelligence for many Australian Government bodies, as well as the other UKUSA partners.",
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"plaintext": "Australia joined the UKUSA Agreement in 1948, a multilateral agreement for cooperation in signals intelligence between Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The alliance is also known as the Five Eyes. Other countries, known as \"third parties\", such as West Germany, the Philippines, and several Nordic countries also joined the UKUSA community. As the Agreement was a secret treaty, its existence was not even disclosed to the Australian Prime Minister until 1973, when Gough Whitlam insisted on seeing it. The existence of the UKUSA Agreement was discovered by the Australian government during the 1973 Murphy raids on the headquarters of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO). After learning about the agreement, Whitlam discovered that Pine Gap, a secret surveillance station close to Alice Springs, Australia, had been operated by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Pine Gap is now operated jointly by both Australia and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Darkthrone is a Norwegian extreme metal band from Kolbotn, Akershus. Formed in 1986 as a death metal band named Black Death, in 1991 Darkthrone embraced a black metal style influenced by Bathory and Celtic Frost and became one of the leading bands in the Norwegian black metal scene. ",
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"plaintext": "Their first three black metal albums—A Blaze in the Northern Sky (1992), Under a Funeral Moon (1993) and Transilvanian Hunger (1994)—are sometimes dubbed the \"Unholy Trinity\". They are considered the peak of the band's career and to be among the most influential albums in black metal.",
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"plaintext": "Darkthrone has been a duo of Fenriz and Nocturno Culto since guitarist Zephyrous left the band in 1993. They have sought to remain outside the music mainstream. From 2006, their music strayed from the traditional black metal style and incorporated more elements of traditional heavy metal, punk, and speed metal, while more recent albums have also included doom metal.",
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"plaintext": "The band that would become Darkthrone formed in late 1986 in Kolbotn, a small town south of Oslo. They were a death metal band by the name of Black Death whose members were Gylve Nagell, Ivar Enger and Anders Risberget. Their main inspirations were Autopsy, Venom, Hellhammer, Celtic Frost, Slayer and Nocturnus. In late 1987, the band changed their name to Darkthrone and were joined by Dag Nilsen. Ted Skjellum joined in spring of 1988. During 1988 and 1989, the band independently released four demo tapes: Land of Frost, A New Dimension, Thulcandra, and Cromlech.",
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"plaintext": "They were subsequently signed to the independent record label Peaceville Records with a four-album contract. In 1990, they recorded their first studio album, Soulside Journey. Because of a small recording budget, the band could not afford the kind of studio they wanted but, thanks to the members of Nihilist and Entombed, they were able to record their album at Sunlight Studios. Although mainly death metal in style, there were some elements of black metal present in terms of artwork and songwriting.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately following the release of this album, the band continued writing and recording new material, recording on tape until a full album was ready. These tracks were entirely instrumental but they demonstrated the band's gradual shift towards black metal. In 1996, the finished album Goatlord was released, with vocals added by Fenriz.",
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"plaintext": "During 1991 under the influence of Euronymous of Mayhem, Darkthrone adopted the aesthetic style that would come to represent the black metal scene, wearing corpse paint and working under pseudonyms. Gylve Nagell became \"Fenriz\", Ted Skjellum became \"Nocturno Culto\" and Ivar Enger became \"Zephyrous\". In August 1991, they recorded their second album, which was released at the beginning of 1992 and titled A Blaze in the Northern Sky. The album contained Darkthrone's first black metal recordings, and Peaceville Records was originally skeptical about releasing it due to Darkthrone's extreme diversion from their original death metal style. After the album was recorded, bassist Dag Nilsen left the band, as he didn't want to play black metal, and is merely credited as \"session bass\" with no picture on the album.",
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"plaintext": "The band's third album, Under a Funeral Moon, was recorded in the summer of 1992 and released in early 1993. It marked Darkthrone's total conversion to the black metal style, and is considered a landmark for the development of the genre as a whole. This album also marked the last album on which guitarist Zephyrous would perform.",
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"plaintext": "It was followed by their fourth album, Transilvanian Hunger, which was released in February 1994. This was Darkthrone's first album to have just two members, Nocturno Culto and Fenriz. Fenriz is credited with all instrumentation and songwriting, while Nocturno Culto only contributed vocals. The band would remain a duo from this point onwards. Transilvanian Hunger was characterized by a very \"raw\" or \"low fidelity\" recording style and monotone riffing with little melody. The album's release caused some controversy: half of its lyrics were written by the Norwegian black metal musician Varg Vikernes, and its booklet contained the phrase \"Norsk Arisk Black Metal\", which translates into English as \"Norwegian Aryan Black Metal\".",
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"plaintext": "Darkthrone moved to another independent record label, Moonfog Productions, for subsequent releases. The label was run by Satyr of Satyricon.",
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"plaintext": "Their fifth album, Panzerfaust, was released in 1995. Its production is similar to that of Transilvanian Hunger, and Fenriz is similarly credited with all instrumentation and songwriting, while Nocturno Culto only contributed vocals. Lyrics for the track \"Quintessence\" were written by Varg Vikernes. Their sixth album, Total Death, was released during 1996 and is notable for featuring lyrics written by four other black metal musicians, and none at all written by the group's main lyricist Fenriz.",
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"plaintext": "During the years 1993–1995, drummer Fenriz was involved with numerous side projects. This included his solo dark ambient project Neptune Towers, his solo folk black metal project Isengard, recording an album with Satyr as the trio Storm, and playing bass on Dødheimsgard's debut album. Also he began playing drums for Valhall again, after having been one of the founding members in 1988 but leaving in 1990 to concentrate on Darkthrone.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, Darkthrone released the album Ravishing Grimness, and in 2001 their following album, Plaguewielder. While Transilvanian Hunger and Panzerfaust had songs written solely by Fenriz, these two albums had songs almost entirely written by Nocturno Culto and were both recorded in Ronny Le Tekrøe's studio at Toten, Norway. This explains the somewhat \"clearer\" sound on those records.",
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"plaintext": "In the last years of the 1990s, two Darkthrone tribute albums were released: Darkthrone Holy Darkthrone in 1998 and The Next Thousand Years Are Ours in 1999. The band also released Preparing for War, a compilation of songs from 1988–1994. In 2002, the intro of their song \"Kathaarian Life Code\" appeared in the last scene of the film Demonlover.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, the band released the album Hate Them. Although this record and their next contain electronic introductions, they remain true to Darkthrone's early black metal style. Sardonic Wrath was released in 2004. It was the band's last album with Moonfog Productions and their last to be recorded solely in the black metal style. This album was nominated for Norway's Alarm Awards; however, the album's entry was withdrawn at the band's request. Their next releases would feature strong crust punk traits.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Darkthrone confirmed that they had returned to Peaceville Records, after leaving the record label in 1994. They had also started up their own record label, Tyrant Syndicate Productions, to release their future albums. To celebrate their return, Peaceville re-issued the Preparing for War compilation with a bonus CD of demos and a DVD of live performances. Darkthrone's first four albums were also re-released with video interviews about each of them.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2006, the group released the EP Too Old, Too Cold, which contains the track \"High on Cold War\", performed by Enslaved's vocalist Grutle Kjellson. The EP also included a cover of the song \"Love in a Void\" by Siouxsie and the Banshees. For the first time in their career, the band shot a music video for the EP's title track. Too Old, Too Cold also became Darkthrone's first record to hit the charts and reached the top 15 of the best-selling singles in Norway and Denmark. Darkthrone released their eleventh album, The Cult Is Alive, the same year. The album represented a shift in the band's style as the music incorporated crust punk traits. While Darkthrone's black metal roots were still evident, their shift from the genre's typical sound was more noticeable. The Cult Is Alive was the first Darkthrone album to appear on the album chart in Norway, debuting at number 22.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2007, the band released the EP NWOBHM (an acronym for 'New wave of black heavy metal', a take-off on the original 'New wave of British heavy metal') as a preview for their next album. In September that year, Darkthrone released the album F.O.A.D. (an acronym for Fuck Off and Die). The phrase was used by many thrash metal and punk bands during the 1980s. While the music partially continued the punk-oriented style that was introduced on The Cult Is Alive, this time the band focused more on traditional heavy metal.",
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"plaintext": "Also during 2007, Nocturno Culto completed and released The Misanthrope, a film about black metal and life in Norway. It includes some of his own solo recordings. In October 2008, Dark Thrones and Black Flags was released, using much the same style as the previous album. In 2010, the band released the album Circle the Wagons, which featured much less significant crust punk traits in exchange for strong speed metal and traditional heavy metal characteristics.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2010, Peaceville acquired the rights to the band's Moonfog albums and re-issued Panzerfaust as a two-disc set and on vinyl. The re-issue of Total Death was set for 14 March 2011. In July 2012, Darkthrone announced a new album, titled The Underground Resistance; it was released on 25 February 2013. That album saw the band completely shift away from black metal and blackened crust and is musically a throwback to classic heavy metal and Speed metal. The band released their 16th studio album, titled Arctic Thunder, on 14 October 2016, it represented another drastic musical shift for the band, with the album featuring a rawer, more blackened sound, reminiscent of their 90's output but with the classic metal leanings of the previous record.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 October 2016, the band revealed via Facebook that they would be issuing a compilation album entitled The Wind of 666 Black Hearts. The album, released 25 November 2016, is composed of rehearsals recorded in 1991 and 1992 for songs which later appeared on A Blaze in the Northern Sky and Under a Funeral Moon. ",
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"plaintext": "Darkthrone announced in March 2019 that they would be releasing their seventeenth studio album, Old Star, which was released on 31 May of the same year. It featured much stronger doom metal characteristics than previous albums, with their Candlemass influences more apparent. The band announced that they had completed the recording of a new album in January 2021. In April 2021, a box set was unveiled containing early and rare material entitled Shadows of Iconoclasm. The band's eighteenth studio album Eternal Hails...... was released on 25 June 2021, through Peaceville Records on physical media and digital platforms. Musically, the album is a continuation of the band's incorporation of traditional doom metal, strongly influenced by Candlemass from the previous record, with heavy inspiration from other bands like Trouble and Black Sabbath.",
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"plaintext": " Aura Noir – Fenriz has recorded vocals with the band, and two Aura Noir members have done the same for Darkthrone.",
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"plaintext": " Fenriz' Red Planet - Solo doom metal project of Fenriz, 1993.",
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"plaintext": " Mayhem - Fenriz wrote some lyrics for the band, one of which were used as the title for the Dawn of the Black Hearts live album. It featured a photograph of Pelle \"Dead\" Ohlin's corpse after his suicide. The lyrics sheet can also be seen in the liner notes of the Life Eternal EP.",
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"plaintext": " Satyricon – Nocturno Culto has recorded and performed with the band. He plays rhythm guitar on Nemesis Divina under the name \"Kveldulv\".",
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"plaintext": " Taake – Nocturno Culto performed guest vocals on \"Fra Vadested til Vaandesmed\" from Noregs Vaapen",
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"plaintext": "1988 – A New Dimension - rehearsal demo",
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"plaintext": "1989 – Thulcandra",
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"plaintext": "1989 – Cromlech - live demo",
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"plaintext": "2005 – Under Beskyttelse av Mørke – outtakes from the Under a Funeral Moon rehearsal sessions; released only in Japan.",
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"plaintext": "2007 – NWOBHM – outtakes from the F.O.A.D. recording sessions.",
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"plaintext": "2019 – The Hardship of the Scots – single",
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"plaintext": "2021 – Hate Cloak – single",
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"plaintext": "1998 – Darkthrone Holy Darkthrone – tribute album featuring eight Norwegian bands",
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"plaintext": "1999 – The Next Thousand Years Are Ours – tribute album featuring fourteen bands and a multimedia disc",
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"plaintext": "2000 – Preparing for War – compilation of songs from 1988–1994; re-released in 2005 with a bonus CD of demos and a DVD",
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"plaintext": "2014 – Black Death and Beyond - compilation released as a vinyl box set and book",
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"plaintext": "2016 – The Wind of 666 Black Hearts - compilation of demos from 1991 and 1992",
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"plaintext": " [ Darkthrone] on AllMusic",
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| [
"Norwegian_death_metal_musical_groups",
"Norwegian_black_metal_musical_groups",
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"Norwegian_punk_rock_groups",
"Musical_groups_established_in_1986",
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"Heavy_metal_duos",
"Extreme_metal_musical_groups",
"Speed_metal_musical_groups",
"Peaceville_Records_artists",
"Musicians_from_Kolbotn"
]
| 160,119 | 15,943 | 260 | 124 | 0 | 0 | Darkthrone | Norwegian black metal band | [
"Darkthrone (hudební skupina)"
]
|
37,131 | 1,107,544,831 | Burzum | [
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"plaintext": "Burzum (; ) was a Norwegian music project founded by Varg Vikernes in 1991. Although Burzum never played live performances, it became a part of the early Norwegian black metal scene and is considered one of the most influential acts in black metal's history. Vikernes has also released four dark ambient and neofolk albums. The word \"burzum\" means \"darkness\" in the black speech, a fictional language crafted by Lord of the Rings writer J. R. R. Tolkien. Burzum's lyrics and imagery are often inspired by fantasy and Norse mythology, and do not feature the political views for which Vikernes is known.",
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"plaintext": "Vikernes founded Burzum in 1991 and recorded the first four Burzum albums between January 1992 and March 1993. From 1994 to 2009, Vikernes was imprisoned for the murder of Mayhem guitarist Øystein \"Euronymous\" Aarseth and the arson of three churches. While imprisoned, he recorded two dark ambient albums using only synthesizers, as he had no access to drums, guitar, or bass. Since his release from prison in 2009, he has recorded several more albums. Vikernes announced the end of Burzum in 2018, but released the project's final album Thulêan Mysteries in 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Varg Vikernes began making music in 1988 with the band Kalashnikov. The following year, the name was changed to Uruk-Hai, after the creatures from J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. In 1990 and 1991, Vikernes played guitar for the death metal band Old Funeral, which also consisted of members who would later form the band Immortal. He appears on the Old Funeral EP Devoured Carcass. Vikernes left Old Funeral in 1991 to concentrate on creating his own musical visions. He had a short-lived project called Satanel, along Abbath Doom Occulta. He then began a solo project under the name Burzum. The word \"burzum\" means \"darkness\" in the Black Speech, a language crafted by Tolkien. Soon after recording two demo tapes, he became part of the Norwegian black metal scene. With his demo tapes, he had attracted attention from Øystein \"Euronymous\" Aarseth of Mayhem, who had just recently formed Deathlike Silence Productions. Aarseth then signed Burzum to the label, and shortly after, Vikernes―under the pseudonym of Count Grishnackh (another name adapted from The Lord of the Rings)―began to record Burzum's self-titled debut album. According to Vikernes' autobiography on his website, he had intended to record the album in the worst recording quality possible (due to this being a typical trademark of the early Norwegian black metal scene), while still making it sound acceptable. Burzum's eponymous debut album was released in 1992, being the second album released on Deathlike Silence Productions. The song \"War\" from this album had a guest appearance from Euronymous, playing a guitar solo \"just for fun\", according to Vikernes.",
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"plaintext": "Vikernes has stated that he had never played any live shows with Burzum, though at one point was interested in it, so Samoth of Emperor accompanied him as a session bassist, though only appearing on the Aske EP. Additionally, Erik Lancelot was hired to be the band's drummer, though did not record on any Burzum material, and along with Samoth did not play a live show. Vikernes had by then lost his interest in playing live concerts, and stated that he \"didn't even need session musicians anymore\". Therefore, Samoth and Lancelot had parted ways with Burzum. Det som engang var was released as Burzum's second album in 1993, recorded in 1992.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, all Burzum albums released up to that point were re-released as vinyl picture discs in a special box set called 1992–1997; however Filosofem did not contain \"Rundtgåing av den transcendentale egenhetens støtte\" due to its length. The regular vinyl issue of Filosofem on Misanthropy had tracks 1–4 plus \"Decrepitude II\" on side 1 and \"Rundtgåing av den transcendentale egenhetens støtte\" on side 2.",
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"plaintext": "Soon after being released, Vikernes started writing new tracks (nine metal tracks and an ambient intro and outro) for an upcoming Burzum album. According to Vikernes' recounts, several record companies were interested in releasing his first album in eleven years. He stated about the new album, \"I want to take my time, and make it the way I want it. It will be metal, and the fans can expect genuine Burzum.\"",
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"plaintext": "The album was going to be originally titled Den hvite guden (The White God), but he later decided to change it to Belus, which was released by the independent record label Byelobog Productions (byelobog is the transliteration of \"белобог\" in Slavic languages, meaning 'white god') on 8 March 2010. It was also announced that a movie would be released in 2010, based on Varg Vikernes' life in the early 1990s. The movie would mainly draw inspiration from the book Lords of Chaos, with the film being of the same name. Vikernes expressed his contempt towards both the movie and the book upon which it is based.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2018, in a video posted on his YouTube channel, Vikernes stated that \"[he had] moved on [from Burzum]\", saying \"bye bye\" to the project.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2018, a YouTube user named Hermann posted unreleased materials of Uruk-Hai from 1988 to 1990 and Burzum's Bergen prison recordings from 1994, which he received from Tiziana Stupia.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2019, Vikernes posted a tweet saying he intended to release another album as Burzum. He announced that the tentative name of the album would be Thulêan Mysteries, which would have 23 songs. The tracks from the album were previously used as background music on Vikernes' YouTube channel, which was taken down the same year. Vikernes also said that the music of Thulêan Mysteries is meant to be used as a background soundtrack for his MYFAROG role-playing game. On 18 December, Vikernes tweeted the album cover for Thulêan Mysteries and announced its release date as 13 March 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Burzum's music includes both straightforward black metal as well as dark ambient, neofolk and neo-medieval music. It is often minimalist and dark, with repetition and simple song structures. Vikernes has described Burzum as a kind of \"spell\" or recreation of an imaginary world tied in with Pagan history. Each album, he claims, was designed as a kind of \"spell\" in itself, with each beginning song intending to make the listener more susceptible to \"magic\", the following songs to inspire a \"trance-like state of mind\", and the last song to carry the listener into a \"world of fantasy\" (dreams, for the listener would fall asleep—Burzum was supposed to have been evening music). Vikernes claims the intent to create this fantasy world came from dissatisfaction with the real world. He has stated the \"message\" of Burzum can be found in the lyrics of the first song of the first album (\"Feeble Screams from Forests Unknown\").",
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"plaintext": "Burzum's lyrics and imagery are often inspired by fantasy and Norse mythology, and do not feature the far-right political views for which Vikernes is known. In a 2010 interview, Vikernes said: \"Burzum is not a political or religious band, or even an anti-religious band. Burzum is music; art if you like, and the interpretation of art lies in the eye of the beholder. I might be Nordic, heterosexual and have a Pagan ideology myself, but why would I expect the fans of my music to be just like me?\". Despite the project's apolitical nature, Burzum is included on Meta's Dangerous Individuals and Organizations list.",
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| 193,172 | 24,832 | 192 | 80 | 0 | 0 | Burzum | Norwegian black metal / ambient band | []
|
37,135 | 1,107,677,401 | Barbecue | [
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"plaintext": "Barbecue or barbeque (informally BBQ in the UK, US, and Canada, barbie in Australia and braai in South Africa) is a term used with significant regional and national variations to describe various cooking methods that use live fire and smoke to cook the food. The term is also generally applied to the devices associated with those methods, the broader cuisines that these methods produce, and the meals or gatherings at which this style of food is cooked and served. The cooking methods associated with barbecuing vary significantly but most involve outdoor cooking.",
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"plaintext": "The various regional variations of barbecue can be broadly categorized into those methods which use direct and those which use indirect heating. Indirect barbecues are associated with North American cuisine, in which meat is heated by roasting or smoking over wood or charcoal. These methods of barbecue involve cooking using smoke at low temperatures and long cooking times (several hours). Elsewhere, barbecuing more commonly refers to the more direct application of heat, grilling of food over hot coals or gas. This technique is usually done over direct, dry heat or a hot fire for a few minutes. Within these broader categorizations are further national and regional differences.",
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"plaintext": "The English word barbecue and its cognates in other languages come from the Spanish word barbacoa. Etymologists believe this to be derived from barabicu found in the language of the Arawak people of the Caribbean and the Timucua people of Florida; it has entered some European languages in the form of the aforementioned barbacoa. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) traces the word to Hispaniola and translates it as a \"framework of sticks set upon posts\".",
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"plaintext": "Gonzalo Fernández De Oviedo y Valdés, a Spanish explorer, was the first to use the word \"barbecoa\" in print in Spain in 1526 in the Diccionario de la Lengua Española (2nd Edition) of the Real Academia Española. After Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492, the Spaniards apparently found Taíno roasting meat over a grill consisting of a wooden framework resting on sticks above a fire. The flames and smoke rose and enveloped the meat, giving it a certain flavor.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional barbacoa involves digging a hole in the ground and placing some meat—usually a whole lamb—above a pot so the juices can be used to make a broth. It is then covered with maguey leaves and coal, and set alight. The cooking process takes a few hours. Olaudah Equiano, an African abolitionist, described this method of roasting alligators among the Mosquito People (Miskito people) on his journeys to Cabo Gracias a Dios in his narrative The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano.",
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"plaintext": "Linguists have suggested the word was loaned successively into Spanish, then Portuguese, French, and English. In the form barbacado the word was used in English in 1648 by the supposed Beauchamp Plantagenet in the tract A description of the province of New Albion: \"the Indians in stead of salt doe barbecado or dry and smoak fish\".",
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"plaintext": "According to the OED, the first recorded use in modern form was in 1661, in Edmund Hickeringill's Jamaica Viewed: \"Some are slain, And their flesh forthwith Barbacu'd and eat\"; it also appears in 1672 in the writings of John Lederer following his travels in the North American southeast in 1669–1670. The first known use as a noun was in 1697 by the English buccaneer William Dampier. In his New Voyage Round the World, Dampier wrote, \"and lay there all night, upon our Borbecu's, or frames of Sticks, raised about 3 foot [] from the Ground\".",
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"plaintext": "As early as the 1730s, New England Puritans were familiar with barbecue, as on 4 November 1731, New London, Connecticut, resident Joshua Hempstead wrote in his diary: \"I was at Madm Winthrops at an Entertainment, or Treat of Colln [Colonel] or Samll Brownes a Barbaqued.\" Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary gave the following definitions:",
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"plaintext": " \"To Barbecue– a term for dressing a whole hog\" (attestation to Pope)",
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"plaintext": "While the standard modern English spelling of the word is barbecue, variations including barbeque and truncations such as bar-b-q or BBQ may also be found. The spelling barbeque is given in Merriam-Webster and the Oxford Dictionaries as a variant. In the southeastern United States, the word barbecue is used predominantly as a noun referring to roast pork, while in the southwestern states cuts of beef are often cooked.",
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"plaintext": "Because the word barbecue came from native groups, Europeans gave it \"savage connotations\". This association with barbarians and \"savages\" is strengthened by Edmund Hickeringill's work Jamaica Viewed: with All the Ports, Harbours, and their Several Soundings, Towns, and Settlements through its descriptions of cannibalism. However, according to Andrew Warnes, there is very little proof that Hickeringill's tale of cannibalism in the Caribbean is even remotely true. Another notable false depiction of cannibalistic barbecues appears in Theodor de Bry's Great Voyages, which in Warnes's eyes, \"present smoke cookery as a custom quintessential to an underlying savagery [...] that everywhere contains within it a potential for cannibalistic violence\". Today, those in the U.S. associate barbecue with \"classic Americana\".",
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"plaintext": "In American English usage in the Southern U.S, grilling refers to a fast process over high heat while barbecuing refers to a slow process using indirect heat or hot smoke, similar to some forms of roasting. In a typical U.S. home grill, food is cooked on a grate directly over hot charcoal, while in a U.S. barbecue the coals are dispersed to the sides or at a significant distance from the grate. However in the Northern U.S the term barbecuing includes grilling; for example in northern states barbecue fare often includes grilled hot dogs and hamburgers (which in the southern states would be considered fare for grilling or a cookout). In British usage, barbequeing refers to a fast cooking process done directly over high heat, while grilling refers to cooking under a source of direct, moderate-to-high heat—known in the United States as broiling. Its South American versions are the southern Brazilian churrasco and the Argentine asado.",
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"plaintext": "According to estimates, prior to the American Civil War, Southerners ate around five pounds of pork for every pound of beef they consumed. Because of the effort to capture and cook these wild hogs, pig slaughtering became a time for celebration and the neighborhood would be invited to share in the largesse. In Louisiana Creole and Cajun culture, these feasts are called boucheries or \"pig pickin's\". The traditional Southern barbecue grew out of these gatherings.",
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"plaintext": "Each Southern locale has its own variety of barbecue, particularly sauces. South Carolina is the only state that traditionally includes all four recognized barbecue sauces, including mustard-based, vinegar-based, and light and heavy tomato-based sauces. North Carolina sauces vary by region; eastern North Carolina uses a vinegar-based sauce, the center of the state uses Lexington-style barbecue, with a combination of ketchup and vinegar as their base, and western North Carolina uses a heavier ketchup base. Memphis barbecue is best known for tomato- and vinegar-based sauces. In some Memphis establishments and in Kentucky, meat is rubbed with dry seasoning (dry rubs) and smoked over hickory wood without sauce. The finished barbecue is then served with barbecue sauce on the side.",
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"plaintext": "The barbecue of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee is almost always pork, often served with a sweet tomato-based sauce. Several regional variations exist. Alabama is also known for its distinctive white sauce—a mayonnaise- and vinegar-based sauce originating in northern Alabama, used predominantly on chicken and pork. A popular item in North Carolina and Memphis is the pulled pork sandwich served on a bun and often topped with coleslaw. Pulled pork is prepared by shredding the pork after it has been barbecued.",
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"plaintext": "Kansas City-style barbecue is characterized by its use of different types of meat, including pulled pork, pork ribs, burnt ends, smoked sausage, beef brisket, beef ribs, smoked/grilled chicken, smoked turkey, and sometimes fish—a variety attributable to Kansas City's history as a center for meat packing. Hickory is the primary wood used for smoking in Kansas City, while the sauces are typically tomato based with sweet, spicy, and tangy flavors.",
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"plaintext": "Pit beef prevails in Maryland and is often enjoyed at large outdoor \"bull roasts\", which are commonly fundraising events for clubs and associations. Maryland-style pit beef is not the product of barbecue cookery in the strictest sense; the meat is not smoked but grilled over a high heat. The meat is typically served rare with a strong horseradish sauce as the preferred condiment.",
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"plaintext": "The state of Kentucky, particularly the western region around Owensboro and Henderson, is unusual in its barbecue cooking; the preferred meat is mutton. This kind of mutton barbecue is often used in communal events in Kentucky, such as political rallies, county fairs, and church fund-raising events.",
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"plaintext": "Barbecue in Texas is predominantly beef due to the state's historic ties to cattle raising.",
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"plaintext": "Braais are informal gatherings of family and friends who convene around an open fire for any occasion and at any location with a grill. They are linked to the consistent warm weather of South Africa that leads to much communal, outdoor activity. The act of convening around a grill is reminiscent of past generations gathering around open fires after a hunt, solidifying the braais' importance to tradition. Modernity has expanding grilling to the use of gas grills, but steel grill gates and campfires are often used. The use of a gas grill is frowned upon and the use of charcoal is accepted, but wood is seen as the best method to cook the meat.",
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"plaintext": "It is expected that people attending a braai bring snacks, drinks, and other meat to eat until the main meal has finished cooking on the grill. This potluck-like activity is known as \"bring and braai\". Cooking on the braai is a bonding experience for fathers and sons, while women prepare salads and other side dishes in kitchens or other areas away from the grill. Examples of meat prepared for a braai are lamb, steaks, spare ribs, sausages, chicken, and fish. Milie pap, also known as \"Krummel Pap\", is a crumbled cornmeal that is often served as a side dish.",
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"plaintext": "Heritage Day in South Africa, celebrated on 24 September, has also come to be known as National Braai Day, changed to Braai4Heritage, since the holiday is usually celebrated with one. Desmond Tutu advocated for National Braai Day in 2007 due to the universal enjoyment of braais across races in South Africa, stamping it as a symbol of South African heritage.",
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"plaintext": "Barbecuing encompasses multiple types of cooking techniques. The original technique is cooking using smoke at low temperatures—usually around —and significantly longer cooking times (several hours), known as smoking.",
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"plaintext": "Grilling is done over direct, dry heat, usually over a hot fire over for a few minutes. Grilling may be done over wood, charcoal, gas, or electricity. The time difference between smoking and grilling is because of the temperature difference; at low temperatures used for smoking, meat takes several hours to reach the desired internal temperature.",
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"plaintext": "Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, and/or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, nuts, and ingredients used to make beverages such as beer or smoked beer are also smoked.",
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"plaintext": "Grilling is a form of cooking that involves a dry heat applied to the food, either from above or below. Grilling is an effective technique in order to cook meat or vegetables quickly since it involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat. Outside of the USA, this is the most common technique when cooking classic barbecue foods, although some variants of grilling require direct, but moderate heat.",
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"plaintext": "The words \"barbecue\" and \"grilling\" are often used interchangeably, although food experts argue that barbecue is a type of grilling, and that grilling involves the use of a higher level of heat to sear the food, while barbecuing is a slower process over a low heat.",
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"plaintext": "The term barbecue is also used to designate a flavor added to food items, the most prominent of which are potato chips.",
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"plaintext": " , Chinese barbecue",
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"plaintext": " Barbecue Food Safety (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture)",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Internet BBQ FAQ ",
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"plaintext": " Barbecue: A History of the World's Oldest Culinary Art Web cast from the Library of Congress",
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"Eating_parties",
"American_cuisine",
"Australian_cuisine",
"New_Zealand_cuisine",
"Baking",
"Canadian_cuisine",
"Caribbean_cuisine",
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"Kitchen",
"Earth_oven",
"Fireplaces",
"Garden_features",
"Haitian_cuisine",
"Texas_culture",
"Independence_Day_(United_States)_foods"
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| 461,696 | 37,841 | 958 | 82 | 0 | 0 | barbecue | cooking method and apparatus | [
"BBQ"
]
|
37,137 | 1,087,605,867 | Arabidopsis | [
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis (rockcress) is a genus in the family Brassicaceae. They are small flowering plants related to cabbage and mustard. This genus is of great interest since it contains thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), one of the model organisms used for studying plant biology and the first plant to have its entire genome sequenced. Changes in thale cress are easily observed, making it a very useful model.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, the genus Arabidopsis has nine species and a further eight subspecies recognised. This delimitation is quite recent and is based on morphological and molecular phylogenies by O'Kane and Al-Shehbaz and others.",
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"plaintext": "Their findings confirm the species formerly included in Arabidopsis made it polyphyletic. The most recent reclassification moves two species previously placed in Cardaminopsis and Hylandra and three species of Arabis into Arabidopsis, but excludes 50 that have been moved into the new genera Beringia, Crucihimalaya, Ianhedgea, Olimarabidopsis, and Pseudoarabidopsis.",
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"plaintext": "All of the species in Arabidopsis are indigenous to Europe, while two of the species have broad ranges also extending into North America and Asia.",
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"plaintext": "In the last two decades, Arabidopsis thaliana has gained much interest from the scientific community as a model organism for research on numerous aspects of plant biology. The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR) is a curated online information source for Arabidopsis thaliana genetic and molecular biology research, and The Arabidopsis Book is an online compilation of invited chapters on Arabidopsis thaliana biology. (Note that as of 2013 no further chapters will be published.) In Europe, the model organism resource centre for Arabidopsis thaliana germplasm, bioinformatics and molecular biology resources (including GeneChips) is the Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Centre (NASC) whilst in North America germplasm services are provided by the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center (ABRC) based at the Ohio State University. The ordering system for ABRC was incorporated into the TAIR database in June 2001 whilst NASC has always (since 1991) hosted its own ordering system and genome browser.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, the crew of the Soviet Salyut 7 space station grew some Arabidopsis, thus becoming the first plants to flower and produce seeds in space. They had a life span of 40 days. Arabidopsis thaliana seeds were taken to the Moon on the Chang'e 4 lander in 2019, as part of a student experiment. As of May 2022 Arabidopsis thaliana has successfully been grown in samples of lunar soil.",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis is quite similar to the Boechera genus.",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis arenicola — Arctic rock cress (Greenland, Labrador, Nunavut, Québec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan)",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis arenosa — sand rock cress",
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"plaintext": "A. arenosa subsp. arenosa (Europe: native in Austria, Belarus, Bosnia Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, NE France, Germany, Hungary, N Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Ukraine; naturalized in Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Netherlands, Norway, Russia and W Siberia, and Sweden; absent in Albania, Greece, C and S Italy, and Turkey)",
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"plaintext": "A. arenosa subsp. borbasii (E Belgium, Czech Republic, NE France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Switzerland, Ukraine. Doubtfully occurring in Denmark)",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis cebennensis (SE France)",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis croatica (Bosnia, Croatia)",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis halleri ",
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"plaintext": "A. halleri subsp. halleri (Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, N and C Italy, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, and S Ukraine. Probably introduced in N France and extinct in Belgium)",
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"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "A. halleri subsp. ovirensis (Albania, Austria, NE Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, SW Ukraine, Yugoslavia)",
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"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "A. halleri subsp. gemmifera (Russian Far East, northeastern China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan)",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis lyrata — sand cress",
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"plaintext": "A. lyrata subsp. lyrata (NE European Russia, Alaska, Canada (Ontario west into British Columbia), and southeastern and central United States (Vermont south into northern Georgia and Mississippi northward into Missouri and Minnesota))",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "A. lyrata subsp. petraea (Austria, Czech Republic, England, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, N. Italy, Norway, Russia (NW Russia, Siberia and Far East), Scotland, Sweden, Ukraine, boreal North America (Alaska and Yukon). Apparently extinct in Poland)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "A. lyrata subsp. kamchatica (boreal Alaska, Canada (Yukon, Mackenzie District, British Columbia, northern Saskatchewan), Aleutian Islands, eastern Siberia, the Russian Far East, Korea, northern China, Japan, and Taiwan)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis neglecta (Carpathian Mountains (Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and adjacent Ukraine))",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis pedemontana (northwestern Italy and, presumably extinct, in adjacent SW Switzerland)",
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"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis suecica (Fennoscandinavia and the Baltic region)",
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"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis thaliana — thale cress (native range almost all Europe to central Asia, now naturalized worldwide)",
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"plaintext": "The following species previously placed in Arabidopsis are not currently considered part of the genus.",
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"section_name": "List of species and subspecies",
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"plaintext": "Cytogenetic analysis has shown the haploid chromosome number (n) is variable and varies across species in the genus:",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana is n=5 and the DNA sequencing of this species was completed in 2001. A. lyrata has n=8 but some subspecies or populations are tetraploid. Various subspecies A. arenosa have n=8 but can be either 2n (diploid) or 4n (tetraploid).",
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"plaintext": "A. suecica is n=13 (5+8) and is an amphidiploid species originated through hybridization between A. thaliana and diploid A. arenosa.",
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"plaintext": "A. neglecta is n=8, as are the various subspecies of A. halleri.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2005, A. cebennensis, A. croatica and A. pedemontana have not been investigated cytologically.",
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"plaintext": "Quorum sensing (QS) is a mechanism in which large groups of bacterial populations can communicate and regulate gene-expression. Arabidopsis thaliana can perceive and respond to such signalings, the chief molecule controlling QS in bacteria is N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHL). Many times Quorum sensing in bacteria will take place during viral infection of the plant to increase virulence gene expression, as well as bacteria that are in symbiotic relationship with the plant may still use QS to communicate with each other. Plants such as Arabodopsis thaliana have specialized receptors on the plasma membrane that allow them to hear (AHL) signals; however, the exact mechanism of perception is unclear. In response to QS plants can mimic (AHL) signals with halogenated furanone which can block (AHL) signals and mimic them in bacteria as well; the exact mechanism is still being researched. Furthermore, the AHL signals themselves are able to result in responses from the plant such as increased growth and or increased resistance mechanisms while there seems to also be a connection between (AHL) carbon length and plant response. ",
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"plaintext": "The most influential molecules in quorum sensing are N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs). There are many types of AHLs, one of which is called \"short chain N-hexanoyl-DL-HSL\" (C6-HSL). It has been shown that when A. thaliana roots are exposed to C6-HSL, root length is significantly promoted by 1.2 fold, 14 days after inoculation. However, some other AHLs such as long chain homoserine lactones don't have this effect on root growth. Some AHL's such as (C6-HSL) do play a role in root growth regulation physiology. In fact, the exposure to this type of AHL actually leads to a decrease in root growth. Contact to C6-HSL with the roots of A. thaliana results in specific transcriptional changes that lead to increased growth in root cells. Genes that regulate cell growth by producing different levels of growth hormone, specifically auxin, are upregulated by this AHL. IAA induces gene expression of H+-ATPases, and aids in transporting these H+ pumped to the cell wall. This decreases pH in the cell wall as protons are pumped across which activates expanding proteins. This increases cell wall extensibility and thus stimulates cell wall extension. This happens because the loosening of the cell wall allows for turgor pressure to extend the length of the cell, resulting in overall root growth. It is important to note however that there are no significant differences in growth of the leaves when they were exposed to different AHLs, even C6-HSL. That being said, other AHLs may have different functions in quorum sensing such as inducing defense related transcriptional changes.",
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"plaintext": "The defense-inducing AHLs in A. thaliana showed different characteristics in contrast to the growth-inducing AHLs in A. thaliana. When A. thaliana treated with C14-HSL and C12-HSL are compared in Pseudomonas syringae bacteria exposure, A. thaliana treated with C14-HSL derivatives exhibited smaller colony-forming unit numbers, conferring stronger bacterial resistance in A. thaliana. This shows that long-chain AHLs induce pathogen resistance while growth-inducing short-chain AHLs don't. However, it is important to note that resistance induced from long-chain AHL was only effective against the biotrophic and hemibiotrophic pathogens. It is speculated that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) plays a role in the resistance by transducing the external stimuli to extracellular responses. Nevertheless, more study is needed to further speculate the precise mechanism of AHL-induced resistance.",
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"plaintext": "A prominent QS molecule (autoinducer) as discussed before is the AHL which is produced proportionally to the number of cells in the bacteria colony. Once produced, A. thaliana has receptors that are precise to different AHL in order to induce different interactions which are dependent on the recognition of lactone ring, amide group, and fatty acid chain length. The defense that can be induced through the sensing of AHL by its cognate receptor are the production of ethylene, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid. Although the mechanism/pathway of these responses are not understood as of yet completely for A. Thaliana, the response of production of jasmonic acid and salicylic acid and alongside ethylene allows for a shifting of focus from plant growth to the defense against bacteria. Production of jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and ethylene production works on the defense against bacteria and jasmonic acid for the root and shoots, salicylic acid for the induction of local and systemic acquired resistance against different bacteria, and ethylene modulates the plant's immune responses. Overall, it's obvious how plants such as A. thaliana with capability to detect quorum signaling can use this to their advantage by increasing defenses against pathogenic bacteria. Also being able to detect various types of QS allow A. thaliana to increase certain growth factors, all advantageous during growth in a competitive environment.",
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"plaintext": " Al-Shehbaz, I. A., O'Kane, Steve L. (2002). Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Arabidopsis (Brassicaceae). The Arabidopsis Book: 1-22.",
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"plaintext": "Ceccato, Luca; Masiero, Simona; Sinha Roy, Dola; Bencivenga, Stefano; Roig-Villanova, Irma; Ditengou, Franck Anicet; Palme, Klaus; Simon, Rüdiger; Colombo, Lucia (2013-06-17). Grebe, Markus (ed.). \"Maternal Control of PIN1 Is Required for Female Gametophyte Development in Arabidopsis\". PLoS ONE. 8 (6): e66148. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066148. ISSN1932-6203. PMC3684594. PMID23799075.",
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"plaintext": "O'Kane Jr, S. L., i Al-Shehbaz, I. A. (1997). A synopsis of Arabidopsis (Brassicaceae): Novon 7: 323–327.",
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"plaintext": " O'Kane Jr, S. L., i Al-Shehbaz, I. A. (2003). Phylogenetic position and generic limits of Arabidopsis (Brassicaceae) based on sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA: Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 90 (4): 603–612.",
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"plaintext": " (Note that in 2013 ASPB decided to stop publishing new chapters.)",
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| [
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| 157,892 | 1,471 | 135 | 57 | 0 | 0 | Arabidopsis | genus of plants | [
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|
37,138 | 1,101,714,697 | Arabidopsis_thaliana | [
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis thaliana, the thale cress, mouse-ear cress or arabidopsis, is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia and Africa. A. thaliana is considered a weed; it is found along the shoulders of roads and in disturbed land.",
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"plaintext": "A winter annual with a relatively short lifecycle, A. thaliana is a popular model organism in plant biology and genetics. For a complex multicellular eukaryote, A. thaliana has a relatively small genome around 135 megabase pairs. It was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, and is a popular tool for understanding the molecular biology of many plant traits, including flower development and light sensing.",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis thaliana is an annual (rarely biennial) plant, usually growing to 20–25cm tall. The leaves form a rosette at the base of the plant, with a few leaves also on the flowering stem. The basal leaves are green to slightly purplish in color, 1.5–5cm long, and 2–10mm broad, with an entire to coarsely serrated margin; the stem leaves are smaller and unstalked, usually with an entire margin. Leaves are covered with small, unicellular hairs called trichomes. The flowers are 3mm in diameter, arranged in a corymb; their structure is that of the typical Brassicaceae. The fruit is a siliqua 5–20mm long, containing 20–30 seeds. Roots are simple in structure, with a single primary root that grows vertically downward, later producing smaller lateral roots. These roots form interactions with rhizosphere bacteria such as Bacillus megaterium.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana can complete its entire lifecycle in six weeks. The central stem that produces flowers grows after about 3 weeks, and the flowers naturally self-pollinate. In the lab, A. thaliana may be grown in Petri plates, pots, or hydroponics, under fluorescent lights or in a greenhouse.",
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"plaintext": "The plant was first described in 1577 in the Harz Mountains by (1542–1583), a physician from Nordhausen, Thüringen, Germany, who called it Pilosella siliquosa. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus renamed the plant Arabis thaliana in honor of Thal. In 1842, German botanist Gustav Heynhold erected the new genus Arabidopsis and placed the plant in that genus. The generic name, Arabidopsis, comes from Greek, meaning \"resembling Arabis\" (the genus in which Linnaeus had initially placed it).",
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"plaintext": "Thousands of natural inbred accessions of A. thaliana have been collected from throughout its natural and introduced range. These accessions exhibit considerable genetic and phenotypic variation, which can be used to study the adaptation of this species to different environments.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and its geographic distribution is rather continuous from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia and Spain to Greece. It also appears to be native in tropical alpine ecosystems in Africa and perhaps South Africa. It has been introduced and naturalized worldwide, including in North America around the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana readily grows and often pioneers rocky, sandy, and calcareous soils. It is generally considered a weed, due to its widespread distribution in agricultural fields, roadsides, railway lines, waste ground, and other disturbed habitats, but due to its limited competitive ability and small size, it is not categorized as a noxious weed. Like most Brassicaceae species, A. thaliana is edible by humans in a salad or cooked, but it does not enjoy widespread use as a spring vegetable.",
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"plaintext": "Botanists and biologists began to research A. thaliana in the early 1900s, and the first systematic description of mutants was done around 1945. A. thaliana is now widely used for studying plant sciences, including genetics, evolution, population genetics, and plant development. Although A. thaliana has little direct significance for agriculture, several of its traits make it a useful model for understanding the genetic, cellular, and molecular biology of flowering plants.",
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"plaintext": "The first mutant in A. thaliana was documented in 1873 by Alexander Braun, describing a double flower phenotype (the mutated gene was likely Agamous, cloned and characterized in 1990). Friedrich Laibach (who had published the chromosome number in 1907) did not propose A. thaliana as a model organism, though, until 1943. His student, Erna Reinholz, published her thesis on A. thaliana in 1945, describing the first collection of A. thaliana mutants that they generated using X-ray mutagenesis. Laibach continued his important contributions to A. thaliana research by collecting a large number of accessions (often questionably referred to as \"ecotypes\"). With the help of Albert Kranz, these were organised into a large collection of 750 natural accessions of A. thaliana from around the world.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1950s and 1960s, John Langridge and George Rédei played an important role in establishing A. thaliana as a useful organism for biological laboratory experiments. Rédei wrote several scholarly reviews instrumental in introducing the model to the scientific community. The start of the A. thaliana research community dates to a newsletter called Arabidopsis Information Service, established in 1964. The first International Arabidopsis Conference was held in 1965, in Göttingen, Germany.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, A. thaliana started to become widely used in plant research laboratories around the world. It was one of several candidates that included maize, petunia, and tobacco. The latter two were attractive, since they were easily transformable with the then-current technologies, while maize was a well-established genetic model for plant biology. The breakthrough year for A. thaliana as a model plant was 1986, in which T-DNA-mediated transformation and the first cloned A. thaliana gene were described.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the small size of its genome, and because it is diploid, Arabidopsis thaliana is useful for genetic mapping and sequencing — with about 157 megabase pairs and five chromosomes, A. thaliana has one of the smallest genomes among plants. It was long thought to have the smallest genome of all flowering plants, but that title is now considered to belong to plants in the genus Genlisea, order Lamiales, with Genlisea tuberosa, a carnivorous plant, showing a genome size of approximately 61Mbp. It was the first plant genome to be sequenced, completed in 2000 by the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative. The most up-to-date version of the A. thaliana genome is maintained by the Arabidopsis Information Resource.",
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"plaintext": "The genome encodes ~27,600 protein-coding genes and about 6,500 non-coding genes. However, the Uniprot database lists 39,342 proteins in their Arabidopsis reference proteome. Among the 27,600 protein-coding genes 25,402 (91.8%) are now annotated with \"meaningful\" product names, although a large fraction of these proteins is likely only poorly understood and only known in general terms (e.g. as \"DNA-binding protein without known specificity\"). Uniprot lists more than 3,000 proteins as \"uncharacterized\" as part of the reference proteome.",
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"plaintext": "The plastome of A. thaliana is a 154,478 base-pair-long DNA molecule, a size typically encountered in most flowering plants (see the list of sequenced plastomes). It comprises 136 genes coding for small subunit ribosomal proteins (rps, in yellow: see figure), large subunit ribosomal proteins (rpl, orange), hypothetical chloroplast open reading frame proteins (ycf, lemon), proteins involved in photosynthetic reactions (green) or in other functions (red), ribosomal RNAs (rrn, blue), and transfer RNAs (trn, black).",
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"plaintext": "The mitochondrial genome of A. thaliana is 367,808 base pairs long and contains 57 genes. There are many repeated regions in the Arabidopsis mitochondrial genome. The largest repeats recombine regularly and isomerize the genome. Like most plant mitochondrial genomes, the Arabidopsis mitochondrial genome exists as a complex arrangement of overlapping branched and linear molecules in vivo.",
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"plaintext": "Genetic transformation of A. thaliana is routine, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to transfer DNA into the plant genome. The current protocol, termed \"floral dip\", involves simply dipping flowers into a solution containing Agrobacterium carrying a plasmid of interest and a detergent. This method avoids the need for tissue culture or plant regeneration.",
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"plaintext": "The A. thaliana gene knockout collections are a unique resource for plant biology made possible by the availability of high-throughput transformation and funding for genomics resources. The site of T-DNA insertions has been determined for over 300,000 independent transgenic lines, with the information and seeds accessible through online T-DNA databases. Through these collections, insertional mutants are available for most genes in A. thaliana.",
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"plaintext": "Characterized accessions and mutant lines of A. thaliana serve as experimental material in laboratory studies. The most commonly used background lines are Ler (Landsberg erecta), and Col, or Columbia. Other background lines less-often cited in the scientific literature are Ws, or Wassilewskija, C24, Cvi, or Cape Verde Islands, Nossen, etc. (see for ex.) Sets of closely related accessions named Col-0, Col-1, etc., have been obtained and characterized; in general, mutant lines are available through stock centers, of which best-known are the Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Center-NASC and the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center-ABRC in Ohio, USA.",
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"plaintext": "The Col-0 accession was selected by Rédei from within a (nonirradiated) population of seeds designated 'Landsberg' which he received from Laibach. Columbia (named for the location of Rédei's former institution, University of Missouri-Columbia) was the reference accession sequenced in the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative. The Later (Landsberg erecta) line was selected by Rédei (because of its short stature) from a Landsberg population he had mutagenized with X-rays. As the Ler collection of mutants is derived from this initial line, Ler-0 does not correspond to the Landsberg accessions, which designated La-0, La-1, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Trichome formation is initiated by the GLABROUS1 protein. Knockouts of the corresponding gene lead to glabrous plants. This phenotype has already been used in gene editing experiments and might be of interest as visual marker for plant research to improve gene editing methods such as CRISPR/Cas9.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, scientists at Purdue University proposed that A. thaliana possessed an alternative to previously known mechanisms of DNA repair, producing an unusual pattern of inheritance, but the phenomenon observed (reversion of mutant copies of the HOTHEAD gene to a wild-type state) was later suggested to be an artifact because the mutants show increased outcrossing due to organ fusion.",
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"plaintext": "The plant's small size and rapid lifecycle are also advantageous for research. Having specialized as a spring ephemeral, it has been used to found several laboratory strains that take about 6 weeks from germination to mature seed. The small size of the plant is convenient for cultivation in a small space, and it produces many seeds. Further, the selfing nature of this plant assists genetic experiments. Also, as an individual plant can produce several thousand seeds, each of the above criteria leads to A. thaliana being valued as a genetic model organism.",
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"plaintext": "Arabidopsis is often the model for study of SNAREs in plants. This has shown SNAREs to be heavily involved in vesicle trafficking. Zheng et al. 1999 found an Arabidopsis SNARE called is probably essential to Golgi-vacuole trafficking. This is still a wide open field and plant SNAREs' role in trafficking remains understudied.",
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"plaintext": "The DNA of plants is vulnerable to ultraviolet light, and DNA repair mechanisms have evolved to avoid or repair genome damage caused by UV. Kaiser et al. showed that in A. thaliana cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) induced by UV light can be repaired by expression of CPD photolyase.",
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"plaintext": "On May 12, 2022, NASA announced that specimens of Arabidopsis thaliana had been successfully germinated and grown in samples of lunar regolith. While the plants successfully germinated and grew into seedlings, they were not as robust as specimens that had been grown in volcanic ash as a control group, although the experiments also found some variation in the plants grown in regolith based on the location the samples were taken from, as A. thaliana grown in regolith gathered during Apollo 12 & Apollo 17 were more robust than those grown in samples taken during Apollo 11.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana has been extensively studied as a model for flower development. The developing flower has four basic organs - sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (which go on to form pistils). These organs are arranged in a series of whorls, four sepals on the outer whorl, followed by four petals inside this, six stamens, and a central carpel region. Homeotic mutations in A. thaliana result in the change of one organ to another—in the case of the agamous mutation, for example, stamens become petals and carpels are replaced with a new flower, resulting in a recursively repeated sepal-petal-petal pattern.",
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"plaintext": "Observations of homeotic mutations led to the formulation of the ABC model of flower development by E. Coen and E. Meyerowitz. According to this model, floral organ identity genes are divided into three classes - class A genes (which affect sepals and petals), class B genes (which affect petals and stamens), and class C genes (which affect stamens and carpels). These genes code for transcription factors that combine to cause tissue specification in their respective regions during development. Although developed through study of A. thaliana flowers, this model is generally applicable to other flowering plants.",
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"plaintext": "Studies of A. thaliana have provided considerable insights with regards to the genetics of leaf morphogenesis, particularly in dicotyledon-type plants. Much of the understanding has come from analyzing mutants in leaf development, some of which were identified in the 1960s, but were not analysed with genetic and molecular techniques until the mid-1990s. A. thaliana leaves are well suited to studies of leaf development because they are relatively simple and stable.",
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"plaintext": "Using A. thaliana, the genetics behind leaf shape development have become more clear and have been broken down into three stages: The initiation of the leaf primordium, the establishment of dorsiventrality, and the development of a marginal meristem. Leaf primordia are initiated by the suppression of the genes and proteins of class I KNOX family (such as SHOOT APICAL MERISTEMLESS). These class I KNOX proteins directly suppress gibberellin biosynthesis in the leaf primordium. Many genetic factors were found to be involved in the suppression of these class I KNOX genes in leaf primordia (such as ASYMMETRIC LEAVES1, BLADE-ON-PETIOLE1, SAWTOOTH1, etc.). Thus, with this suppression, the levels of gibberellin increase and leaf primordium initiate growth.",
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"plaintext": "The establishment of leaf dorsiventrality is important since the dorsal (adaxial) surface of the leaf is different from the ventral (abaxial) surface.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana is well suited for light microscopy analysis. Young seedlings on the whole, and their roots in particular, are relatively translucent. This, together with their small size, facilitates live cell imaging using both fluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy. By wet-mounting seedlings in water or in culture media, plants may be imaged uninvasively, obviating the need for fixation and sectioning and allowing time-lapse measurements. Fluorescent protein constructs can be introduced through transformation. The developmental stage of each cell can be inferred from its location in the plant or by using fluorescent protein markers, allowing detailed developmental analysis.",
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"plaintext": "The photoreceptors phytochromes A, B, C, D, and E mediate red light-based phototropic response. Understanding the function of these receptors has helped plant biologists understand the signaling cascades that regulate photoperiodism, germination, de-etiolation, and shade avoidance in plants. The genes FCA, fy, fpa, LUMINIDEPENDENS (ld), fly, fve and FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) are involved in photoperiod triggering of flowering and vernalization. Specifically Lee et al 1994 find ld produces a homeodomain and Blazquez et al 2001 that fve produces a WD40 repeat.",
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"plaintext": "Light responses were even found in roots, previously thought to be largely insensitive to light. While the gravitropic response of A. thaliana root organs is their predominant tropic response, specimens treated with mutagens and selected for the absence of gravitropic action showed negative phototropic response to blue or white light, and positive response to red light, indicating that the roots also show positive phototropism.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, Dr. Janet Braam of Rice University genetically engineered A. thaliana to glow in the dark when touched. The effect was visible to ultrasensitive cameras.",
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"plaintext": "Multiple efforts, including the Glowing Plant project, have sought to use A. thaliana to increase plant luminescence intensity towards commercially viable levels.",
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"plaintext": "On January 2, 2019, China's Chang'e-4 lander brought A. thaliana to the moon. A small microcosm 'tin' in the lander contained A. thaliana, seeds of potatoes, and silkworm eggs. As plants would support the silkworms with oxygen, and the silkworms would in turn provide the plants with necessary carbon dioxide and nutrients through their waste, researchers will evaluate whether plants successfully perform photosynthesis, and grow and bloom in the lunar environment.",
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"plaintext": "Understanding how plants achieve resistance is important to protect the world's food production, and the agriculture industry. Many model systems have been developed to better understand interactions between plants and bacterial, fungal, oomycete, viral, and nematode pathogens. A. thaliana has been a powerful tool for the study of the subdiscipline of plant pathology, that is, the interaction between plants and disease-causing pathogens.",
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"plaintext": "[[File:ArabidopsisPlantPathology.jpg|thumb|upright=2|Components of pathogen recognition in A. thaliana 'A schematic of PAMP-triggered immunity, to be specific recognition of flagellin by FLS2 (top left), effector-triggered immunity depicted through the recognition of avrRpt2 by RPS2 through RIN4 (top-right), microscopic view of callose deposition in an A. thaliana leaf (bottom left), an example of no hypersensitive response (HR), top, and HR in A. thaliana leaves (bottom right)]]",
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"plaintext": "The use of A. thaliana has led to many breakthroughs in the advancement of knowledge of how plants manifest plant disease resistance. The reason most plants are resistant to most pathogens is through nonhost resistance - not all pathogens will infect all plants. An example where A. thaliana was used to determine the genes responsible for nonhost resistance is Blumeria graminis, the causal agent of powdery mildew of grasses. A. thaliana mutants were developed using the mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate and screened to identify mutants with increased infection by B. graminis. The mutants with higher infection rates are referred to as PEN mutants due to the ability of B. graminis to penetrate A. thaliana to begin the disease process. The PEN genes were later mapped to identify the genes responsible for nonhost resistance to B. graminis.",
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"plaintext": "In general, when a plant is exposed to a pathogen, or nonpathogenic microbe, an initial response, known as PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI), occurs because the plant detects conserved motifs known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These PAMPs are detected by specialized receptors in the host known as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on the plant cell surface.",
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"plaintext": "The best-characterized PRR in A. thaliana is FLS2 (Flagellin-Sensing2), which recognizes bacterial flagellin, a specialized organelle used by microorganisms for the purpose of motility, as well as the ligand flg22, which comprises the 22 amino acids recognized by FLS2. Discovery of FLS2 was facilitated by the identification of an A. thaliana ecotype, Ws-0, that was unable to detect flg22, leading to the identification of the gene encoding FLS2. FLS2 shows striking similarity to rice XA21, the first PRR isolated in 1995. Both flagellin and UV-C act similarly to increase homologous recombination in A. thaliana, as demonstrated by Molinier et al. 2006. Beyond this somatic effect, they found this to extend to subsequent generations of the plant.",
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"plaintext": "A second PRR, EF-Tu receptor (EFR), identified in A. thaliana, recognizes the bacterial EF-Tu protein, the prokaryotic elongation factor used in protein synthesis, as well as the laboratory-used ligand elf18. Using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, a technique that takes advantage of the natural process by which Agrobacterium transfers genes into host plants, the EFR gene was transformed into Nicotiana benthamiana, tobacco plant that does not recognize EF-Tu, thereby permitting recognition of bacterial EF-Tu thereby confirming EFR as the receptor of EF-Tu.",
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"plaintext": "Both FLS2 and EFR use similar signal transduction pathways to initiate PTI. A. thaliana has been instrumental in dissecting these pathways to better understand the regulation of immune responses, the most notable one being the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) cascade. Downstream responses of PTI include callose deposition, the oxidative burst, and transcription of defense-related genes.",
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"plaintext": "PTI is able to combat pathogens in a nonspecific manner. A stronger and more specific response in plants is that of effector-triggered immunity (ETI), which is dependent upon the recognition of pathogen effectors, proteins secreted by the pathogen that alter functions in the host, by plant resistance genes (R-genes), often described as a gene-for-gene relationship. This recognition may occur directly or indirectly via a guardee protein in a hypothesis known as the guard hypothesis. The first R-gene cloned in A. thaliana was RPS2 (resistance to Pseudomonas syringae 2), which is responsible for recognition of the effector avrRpt2. The bacterial effector avrRpt2 is delivered into A. thaliana via the Type III secretion system of P. syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000. Recognition of avrRpt2 by RPS2 occurs via the guardee protein RIN4, which is cleaved. Recognition of a pathogen effector leads to a dramatic immune response known as the hypersensitive response, in which the infected plant cells undergo cell death to prevent the spread of the pathogen.",
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"plaintext": "Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is another example of resistance that is better understood in plants because of research done in A. thaliana. Benzothiadiazol (BTH), a salicylic acid (SA) analog, has been used historically as an antifungal compound in crop plants. BTH, as well as SA, has been shown to induce SAR in plants. The initiation of the SAR pathway was first demonstrated in A. thaliana in which increased SA levels are recognized by nonexpresser of PR genes 1 (NPR1) due to redox change in the cytosol, resulting in the reduction of NPR1. NPR1, which usually exists in a multiplex (oligomeric) state, becomes monomeric (a single unit) upon reduction. When NPR1 becomes monomeric, it translocates to the nucleus, where it interacts with many TGA transcription factors, and is able to induce pathogen-related genes such as PR1. Another example of SAR would be the research done with transgenic tobacco plants, which express bacterial salicylate hydroxylase, nahG gene, requires the accumulation of SA for its expression",
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"plaintext": "Although not directly immunological, intracellular transport affects susceptibility by incorporating - or being tricked into incorporating - pathogen particles. For example, the Dynamin-related protein 2b/drp2b gene helps to move invaginated material into cells, with some mutants increasing PstDC3000 virulence even further.",
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"plaintext": "Plants are affected by multiple pathogens throughout their lifetimes. In response to the presence of pathogens, plants have evolved receptors on their cell surfaces to detect and respond to pathogens. Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism used to determine specific defense mechanisms of plant-pathogen resistance. These plants have special receptors on their cell surfaces that allow for detection of pathogens and initiate mechanisms to inhibit pathogen growth. They contain two receptors, FLS2 (bacterial flagellin receptor) and EF-Tu (bacterial EF-Tu protein), which use signal transduction pathways to initiate the disease response pathway. The pathway leads to the recognition of the pathogen causing the infected cells to undergo cell death to stop the spread of the pathogen. Plants with FLS2 and EF-Tu receptors have shown to have increased fitness in the population. This has led to the belief that plant-pathogen resistance is an evolutionary mechanism that has built up over generations to respond to dynamic environments, such as increased predation and extreme temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana has also been used to study SAR.",
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"plaintext": "This pathway uses benzothiadiazol, a chemical inducer, to induce transcription factors, mRNA, of SAR genes. This accumulation of transcription factors leads to inhibition of pathogen-related genes.",
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"plaintext": "Plant-pathogen interactions are important for an understanding of how plants have evolved to combat different types of pathogens that may affect them. Variation in resistance of plants across populations is due to variation in environmental factors. Plants that have evolved resistance, whether it be the general variation or the SAR variation, have been able to live longer and hold off necrosis of their tissue (premature death of cells), which leads to better adaptation and fitness for populations that are in rapidly changing environments. In the future, comparisons of the pathosystems of wild populations + their coevolved pathogens with wild-wild hybrids of known parentage may reveal new mechanisms of balancing selection. In life history theory we may find that A. thaliana maintains certain alleles due to pleitropy between plant-pathogen effects and other traits, as in livestock.",
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"plaintext": "Research in A. thaliana suggests that the immunity regulator protein family EDS1 in general co-evolved with the CC family of nucleotide-bindingleucine-rich-repeat-receptors (NLRs). Xiao et al. 2005 have shown that the powdery mildew immunity mediated by A. thalianas RPW8 (which has a CC domain) is dependent on two members of this family: EDS1 itself and PAD4.",
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"plaintext": "RESISTANCE TO PSEUDOMONAS SYRINGAE 5/RPS5 is a disease resistance protein which guards AvrPphB SUSCEPTIBLE 1/PBS1. PBS1, as the name would suggest, is the target of AvrPphB, an effector produced by Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola.",
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"plaintext": "Ongoing research on A. thaliana is being performed on the International Space Station by the European Space Agency. The goals are to study the growth and reproduction of plants from seed to seed in microgravity.",
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"plaintext": "Plant-on-a-chip devices in which A. thaliana tissues can be cultured in semi-in vitro conditions have been described. Use of these devices may aid understanding of pollen-tube guidance and the mechanism of sexual reproduction in A. thaliana.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers at the University of Florida were able to grow the plant in lunar soil originating from the Sea of Tranquillity.",
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"plaintext": "A. thaliana is a predominantly self-pollinating plant with an outcrossing rate estimated at less than 0.3%. An analysis of the genome-wide pattern of linkage disequilibrium suggested that self-pollination evolved roughly a million years ago or more. Meioses that lead to self-pollination are unlikely to produce significant beneficial genetic variability. However, these meioses can provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages during formation of germ cells at each generation. Such a benefit may have been sufficient to allow the long-term persistence of meioses even when followed by self-fertilization. A physical mechanism for self-pollination in A. thaliana is through pre-anthesis autogamy, such that fertilisation takes place largely before flower opening.",
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"plaintext": " TAIR and NASC: curated sources for diverse genetic and molecular biology information, links to gene expression databases etc.",
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"Flora_of_Africa",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR logo combines the circular MTA logo with the text Long Island Rail Road, and appears on the sides of trains. The LIRR is one of two commuter rail systems owned by the MTA, the other being the Metro-North Railroad in the northern suburbs of the New York area. Established in 1834 and having operated continuously since then, it is the oldest railroad in the United States still operating under its original name and charter.",
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"plaintext": "There are 124 stations and more than of track on its two lines running the full length of the island and eight major branches, with the passenger railroad system totaling of route. , the LIRR's budget for expenditures was $1.6 billion plus $450 million for debt service, which it supports through the collection of fares (which cover 43% of total expenses) along with dedicated taxes and other MTA revenue.",
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"plaintext": "The Long Island Rail Road Company was chartered in 1834 to provide a daily service between New York and Boston via a ferry connection between its Greenport, New York, terminal on Long Island's North Fork and Stonington, Connecticut. This service was superseded in 1849 by the land route through Connecticut that became part of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The LIRR refocused its attentions towards serving Long Island, in competition with other railroads on the island. In the 1870s, railroad president Conrad Poppenhusen and his successor Austin Corbin acquired all the railroads and consolidated them into the LIRR.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR was unprofitable for much of its history. In 1900, the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) bought a controlling interest as part of its plan for direct access to Manhattan which began on September 8, 1910. The wealthy PRR subsidized the LIRR during the first half of the new century, allowing expansion and modernization. Electric operation began in 1905.",
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"plaintext": "After the Second World War, the railroad industry's downturn and dwindling profits caused the PRR to stop subsidizing the LIRR, and the LIRR went into receivership in 1949. The State of New York, realizing how important the railroad was to Long Island's future, began to subsidize the railroad in the 1950s and 1960s. In June 1965, the state finalized an agreement to buy the LIRR from the PRR for $65 million. The LIRR was placed under the control of a new Metropolitan Commuter Transit Authority. The MCTA was rebranded the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in 1968 when it incorporated several other New York City-area transit agencies. With MTA subsidies the LIRR modernized further, continuing to be the busiest commuter railroad in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR is one of the few railroads that has survived as an intact company from its original charter to the present.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR operates out of three western terminals in New York City, with a fourth expected by the early 2020s. Major terminals include:",
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"plaintext": " Pennsylvania Station, in Midtown Manhattan, is the busiest of the western terminals, serving almost 500 daily trains. It is reached via the Amtrak-owned East River Tunnels (the only LIRR-used trackage not owned by the LIRR) from the Main Line at Harold Interlocking in Long Island City. The New York City Subway's 34th Street–Penn Station (IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line) () and 34th Street–Penn Station (IND Eighth Avenue Line) () stations are adjacent to the terminal. It also connects LIRR with Amtrak and NJ Transit trains.",
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"plaintext": " Atlantic Terminal, formerly known as Flatbush Avenue, in Downtown Brooklyn serves most other trains. It is next to the New York City Subway's Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center station complex (), providing easy access to Lower Manhattan. With the opening of East Side Access, service between Atlantic Terminal and Jamaica is expected to become a shuttle.",
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"plaintext": " Rush-hour trains run to one of two stations in Long Island City, Queens: or on the East River. From Hunterspoint Avenue, the Hunters Point Avenue subway station () can be reached for Midtown Manhattan access. The same subway trains can also be reached from Long Island City station at the Vernon Boulevard–Jackson Avenue subway station. It also connects to the NYC Ferry's East River Ferry to Midtown or Lower Manhattan.",
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"plaintext": " Access to a fourth major terminal is under construction. As early as December 2022, the LIRR intends to start service to Grand Central Madison, a new station under Grand Central Terminal via the East Side Access project tracks; provision was made for this route on the lower level of the 63rd Street Tunnel under the East River, which carries the New York City Subway's IND 63rd Street Line () on its upper level. The East Side Access project will reduce congestion while increasing the number of trains during peak hours. However, some February 2014 estimates pushed the opening date as far back as September 2024.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, the Jamaica station is a major hub station and transfer point in Jamaica, Queens. It has ten tracks and six platforms, plus yard and bypass tracks. Passengers can transfer between trains on all LIRR lines except the Port Washington Branch. The sixth platform opened in February 2020, and exclusively serves Atlantic Branch shuttle trains to Brooklyn. Transfer is also made to separate facilities for three subway services at the Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport station (), a number of bus routes, and the AirTrain automated people mover to JFK Airport. The railroad's headquarters are next to the station.",
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"plaintext": "The Long Island Rail Road system has eleven passenger branches. Three of them are considered main trunk lines; however the trunk lines are in general not used in public:",
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"plaintext": " Main Line, running along the middle of the island, between Long Island City and Greenport, via Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": " Montauk Branch, running along the southern edge of the island, between Long Island City and Montauk, via Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": " Atlantic Branch, running mostly in New York City to the south of both the Main Line and Montauk Branch, between Atlantic Terminal and Valley Stream, via Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": "They spin off eight minor branches. For scheduling and advertising purposes some of these branches are divided into sections such as the case with the Montauk Branch, which is known as the Babylon Branch service in the electrified portion of the line between Jamaica and Babylon, while the diesel service beyond Babylon to Montauk is referred to as the Montauk Branch service. All branches except the Port Washington Branch pass through Jamaica; the trackage west of Jamaica (except the Port Washington Branch) is known as the City Terminal Zone. The City Terminal Zone includes portions of the Main Line, Atlantic, and Montauk Branches, as well as the Amtrak-owned East River Tunnels (Northeast Corridor) to Penn Station.",
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"plaintext": " The Main Line runs from Long Island City east to Greenport. It is electrified west of Ronkonkoma; limited diesel train service runs from this point to Yaphank, Riverhead, or Greenport. Trains using the East River Tunnels (Northeast Corridor) from New York Penn Station join the line at Sunnyside Yard. The services that run along this line are named after the branches they use; trains beyond Hicksville (where the Port Jefferson Branch splits), are known as Ronkonkoma Branch and Greenport Branch trains.",
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"plaintext": " The Montauk Branch runs from Long Island City east to Montauk, with junctions with the Main Line at Long Island City and Jamaica. It is electrified from Jamaica east to Babylon. Trains operating east of Babylon are listed as Montauk Branch service and are hauled by diesel locomotives; trains using the line from Jamaica to Babylon are labeled Babylon Branch trains. The portion of the line between Long Island City and Jamaica no longer carries passenger trains and is used only for freight service.",
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"plaintext": " The electrified Atlantic Branch runs from Atlantic Terminal in Downtown Brooklyn east to Jamaica, where it meets the Main Line and the Montauk Branch, and then heads southeast to become the Long Beach Branch east of Valley Stream. East of Valley Stream, the Far Rockaway Branch turns south, while the West Hempstead Branch turns northward.",
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"plaintext": " The electrified Port Washington Branch, the only one that does not serve Jamaica, branches from the Main Line west of Woodside (running parallel to the Main Line until Winfield Junction, which is east of that station) and runs east to Port Washington. It only serves four stations in Nassau County. It contains the Manhasset Viaduct, which is the highest bridge on the LIRR network.",
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"plaintext": " The Port Jefferson Branch splits from the Main Line east of Hicksville, with electric service to Huntington and diesel service to Port Jefferson. Until 1938, it continued east to Wading River.",
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"plaintext": " The electrified Hempstead Branch splits from the Main Line east of Queens Village (running parallel to the Main Line until just after Floral Park) and runs east to Hempstead. At Garden City, the Garden City-Mitchel Field Secondary curves off and goes to Mitchel Field.",
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"plaintext": " The electrified West Hempstead Branch splits from the Montauk Branch east of Valley Stream and runs northeast to West Hempstead, originally continuing to junction the Hempstead Branch and the Oyster Bay Branch at the Main Line. As of November 22, 2014, weekend service on the branch has been restored.",
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"plaintext": " The Oyster Bay Branch splits from the Main Line east of Mineola and heads north and east to Oyster Bay. The first section to East Williston is electrified; only diesel trains run along the majority of the line to Oyster Bay.",
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"plaintext": " The diesel-only Central Branch runs southeast from the Main Line east of Bethpage to the Montauk Branch west of Babylon, giving an alternate route to the Montauk Branch east of Babylon. The Central Branch used to continue west from Bethpage to include what is now the Garden City–Mitchel Field Secondary. It will be electrified as part of the 2020-2024 MTA Capital Program.",
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"plaintext": " The electrified Far Rockaway Branch splits from the Atlantic Branch east of Valley Stream and runs south and southwest to Far Rockaway. It used to continue west along what is now the New York City Subway's IND Rockaway Line to Hammels and Rockaway Park.",
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"plaintext": " The electrified Long Beach Branch begins where the Atlantic Branch ends east of Valley Stream (running parallel to the Montauk Branch until just after Lynbrook) where it turns south to end at Long Beach.",
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"plaintext": "The railroad has dropped a number of branches due to lack of ridership over the years. Part of the Rockaway Beach Branch became part of the IND Rockaway Line of the New York City Subway, while others were downgraded to freight branches, and the rest abandoned entirely. Additionally, the Long Island Rail Road operated trains over portions of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit (BRT) elevated and subway lines until 1917.",
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"plaintext": "The Bethpage Branch ran north from the Main Line and Central Branch at Bethpage.",
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"plaintext": "The Bushwick Branch, also called the Bushwick Lead Track, is a freight railroad branch that runs from Bushwick, Brooklyn, to Fresh Pond Junction in Queens, where it connects with the Montauk Branch.",
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"plaintext": "The Camp Upton Branch was a short branch north from the Main Line to Camp Upton.",
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"plaintext": "The Cedarhurst Cut-off, officially known as the New York and Rockaway Railroad, was an extension of the Montauk Branch from its merger with the Atlantic Branch at Springfield Junction to Cedarhurst, where it would turn west and run parallel to the Far Rockaway Branch until reaching Mott Avenue in Far Rockaway.",
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"plaintext": "The Central Extension ran from Garden City eastward to Central Park (¾ mile south of current Bethpage station) and as far east as Bethpage Junction. The line was cut back to the point where it stopped at Island Trees. Today the western part of track still in use for freight and storage, and is officially known today as the Garden City Secondary.",
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"plaintext": "The Chestnut Street Incline (Brooklyn) between Atlantic Avenue and Fulton Street was opened in 1898 to allow for thru-operation over the Jamaica/Broadway Elevated Line to the East River ferry terminal. In 1909 thru passenger service to Manhattan via the Williamsburg Bridge was established in coordination with the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT). LIRR Passenger service operated to Chambers Street between May 1909 and September 1917.",
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"plaintext": "The Creedmoor Branch, a remnant of the Central Railroad of Long Island (CRRLI) of Alexander Turney Stewart, was a short branch from the Main Line at Floral Park northwest through Creedmoor. It once went as far northwest as Flushing.",
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"plaintext": "The Evergreen Branch connected the Bushwick Branch east of Bushwick Terminal with the Bay Ridge Branch north of East New York.",
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"plaintext": "The Flushing Bay Freight Spur extended north from the Whitestone Branch, then across the Woodside Branch and then the connecting line between both branches before terminating along the south coast of Flushing Bay.",
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"plaintext": "The Glendale Cut-off ran south from the Main Line at Rego Park to the Montauk Branch at Glendale. There it became the Rockaway Beach Branch, running south across Jamaica Bay to Hammels and west to Rockaway Park. The Rockaway Beach Branch south of Ozone Park is now the IND Rockaway Line of the New York City Subway.",
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"plaintext": "The Lower Montauk Branch ran from Long Island City to Jamaica, passing neighborhoods including Maspeth, Middle Village, and Richmond Hill.",
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"plaintext": "The Manhattan Beach Branch ran south from the Bay Ridge Branch at Flatbush to Manhattan Beach.",
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"plaintext": "The Manorville Branch or Manor Branch ran from the Main Line at Manorville southeast to the Montauk Branch at Eastport. It was originally part of the Sag Harbor Branch (See below).",
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"plaintext": "The Mineola-West Hempstead Branch ran north of the terminus of the West Hempstead Branch across NY 24 to Country Life Press Station where it briefly joined the Hempstead Branch then ran north of the Garden City Secondary towards a wye at Mineola Station with one branch that terminated at the station and another that crossed the main line and ended near the southern terminus of the Oyster Bay Branch.",
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"plaintext": "The Montauk Cut-off was a short spur connecting the Lower Montauk Branch with the Main Line in Long Island City.",
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"plaintext": "The Northport Branch ran northeast of the current Port Jefferson Branch between Greenlawn and Northport Village.",
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"plaintext": "The North Shore Freight Branch ran from the Main Line at Sunnyside Yard west to the East River where Gantry Plaza State Park is now. Originally built by the Flushing and North Side Railroad, some of the surviving right-of-way can be found at the Arch Street Shops within the Sunnyside Yard.",
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"plaintext": "The Roosevelt Field Spur branched off northward from the current Garden City Secondary just north of Commercial Avenue. From there, it crossed Stewart Avenue just west of present-day South Street before turning slightly northeast, crossing over the Meadowbrook Parkway. The overpass, as well as sections along the sidewalk on South Street, can still be seen today. From there, it continued north before curving east and coming to an end near Zeckendorf Boulevard. The line was used for freight only. ",
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"plaintext": "The Sag Harbor Branch ran north from the Montauk Branch at Bridgehampton to Sag Harbor.",
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"plaintext": "The Wading River Branch ran east from Port Jefferson to Wading River, serving the towns of Mount Sinai, Miller Place, Rocky Point, and Shoreham.",
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"plaintext": "The White Line, which was built by the LIRR subsidiary Newtown and Flushing Railroad ran south of the Port Washington Branch between Winfield Junction and Flushing between 1873 and 1876.",
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"plaintext": "The Whitestone Branch, which was originally built by the Flushing and North Side Railroad (F&NS), split from the Port Washington Branch near Flushing and ran north and east to Whitestone.",
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"plaintext": "The Woodside Branch ran north of the current Port Washington Branch between Woodside and east of the present Corona Yard west of the Flushing River. It also had a connecting spur to the Whitestone Branch.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to its daily commuter patronage, the LIRR also offers the following services:",
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"plaintext": "From April to October, the railroad adds stops at Mets–Willets Point station to trains on the Port Washington Branch to serve passengers traveling to see New York Mets home games at Citi Field and the US Open at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center. When the number of passengers requires it, additional trains may be added.",
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"plaintext": "The railroad operates extra trains during the summer season that cater to the Long Island beach trade. Special package ticket deals are offered to places like Long Beach, Jones Beach, the Hamptons, Montauk, and Greenport. Some of these packages require bus and ferry connections.",
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"plaintext": "The railroad operates extra trains to and from Atlantic Terminal for Brooklyn Nets/New York Islanders home games at Barclays Center.",
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"plaintext": "From May through October, the railroad runs four daily trains to Belmont Park (two in each direction) during the racetrack's summer meets. Additionally, on the day of the Belmont Stakes horse race the railroad runs extra trains to accommodate the large number of spectators attending the event.",
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"plaintext": "One special non-passenger service offered by the railroad was the yearly operation of the Ringling Brothers Barnum and Bailey Circus train between Long Island City and Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale. Highly publicized by the LIRR, this event drew large crowds of spectators. With Ringling Bros. Barnum and Bailey's closure, this was discontinued in May 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Penn Station offers connections with Amtrak intercity trains and NJ Transit commuter trains, as well as the PATH, New York City Subway, and New York City Bus systems. Additionally, almost all stations in Brooklyn and Queens offer connections with the New York City Bus system, and several stations also have transfers to New York City Subway stations. Transfers to Nassau Inter-County Express and Suffolk County Transit buses are available at many stations in Nassau and Suffolk counties, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Like Metro-North Railroad and NJ Transit, the Long Island Rail Road fare system is based on the distance a passenger travels, as opposed to the New York City Subway and the area's bus systems, which charge a flat rate. The railroad is broken up into eight non-consecutively numbered fare zones. Zone 1, the City Terminal Zone, includes Penn Station, all stations in Brooklyn, and all stations in Queens west of Jamaica or Mets–Willets Point. Zone 3 includes Jamaica and Mets–Willets Point, as well as all other stations in eastern Queens except Far Rockaway. Zones 4 and 7 include all stations in Nassau County, plus Far Rockaway in Queens. Zones 9, 10, 12 and 14 include all stations in Suffolk County. Each zone contains many stations, and the same fare applies for travel between any station in the origin zone and any station in the destination zone.",
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"plaintext": "Peak fares are charged during the week on trains that arrive at western terminals between 6AM and 10AM, and for trains that depart from western terminals between 4PM and 8PM. Any passenger holding an off-peak ticket on a peak train is required to pay a step up fee. Passengers can buy tickets from ticket agents or ticket vending machines (TVMs) or on the train from conductors, but will incur an on-board penalty fee for doing so. This fee is waived for customers boarding at a station without a ticket office or ticket machine, senior citizens, people with disabilities or Medicare customers.",
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"plaintext": "There are several types of tickets: one way, round trip, peak, off-peak, AM peak or off-peak senior/disabled, peak child, and off-peak child. On off-peak trains, passengers can buy a family ticket for children who are accompanied by an 18-year-old for $0.75 if bought from the station agent or TVM, $1.00 on the train. Senior citizen/disabled passengers traveling during the morning peak hours are required to pay the AM peak senior citizen/disabled rate. This rate is not charged during PM peak hours.",
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"plaintext": "Commuters can also buy a peak or off-peak ten trip ride, a weekly unlimited or an unlimited monthly pass. Monthly passes are good on any train regardless of the time of day, within the fare zones specified on the pass.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR charged off-peak fares at all times during the COVID-19 pandemic. Peak fares were reinstated on March 1, 2022, along with several new discounts and ticket options.",
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"plaintext": "During the summer the railroad offers special summer package ticket deals to places such as Long Beach, Jones Beach, the Hamptons, Montauk, and Greenport. Passengers traveling to the Hamptons and Montauk on the Cannonball can reserve a seat in the all-reserved Parlor Cars.",
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"plaintext": "Passengers going to Belmont Park must buy a special ticket to go from Jamaica to Belmont Park (or vice versa). Weekly and monthly passes are not accepted at Belmont Park.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, the LIRR and Metro-North started a pilot program in which passengers traveling within New York City were allowed to buy one-way tickets for $2.50. The special reduced-fare CityTicket, proposed by the New York City Transit Riders Council, was formally introduced in 2004. The discounted fares were initially only available for travel on Saturdays and Sundays. In March 2022, it was expanded to include all off-peak trains throughout the week for $5. ",
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"plaintext": "CityTicket is valid for travel within zones 1 and 3 on the Long Island Railroad. CityTickets can only be bought before boarding, except at Willets Point where they can be purchased on board, and they must be used on the day of purchase. CityTickets are not valid for travel to Far Rockaway because it is in Zone 4 (despite being within the city limits) and the Far Rockaway Branch passes through Nassau County. It is also not valid for travel to the Elmont station or the special event only Belmont Park station, which are just barely east of the Queens-Nassau border and thus are within Zone 4.",
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"plaintext": "In fall 2017, the MTA was slated to launch a pilot that will allow LIRR, bus and subway service to use one ticket. The proposal for the ticket, called the \"Freedom Ticket,\" was initially put forth by the New York City Transit Riders Council (NYCTRC) in 2007. The NYCTRC wrote a proof of concept report in 2015. At the time of the report, express bus riders from Southeast Queens had some of the longest commutes in the city, with their commutes being 96 minutes long, yet they paid a premium fare of $6.50. Riders who take the dollar van to the subway paid $4.75 to get to Manhattan in 65 minutes; riders who only took the bus and subway paid $2.75 to get to Manhattan in 86 minutes; and riders who took the LIRR paid $10 to get to Manhattan in 35 minutes. Unlike the CityTicket, the Freedom Ticket would be valid for off-peak and multidirectional travel; have free transfers to the subway and bus system; and be capped at $215 per month. At the time, monthly CityTickets cost $330 per month.",
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"plaintext": "The Freedom Ticket will initially be available for sale at the Atlantic Terminal, Nostrand Avenue, and East New York stations in Brooklyn and at the Laurelton, Locust Manor, Rosedale, and St. Albans stations in Queens. Riders, under the pilot, would be able to purchase one-way, weekly, or monthly passes that will be valid on the LIRR, on buses, and the subway. The fare will be higher than the price of a ride on the MetroCard, but it will be lower than the combined price of an LIRR ticket and a MetroCard, and it will allow unlimited free transfers between the LIRR, buses, and subway. The former head of the MTA, Thomas Prendergast, announced at the January 2017 board meeting that the plan would be explored in a field study to determine fares and the impact on existing service. The plan is intended to fill approximately 20,000 unused seats of existing trains to Atlantic Terminal and Penn Station (or about 50% to 60% of peak trains in each direction), while at the same time providing affordable service to people with long commutes. The details were to be announced in spring 2017, and the pilot would last six months.",
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"plaintext": "The MTA Board voted to approve a six-month pilot for a similar concept, the Atlantic Ticket, in May 2018. The Atlantic Ticket is similar in that it would allow LIRR riders in southeast Queens to purchase a one-way ticket to or from Atlantic Terminal for $5. The Atlantic Ticket would start in June 2018. The success of the pilot program has led the MTA to extend the program up to the summer of 2020 and renewed calls for the program to be implemented within New York City, where the fare for the Freedom Ticket—if approved—would cost US$2.75 and include free transfers between the LIRR & Metro-North, bus, and subway.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, it was announced that the MetroCard fare payment system, used on New York City-area rapid transit and bus systems, would be phased out and replaced by OMNY, a contactless fare payment system. Fare payment would be made using Apple Pay, Google Pay, debit/credit cards with near-field communication enabled, or radio-frequency identification cards. As part of the implementation of OMNY, the MTA also plans to use the system in the Long Island Rail Road and Metro-North Railroad.",
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"plaintext": "On August 26, 1893, two trains collided in Maspeth, Queens, killing 16 people and injuring over 40.",
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"plaintext": "On February 17, 1950, two trains collided head-on after an engineer on train 192 ignored an approach signal and the following red signals at Rockville Centre station, 32 died and more than 100 injured. At the time, it was the worst rail disaster in LIRR history.",
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"plaintext": "On November 22, 1950, two trains collided after one of the trains passed a red signal in Kew Gardens, 78 died, 363 injured making it the worst rail disaster in LIRR history.",
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"plaintext": "On March 14, 1982, a train hit a van at a level crossing on Herricks Road in Mineola after the driver of the van went around the gate. Nine people were killed and one was injured.",
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"plaintext": "On May 17, 2011 a commuter train in Deer Park obliterated a baked goods truck that attempted to drive around the crossing gate. The driver was killed and two passengers were injured.",
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"plaintext": "On October 8, 2016, a commuter LIRR train side-swiped a maintenance train east of New Hyde Park station. The commuter train cars suffered damage, 33 passengers were injured with 4 seriously.",
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"plaintext": "On January 4, 2017, a Long Island Rail Road commuter train derailed at Atlantic Terminal in Brooklyn, New York. At least 103 people were injured.",
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"plaintext": "On February 26, 2019, two separate Long Island Rail Road trains hit a pickup truck at the School Street railroad crossing in Westbury, New York on the LIRR Main Line, causing the driver and two passengers to be ejected from the vehicle resulting in their deaths, numerous injuries, and damage to the nearby LIRR station platform.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR is relatively isolated from the rest of the national rail system despite operating out of Penn Station, the nation's busiest rail terminal. It connects with other railroads in just two locations:",
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"plaintext": "West of Harold Interlocking in Sunnyside, Queens, LIRR trains enter the Amtrak-operated Northeast Corridor leading to the East River Tunnels. When this track was owned by the Pennsylvania Railroad, trains of the PRR connected to the LIRR at Penn Station. During the 1920s and 1930s a through sleeper was carried by PRR and LIRR trains from Pittsburgh to Montauk, called the 'Sunrise Special'.",
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"plaintext": "In Glendale, Queens, the LIRR connects with CSX's Fremont Secondary, which leads to the Hell Gate Bridge and New England; however, once trains leave the secondary, they enter LIRR trackage.",
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"plaintext": "All LIRR trains have an engineer who operates the train, and a conductor who is responsible for the safe movement of the train, fare collection and on-board customer service. In addition, trains may have one or more assistant conductors to assist with fare collection and other duties. The LIRR is one of the last railroads in the United States to use mechanical interlocking control towers to regulate rail traffic.",
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"plaintext": ", the LIRR has 8 active control towers. All movements on the LIRR are under the control of the Movement Bureau in Jamaica, which gives orders to the towers that control a specific portion of the railroad. Movements in Amtrak territory are controlled by Penn Station Control Center or PSCC, run jointly by the LIRR and Amtrak. The PSCC controls as far east as Harold Interlocking, in Sunnyside, Queens. The PSCC replaced several towers. The Jamaica Control Center, operational since the third quarter of 2010, controls the area around Jamaica terminal by direct control of interlockings. This replaced several towers in Jamaica including Jay and Hall towers at the west and east ends of Jamaica station respectively. At additional locations, line side towers control the various switches and signals in accordance with the timetable and under the direction of the Movement Bureau in Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": "Today's LIRR signal system has evolved from its legacy Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR)-based system, and the railroad utilizes a variety of wayside railroad signals including position light, color light and dwarf signals. In addition, much of the LIRR is equipped with a bi-directional Pulse code cab signaling called automatic speed control (ASC), though portions of the railway still retain single direction, wayside-only signaling. Unlike other railroads, which began using color-light signals in the 20th century, the LIRR did not begin using signals with color lights on its above ground sections until 2006. Some portions of the railway lack automatic signals and cab signals completely, instead train and track car movements are governed only by timetable and verbal/written train orders, although these areas are gradually receiving modern signals. Many other signals and switching systems on the LIRR are being modernized and upgraded as part of the Main Line's Third Track Project, most notably at Mineola, where the system is being completely redone and modernized.",
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"plaintext": "On portions of the railroad equipped with ASC, Engineers consult the speed display unit, which is capable of displaying 7 speed indications. They are 80,70,60,40,30,15 on electric trains while some diesel locomotives have slightly lower speed-steps when compared to the electrics. As a result of a December 1, 2013, train derailment in the Bronx on the Metro-North Railroad, railroads with similar cab signal systems to Metro-North, such as the LIRR, were ordered to modify the systems to enforce certain speed limit changes, which has resulted in lower average speeds and actual speed limits across the LIRR.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR's electrified lines are powered via a third rail at 750 volts DC with the contact shoe running along the top of the rail, similar to on the New York City Subway and PATH systems. This system is incompatible with Metro-North's third rail, which is under-running, though the M8 and M9 fleets are capable of using both types of third rails, as they are equipped with both types of contact shoes.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR's electric fleet consists of 836 M7 and 170 M3 electric multiple unit cars in married pairs, meaning each car needs the other one to operate, with each car containing its own engineer's cab. The trainsets typically range from 6 to 12 cars long.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2013, MTA announced that the LIRR would procure new M9 railcars from Kawasaki. A 2014 MTA forecast indicated that the LIRR would need 416 M9 railcars; 180 to replace the outdated M3 railcars and an additional 236 railcars for the additional passengers expected once the East Side Access project is complete. The first M9s entered revenue service on September 11, 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR also uses 134 C3 bilevel coaches powered by 24 DE30AC diesel-electric locomotives and 20 DM30AC dual-mode locomotives. They are used mostly on non-electrified branches, including the Port Jefferson, Oyster Bay, Montauk, Central, and Greenport Branches.",
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"plaintext": "For most of its history LIRR has served commuters, but it had many named trains, some with all-first class seating, parlor cars, and full bar service. Few of them lasted past World War II, but some names were revived during the 1950s and 1960s as the railroad expanded its east end parlor car service with luxury coaches and Pullman cars from railroads that were discontinuing their passenger trains.",
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"plaintext": "Cannonball, a Friday-only 12-car train to Montauk running May through October, with two all-reserved parlor cars with full bar service. Since May 24, 2013, it has originated at Penn Station with a Sunday evening return from Montauk; only the westward train stops at Jamaica. The two rear cars (\"Hamptons Reserve Service\") have reserved seating and exclusive bar service. The name is a nod to the Cannon Ball, the all-year train to Amagansett/Montauk from the 1890s until the 1970s. It carried parlor cars and standard-fare coaches and ran weekday afternoons from Long Island City, then from Penn Station until 1951, when DD1 operation, and changing engines at Jamaica, ceased.",
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"plaintext": "Fisherman's Special (1932–1950s) from Long Island City to Canoe Place Station and Montauk via Jamaica, April through October, terminating at Canoe Place in April, extended to Montauk in May. Served Long Island fishing trade.",
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"plaintext": "Peconic Bay Express/ Shinnecock Bay Express (1926–1950) from Long Island City to Greenport and Montauk, Saturday only, express to Greenport and Montauk. Discontinued during World War II though revived for a few seasons afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "Shelter Island Express (1901–1903, 1923–1942) from Long Island City to Greenport, Friday-only summer express that connected to Shelter Island ferries.",
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"plaintext": "Sunrise Special (1922–1942) ran during the summer, NY Penn to Montauk on Fridays and westbound Mondays. In summer 1926 it ran daily. All parlor car (no coaches) from 1932 to 1937.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR and other railroads that became part of the system have always had freight service, though this has diminished. The process of shedding freight service accelerated with the acquisition of the railroad by New York State. In the 21st century, there has been some appreciation of the need for better railroad freight service in New York City and on Long Island. Both areas are primarily served by trucking for freight haulage, an irony in a region with the most extensive rail transit service in the Americas, as well as the worst traffic conditions. Proposals for a Cross-Harbor Rail Tunnel for freight have existed for years to alleviate these issues, and, in recent years, there have been many new pushes for its construction by officials. However, financial issues, as well as bureaucracy, remain major hurdles in constructing it.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1997, freight service was franchised on a 20-year term to the New York and Atlantic Railway (NYAR), a short line railroad owned by the Anacostia and Pacific Company. It has its own equipment and crews, but uses the rail facilities of the LIRR. To the east, freight service operates to the end of the West Hempstead Branch, to Huntington on the Port Jefferson Branch, to Bridgehampton on the Montauk Branch, and to Riverhead on the Main Line. On the western end it provides service on the surviving freight-only tracks of the LIRR: the Bay Ridge and Bushwick branches; the \"Lower Montauk\" between Jamaica and Long Island City; and to an interchange connection at Fresh Pond Junction in Queens with the CSX, Canadian Pacific, and Providence and Worcester railroads.",
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"plaintext": "Some non-electrified lines are used only for freight:",
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"plaintext": " The Garden City-Mitchel Field Secondary is a short remnant of the Central Branch that splits from the Hempstead Branch at Garden City, running to Uniondale near Hofstra University and Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum. This branch does not host any NYAR service. This branch was used by the Ringling Bros. Circus to transport animals, staff and equipment to the Nassau Coliseum until their final shows there in May 2017.",
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"plaintext": " The Bushwick Branch runs west from the Montauk Branch at Maspeth to Bushwick Terminal. This was a passenger branch until 1924.",
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"plaintext": " The Bay Ridge Branch runs south and west from the Montauk Branch at Fresh Pond to Bay Ridge. At Fresh Pond, it meets CSX's Fremont Secondary, which goes over the Hell Gate Bridge towards Upstate New York and New England. At its southern end it interchanges with the New York New Jersey Rail, LLC cross harbor rail barge service to New Jersey. This branch had a passenger service until 1924 and a restoration of passenger service has been proposed.",
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"plaintext": "The East Side Access project is building a LIRR spur to Grand Central Terminal that will run in part via the lower level of the existing 63rd Street Tunnel. The East Side Access project will add a new eight-track terminal underneath the existing Grand Central Terminal. The project was first proposed in the 1968 Program for Action, but due to various funding shortfalls, construction did not start until 2007. , the project was expected to cost $11.1 billion and was tentatively scheduled to start service in December 2022.",
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"plaintext": "Five \"readiness projects\" are also under construction to increase peak-hour capacity across the LIRR system in preparation for expanded peak-hour service after the completion of East Side Access. The LIRR is constructing a new platform for Atlantic Terminal-bound trains at Jamaica station, in preparation for the conversion of the Atlantic Branch between these two stations into a high-frequency shuttle. The LIRR is also installing storage tracks at the Massapequa and Great Neck stations, as well as expanding the train yards at the Port Washington and Ronkonkoma stations.",
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"plaintext": "There are also plans to build a new station in the Queens neighborhood of Sunnyside, in between the New York terminals and the Woodside station, serving as a rail hub for all LIRR branches and potentially some Amtrak and New Jersey Transit trains, as well. The Sunnyside station is to be built after the completion of East Side Access, due to current capacity constraints.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, the LIRR started adding a second track along the formerly single-tracked section of the Main Line between Farmingdale and Ronkonkoma stations to increase track capacity and allow for enhanced service options. The project was completed in September 2018.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the preparations for East Side Access's opening, the LIRR is also widening the two-track sections of the Main Line between Floral Park and Hicksville stations to three tracks, in addition to eliminating each of the grade crossings and rebuilding all of the stations along this stretch of the Main Line. Work on the third-track project started in September 2018. The project's completion was estimated for 2022, in time for the opening of East Side Access.",
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"plaintext": "The larger Belmont Park Redevelopment Project called for a new Elmont station between the Queens Village and Bellerose stations on the Main Line, to better serve the new UBS Arena in the Nassau County neighborhood of Elmont. It is the first new station built by the LIRR in nearly 50 years; the last new station added was the former Southampton College station on the Montauk Branch, which opened in 1976 and closed in 1998, due to low ridership and the high cost of installing high-level platforms for the then-new C3 railcars. The eastbound platform of Elmont station officially opened in November 2021, with the westbound platform scheduled to be completed in late 2022.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the 2020–2024 MTA Capital Program, the Central Branch of the LIRR will be electrified, to allow for enhanced service options and capacity, and to mitigate service disruptions, should one arise.",
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"plaintext": "There have also been many pushes by residents and politicians over the past several decades – most recently by New York Senator Jim Gaughran – to electrify the remainder of the Port Jefferson Branch between the Huntington and Port Jefferson stations, in addition to the remainder of the Oyster Bay Branch between the East Williston and Oyster Bay stations to enhance service in the served areas and to upgrade service capacities along the lines; electrifying these lines could lead to direct service options to and from Manhattan, as diesel trains are not allowed in Penn Station and dual-mode trains exceed the clearance for the future East Side Access tunnels.",
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"plaintext": "The Long Island Rail Road Police Department, founded in 1868, was absorbed along with the Metro-North Railroad Police Department to form the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Police Department (MTA Police) in 1998.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR has a long history of tense relations with its passengers. Daily commuters have long had complaints about the LIRR's service. According to a 1999 article in The New York Times, the LIRR's service woes were long considered part of the \"unholy trinity of life on Long Island,\" along with the Long Island Lighting Company's high rates and the Long Island Expressway's traffic snarls. Various commuter advocacy groups have been formed to try to represent those interests, in addition to the state mandated LIRR Commuters Council.",
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"plaintext": "The LIRR has been criticized for not providing additional service to the East End of Long Island as the twin forks continue to grow in popularity as a year-round tourist and residential destination. Demand is evidenced by flourishing for-profit bus services such as the Hampton Jitney and the Hampton Luxury Liner and the early formative stages of a new East End Transportation Authority. Local politicians have joined the public outcry for the LIRR to either improve the frequency of east end services, or turn the operation over to a local transportation authority.",
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"plaintext": "Critics claim that the on-time performance (OTP) calculated by the LIRR is manipulated to be artificially high. Because the LIRR does not release any raw timing data nor does it have independent (non-MTA) audits it is impossible to verify this claim, or the accuracy of the current On Time Performance measurement. The percentage measure is used by many other US passenger railroads but the criticism over accuracy is specific to the LIRR. As defined by the LIRR, a train is \"on time\" if it arrives at a station within 5 minutes and 59 seconds of the scheduled time. The criterion was 4 minutes and 59 seconds until the LIRR changed it because of a bug in their computer systems. Critics believe the OTP measure does not reflect what commuters experience on a daily basis. The LIRR publishes the current OTP in a monthly booklet called TrainTalk. TrainTalk was previously known as \"Keeping Track.\" A more accurate way to measure delays and OTP has been proposed. Called the \"Passenger Hours Delayed\" index it can measure total person-hours of a specific delay. This would be useful in comparing performance of specific days or incidents, day-to-day (or week-to-week) periods, but has not been adopted.",
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"plaintext": "Ridership has increased from 81 million passengers in 2011 to 89.3 million passengers in 2016, which is the railroad's highest ridership since 1949. The all-time highest ridership was in 1929, when 119million passengers rode 1.89 billion passenger miles. This increase in ridership has been attributed to the increased usage of the LIRR by millennials, and the increase of reverse-peak travel.",
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"plaintext": "A New York Times investigation in 2008 showed that 25% of LIRR employees who had retired since 2000 filed for disability payments from the federal Railroad Retirement Board and 97% of them were approved to receive disability pension. The total collected was more than $250,000,000 over eight years. As a result, Railroad Retirement agents from Chicago inspected the Long Island office of the Railroad Retirement Board on September 23, 2008. New York Governor David Paterson issued a statement calling for Congress to conduct a full review of the board's mission and daily activities. Officials at the board's headquarters responded to the investigation stating that all occupational disability annuities were issued in accordance with applicable laws.",
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"plaintext": "On November 17, 2008, a former LIRR pension manager was arrested and charged with official misconduct for performing outside work without permission. However, these charges were all dismissed for \"no merit\" by Supreme Court Judge Kase on December 11, 2009 on the grounds that the prosecution had misled the grand jury in the indictment.",
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"plaintext": "A report produced in September 2009 by the Government Accountability Office stated that the rate at which retirees were rewarded disability claims was above the norm for the industry in general and indicated \"troubling\" practices that may indicate fraud, such as the use of a very small group of physicians in making diagnoses.",
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"plaintext": "According to court documents, from 1998 through 2011, 79% of LIRR retirees obtained federal disability when they retired. On August 6, 2013, a doctor and two consultants were found guilty in connection with the accusations and sentenced to prison.",
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| 125,943 | 15,144 | 1,711 | 393 | 0 | 0 | Long Island Rail Road | commuter rail service in Long Island, New York | [
"LIRR",
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|
37,141 | 1,099,767,735 | Triskaidekaphobia | [
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"plaintext": "Triskaidekaphobia ( , ; ) is fear or avoidance of the number . It is also a reason for the fear of Friday the 13th, called paraskevidekatriaphobia () or friggatriskaidekaphobia ().",
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"plaintext": "The term was used as early as in 1910 by Isador Coriat in Abnormal Psychology.",
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"plaintext": "According to folklore historian Donald Dossey, the unlucky nature of the number \"13\" originated with a Norse myth about 12 gods having a dinner party in Valhalla. The trickster god Loki, who was not invited, arrived as the 13th guest, and arranged for Höðr to shoot Balder with a mistletoe-tipped arrow. Dossey: \"Balder died, and the whole Earth got dark. The whole Earth mourned. It was a bad, unlucky day.\" This major event in Norse mythology caused the number 13 to be considered unlucky.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1890s, a number of English language sources have related the \"unlucky\" number thirteen to an idea that at the Last Supper, Judas, the disciple who betrayed Jesus, was the 13th to sit at the table. The Bible says nothing about the order in which the Apostles sat, but there were thirteen people at the table.",
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"plaintext": " Apollo 13 was launched on April 11, 1970, at 13:13:00 CST and suffered an oxygen tank explosion on April 13 at 21:07:53 CST. It returned safely to Earth on April 17.",
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"plaintext": " On Friday, October 13, 1307, the arrest of the Knights Templar was ordered by Philip IV of France. While the number 13 was considered unlucky, Friday the 13th was not considered unlucky at the time. The incorrect idea that their arrest was related to the phobias surrounding Friday the 13th was invented early in the 21st century and popularized by the novel The Da Vinci Code.",
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"plaintext": " In 1881 an influential group of New Yorkers, led by US Civil War veteran Captain William Fowler, came together to put an end to this and other superstitions. They formed a dinner cabaret club, which they called the Thirteen Club. At the first meeting, on January 13, 1881, at 8:13p.m., thirteen people sat down to dine in Room 13 of the venue. The guests walked under a ladder to enter the room and were seated among piles of spilled salt. Many \"Thirteen Clubs\" sprang up all over North America over the next 45 years. Their activities were regularly reported in leading newspapers, and their numbers included five future US presidents, from Chester A. Arthur to Theodore Roosevelt. Thirteen Clubs had various imitators, but they all gradually faded due to a lack of interest.",
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"plaintext": " Friday the 13th mini-crash was a stock market crash that occurred on Friday, October 13, 1989.",
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"plaintext": " Vehicle registration plates in Ireland are such that the first two digits represent the year of registration of the vehicle (i.e., 11 is a 2011 registered car, 12 is 2012, and so on). In 2012, there were concerns among members of the Society of the Irish Motor Industry (SIMI) that the prospect of having \"13\" registered vehicles might discourage motorists from buying new cars because of superstition surrounding the number thirteen, and that car sales and the motor industry (which was already failing) would suffer as a result. The government, in consultation with SIMI, introduced a system whereby 2013 registered vehicles would have their registration plates' age identifier string modified to read \"131\" for vehicles registered in the first six months of 2013 and \"132\" for those registered in the latter six months of the year.",
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"plaintext": " Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 suffered an uncontained engine failure due to the failure of the number 13 fan blade on the number 1 engine on April 17, 2018. A passenger who was partially sucked out of a window as a result of damage later died from her injuries.",
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"plaintext": "The disaster that occurred on Apollo 13 may have been a factor that led to a renaming that prevented a mission called STS-13. STS-41-G was the name of the thirteenth Space Shuttle flight. However, originally STS-41-C was the mission originally numbered STS-13 STS-41-C was the eleventh orbital flight of the space shuttle program.",
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"plaintext": "The numbering system of the Space Shuttle was changed to a new one after STS-9. The new naming scheme started with STS-41B, the previous mission was STS-9, and the thirteenth mission (what would have been STS-13) would be STS-41C. The new scheme had first number stand for the U.S. fiscal year, the next number was a launch site (1 or 2), and the next was the number of the mission numbered with a letter for that period.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of the actual 13th flight, the crew was apparently not superstitious and made a humorous mission patch that had a black cat on it. Also, that mission re-entered and landed on Friday the 13th which one crew described as being \"pretty cool\". Because of the way the designations and launch manifest work, the mission numbered STS-13 might not have actually been the 13th to launch as was common throughout the shuttle program; indeed it turned out to be the eleventh. One of the reasons for this was when a launch had to be scrubbed, which delayed its mission.",
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"plaintext": "NASA said in a 2016 news article it was due to a much higher frequency of planned launches (pre-Challenger disaster). As it was, the Shuttle program did have a disaster on its one-hundred and thirteenth mission going by date of launch, which was STS-107. The actual mission STS-113 was successful, and had actually launched earlier due to the nature of the launch manifest.",
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"plaintext": "Many ships, including cruise liners have omitted having a 13th deck due to triskaidekaphobia. Instead, the decks are numbered up to 12 and skip straight to number 14. Hotels, buildings and elevator manufacturers have also avoided using the number 13 for rooms and floors based on triskaidekaphobia.",
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"plaintext": " Arnold Schoenberg",
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"plaintext": " Franklin Roosevelt",
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"plaintext": " Sholom Aleichem",
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"plaintext": " Stephen King",
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"plaintext": " Nick Yarris",
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"plaintext": " Ángel Nieto",
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"plaintext": " Number 4 (Tetraphobia). In China, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as in some other East Asian and South East Asian countries, it is not uncommon for buildings (including offices, apartments, hotels) to omit floors with numbers that include the digit 4, and Finnish mobile phone manufacturer Nokia's 1xxx-9xxx series of mobile phones does not include any model numbers beginning with a 4 (except Series 40, Nokia 3410 and Nokia 4.2). This originates from Classical Chinese, in which the pronunciation of the word for \"four\" (四, sì in Mandarin) is very similar to that of the word for \"death\" (死, sǐ in Mandarin), and remains so in the other countries' Sino-Xenic vocabulary (Korean sa for both; Japanese shi for both; Vietnamese tứ \"four\" vs. tử \"death\").",
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"plaintext": " Friday the 13th (Paraskevidekatriaphobia or Friggatriskaidekaphobia) is considered to be a day of bad luck in a number of western cultures. In Greece and some areas of Latin America, Tuesday the 13th is similarly considered unlucky.",
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"plaintext": " Number 17 (Heptadecaphobia). In Italy, perhaps because in Roman numerals 17 is written XVII, which can be rearranged to VIXI, which in Latin means \"I have lived\" but can be a euphemism for \"I am dead.\" In Italy, some planes have no row 17 and some hotels have no room 17.",
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"plaintext": " Number 39 (Triakontenneaphobia). There is a belief in some parts of Afghanistan that the number 39 (thrice thirteen) is cursed or a badge of shame.",
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"plaintext": " Number 616 (Hexakosioihekkaidekaphobia) or 666 (Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia), which come from the Biblical number of the beast.",
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"plaintext": "In some regions, 13 is or has been considered a lucky number. For example, prior to the First World War, 13 was considered to be a lucky number in France, even being featured on postcards and charms. In more modern times, 13 is lucky in Italy except in some contexts, such as sitting at the dinner table. In Cantonese-speaking areas, including Hong Kong and Macau, the number 13 is considered lucky because it sounds similar to the Cantonese words meaning \"sure to live\" (as opposed to the unlucky number 14 which in Cantonese sounds like the words meaning \"sure to die\"). Colgate University was started by 13 men with $13 and 13 prayers, so 13 is considered a lucky number. Friday the 13th is the luckiest day at Colgate.",
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"plaintext": "A number of sportspeople are known for wearing the number 13 jersey and performing successfully. On November 23, 2003, the Miami Dolphins retired the number 13 for Dan Marino, who played quarterback for the Dolphins from 1983 to 1999. Kurt Warner, St. Louis Rams quarterback (NFL MVP, 1999 & 2001, and Super Bowl XXXIV MVP) also wore number 13. Wilt Chamberlain, 13-time NBA All-Star, has had his No. 13 Jersey retired by the NBA'a Golden State Warriors, Philadelphia 76ers; Los Angeles Lakers, Harlem Globetrotters, and Kansas University Jayhawks, all of which he played for. In 1966, the Portugal national football team achieved their best-ever result at the World Cup final tournaments by finishing third, thanks to a Mozambican-born striker, Eusebio, who has scored nine goals at World Cup – four of them in a 5-3 quarterfinal win over North Korea – and won the Golden Boot award as the tournament's top scorer while wearing the number 13. In the 1954 and 1974 World Cup finals, Germany's Max Morlock and Gerd Müller, respectively, played and scored in the final, wearing the number 13. More recent footballers playing successfully despite wearing number 13, include Michael Ballack, Alessandro Nesta, and Rafinha. Among other sportspeople who have chosen 13 as their number, are Venezuelans Dave Concepción, Omar Vizquel, Oswaldo Guillén and Pastor Maldonado due to the number being considered lucky in Venezuelan culture. Swedish-born hockey player Mats Sundin, who played 14 of his 18 NHL seasons for the Toronto Maple Leafs, setting team records for goals and points, had his number 13 retired by the team on 15 October 2016.",
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"plaintext": " List of phobias",
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"plaintext": "National Accident Day (Finland)",
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"plaintext": " The main reason for this was stated to be to increase the number of car sales in the second half of the year. Even though 70% of new cars are bought during the first four months of the year, some consumers believe that the calendar year of registration does not accurately reflect the real age of a new car, since cars bought in January will most likely have been manufactured the previous year, while those bought later in the year will be actually made in the same year.",
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"plaintext": " Tuesday is generally unlucky in Greece for the fall of Byzantium Tues 29th May 1453. In Spanish-speaking countries, there is a proverb: En martes no te cases, ni te embarques 'On Tuesday, do not get married or set sail'.",
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"plaintext": " 'Unlucky' airline logo grounded BBC, 21 February 2007",
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"plaintext": " Would you buy a number 13 house? BBC Magazine, Friday, 12 December 2008",
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"plaintext": " Triskaidekaphobia on MathWorld",
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"plaintext": " Who's Afraid Of Friday The 13th? on NPR",
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| 13 | 9,484 | 108 | 94 | 0 | 0 | triskaidekaphobia | fear of the number 13 | [
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"plaintext": "Zeno of Citium (; , ; c. 334 – c. 262 BC) was a Hellenistic philosopher from Citium (, ), Cyprus. Zeno was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on goodness and peace of mind gained from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature. It proved very popular, and flourished as one of the major schools of philosophy from the Hellenistic period through to the Roman era, and enjoyed revivals in the Renaissance as Neostoicism and in the current era as Modern Stoicism.",
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"plaintext": "Zeno was born c. 334 BC, in Citium in Cyprus and he was of possible Phoenician ancestry. Most of the details known about his life come from the biography and anecdotes preserved by Diogenes Laërtius in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, a few of which are confirmed by the Suda (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia). Diogenes reports that Zeno's interest in philosophy began when \"he consulted the oracle to know what he should do to attain the best life, and that the god's response was that he should take on the complexion of the dead. Whereupon, perceiving what this meant, he studied ancient authors.\" Zeno became a wealthy merchant. On a voyage from Phoenicia to Peiraeus he survived a shipwreck, after which he went to Athens and visited a bookseller. There he encountered Xenophon's Memorabilia. He was so pleased with the book's portrayal of Socrates that he asked the bookseller where men like Socrates were to be found. Just then, Crates of Thebesthe most famous Cynic living at that time in Greecehappened to be walking by, and the bookseller pointed to him.",
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"plaintext": "Zeno is described as a haggard, dark-skinned person, living a spare, ascetic life despite his wealth. This coincides with the influences of Cynic teaching, and was, at least in part, continued in his Stoic philosophy. From the day Zeno became Crates’ pupil, he showed a strong bent for philosophy, though with too much native modesty to assimilate Cynic shamelessness. Hence Crates, desirous of curing this defect in him, gave him a potful of lentil-soup to carry through the Ceramicus (the pottery district); and when he saw that Zeno was ashamed and tried to keep it out of sight, Crates broke the pot with a blow of his staff. As Zeno began to run off in embarrassment with the lentil-soup flowing down his legs, Crates chided, \"Why run away, my little Phoenician? Nothing terrible has befallen you.\"",
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"plaintext": "Apart from Crates, Zeno studied under the philosophers of the Megarian school, including Stilpo, and the dialecticians Diodorus Cronus, and Philo. He is also said to have studied Platonist philosophy under the direction of Xenocrates, and Polemo.",
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"plaintext": "Zeno began teaching in the colonnade in the Agora of Athens known as the Stoa Poikile (Greek Στοὰ Ποικίλη) in 301 BC. His disciples were initially called \"Zenonians,\" but eventually they came to be known as \"Stoics,\" a name previously applied to poets who congregated in the Stoa Poikile.",
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"plaintext": "Among the admirers of Zeno was king Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia, who, whenever he came to Athens, would visit Zeno. Zeno is said to have declined an invitation to visit Antigonus in Macedonia, although their supposed correspondence preserved by Laërtius is undoubtedly the invention of a later writer. Zeno instead sent his friend and disciple Persaeus, who had lived with Zeno in his house. Among Zeno's other pupils there were Aristo of Chios, Sphaerus, and Cleanthes who succeeded Zeno as the head (scholarch) of the Stoic school in Athens.",
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"plaintext": "Zeno is said to have declined Athenian citizenship when it was offered to him, fearing that he would appear unfaithful to his native land, where he was highly esteemed, and where he contributed to the restoration of its baths, after which his name was inscribed upon a pillar there as \"Zeno the philosopher\". We are also told that Zeno was of an earnest, gloomy disposition; that he preferred the company of the few to the many; that he was fond of burying himself in investigations; and that he disliked verbose and elaborate speeches. Diogenes Laërtius has preserved many clever and witty remarks by Zeno, although these anecdotes are generally considered unreliable.",
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"plaintext": "Zeno died around 262 BC. Laërtius reports about his death:",
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"plaintext": "During his lifetime, Zeno received appreciation for his philosophical and pedagogical teachings. Among other things, Zeno was honored with the golden crown, and a tomb was built in honor of his moral influence on the youth of his era.",
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"plaintext": "The crater Zeno on the Moon is named in his honour.",
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"plaintext": "Following the ideas of the Old Academy, Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: logic (a wide subject including rhetoric, grammar, and the theories of perception and thought); physics (not just science, but the divine nature of the universe as well); and ethics, the end goal of which was to achieve eudaimonia through the right way of living according to Nature. Because Zeno's ideas were later expanded upon by Chrysippus and other Stoics, it can be difficult to determine precisely what he thought. But his general views can be outlined as follows:",
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"plaintext": "In his treatment of logic, Zeno was influenced by Stilpo and the other Megarians. Zeno urged the need to lay down a basis for logic because the wise person must know how to avoid deception. Cicero accused Zeno of being inferior to his philosophical predecessors in his treatment of logic, and it seems true that a more exact treatment of the subject was laid down by his successors, including Chrysippus. Zeno divided true conceptions into the comprehensible and the incomprehensible, permitting for free-will the power of assent (sinkatathesis/συνκατάθεσις) in distinguishing between sense impressions. Zeno said that there were four stages in the process leading to true knowledge, which he illustrated with the example of the flat, extended hand, and the gradual closing of the fist:",
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"plaintext": "Zeno stretched out his fingers, and showed the palm of his hand, – \"Perception,\" – he said, – \"is a thing like this.\"– ",
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"plaintext": "Then, when he had closed his fingers a little, – \"Assent is like this.\" – Afterwards, when he had completely closed his hand, and showed his fist, that, he said, was Comprehension. From which simile he also gave that state a new name, calling it katalepsis (κατάληψις). But when he brought his left hand against his right, and with it took a firm and tight hold of his fist: – \"Knowledge\" – he said, was of that character; and that was what none but a wise person possessed.",
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"plaintext": "The universe, in Zeno's view, is God: a divine reasoning entity, where all the parts belong to the whole. Into this pantheistic system he incorporated the physics of Heraclitus; the universe contains a divine artisan-fire, which foresees everything, and extending throughout the universe, must produce everything:",
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"plaintext": "Zeno, then, defines nature by saying that it is artistically working fire, which advances by fixed methods to creation. For he maintains that it is the main function of art to create and produce and that what the hand accomplishes in the productions of the arts we employ, is accomplished much more artistically by nature, that is, as I said, by artistically working fire, which is the master of the other arts.",
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"plaintext": "This divine fire, or aether, is the basis for all activity in the universe, operating on otherwise passive matter, which neither increases nor diminishes itself. The primary substance in the universe comes from fire, passes through the stage of air, and then becomes water: the thicker portion becoming earth, and the thinner portion becoming air again, and then rarefying back into fire. Individual souls are part of the same fire as the world-soul of the universe. Following Heraclitus, Zeno adopted the view that the universe underwent regular cycles of formation and destruction.",
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"plaintext": "The nature of the universe is such that it accomplishes what is right and prevents the opposite, and is identified with unconditional Fate, while allowing it the free-will attributed to it.",
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"plaintext": "Like the Cynics, Zeno recognised a single, sole and simple good, which is the only goal to strive for. \"Happiness is a good flow of life,\" said Zeno, and this can only be achieved through the use of right reason coinciding with the universal reason (Logos), which governs everything. A bad feeling (pathos) \"is a disturbance of the mind repugnant to reason, and against Nature.\" This consistency of soul, out of which morally good actions spring, is virtue, true good can only consist in virtue.",
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"plaintext": "Zeno deviated from the Cynics in saying that things that are morally adiaphora (indifferent) could nevertheless have value. Things have a relative value in proportion to how they aid the natural instinct for self-preservation. That which is to be preferred is a \"fitting action\" (kathêkon/καθῆκον), a designation Zeno first introduced. Self-preservation, and the things that contribute towards it, has only a conditional value; it does not aid happiness, which depends only on moral actions.",
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"plaintext": "Just as virtue can only exist within the dominion of reason, so vice can only exist with the rejection of reason. Virtue is absolutely opposed to vice, the two cannot exist in the same thing together, and cannot be increased or decreased; no one moral action is more virtuous than another. All actions are either good or bad, since impulses and desires rest upon free consent, and hence even passive mental states or emotions that are not guided by reason are immoral, and produce immoral actions. Zeno distinguished four negative emotions: desire, fear, pleasure and sorrow (epithumia, phobos, hêdonê, lupê / ἐπιθυμία, φόβος, ἡδονή, λύπη), and he was probably responsible for distinguishing the three corresponding positive emotions: will, caution, and joy (boulêsis, eulabeia, chara / βούλησις, εὐλάβεια, χαρά), with no corresponding rational equivalent for pain. All errors must be rooted out, not merely set aside, and replaced with right reason.",
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"plaintext": "None of Zeno's original writings have survived except as fragmentary quotations preserved by later writers. The most famous of his works was Zeno's Republic, written in conscious imitation of, or opposition to, Plato's Republic. Although it has not survived, more is known about it than any of his other works. It outlined Zeno's vision of the ideal Stoic society.",
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"plaintext": "A manuscript that was attributed to Zeno, matching a known title of one of Zeno's works, Περὶ φύσεως (On Nature), was discovered in 1949 in an Old Armenian translation. In 1956 it was translated into Russian and published with an extensive commentary. Subsequent philological investigation concluded that the author could not have been Zeno and was instead an anonymous Christian philosopher of the late sixth century or a little later, writing in the tradition of ancient philosophy, but doing so as a Christian. He is now known as Pseudo-Zeno. His work shows an integration of Christian and philosophical concepts, but in a very restrained way.",
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"plaintext": "The titles of many of Zeno's writings are, however, known and are as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Ethical writings:",
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"plaintext": " Πολιτεία – Republic",
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"plaintext": " Περὶ τοῦ κατὰ φύσιν βίου – On Life according to Nature",
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"plaintext": " Περὶ ὁρμῆς ἢ Περὶ ἀνθρώπου φύσεως – On Impulse, or on the Nature of Humans",
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{
"plaintext": " Περὶ παθῶν – On Passions",
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{
"plaintext": " Περὶ τοῦ καθήκοντος – On Duty",
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{
"plaintext": " Περὶ νόμου – On Law",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Περὶ τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς παιδείας – On Greek Education",
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{
"plaintext": " Physical writings:",
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"plaintext": " Περὶ ὄψεως – On Sight",
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"plaintext": " Περὶ τοῦ ὅλου – On the Universe",
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"plaintext": " Περὶ σημείων – On Signs",
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{
"plaintext": " Πυθαγορικά – Pythagorean Doctrines",
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{
"plaintext": " Logical writings:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Καθολικά – General Things",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Περὶ λέξεων",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Προβλημάτων Ὁμηρικῶν εʹ – Homeric Problems",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Περὶ ποιητικῆς ἀκροάσεως – On Poetical Readings",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Other works:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Τέχνη",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Λύσεις – Solutions",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ἔλεγχοι βʹ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ἄπομνημονεύματα Κράτητος ἠθικά",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Περὶ οὐσίας – On Being",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Περὶ φύσεως – On Nature",
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"plaintext": " Περὶ λόγου – On the Logos",
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},
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"plaintext": " Εἰς Ἡσιόδου θεογονίαν",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Διατριβαί – Discourses",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Χρεῖαι",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
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"plaintext": " Hunt, Harold. A Physical Interpretation of the Universe. The Doctrines of Zeno the Stoic. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1976. ",
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"plaintext": " Long, Anthony A., Sedley, David N. The Hellenistic Philosophers, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ",
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"plaintext": " Pearson, Alfred C. Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes, (1891). Greek/Latin fragments with English commentary.",
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"plaintext": " Reale, Giovanni. A History of Ancient Philosophy. III. The systems of the Hellenistic Age, (translated by John R. Catan, 1985 Zeno, the Foundation of the Stoa, and the Different Phases of Stoicism)",
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"plaintext": " Schofield, Malcolm. The Stoic Idea of the City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ",
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| 171,303 | 18,052 | 178 | 93 | 0 | 0 | Zeno of Citium | Greek philosopher, founder of Stoicism (c334–c.262 BC) | [
"Zenon of Citium",
"Zeno",
"Zeno the Stoic"
]
|
37,143 | 1,106,915,095 | Chrysippus | [
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus threw himself eagerly into the study of the Stoic system. His reputation for learning among his contemporaries was considerable. He was noted for intellectual audacity and self-confidence and his reliance on his own ability was shown, among other things, in the request he is supposed to have made to Cleanthes: \"Give me the principles, and I will find the proofs myself.\" He succeeded Cleanthes as head of the Stoic school when Cleanthes died, in around 230 BC.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus was a prolific writer. He is said to rarely have gone without writing 500 lines a day and he composed more than 705 works. His desire to be comprehensive meant that he would take both sides of an argument and his opponents accused him of filling his books with the quotations of others. He was considered diffuse and obscure in his utterances and careless in his style, but his abilities were highly regarded, and he came to be seen as a preeminent authority for the school.",
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"plaintext": "He died during the 143rd Olympiad (208–204 BC) at the age of 73. Diogenes Laërtius gives two different accounts of his death. In the first account, Chrysippus was seized with dizziness having drunk undiluted wine at a feast, and died soon after. In the second account, he was watching a donkey eat some figs and cried out: \"Now give the donkey a drink of pure wine to wash down the figs\", whereupon he died in a fit of laughter. His nephew Aristocreon erected a statue in his honour in the Kerameikos. Chrysippus was succeeded as head of the Stoic school by his pupil Zeno of Tarsus.",
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"plaintext": "Of his written works, none survived except as fragments quoted in the works of later authors like Cicero, Seneca, Galen, Plutarch, and others. Recently, segments from Logical Questions and On Providence were discovered among the Herculaneum papyri. A third work by Chrysippus may also be among them.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus had a long and successful career of resisting the attacks of the Academy and hoped not simply to defend Stoicism against the assaults of the past, but also against all possible attack in the future. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Cleanthes and crystallized them into what became the definitive system of Stoicism. He elaborated the physical doctrines of the Stoics and their theory of knowledge and he created much of their formal logic. In short, Chrysippus made the Stoic system what it was. It was said that \"without Chrysippus, there would have been no Stoa\".",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus wrote much on the subject of logic and created a system of propositional logic. Aristotle's term logic had been concerned with the interrelations of terms such as \"Socrates\" or \"man\" (\"all men are mortal, Socrates is a man, so Socrates is mortal\"). Stoic logic, on the other hand, was concerned with the interrelations of propositions such as \"it is day\" (\"if it is day, it is light: but it is day: so it is light\"). Though the earlier Megarian dialecticians –Diodorus Cronus and Philo– had worked in this field and the pupils of Aristotle –Theophrastus and Eudemus– had investigated hypothetical syllogisms, it was Chrysippus who developed these principles into a coherent system of propositional logic.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus defined a proposition as \"that which is capable of being denied or affirmed as it is in itself\" and gave examples of propositions such as \"it is day\" and \"Dion is walking.\" He distinguished between simple and non-simple propositions, which in modern terminology are known as atomic and molecular propositions. A simple proposition is an elementary statement such as \"it is day.\" Simple propositions are linked together to form non-simple propositions by the use of logical connectives. Chrysippus enumerated five kinds of molecular propositions according to the connective used:",
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"plaintext": "Thus several types of molecular propositions, familiar to modern logic, were listed by Chrysippus, including the conjunction, the disjunction, and the conditional, and Chrysippus studied their criteria of truth closely.",
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"plaintext": "The first logicians to debate conditional statements were Diodorus Cronus and his pupil Philo. Writing five-hundred years later, Sextus Empiricus refers to a debate between Diodorus and Philo. Philo regarded all conditionals as true except those which with a correct antecedent had an incorrect consequent, and this meant a proposition such as \"if it is day, then I am talking,\" is true unless it is day and I fall silent. But Diodorus argued that a true conditional is one in which the antecedent clause could never lead to an untrue conclusionthus, because the proposition \"if it is day, then I am talking\" can be false, it is invalid. However, paradoxical propositions were still possible such as \"if atomic elements of things do not exist, atomic elements exists.\" Chrysippus adopted a much stricter view regarding conditional propositions, which made such paradoxes impossible: to him, a conditional is true if denial of the consequent is logically incompatible with the antecedent. This corresponds to the modern-day strict conditional.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus developed a syllogistic or system of deduction in which he made use of five types of basic arguments or argument forms called indemonstrable syllogisms, which played the role of axioms, and four inference rules, called themata by means of which complex syllogisms could be reduced to these axioms. The forms of the five indemonstrables were:",
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"plaintext": "Of the four inference rules, only two survived. One, the so-called first thema, was a rule of antilogism. The other, the third thema, was a cut rule by which chain syllogisms could be reduced to simple syllogisms. The purpose of Stoic syllogistic was not merely to create a formal system. It was also understood as the study of the operations of reason, the divine reason (logos) which governs the universe, of which human beings are a part. The goal was to find valid rules of inference and forms of proof to help people find their way in life.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus analyzed speech and the handling of names and terms. He also devoted much effort in refuting fallacies and paradoxes. According to Diogenes Laërtius, Chrysippus wrote twelve works in 23 books on the Liar paradox; seven works in 17 books on amphiboly; and another nine works in 26 books on other conundrums. In all, 28 works or 66 books were given over to puzzles or paradoxes.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus is the first Stoic for whom the third of the four Stoic categories, i.e. the category somehow disposed is attested. In the surviving evidence, Chrysippus frequently makes use of the categories of substance and quality, but makes little use of the other two Stoic categories (somehow disposed and somehow disposed in relation to something). It is not clear whether the categories had any special significance for Chrysippus, and a clear doctrine of categories may be the work of later Stoics.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus came to be renowned as one of the foremost logicians of ancient Greece. When Clement of Alexandria wanted to mention one who was master among logicians, as Homer was master among poets, it was Chrysippus, not Aristotle, he chose. Diogenes Laërtius wrote: \"If the gods use dialectic, they would use none other than that of Chrysippus.\" The logical work by Chrysippus came to be neglected and forgotten. Aristotle's logic prevailed, partly because it was seen as more practical, and partly because it was taken up by the Neoplatonists. As recently as the 19th century, Stoic logic was treated with contempt, a barren formulaic system, which was merely clothing the logic of Aristotle with new terminology. It was not until the 20th century, with the advances in logic, and the modern propositional calculus, that it became clear that Stoic logic constituted a significant achievement.",
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"plaintext": "For the Stoics, truth is distinguished from error by the sage who possesses right reason. Chrysippus's theory of knowledge was empirical. The senses transmit messages from the external world, and their reports are controlled not by referring them to innate ideas, but by comparing them to previous reports stored in the mind. Zeno had defined impressions of sense as \"an impression in the soul\" and this was interpreted literally by Cleanthes, who compared the impression on the soul to the impression made by a seal on wax. Chrysippus preferred to regard it as an alteration or change in the soul; that is, the soul receives a modification from every external object that acts upon it, just as the air receives countless strokes when many people are speaking at once.",
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"plaintext": "In the receipt of an impression, the soul is purely passive and the impression reveals not only its own existence, but that also of its causejust as light displays itself and the elements that are in it. The power to name the object resides in the understanding. First must come the impression, and the understandinghaving the power of utteranceexpresses in speech the affection it receives from the object. True presentations are distinguished from those that are false by the use of memory, classification and comparison. If the sense organ and the mind are healthyand provided that an external object can be really seen or heardthe presentation, due to its clearness and distinctness, has the power to extort the assent that always lies in our power, to give or to withhold. In a context in which people are understood to be rational beings, reason is developed out of these notions.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus insisted on the organic unity of the universe, as well as the correlation and mutual interdependence of all of its parts. He said, the universe is \"the soul and guide of itself.\" Following Zeno, Chrysippus determined fiery breath or aether to be the primitive substance of the universe. Objects are made up of inert formless matter and an informing soul, \"pneuma\", provides form to the undifferentiated matter. The pneuma pervades all of substance and maintains the unity of the universe and constitutes the soul of the human being.",
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"plaintext": "The classical elements change into one another by a process of condensation and rarefaction. Fire first becomes solidified into air; then air into water; and lastly, water into earth. The process of dissolution takes place in the reverse order: earth being rarefied into water, water into air and air into fire.",
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"plaintext": "The human soul was divided by Chrysippus into eight faculties: the five senses, the power of reproduction, the power of speech, and the \"ruling part\" that is located in the chest rather than the head. Individual souls are perishable; but, according to the view originated by Chrysippus, the souls of wise people survive longer after their death. No individual soul can, however, survive beyond the periodic conflagration, when the universe is renewed.",
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"plaintext": "For Chrysippus, all things happen according to fate: what seems to be accidental has always some hidden cause. The unity of the world consists in the chain-like dependence of cause upon cause. Nothing can take place without a sufficient cause. According to Chrysippus, every proposition is either true or false, and this must apply to future events as well:",
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"plaintext": "If any motion exists without a cause, then not every proposition will be either true or false. For that which has not efficient causes is neither true nor false. But every proposition is either true or false. Therefore, there is no motion without a cause. And if this is so, then all effects owe their existence to prior causes. And if this is so, all things happen by fate. It follows therefore that whatever happens, happens by fate.",
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"plaintext": "The Stoic view of fate is entirely based on a view of the universe as a whole. Individual things and persons only come into consideration as dependent parts of this whole. Everything is, in every respect, determined by this relation, and is consequently subject to the general order of the world.",
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"plaintext": "If his opponents objected that, if everything is determined by destiny, there is no individual responsibility, since what has been once foreordained must happen, come what may, Chrysippus replied that there is a distinction to be made between simple and complex predestination. Becoming ill may be fated whatever happens but, if a person's recovery is linked to consulting a doctor, then consulting the doctor is fated to occur together with that person's recovery, and this becomes a complex fact. All human actionsin fact, our destinyare decided by our relation to things, or as Chrysippus put it, events are \"co-fated\" to occur:",
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"plaintext": "The non-destruction of one's coat, he says, is not fated simply, but co-fated with its being taken care of, and someone's being saved from his enemies is co-fated with his fleeing those enemies; and having children is co-fated with being willing to lie with a woman. ... For many things cannot occur without our being willing and indeed contributing a most strenuous eagerness and zeal for these things, since, he says, it was fated for these things to occur in conjunction with this personal effort. ... But it will be in our power, he says, with what is in our power being included in fate.",
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"plaintext": "Thus our actions are predetermined, and are causally related to the overarching network of fate, but nevertheless the moral responsibility of how we respond to impressions remains our own. The one all-determining power is active everywhere, working in each particular being according to its nature, whether in rational or irrational creatures or in inorganic objects. Every action is brought about by the co-operation of causes depending on the nature of things and the character of the agent. Our actions would only be involuntary if they were produced by external causes alone, without any co-operation, on the part of our wills, with external causes. Virtue and vice are set down as things in our power, for which, consequently, we are responsible. Moral responsibility depends only on freedom of the will, and what emanates from our will is our own, no matter whether it is possible for us to act differently or not. This rather subtle position which attempts to reconcile determinism with human responsibility is known as soft-determinism, or compatibilism.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus also argued for the existence of fate based on divination, which he thought there was good evidence for. It would not be possible for diviners to predict the future if the future itself was accidental. Omens and portents, he believed, are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences. There must be countless indications of the course of providence, for the most part unobserved, the meaning of only a few having become known to humanity. To those who argued that divination was superfluous as all events are foreordained, he replied that both divination and our behaviour under the warnings which it affords are included in the chain of causation.",
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"plaintext": "The Stoics believed that the universe is God, and Chrysippus affirmed that \"the universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul.\" It is the guiding principle of the universe, \"operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality which embraces all existence.\" Based on these beliefs, physicist and philosopher Max Bernhard Weinstein identified Chrysippus as a Pandeist.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus sought to prove the existence of God, making use of a teleological argument:",
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"plaintext": "If there is anything that humanity cannot produce, the being who produces it is better than humanity. But humanity cannot produce the things that are in the universethe heavenly bodies, etc. The being, therefore, who produces them is superior to humanity. But who is there that is superior to humanity, except God? Therefore, God exists.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus spoke of God and gods interchangeably. He interpreted the gods of traditional Greek religion by viewing them as different aspects of the one reality. Cicero tells us that \"he further maintained that aether is that which people call Zeus, and that the air which permeates the seas is Poseidon, and that the earth is what is known by the name of Demeter, and he treated in similar style the names of the other gods.\" In addition, the universe exists for the benefit of the universal god:",
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"plaintext": "We should infer in the case of a beautiful dwelling-place that it was built for its owners and not for mice; we ought, therefore, in the same way to regard the universe as the dwelling-place of the gods.",
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"plaintext": "In response to the question of how evil could exist in a good universe, Chrysippus replied \"evil cannot be removed, nor is it well that it should be removed.\" Firstly, he argued, following Plato, that it was impossible for good to exist without evil, for justice could not be known without injustice, courage without cowardice, temperance without intemperance or wisdom without foolishness. Secondly, apparent evils exist as a consequent of nature's goodness, thus it was necessary for the human skull to be made from small and thin bones for reasons of utility, but this superior utility meant that the skull is vulnerable to blows. Thirdly, evils are distributed according to the rational will of Zeus, either to punish the wicked or because they are important to the world-order as a whole. Thus evil is good under disguise, and is ultimately conducive to the best. Chrysippus compared evil to the coarse jest in the comedy; for, just as the jest, though offensive in itself, improves the piece as a whole, \"so too you may criticize evil regarded by itself, yet allow that, taken with all else, it has its use.\"",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus regarded bodies, surfaces, lines, places, the void and time as all being infinitely divisible. He determined one of the principal features of the infinite set: since a man and a finger have an infinite number of parts as do the universe and a man, it cannot be said that a man has more parts than his finger, nor that the universe has more parts than a man.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus also responded to a problem first posed by Democritus. If a cone is divided by a plane parallel to its base, are the surfaces of the segments equal or unequal? If they are equal, then the cone becomes a cylinder; if they are unequal, then the surface of the cone must be stepped. The reply of Chrysippus was that the surfaces are both equal and unequal. Chrysippus was, in effect, negating the law of excluded middle with respect to the equal and unequal, and thus he may have anticipated an important principle of modern infinitesimal calculus, namely, the limit and the process of convergence towards a limit.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus was notable for claiming that \"one\" is a number. One was not always considered a number by the ancient Greeks since they viewed one as that by which things are measured. Aristotle in his Metaphysics wrote, \"... a measure is not the things measured, but the measure or the One is the beginning of number.\" Chrysippus asserted that one had \"magnitude one\" (), although this was not generally accepted by the Greeks, and Iamblichus wrote that \"magnitude one\" was a contradiction in terms.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysippus taught that ethics depended on physics. In his Physical Theses, he stated: \"for there is no other or more appropriate way of approaching the subject of good and evil on the virtues or happiness than from the nature of all things and the administration of the universe.\" The goal of life, said Chrysippus, is to live in accordance with one's experience of the actual course of nature. A person's individual nature is part of the nature of the whole universe, and thus life should be lived in accordance with one's own human nature as well as that of the universe. Human nature is ethical, and humanity is akin to the Divine, emanating from the primal fire or aether, which, though material, is the embodiment of reason; and people should conduct themselves accordingly. People have freedom, and this freedom consists in emancipation from irrational desires (lust, riches, position in life, domination, etc.) and in subjecting the will to reason. Chrysippus laid the greatest stress on the worth and dignity of the individual, and on the power of will.",
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"plaintext": "The Stoics admitted between the good and the bad a third class of thingsthe indifferent (adiaphora). Of things morally indifferent, the best includes health, and riches, and honour, and the worst includes sickness and poverty. Chrysippus accepted that it was normal in ordinary usage to refer to the preferred indifferent things as \"good\", but the wise person, said Chrysippus, uses such things without requiring them. Practice and habit are necessary to render virtue perfect in the individualin other words, there is such a thing as moral progress, and character has to be built up.",
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"plaintext": "The Stoics sought to be free of the unruly emotions, which they regarded as being contrary to nature. The passions or emotions (pathe) are the disturbing element in right judgment. Chrysippus wrote a whole book, On Passions (), concerning the therapy of the emotions. The passions are like diseases which depress and crush the soul, thus he sought to eradicate them (apatheia). Wrong judgements turn into passions when they gather an impetus of their own, just as, when one has started running, it is difficult to stop. One cannot hope to eradicate the emotions when one is in the heat of love or anger: this can only be done when one is calm. Therefore, one should prepare in advance, and deal with the emotions in the mind as if they were present. By applying reason to emotions such as greed, pride, or lust, one can understand the harm which they cause.",
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"plaintext": " Susanne Bobzien, (1999), Chrysippus' Theory of Causes. In K. Ierodiakonou (ed.), Topics in Stoic Philosophy, Oxford: OUP, 196–242. ",
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"plaintext": " Émile Bréhier, (1951), Chrysippe et l'ancien stoicisme. Paris. ",
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"plaintext": " Richard Dufour, (2004), Chrysippe. Oeuvre philosophique. Textes traduits et commentés par Richard Dufour, Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2 volumes (logic and physics), ",
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"plaintext": " D. E. Hahm, Chrysippus' solution to the Democritean dilemma of the cone, Isis 63 (217) (1972), 205–220.",
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"plaintext": " H. A. Ide, Chrysippus's response to Diodorus's Master Argument, History and Philosophy Logic 13 (2) (1992), 133–148.",
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"plaintext": " Christoph Jedan (2009) Stoic Virtues: Chrysippus and the Theological Foundations of Stoic Ethics. Continuum Studies in Ancient Philosophy. ",
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"plaintext": " Teun L. Tieleman (1996) Galen and Chrysippus on the Soul: Argument and Refutation in the \"De Placitis\" Books II–III. Philosophia Antiqua. Brill. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Teun L. Tieleman (2003) Chrysippus' \"on Affections\": Reconstruction and Interpretation. Philosophia Antiqua. Brill. ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Early Stoic Logic: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes of Assos, Chrysippus of Soli an annotated bibliography on the logic of Chrysippus",
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37,145 | 1,104,896,608 | Lucretius | [
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"plaintext": "Titus Lucretius Carus ( , ; – ) was a Roman poet and philosopher. His only known work is the philosophical poem De rerum natura, a didactic work about the tenets and philosophy of Epicureanism, and which usually is translated into English as On the Nature of Things and somewhat less often as On the nature of the universe. Lucretius has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system that was formalised in 1836 by C. J. Thomsen.",
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"plaintext": "Very little is known about Lucretius's life; the only certainty is that he was either a friend or client of Gaius Memmius, to whom the poem was addressed and dedicated.",
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"plaintext": "De rerum natura was a considerable influence on the Augustan poets, particularly Virgil (in his Aeneid and Georgics, and to a lesser extent on the Eclogues) and Horace. The work was almost lost during the Middle Ages, but was rediscovered in 1417 in a monastery in Germany by Poggio Bracciolini and it played an important role both in the development of atomism (Lucretius was an important influence on Pierre Gassendi) and the efforts of various figures of the Enlightenment era to construct a new Christian humanism. Lucretius's scientific poem On the Nature of Things has a remarkable description of Brownian motion of dust particles in verses 113–140 from Book II. He uses this as a proof of the existence of atoms.",
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"plaintext": "Virtually nothing is known about the life of Lucretius, and there is insufficient basis for a confident assertion of the dates of Lucretius's birth or death in other sources. Another, yet briefer, note is found in the Chronicon of Donatus's pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretius's death, he enters under the 171st Olympiad: \"Titus Lucretius the poet is born.\" If Jerome is accurate about Lucretius's age (43) when Lucretius died (discussed below), then it may be concluded he was born in 99 or 98 BC. Less specific estimates place the birth of Lucretius in the 90s BC and his death in the 50s BC, in agreement with the poem's many allusions to the tumultuous state of political affairs in Rome and its civil strife.",
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"plaintext": "Lucretius probably was a member of the aristocratic gens Lucretia, and his work shows an intimate knowledge of the luxurious lifestyle in Rome. Lucretius's love of the countryside invites speculation that he inhabited family-owned rural estates, as did many wealthy Roman families, and he certainly was expensively educated with a mastery of Latin, Greek, literature, and philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "A brief biographical note is found in Aelius Donatus's Life of Virgil, which seems to be derived from an earlier work by Suetonius. The note reads: \"The first years of his life Virgil spent in Cremona until the assumption of his toga virilis on his 17th birthday (when the same two men held the consulate as when he was born), and it so happened that on the very same day Lucretius the poet passed away.\" However, although Lucretius certainly lived and died around the time that Virgil and Cicero flourished, the information in this particular testimony is internally inconsistent: if Virgil was born in 70 BC, his 17th birthday would be in 53. The two consuls of 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus, stood together as consuls again in 55, not 53. Another yet briefer note is found in the Chronicon of Donatus's pupil, Jerome. Writing four centuries after Lucretius's death, Jerome contends in the aforementioned Chronicon that Lucretius \"was driven mad by a love potion, and when, during the intervals of his insanity, he had written a number of books, which were later emended by Cicero, he killed himself by his own hand in the 44th year of his life.\" The claim that he was driven mad by a love potion, although defended by such scholars as Reale and Catan, is often dismissed as the result of historical confusion, or anti-Epicurean bias. In some accounts the administration of the toxic aphrodisiac is attributed to his wife Lucilia. Regardless, Jerome's image of Lucretius as a lovesick, mad poet continued to have significant influence on modern scholarship until quite recently, although it now is accepted that such a report is inaccurate.",
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"plaintext": "His poem De rerum natura (usually translated as \"On the Nature of Things\" or \"On the Nature of the Universe\") transmits the ideas of Epicureanism, which includes atomism and cosmology. Lucretius was the first writer known to introduce Roman readers to Epicurean philosophy. The poem, written in some 7,400 dactylic hexameters, is divided into six untitled books, and explores Epicurean physics through richly poetic language and metaphors. Lucretius presents the principles of atomism, the nature of the mind and soul, explanations of sensation and thought, the development of the world and its phenomena, and explains a variety of celestial and terrestrial phenomena. The universe described in the poem operates according to these physical principles, guided by fortuna, \"chance\", and not the divine intervention of the traditional Roman deities and the religious explanations of the natural world.",
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"plaintext": "Within this work, Lucretius makes reference to the cultural and technological development of humans in his use of available materials, tools, and weapons through prehistory to Lucretius's own time. He specifies the earliest weapons as hands, nails, and teeth. These were followed by stones, branches, and, once humans could kindle and control it, fire. He then refers to \"tough iron\" and copper in that order, but goes on to say that copper was the primary means of tilling the soil and the basis of weaponry until, \"by slow degrees\", the iron sword became predominant (it still was in his day) and \"the bronze sickle fell into disrepute\" as iron ploughs were introduced. He had earlier envisaged a pre-technological, pre-literary kind of human whose life was lived \"in the fashion of wild beasts roaming at large\". From this beginning, he theorised, there followed the development in turn of crude huts, use and kindling of fire, clothing, language, family, and city-states. He believed that smelting of metal, and perhaps too, the firing of pottery, was discovered by accident: for example, the result of a forest fire. He does specify, however, that the use of copper followed the use of stones and branches and preceded the use of iron.",
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"plaintext": "Lucretius seems to equate copper with bronze, an alloy of copper and tin that has much greater resilience than copper; both copper and bronze were superseded by iron during his millennium (1000 BC to 1 BC). He may have considered bronze to be a stronger variety of copper and not necessarily a wholly individual material. Lucretius is believed to be the first to put forward a theory of the successive uses of first wood and stone, then copper and bronze, and finally iron. Although his theory lay dormant for many centuries, it was revived in the nineteenth century and he has been credited with originating the concept of the three-age system that was formalised from 1834 by C. J. Thomsen.",
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"plaintext": "In a letter by Cicero to his brother Quintus in February 54 BC, Cicero said: \"The poems of Lucretius are as you write: they exhibit many flashes of genius, and yet show great mastership.\" In the work of another author in late Republican Rome, Virgil writes in the second book of his Georgics, apparently referring to Lucretius, \"Happy is he who has discovered the causes of things and has cast beneath his feet all fears, unavoidable fate, and the din of the devouring Underworld.\"",
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"plaintext": "An early thinker in what grew to become the study of evolution, Lucretius believed nature experiments endlessly across the aeons, and the organisms that adapt best to their environment have the best chance of surviving. Living organisms survived because of the commensurate relationship between their strength, speed, or intellect and the external dynamics of their environment. Prior to Charles Darwin's 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, the natural philosophy of Lucretius typified one of the foremost non-teleological and mechanistic accounts of the creation and evolution of life. In contrast to modern thought on the subject, he did not believe that new species evolved from previously existing ones and denied that modern animals, which dwell on land, derived from marine ancestors. Lucretius challenged the assumption that humans are necessarily superior to animals, noting that mammalian mothers in the wild recognize and nurture their offspring as do human mothers.",
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"plaintext": "Despite his advocacy of empiricism and his many correct conjectures about atomism and the nature of the physical world, Lucretius concludes his first book stressing the absurdity of the (by then well-established) spherical Earth theory.",
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"plaintext": " Hutchinson, Lucy (b. 1620 d. 1681) De Rerum Natura.",
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"plaintext": " Lucretius. De rerum natura. (3 vols. Latin text Books I-VI. Comprehensive commentary by Cyril Bailey), Oxford University Press 1947.",
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"plaintext": " On the Nature of Things, (1951 prose translation by R. E. Latham), introduction and notes by John Godwin, Penguin revised edition 1994, ",
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"plaintext": " T. Lucreti Cari De rerum natura (1963). Edidit Joseph Martin (Bibliotheca scriptorvm Graecorvm et Romanorvm Tevbneriana).",
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"plaintext": " Lucretius (1971). De rerum natura Book III. (Latin version of Book III only– 37 pp., with extensive commentary by E. J. Kenney– 171 pp.), Cambridge University Press corrected reprint 1984. ",
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"plaintext": " Lucretius (2008 [1997, 1999]), On the Nature of the Universe (tr. Melville, Ronald) (introduction and notes by Fowler, Don; Fowler, Peta). Oxford University Press [Oxford World Classics], ",
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"plaintext": " Munro H. A. J. Lucretius: On the Nature of Things Translated, with an analysis of the six books. 4th Edn, Routledge (1886). Online version at the Internet Archive (2011).",
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"plaintext": " Piazzi, Lisa (2006) Lucrezio e i presocratici. Edizioni della Normale.",
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"plaintext": " Stallings, A.E. (2007) Lucretius: The Nature of Things. Penguin Classics. Penguin.",
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"plaintext": " Beretta, Marco. Francesco Citti (edd), Lucrezio, la natura e la scienza (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 2008) (Biblioteca di Nuncius / Istituto e Museo distoria della scienza, Firenze; 66).",
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"plaintext": " Campbell, Gordon. Lucretius on Creation and Evolution: A Commentary on De rerum natura Book Five, Lines 772–1104 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).",
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"plaintext": " DeMay, Philip. Lucretius: Poet and Epicurean (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009) (Series: Greece & Rome: texts and contexts).",
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"plaintext": " Deufert, Marcus. Pseudo-Lukrezisches im Lukrez (Berlin-New York, 1996).",
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"plaintext": " Erler M. \"Lukrez,\" in H. Flashar (ed.), Die Philosophie der Antike. Bd. 4. Die hellenistische Philosophie (Basel, 1994), 381–490.",
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"plaintext": " Esolen, Anthony M. Lucretius On the Nature of Things (Baltimore, 1995).",
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"plaintext": " Fowler, Don. Lucretius on Atomic Motion: A Commentary on De rerum natura 2. 1–332 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).",
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"plaintext": " Johnson, W.R. Lucretius and the Modern World (London, Duckworth, 2000).",
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"plaintext": " Marković, Daniel. The Rhetoric of Explanation in Lucretius' De rerum natura (Leiden, Brill, 2008) (Mnemosyne, Supplements, 294).",
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"plaintext": " Melville, Ronald. Lucretius: On the Nature of the Universe (Oxford, 1997).",
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"plaintext": " Nail, Thomas. Lucretius I: An Ontology of Motion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2018). ",
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"plaintext": " Nail, Thomas. Lucretius II: An Ethics of Motion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2020).",
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"plaintext": " Gale Monica R. (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).",
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"plaintext": " Garani, Myrto. Empedocles Redivivus: poetry and analogy in Lucretius. Studies in classics (London; New York: Routledge, 2007).",
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"plaintext": " Godwin, John. Lucretius (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2004) (\"Ancient in Action\" Series).",
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"plaintext": " Rumpf L. Naturerkenntnis und Naturerfahrung. Zur Reflexion epikureischer Theorie bei Lukrez (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2003) (Zetemata, 116).",
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"plaintext": " Sedley, David N. Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008 [1998]).",
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"plaintext": " Bibliography De rerum natura Book III",
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"plaintext": " Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High-resolution images of works by Lucretius in .jpg and .tiff format.",
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37,146 | 1,105,321,055 | New_Sweden | [
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"plaintext": "New Sweden (; ; ) was a Swedish colony along the lower reaches of the Delaware River in the United States from 1638 to 1655, established during the Thirty Years' War when Sweden was a great military power. New Sweden formed part of the Swedish efforts to colonize the Americas. Settlements were established on both sides of the Delaware Valley in the region of Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, often in places where Swedish traders had been visiting since about 1610. Fort Christina in Wilmington, Delaware, was the first settlement, named after the reigning Swedish monarch. The settlers were Swedes, Finns, and a number of Dutch. New Sweden was conquered by the Dutch Republic in 1655 during the Second Northern War and incorporated into the Dutch colony of New Netherland.",
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"plaintext": "By the middle of the 17th century, the Realm of Sweden had reached its greatest territorial extent and was one of the great powers of Europe; it was the stormaktstiden (\"age of greatness\" or \"great power period\"). Sweden then included Finland and Estonia, along with parts of modern Russia, Poland, Germany, and Latvia under King Gustavus Adolphus and later Queen Christina. Other northern European nations were establishing colonies in the New World and building successful trading empires at this time. The Swedes sought to expand their influence by creating their own plantation (tobacco) and fur-trading colony to circumvent French and English merchants.",
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"plaintext": "The Swedish South Company was founded in 1626 with a mandate to establish colonies between Florida and Newfoundland for the purposes of trade, particularly along the Delaware River. Its charter included Swedish, Dutch, and German stockholders led by directors of the New Sweden Company, including Samuel Blommaert. The company sponsored 11 expeditions in 14 separate voyages to Delaware between 1638 and 1655; two did not survive.",
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"plaintext": "The first Swedish expedition to America sailed from the port of Gothenburg in late 1637, organized and overseen by Clas Larsson Fleming, a Swedish admiral from Finland. Flemish Dutch Samuel Blommaert assisted the fitting-out and appointed Peter Minuit (the former Governor of New Amsterdam) to lead the expedition. The expedition sailed into Delaware Bay aboard the Fogel Grip and Kalmar Nyckel, which lay within the territory claimed by the Dutch. They passed Cape May and Cape Henlopen in late March 1638 and anchored on March 29 at a rocky point on the Minquas Kill that is known today as Swedes' Landing. They built a fort in Wilmington which they named Fort Christina after their Queen.",
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"plaintext": "In the following years, the area was settled by 600 Swedes and Finns, a number of Dutchmen, a few Germans, a Dane, and at least one Estonian, and Minuit became the first governor of the colony of New Sweden. He had been the third Director of New Amsterdam, and he knew that the Dutch claimed the area south to the Delaware River and its bay. The Dutch, however, had pulled back their settlers from the area after several years in order to concentrate on the settlement on Manhattan Island.",
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"plaintext": "Governor Minuit landed on the west bank of the river and gathered the sachems of the Delawares and Susquehannocks. They held a conclave in Minuit's cabin on the Kalmar Nyckel, and he persuaded them to sign deeds which he had prepared to solve any issue with the Dutch. The Swedes claimed that the purchased land included land on the west side of the South (Delaware) River from just below the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia, southeastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, and coastal Maryland. Delaware sachem Mattahoon later claimed that the purchase only included as much land as was contained within an area marked by \"six trees\", and the rest of the land occupied by the Swedes was stolen.",
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"plaintext": "Willem Kieft objected to the Swedes landing, but Minuit ignored him since he knew that the Dutch were militarily weak at the moment. Minuit completed Fort Christina in 1638, then sailed for Stockholm to bring the second group of settlers. He made a detour to the Caribbean to pick up a shipment of tobacco to sell in Europe in order to make the voyage profitable. However, he died on this voyage during a hurricane at St. Christopher in the Caribbean. The official duties of the governor of New Sweden were carried out by Captain Måns Nilsson Kling, until a new governor was selected and arrived from Sweden two years later.",
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"plaintext": "The company expanded along the river from Fort Christina under the leadership of Johan Björnsson Printz, governor from 1643 to 1653. They established Fort Nya Elfsborg on the east bank of the Delaware near Salem, New Jersey, and Fort Nya Gothenborg on Tinicum Island to the immediate southwest of Philadelphia. Printz also built his manor house, The Printzhof, at Fort Nya Gothenborg, and the Swedish colony prospered for a time. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their war against Maryland colonists. In May 1654, soldiers from New Sweden led by Governor Johan Risingh captured Fort Casimir and renamed it Fort Trinity (Trefaldigheten in Swedish).",
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"plaintext": "Sweden opened the Second Northern War in the Baltic by attacking the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Dutch sent an armed squadron of ships under Director-General Peter Stuyvesant to seize New Sweden. In the summer of 1655, the Dutch marched an army to the Delaware River, easily capturing Fort Trinity and Fort Christina. The Swedish settlement was formally incorporated into Dutch New Netherland on September 15, 1655, although the Swedish and Finnish settlers were allowed local autonomy. They retained their own militia, religion, court, and lands. This lasted until the English conquest of New Netherland, launched on June 24, 1664. The Duke of York sold New Jersey to John Berkeley and George Carteret to become a proprietary colony, separate from the projected colony of New York. The invasion began on August 29, 1664, with the capture of New Amsterdam and ended with the capture of Fort Casimir (New Castle, Delaware) in October. This took place at the beginning of the Second Anglo-Dutch War.",
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"plaintext": "New Sweden continued to exist unofficially, and some immigration and expansion continued. The first settlement at Wicaco began with a Swedish log blockhouse located on Society Hill in Philadelphia in 1669. It was later used as a church until about 1700, when Gloria Dei (Old Swedes') Church of Philadelphia was built on the site. New Sweden finally came to an end when its land was included in William Penn's charter for Pennsylvania on August 24, 1682.",
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"plaintext": "The start of the Third Anglo-Dutch War resulted in the Dutch recapture of New Netherland in August 1673. They restored the status which predated the English capture, and codified it in the establishment of three counties: Hoarkill County, New Amstel County, and Upland County, which was later partitioned between New Castle County, Delaware, and the Colony of Pennsylvania. The three counties were created on September 12, 1673, the first two on the west shore of the Delaware River and the third on both sides of the river.",
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"plaintext": "The Treaty of Westminster of 1674 ended the second period of Dutch control and required them to return all of New Netherland to the English on June 29, including the three counties which they created. After taking stock, the English declared on November 11 that settlements on the west side of the Delaware River and Delaware Bay were to be dependent on the Province of New York, including the three Counties. This declaration was followed by a declaration that renamed New Amstel as New Castle. The other counties retained their Dutch names.",
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"plaintext": "The next step in the assimilation of New Sweden into New York was the extension of the Duke's laws into the region on September 22, 1676. This was followed by the partition of some Upland Counties to conform to the borders of Pennsylvania and Delaware, with most of the Delaware portion going to New Castle County on November 12, 1678. The remainder of Upland continued in place under the same name. On June 21, 1680, New Castle and Hoarkill Counties were partitioned to produce St. Jones County.",
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"plaintext": "On March 4, 1681, what had been the colony of New Sweden was formally partitioned into the colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania. The border was established 12 miles north of New Castle, and the northern limit of Pennsylvania was set at 42 degrees north latitude. The eastern limit was the border with New Jersey at the Delaware River, while the western limit was undefined. In June 1681, Upland ceased to exist as the result of the reorganization of the Colony of Pennsylvania, with the Upland government becoming the government of Chester County, Pennsylvania.",
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"plaintext": "On August 24, 1682, the Duke of York transferred the western Delaware River region to William Penn, including Delaware, thus transferring Deale County and St. Jones County from New York to Delaware. St. Jones County was renamed Kent County, Deale County was renamed Sussex County, and New Castle County retained its name.",
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"plaintext": "Swedish explorer and botanist Pehr Kalm visited the descendants of the early Swedish immigrants to New Sweden in the mid-18th century and documented their experiences with the Native American Indians who resided in those parts, in a book entitled Travels into North America.",
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"plaintext": "Historian H. Arnold Barton has suggested that the greatest significance of New Sweden was the strong and lasting interest in America that the colony generated in Sweden, although major Swedish immigration did not occur until the late 19th century. From 1870 to 1910, more than one million Swedes arrived in America, settling particularly in Minnesota and other states of the Upper Midwest. ",
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"plaintext": "Traces of New Sweden persist in the lower Delaware valley, including Holy Trinity Church in Wilmington, Delaware, Gloria Dei Church and St. James Kingsessing Church in Philadelphia, Trinity Episcopal Church in Swedesboro, New Jersey, and Christ Church in Swedesburg, Pennsylvania. All of those churches are commonly known as \"Old Swedes' Church\". Christiana, Delaware, is one of the few settlements in the area retaining a Swedish name, and Upland survives as Upland, Pennsylvania. Swedesford Road is still found in Chester and Montgomery Counties, Pennsylvania, although Swedesford has long since become Norristown. Swedeland, Pennsylvania, is part of Upper Merion Township in Montgomery County. The American Swedish Historical Museum in South Philadelphia houses many exhibits, documents, and artifacts from the New Sweden colony.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps the greatest contribution of New Sweden to the development of the New World is the log house building technique. The colonists of New Sweden brought with them the log cabin, which became such an icon of the American frontier that it is commonly thought of as an American structure. The C. A. Nothnagle Log House on Swedesboro-Paulsboro Road in Gibbstown, New Jersey, is one of the oldest surviving log houses in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The settlers came from all over the Swedish realm. The percentage of Finns in New Sweden grew especially towards the end of the period of colonization. Finns composed 22 percent of the population during Swedish rule, and rose to about 50 percent after the colony came under Dutch rule. A contingent of 140 Finns arrived in 1664. The ship Mercurius sailed to the colony in 1665, and 92 of the 106 passengers were listed as Finns. Memory of the early Finnish settlement lived on in place names near the Delaware River such as Finland (Marcus Hook), Torne, Lapland, Finns Point, Mullica Hill, and Mullica River.",
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"plaintext": "A portion of these Finns were known as Forest Finns, people of Finnish descent who had been living in the forest areas of Central Sweden. The Forest Finns had moved from Savonia in Eastern Finland to Dalarna, Bergslagen and other provinces in central Sweden during the late-16th to mid-17th century. Their relocation had started as part of an effort by Swedish King Gustav Vasa to expand agriculture to these uninhabited parts of the country. The Finns in Savonia traditionally farmed with a slash-and-burn method which was better suited to pioneering agriculture in vast forest areas. This was also the farming method used by the American Indians of Delaware.",
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"plaintext": "Fort Christina (1638) – at the Brandywine Creek and Christina River in Wilmington, Delaware, later renamed Fort Altena (1655)",
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"plaintext": "Fort Mecoponacka (1641) – in Chester, near Finlandia or Upland in Delaware County, Pennsylvania",
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"plaintext": "Fort Nya Elfsborg (1643) – between present-day Salem Creek and Alloway Creek near Bridgeport, New Jersey",
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"plaintext": "Fort Nya Vasa (1646) – at Kingsessing, on the eastern-side of Cobbs Creek in Philadelphia",
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"plaintext": "Fort Casimir (1654) – also known as Fort Trinity (in Swedish, Trefaldigheten), located at the end of Chestnut Street near Harmony & 2nd streets in New Castle, Delaware.",
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"plaintext": "Christina (1638 and 1641; modern Wilmington, Delaware)",
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"plaintext": " Raccoon Creek: \"Narraticon\" (Lenape) meaning Raccoon",
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"plaintext": " Mullica River, named for an early Finnish settler, Eric Pålsson Mullica",
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"plaintext": "Swedish emigration to North America",
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"plaintext": "Rambo apple",
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"plaintext": "Kalmar Nyckel",
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"plaintext": "Laurentius Carels, Swedish American Lutheran pastor",
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"plaintext": "Olof Persson Stille, first chief justice of the Upland Court",
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"plaintext": "Wedge (border)",
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"plaintext": "New Sweden Farmstead Museum",
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"plaintext": "Old Swedes' Church",
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"plaintext": "Lower Swedish Cabin",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Bibliography",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Barton, H. Arnold (1994). A Folk Divided: Homeland Swedes and Swedish Americans, 1840–1940. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis",
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2731941
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"plaintext": " Benson, Adolph B. and Naboth Hedin, eds. (1938) Swedes in America, 1638–1938. The Swedish American Tercentenary Association. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press ",
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44807701
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"plaintext": " Jennings, Francis, (1984) The Ambiguous Iroquois. New York: Norton ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Johnson, Amandus (1927) The Swedes on the Delaware. Philadelphia: International Printing Company",
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22183720
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},
{
"plaintext": " Munroe, John A. (1977) Colonial Delaware. Wilmington, Delaware: Delaware Heritage Press",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Shorto, Russell (2004) The Island at the Center of the World. New York: Doubleday ",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [
2811748
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},
{
"plaintext": " Weslager, C. A. (1990) A Man and his Ship, Peter Minuet and the Kalmar Nyckel. Wilmington, Delaware: Kalmar Nyckel Foundation ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Weslager, C. A. (1988) New Sweden on the Delaware 1638–1655. Wilmington, Delaware: Middle Atlantic Press ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Weslager, C. A. (1987) The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle. Wilmington, Delaware: Middle Atlantic Press ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Further reading",
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"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jameson, J. Franklin (1887) Willem Usselinx: Founder of the Dutch and Swedish West India Companies. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.",
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"plaintext": " Mickley, Joseph J. (1881) Some Account of William Usselinx and Peter Minuit: Two individuals who were instrumental in establishing the first permanent colony in Delaware. The Historical Society of Delaware.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Myers, Albert Cook, ed. (1912) Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey, and Delaware, 1630–1707. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons",
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"plaintext": " Ward, Christopher (1930) Dutch and Swedes on the Delaware, 1609–1664. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press",
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{
"plaintext": "The Finns in American Colonial History",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The American Swedish Historical Museum",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A Brief History of New Sweden in America, at The Swedish Colonial Society",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The New Sweden Centre – museum, tours and reenactors",
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"plaintext": "New Sweden at the FamilySearch Research Wiki",
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"plaintext": "Johnson's detailed map of New Sweden",
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{
"plaintext": "350th Anniversary of the Landing of the Swedes and Finns in Delaware",
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"Colonial_settlements_in_North_America",
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| 322,187 | 16,040 | 375 | 180 | 0 | 0 | New Sweden | former Swedish possession in North America between 1638–1655 | [
"Nya Sverige",
"Uusi Ruotsi",
"Uusi-Ruotsi"
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|
37,147 | 1,105,660,333 | Tilburg | [
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"plaintext": "Tilburg () is a city and municipality in the Netherlands, in the southern province of North Brabant. With a population of 222,601 (1 July 2021), it is the second-largest municipality in North Brabant and seventh-largest in the Netherlands.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg University is located in Tilburg, as are Avans University of Applied Sciences and Fontys University of Applied Sciences. Tilburg is known for its ten-day-long funfair, held in July each year. The Monday during the funfair is called \"Roze Maandag\" (Pink Monday) and is primarily LGBT-oriented.",
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"plaintext": "There are three railway stations within the municipality: Tilburg, Tilburg Universiteit and Tilburg Reeshof. The \"Spoorzone\" area around Tilburg Central station, once a Dutch Railways train maintenance yard, has been purchased by the city and is being transformed into an urban zone.",
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"plaintext": "Little is known about the beginnings of Tilburg. The name Tilliburg first appeared in documents dating from AD 709, but after that there was no mention for several centuries. In the later Middle Ages, Tilburg referred to a region rather than a particular town or village; its population was largely in a couple of hamlets, one of which was known as \"Eastern Tilburg\" (Oost-Tilburg), which was later reflected in the name Oisterwijk (\"Eastern Quarter\"). This village centred around a small (probably wooden) castle or Motteburcht on an equally small hill, which became derelict and was torn down after a few centuries at most. Of this first \"Tilburg Castle\", nothing remained c.2000, except for a few remnants of its moat in the suburbs of Oisterwijk. In the 14th century, Tilburg was proclaimed a manor; together with Goirle, it acquired the title of \"The Manor of Tilburg and Goirle\".",
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"plaintext": "Successively, the manorial rights fell into the hands of several lords of noble lineage. They derived their income from taxes, fines and interest paid by the villagers.",
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"plaintext": "In the 15th century, one of the lords of Tilburg, Jan van Haestrecht, built Tilburg Castle. \"That stone chamber at Hasselt\" is mentioned in several historical documents. In 1858, however, the castle was pulled down to make way for a factory, but the name lives on, in the city arms and logo. A replica of the foundations of the castle was restored in ca. 1995 in its original location, after the factory was demolished. In 1803, Goirle was separated from Tilburg and on 18 April 1809, Tilburg was granted city status. In that year, it had about 9,000 inhabitants. In 2009 Tilburg hosted several festivities in celebration of 200 years as a city.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg grew around one of the so-called \"herd places\" or \"Frankish triangles\", triangular plots where a number of roads (usually sand roads) met. These herd places were collective pasturelands for flocks of sheep. Their shape is still reflected in the layout of many places in Tilburg. Many districts, including Korvel, Oerle, Broekhoven, Hasselt, Heikant, De Schans, and Heuvel, bear the names of these old hamlets. The poor farmers living in these hamlets soon decided not to sell the wool from their sheep but to weave it themselves, and for a long time, much of the space inside their small houses was occupied by a loom—by the 17th century these numbered about 300. Enterprising people saw their chance. As so-called \"drapers\" they supplied the weavers with the raw materials for their \"home working\", and the first Tilburg \"mill houses\" came into existence. From then on, the wool industry underwent rapid growth, and in 1881 Tilburg had as many as 145 wool mills. Home weaving continued, however, until the early 20th century. Woollen textiles from Tilburg were known far and wide. After World War II Tilburg retained its place as wool capital of the Netherlands, but in the 1960s the industry collapsed and by the 1980s the number of operating wool mills had declined. Present-day Tilburg industry consists of a wide variety of enterprises. The main economic sector has become transport and logistics with a variety of industry as a close second.",
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"plaintext": "At the same time as the wool industry collapsed, Cees Becht was the mayor of Tilburg. While he was in office, many buildings were destroyed, including some very precious monuments. The neighbourhood Koningswei (King's Meadows) was demolished and replaced by Koningsplein (King's Square). The old neighbourhood was some kind of slum and had to be replaced by newer development. The newer development, however, wasn't as successful as was expected, and the square feels abandoned most of the year.",
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"plaintext": "Considered even worse was the demolition of the old city hall. This classicistic-styled building was a national-registered monument, but even that didn't stop Becht's plans to demolish it to build the nine-storey, modern-day, black complex. A part of the empty area was used to build the system of the inner Cityring.",
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"plaintext": "Another building that was demolished was the old railway station, which was replaced due to Hoogspoor (literally: high rails), a project bringing the railway on viaducts to reduce traffic congestion in the years around 1960. The century-old station building was replaced by the modern one.",
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"plaintext": "Because of all of this and some more parts of Tilburg, Cees Becht gained the dubious nickname Cees de Sloper (Cees the demolisher).",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, many locations, formerly occupied by wool factories had been filled with small-scale housing projects. This mostly happened when Henk Letschert was mayor of Tilburg.",
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"plaintext": "The Heuvel, one of the important squares, had its own lime tree until 27 April 1994, being chopped for a bicycle parking basement. The felling led to many protests, because the tree was still healthy. After the Pieter Vreedeplein reconstruction, plans were made to plant a descendant of the original lime tree. Three were placed, only one of them survived. The last living tree was moved to another location again, but died shortly after. As of 23 November 2011, no more descendants have been placed. The current one is just another lime tree.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1990s Tilburg developed a modern skyline. Because of new policy three buildings were built, which are considered skyscrapers in the Netherlands. These are the Interpolis headquarters, the Westpoint Tower and StadsHeer. The Westpoint Tower has an altitude of and was the tallest residential tower in The Netherlands until the Montevideo in Rotterdam surpassed it. The 'StadsHeer' is the third one and is part of the 'Haestrechtkwartier' (Haestrecht quarter). The residential tower is nicknamed De Vogelkooikes (The Bird Cages) for its cubic balconies taped onto the building.",
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"plaintext": "King William II (1792–1849) was fond of Tilburg. \"Here I can breathe freely and I feel happy\", he once said about the town. King WilliamII always supported Tilburg—he provided money to improve the sheep breeding, built new farms and founded a cavalry barracks on St.Joseph Street, now a monumental building of the City Archives. Although the King was always made welcome by the manufacturers he had befriended, he needed his own residence in Tilburg, and commissioned the construction of a palace, which would function as his country residence. Construction started in 1847 and was completed just days before William II died, in 1849. It is now part of Tilburg City Hall. In 1987 an obelisk was erected nearby, in memory of King WilliamII. It replaced the old \"needle\" dating from 1874, which was removed from the street in 1968. After its restoration, WilliamII's statue has got a place again in the heart of the city, where he felt happy among its inhabitants. The local football club Willem II Tilburg was named after the king.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg Centrum is the downtown of Tilburg, and is situated between (clockwise) the Spoorlaan, Heuvelring, Paleisring, Schouwburgring and Noordhoekring, which is the same as the order of the one-way roads around the district. The district has 6,572 inhabitants, and most of the shops, hotels, restaurants and cafes of the city. In 2008, the refurbished Pieter Vreedeplein was opened to the public, addressing a lack of shopping facilities as compared to similar-sized cities in the Netherlands. Two smaller cinemas were replaced by a bigger one on the Pieter Vreedeplein in 2007. Despite being called Centrum, the district is some distance southeast of the geographical center. The district is connected by the Tilburg railway station.",
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"plaintext": "Oud-Noord is situated north of the railway that crosses Tilburg, and between the Ringbanen (ring roads around the city center). The district has 33,915 inhabitants. Contemporary arts museum De Pont is located within the district. When the railway marshalling yard belonging to the Nederlandse Spoorwegen became obsolete, a considerable stretch of the railway across the city, the Spoorzone, became an urban renewal project. New premises for two courses run by Fontys University of Applied Sciences will be located here, as will Tilburg's new central library, replacing the library in Koningsplein. The railway yard is the largest area, though more areas along the railway will be reconstructed.",
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"plaintext": "Oud-Zuid is a district south, and also west and east of downtown Tilburg. The district has 38,659 inhabitants. , all the 'skyscrapers' of Tilburg, higher than are located within the district. The Hart van Brabantlaan is almost surrounded by high buildings like Westpoint Tower and the StadsHeer as a small part of the urban renewal. This area along the railway is partly located in Oud-Zuid. Many important locations in Tilburg are located within the district, just out of the center, such as 013 music venue and the Schouwburg built in 1961. Also the Koningsplein with the main library and the Piushaven are located within the district. Old herd places include Korvel, Broekhoven and Oerle.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg-Noord is located north of the Wilhelmina Canal. The district has 23,340 inhabitants. Tilburg-Noord was built in the period 1966–1974. Therefore, it has many apartment buildings up to 16 floors, drive-in houses, green strips and industrial development. The streets in this district are mostly named after musicians from the Renaissance up to pop artists from the 1960s. The main shopping center is Wagnerplein, while there's also the Verdiplein in Stokhasselt. The one at the Tartinistraat became defunct. Before the district was built, it was mainly an agricultural area attached to a few villages, including Heikant, which is still the name of the biggest neighbourhood. Heikant's former village square, including the old church, is still present. The northernmost part of the district is still agricultural with some forests. In this agricultural area, the blessed Peter Donders was born; there still stands a chapel and a procession park.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg-oost consists of primarily industrial development. Residential neighbourhoods are in a small strip east of the Ringbaan Oost rather than the whole district, however, it is not considered as a part of the city center. The district only has 748 inhabitants.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg-Zuid is located between the A58 motorway and the Ringbaan Zuid, and is the southernmost district. Tilburg-zuid has 19,149 inhabitants. The district contains two neighbourhoods and many businesses. The football club Willem II is located within the district, as well as the ice-skating rink with a speed skating rink, the Ireen Wüst IJsbaan, which is located here. The main campus of Fontys University of Applied Sciences is located in this district, as well as St. Elisabeth hospital and Leijpark, one of the largest public parks in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg-west was mostly built after WWII, and has 26,655 inhabitants. The district with its neighbourhoods consists mostly of small brick houses and apartment buildings, except for Zorgvlied, which contains more expensive, free-standing houses. The Westermarkt is the largest shopping center out of the inner city. Many higher educational buildings are standing here, like Tilburg University and Avans Hogeschool. Another place of many schools is along the Reitse Hoevenstraat with multiple secondary schools such as: Jozefmavo and Theresialyceum. The district is connected by train with the Tilburg Universiteit railway station, Previously known as \"Tilburg West station\" and has one of the two hospitals in Tilburg (). The largest mosque of Tilburg, the Turkish Süleymaniye-Mosque built in 2001, stands in the southeastern corner of the district. West is surrounded by forests like Wandelbos and the Oude Warande, located west of the university.",
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"plaintext": "The Reeshof is the westernmost district and the most recent expansion of the city of Tilburg proper. and has a population of 42,994 inhabitants. Because of this, the Reeshof became the largest district of Tilburg by population. The first houses were completed in 1980, in the neighbourhood Gesworen Hoek. , the last neighbourhood (Koolhoven Buiten) is under construction. The district is connected by the Tilburg Reeshof railway station and multiple roads that encircle the district plus the industrial development Vossenberg north of the Wilhelmina Canal.",
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"plaintext": "The Donge runs through the district, including greenspace with some Highland cattle grazing between the fences protecting the surrounding neighbourhoods. This small-scale nature project is called the Dongevallei, which literally means Donge Valley in English.",
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"plaintext": "The population of Tilburg was 222,601 on 1 July 2021. According to the Tilburg city council, the city will reach a population of 217,000 by 2025. Of these, 23.3% (47,964 people) are of foreign descent. People are classified as being of foreign descent when they were born outside of the Netherlands, or when at least one of their parents was born outside of the Netherlands.",
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"plaintext": "The Tilburg agglomeration has the following religious makeup as of 2003:",
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"plaintext": "Roman Catholic (60.7%)",
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"plaintext": "Atheism (21.7%)",
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"plaintext": "Dutch Reformed (7.8%)",
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"plaintext": "Islam (4.8%)",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg experiences an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to almost all of the Netherlands. Thunderstorms occur in Western Brabant more often than anywhere else in the Netherlands, up to 31 days a year.",
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"plaintext": "The economy was concentrated on wool industry for centuries, however, since the 1960s, Tilburg has made more progress in having different kinds of industries, supported by the government to save the city from poverty after the decline of wool industry. Chemical company IFF has a factory in Tilburg. In the 1980s, the Japanese company Fujifilm came to Tilburg. Insurance companies like Interpolis and CZ are headquartered in Tilburg, as well. Iris Ohyama has its European offices in Tilburg. Since 2013, the electric car-producing company Tesla operates their main EU facility for assembly and distribution in Europe in the industrial area of Vossenberg north of the suburb \"De Reeshof\" in Tilburg.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg has a high concentration of transportation/distribution industries, specializing in value added logistics and services, due to being the geographical center of the Benelux countries and being located on the transport corridor between Antwerp / Rotterdam and the Ruhr area. The 'Waalwijk-Tilburg' region has been in the logistics hotspots top 3 within the Netherlands for years now and finished third in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Higher education is of significant importance, with Tilburg University attracting scholars from all over the world. It has a student population of about 13,000 students, about 8 per cent of whom are international students. With well-facilitated Library, museums and city center with many pubs and cafes, this percentage has steadily increased over the past years. TiU offers both Dutch-taught and English-taught programmes. Tilburg is one of the best cities for exchange students to have great experience in the Netherlands. It is a perfect city for students to work, mingle, get to know each other and make friends.",
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"plaintext": "The institution has gained a reputation in both research and education. In the field of economics, the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration ranked No. 1 in Europe for the second consecutive time in 2007 according to the Journal of the European Economic Association with regard to publications in top journals.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007 the Executive MBA program at the university's TiasNimbas Business School ranked # 11 in the world according to the Financial Times. In the field of law, Tilburg University was ranked No. 1 in the Netherlands for the last three years according to Elsevier magazine.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg is also the location of the Fontys School of Fine and Performing Arts (Dutch: Fontys Hogeschool voor de Kunsten - FHK), part of the Fontys Hogescholen. The School originated from the merging of various educational institutions that had existed in different capacity in Tilburg before being united under the Fontys group, such as the Brabants Conservatorium, one of the nine conservatoires in the Netherlands, and the Academie voor Beeldende Vorming.",
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"plaintext": "Fontys School of Arts offers various bachelor and master programmes in English and in Dutch, across different fields in music, visual arts, dance, theatre and performing arts",
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"plaintext": "This institution is based in a building known as 'Kunstkluster', located in the centre of the city next to the Schouwburg and incorporating a Concert Hall.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the EU Intercultural cities programme.",
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"plaintext": "Schrobbelèr is a local liqueur. It has an alcoholic percentage of 21.5%, slightly lower than most bitters and has a relatively sweet flavour. The drink is sold in a stone jar and is drunk cold from own glass, a high and tiny chalice glass, larger than a Jägermeister glass.",
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"plaintext": "The drink originated in 1973 when Tilburgian entrepreneur Jan Wassing started experimenting with a drink with lower alcoholic percentage that was appropriate for his stomach. The result was successful. The drink is distilled now at Loven industrial area in Tilburg by the Eindhoven company Schrobbeler Ltd, without the è on the last vowel. The drink is especially consumed at Carnival. The name is derived from the profession of 'Schrobbelaar', in the textile industry in Tilburg. The profession was unskilled and had a low wage.",
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"plaintext": "Another known drink from Tilburg is Peerke's Nat, which has a higher alcoholic percentage than Schrobbelèr (25%) and was introduced at the beatification of Peter Donders (locally named Peerke). The drink is sold in bottles of 70 centiliters.",
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"plaintext": "The Koningshoeven Brewery brews trappist beer. It was founded in 1884 at Koningshoeven Abbey.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg's open air art is mostly supported by KORT (Kunst in Open Ruimte Tilburg, Dutch for Art in Open Space Tilburg). One example is the turning house on the Hasseltrotonde, a roundabout, was erected in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Besides being responsible for newer, modern art, KORT also gives information about older works of art, like the Willem II statue on the Heuvel.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Tilburg hosts many festivals, such as Incubate, Festival Mundial (world culture), Stranger Than Paranoia (jazz), Tilburg Students Festival, and Roadburn Festival. 013 is a modern pop-centre. Paradox is a club for experimental jazz and improvised music. Fontys University of Applied Sciences started a pop academy in the beginning of the 21st century, and students often perform on local stages.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg has an outstanding museum of Modern Art, De Pont, which houses works from renowned artists such as Ai Weiwei, Anish Kapoor and Richard Serra. There is also a large textile museum, offering not only a historical view in its former factory, but also a laboratory for design, production and development of textile as a material.",
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"plaintext": "The Textile Museum: A Museum in a restored factory with striking glass entrance, for industrial & designer textiles. Tilburg has traditionally had a rich textile industry. The traces of this form of industry can be found in various places in the city.",
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"plaintext": "De Pont, The museum of Modern Art located in Tilburg. De Pont houses works from renowned artists such as Ai Weiwei, Anish Kapoor and Richard Serra. The museum is housed in a former wool mill, an important piece of Tilburg's history. The artwork 'Skymirror' is displayed on the square in front of the museum. A work by Anish Kapoor.",
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"plaintext": "Nature Museum Brabant: The Museum is dedicated to natural history. The museum was housed in the former intendant residence of King Willem II.",
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"plaintext": "The collection of Natuurmuseum Brabant consists of stuffed animals of all shapes and sizes, animals \"on strong water\", dried plants, stones, minerals, fossils and archaeological objects.",
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"plaintext": "Museum Scryption: This was a former museum in Tilburg with the main theme 'written communication'.",
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"plaintext": "SEA Foundation Tilburg: an internationally oriented art foundation, exhibition space and artist residence for artists, writers and curators.",
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"plaintext": "The collection that Stadsmuseum Tilburg manages falls into the Tilburg City Collection. In addition, it manages the Memory of Tilburg with more than 4400 stories.",
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"plaintext": "The tilburg city museum does not have a fixed location, but operates, among other things, in the Peerke Donders Pavilion and Vincent's Drawing Room.",
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"plaintext": "Vincent's drawing room: In Vincent's Drawing Room you will find a museum room where the authentic room of Vincent van Gogh has been recreated and a modern drawing room with drawing computers. Vincent van Gogh lived and studied several years in Tilburg. The house where he lived can't be visited. The square where the house is located has been redesigned in the Van Gogh style.",
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"plaintext": "Peerke Donders Pavilion: A museum for charity, in honor of Petrus Donders.",
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"plaintext": "A lot of parks and forests provide people from the Tilburg area with recreation. Leijpark and Reeshofpark are the largest among the parks in Tilburg. Leijpark was famous for Festival Mundial and lies next to St. Elisabeth hospital and a monastery, the Cenakel. Reeshofpark was created in the late 1990s, including some restaurants opened in 2011. Some older parks include Wilhelminapark in Oud-Noord, are built on the square of the former herd place Veldhoven. Tilburg offers, in comparison to other top-ten cities in the Netherlands, the most forest area. In the municipality, Tilburg has the Wandelbos, a forest south of the similarly named neighbourhood in Tilburg-West, the Oude Warande, the Kaaistoep, a forest of 4.5km2, and partially, Huis Ter Heide in the northwest of Tilburg, a 6.5km2-sized natural redevelopment area. Out of the municipality, there's a national park called Loonse en Drunense Duinen which includes dunes of drift sand from the west coast.",
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"plaintext": "The local football team is Willem II, named in remembrance of King William II.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg Ten Miles is an annual road running competition held in Tilburg.",
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"plaintext": "Students' sports like rowing and hockey are popular as well. Tilburg hosts three field hockey clubs that play in top national leagues.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg has an ice skating rink, including the 400m speed skating rink Ireen Wüst IJsbaan. Within the speed skating rink there's an ice hockey field. The hockey team Tilburg Trappers dominated the Eredivisie (Dutch Premier League) for years before moving to the Oberliga, the third tier of ice hockey in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg has three railway stations: Tilburg (Centraal), Tilburg Universiteit and Tilburg Reeshof. The latter was built to connect the then-latest district of Tilburg, the Reeshof. Intercity trains only stop at Tilburg (centraal). The name of Tilburg Universiteit Station was Tilburg West from its construction in 1968 to December 2010, however, after 40 years, it was not the westernmost station anymore. A fourth railway station is planned for Berkel-Enschot, also in the municipality of Tilburg and getting more absorbed into Tilburg. In the past, until 1938, Berkel-Enschot had its own train station. Udenhout, lying further northeast in the municipality, also had its train station until 1938. Both stations are on the line to 's-Hertogenbosch.",
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"plaintext": "The Tilburg city and local buses are operated by Veolia Transport Nederland. The city experimented from 2005 to 2008 with free public transport for children and 55+ people. Before Veolia took over the bus network, it was operated by BBA (abbreviation for Brabants(ch)e Buurtspoorwegen en Autobussen). It has since been transferred to Arriva.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg has an extensive bicycle path network called Sternet-Routes. The first bicycle path of this network was built between the city center and the university in 1975. From the mid-1990s, multiple bicycle paths (rather than lanes along the road) have been built. Since most of these have been paved by tiles, there is an increasing call for asphalt-paved paths. For this network of bicycle paths, some new tunnels were built under the railway that crosses the city.",
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"plaintext": "Tilburg is, at variance from other Dutch cities of a similar size, connected by only one national motorway, the A58 / E312 (to Breda and Eindhoven). An outer beltway, consisting of two provincial 2x2-roads and the A58, was finished in May 2012. Although the outer beltway is fully navigable, the Burgemeester Bechtweg, which was built initially as a two-lane (one per direction) road, was finished in 2013. Two other routes are of considerable importance for Tilburg: the A261/N261 to Waalwijk and the A65/N65 to 's-Hertogenbosch. Neither is a complete motorway, and both experience bottlenecks. Various plans exist to build both to higher standards, with the N261 improved in 2015.",
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"plaintext": " brothers Gerard van Spaendonck (1746–1822) & Cornelis van Spaendonck (1756–1839) Dutch painters",
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37,149 | 1,106,360,026 | Cranial_nerves | [
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"plaintext": "Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), of which there are conventionally considered twelve pairs. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck, including the special senses of vision, taste, smell, and hearing.",
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"plaintext": "The cranial nerves emerge from the central nervous system above the level of the first vertebrae of the vertebral column. Each cranial nerve is paired and is present on both sides. There are conventionally twelve pairs of cranial nerves, which are described with Roman numerals I–XII. Some considered there to be thirteen pairs of cranial nerves, including cranial nerve zero. The numbering of the cranial nerves is based on the order in which they emerge from the brain and brainstem, from front to back.",
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"plaintext": "The terminal nerves (0), olfactory nerves (I) and optic nerves (II) emerge from the cerebrum, and the remaining ten pairs arise from the brainstem, which is the lower part of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "The cranial nerves are considered components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), although on a structural level the olfactory (I), optic (II), and trigeminal (V) nerves are more accurately considered part of the central nervous system (CNS).",
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"plaintext": "Most typically, humans are considered to have twelve pairs of cranial nerves (I–XII), with the terminal nerve (0) more recently canonized. The nerves are: the olfactory nerve (I), the optic nerve (II), oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV), trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI), and the hypoglossal nerve (XII).",
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"plaintext": "Cranial nerves are generally named according to their structure or function. For example, the olfactory nerve (I) supplies smell, and the facial nerve (VII) supplies the muscles of the face. Because Latin was the lingua franca of the study of anatomy when the nerves were first documented, recorded, and discussed, many nerves maintain Latin or Greek names, including the trochlear nerve (IV), named according to its structure, as it supplies a muscle that attaches to a pulley (). The trigeminal nerve (V) is named in accordance with its three components ( meaning triplets), and the vagus nerve (X) is named for its wandering course ().",
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"plaintext": "Cranial nerves are numbered based on their position from front to back (rostral-caudal) of their position on the brain, as, when viewing the forebrain and brainstem from below, they are often visible in their numeric order. For example, the olfactory nerves (I) and optic nerves (II) arise from the base of the forebrain, and the other nerves, III to XII, arise from the brainstem.",
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"plaintext": "Cranial nerves have paths within and outside the skull. The paths within the skull are called \"intracranial\" and the paths outside the skull are called \"extracranial\". There are many holes in the skull called \"foramina\" by which the nerves can exit the skull. All cranial nerves are paired, which means they occur on both the right and left sides of the body. The muscle, skin, or additional function supplied by a nerve, on the same side of the body as the side it originates from, is an ipsilateral function. If the function is on the opposite side to the origin of the nerve, this is known as a contralateral function.",
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"plaintext": "Grossly, all cranial nerves have a Nucleus. With the exception of the olfactory nerve (I) and optic nerve (II), all the nuclei are present in the brainstem.",
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"plaintext": "The midbrain of the brainstem has the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV); the pons has the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII); and the medulla has the nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII). The olfactory nerve (I) emerges from the olfactory bulb, and depending slightly on division the optic nerve (II) is considered to emerge from the lateral geniculate nuclei.",
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"plaintext": "Because each nerve may have several functions, the nerve fibres that make up the nerve may collect in more than one nucleus. For example, the trigeminal nerve (V), which has a sensory and a motor role, has at least four nuclei.",
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"plaintext": "With the exception of the olfactory nerve (I) and optic nerve (II), the cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem. The oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV) emerge from the midbrain, the trigeminal (V), abducens (VI), facial (VII) and vestibulocochlea (VIII) from the pons, and the glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), accessory (XI) and hypoglossal (XII) emerge from the medulla.",
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"plaintext": "The olfactory nerve (I) and optic nerve (II) emerge separately. The olfactory nerves emerge from the olfactory bulbs on either side of the crista galli, a bony projection below the frontal lobe, and the optic nerves (II) emerge from the lateral colliculus, swellings on either side of the temporal lobes of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "The cranial nerves give rise to a number of ganglia, collections of the cell bodies of neurons in the nerves that are outside of the brain. These ganglia are both parasympathetic and sensory ganglia.",
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"plaintext": "The sensory ganglia of the cranial nerves, directly correspond to the dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves and are known as cranial nerve ganglia. Sensory ganglia exist for nerves with sensory function: V, VII, VIII, IX, X. There are also a number of parasympathetic cranial nerve ganglia. Sympathetic ganglia supplying the head and neck reside in the upper regions of the sympathetic trunk, and do not belong to the cranial nerves.",
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"plaintext": "The ganglion of the sensory nerves, which are similar in structure to the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord, include:",
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"plaintext": " The trigeminal ganglia of the trigeminal nerve (V), which occupies a space in the dura mater called Meckel's cave. This ganglion contains only the sensory fibres of the trigeminal nerve.",
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"plaintext": " The geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve (VII), which occurs just after the nerve enters the facial canal. ",
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"plaintext": " A superior and inferior ganglia of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), which occurs just after it passes through the jugular foramen.",
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"plaintext": "Additional ganglia for nerves with parasympathetic function exist, and include the ciliary ganglion of the oculomotor nerve (III), the pterygopalatine ganglion of the maxillary nerve (V2), the submandibular ganglion of the lingual nerve, a branch of the facial nerve (VII), and the otic ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX).",
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"plaintext": "After emerging from the brain, the cranial nerves travel within the skull, and some must leave it in order to reach their destinations. Often the nerves pass through holes in the skull, called foramina, as they travel to their destinations. Other nerves pass through bony canals, longer pathways enclosed by bone. These foramina and canals may contain more than one cranial nerve and may also contain blood vessels.",
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"plaintext": "The terminal nerve (0), is a thin network of fibers associated with the dura and lamina terminalis running rostral to the olfactory nerve, with projections through the cribriform plate.",
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"plaintext": " The olfactory nerve (I), passes through perforations in the cribriform plate part of the ethmoid bone. The nerve fibres end in the upper nasal cavity.",
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"plaintext": " The optic nerve (II) passes through the optic foramen in the sphenoid bone as it travels to the eye.",
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"plaintext": " The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV), abducens nerve (VI) and the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (V1) travel through the cavernous sinus into the superior orbital fissure, passing out of the skull into the orbit.",
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"plaintext": " The maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (V2) passes through foramen rotundum in the sphenoid bone.",
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"plaintext": " The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (V3) passes through foramen ovale of the sphenoid bone.",
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"plaintext": " The facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) both enter the internal auditory canal in the temporal bone. The facial nerve then reaches the side of the face by using the stylomastoid foramen, also in the temporal bone. Its fibers then spread out to reach and control all of the muscles of facial expression. The vestibulocochlear nerve reaches the organs that control balance and hearing in the temporal bone and therefore does not reach the external surface of the skull.",
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"plaintext": " The glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X) and accessory nerve (XI) all leave the skull via the jugular foramen to enter the neck. The glossopharyngeal nerve provides sensation to the upper throat and the back of the tongue, the vagus supplies the muscles in the larynx and continues downward to supply parasympathetic supply to the chest and abdomen. The accessory nerve controls the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles in the neck and shoulder.",
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"plaintext": "The hypoglossal nerve (XII) exits the skull using the hypoglossal canal in the occipital bone.",
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"plaintext": "The cranial nerves are formed from the contribution of two specialized embryonic cell populations, cranial neural crest and ectodermal placodes. The components of the sensory nervous system of the head are derived from the neural crest and from an embryonic cell population developing in close proximity, the cranial sensory placodes (the olfactory, lens, otic, trigeminal, epibranchial and paratympanic placodes). The dual origin cranial nerves are summarized in the following Table:",
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"plaintext": "Contributions of neural crest cells and placodes to ganglia and cranial nerves",
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"plaintext": "Abbreviations: CN, cranial nerve; m, purely motor nerve; mix, mixed nerve (sensory and motor); NC, neural crest; PA, pharyngeal (branchial) arch; r, rhombomere; s, purely sensory nerve. * There is no known ganglion of the accessory nerve. The cranial part of the accessory nerve sends occasional branches to the superior ganglion of the vagus nerve.",
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"plaintext": "The cranial nerves provide motor and sensory supply mainly to the structures within the head and neck. The sensory supply includes both \"general\" sensation such as temperature and touch, and \"special\" senses such as taste, vision, smell, balance and hearing. The vagus nerve (X) provides sensory and autonomic (parasympathetic) supply to structures in the neck and also to most of the organs in the chest and abdomen.",
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"plaintext": "The terminal nerve (0) may not have a role in humans, although it has been implicated in hormonal responses to smell, sexual response and mate selection.",
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"plaintext": "The olfactory nerve (I) conveys information giving rise to the sense of smell.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the olfactory nerve (I) can cause an inability to smell (anosmia), a distortion in the sense of smell (parosmia), or a distortion or lack of taste.",
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"plaintext": "The optic nerve (II) transmits visual information.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the optic nerve (II) affects specific aspects of vision that depend on the location of the damage. A person may not be able to see objects on their left or right sides (homonymous hemianopsia), or may have difficulty seeing objects from their outer visual fields (bitemporal hemianopsia) if the optic chiasm is involved. Inflammation (optic neuritis) may impact the sharpness of vision or colour detection",
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"plaintext": "The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI) coordinate eye movement. The oculomotor nerve controls all muscles of the eye except for the superior oblique muscle controlled by the trochlear nerve (IV), and the lateral rectus muscle controlled by the abducens nerve (VI). This means the ability of the eye to look down and inwards is controlled by the trochlear nerve (IV), the ability to look outwards is controlled by the abducens nerve (VI), and all other movements are controlled by the oculomotor nerve (III)",
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"plaintext": "Damage to these nerves may affect the movement of the eye. Damage may result in double vision (diplopia) because the movements of the eyes are not synchronized. Abnormalities of visual movement may also be seen on examination, such as jittering (nystagmus).",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the oculomotor nerve (III) can cause double vision and inability to coordinate the movements of both eyes (strabismus), also eyelid drooping (ptosis) and pupil dilation (mydriasis). Lesions may also lead to inability to open the eye due to paralysis of the levator palpebrae muscle. Individuals suffering from a lesion to the oculomotor nerve may compensate by tilting their heads to alleviate symptoms due to paralysis of one or more of the eye muscles it controls.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the trochlear nerve (IV) can also cause double vision with the eye adducted and elevated. The result will be an eye which can not move downwards properly (especially downwards when in an inward position). This is due to impairment in the superior oblique muscle.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the abducens nerve (VI) can also result in double vision. This is due to impairment in the lateral rectus muscle, supplied by the abducens nerve.",
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"plaintext": "The trigeminal nerve (V) and its three main branches the ophthalmic (V1), maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3) provide sensation to the skin of the face and also controls the muscles of chewing.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the trigeminal nerve leads to loss of sensation in an affected area. Other conditions affecting the trigeminal nerve (V) include trigeminal neuralgia, herpes zoster, sinusitis pain, presence of a dental abscess, and cluster headaches.",
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"plaintext": "The facial nerve (VII) controls most muscles of facial expression, supplies the sensation of taste from the front two-thirds of the tongue, and controls the stapedius muscle. Most muscles are supplied by the cortex on the opposite side of the brain; the exception is the frontalis muscle of the forehead, in which the left and the right side of the muscle both receive inputs from both sides of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the facial nerve (VII) may cause facial palsy. This is where a person is unable to move the muscles on one or both sides of their face. The most common cause of this is Bell's palsy, the ultimate cause of which is unknown. Patients with Bell's palsy often have a drooping mouth on the affected side and often have trouble chewing because the buccinator muscle is affected. The facial nerve is also the most commonly affected cranial nerve in blunt trauma.",
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"plaintext": "The vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) supplies information relating to balance and hearing via its two branches, the vestibular and cochlear nerves. The vestibular part is responsible for supplying sensation from the vestibules and semicircular canal of the inner ear, including information about balance, and is an important component of the vestibuloocular reflex, which keeps the head stable and allows the eyes to track moving objects. The cochlear nerve transmits information from the cochlea, allowing sound to be heard.",
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"plaintext": "When damaged, the vestibular nerve may give rise to the sensation of spinning and dizziness (vertigo). Function of the vestibular nerve may be tested by putting cold and warm water in the ears and watching eye movements caloric stimulation. Damage to the vestibulocochlear nerve can also present as repetitive and involuntary eye movements (nystagmus), particularly when the eye is moving horizontally. Damage to the cochlear nerve will cause partial or complete deafness in the affected ear.",
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"plaintext": "The glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) supplies the stylopharyngeus muscle and provides sensation to the oropharynx and back of the tongue. The glossopharyngeal nerve also provides parasympathetic input to the parotid gland.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the nerve may cause failure of the gag reflex; a failure may also be seen in damage to the vagus nerve (X).",
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"plaintext": "The vagus nerve (X) provides sensory and parasympathetic supply to structures in the neck and also to most of the organs in the chest and abdomen.",
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"plaintext": "Loss of function of the vagus nerve (X) will lead to a loss of parasympathetic supply to a very large number of structures. Major effects of damage to the vagus nerve may include a rise in blood pressure and heart rate. Isolated dysfunction of only the vagus nerve is rare, but – if the lesion is located above the point at which the vagus first branches off – can be indicated by a hoarse voice, due to dysfunction of one of its branches, the recurrent laryngeal nerve.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to this nerve may result in difficulties swallowing.",
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"plaintext": "The accessory nerve (XI) supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the accessory nerve (XI) will lead to weakness in the trapezius muscle on the same side as the damage. The trapezius lifts the shoulder when shrugging, so the affected shoulder will not be able to shrug and the shoulder blade (scapula) will protrude into a winged position. Depending on the location of the lesion there may also be weakness present in the sternocleidomastoid muscle, which acts to turn the head so that the face points to the opposite side.",
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"plaintext": "The hypoglossal nerve (XII) supplies the intrinsic muscles of the tongue, controlling tongue movement. The hypoglossal nerve (XII) is unique in that it is supplied by the motor cortices of both hemispheres of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Damage to the nerve may lead to fasciculations or wasting (atrophy) of the muscles of the tongue. This will lead to weakness of tongue movement on that side. When damaged and extended, the tongue will move towards the weaker or damaged side, as shown in the image. The fasciculations of the tongue are sometimes said to look like a \"bag of worms\". Damage to the nerve tract or nucleus will not lead to atrophy or fasciculations, but only weakness of the muscles on the same side as the damage.",
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"plaintext": "Doctors, neurologists and other medical professionals may conduct a cranial nerve examination as part of a neurological examination to examine the cranial nerves. This is a highly formalised series of steps involving specific tests for each nerve. Dysfunction of a nerve identified during testing may point to a problem with the nerve or of a part of the brain.",
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"plaintext": "A cranial nerve exam starts with observation of the patient, as some cranial nerve lesions may affect the symmetry of the eyes or face. Vision may be tested by examining the visual fields, or by examining the retina with an ophthalmoscope, using a process known as funduscopy. Visual field testing may be used to pin-point structural lesions in the optic nerve, or further along the visual pathways. Eye movement is tested and abnormalities such as nystagmus are observed for. The sensation of the face is tested, and patients are asked to perform different facial movements, such as puffing out of the cheeks. Hearing is checked by voice and tuning forks. The patient's uvula is examined. After performing a shrug and head turn, the patient's tongue function is assessed by various tongue movements.",
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"plaintext": "Smell is not routinely tested, but if there is suspicion of a change in the sense of smell, each nostril is tested with substances of known odors such as coffee or soap. Intensely smelling substances, for example ammonia, may lead to the activation of pain receptors of the trigeminal nerve (V) located in the nasal cavity and this can confound olfactory testing.",
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"plaintext": "Nerves may be compressed because of increased intracranial pressure, a mass effect of an intracerebral haemorrhage, or tumour that presses against the nerves and interferes with the transmission of impulses along the nerve. Loss of function of a cranial nerve may sometimes be the first symptom of an intracranial or skull base cancer.",
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"plaintext": "An increase in intracranial pressure may lead to impairment of the optic nerves (II) due to compression of the surrounding veins and capillaries, causing swelling of the eyeball (papilloedema). A cancer, such as an optic nerve glioma, may also impact the optic nerve (II). A pituitary tumour may compress the optic tracts or the optic chiasm of the optic nerve (II), leading to visual field loss. A pituitary tumour may also extend into the cavernous sinus, compressing the oculuomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI), leading to double-vision and strabismus. These nerves may also be affected by herniation of the temporal lobes of the brain through the falx cerebri.",
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"plaintext": "The cause of trigeminal neuralgia, in which one side of the face is exquisitely painful, is thought to be compression of the nerve by an artery as the nerve emerges from the brain stem. An acoustic neuroma, particularly at the junction between the pons and medulla, may compress the facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), leading to hearing and sensory loss on the affected side.",
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"plaintext": "Occlusion of blood vessels that supply the nerves or their nuclei, an ischemic stroke, may cause specific signs and symptoms relating to the damaged area. If there is a stroke of the midbrain, pons or medulla, various cranial nerves may be damaged, resulting in dysfunction and symptoms of a number of different syndromes. Thrombosis, such as a cavernous sinus thrombosis, refers to a clot (thrombus) affecting the venous drainage from the cavernous sinus, affects the optic (II), oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), opthalamic branch of the trigeminal nerve (V1) and the abducens nerve (VI).",
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"plaintext": "Inflammation of a cranial nerve can occur as a result of infection, such as viral causes like reactivated herpes simplex virus, or can occur spontaneously. Inflammation of the facial nerve (VII) may result in Bell's palsy.",
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"plaintext": "Multiple sclerosis, an inflammatory process resulting in a loss of the myelin sheathes which surround the cranial nerves, may cause a variety of shifting symptoms affecting multiple cranial nerves. Inflammation may also affect other cranial nerves. Other rarer inflammatory causes affecting the function of multiple cranial nerves include sarcoidosis, miliary tuberculosis, and inflammation of arteries, such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis.",
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"plaintext": "Trauma to the skull, disease of bone, such as Paget's disease, and injury to nerves during surgery are other causes of nerve damage.",
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"plaintext": "The Graeco-Roman anatomist Galen (AD 129–210) named seven pairs of cranial nerves. Much later, in 1664, English anatomist Sir Thomas Willis suggested that there were actually 9 pairs of nerves. Finally, in 1778, German anatomist Samuel Soemmering named the 12 pairs of nerves that are generally accepted today. However, because many of the nerves emerge from the brain stem as rootlets, there is continual debate as to how many nerves there actually are, and how they should be grouped. For example, there is reason to consider both the olfactory (I) and optic (II) nerves to be brain tracts, rather than cranial nerves.",
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"plaintext": "Cranial nerves are also present in other vertebrates. Other amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) have cranial nerves similar to those of humans. In anamniotes (fishes and amphibians), the accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII) do not exist, with the accessory nerve (XI) being an integral part of the vagus nerve (X); the hypoglossal nerve (XII) is represented by a variable number of spinal nerves emerging from vertebral segments fused into the occiput. These two nerves only became discrete nerves in the ancestors of amniotes. The very small terminal nerve (nerve N or O) exists in humans but may not be functional. In other animals, it appears to be important to sexual receptivity based on perceptions of pheromones.",
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"plaintext": " Cranial nerve mnemonics",
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| [
"Cranial_nerves"
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| 180,454 | 15,456 | 343 | 217 | 1 | 0 | cranial nerve | nerves that emerge directly from the brain and the brainstem | []
|
37,150 | 1,105,467,443 | White_cane | [
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"plaintext": "A white cane is a device used by many people who are blind or visually impaired. A white cane primarily allows its user to scan their surroundings for obstacles or orientation marks, but is also helpful for onlookers in identifying the user as blind or visually impaired and taking appropriate care. The latter is the reason for the cane's white colour, which in many jurisdictions is mandatory.",
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"plaintext": "Long cane: Designed primarily as a mobility tool used to detect objects in the path of a user. Cane length depends upon the height of a user, and traditionally extends from the floor to the user's sternum. It is the most well-known variant, though some organisations favor the use of much longer canes.",
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"plaintext": "Guide cane: A shorter cane, generally extending from the floor to the user's waist, with more limited potential as a mobility device. It is used to scan for kerbs and steps. The guide cane can also be used diagonally across the body for protection, warning the user of obstacles immediately ahead.",
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"plaintext": "Identification cane (sometimes shortened to ID cane and known as the symbol cane in British English): Used primarily to alert others that the user is visually impaired, but not to the extent where they require a long cane or other variant. It is often lighter and shorter than the long cane, and has no use as a mobility tool.",
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"plaintext": "Support cane: Designed primarily to offer physical stability to a visually impaired user, the cane also works as a means of identification. It has very limited potential as a mobility device.",
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"plaintext": "Kiddie cane: This variant functions exactly the same as an adult's long cane but is designed for use by children, and is thus smaller and lighter.",
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"plaintext": "Green cane: Used in some countries, such as Argentina, to designate that the user has low vision, while the white cane designates that a user is completely blind.",
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"plaintext": "Mobility canes are often made from aluminium, graphite-reinforced plastic or other fibre-reinforced plastic, and can come with a wide variety of tips depending upon user preference.",
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"plaintext": "White canes can be either collapsible or straight, with both versions having pros and cons. The National Federation of the Blind in the United States affirms that the lightness and greater length of the straight canes allows greater mobility and safety, though collapsible canes can be stored with more ease, giving them advantage in crowded areas such as classrooms and public events.",
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"plaintext": "Blind people have used canes as mobility tools for centuries.",
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"plaintext": "In 1921 James Biggs, a photographer from Bristol who became blind after an accident and was uncomfortable with the amount of traffic around his home, painted his walking stick white to be more easily visible.<ref>'Mobility of Visually Impaired People: Fundamentals and ICT Assistive Technologies p. 363</ref>",
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"plaintext": "In 1931 in France, Guilly d'Herbemont launched a national white stick movement for blind people. On February 7, 1931, Guilly d'Herbemont symbolically gave the first two white canes to blind people, in the presence of several French ministers. 5,000 more white canes were later sent to blind French veterans from World War I and blind civilians.",
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"plaintext": "The first special white cane ordinance was passed in December 1930 in Peoria, Illinois, granting blind pedestrians protections and the right-of-way while carrying a white cane.",
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"plaintext": "The long cane was improved upon by World War II veterans rehabilitation specialist, Richard E. Hoover, at Valley Forge Army Hospital. In 1944, he took the Lions Club white cane (originally made of wood) and went around the hospital blindfolded for a week. During this time he developed what is now the standard method of \"long cane\" training or the Hoover Method. He is now called the \"Father of the Lightweight Long Cane Technique\". The basic technique is to swing the cane from the center of the body back and forth before the feet. The cane should be swept before the rear foot as the person steps. Before he taught other rehabilitators, or \"orientors\", his new technique he had a special commission to have light weight, long white canes made for the veterans of the European fronts.",
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"plaintext": "On October 6, 1964, a joint resolution of the Congress, HR 753, was signed into law authorizing the President of the United States to proclaim October 15 of each year as \"White Cane Safety Day\". President Lyndon Johnson was the first to make this proclamation.",
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"plaintext": "While the white cane is commonly accepted as a \"symbol of blindness\", different countries still have different rules concerning what constitutes a \"cane for the blind\".",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, laws vary from state to state, but in all cases, those carrying white canes are afforded the right-of-way when crossing a road. They are afforded the right to use their cane in any public place as well. In some cases, it is illegal for a non-blind person to use a white cane with the intent of being given right-of-way.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2002, Argentina passed a law recognizing the use of green canes by people with low vision, stating that the nation would \"adopt from this law, the use of a green cane in the whole of Argentina as a means of orientation and mobility for people with low vision. It will have the same characteristics in weight, length, elastic grip and fluorescent ring as do white canes used by the blind.\"",
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"plaintext": "In Germany, people carrying a white cane are excepted from the (trust principle), therefore meaning that other traffic participants should not rely on them to adhere to all traffic regulations and practices. Although there is no general duty to mark oneself as blind or otherwise disabled, a blind or visually impaired person involved in a traffic accident without having marked themselves may be held responsible for damages unless they prove that their lack of marking was not causal or otherwise related to the accident.",
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"plaintext": "In many countries, including the UK, a cane is not generally introduced to a child until they are between 7 and 10 years old. However, more recently canes have been started to be introduced as soon as a child learns to walk to aid development with great success.",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Cutter and Lilli Nielsen, pioneers in research on the development of blind and disabled children, have begun to introduce new research on mobility in blind infants in children. Cutter's book, Independent Movement and Travel in Blind Children'', recommends a cane to be introduced as early as possible, so that the blind child learns to use it and move around naturally and organically, the same way a sighted child learns to walk. A longer cane, between nose and chin height, is recommended to compensate for a child's more immature grasp and tendency to hold the handle of the cane by the side instead of out in front. Mature cane technique should not be expected from a child, and style and technique can be refined as the child gets older.",
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37,151 | 1,095,262,911 | Association_for_the_Taxation_of_Financial_Transactions_and_for_Citizens'_Action | [
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"plaintext": "In December 1997, Ignacio Ramonet wrote in Le Monde diplomatique an editorial in which he advocated the establishment of the Tobin tax and the creation of an organisation to pressure governments around the world to introduce the tax. ATTAC was created on June 3, 1998, during a constitutive assembly in France. While it was founded in France it now exists in over forty countries around the world. In France, politicians from the left are members of the association. In Luxembourg, Francois Bausch of the left Green party is the founding politician in the association's initial member list.",
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"plaintext": "In 1960, UNIVAC built the Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC), today considered among the first supercomputers, for the US Navy Research and Development Center. It still used high-speed drum memory, rather than the newly emerging disk drive technology. Also, among the first supercomputers was the IBM 7030 Stretch. The IBM 7030 was built by IBM for the Los Alamos National Laboratory, which in 1955 had requested a computer 100 times faster than any existing computer. The IBM 7030 used transistors, magnetic core memory, pipelined instructions, prefetched data through a memory controller and included pioneering random access disk drives. The IBM 7030 was completed in 1961 and despite not meeting the challenge of a hundredfold increase in performance, it was purchased by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. Customers in England and France also bought the computer, and it became the basis for the IBM 7950 Harvest, a supercomputer built for cryptanalysis.",
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"plaintext": "The third pioneering supercomputer project in the early 1960s was the Atlas at the University of Manchester, built by a team led by Tom Kilburn. He designed the Atlas to have memory space for up to a million words of 48 bits, but because magnetic storage with such a capacity was unaffordable, the actual core memory of the Atlas was only 16,000 words, with a drum providing memory for a further 96,000 words. The Atlas operating system swapped data in the form of pages between the magnetic core and the drum. The Atlas operating system also introduced time-sharing to supercomputing, so that more than one program could be executed on the supercomputer at any one time. Atlas was a joint venture between Ferranti and the Manchester University and was designed to operate at processing speeds approaching onemicrosecond per instruction, about onemillion instructions per second.",
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"plaintext": "The CDC 6600, designed by Seymour Cray, was finished in 1964 and marked the transition from germanium to silicon transistors. Silicon transistors could run more quickly and the overheating problem was solved by introducing refrigeration to the supercomputer design. Thus, the CDC6600 became the fastest computer in the world. Given that the 6600 outperformed all the other contemporary computers by about 10 times, it was dubbed a supercomputer and defined the supercomputing market, when one hundred computers were sold at $8 million each.",
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"plaintext": "Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company, Cray Research. Four years after leaving CDC, Cray delivered the 80MHz Cray-1 in 1976, which became one of the most successful supercomputers in history. The Cray-2 was released in 1985. It had eight central processing units (CPUs), liquid cooling and the electronics coolant liquid Fluorinert was pumped through the supercomputer architecture. It reached 1.9gigaFLOPS, making it the first supercomputer to break the gigaflop barrier.",
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"plaintext": "The only computer to seriously challenge the Cray-1's performance in the 1970s was the ILLIAC IV. This machine was the first realized example of a true massively parallel computer, in which many processors worked together to solve different parts of a single larger problem. In contrast with the vector systems, which were designed to run a single stream of data as quickly as possible, in this concept, the computer instead feeds separate parts of the data to entirely different processors and then recombines the results. The ILLIAC's design was finalized in 1966 with 256 processors and offer speed up to 1GFLOPS, compared to the 1970s Cray-1's peak of 250MFLOPS. However, development problems led to only 64 processors being built, and the system could never operate more quickly than about 200MFLOPS while being much larger and more complex than the Cray. Another problem was that writing software for the system was difficult, and getting peak performance from it was a matter of serious effort.",
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"plaintext": "But the partial success of the ILLIAC IV was widely seen as pointing the way to the future of supercomputing. Cray argued against this, famously quipping that \"If you were plowing a field, which would you rather use? Two strong oxen or 1024 chickens?\" But by the early 1980s, several teams were working on parallel designs with thousands of processors, notably the Connection Machine (CM) that developed from research at MIT. The CM-1 used as many as 65,536 simplified custom microprocessors connected together in a network to share data. Several updated versions followed; the CM-5 supercomputer is a massively parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, Osaka University's LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System used a massively parallel processing architecture, with 514 microprocessors, including 257 Zilog Z8001 control processors and 257 iAPX 86/20 floating-point processors. It was mainly used for rendering realistic 3D computer graphics. Fujitsu's VPP500 from 1992 is unusual since, to achieve higher speeds, its processors used GaAs, a material normally reserved for microwave applications due to its toxicity. Fujitsu's Numerical Wind Tunnel supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a peak speed of 1.7gigaFLOPS (GFLOPS) per processor. The Hitachi SR2201 obtained a peak performance of 600GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional crossbar network. The Intel Paragon could have 1000 to 4000 Intel i860 processors in various configurations and was ranked the fastest in the world in 1993. The Paragon was a MIMD machine which connected processors via a high speed two-dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the Message Passing Interface.",
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"plaintext": "Software development remained a problem, but the CM series sparked off considerable research into this issue. Similar designs using custom hardware were made by many companies, including the Evans & Sutherland ES-1, MasPar, nCUBE, Intel iPSC and the Goodyear MPP. But by the mid-1990s, general-purpose CPU performance had improved so much in that a supercomputer could be built using them as the individual processing units, instead of using custom chips. By the turn of the 21st century, designs featuring tens of thousands of commodity CPUs were the norm, with later machines adding graphic units to the mix.",
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"plaintext": "Systems with a massive number of processors generally take one of two paths. In the grid computing approach, the processing power of many computers, organized as distributed, diverse administrative domains, is opportunistically used whenever a computer is available. In another approach, many processors are used in proximity to each other, e.g. in a computer cluster. In such a centralized massively parallel system the speed and flexibility of the becomes very important and modern supercomputers have used various approaches ranging from enhanced Infiniband systems to three-dimensional torus interconnects. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging direction, e.g. as in the Cyclops64 system.",
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"plaintext": "As the price, performance and energy efficiency of general-purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs) have improved, a number of petaFLOPS supercomputers such as Tianhe-I and Nebulae have started to rely on them. However, other systems such as the K computer continue to use conventional processors such as SPARC-based designs and the overall applicability of GPGPUs in general-purpose high-performance computing applications has been the subject of debate, in that while a GPGPU may be tuned to score well on specific benchmarks, its overall applicability to everyday algorithms may be limited unless significant effort is spent to tune the application to it. However, GPUs are gaining ground, and in 2012 the Jaguar supercomputer was transformed into Titan by retrofitting CPUs with GPUs.",
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"plaintext": "High-performance computers have an expected life cycle of about three years before requiring an upgrade. The Gyoukou supercomputer is unique in that it uses both a massively parallel design and liquid immersion cooling.",
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"plaintext": "A number of special-purpose systems have been designed, dedicated to a single problem. This allows the use of specially programmed FPGA chips or even custom ASICs, allowing better price/performance ratios by sacrificing generality. Examples of special-purpose supercomputers include Belle, Deep Blue, and Hydra for playing chess, Gravity Pipe for astrophysics, MDGRAPE-3 for protein structure prediction and molecular dynamics, and Deep Crack for breaking the DES cipher.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the decades, the management of heat density has remained a key issue for most centralized supercomputers. The large amount of heat generated by a system may also have other effects, e.g. reducing the lifetime of other system components. There have been diverse approaches to heat management, from pumping Fluorinert through the system, to a hybrid liquid-air cooling system or air cooling with normal air conditioning temperatures. A typical supercomputer consumes large amounts of electrical power, almost all of which is converted into heat, requiring cooling. For example, Tianhe-1A consumes 4.04megawatts (MW) of electricity. The cost to power and cool the system can be significant, e.g. 4MW at $0.10/kWh is $400 an hour or about $3.5 million per year.",
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"plaintext": "Heat management is a major issue in complex electronic devices and affects powerful computer systems in various ways. The thermal design power and CPU power dissipation issues in supercomputing surpass those of traditional computer cooling technologies. The supercomputing awards for green computing reflect this issue.",
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"plaintext": "The packing of thousands of processors together inevitably generates significant amounts of heat density that need to be dealt with. The Cray-2 was liquid cooled, and used a Fluorinert \"cooling waterfall\" which was forced through the modules under pressure. However, the submerged liquid cooling approach was not practical for the multi-cabinet systems based on off-the-shelf processors, and in System X a special cooling system that combined air conditioning with liquid cooling was developed in conjunction with the Liebert company.",
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"plaintext": "In the Blue Gene system, IBM deliberately used low power processors to deal with heat density. The IBM Power 775, released in 2011, has closely packed elements that require water cooling. The IBM Aquasar system uses hot water cooling to achieve energy efficiency, the water being used to heat buildings as well.",
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"plaintext": "The energy efficiency of computer systems is generally measured in terms of \"FLOPS per watt\". In 2008, Roadrunner by IBM operated at 3.76MFLOPS/W. In November 2010, the Blue Gene/Q reached 1,684MFLOPS/W and in June 2011 the top two spots on the Green 500 list were occupied by Blue Gene machines in New York (one achieving 2097MFLOPS/W) with the DEGIMA cluster in Nagasaki placing third with 1375MFLOPS/W.",
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"plaintext": "Because copper wires can transfer energy into a supercomputer with much higher power densities than forced air or circulating refrigerants can remove waste heat, the ability of the cooling systems to remove waste heat is a limiting factor. , many existing supercomputers have more infrastructure capacity than the actual peak demand of the machine designers generally conservatively design the power and cooling infrastructure to handle more than the theoretical peak electrical power consumed by the supercomputer. Designs for future supercomputers are power-limited the thermal design power of the supercomputer as a whole, the amount that the power and cooling infrastructure can handle, is somewhat more than the expected normal power consumption, but less than the theoretical peak power consumption of the electronic hardware.",
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"plaintext": "Since the end of the 20th century, supercomputer operating systems have undergone major transformations, based on the changes in supercomputer architecture. While early operating systems were custom tailored to each supercomputer to gain speed, the trend has been to move away from in-house operating systems to the adaptation of generic software such as Linux.",
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"plaintext": "Since modern massively parallel supercomputers typically separate computations from other services by using multiple types of nodes, they usually run different operating systems on different nodes, e.g. using a small and efficient lightweight kernel such as CNK or CNL on compute nodes, but a larger system such as a Linux-derivative on server and I/O nodes.",
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"plaintext": "While in a traditional multi-user computer system job scheduling is, in effect, a tasking problem for processing and peripheral resources, in a massively parallel system, the job management system needs to manage the allocation of both computational and communication resources, as well as gracefully deal with inevitable hardware failures when tens of thousands of processors are present.",
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"plaintext": "Although most modern supercomputers use Linux-based operating systems, each manufacturer has its own specific Linux-derivative, and no industry standard exists, partly due to the fact that the differences in hardware architectures require changes to optimize the operating system to each hardware design.",
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"plaintext": "The parallel architectures of supercomputers often dictate the use of special programming techniques to exploit their speed. Software tools for distributed processing include standard APIs such as MPI and PVM, VTL, and open source software such as Beowulf.",
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"plaintext": "In the most common scenario, environments such as PVM and MPI for loosely connected clusters and OpenMP for tightly coordinated shared memory machines are used. Significant effort is required to optimize an algorithm for the interconnect characteristics of the machine it will be run on; the aim is to prevent any of the CPUs from wasting time waiting on data from other nodes. GPGPUs have hundreds of processor cores and are programmed using programming models such as CUDA or OpenCL.",
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"plaintext": "Moreover, it is quite difficult to debug and test parallel programs. Special techniques need to be used for testing and debugging such applications.",
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"plaintext": "Opportunistic supercomputing is a form of networked grid computing whereby a \"super virtual computer\" of many loosely coupled volunteer computing machines performs very large computing tasks. Grid computing has been applied to a number of large-scale embarrassingly parallel problems that require supercomputing performance scales. However, basic grid and cloud computing approaches that rely on volunteer computing cannot handle traditional supercomputing tasks such as fluid dynamic simulations.",
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"plaintext": "The fastest grid computing system is the distributed computing project Folding@home (F@h). , F@h reported 2.5exaFLOPS of x86 processing power. Of this, over 100PFLOPS are contributed by clients running on various GPUs, and the rest from various CPU systems.",
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"plaintext": "The Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform hosts a number of distributed computing projects. , BOINC recorded a processing power of over 166petaFLOPS through over 762thousand active Computers (Hosts) on the network.",
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"plaintext": ", Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search's (GIMPS) distributed Mersenne Prime search achieved about 0.313PFLOPS through over 1.3million computers. The Internet PrimeNet Server supports GIMPS's grid computing approach, one of the earliest and most successful grid computing projects, since 1997.",
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"plaintext": "Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing is a form of distributed computing whereby the \"super virtual computer\" of many networked geographically disperse computers performs computing tasks that demand huge processing power. Quasi-opportunistic supercomputing aims to provide a higher quality of service than opportunistic grid computing by achieving more control over the assignment of tasks to distributed resources and the use of intelligence about the availability and reliability of individual systems within the supercomputing network. However, quasi-opportunistic distributed execution of demanding parallel computing software in grids should be achieved through implementation of grid-wise allocation agreements, co-allocation subsystems, communication topology-aware allocation mechanisms, fault tolerant message passing libraries and data pre-conditioning.",
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"plaintext": "Cloud computing with its recent and rapid expansions and development have grabbed the attention of high-performance computing (HPC) users and developers in recent years. Cloud computing attempts to provide HPC-as-a-service exactly like other forms of services available in the cloud such as software as a service, platform as a service, and infrastructure as a service. HPC users may benefit from the cloud in different angles such as scalability, resources being on-demand, fast, and inexpensive. On the other hand, moving HPC applications have a set of challenges too. Good examples of such challenges are virtualization overhead in the cloud, multi-tenancy of resources, and network latency issues. Much research is currently being done to overcome these challenges and make HPC in the cloud a more realistic possibility.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, Penguin Computing, Parallel Works, R-HPC, Amazon Web Services, Univa, Silicon Graphics International, Rescale, Sabalcore, and Gomput started to offer HPC cloud computing. The Penguin On Demand (POD) cloud is a bare-metal compute model to execute code, but each user is given virtualized login node. POD computing nodes are connected via non-virtualized 10 Gbit/s Ethernet or QDR InfiniBand networks. User connectivity to the POD data center ranges from 50Mbit/s to 1Gbit/s. Citing Amazon's EC2 Elastic Compute Cloud, Penguin Computing argues that virtualization of compute nodes is not suitable for HPC. Penguin Computing has also criticized that HPC clouds may have allocated computing nodes to customers that are far apart, causing latency that impairs performance for some HPC applications.",
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"plaintext": "Supercomputers generally aim for the maximum in capability computing rather than capacity computing. Capability computing is typically thought of as using the maximum computing power to solve a single large problem in the shortest amount of time. Often a capability system is able to solve a problem of a size or complexity that no other computer can, e.g. a very complex weather simulation application.",
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"plaintext": "Capacity computing, in contrast, is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve a few somewhat large problems or many small problems. Architectures that lend themselves to supporting many users for routine everyday tasks may have a lot of capacity but are not typically considered supercomputers, given that they do not solve a single very complex problem.",
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"plaintext": "In general, the speed of supercomputers is measured and benchmarked in FLOPS (floating-point operations per second), and not in terms of MIPS (million instructions per second), as is the case with general-purpose computers. These measurements are commonly used with an SI prefix such as tera-, combined into the shorthand TFLOPS (1012 FLOPS, pronounced teraflops), or peta-, combined into the shorthand PFLOPS (1015 FLOPS, pronounced petaflops.) Petascale supercomputers can process one quadrillion (1015) (1000trillion) FLOPS. Exascale is computing performance in the exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) range. An EFLOPS is one quintillion (1018) FLOPS (one million TFLOPS).",
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"plaintext": "No single number can reflect the overall performance of a computer system, yet the goal of the Linpack benchmark is to approximate how fast the computer solves numerical problems and it is widely used in the industry. The FLOPS measurement is either quoted based on the theoretical floating point performance of a processor (derived from manufacturer's processor specifications and shown as \"Rpeak\" in the TOP500 lists), which is generally unachievable when running real workloads, or the achievable throughput, derived from the LINPACK benchmarks and shown as \"Rmax\" in the TOP500 list. The LINPACK benchmark typically performs LU decomposition of a large matrix. The LINPACK performance gives some indication of performance for some real-world problems, but does not necessarily match the processing requirements of many other supercomputer workloads, which for example may require more memory bandwidth, or may require better integer computing performance, or may need a high performance I/O system to achieve high levels of performance.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1993, the fastest supercomputers have been ranked on the TOP500 list according to their LINPACK benchmark results. The list does not claim to be unbiased or definitive, but it is a widely cited current definition of the \"fastest\" supercomputer available at any given time.",
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"plaintext": "This is a recent list of the computers which appeared at the top of the TOP500 list, and the \"Peak speed\" is given as the \"Rmax\" rating. In 2018, Lenovo became the world's largest provider for the TOP500 supercomputers with 117 units produced.",
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"plaintext": "The stages of supercomputer application may be summarized in the following table:",
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"plaintext": "The IBM Blue Gene/P computer has been used to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to approximately one percent of a human cerebral cortex, containing 1.6billion neurons with approximately 9trillion connections. The same research group also succeeded in using a supercomputer to simulate a number of artificial neurons equivalent to the entirety of a rat's brain.",
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"plaintext": "Modern-day weather forecasting also relies on supercomputers. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration uses supercomputers to crunch hundreds of millions of observations to help make weather forecasts more accurate.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, the challenges and difficulties in pushing the envelope in supercomputing were underscored by IBM's abandonment of the Blue Waters petascale project.",
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"plaintext": "The Advanced Simulation and Computing Program currently uses supercomputers to maintain and simulate the United States nuclear stockpile.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2020, COVID-19 was front and center in the world. Supercomputers used different simulations to find compounds that could potentially stop the spread. These computers run for tens of hours using multiple paralleled running CPU's to model different processes.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2010s, China, the United States, the European Union, and others competed to be the first to create a 1exaFLOP (1018 or one quintillion FLOPS) supercomputer. Erik P. DeBenedictis of Sandia National Laboratories has theorized that a zettaFLOPS (1021 or one sextillion FLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full weather modeling, which could cover a two-week time span accurately. Such systems might be built around 2030.",
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"plaintext": "Many Monte Carlo simulations use the same algorithm to process a randomly generated data set; particularly, integro-differential equations describing physical transport processes, the random paths, collisions, and energy and momentum depositions of neutrons, photons, ions, electrons, etc. The next step for microprocessors may be into the third dimension; and specializing to Monte Carlo, the many layers could be identical, simplifying the design and manufacture process.",
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"plaintext": "The cost of operating high performance supercomputers has risen, mainly due to increasing power consumption. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer required in the range of 100kilowatts, in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required between 1 and 2megawatts. A 2010 study commissioned by DARPA identified power consumption as the most pervasive challenge in achieving Exascale computing. At the time a megawatt per year in energy consumption cost about 1million dollars. Supercomputing facilities were constructed to efficiently remove the increasing amount of heat produced by modern multi-core central processing units. Based on the energy consumption of the Green 500 list of supercomputers between 2007 and 2011, a supercomputer with 1exaFLOPS in 2011 would have required nearly 500megawatts. Operating systems were developed for existing hardware to conserve energy whenever possible. CPU cores not in use during the execution of a parallelized application were put into low-power states, producing energy savings for some supercomputing applications.",
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"plaintext": "The increasing cost of operating supercomputers has been a driving factor in a trend toward bundling of resources through a distributed supercomputer infrastructure. National supercomputing centers first emerged in the US, followed by Germany and Japan. The European Union launched the Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe (PRACE) with the aim of creating a persistent pan-European supercomputer infrastructure with services to support scientists across the European Union in porting, scaling and optimizing supercomputing applications. Iceland built the world's first zero-emission supercomputer. Located at the Thor Data Center in Reykjavík, Iceland, this supercomputer relies on completely renewable sources for its power rather than fossil fuels. The colder climate also reduces the need for active cooling, making it one of the greenest facilities in the world of computers.",
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"plaintext": "Funding supercomputer hardware also became increasingly difficult. In the mid-1990s a top 10 supercomputer cost about 10million euros, while in 2010 the top 10 supercomputers required an investment of between 40 and 50million euros. In the 2000s national governments put in place different strategies to fund supercomputers. In the UK the national government funded supercomputers entirely and high performance computing was put under the control of a national funding agency. Germany developed a mixed funding model, pooling local state funding and federal funding.",
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"plaintext": "Many science fiction writers have depicted supercomputers in their works, both before and after the historical construction of such computers. Much of such fiction deals with the relations of humans with the computers they build and with the possibility of conflict eventually developing between them. Examples of supercomputers in fiction include HAL 9000, Multivac, The Machine Stops, GLaDOS, The Evitable Conflict, Vulcan's Hammer, Colossus, WOPR, and Deep Thought.",
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"plaintext": " ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference",
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"plaintext": " ACM SIGHPC",
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"plaintext": " High-performance computing",
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"plaintext": " High-performance technical computing",
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"plaintext": " Jungle computing",
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"plaintext": " Nvidia Tesla Personal Supercomputer",
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"plaintext": " Parallel computing",
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"plaintext": " Supercomputing in China",
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"plaintext": " Supercomputing in Europe",
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"plaintext": " Supercomputing in India",
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"plaintext": " Supercomputing in Japan",
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"plaintext": " Testing high-performance computing applications",
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},
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"plaintext": " Ultra Network Technologies",
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"plaintext": " Quantum computing",
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},
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"plaintext": " McDonnell, Marshall T. (2013) \"Supercomputer Design: An Initial Effort to Capture the Environmental, Economic, and Societal Impacts\". Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Publications and Other Works.",
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| 121,117 | 34,898 | 1,342 | 263 | 0 | 0 | supercomputer | extremely powerful computer for its era | [
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37,154 | 1,105,596,170 | Coxsackie_A_virus | [
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"plaintext": "Coxsackie A virus (CAV) is a cytolytic Coxsackievirus of the Picornaviridae family, an enterovirus (a group containing the polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, and echoviruses).",
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"plaintext": "Coxsackie A virus is a subgroup of enterovirus A, which are small, non-enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses. Its protective, icosahedral capsid has an external portion that contains sixty copies of viral proteins (VP1,-2,-3) and an internal portion surrounding the RNA genome containing sixty copies of VP4 viral proteins. This capsid mediates cell entry and elicits the humoral immune responses. Enteroviruses have a depression encircling each fivefold axis (canyon), which is their binding site for immunoglobulin-like receptors. This binding can trigger viral expansion and release of its genome.",
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"plaintext": "A complete genome analysis of Coxsackie virus A2, A4, A5, and A10 strains isolated from individuals with hand-foot-mouth disease showed that natural recombination is frequent in the virus's evolution. Its strains in China were related to strains in Mongolia, Taiwan, likely to those that circulated in Europe, and form a distinct lineage from strains imported from Japan and South Korea.",
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"plaintext": "Replication of the coxsackie virus happens through contributions of the host and virus components. The virus enters the cell where it is internalized into endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. After viral un-coating, viral RNA is released. Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum translate the RNA into viral polyprotein. This polyprotein is processed into structural protein P1 and non-structural proteins P2 and P3. Via the virus-encoded proteinase, P1 is processed into the viral capsid subunit proteins VP0, -1, -3. The 5'-non-coding region contains sequences that control genome replication and translation, while the 3'-non-coding region contains polyA tail needed for virus infectivity.",
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"plaintext": "The most well known Coxsackie A disease is hand, foot and mouth disease (unrelated to foot-and-mouth disease), a common childhood illness which affects mostly children aged 5 or under, often produced by Coxsackie A16. In most individuals, infection is asymptomatic or causes only mild symptoms. In others, infection produces short-lived (7–10 days) fever and painful blisters in the mouth (a condition known as herpangina), on the palms and fingers of the hand, or on the soles of the feet. There can also be blisters in the throat, or on or above the tonsils. Adults can also be affected. The rash, which can appear several days after high temperature and painful sore throat, can be itchy and painful, especially on the hands/fingers and bottom of feet.",
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"plaintext": "Other diseases include acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis (A24 specifically), herpangina, and aseptic meningitis (both Coxsackie A and B viruses). Coxsackievirus A7 is associated with neurological diseases and can cause paralytic poliomyelitis.",
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"plaintext": "Coxsackie A virus leads to a number of diseases, however the most common signs and symptoms that appear with infection are fever and flu-like symptoms, mouth sores, and skin rashes. People who are infected may present with a mild fever and sore throat, and a general discomfort three to six days subsequent to exposure. Painful mouth sores (herpangina) may be present in the back of the mouth. These sores usually appear 24 hours after the flu like symptoms begin, and may blister, causing further discomfort when eating or drinking. A flat, red skin rash may appear, commonly accompanied by fluid filled blisters and scabbing. Rash will commonly present on the bottom of the feet, palm of hands, and other areas of the body, and persists upwards to ten days.",
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"plaintext": "When the symptoms are incredibly severe, some may require hospitalization due to dehydration caused by inability to swallow food or water without pain, or seizures and convulsions can occur due to high fever. Signs of dehydration include dry skin, unintentional weight loss, or decreased urine output/darkened urine and if present should refer to a health care provider for intervention. Other serious complications include inflammatory brain conditions, such as viral meningitis or encephalitis, which require medical intervention. A professional health care may need to monitor if the someone infected is immunocompromised, or the symptoms do not improve within ten days.",
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"plaintext": "The diagnosis of this disease centers around the appearance and behavior of fever, rash and mouth sores. Outside of the symptoms, age is also taken into consideration as the most common age of infection is under five years of age. A healthcare professional may choose to confirm the diagnosis through collecting samples from mouth sores and skin blisters, or a stool sample may also be ordered to rule out any other causes.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2008, coxsackievirus A6 (CVA6) has been associated with several worldwide outbreaks of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD). In Finland, the initial HFMD case caused by the CVA6 lead to its identification of being the responsible pathogen of the outbreaks in Europe, North America, and Asia. Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) has also been linked to HFMD.",
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"plaintext": "Outbreaks are more commonly seen amongst children (those seven and younger) compared to outbreaks rates amongst adults. Due to this, there are outbreaks within daycares, summer camps, and early autumn.",
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"plaintext": "Serious pregnancy complications due to hand, foot, and mouth disease are rare due to its limited data. However, HFMD is concerning if the mother contracts the virus at the end of her pregnancy. CVA16 infection has been associated with third trimester massive perivillous fibrin deposition leading to intrauterine death. It has also led to first trimester spontaneous abortions. Overall, there is limited information about the Coxsackievirus A strain in pregnant women.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, there has been some reports of the Coxsackievirus B (CVB) with regards to pregnant women. Contraction of the CVB are not associated with a higher risk of spontaneous abortions. Although, complications at the end of the pregnancy carries an increased risk of stillbirth or HFMD in the child. There have been reports of congenital heart defects and urogenital anomalies within the newborns of women who seroconverted to CVB during pregnancy. CVB is responsible for up to half of all individuals with pediatric myocarditis. In the past, it has been stated that newborns who have contracted CVB have a 75% mortality from myocarditis.",
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"plaintext": "The Coxsackie A Virus is a highly contagious virus that commonly causes the mild hand, foot, and mouth disease but complications may lead to more serious diseases that can affect the heart, lungs, muscles, and more. The modes of transmission of the Coxsackie virus is primarily through contact between people, respiratory droplets (fluid from coughing and sneezing), and contaminated surfaces. All age groups can become infected with the Coxsackie virus, however it occurs most frequently in young children under the age of 10 and in who have a weakened immune system.",
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"plaintext": "The main ways the Coxsackie Virus spreads are:",
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"plaintext": " By direct transmission (when an infected person coughs or sneezes into any mucous membranes of the face i.e. eyes, nose, and mouth)",
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"plaintext": " Fecal-oral transmission (virus in the fecal matter of an infected individual end up in the mouth of another person)",
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"plaintext": " Via surface contact (when an infected person touches their face then a surface, the surface is contaminated with that virus. The next person comes along and touches the same surface then touches their face)",
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"plaintext": " Via airborne transmission (when an uninfected person inhales respiratory droplets of an infected person)",
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"plaintext": "Although adults are less susceptible to infection, it is still possible for an adult to get infected with the Coxsackie virus. If a pregnant mother is infected, there is a 30-50% chance the infection will be passed on to the infant.",
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"plaintext": "There is no vaccine to reduce the chances of infection and spread. It is critical to use non-pharmacological interventions to reduce the spread and transmission of Coxsackie virus. The best and most effective strategy for prevention is adopting proper hand hygiene, avoiding contact with the infected, abstain from touching mucous membranes of the face, and sanitizing frequently touched surfaces.",
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"plaintext": "Some of those who are infected with the Coxsackie virus may have complications that may lead to more serious issues. Complications include stomatitis, meningitis, pulmonary edema, myocarditis, pneumonia, and possibly spontaneous abortions.",
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"plaintext": "Treatment is dependent on the disease process initiated by the virus. There is no known cure or vaccine against this virus.",
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"plaintext": "Most Coxsackie A virus infections are mild and self-limiting meaning the infection has the ability to resolve on its own without requiring treatment. Symptoms of a Coxsackie A infection tend to dissipate on their own within 7–10 days. Treatment tends to focus on supportive care where the symptoms of the infection are targeted but not the virus itself. NSAIDs such as ibuprofen/naproxen and acetaminophen can be used to manage the flu-like symptoms, fever, and any other pain the infected individual may be feeling. Do not give a child aspirin as it may increase the risk of Reyes syndrome. Fluids are recommended as to decrease the chances of dehydration. Mouth sores will make eating and drinking painful and may potentially lead to loss of appetite and refusing to eat in order to prevent mouth and throat pain. Severe dehydration may lead to hospitalization. Additionally, topical oral analgesic medications or salt water rinses can be used to help numb the sores and ease the throat pain. Since Coxsackie A is a viral infection, antibiotics will have no effect on the infection as they only work on bacterial infections.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bornholm disease",
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},
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"plaintext": "Coxsackievirus",
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]
| [
"Enteroviruses",
"Pediatrics"
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| 33,404,117 | 3,052 | 18 | 19 | 0 | 0 | Coxsackie A virus | virus that causes digestive upset and sometimes heart damage | []
|
37,160 | 1,091,720,941 | Reinhard | [
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37,161 | 1,106,582,415 | Fuel_injection | [
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"plaintext": "System cost",
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"plaintext": "All fuel injection systems comprise three basic components: they have at least one fuel injector (sometimes called an injection valve), a device that creates sufficient injection pressure, and a device that meters the correct amount of fuel. These three basic components can either be separate devices (one or multiple fuel injectors, a fuel distributor, and a fuel pump), partially combined devices (an injection valve and an injection pump), or completely combined devices (a unit injector).",
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"plaintext": "Early mechanical injection systems (except for air-blast injection) typically used injection valves with needle-like nozzles in combination with one or multiple relatively sophisticated helix-controlled injection pumps that both metered fuel and created injection pressure. They were well-suited for intermittent multi-point injection systems as well as all sorts of conventional direct injection and chamber injection systems.",
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"plaintext": "Advancements in the field of microelectronics allowed injection system manufacturers to significantly improve the accuracy of the fuel metering device. In modern engines, fuel metering and injection valve actuation is usually done by the engine control unit. Therefore, the fuel injection pump does not have to meter the fuel or actuate the injection valves; it only needs to provide injection pressure. These modern systems are used in multi-point-injected engines and common-rail-injected engines. Unit injection systems have made it into series production in the past, but proved to be inferior to common-rail injection.",
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": "Indirect injection",
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},
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},
{
"plaintext": "Wall‑distributed injection",
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{
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},
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},
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"plaintext": "Air-guided injection",
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"plaintext": "Wall-guided injection",
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"plaintext": "Spray-guided injection",
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"plaintext": "Conventional helix-controlled injection pump systems",
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"plaintext": " Lanova direct injection",
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{
"plaintext": " Afterchamber injection",
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"plaintext": " G-System (sphere combustion chamber)",
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"plaintext": " Gardner system (hemisphere combustion chamber)",
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"plaintext": " Saurer system (torus combustion chamber)",
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"plaintext": " Flat piston (combustion chamber between piston and head)",
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"plaintext": "External mixture formation",
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"plaintext": "Carburettors",
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"plaintext": "Constant vacuum carburettor",
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"plaintext": "Multistage carburettor",
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"plaintext": "Multi-barrel carburettor",
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"plaintext": "Float-chamber-less membrane carburettor",
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"plaintext": "Manifold injection",
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"plaintext": "Single-point injection",
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"plaintext": "Multi-point injection",
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"plaintext": "Continuous injection",
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"plaintext": "Intermittent injection",
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"plaintext": "In an engine with external mixture formation, air and fuel are mixed outside the combustion chamber so that a mixture of air and fuel is sucked into the engine. External mixture formation systems are common in petrol-fuelled engines such as the Otto engine and the Wankel engine. There exist two main external mixture formation systems in internal combustion engines: carburettors and manifold injection. The following description focuses on the latter.",
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"plaintext": "Manifold injection systems can also be considered indirect injection, but this article primarily uses the term indirect injection to describe internal mixture formation systems that are not direct injection. There exist two types of manifold injection: single-point injection, and multi-point injection. They can use several different injection schemes.",
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"plaintext": "Single-point injection uses one injector in a throttle body mounted similarly to a carburettor on an intake manifold. As in a carburetted induction system, the fuel is mixed with the air before entering the intake manifold. Single-point injection was a relatively low-cost way for automakers to reduce exhaust emissions to comply with tightening regulations while providing better \"driveability\" (easy starting, smooth running, no engine stuttering) than could be obtained with a carburettor. Many of the carburettor's supporting components—such as the air filter, intake manifold, and fuel line routing—could be used with few or no changes. This postponed the redesign and tooling costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980–1995, and in some European cars in the early and mid-1990s.",
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"plaintext": "Multi-point injection injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. Typically, multi-point injected systems use multiple fuel injectors, but some systems, such as GM's central port injection system, use tubes with poppet valves fed by a central injector instead of multiple injectors.",
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"plaintext": "Manifold-injected engines can use several injection schemes: continuous, and intermittent (simultaneous, batched, sequential, and cylinder-individual).",
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"plaintext": "In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable flow rate. The most common automotive continuous injection system is the Bosch K-Jetronic system, introduced in 1974 and used until the mid-1990s by various car manufacturers. Intermittent injection systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke; batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke; simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders; or cylinder-individual, in which the engine control unit can adjust the injection for each cylinder individually.",
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"plaintext": "In an engine with an internal mixture formation system, air and fuel are mixed only inside the combustion chamber. Therefore, only air is sucked into the engine during the intake stroke. The injection scheme is always intermittent (either sequential or cylinder-individual). There are two different types of internal mixture formation systems: indirect injection, and direct injection.",
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"plaintext": "This article describes indirect injection as an internal mixture formation system (typical of Akroyd (hot-bulb) and Diesel engines); for external mixture formation systems that are sometimes called indirect injection (typical of Otto and Wankel engines), this article uses the term manifold injection.",
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"plaintext": "In an indirect-injected engine, there are two combustion chambers: a main combustion chamber, and a pre-chamber (also called an ante-chamber) that is connected to the main one. The fuel is injected only into the pre-chamber (where it begins to combust), and not directly into the main combustion chamber. Therefore, this principle is called indirect injection. There exist several slightly different indirect injection systems that have similar characteristics. All Akroyd engines and some Diesel engines use indirect injection.",
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"plaintext": "Direct injection means that an engine only has a single combustion chamber and that the fuel is injected directly into this chamber. This can be done either with a blast of air (air-blast injection) or hydraulically. The latter method is far more common in automotive engines. Typically, hydraulic direct injection systems spray fuel into the air inside the cylinder or combustion chamber, but some systems spray the fuel against the combustion chamber walls (as in the M-System). Hydraulic direct injection can be achieved with a conventional helix-controlled injection pump, unit injectors, or a sophisticated common-rail injection system. The latter is the most common system in modern automotive engines. Direct injection is well-suited for a huge variety of fuels, including petrol and diesel fuel.",
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"plaintext": "In a common rail system, fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to a common header (called the accumulator), and then sent through tubing to the injectors, which inject it into the combustion chamber. The accumulator has a high-pressure relief valve to maintain pressure and return the excess fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle that is opened and closed with a solenoid-operated needle valve. Third-generation common rail diesels use piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to .",
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"plaintext": "In 1872, George Bailey Brayton obtained a patent on an internal combustion engine that used a pneumatic fuel injection system, also invented by Brayton: air-blast injection. In 1894, Rudolf Diesel copied Brayton's air-blast injection system for the diesel engine, but also improved it. He increased the air blast pressure from to .",
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"plaintext": "The first manifold injection system was designed by Johannes Spiel at Hallesche Maschinenfabrik in 1884. In the early 1890s, Herbert Akroyd Stuart developed an indirect fuel injection system using a 'jerk pump' to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the Akroyd engine and was adapted and improved by Bosch and Clessie Cummins for use on diesel engines.",
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"plaintext": "In 1898, Deutz AG started series production of stationary four-stroke Otto engines with manifold injection. Eight years later, Grade equipped their two-stroke engines with manifold injection, and both Léon Levavasseur's Antoinette 8V (the world's first ever V8 engine, patented by Levavasseur in 1902), and Wright aircraft engines were fitted with manifold injection as well. The first engine with petrol direct injection was a two-stroke aircraft engine designed by Otto Mader in 1916.",
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"plaintext": "Another early use of petrol direct injection was on the Hesselman engine, invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925. Hesselman engines use the stratified charge principle; fuel is injected towards the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a spark plug. They can run on a large variety of fuels.",
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"plaintext": "The invention of the pre-combustion chamber injection by Prosper l'Orange helped diesel engine manufacturers to overcome the problems of air-blast injection, and allowed for the designing of small automotive engines from the 1920s onwards. In 1924, MAN presented the first direct-injected diesel engine for lorries.",
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"plaintext": "In 1936, Daimler-Benz began mass production of the precombustion chamber-injected Mercedes-Benz OM 138 diesel engine, one of the first passenger car engines with fuel injection. During World War II, direct petrol injection was used in notable aero engines such as the Junkers Jumo 210, the Daimler-Benz DB 601, the BMW 801, and the Shvetsov ASh-82FN (M-82FN). German direct-injection petrol engines used injection systems developed by Bosch, Deckel, Junkers and l'Orange from their diesel injection systems. Later versions of the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Wright R-3350 used single-point injection, at the time called a \"Pressure Carburettor\". Due to the wartime relationship between Germany and Japan, Mitsubishi also had two radial aircraft engines using petrol direct injection, the Mitsubishi Kinsei and Mitsubishi Kasei. In addition, the Nakajima Homare Model 23 used a low-pressure fuel injection system.",
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"plaintext": "The first automotive direct injection system used to run on petrol was developed by Bosch and introduced by Goliath for their GP700 and Gutbrod for their Superior in 1952. This was essentially a specially lubricated high-pressure diesel direct-injection pump of the type that is governed by the vacuum behind an intake throttle valve. The 1954 Mercedes-Benz W196 Formula One racing car engine used Bosch direct injection derived from wartime aircraft engines. Following the W196's success on the track, the 1955 Mercedes-Benz 300SL became the first passenger car with a four-stroke direct injection Otto engine. Later, more mainstream applications of fuel injection favored the less-expensive manifold injection design.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the 1950s, several manufacturers introduced their manifold injection systems for Otto engines, including General Motors' Rochester Products Division, Bosch, and Lucas Industries. During the 1960s, additional manifold injection systems such as the Hilborn, Kugelfischer, and SPICA systems were introduced.",
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"plaintext": "The first commercial electronically controlled manifold injection system was the Electrojector developed by Bendix and was offered by American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1957. Initial problems with the Electrojector meant only pre-production cars had it installed so very few cars were sold and none were made available to the public. The EFI system in the Rambler worked well in warm weather, but was difficult to start in cooler temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "Chrysler offered Electrojector on the 1958 Chrysler 300D, DeSoto Adventurer, Dodge D-500, and Plymouth Fury, arguably the first series-production cars equipped with an EFI system. The Electrojector patents were subsequently sold to Bosch, who developed the Electrojector into the Bosch D-Jetronic.",
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"plaintext": "The D in D-Jetronic stands for Druckfühlergesteuert, German for \"pressure-sensor controlled\"). The D-Jetronic was first used on the VW 1600TL/E in 1967. This was a speed/density system, using engine speed and intake manifold air density to calculate \"air mass\" flow rate and thus fuel requirements.",
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"plaintext": "Bosch superseded the D-Jetronic system with the K-Jetronic and L-Jetronic multi-point injection systems for 1973, though some cars (such as the Volvo 164) continued using D-Jetronic for the following several years. The L-Jetronic uses a mechanical airflow meter (L for Luft, German for \"air\") that produces a signal that is proportional to volume flow rate. This approach required additional sensors to measure the atmospheric pressure and temperature, to calculate mass flow rate with an analogue ECU. L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars of that period, and a few Japanese models a short time later. The K-Jetronic (K for Kontinuierlich, German for \"continuous\") is a fully mechanical system that injects the fuel in a continuous spray with a variable flow rate. It does not have an ECU, instead, it relies on the intake manifold vacuum to actuate its fuel distributor's plunger. The first car equipped with this system was the American 1973 Porsche 911T (F-series).",
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"plaintext": "The first digital engine management system (engine control unit) was the Bosch Motronic introduced in 1979. In 1980, Motorola (now NXP Semiconductors) introduced their digital ECU EEC-III. The EEC-III is a single-point injection system.",
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"plaintext": "Manifold injection was phased in through the latter 1970s and 80s at an accelerating rate, with the German, French, and U.S. markets leading and the UK and Commonwealth markets lagging somewhat. Since the early 1990s, almost all petrol passenger cars sold in first world markets are equipped with electronic manifold injection. The carburettor remains in use in developing countries where vehicle emissions are unregulated and diagnostic and repair infrastructure is sparse. Fuel injection systems are gradually replacing carburettors in these nations too as they adopt emission regulations conceptually similar to those in force in Europe, Japan, Australia, and North America.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Mitsubishi presented the first common-rail petrol direct injection system for passenger cars. It was introduced in 1997. Subsequently, common-rail direct injection was also introduced in passenger car diesel engines, with the Fiat 1.9 JTD being the first mass market engine. In the early 2000s, several car manufacturers attempted to use stratified charge concepts in their direct injection petrol engines to reduce fuel consumption. However, the fuel savings proved to be almost unnoticeable and disproportionate to the increased complexity of the exhaust gas treatment systems. Therefore, almost all car manufacturers have switched to a conventional homogeneous mixture in their direct injected petrol engines since the mid-2010s. In the early 2020s, some car manufacturers have still been using manifold injection, especially in economy cars, but also some high performance cars. Ever since 1997, car manufacturers have been using common-rail direct injection for their diesel engines. Only Volkswagen used the Pumpe-Düse system throughout the early 2000s, but they have also been using common-rail direct injection since 2010.",
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"plaintext": "History of the D Jetronic system",
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"plaintext": "How Fuel Injection Systems Work",
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| [
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| 308,881 | 20,534 | 1,743 | 135 | 0 | 0 | fuel injection | aspect of an internal combustion engine | [
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"plaintext": "Roland Freisler (30 October 1893 – 3 February 1945) was a German Nazi jurist, judge, and politician who served as the State Secretary of the Reich Ministry of Justice from 1934 to 1942 and President of the People's Court from 1942 to 1945.",
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"plaintext": "Roland Freisler was born on 30 October 1893 in Celle, Lower Saxony, the son of Julius Freisler (born 20 August 1862 in Klantendorf, Moravia), an engineer and teacher, and Charlotte Auguste Florentine Schwerdtfeger (30 April 1863 in Celle – 20 March 1932 in Kassel). He was baptized as a Protestant on 13 December 1893. He had a younger brother, Oswald, and another brother who was a doctor.",
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"plaintext": "Freisler was attending law school upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914 which interrupted his studies. He saw active service in the German Imperial Army during the war after enlisting as an officer cadet in 1914 with the Ober-Elsässisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr.167 in Kassel, and by 1915 he was a lieutenant. Whilst in the front-line with the 22nd Division, he was awarded the Iron Cross both 2nd and 1st Class for heroism in action. In October 1915, he was wounded in action on the Eastern Front and taken prisoner of war by Russian forces.",
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"plaintext": "While a prisoner, Freisler learned to speak Russian and developed an interest in Marxism after the Russian Revolution had commenced. The Bolshevik provisional authority which took over responsibility for Freisler's prisoner of war camp made use of him as a \"Commissar\" (as he was described by them in his repatriated prisoner of war paperwork in 1918) administratively organizing the camp's food supplies from 1917 to 1918. It is possible that, after the Russian prisoner of war camps were emptying in 1918, with their internees being repatriated to Germany after the Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers had been signed, Freisler for a brief period became attached in some way to the Red Guards, though this is not supported by any known documentary evidence. Another possibility is that after the Russian Revolution the description \"Commissar\" was merely an administrative title given by the Bolshevik authority for anyone employed in an administrative post in the prison camps without the political connotations that the title later acquired. However, in the early days of his Nazi Party career in the 1920s, Freisler was a part of the movement's left wing. In the late 1930s, during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge in the Soviet Union, Freisler attended the Moscow Trials to watch the proceedings against the condemned. Freisler later rejected any insinuation that he had ever co-operated with the Soviets, the ideological nemesis of Nazi Germany, but his subsequent career as a political official in Germany was overshadowed by rumours about his time as a \"Commissar\" with the \"Reds\".",
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"plaintext": "He returned to Germany in 1919 to complete his law studies at the University of Jena, and qualified as a Doctor of Law in 1922. From 1924, he worked as a solicitor in Kassel, and was also elected as a city councillor as a member of the Völkisch-Sozialer Block (\"People's Social Block\"), an ultranationalist splinter party. He joined the Nazi Party in July 1925 as Member #9679, and gained authority immediately within the organisation by using his legal training to defend members of it who were regularly facing prosecutions for acts of political violence. As the Party transitioned from a fringe political beer-hall and street fighting movement into a political party, Freisler was elected to the Prussian Landtag, and later he became a Member of the Reichstag.",
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"plaintext": "In 1927, Karl Weinrich, a Nazi member of the Prussian Landtag along with Freisler, characterised his then reputation in the rapidly expanding Nazi movement in the late 1920s: \"Rhetorically Freisler is equal to our best speakers, if not superior; particularly on the broad masses he has influence, but thinking people mostly reject him. Party Comrade Freisler is usable as only a speaker though and is unsuitable for any position of authority because of his unreliablity and moodiness.\"",
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"plaintext": "In February 1933, after Adolf Hitler had seized power over the German state, Freisler was appointed Ministerial Director in the Prussian Ministry of Justice. He was Secretary of State in the Prussian Ministry of Justice in 19331934, and in the Reich Ministry of Justice from 1934 to 1942. On the founding of the Academy for German Law by Hans Frank, Freisler was made a member and the chairman of its Criminal Law Committee.",
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"plaintext": "Freisler's mastery of legal texts, mental agility, dramatic courtroom verbal dexterity and verbal force, in combination with his zealous conversion to Nazi ideology, made him the most feared judge in Nazi Germany, and the personification of Nazism in domestic law. However, despite his talents and loyalty, Adolf Hitler never appointed him to any post beyond the legal system. That might have been because he was a lone figure, lacking support within the senior echelons of the Nazi hierarchy, but he had also been politically compromised by his brother, Oswald Freisler, also a lawyer. Oswald had acted as a defence counsel against the regime's authority several times during the increasingly politically driven trials by which the Nazis sought to enforce their tyrannical control of German society, and he had the habit of wearing his Nazi Party membership badge in court whilst doing so. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels reproached Oswald Freisler and reported his actions to Adolf Hitler who, in response, ordered Freisler's expulsion from the Party. (Oswald Freisler died, allegedly by committing suicide, in 1939.) In 1941, in a discussion at the \"Führer Headquarters\" about whom to appoint to replace Franz Gürtner, the Reich Justice Minister, who had died, Goebbels suggested Roland Freisler as an option; Hitler's reply, referring to Freisler's alleged \"Red\" past, was: \"That old Bolshevik? No!\"",
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"plaintext": "Freisler was a committed Nazi ideologist, and used his legal skills to adapt its theories into practical law-making and judicature. He published a paper entitled Die rassebiologische Aufgabe bei der Neugestaltung des Jugendstrafrechts (\"The racial-biological task involved in the reform of juvenile criminal law\"). In this document he argued that \"racially foreign, racially degenerate, racially incurable or seriously defective juveniles\" should be sent to juvenile centres or correctional education centres and segregated from those who are \"German and racially valuable\".",
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"plaintext": "He strongly advocated the creation of laws to punish Rassenschande (\"race defilement\", the Nazi term for sexual relations between \"Aryans\" and \"inferior races\"), to be classed as \"racial treason\". Freisler looked to racist laws in the United States as a model for Nazi legislation to target Jews in Germany. Freisler considered American Jim Crow racist legislation \"primitive\" for failing to provide a legal definition of the term black or negro person. Nevertheless, while some more conservative Nazi lawyers objected to the lack of precision with which a person could be defined as a \"Jew,\" he argued that American judges were able to identify black people for purposes of laws in American states that prohibited \"miscegenation\" between black and white people, and laws that otherwise codified racial segregation, and, therefore, German laws could similarly target Jews even if the term \"Jew\" could not be given a precise legal definition.",
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"plaintext": "In 1933, he published a pamphlet calling for the legal prohibition of \"mixed-blood\" sexual intercourse, which met with expressions of public unease in the dying elements of the German free press and non-Nazi political classes and, at the time, lacked public authorization from the policy of the Nazi Party, which had only just obtained dictatorial control of the state. It also led to a clash with his superior Franz Gürtner, but Freisler's ideological views reflected things to come, as was shown by the enactment of the Nuremberg Laws within two years.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1939, he introduced the concept of 'precocious juvenile criminal' in the \"Juvenile Felons Decree\". This \"provided the legal basis for imposing the death penalty and penitentiary terms on juveniles for the first time in German legal history.\" Between 1933 and 1945, the Reich's Courts sentenced at least 72 German juveniles to death, among them 17-year-old Helmuth Hübener, found guilty of high treason for distributing anti-war leaflets in 1942.",
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"plaintext": "On the outbreak of World War II, Freisler issued a legal \"Decree against National Parasites\" (September 1939) introducing the term perpetrator type, which was used in combination with another Nazi ideological term, parasite. The adoption of racial biological terminology into law portrayed juvenile criminality as 'parasitical', implying the need for harsher sentences to remedy it. He justified the new concept with: \"in times of war, breaches of loyalty and baseness cannot find any leniency and must be met with the full force of the law.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 20 January 1942, Freisler, representing the Reich Minister Franz Schlegelberger, attended the Wannsee Conference of senior governmental officials in a villa on the southwestern outskirts of Berlin to provide expert legal advice for the planning of the destruction of European Jewry.",
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"plaintext": "On 20 August 1942, Hitler promoted Otto Georg Thierack to Reich Justice Minister, replacing the retiring Schlegelberger, and named Freisler to succeed Thierack as president of the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof). This court had jurisdiction over a broad array of political offences, including black marketeering, work slowdowns and defeatism. These actions were viewed by Freisler as Wehrkraftzersetzung (undermining defensive capability) and were punished severely, with many death sentences. The People's Court under Freisler's domination almost always sided with the prosecuting authority, to the point that being brought before it was tantamount to a capital charge. Its separate administrative existence beyond the ordinary judicial system, despite its trappings, rapidly turned it into an executive execution arm and psychological domestic terror weapon of Nazi Germany's totalitarian regime, in the tradition of a revolutionary tribunal rather than a court of law.",
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"plaintext": "He chaired the First Senate of the People's Court wearing a blood scarlet judicial robe, in a hearing chamber bedecked with scarlet swastika-draped banners and a large black sculpted bust of Adolf Hitler's head upon a high pedestal behind his chair, opening each hearing session with the Nazi salute from the bench. He acted as prosecutor, judge and jury combined, and also as his own recorder, thereby controlling the record of the written grounds for the sentences that he passed.",
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"plaintext": "The frequency of death sentences rose sharply under Freisler's rule. Approximately 90% of all cases that came before him ended in guilty verdicts. Between 1942 and 1945, more than 5,000 death sentences were decreed by him, 2,600 of these through the court's First Senate, which Freisler controlled. He was responsible in his three years on the court for as many death sentences as all other senate sessions of the court combined in the court's existence between 1934 and 1945.",
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"plaintext": "Freisler became known during this period for berating each member of the steady stream of defendants passing before him. He was known to be interested in Andrei Vyshinsky, the Chief Prosecutor of the Soviet purge trials, and had attended those show-trials to watch Vyshinsky's courtroom performances in a similar capacity in Moscow in 1938.",
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"plaintext": "On February 18, 1943, Sophie Scholl and Hans Scholl were captured by the Gestapo. Through questioning, it became clear that the two siblings were part of a resistance group called the White Rose that was attempting to sow discord in Germany by the use of mailing pamphlets urging passive resistance. On February 22, 1943, Freisler was flown into Munich for the sole purpose of presiding over their “trial”. The verdict was as expected as it was unfortunate: Guilty. Freisler had sentenced them to death by hanging, but fearful of them being raised to martyrdom status if they were publicly killed, it was decided to kill them by Guillotine.",
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"plaintext": "On April 19, 1943, Freisler was flown back again to stand as judge over the second trial of the White Rose members. Out of the thirteen defendants, three were sentenced to death, nine were given prison sentences, and one was acquitted.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1944, some of the arrested perpetrators of the failed assassination of Adolf Hitler were brought before Freisler for punishment. The proceedings were filmed in order to be shown to the German public in cinema newsreels, and portray how Freisler ran his court; he would often alternate between questioning the defendants in an analytical manner, then suddenly launch into a furious verbal tirade, even going so far as to shout insults at the accused from the bench. The shift from cold, clinical interrogation to fits of screaming rage was designed to psychologically disarm, torment and humiliate those on trial, while discouraging any attempt on their part to defend or justify their actions. At one point, Freisler yelled at Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben, who was trying to hold up his trousers after having purposely been given old, oversized and beltless clothing: \"You dirty old man, why do you keep fiddling with your trousers?\"",
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"plaintext": "Another instance is from Freisler's public appearance during the trial of defendant Ulrich-Wilhelm Graf Schwerin von Schwanenfeld. The footage taken shows Freisler drowning out Schwerin's weak and muted testimony, prompted by his concern over the Wehrmacht's \"numerous murders in Poland\", by roaring at him in an exaggerated and theatrical manner, declaring \"Sie sind ja ein schäbiger Lump!\" (roughly, \"You really are a lousy piece of trash!\").",
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"plaintext": "Nearly all of the accused were sentenced to death by hanging, with some of the sentences being carried out within two hours of the verdict being delivered.",
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"plaintext": "On the morning of 3 February 1945, Freisler was conducting a Saturday session of the People's Court when United States Army Air Forces bombers attacked Berlin, led by the B-17 of USAAF Lt. Colonel Robert Rosenthal. Government and Nazi Party buildings were hit, including the Reich Chancellery, the Gestapo headquarters, the Party Chancellery and the People's Court. Hearing the air raid sirens, Freisler hastily adjourned the court and ordered that the prisoners before him be taken to an air raid shelter, but stayed behind to gather files before leaving. A bomb struck the court-building at 11:08 caused a partial internal collapse, and a masonry column came loose whilst Freisler was distracted by his documents. The column came crashing down on Freisler, causing him to be crushed and killed instantly. Due to the column collapsing, a large portion of the courtroom also landed on Freisler's corpse. Among the files was that of Fabian von Schlabrendorff, a 20 July Plot member who was on trial that day and was facing execution. The flattened remains of Freisler were found beneath the rubble still clutching the files he had stopped to retrieve. A differing account stated that Freisler \"was killed by a bomb fragment while trying to escape from his law court to the air-raid shelter,\" and \"bled to death on the pavement outside the People's Court at Bellevuestrasse 15 in Berlin\". Fabian von Schlabrendorff was \"standing near Freisler when the latter met his end\". von Schlabrendorff was re-tried, acquitted, and survived the war, and ultimately followed Freisler as a judge, on the West German Constitutional Court. ",
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"plaintext": "A foreign correspondent reported, \"Apparently nobody regretted his death\". Luise Jodl, then the wife of General Alfred Jodl, recounted more than 25 years later that she had been working at the Lützow Hospital when Freisler's body was brought in, and that a worker commented, \"It is God's verdict.\" According to Mrs. Jodl: \"Not one person said a word in reply.\" His body was buried in the grave of his wife's family at the Waldfriedhof Dahlem Cemetery in Berlin. His name is not recorded on the gravestone.",
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"plaintext": "He married Marion Russegger on 24 March 1928; the couple had two sons, Harald and Roland.",
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"plaintext": "Freisler appears in a fictionalized form in the Hans Fallada novel Every Man Dies Alone (1947). In 1943 he tried and handed down death penalties to Otto and Elise Hampel, who were both guillotined for distributing anti-Nazi postcards, and whose true story inspired Fallada's novel.",
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"plaintext": "In the novel Fatherland (1992) by Robert Harris, which takes place in an alternate 1964 in which Nazi Germany won World War II, Freisler is mentioned as having survived until winter 1954, when he is killed by a maniac with a knife on the steps of the Berlin People's Court. It is implied that his death was actually caused by the Gestapo, to ensure that the Wannsee Conference and the Holocaust remained a secret.",
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"plaintext": "Freisler has been portrayed by screen actors at least seven times: by Rainer Steffen in the German television film Wannseekonferenz (1984), by Roland Schäfer in the Anglo-French-German film Reunion (1989), by Brian Cox in the British television film Witness Against Hitler (1996), by Owen Teale in the BBC/HBO film Conspiracy (2001), by André Hennicke in the film Sophie Scholl – The Final Days (2005), by Helmut Stauss in the film Valkyrie (2008), and by Karl Knaup in Rommel (2012, uncredited).",
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"plaintext": "Breuning, Stephan. Roland Freisler: Rechtsideologien im III. Reich. Neuhegelianismus kontra Hegel (\"Legal ideologies in the Third Reich. Neo-Hegelianism contra Hegel\") Hamburg, Kovac 2002, .",
"section_idx": 16,
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"plaintext": "Buchheit, Gert. Richter in roter Robe. Freisler, Präsident des Volksgerichtshofes (\"Judges in Red Robes. Freisler, President of the People's Court\") München, 1968.",
"section_idx": 16,
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"plaintext": "Geerling, Wayne. \"Protecting the National Community From Juvenile Delinquency: Nazification of Juvenile Criminal Law in the Third Reich\", a chapter from the author's dissertation Resistance as High Treason: Juvenile Resistance in the Third Reich, Melbourne University, 2001. Read it here",
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"plaintext": "Knopp, Guido. Hitler's Hitmen (Ch. 4, \"The Hanging Judge\"). Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2002.",
"section_idx": 16,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": "Koch, H. W. In the Name of the Volk: Political Justice in Hitler's Germany London, 1989.",
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"plaintext": "Ortner, Helmut. Der Hinrichter. Roland Freisler, Mörder im Dienste Hitlers (\"The Executioner. Roland Freisler, Murderer in Hitler's Service\") Wien, Zsolnay 1993, .",
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{
"plaintext": " 20 July 1944 plot—Trials before the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof) -- YouTube video in German—Shows Roland Freisler in action: ",
"section_idx": 17,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " - actual footage of Freisler trying a resistance group",
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| 57,601 | 14,304 | 173 | 135 | 0 | 0 | Roland Freisler | German lawyer and judge (1893-1945) | [
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37,165 | 1,080,717,837 | Grand_Slam | [
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| 1,027,925 | 1,054 | 2 | 66 | 0 | 0 | Grand Slam | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
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"plaintext": "Lessig invited law students at Harvard and elsewhere to help craft legal arguments challenging the new law on an online forum, which evolved into Open Law.",
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"plaintext": "Normal law firms write arguments the way commercial software companies write code. Lawyers discuss a case behind closed doors, and although their final product is released in court, the discussions or \"source code\" that produced it remain secret. In contrast, Open Law crafts its arguments in public and releases them under a copyleft. \"We deliberately used free software as a model,\" said Wendy Seltzer, who took over Open Law when Lessig moved to Stanford. Around 50 legal scholars worked on Eldritch's case, and Open Law has taken other cases, too.",
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"plaintext": "\"The gains are much the same as for software,\" Seltzer says. \"Hundreds of people scrutinise the 'code' for bugs, and make suggestions how to fix it. And people will take underdeveloped parts of the argument, work on them, then patch them in.\" Armed with arguments crafted in this way, OpenLaw took Eldritch's case—deemed unwinnable at the outset—right through the system to the Supreme Court. The case, Eldred v. Ashcroft, lost in 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Legal Research 2.0: the Power of a Million Attorneys. This article was inspired in part by OpenLaw and has spawned The Wiki Legal Journal, a site set up by members of the Wake Forest Law Review where authors can submit papers for critique in a wiki environment.",
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| 7,096,539 | 26 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | Openlaw | []
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37,167 | 1,099,179,188 | Loris | [
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"plaintext": "Loris is the common name for the strepsirrhine mammals of the subfamily Lorinae (sometimes spelled Lorisinae) in the family Lorisidae. Loris is one genus in this subfamily and includes the slender lorises, Nycticebus is the genus containing the slow lorises, and Xanthonycticebus is the genus name of the pygmy slow loris.",
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"plaintext": "Lorises are nocturnal and arboreal. They are found in tropical and woodland forests of India, Sri Lanka, and parts of southeast Asia. Loris locomotion is a slow and cautious climbing form of quadrupedalism. Some lorises are almost entirely insectivorous, while others also include fruits, gums, leaves, and slugs in their diet.",
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"plaintext": "Female lorises practice infant parking, leaving their infants behind in trees or bushes. Before they do this, they bathe their young with allergenic saliva that is acquired by licking patches on the insides of their elbows, which produce a mild toxin that discourages most predators, though orangutans occasionally eat lorises.",
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"plaintext": "The family Lorisidae is found within the infraorder Lemuriformes and superfamily Lorisoidea, along with the family Galagidae, the galagos. This superfamily is a sister taxon of Lemuroidea, the lemurs. Within Lorinae, there are ten species (and several more subspecies) of lorises across three genera:",
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"plaintext": " Family Lorisidae",
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"plaintext": " Subfamily Perodicticinae",
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"plaintext": " Subfamily Lorinae",
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"plaintext": " Genus Loris",
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"plaintext": " Gray slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus",
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"plaintext": " Highland slender loris, L. lydekkerianus grandis",
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"plaintext": " Mysore slender loris, L. lydekkerianus lydekkerianus",
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"plaintext": " Malabar slender loris, L. lydekkerianus malabaricus",
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"plaintext": " Northern Ceylonese slender loris, L. lydekkerianus nordicus",
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"plaintext": " Red slender loris, L. tardigradus",
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"plaintext": " Dry Zone slender loris, L. tardigradus tardigradus",
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"plaintext": " Horton Plains slender loris, L. tardigradus nyctoceboides",
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"plaintext": " Genus Xanthonycticebus",
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"plaintext": " Pygmy slow loris, X. pygmaeus",
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"plaintext": " Genus Nycticebus",
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"plaintext": " Bangka slow loris, Nycticebus bancanus",
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"plaintext": " Bengal slow loris, N. bengalensis",
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"plaintext": " Bornean slow loris, N. borneanus",
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"plaintext": " Sunda slow loris, N. coucang",
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"plaintext": " Javan slow loris, N. javanicus",
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"plaintext": " Kayan River slow loris, N. kayan",
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"plaintext": " Philippine slow loris, N. menagensis",
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"plaintext": " †? N. linglom (fossil, Miocene)",
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| 3,428,868 | 5,730 | 83 | 45 | 0 | 0 | loris | subfamily of mammals | [
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|
37,168 | 1,096,608,974 | Friday_the_13th | [
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"plaintext": "Friday the 13th is considered an unlucky day in Western superstition. It occurs when the 13th day of the month in the Gregorian calendar falls on a Friday, which happens at least once every year but can occur up to three times in the same year. For example, 2015 had a Friday the 13th in February, March, and November; 2017 through 2020 had two Friday the 13ths each; 2016, 2021 and 2022 had just one occurrence of Friday the 13th each; 2023 and 2024 will have two Friday the 13ths each.",
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"plaintext": "Friday the 13th occurs in any month that begins on a Sunday.",
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"plaintext": "According to folklore historian Donald Dossey, the unlucky nature of the number \"13\" originated with a Norse myth about 12 gods having a dinner party in Valhalla. The trickster god Loki, who was not invited, arrived as the 13th guest, and arranged for Höðr to shoot Balder with a mistletoe-tipped arrow. Dossey: \"Balder died, and the whole Earth got dark. The whole Earth mourned. It was a bad, unlucky day.\" This major event in Norse mythology caused the number 13 to be considered unlucky.",
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"plaintext": "The superstition seems to relate to various things, like the story of Jesus' last supper and crucifixion in which there were 13individuals present in the Upper Room on the 13th of Nisan Maundy Thursday, the night before his death on Good Friday.",
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"plaintext": "While there is evidence of both Friday and the number13 being considered unlucky, there is no record of the two items being referred to as especially unlucky in conjunction before the 19thcentury.",
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"plaintext": "An early documented reference in English occurs in H. S. Edwards' biography of Gioachino Rossini, who died on a Friday 13th:",
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"plaintext": "\"Rossini was surrounded to the last by admiring friends; and if it be true that, like so many Italians, he regarded Fridays as an unlucky day and thirteen as an unlucky number, it is remarkable that on Friday 13th of November he passed away.\"",
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"plaintext": "It is possible that the publication in 1907 of T. W. Lawson's popular novel Friday, the Thirteenth,",
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"plaintext": "contributed to popularizing the superstition. In the novel, an unscrupulous broker takes advantage of the superstition to create a Wall Street panic on a Friday the 13th.",
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"plaintext": "Similar dates are prevalent in many cultures, although it is unclear whether these similarities are in any way historically connected or only coincidental.",
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"plaintext": "In Spanish-speaking countries, instead of Friday, Tuesday the 13th (martes trece) is considered a day of bad luck.",
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"plaintext": "The Greeks also consider Tuesday (and especially the 13th) an unlucky day. Tuesday is considered dominated by the influence of Ares, the god of war (or Mars, the Roman equivalent). The fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade occurred on Tuesday 13 April 1204, and the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans happened on Tuesday 29May 1453, events that strengthen the superstition about Tuesday. In addition, in Greek the name of the day is Triti (Τρίτη) meaning the third (day of the week), adding weight to the superstition, since bad luck is said to \"come in threes\".",
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"plaintext": "Tuesday the 13th occurs in a month that begins on a Thursday.",
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"plaintext": "In Italian popular culture, Friday the 17th (and not the 13th) is considered a bad luck day.",
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"plaintext": "The origin of this belief could be traced in the writing of the number17, in Roman numerals: XVII. By shuffling the digits of the number one can easily get the word VIXI (\"I have lived\", implying death at present), an omen of bad luck.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, in Italy, 13 is generally considered a lucky number. However, due to Americanization, young people consider Friday the 13th unlucky as well.",
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"plaintext": "The 2000 parody film Shriek if You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth was released in Italy with the title Shriek – Hai impegni per venerdì 17? (\"Shriek – Do You Have Something to Do on Friday the 17th?\").",
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"plaintext": "Friday the 17th occurs on a month starting on Wednesday.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Stress Management Center and Phobia Institute in Asheville, North Carolina, an estimated 17–21million people in the United States are affected by a fear of this day, making it the most feared day and date in history. Some people are so paralyzed by fear that they avoid their normal routines in doing business, taking flights or even getting out of bed.",
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"plaintext": " \"It's been estimated that US$800–900million is lost in business on this day\".",
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"plaintext": "Despite this, representatives for both Delta Air Lines and Continental Airlines (the latter now merged into United Airlines) have stated that their airlines do not suffer from any noticeable drop in travel on those Fridays.",
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"plaintext": "In Finland, a consortium of governmental and nongovernmental organizations led by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health promotes the National Accident Day (kansallinen tapaturmapäivä) to raise awareness about automotive safety, which always falls on a Friday the 13th.",
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"plaintext": "The event is coordinated by the Finnish Red Cross and has been held since 1995.",
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"plaintext": "A study by Scanlon, Luben, Scanlon, & Singleton (1993)",
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"plaintext": "attracted attention from popular science literature,",
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"plaintext": "as it concluded that \"the risk of hospital admission as a result of a transport accident may be increased by as much as 52percent on the 13th\";",
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"plaintext": "however, the authors clearly state that \"the numbers of admissions from accidents are too small to allow meaningful analysis\".",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent studies have disproved any correlation between Friday the 13th and the rate of accidents.",
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"plaintext": "On 12June 2008 the Dutch Centre for Insurance Statistics stated to the contrary, that \"fewer accidents and reports of fire and theft occur when the 13th of the month falls on a Friday than on other Fridays, because people are preventatively more careful or just stay home. Statistically speaking, driving is slightly safer on Friday the 13th, at least in the Netherlands; in the last two years, Dutch insurers received reports of an average 7,800traffic accidents each Friday; but the average figure when the 13th fell on a Friday was just 7,500.\"",
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"plaintext": "Each 400year Gregorian solar cycle contains 146,097days (with 97leap days) or exactly 20,871weeks. Each cycle contains the same pattern of days of the week and therefore the same pattern of Fridays that are on the 13th. The 13thday of the month is slightly more likely to be a Friday than any other day of the week.",
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"plaintext": "{| class=wikitable style=\"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;\"",
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"plaintext": "|+ Distribution of the 13th day per weekday over 4,800 months (400 years)",
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"plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:center; text-align:center\"",
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"plaintext": "! Day of the week",
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"plaintext": "! Monday || Tuesday || Wednesday || Thursday || Friday || Saturday || Sunday",
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{
"plaintext": "|- style=\"text-align:center;\"",
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"plaintext": "! Occurrences",
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"plaintext": "| 685 || 685 || 687 || 684 || 688 || 684 || 687",
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{
"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "Any month that starts on a Sunday contains a Friday the 13th, and there is at least one Friday the 13th in every calendar year. ",
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"plaintext": "The months with a Friday the 13th are determined by the Dominical letter (G, F, GF, etc.) of the year. Years which begin on the same day of the week and are of the same type (i.e. common year or leap year), will have a Friday the 13th in the same months.",
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"plaintext": "This sequence, given here for 1900–2099, follows a 28-year cycle from 1March 1900 to 28February 2100:",
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"plaintext": "Although there is always at least one Friday the 13th per calendar year, it can be as long as 14months between two Friday the 13ths. The longest period that occurs without a Friday the 13th is 14months, either from July to September the following year being a common year starting on Tuesday (F) (e.g. 2001–02, 2012–13 and 2018–19), or from August to October the following year being a leap year starting on Saturday (BA) (e.g. 1999–2000 and 2027–28). The shortest period that occurs with a Friday the 13th is just one month, from February to March in a common year starting on Thursday (D) (e.g. 2009, 2015 and 2026).",
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"plaintext": "On average, there is a Friday the 13th once every 212.35days. Friday the 13ths occurs with an average frequency of 1.7218 per year or about 3477 since the year 1 CE.",
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"plaintext": "There can be no more than three Friday the 13ths in a single calendar year; either in February, March, and November in a common year starting on Thursday (such as 2009, 2015, or 2026) (D), or January, April, and July in a leap year starting on Sunday (such as 1984, 2012, or 2040) (AG).",
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"plaintext": "In the 2000s, there were three Friday the 13ths in 2009, and two Friday the 13ths in 2001, 2002, 2006, and 2007. In the 2010s, there were three Friday the 13ths in 2012 and 2015, and two in 2013, 2017, 2018, and 2019. In the 2020s, there were two Friday the 13ths in 2020. There will also be three Friday the 13ths in 2026, and two in 2023, 2024, and 2029. The remaining years all have at least one Friday the 13th, if there are fewer than two or three in the 2010s and 2020s.",
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"plaintext": "For the details see the table below; this table is for the Gregorian calendar and / for :",
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"plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;\"",
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"plaintext": "|- style=\"vertical-align:center; text-align:center\"",
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"plaintext": "! Yearmodulo 28 || || 1700 2100 || 1800 2200 || 1900 2300 || Yearmodulo 28",
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"plaintext": "| 06 17 23 || Jan Oct || Aug || Jun || Apr Jul || 06 17 23",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 01 07 18 || Apr Jul || May || Feb Mar Nov || Sep Dec || 01 07 18 ",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 02 13 19 || Sep Dec || Jan Oct || Aug || Jun || 02 13 19 ",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 03 14 25 || Jun || Apr Jul || May || Feb Mar Nov || 03 14 25",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 09 15 26 || Feb Mar Nov || Sep Dec || Jan Oct || Aug || 09 15 26",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 10 21 27 || Aug || Jun || Apr Jul || May || 10 21 27",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| 05 11 22 || May || Feb Mar Nov || Sep Dec || Jan Oct || 05 11 22 ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": " 13 (number)",
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"plaintext": " Solar cycle (calendar)",
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"plaintext": " St. Brice's Day massacre",
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"plaintext": " Tycho Brahe days",
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"plaintext": " — multi-year calendar with Fri13s marked",
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"plaintext": " — article examines S&P 500 index performance on Fri13s",
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"plaintext": " — examines All Ordinaries Index (\"All Ords\") for 1Jan 1985 – 12Jan 1985",
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| [
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"Luck",
"Superstitions_about_numbers",
"Superstitions_of_Europe",
"Superstitions_of_the_Americas",
"Triskaidekaphobia",
"Unofficial_observances"
]
| 204,372 | 17,709 | 201 | 65 | 0 | 0 | Friday the 13th | day in which the 13th of a month is on a Friday | []
|
37,170 | 1,107,826,101 | Red_slender_loris | [
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"plaintext": "The red slender loris (Loris tardigradus) is a small, nocturnal strepsirrhine primate native to the rainforests of Sri Lanka. This is No. 6 of the 10 focal species and No. 22 of the 100 EDGE mammal species worldwide considered the most evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered. Two subspecies have been identified, L. t. tardigradus and L. t. nycticeboides.",
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"plaintext": " Horton Plains slender loris or mountain loris, Loris tardigradus nycticeboides",
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"plaintext": " Dry zone slender loris or lowland loris, Loris tardigradus tardigradus",
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"plaintext": " Gray slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus",
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"plaintext": "The ears are less prominent in Loris tardigradus tardigradus compared to Loris lydekkerianus. The ears of Loris tardigradus nycticeboides are almost invisible.",
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"plaintext": "This small, slender primate is distinguished by large forward-facing eyes used for precise depth perception, long slender limbs, a well-developed index finger, the absence of tail, and large prominent ears, which are thin, rounded and hairless at the edges. The soft dense fur is reddish-brown color on the back, and the underside is whitish-grey with a sprinkling of silver hair. Its body length on average is , with an average weight of a mere . This loris has a four-way grip on each foot. The big toe opposes the other 4 toes for a pincer-like grip on branches and food. It has a dark face mask with central pale stripe, much like the slow lorises.",
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"plaintext": "L. tardigradus tardigradus is reddish brown in the back and creamy yellow below, while L. tardigradus nycticeboides is dark brown dorsally and very light brown in upperparts.",
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"plaintext": "The red slender loris favors lowland rainforests (up to 700 m in altitude), tropical rainforests and inter-monsoon forests of the south western wet-zone of Sri Lanka. Masmullah Proposed Forest Reserve harbors one of few remaining red slender loris populations, and is considered a biodiversity hotspot. The most common plant species eaten was Humboldtia laurifolia, occurring at 676 trees/ha, with overall density at 1077 trees/ha. Humboldtia laurifolia is vulnerable and has a mutualistic relationship with ants, providing abundant food for lorises. Reports from the 1960s suggest that it once also occurred in the coastal zone, however it is now thought to be extinct there.",
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"plaintext": "The red slender loris differs from its close relative the gray slender loris in its frequent use of rapid arboreal locomotion. It forms small social groups, containing adults of both sexes as well as young animals. This species is among the most social of the nocturnal primates. During daylight hours the animals sleep in groups in branch tangles, or curled up on a branch with their heads between their legs. The groups also undertake mutual grooming and play at wrestling. The adults typically hunt separately during the night. They are primarily insectivorous but also eat bird eggs, berries, leaves, buds and occasionally invertebrates as well as geckos and lizards. They forage, and while doing so, ants may stick to the back of their hands. As this occurs, the red slender loris is able to consume these ants. To maximize protein and nutrient uptake they consume every part of their prey, including the scales and bones. They make nests out of leaves or find hollows of trees or a similar secure place to live in.",
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"plaintext": "Females are dominant. The female reaches her sexual maturity at 10 months and is receptive to the male twice a year. This species mates while hanging upside down from branches; individuals in captivity will not breed if no suitable branch is available. The gestation period is 166–169 days after which the female will bear 1–2 young which feed from her for 6–7 months. The lifespan of this species is believed to be around 15–18 years in the wild.",
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"plaintext": "This slender loris is an endangered species. Habitat destruction is a major threat. It is widely trapped and killed for use in supposed remedies for eye diseases and is preyed upon by snakes, dogs, and some fish. Other threats include electrocution on live wires, road accidents and capture for the pet trade.",
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"plaintext": "The red slender loris was identified as one of the top-10 \"focal species\" in 2007 by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) project.",
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"plaintext": "ARKive – images and movies of the slender loris (Loris tardigradus and Loris lydekkerianus)",
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"plaintext": " EDGE of Existence \"(Slender loris)\" Saving the World's most Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species",
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| 614,947 | 1,207 | 25 | 30 | 0 | 0 | red slender loris | species of primate | [
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|
37,171 | 1,107,029,301 | Cray-1 | [
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1 was a supercomputer designed, manufactured and marketed by Cray Research. Announced in 1975, the first Cray-1 system was installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976. Eventually, over 100 Cray-1s were sold, making it one of the most successful supercomputers in history. It is perhaps best known for its unique shape, a relatively small C-shaped cabinet with a ring of benches around the outside covering the power supplies and the cooling system.",
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1 was the first supercomputer to successfully implement the vector processor design. These systems improve the performance of math operations by arranging memory and registers to quickly perform a single operation on a large set of data. Previous systems like the CDC STAR-100 and ASC had implemented these concepts but did so in a way that seriously limited their performance. The Cray-1 addressed these problems and produced a machine that ran several times faster than any similar design.",
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1's architect was Seymour Cray; the chief engineer was Cray Research co-founder Lester Davis. They would go on to design several new machines using the same basic concepts, and retained the performance crown into the 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "From 1968 to 1972, Seymour Cray of Control Data Corporation (CDC) worked on the CDC 8600, the successor to his earlier CDC 6600 and CDC 7600 designs. The 8600 was essentially made up of four 7600s in a box with an additional special mode that allowed them to operate lock-step in a SIMD fashion.",
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"plaintext": "Jim Thornton, formerly Cray's engineering partner on earlier designs, had started a more radical project known as the CDC STAR-100. Unlike the 8600's brute-force approach to performance, the STAR took an entirely different route. The main processor of the STAR had lower performance than the 7600, but added hardware and instructions to speed up particularly common supercomputer tasks.",
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"plaintext": "As a result, Cray left CDC and started Cray Research very close to the CDC lab. In the back yard of the land he purchased in Chippewa Falls, Cray and a group of former CDC employees started looking for ideas. At first, the concept of building another supercomputer seemed impossible, but after Cray Research's Chief Technology Officer travelled to Wall Street and found a lineup of investors willing to back Cray, all that was needed was a design.",
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"plaintext": "For four years Cray Research designed its first computer. In 1975 the 80MHz Cray-1 was announced. The excitement was so high that a bidding war for the first machine broke out between Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory, the latter eventually winning and receiving serial number 001 in 1976 for a six-month trial. The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) was the first official customer of Cray Research in 1977, paying US$8.86 million ($7.9 million plus $1 million for the disks) for serial number 3. The NCAR machine was decommissioned in 1989. The company expected to sell perhaps a dozen of the machines, and set the selling price accordingly, but ultimately over 80 Cray-1s of all types were sold, priced from $5M to $8M. The machine made Seymour Cray a celebrity and his company a success, lasting until the supercomputer crash in the early 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "Based on a recommendation by William Perry's study, the NSA purchased a Cray-1 for theoretical research in cryptanalysis. According to Budiansky, \"Though standard histories of Cray Research would persist for decades in stating that the company's first customer was Los Alamos National Laboratory, in fact it was NSA...\"",
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"plaintext": "The 160MFLOPS Cray-1 was succeeded in 1982 by the 800MFLOPS Cray X-MP, the first Cray multi-processing computer. In 1985, the very advanced Cray-2, capable of 1.9GFLOPS peak performance, succeeded the first two models but met a somewhat limited commercial success because of certain problems at producing sustained performance in real-world applications. A more conservatively designed evolutionary successor of the Cray-1 and X-MP models was therefore made by the name Cray Y-MP and launched in 1988.",
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"plaintext": "By comparison, the processor in a typical 2013 smart device, such as a Google Nexus 10 or HTC One, performs at roughly 1 GFLOPS, while the A13 processor in a 2020 iPhone 11 performs at 154.9 GFLOPS, a mark supercomputers succeeding the Cray-1 would not reach until 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Typical scientific workloads consist of reading in large data sets, transforming them in some way and then writing them back out again. Normally the transformations being applied are identical across all of the data points in the set. For instance, the program might add 5 to every number in a set of a million numbers.",
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"plaintext": "In traditional computers the program would loop over all million numbers, adding five, thereby executing a million instructions saying . Internally the computer solves this instruction in several steps. First it reads the instruction from memory and decodes it, then it collects any additional information it needs, in this case the numbers b and c, and then finally runs the operation and stores the results. The end result is that the computer requires tens or hundreds of millions of cycles to carry out these operations.",
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"plaintext": "In the STAR, new instructions essentially wrote the loops for the user. The user told the machine where in memory the list of numbers was stored, then fed in a single instruction . At first glance it appears the savings are limited; in this case the machine fetches and decodes only a single instruction instead of 1,000,000, thereby saving 1,000,000 fetches and decodes, perhaps one-fourth of the overall time.",
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"plaintext": "The real savings are not so obvious. Internally, the CPU of the computer is built up from a number of separate parts dedicated to a single task, for instance, adding a number, or fetching from memory. Normally, as the instruction flows through the machine, only one part is active at any given time. This means that each sequential step of the entire process must complete before a result can be saved. The addition of an instruction pipeline changes this. In such machines the CPU will \"look ahead\" and begin fetching succeeding instructions while the current instruction is still being processed. In this assembly line fashion any one instruction still requires as long to complete, but as soon as it finishes executing, the next instruction is right behind it, with most of the steps required for its execution already completed.",
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"plaintext": "Vector processors use this technique with one additional trick. Because the data layout is in a known format— a set of numbers arranged sequentially in memory— the pipelines can be tuned to improve the performance of fetches. On the receipt of a vector instruction, special hardware sets up the memory access for the arrays and stuffs the data into the processor as fast as possible.",
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"plaintext": "CDC's approach in the STAR used what is today known as a memory-memory architecture. This referred to the way the machine gathered data. It set up its pipeline to read from and write to memory directly. This allowed the STAR to use vectors of length not limited by the length of registers, making it highly flexible. Unfortunately, the pipeline had to be very long in order to allow it to have enough instructions in flight to make up for the slow memory. That meant the machine incurred a high cost when switching from processing vectors to performing operations on non-vector operands. Additionally, the low scalar performance of the machine meant that after the switch had taken place and the machine was running scalar instructions, the performance was quite poor. The result was rather disappointing real-world performance, something that could, perhaps, have been forecast by Amdahl's law.",
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"plaintext": "Cray studied the failure of the STAR and learned from it. He decided that in addition to fast vector processing, his design would also require excellent all-around scalar performance. That way when the machine switched modes, it would still provide superior performance. Additionally he noticed that the workloads could be dramatically improved in most cases through the use of registers.",
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"plaintext": "Just as earlier machines had ignored the fact that most operations were being applied to many data points, the STAR ignored the fact that those same data points would be repeatedly operated on. Whereas the STAR would read and process the same memory five times to apply five vector operations on a set of data, it would be much faster to read the data into the CPU's registers once, and then apply the five operations. However, there were limitations with this approach. Registers were significantly more expensive in terms of circuitry, so only a limited number could be provided. This implied that Cray's design would have less flexibility in terms of vector sizes. Instead of reading any sized vector several times as in the STAR, the Cray-1 would have to read only a portion of the vector at a time, but it could then run several operations on that data prior to writing the results back to memory. Given typical workloads, Cray felt that the small cost incurred by being required to break large sequential memory accesses into segments was a cost well worth paying.",
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"plaintext": "Since the typical vector operation would involve loading a small set of data into the vector registers and then running several operations on it, the vector system of the new design had its own separate pipeline. For instance, the multiplication and addition units were implemented as separate hardware, so the results of one could be internally pipelined into the next, the instruction decode having already been handled in the machine's main pipeline. Cray referred to this concept as chaining, as it allowed programmers to \"chain together\" several instructions and extract higher performance.",
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"plaintext": "The new machine was the first Cray design to use integrated circuits (ICs). Although ICs had been available since the 1960s, it was only in the early 1970s that they reached the performance necessary for high-speed applications. The Cray-1 used only four different IC types, an ECL dual 5-4 NOR gate (one 5-input, and one 4-input, each with differential output), another slower MECL 10K 5-4 NOR gate used for address fanout, a 16×4-bit high speed (6ns) static RAM (SRAM) used for registers and a 1,024×1-bit 48ns SRAM used for the main memory. These integrated circuits were supplied by Fairchild Semiconductor and Motorola. In all, the Cray-1 contained about 200,000 gates.",
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"plaintext": "ICs were mounted on large five-layer printed circuit boards, with up to 144 ICs per board. Boards were then mounted back to back for cooling (see below) and placed in twenty-four racks containing 72 double-boards. The typical module (distinct processing unit) required one or two boards. In all the machine contained 1,662 modules in 113 varieties.",
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"plaintext": "Each cable between the modules was a twisted pair, cut to a specific length in order to guarantee the signals arrived at precisely the right time and minimize electrical reflection. Each signal produced by the ECL circuitry was a differential pair, so the signals were balanced. This tended to make the demand on the power supply more constant and reduce switching noise. The load on the power supply was so evenly balanced that Cray boasted that the power supply was unregulated. To the power supply, the entire computer system looked like a simple resistor.",
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"plaintext": "The high-performance ECL circuitry generated considerable heat, and Cray's designers spent as much effort on the design of the refrigeration system as they did on the rest of the mechanical design. In this case, each circuit board was paired with a second, placed back to back with a sheet of copper between them. The copper sheet conducted heat to the edges of the cage, where liquid Freon running in stainless steel pipes drew it away to the cooling unit below the machine. The first Cray-1 was delayed six months due to problems in the cooling system; lubricant that is normally mixed with the Freon to keep the compressor running would leak through the seals and eventually coat the boards with oil until they shorted out. New welding techniques had to be used to properly seal the tubing.",
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"plaintext": "In order to bring maximum speed out of the machine, the entire chassis was bent into a large C-shape. Speed-dependent portions of the system were placed on the \"inside edge\" of the chassis, where the wire-lengths were shorter. This allowed the cycle time to be decreased to 12.5ns (80MHz), not as fast as the 8ns 8600 he had given up on, but fast enough to beat CDC 7600 and the STAR. NCAR estimated that the overall throughput on the system was 4.5 times that of the CDC 7600.",
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1 was built as a 64-bit system, a departure from the 7600/6600, which were 60-bit machines (a change was also planned for the 8600). Addressing was 24-bit, with a maximum of 1,048,576 64-bit words (1 megaword) of main memory, where each word also had eight parity bits for a total of 72 bits per word. There were 64 data bits and eight check bits. Memory was spread across 16 interleaved memory banks, each with a 50ns cycle time, allowing up to four words to be read per cycle. Smaller configurations could have 0.25 or 0.5 megawords of main memory. Maximum aggregate memory bandwidth was 638 Mbit/s.",
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"plaintext": "The main register set consisted of eight 64-bit scalar (S) registers and eight 24-bit address (A) registers. These were backed by a set of sixty-four registers each for S and A temporary storage known as T and B respectively, which could not be seen by the functional units. The vector system added another eight 64-element by 64-bit vector (V) registers, as well as a vector length (VL) and vector mask (VM). Finally, the system also included a 64-bit real-time clock register and four 64-bit instruction buffers that held sixty-four 16-bit instructions each. The hardware was set up to allow the vector registers to be fed at one word per cycle, while the address and scalar registers required two cycles. In contrast, the entire 16-word instruction buffer could be filled in four cycles.",
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1 had twelve pipelined functional units. The 24-bit address arithmetic was performed in an add unit and a multiply unit. The scalar portion of the system consisted of an add unit, a logical unit, a population count, a leading zero count unit and a shift unit. The vector portion consisted of add, logical and shift units. The floating point functional units were shared between the scalar and vector portions, and these consisted of add, multiply and reciprocal approximation units.",
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"plaintext": "The system had limited parallelism. It could issue one instruction per clock cycle, for a theoretical performance of 80MIPS, but with vector floating-point multiplication and addition occurring in parallel theoretical performance was 160MFLOPS. (The reciprocal approximation unit could also operate in parallel, but did not deliver a true floating-point result - two additional multiplications were needed to achieve a full division.)",
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"plaintext": "Since the machine was designed to operate on large data sets, the design also dedicated considerable circuitry to I/O. Earlier Cray designs at CDC had included separate computers dedicated to this task, but this was no longer needed. Instead the Cray-1 included four six-channel controllers, each of which was given access to main memory once every four cycles. The channels were 16 bits wide and included three control bits and four bits for error correction, so the maximum transfer speed was one word per 100ns, or 500 thousand words per second for the entire machine.",
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"plaintext": "The initial model, the Cray-1A, weighed 5.5 tons including the Freon refrigeration system. Configured with 1 million words of main memory, the machine and its power supplies consumed about 115kW of power; cooling and storage likely more than doubled this figure. A Data General SuperNova S/200 minicomputer served as the maintenance control unit (MCU), which was used to feed the Cray Operating System into the system at boot time, to monitor the CPU during use, and optionally as a front-end computer. Most, if not all, Cray-1As were delivered using the follow-on Data General Eclipse as the MCU.",
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1S, announced in 1979, was an improved Cray-1 that supported a larger main memory of 1, 2 or 4 million words. The larger main memory was made possible through the use of 4,096 x 1-bit bipolar RAM ICs with a 25ns access time. The Data General minicomputers were optionally replaced with an in-house 16-bit design running at 80MIPS. The I/O subsystem was separated from the main machine, connected to the main system via a 6Mbit/s control channel and a 100Mbit/s High Speed Data Channel. This separation made the 1S look like two \"half Crays\" separated by a few feet, which allowed the I/O system to be expanded as needed. Systems could be bought in a variety of configurations from the S/500 with no I/O and 0.5 million words of memory to the S/4400 with four I/O processors and 4 million words of memory.",
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"plaintext": "The Cray-1M, announced in 1982, replaced the Cray-1S. It had a faster 12ns cycle time and used less expensive MOS RAM in the main memory. The 1M was supplied in only three versions, the M/1200 with 1 million words in 8 banks, or the M/2200 and M/4200 with 2 or 4 million words in 16 banks. All of these machines included two, three or four I/O processors, and the system added an optional second High Speed Data Channel. Users could add a Solid-state Storage Device with 8 to 32 million words of MOS RAM.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978 the first standard software package for the Cray-1 was released, consisting of three main products:",
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"plaintext": "Cray Operating System (COS) (later machines would run UNICOS, Cray's UNIX flavor)",
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"plaintext": "Cray Assembly Language (CAL)",
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"plaintext": "Cray FORTRAN (CFT), the first automatically vectorizing Fortran compiler",
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"plaintext": "The United States Department of Energy funded sites from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories and the National Science Foundation supercomputer centers (for high-energy physics) represented the second largest block with LLL's Cray Time Sharing System (CTSS). CTSS was written in a dynamic memory Fortran, first named LRLTRAN, which ran on CDC 7600s, renamed CVC (pronounced \"Civic\") when vectorization for the Cray-1 was added. Cray Research attempted to support these sites accordingly. These software choices had influences on later minisupercomputers, also known as \"crayettes\".",
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"plaintext": "NCAR has its own operating system (NCAROS).",
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"plaintext": "The National Security Agency developed its own operating system (Folklore) and language (IMP with ports of Cray Pascal and C and Fortran 90 later)",
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"plaintext": "Libraries started with Cray Research's own offerings and Netlib.",
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"plaintext": "Other operating systems existed, but most languages tended to be Fortran or Fortran-based. Bell Laboratories, as proof of both portability concept and circuit design, moved the first C compiler to their Cray-1 (non-vectorizing). This act would later give CRI a six-month head start on the Cray-2 Unix port to ETA Systems' detriment, and Lucasfilm's first computer generated test film, The Adventures of André & Wally B..",
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"plaintext": "Application software generally tends to be either classified (e.g. nuclear code, cryptanalytic code) or proprietary (e.g. petroleum reservoir modeling). This was because little software was shared between customers and university customers. The few exceptions were climatological and meteorological programs until the NSF responded to the Japanese Fifth Generation Computer Systems project and created its supercomputer centers. Even then, little code was shared.",
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"plaintext": "Partly because Cray were interested in the publicity, they supported the development of Cray Blitz which won the fourth (1983) and fifth (1986) World Computer Chess Championship, as well as the 1983 and 1984 North American Computer Chess Championship. The program, Chess, that dominated in the 1970s ran on Control Data Corporation supercomputers.",
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"plaintext": "Cray-1s are on display at the following locations:",
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"plaintext": "Bradbury Science Museum in Los Alamos, New Mexico",
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"plaintext": "Chippewa Falls Museum of Industry and Technology in Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin",
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"plaintext": "The Cray Inc. offices at Cray Plaza in St. Paul, Minnesota",
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"plaintext": "Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California",
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"plaintext": " Computer Museum of America, Roswell, Georgia, US",
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"plaintext": "DigiBarn Computer Museum",
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"plaintext": "Deutsches Museum in Munich",
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"plaintext": "ETH Zurich - Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Switzerland",
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"plaintext": " Museum + Labs in Seattle, Washington",
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"plaintext": "National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado",
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"plaintext": "National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.",
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"plaintext": "Musée Bolo in Lausanne, Switzerland",
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"plaintext": "The National Museum of Computing at Bletchley Park",
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37,175 | 1,102,806,528 | Lars_Onsager | [
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"plaintext": "On leaving JHU, he accepted a position (involving the teaching of statistical mechanics to graduate students in chemistry) at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, where it became clear that he was no better at teaching advanced students than freshmen, but he made significant contributions to statistical mechanics and thermodynamics. The only graduate student who could really understand his lectures on electrolyte systems, Raymond Fuoss, worked under him and eventually joined him on the Yale chemistry faculty. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1933, when the Great Depression limited Brown's ability to support a faculty member who was only useful as a researcher and not a teacher, he was let go by Brown, being hired after a trip to Europe by Yale University, where he remained for most of the rest of his life, retiring in 1972.",
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"plaintext": "His research at Brown was concerned mainly with the effects on diffusion of temperature gradients, and produced the Onsager reciprocal relations, a set of equations published in 1929 and, in an expanded form, in 1931, in statistical mechanics whose importance went unrecognized for many years. However, their value became apparent during the decades following World War II, and by 1968 they were considered important enough to gain Onsager that year's Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 1933, just before taking up the position at Yale, Onsager traveled to Austria to visit electrochemist Hans Falkenhagen. He met Falkenhagen's sister-in-law, Margrethe Arledter. They were married on September 7, 1933, and had three sons and a daughter.",
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"plaintext": "At Yale, an embarrassing situation occurred: he had been hired as a postdoctoral fellow, but it was discovered that he had never received a Ph.D. While he had submitted an outline of his work in reciprocal relations to the Norwegian Institute of Technology, they had decided it was too incomplete to qualify as a doctoral dissertation. He was told that he could submit one of his published papers to the Yale faculty as a dissertation, but insisted on doing a new research project instead. His dissertation laid the mathematical background for his interpretation of deviations from Ohm’s law in weak electrolytes. It dealt with the solutions of the Mathieu equation of period 4 pi and certain related functions and was beyond the comprehension of the chemistry and physics faculty. Only when some members of the mathematics department, including the chairman, insisted that the work was good enough that they would grant the doctorate if the chemistry department would not, was he granted a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1935. Even before the dissertation was finished, he was appointed assistant professor in 1934, and promoted to associate professor in 1940. He quickly showed at Yale the same traits he had at JHU and Brown: he produced brilliant theoretical research, but was incapable of giving a lecture at a level that a student (even a graduate student) could comprehend. He was also unable to direct the research of graduate students, except for the occasional outstanding one.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972 Onsager retired from Yale and became emeritus. He then became a member of the Center for Theoretical Studies, University of Miami, and was appointed Distinguished University Professor of Physics. At the University of Miami he remained active in guiding and inspiring postdoctoral students as his teaching skills, although not his lecturing skills, had improved during the course of his career. He developed interests in semiconductor physics, biophysics and radiation chemistry. However, his death came before he could produce any breakthroughs comparable to those of his earlier years.",
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"plaintext": "He remained in Florida until his death from an aneurysm in Coral Gables, Florida in 1976. Onsager was buried next to John Gamble Kirkwood at New Haven's Grove Street Cemetery. While Kirkwood's tombstone has a long list of awards and positions, including the American Chemical Society Award in Pure Chemistry, the Richards Medal, and the Lewis Award, Onsager's tombstone, in its original form, simply said \"Nobel Laureate\". When Onsager's wife Gretel died in 1991 and was buried there, his children added an asterisk after \"Nobel Laureate,\" and \"*etc.\" in the lower right corner of the stone.",
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"plaintext": "The Norwegian Institute of Technology established the Lars Onsager Lecture and The Lars Onsager Professorship in 1993 to award outstanding scientists in the scientific fields of Lars Onsager; Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics. The American Physical Society established Lars Onsager Prize in statistical physics in 1993. In 1997 his sons and daughter donated his scientific works and professional belongings to NTNU (before 1996 NTH) in Trondheim, Norway as his alma mater. These are now organized as The Lars Onsager Archive at the Gunnerus Library in Trondheim.",
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37,183 | 1,106,246,425 | Novikov_self-consistency_principle | [
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"plaintext": "The Novikov self-consistency principle, also known as the Novikov self-consistency conjecture and Larry Niven's law of conservation of history, is a principle developed by Russian physicist Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov in the mid-1980s. Novikov intended it to solve the problem of paradoxes in time travel, which is theoretically permitted in certain solutions of general relativity that contain what are known as closed timelike curves. The principle asserts that if an event exists that would cause a paradox or any \"change\" to the past whatsoever, then the probability of that event is zero. It would thus be impossible to create time paradoxes.",
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"plaintext": "Physicists have long known that some solutions to the theory of general relativity contain closed timelike curvesfor example the Gödel metric. Novikov discussed the possibility of closed timelike curves (CTCs) in books he wrote in 1975 and 1983, offering the opinion that only self-consistent trips back in time would be permitted. In a 1990 paper by Novikov and several others, \"Cauchy problem in spacetimes with closed timelike curves\", the authors state:",
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"plaintext": "Among the co-authors of this 1990 paper were Kip Thorne, Mike Morris, and Ulvi Yurtsever, who in 1988 had stirred up renewed interest in the subject of time travel in general relativity with their paper \"Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition\", which showed that a new general relativity solution known as a traversable wormhole could lead to closed timelike curves, and unlike previous CTC-containing solutions, it did not require unrealistic conditions for the universe as a whole. After discussions with the lead author of the 1990 paper, John Friedman, they convinced themselves that time travel need not lead to unresolvable paradoxes, regardless of the object sent through the wormhole.",
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"plaintext": "By way of response, physicist Joseph Polchinski wrote them a letter arguing that one could avoid the issue of free will by employing a potentially paradoxical thought experiment involving a billiard ball sent back in time through a wormhole. In Polchinski's scenario, the billiard ball is fired into the wormhole at an angle such that, if it continues along its path, it will exit in the past at just the right angle to collide with its earlier self, knocking it off track and preventing it from entering the wormhole in the first place. Thorne would refer to this scenario as \"Polchinski's paradox\" in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Upon considering the scenario, Fernando Echeverria and Gunnar Klinkhammer, two students at Caltech (where Thorne taught), arrived at a solution to the problem that managed to avoid any inconsistencies. In the revised scenario, the ball from the future emerges at a different angle than the one that generates the paradox, and delivers its younger self a glancing blow instead of knocking it completely away from the wormhole. This blow alters its trajectory by just the right degree, meaning it will travel back in time with the angle required to deliver its younger self the necessary glancing blow. Echeverria and Klinkhammer actually found that there was more than one self-consistent solution, with slightly different angles for the glancing blow in each situation. Later analysis by Thorne and Robert Forward illustrated that for certain initial trajectories of the billiard ball, there could actually be an infinite number of self-consistent solutions.",
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"plaintext": "Echeverria, Klinkhammer, and Thorne published a paper discussing these results in 1991; in addition, they reported that they had tried to see if they could find any initial conditions for the billiard ball for which there were no self-consistent extensions, but were unable to do so. Thus, it is plausible that there exist self-consistent extensions for every possible initial trajectory, although this has not been proven. This only applies to initial conditions outside of the chronology-violating region of spacetime, which is bounded by a Cauchy horizon. This could mean that the Novikov self-consistency principle does not actually place any constraints on systems outside of the region of space-time where time travel is possible, only inside it.",
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"plaintext": "The Novikov consistency principle assumes certain conditions about what sort of time travel is possible. Specifically, it assumes either that there is only one timeline, or that any alternative timelines (such as those postulated by the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics) are not accessible.",
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"plaintext": "Given these assumptions, the constraint that time travel must not lead to inconsistent outcomes could be seen merely as a tautology, a self-evident truth that cannot possibly be false. However, the Novikov self-consistency principle is intended to go beyond just the statement that history must be consistent, making the additional nontrivial assumption that the universe obeys the same local laws of physics in situations involving time travel that it does in regions of space-time that lack closed timelike curves. This is clarified in the above-mentioned \"Cauchy problem in spacetimes with closed timelike curves\", where the authors write:",
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"plaintext": "The assumptions of the self-consistency principle can be extended to hypothetical scenarios involving intelligent time travelers as well as unintelligent objects such as billiard balls. The authors of \"Cauchy problem in spacetimes with closed timelike curves\" commented on the issue in the paper's conclusion, writing:",
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"plaintext": "Time-loop logic, coined by roboticist and futurist Hans Moravec, is a hypothetical system of computation that exploits the Novikov self-consistency principle to compute answers much faster than possible with the standard model of computational complexity using Turing machines. In this system, a computer sends a result of a computation backwards through time and relies upon the self-consistency principle to force the sent result to be correct, provided the machine can reliably receive information from the future and provided the algorithm and the underlying mechanism are formally correct. An incorrect result or no result can still be produced if the time travel mechanism or algorithm are not guaranteed to be accurate.",
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"plaintext": "Physicist David Deutsch showed in 1991 that this model of computation could solve NP problems in polynomial time, and Scott Aaronson later extended this result to show that the model could also be used to solve PSPACE problems in polynomial time. Deutsch shows that quantum computation with a negative delaybackwards time travelproduces only self-consistent solutions, and the chronology-violating region imposes constraints that are not apparent through classical reasoning. Researchers published in 2014 a simulation in which they claim to have validated Deutsch's model with photons. However, it was shown in an article by Tolksdorf and Verch that Deutsch's self-consistency condition can be fulfilled to arbitrary precision in any quantum system described according to relativistic quantum field theory even on spacetimes which do not admit closed timelike curves, casting doubts on whether Deutsch's model is really characteristic of quantum processes simulating closed timelike curves in the sense of general relativity.",
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"plaintext": "In a later article,",
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"plaintext": "the same authors show that Deutsch's CTC fixed point condition can also be fulfilled in any system",
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"plaintext": "subject to the laws of classical statistical mechanics, even if it is not built up by quantum systems. The authors conclude that hence, ",
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"plaintext": " Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality: In Eliezer Yudkowsky's exposition on rationality, framed as a piece of Harry Potter fanfiction, Harry attempts to use his Time Turner to influence the past and comes to the conclusion that the Novikov self-consistency principle applies.",
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"plaintext": " Steins;Gate: Cited by Makise Kurisu during her presentation on time travel.",
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"plaintext": " Orthogonal: A science-fiction novel series that applies the principle.",
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"plaintext": " Outer Wilds: A video game involving time travel which does not follow the principle, causing a game over if the player experiments to test it.",
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"plaintext": " The Final Countdown (1980): A science-fiction time-travel movie in which the aircraft carrier, Nimitz, passes through a wormhole back to the eve of the Pearl Harbor. The anomaly returns and sends it back into the present, before it has a chance to affect the outcome.",
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"plaintext": " The Netflix series Dark is largely based on the notion that the possibility of time travel tempts the characters to try change the past, which only leads them to cause the events they were trying to prevent in the first place.",
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"plaintext": " Cosmic censorship hypothesis",
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"plaintext": " Notion of the Past & Can We Change It? – speech by Novikov",
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| [
"Time_travel",
"Conjectures",
"Temporal_paradoxes"
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| 2,003,641 | 5,750 | 31 | 55 | 0 | 0 | Novikov self-consistency principle | principle developed to solve the problem of paradoxes in time travel | [
"Novikov self-consistency conjecture"
]
|
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37,185 | 1,091,152,221 | Pope_Leo_VIII | [
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"plaintext": "Pope Leo VIII ( 915– 1 March 965) was a Roman prelate who claimed the Holy See from 963 until 964 in opposition to John XII and Benedict V and again from 23 June 964 to his death. Today he is considered by the Catholic Church to have been an antipope during the first period and the legitimate pope during the second. An appointee of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I, Leo VIII's pontificate occurred after the period known as the Saeculum obscurum.",
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"plaintext": "Born in Rome in the region around the Clivus Argentarius, Leo came from an illustrious noble family. He was the son of John who held the office of protonotary. Although a layperson, he was the protoscriniarius (or superintendent of the Roman public schools for scribes) in the papal court during the pontificate of John XII. In 963 he was included in a party that was sent by John to the newly crowned Holy Roman emperor, Otto I, who was besieging the deposed King Berengar II of Italy at the castle of St. Leo in Umbria. His instructions were to reassure the emperor that the pope was determined to correct the abuses of the papal court, as well as protesting about Otto's actions in demanding that cities in the Papal States take an oath of fidelity to the emperor instead of the pope.",
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"plaintext": "By the time Otto entered Rome to depose John XII, Leo had been appointed protonotary to the Apostolic See. A synod convened by the emperor uncanonically deposed John XII (who had fled to Tibur) and proceeded to elect Leo VIII, who was the emperor's nominee, as pope on 4 December 963. Since Leo was still a layman, he was ordained as ostiarius, lector, acolyte, subdeacon, deacon and priest in the space of a day by Sico, the cardinal-bishop of Ostia, who then proceeded to consecrate him as bishop on 6 December 963. The deposed John, however, still had a large body of sympathisers within Rome; he offered large bribes to the Roman nobility if they would rise up and overthrow Otto and kill Leo, and so, in early January 964, the Roman people staged an uprising that was quickly put down by Otto's troops. Leo, hoping to reach out to the Roman nobility, persuaded Otto to release the hostages he had taken from the leading Roman families in exchange for their continued good behaviour. However, once Otto left Rome around 12 January 964, the Romans again rebelled, and caused Leo to flee Rome and take refuge with Otto sometime in February 964.",
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"plaintext": "John XII returned, and in February convened a synod which in turn deposed Leo on 26 February 964, with John excommunicating Leo in the process. Leo remained with Otto, and, with the death of John XII in May 964, the Romans elected Benedict V. Otto proceeded to besiege Rome, taking Leo with him, and when the Romans eventually surrendered to Otto, Leo was reinstalled in the Lateran Palace as pope.",
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"plaintext": "Together with Benedict's clerical and lay supporters, and clad in his pontifical robes, the former pope was then brought before Leo. Benedict was asked how he dared to assume the chair of Saint Peter while Leo was still alive. Benedict responded, \"If I have sinned, have mercy on me.\" Having received a promise from the emperor that his life would be spared if he submitted, Benedict threw himself at Leo's feet and acknowledged his guilt. Brought before a synod convened by Leo, Benedict's episcopal ordination was revoked, his pallium was torn from him, and his pastoral staff was broken over him by Leo. However, through the intercession of Otto, Benedict was allowed to retain the rank of deacon. Then, after having the Roman nobility swear an oath over the Tomb of Saint Peter to obey and be faithful to Leo, Otto departed Rome in late June 964.",
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"plaintext": "Having been crowned by Otto, the remainder of Leo's pontificate was reasonably trouble free. He issued numerous bulls, many of which detailed the granting of privileges to Otto and his successors. Some of the bulls were alleged to grant the Holy Roman emperors the right of choosing their successors in the Kingdom of Italy and the right to nominate the pope, and all popes, archbishops and bishops were to receive investiture from the emperor. In addition, Leo is also claimed to have relinquished to Otto all the territory of the Papal States that had been granted to the Apostolic See by Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. Although it is certain that Leo granted various concessions to his imperial patron, it is now believed that the \"investiture\" bulls associated with Leo were, if not completely fabricated during the Investiture Controversy, at the very least so tampered with that it is now largely impossible to reconstruct them in their original form.",
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"plaintext": "Leo VIII died on 1 March 965, and was succeeded by John XIII. According to the Liber Pontificalis, he was described as venerable, energetic and honourable. He had a number of streets dedicated to him in and around the Clivus Argentarius, including the descensus Leonis Prothi.",
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"plaintext": "Although Leo was for many years considered an antipope, his current status is still a source of confusion. The Annuario Pontificio makes the following point about the pontificate of Leo VIII:",
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"plaintext": "\"At this point, as again in the mid-eleventh century, we come across elections in which problems of harmonizing historical criteria and those of theology and canon law make it impossible to decide clearly which side possessed the legitimacy whose factual existence guarantees the unbroken lawful succession of the Successors of Saint Peter. The uncertainty that in some cases results has made it advisable to abandon the assignation of successive numbers in the list of the Popes.\"",
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"plaintext": "Due to Leo's uncanonical original election, it is now accepted that, at least until the deposition of Benedict V, he was almost certainly an antipope. The deposition of John XII was almost certainly invalid, as John did not acquiesce, and so the election of Benedict V almost certainly was canonical. However, if Benedict did acquiesce to his deposition as Liutprand of Cremona (who chronicled the events of this period) wrote, and if, as seems certain, no further protest was made against Leo's position, it has been the consensus of historians that he may be regarded as a true pope from July 964 to his death in 965. The fact that no one else attempted to claim the papacy during this time, and that the next pope to assume the name Leo was consecrated Leo IX also seems to indicate that he is a true pope.",
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"plaintext": " Gregorovius, Ferdinand, The History of Rome in the Middle Ages, Vol. III (1895)",
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"plaintext": " Mann, Horace K., The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol. IV: The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy, 891–999 (1910)",
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"plaintext": " Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes",
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37,186 | 1,100,654,837 | Vagus_nerve | [
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"plaintext": "The vagus nerve, also known as the tenth cranial nerve, cranial nerve X, or simply CN X, is a cranial nerve that interfaces with the parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. It comprises two nerves—the left and right vagus nerves—but they are typically referred to collectively as a single subsystem. The vagus is the longest nerve of the autonomic nervous system in the human body and comprises both sensory and motor fibers. The sensory fibers originate from neurons of the nodose ganglion, whereas the motor fibers come from neurons of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus and the nucleus ambiguus. The vagus was also historically called the pneumogastric nerve.",
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"plaintext": "Upon leaving the medulla oblongata between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle, the vagus nerve extends through the jugular foramen, then passes into the carotid sheath between the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein down to the neck, chest, and abdomen, where it contributes to the innervation of the viscera, reaching all the way to the colon. Besides giving some output to various organs, the vagus nerve comprises between 80% and 90% of afferent nerves mostly conveying sensory information about the state of the body's organs to the central nervous system.",
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"plaintext": "The right vagus nerve gives rise to the right recurrent laryngeal nerve, which hooks around the right subclavian artery and ascends into the neck between the trachea and esophagus. The right vagus then crosses anterior to the right subclavian artery, runs posterior to the superior vena cava, descends posterior to the right main bronchus, and contributes to cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal plexuses. It forms the posterior vagal trunk at the lower part of the esophagus and enters the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus.",
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"plaintext": " The spinal trigeminal nucleus – which receives information about deep/crude touch, pain, and temperature of the outer ear, the dura of the posterior cranial fossa and the mucosa of the larynx",
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"plaintext": "The vagus nerve also plays a role in satiation following food consumption. Knocking out vagal nerve receptors has been shown to cause hyperphagia (greatly increased food intake).",
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"plaintext": "Parasympathetic innervation of the heart is partially controlled by the vagus nerve and is shared by the thoracic ganglia. Vagal and spinal ganglionic nerves mediate the lowering of the heart rate. The right vagus branch innervates the sinoatrial node. In healthy people, parasympathetic tone from these sources is well-matched to sympathetic tone. Hyperstimulation of parasympathetic influence promotes bradyarrhythmias. When hyperstimulated, the left vagal branch predisposes the heart to conduction block at the atrioventricular node.",
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"plaintext": "At this location, neuroscientist Otto Loewi first demonstrated that nerves secrete substances called neurotransmitters, which have effects on receptors in target tissues. In his experiment, Loewi electrically stimulated the vagus nerve of a frog heart, which slowed the heart. Then he took the fluid from the heart and transferred it to a second frog heart without a vagus nerve. The second heart slowed without electrical stimulation. Loewi described the substance released by the vagus nerve as vagusstoff, which was later found to be acetylcholine. Drugs that inhibit the muscarinic receptors (anticholinergics) such as atropine and scopolamine, are called vagolytic because they inhibit the action of the vagus nerve on the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and other organs. Anticholinergic drugs increase heart rate and are used to treat bradycardia.",
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"plaintext": "Excessive activation of the vagal nerve during emotional stress, which is a parasympathetic overcompensation for a strong sympathetic nervous system response associated with stress, can also cause vasovagal syncope due to a sudden drop in cardiac output, causing cerebral hypoperfusion. Vasovagal syncope affects young children and women more than other groups. It can also lead to temporary loss of bladder control under moments of extreme fear.",
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"plaintext": "Research has shown that women having had complete spinal cord injury can experience orgasms through the vagus nerve, which can go from the uterus and cervix to the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Insulin signaling activates the adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels in the arcuate nucleus, decreases AgRP release, and through the vagus nerve, leads to decreased glucose production by the liver by decreasing gluconeogenic enzymes: Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, Glucose 6-phosphatase.",
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"plaintext": "Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy using a neurostimulator implanted in the chest is a treatment used since 1997 to control seizures in epilepsy patients and has been approved for treating drug-resistant cases of clinical depression. A non-invasive VNS device that stimulates an afferent branch of the vagus nerve is also being developed and will soon undergo trials.",
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"plaintext": "Clinical trials have started in Antwerp, Belgium, using VNS for the treatment of tonal tinnitus after a breakthrough study published in early 2011 by researchers at the University of Texas – Dallas showed successful tinnitus-suppression in rats when tones were paired with brief pulses of stimulation of the vagus nerve.",
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"plaintext": "VNS may also be achieved by one of the vagal maneuvers: holding the breath for 20–60seconds, dipping the face in cold water, coughing, humming or singing, or tensing the stomach muscles as if to bear down to have a bowel movement. Patients with supraventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, and other illnesses may be trained to perform vagal maneuvers (or find one or more on their own).",
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"plaintext": "Vagus nerve blocking (VBLOC) therapy is similar to VNS but used only during the day. In a six-month open-label trial involving three medical centers in Australia, Mexico, and Norway, vagus nerve blocking helped 31obese participants lose an average of nearly 15percent of their excess weight. , a year-long 300participant double-blind, phase II trial had begun.",
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"plaintext": "Vagotomy (cutting of the vagus nerve) is a now obsolete therapy that was performed for peptic ulcer disease. Vagotomy is currently being researched as a less invasive alternative weight-loss procedure to gastric bypass surgery. The procedure curbs the feeling of hunger and is sometimes performed in conjunction with putting bands on patients' stomachs, resulting in an average of 43% of excess weight loss at six months with diet and exercise.",
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"plaintext": "One serious side effect of vagotomy is a vitamin B12 deficiency later in life – perhaps after about 10 years – that is similar to pernicious anemia. The vagus normally stimulates the stomach's parietal cells to secrete acid and intrinsic factor. Intrinsic factor is needed to absorb vitamin B12 from food. The vagotomy reduces this secretion and ultimately leads to deficiency, which, if left untreated, causes nerve damage, tiredness, dementia, paranoia, and ultimately death.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers from Aarhus University and Aarhus University Hospital have demonstrated that vagotomy prevents (halves the risk of) the development of Parkinson's disease, suggesting that Parkinson's disease begins in the gastrointestinal tract and spreads via the vagus nerve to the brain. Or giving further evidence to the theory that dysregulated environmental stimuli, such as that received by the vagus nerve from the gut, may have a negative effect on the dopamine reward system of the substantia nigra, thereby causing Parkinson's disease.",
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"plaintext": "The neuropathy in Chagas disease spreads in part via the major parasympathetic branches of the vagus nerve.",
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"plaintext": "The hypersensitivity of vagal afferent nerves causes refractory or idiopathic cough.",
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"plaintext": "Arnold's nerve ear-cough reflex though uncommon is a manifestation of a vagal sensory neuropathy and this is the cause of a refractory chronic cough that can be treated with gabapentin. The cough is triggered by mechanical stimulation of the external auditory meatus and accompanied by other neuropathic features such as throat irritation (laryngeal paresthesia) and cough triggered by exposure to nontussive triggers such as cold air and eating (termed allotussia). These features suggest a neuropathic origin to the cough.",
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"plaintext": "The Latin word vagus means literally \"wandering\" (the words vagrant, vagabond, vague, and divagation come from the same root). Sometimes the right and left branches together are spoken of in the plural and are thus called vagi ( ). The vagus was also historically called the pneumogastric nerve since it innervates both the lungs and the stomach.",
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"plaintext": " Porphyria – A rare disorder can cause seizures and damage to the vagal nerve.",
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"plaintext": "Thomas Becket (), also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of London and later Thomas à Becket (21 December 1119 or 1120– 29 December 1170), was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until his murder in 1170. He is venerated as a saint and martyr by the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion. He engaged in conflict with Henry II, King of England, over the rights and privileges of the Church and was murdered by followers of the king in Canterbury Cathedral. Soon after his death, he was canonised by Pope Alexander III.",
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"plaintext": "The main sources for the life of Becket are a number of biographies written by contemporaries. A few of these documents are by unknown writers, although traditional historiography has given them names. The known biographers are John of Salisbury, Edward Grim, Benedict of Peterborough, William of Canterbury, William fitzStephen, Guernes of Pont-Sainte-Maxence, Robert of Cricklade, Alan of Tewkesbury, Benet of St Albans, and Herbert of Bosham. The other biographers, who remain anonymous, are generally given the pseudonyms of Anonymous I, Anonymous II (or Anonymous of Lambeth), and Anonymous III (or Lansdowne Anonymous). Besides these accounts, there are also two other accounts that are likely contemporary that appear in the Quadrilogus II and the . Besides these biographies, there is also the mention of the events of Becket's life in the chroniclers of the time. These include Robert of Torigni's work, Roger of Howden's and , Ralph Diceto's works, William of Newburgh's , and Gervase of Canterbury's works.",
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"plaintext": "Becket was born c. 1119, or in 1120 according to later tradition, at Cheapside, London, on 21 December, the feast day of St Thomas the Apostle. He was the son of Gilbert and Matilda Gilbert's father was from Thierville in the lordship of Brionne in Normandy, and was either a small landowner or a petty knight. Matilda was also of Norman descent – her family may have originated near Caen. Gilbert was perhaps related to Theobald of Bec, whose family was also from Thierville. Gilbert began his life as a merchant, perhaps in textiles, but by the 1120s he was living in London and was a property owner, living on the rental income from his properties. He also served as the sheriff of the city at some point. They were buried in Old St Paul's Cathedral.",
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"plaintext": "One of Becket's father's wealthy friends, Richer de L'Aigle, often invited Thomas to his estates in Sussex, where Becket encountered hunting and hawking. According to Grim, Becket learned much from Richer, who was later a signatory of the Constitutions of Clarendon against him.",
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"plaintext": "At the age of 10, Becket was sent as a student to Merton Priory south-west of the city in Surrey. He later attended a grammar school in London, perhaps the one at St Paul's Cathedral. He did not study any subjects beyond the trivium and quadrivium at these schools. Around the age of 20, he spent about a year in Paris, but he did not study canon or civil law at the time and his Latin skill always remained somewhat rudimentary. Some time after Becket began his schooling, Gilbert Becket suffered financial reverses and the younger Becket was forced to earn a living as a clerk. Gilbert first secured a place for his son in the business of a relative – Osbert Huitdeniers. Later Becket acquired a position in the household of Theobald of Bec, by then Archbishop of Canterbury.",
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"plaintext": "Theobald entrusted him with several important missions to Rome and also sent him to Bologna and Auxerre to study canon law. In 1154, Theobald named Becket Archdeacon of Canterbury, and other ecclesiastical offices included a number of benefices, prebends at Lincoln Cathedral and St Paul's Cathedral, and the office of Provost of Beverley. His efficiency in those posts led Theobald to recommend him to King Henry II for the vacant post of Lord Chancellor, to which Becket was appointed in January 1155.",
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"plaintext": "As Chancellor, Becket enforced the king's traditional sources of revenue that were exacted from all landowners, including churches and bishoprics. King Henry sent his son Henry to live in Becket's household, it being the custom then for noble children to be fostered out to other noble houses.",
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"plaintext": "A rift grew between Henry and Becket as the new archbishop resigned his chancellorship and sought to recover and extend the rights of the archbishopric. This led to a series of conflicts with the King, including one over the jurisdiction of secular courts over English clergymen, which accelerated antipathy between Becket and the king. Attempts by Henry to influence other bishops against Becket began in Westminster in October 1163, where the King sought approval of the traditional rights of royal government in regard to the church. This led to the Constitutions of Clarendon, where Becket was officially asked to agree to the King's rights or face political repercussions.",
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"plaintext": "King Henry II presided over assemblies of most of the higher English clergy at Clarendon Palace on 30 January 1164. In 16 constitutions he sought less clerical independence and weaker connections with Rome. He used his skills to induce their consent and apparently succeeded with all but Becket. Finally, even Becket expressed willingness to agree to the substance of the Constitutions of Clarendon, but he still refused formally to sign the documents. Henry summoned Becket to appear before a great council at Northampton Castle on 8 October 1164, to answer allegations of contempt of royal authority and malfeasance in the Chancellor's office. Convicted on the charges, Becket stormed out of the trial and fled to the Continent.",
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"plaintext": "Henry pursued the fugitive archbishop with a series of edicts, targeting Becket and all Becket's friends and supporters, but King Louis VII of France offered Becket protection. He spent nearly two years in the Cistercian abbey of Pontigny, until Henry's threats against the order obliged him to return to Sens. Becket fought back by threatening excommunication and an interdict against the king and bishops and the kingdom, but Pope Alexander III, though sympathising with him in theory, favoured a more diplomatic approach. Papal legates were sent in 1167 with authority to act as arbitrators.",
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"plaintext": "In 1170, Alexander sent delegates to impose a solution to the dispute. At that point, Henry offered a compromise that would allow Thomas to return to England from exile.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1170, Roger de Pont L'Évêque, Archbishop of York, was at York with Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London, and Josceline de Bohon, Bishop of Salisbury, to crown the heir apparent, Henry the Young King. This breached Canterbury's privilege of coronation and in November 1170 Becket excommunicated all three.",
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"plaintext": "On hearing reports of Becket's actions, Henry is said to have uttered words interpreted by his men as wishing Becket killed. The exact wording is in doubt and several versions were reported. The most commonly quoted, as invented in 1740 and handed down by oral tradition, is \"Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?\", but according to historian Simon Schama this is incorrect: he accepts the account of the contemporary biographer Edward Grim, writing in Latin, who gives, \"What miserable drones and traitors have I nourished and brought up in my household, who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born cleric?\" Many other variants have found their way into popular culture.",
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"plaintext": "Regardless of what Henry said, it was interpreted as a royal command. Four knights, Reginald FitzUrse, Hugh de Morville, William de Tracy and Richard le Breton, set out to confront the Archbishop of Canterbury. On 29 December 1170, they arrived at Canterbury. According to accounts by the monk Gervase of Canterbury and eyewitness Edward Grim, the knights placed their weapons under a tree outside the cathedral and hid their armour under cloaks before entering to challenge Becket. The knights told Becket he was to go to Winchester to give an account of his actions, but Becket refused. Not until he refused their demands to submit to the king's will did they retrieve their weapons and rush back inside for the killing. Becket, meanwhile, proceeded to the main hall for vespers. The other monks tried to bolt themselves in for safety, but Becket said to them, \"It is not right to make a fortress out of the house of prayer!\", ordering them to reopen the doors.",
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"plaintext": "The four knights, wielding drawn swords, ran into the room crying, \"Where is Thomas Becket, traitor to the King and country?\" They found Becket in a spot near a door to the monastic cloister, the stairs into the crypt, and the stairs leading up into the quire of the cathedral, where the monks were chanting vespers. On seeing them, Becket said, \"I am no traitor and I am ready to die.\" One knight grabbed him and tried to pull him outside, but Becket grabbed onto a pillar and bowed his head to make peace with God.",
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"plaintext": "Several contemporary accounts of what happened next exist; of particular note is that of Grim, who was wounded in the attack. This is part of his account:",
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"plaintext": "Another account appears in (\"Conquest of Ireland\", 1189) by Gerald of Wales.",
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"plaintext": "After his death, the monks prepared Becket's body for burial. According to some accounts, it was found that Becket had worn a hairshirt under his archbishop's garments — a sign of penance. Soon after, the faithful throughout Europe began venerating Becket as a martyr, and on 21 February 1173 – little more than two years after his death – he was canonised by Pope Alexander III in St Peter's Church, Segni. In 1173, Becket's sister Mary was appointed Abbess of Barking as reparation for the murder of her brother. On 12 July 1174, amidst the Revolt of 1173–74, Henry humbled himself in public penance at Becket's tomb and at the church of St. Dunstan's, which became a most popular pilgrimage site.",
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"plaintext": "Becket's assassins fled north to de Morville's Knaresborough Castle for about a year. De Morville also held property in Cumbria and this too may have provided a hiding place, as the men prepared for a longer stay in the separate kingdom of Scotland. They were not arrested and Henry did not confiscate their lands, but he did not help them when they sought his advice in August 1171. Pope Alexander excommunicated all four. Seeking forgiveness, the assassins travelled to Rome, where the Pope ordered them to serve as knights in the Holy Lands for a period of 14 years.",
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"plaintext": "This sentence also inspired the Knights of Saint Thomas, incorporated in 1191 at Acre, and which was to be modelled on the Teutonic Knights. This was the only military order native to England (with chapters in not only Acre, but London, Kilkenny, and Nicosia), just as the Gilbertine Order was the only monastic order native to England. Henry VIII dissolved both of these during the Reformation, rather than merging them with foreign orders or nationalising them as elements of the Protestant Church of England.",
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"plaintext": "The monks were afraid Becket's body might be stolen, and so his remains were placed beneath the floor of the eastern crypt of the cathedral. A stone cover over it had two holes where pilgrims could insert their heads and kiss the tomb, as illustrated in the \"Miracle Windows\" of the Trinity Chapel. A guard chamber (now the Wax Chamber) had a clear view of the grave. In 1220, Becket's bones were moved to a new gold-plated, bejewelled shrine behind the high altar in the Trinity Chapel. The shrine was supported by three pairs of pillars on a raised platform with three steps. This is shown in one of the miracle windows. Canterbury's religious history had always brought many pilgrims, and after Becket's death the numbers rapidly rose further.",
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"plaintext": "In Scotland, King William the Lion ordered the building of Arbroath Abbey in 1178. On completion in 1197 the new foundation was dedicated to Becket, whom the king had known personally while at the English court as a young man.",
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"plaintext": "So a \"major new feast day was instituted, commemorating the translation... celebrated each July almost everywhere in England and in many French churches.\" It was suppressed in 1536 with the Reformation.",
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"plaintext": "The shrine was destroyed in 1538 during the Dissolution of the Monasteries on orders from King Henry VIII. He also destroyed Becket's bones and ordered all mention of his name obliterated.",
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"plaintext": "As the scion of a mercantile dynasty of later centuries, Mercers, Becket was much regarded as a Londoner by citizens and adopted as London's co-patron saint with St Paul: both appear on the seals of the city and of the Lord Mayor. The Bridge House Estates seal has only a Becket image, while his martyrdom shown on the reverse.",
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"plaintext": "The cult included the drinking of \"water of Saint Thomas\", a mix of water and the remains of the martyr's blood miraculously multiplied. The procedure was frowned upon by the more orthodox, due to the similarities with the eucharist of the blood of Jesus.",
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"plaintext": "Local legends regarding Becket arose after his canonisation. Though they tend towards typical hagiography, they also display Becket's well-known gruffness. \"Becket's Well\", in Otford, Kent, is said to have been created after Becket had been displeased by the taste of the local water. Two springs of clear water are said to have bubbled up after he struck the ground with his crozier. The absence of nightingales in Otford is also ascribed to Becket, who is said to have been so disturbed in his devotions by the song of a nightingale and commanded that none sing in the town ever again. In the town of Strood, Kent, Becket is said to have caused the inhabitants and their descendants to be born with tails. The men of Strood had sided with the king in his struggles against the archbishop, and to demonstrate their support had cut off the tail of Becket's horse as he passed through the town.",
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"plaintext": "The saint's fame quickly spread through the Norman world. The first holy image of Becket is thought to be a mosaic icon still visible in Monreale Cathedral in Sicily, created shortly after his death. Becket's cousins obtained refuge at the Sicilian court during their exile, and King William II of Sicily wed a daughter of Henry II. Marsala Cathedral in western Sicily is dedicated to Becket. Over 45 medieval chasse reliquaries decorated in champlevé enamel showing similar scenes from Becket's life survive, including the Becket Casket, constructed to hold relics of him at Peterborough Abbey and now housed in London's Victoria and Albert Museum.",
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"plaintext": "In 1170 King Alfonso VIII of Castille married Eleanor Plantagenet, second daughter of Henry II. She honoured Becket with a wall painting of his martyrdom that survives in the church of San Nicolás de Soria in Spain. Becket's assassination made an impact in Spain: within five years of his death Salamanca had a church named after him, Iglesia de Santo Tomás Cantuariense. A monumental frescoes with the martyrdom of Thomas Becket were depicted in the romanesque church of Santa Maria at Terrassa. ",
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"plaintext": "The arms of the City of Canterbury, officially registered in 1619 but dating back to at least 1380, is based on the attributed arms of Thomas Becket: Argent, three Cornish choughs proper, with the addition of a chief gules charged with a lion passant guardant or from the Royal Arms of England.",
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"plaintext": "In 1884, England's poet laureate Alfred, Lord Tennyson wrote Becket, a play about Thomas Becket and Henry II that Henry Irving produced after Tennyson's death and played in the title role.",
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"plaintext": "Modern works based on the Becket story include T. S. Eliot's play Murder in the Cathedral (adapted as the opera by Ildebrando Pizzetti), Jean Anouilh's play Becket, where Becket is not a Norman but a Saxon. This became a movie with that title, and Paul Webb's play Four Nights in Knaresborough, which Webb adapted for the screen, selling the rights to Harvey and Bob Weinstein. The power struggle between Church and King is a theme of Ken Follett's novel The Pillars of the Earth, where a late scene features the murder of Becket. Medieval mystery author Jeri Westerson recreated Chaucer's pilgrims and their time in Canterbury, with the murder and the theft of Becket's bones, in her fourth Crispin Guest novel, Troubled Bones. An oratorio by David Reeves, Becket (The Kiss of Peace), was premièred in 2000 at Canterbury Cathedral, where the event had occurred, as a part of the Canterbury Festival, and a fundraiser for the Prince's Trust.",
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"plaintext": "The Becket Fund for Religious Liberty, a non-profit, non-partisan legal and educational institute fostering free expression for religious traditions took its inspiration from Thomas Becket.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2006 poll by BBC History magazine for \"worst Briton\" of the previous millennium, Becket came second behind Jack the Ripper. The poll was dismissed as \"daft\" in The Guardian, and the result disputed by Anglicans and Catholics. Historians had nominated one person per century, and for the 12th century John Hudson chose Becket for being \"greedy\", \"hypocritical\", \"founder of gesture politics\" and \"master of the soundbite\". The magazine editor suggested most other nominees were too obscure for voters, as well as saying, \"In an era when thumbscrews, racks and burning alive could be passed off as robust law and order—being guilty of 'gesture politics' might seem something of a minor charge.\"",
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"plaintext": "The many UK churches dedicated to Thomas Becket include Cathedral Church of St Thomas of Canterbury, Portsmouth, St Thomas of Canterbury Church, Canterbury, Church of St Thomas the Martyr, Monmouth, St Thomas à Becket Church, Pensford, St Thomas à Becket Church, Widcombe, Church of St Thomas à Becket, Capel, St Thomas the Martyr, Bristol, and St Thomas the Martyr's Church, Oxford. Those in France include Église Saint-Thomas de Cantorbéry at Mont-Saint-Aignan, Upper-Normandy, Église Saint-Thomas-Becket at Gravelines (Nord-Pas-de-Calais), Église Saint-Thomas Becket at Avrieux (Rhône-Alpes), and Église saint-Thomas Becket at Bénodet (Brittany), ",
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"plaintext": "Among his obligations in contrition to Henry, William de Tracy much enlarged and re-dedicated to St Thomas of Canterbury the parish church in Lapford, Devon, in his manor of Bradninch. The martyrdom day is still marked by a Lapford Revel.",
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"plaintext": "Part of the Hungarian city of Esztergom is named Szenttamás (\"Saint Thomas\"), on a hill called \"Szent Tamás\" dedicated to Thomas Becket – a classmate of Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom in Paris.",
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"plaintext": "In the treasury of Fermo Cathedral is the Fermo chasuble of St. Thomas Becket, on display at Museo Diocesano",
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"plaintext": "John Guy, 2012, Thomas Becket: Warrior, Priest, Rebel, Random House",
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"plaintext": "David Knowles 1970, Thomas Becket, London: Adam & Charles Black",
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"plaintext": "Richard Winston, 1967, Thomas Becket, New York: Alfred A. Knopf",
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"plaintext": "James W. Alexander, \"The Becket controversy in recent historiography\", Journal of British studies 9.2 (1970): 1-26. in JSTOR",
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"plaintext": "Anne Duggan, ed., 2000, The Correspondence of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (1162–1170). 2 vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press",
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"plaintext": "Carles Sánchez Márquez, 2021, A painted tragedy. The martyrdom of Thomas Becket in Santa Maria de Terrassa and the diffusion of its cult in the Iberian Peninsula, La Seu d'Urgell: Anem Editors",
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"plaintext": "Daily Telegraph:On this day in 1170: Thomas Becket is murdered in Canterbury Cathedral, and becomes a martyr",
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"plaintext": "Causality (also referred to as causation, or cause and effect) is influence by which one event, process, state, or object (a cause) contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or object (an effect) where the cause is partly responsible for the effect, and the effect is partly dependent on the cause. In general, a process has many causes, which are also said to be causal factors for it, and all lie in its past. An effect can in turn be a cause of, or causal factor for, many other effects, which all lie in its future. Some writers have held that causality is metaphysically prior to notions of time and space.",
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"plaintext": "In English studies of Aristotelian philosophy, the word \"cause\" is used as a specialized technical term, the translation of Aristotle's term αἰτία, by which Aristotle meant \"explanation\" or \"answer to a 'why' question\". Aristotle categorized the four types of answers as material, formal, efficient, and final \"causes\". In this case, the \"cause\" is the explanans for the explanandum, and failure to recognize that different kinds of \"cause\" are being considered can lead to futile debate. Of Aristotle's four explanatory modes, the one nearest to the concerns of the present article is the \"efficient\" one.",
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"plaintext": "The nature of cause and effect is a concern of the subject known as metaphysics. Kant thought that time and space were notions prior to human understanding of the progress or evolution of the world, and he also recognized the priority of causality. But he did not have the understanding that came with knowledge of Minkowski geometry and the special theory of relativity, that the notion of causality can be used as a prior foundation from which to construct notions of time and space.",
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"plaintext": "A general metaphysical question about cause and effect is what kind of entity can be a cause, and what kind of entity can be an effect.",
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"plaintext": "One viewpoint on this question is that cause and effect are of one and the same kind of entity, with causality an asymmetric relation between them. That is to say, it would make good sense grammatically to say either \"A is the cause and B the effect\" or \"B is the cause and A the effect\", though only one of those two can be actually true. In this view, one opinion, proposed as a metaphysical principle in process philosophy, is that every cause and every effect is respectively some process, event, becoming, or happening. An example is 'his tripping over the step was the cause, and his breaking his ankle the effect'. Another view is that causes and effects are 'states of affairs', with the exact natures of those entities being less restrictively defined than in process philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "Another viewpoint on the question is the more classical one, that a cause and its effect can be of different kinds of entity. For example, in Aristotle's efficient causal explanation, an action can be a cause while an enduring object is its effect. For example, the generative actions of his parents can be regarded as the efficient cause, with Socrates being the effect, Socrates being regarded as an enduring object, in philosophical tradition called a 'substance', as distinct from an action.",
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"plaintext": "Since causality is a subtle metaphysical notion, considerable intellectual effort, along with exhibition of evidence, is needed to establish knowledge of it in particular empirical circumstances. According to David Hume, the human mind is unable to perceive causal relations directly. On this ground, the scholar distinguished between the regularity view on causality and the counterfactual notion. According to the counterfactual view, X causes Y if and only if, without X, Y would not exist. Hume interpreted the latter as an ontological view, i.e., as a description of the nature of causality but, given the limitations of the human mind, advised using the former (stating, roughly, that X causes Y if and only if the two events are spatiotemporally conjoined, and X precedes Y) as an epistemic definition of causality. Having an epistemic concept of causality is needed to distinguish between causal and noncausal relations. The contemporary philosophical literature on causality can be divided into five big approaches to causality. These include the (mentioned above) regularity, probabilistic, counterfactual, mechanistic, and manipulationist views. The five approaches can be shown to be reductive, i.e., define causality in terms of relations of other types. According to this reading, they define causality in terms of, respectively, empirical regularities (constant conjunctions of events), changes in conditional probabilities, counterfactual conditions, mechanisms underlying causal relations, and invariance under intervention.",
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"plaintext": "Causality has the properties of antecedence and contiguity. These are topological, and are ingredients for space-time geometry. As developed by Alfred Robb, these properties allow the derivation of the notions of time and space. Max Jammer writes \"the Einstein postulate ... opens the way to a straightforward construction of the causal topology ... of Minkowski space.\" Causal efficacy propagates no faster than light.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, the notion of causality is metaphysically prior to the notions of time and space. In practical terms, this is because use of the relation of causality is necessary for the interpretation of empirical experiments. Interpretation of experiments is needed to establish the physical and geometrical notions of time and space.",
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"plaintext": "The deterministic world-view holds that the history of the universe can be exhaustively represented as a progression of events following one after as cause and effect. The incompatibilist version of this holds that there is no such thing as \"free will\". Compatibilism, on the other hand, holds that determinism is compatible with, or even necessary for, free will.",
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"plaintext": "Causes may sometimes be distinguished into two types: necessary and sufficient. A third type of causation, which requires neither necessity nor sufficiency in and of itself, but which contributes to the effect, is called a \"contributory cause\".",
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"plaintext": "Necessary causes If x is a necessary cause of y, then the presence of y necessarily implies the prior occurrence of x. The presence of x, however, does not imply that y will occur.",
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"plaintext": "Sufficient causes If x is a sufficient cause of y, then the presence of x necessarily implies the subsequent occurrence of y. However, another cause z may alternatively cause y. Thus the presence of y does not imply the prior occurrence of x.",
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"plaintext": "Contributory causes For some specific effect, in a singular case, a factor that is a contributory cause is one among several co-occurrent causes. It is implicit that all of them are contributory. For the specific effect, in general, there is no implication that a contributory cause is necessary, though it may be so. In general, a factor that is a contributory cause is not sufficient, because it is by definition accompanied by other causes, which would not count as causes if it were sufficient. For the specific effect, a factor that is on some occasions a contributory cause might on some other occasions be sufficient, but on those other occasions it would not be merely contributory.",
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"plaintext": "J. L. Mackie argues that usual talk of \"cause\" in fact refers to INUS conditions (insufficient but non-redundant parts of a condition which is itself unnecessary but sufficient for the occurrence of the effect). An example is a short circuit as a cause for a house burning down. Consider the collection of events: the short circuit, the proximity of flammable material, and the absence of firefighters. Together these are unnecessary but sufficient to the house's burning down (since many other collections of events certainly could have led to the house burning down, for example shooting the house with a flamethrower in the presence of oxygen and so forth). Within this collection, the short circuit is an insufficient (since the short circuit by itself would not have caused the fire) but non-redundant (because the fire would not have happened without it, everything else being equal) part of a condition which is itself unnecessary but sufficient for the occurrence of the effect. So, the short circuit is an INUS condition for the occurrence of the house burning down.",
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"plaintext": "Conditional statements are not statements of causality. An important distinction is that statements of causality require the antecedent to precede or coincide with the consequent in time, whereas conditional statements do not require this temporal order. Confusion commonly arises since many different statements in English may be presented using \"If ..., then ...\" form (and, arguably, because this form is far more commonly used to make a statement of causality). The two types of statements are distinct, however.",
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"plaintext": "For example, all of the following statements are true when interpreting \"If ..., then ...\" as the material conditional:",
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"plaintext": " If Barack Obama is president of the United States in 2011, then Germany is in Europe.",
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"plaintext": " If George Washington is president of the United States in 2011, then .",
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"plaintext": " If Shakespeare of Stratford-on-Avon did not write Macbeth, then someone else did.",
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"plaintext": "intuitively seems to be true, even though there is no straightforward causal relation in this hypothetical situation between Shakespeare's not writing Macbeth and someone else's actually writing it.",
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"plaintext": " If A were a triangle, then A would have three sides.",
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"plaintext": " If switch S were thrown, then bulb B would light.",
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"plaintext": "In the first case, it would not be correct to say that A's being a triangle caused it to have three sides, since the relationship between triangularity and three-sidedness is that of definition. The property of having three sides actually determines A's state as a triangle. Nonetheless, even when interpreted counterfactually, the first statement is true. An early version of Aristotle's \"four cause\" theory is described as recognizing \"essential cause\". In this version of the theory, that the closed polygon has three sides is said to be the \"essential cause\" of its being a triangle. This use of the word 'cause' is of course now far obsolete. Nevertheless, it is within the scope of ordinary language to say that it is essential to a triangle that it has three sides.",
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"plaintext": "Fallacies of questionable cause, also known as causal fallacies, non-causa pro causa (Latin for \"non-cause for cause\"), or false cause, are informal fallacies where a cause is incorrectly identified.",
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"plaintext": "Counterfactual theories define causation in terms of a counterfactual relation. These theories can often be seeing as \"floating\" their account of causality on top of an account of the logic of counterfactual conditionals. This approach can be traced back to David Hume's definition of the causal relation as that \"where, if the first object had not been, the second never had existed.\" More full-fledged analysis of causation in terms of counterfactual conditionals only came in the 20th century after development of the possible world semantics for the evaluation of counterfactual conditionals. In his 1973 paper \"Causation,\" David Lewis proposed the following definition of the notion of causal dependence:",
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"plaintext": "An event E causally depends on C if, and only if, (i) if C had occurred, then E would have occurred, and (ii) if C had not occurred, then E would not have occurred.",
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"plaintext": "Causation is then defined as a chain of causal dependence. That is, C causes E if and only if there exists a sequence of events C, D1, D2, ... Dk, E such that each event in the sequence depends on the previous. This chain may be called a mechanism.",
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"plaintext": "Note that the analysis does not purport to explain how we make causal judgements or how we reason about causation, but rather to give a metaphysical account of what it is for there to be a causal relation between some pair of events. If correct, the analysis has the power to explain certain features of causation. Knowing that causation is a matter of counterfactual dependence, we may reflect on the nature of counterfactual dependence to account for the nature of causation. For example, in his paper \"Counterfactual Dependence and Time's Arrow,\" Lewis sought to account for the time-directedness of counterfactual dependence in terms of the semantics of the counterfactual conditional. If correct, this theory can serve to explain a fundamental part of our experience, which is that we can only causally affect the future but not the past.",
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"plaintext": "Interpreting causation as a deterministic relation means that if A causes B, then A must always be followed by B. In this sense, war does not cause deaths, nor does smoking cause cancer or emphysema. As a result, many turn to a notion of probabilistic causation. Informally, A (\"The person is a smoker\") probabilistically causes B (\"The person has now or will have cancer at some time in the future\"), if the information that A occurred increases the likelihood of Bs occurrence. Formally, P{B|A}≥ P{B} where P{B|A} is the conditional probability that B will occur given the information that A occurred, and P{B} is the probability that B will occur having no knowledge whether A did or did not occur. This intuitive condition is not adequate as a definition for probabilistic causation because of its being too general and thus not meeting our intuitive notion of cause and effect. For example, if A denotes the event \"The person is a smoker,\" B denotes the event \"The person now has or will have cancer at some time in the future\" and C denotes the event \"The person now has or will have emphysema some time in the future,\" then the following three relationships hold: P{B|A} ≥ P{B}, P{C|A} ≥ P{C} and P{B|C} ≥ P{B}. The last relationship states that knowing that the person has emphysema increases the likelihood that he will have cancer. The reason for this is that having the information that the person has emphysema increases the likelihood that the person is a smoker, thus indirectly increasing the likelihood that the person will have cancer. However, we would not want to conclude that having emphysema causes cancer. Thus, we need additional conditions such as temporal relationship of A to B and a rational explanation as to the mechanism of action. It is hard to quantify this last requirement and thus different authors prefer somewhat different definitions.",
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"plaintext": "When experimental interventions are infeasible or illegal, the derivation of a cause-and-effect relationship from observational studies must rest on some qualitative theoretical assumptions, for example, that symptoms do not cause diseases, usually expressed in the form of missing arrows in causal graphs such as Bayesian networks or path diagrams. The theory underlying these derivations relies on the distinction between conditional probabilities, as in , and interventional probabilities, as in . The former reads: \"the probability of finding cancer in a person known to smoke, having started, unforced by the experimenter, to do so at an unspecified time in the past\", while the latter reads: \"the probability of finding cancer in a person forced by the experimenter to smoke at a specified time in the past\". The former is a statistical notion that can be estimated by observation with negligible intervention by the experimenter, while the latter is a causal notion which is estimated in an experiment with an important controlled randomized intervention. It is specifically characteristic of quantal phenomena that observations defined by incompatible variables always involve important intervention by the experimenter, as described quantitatively by the observer effect. In classical thermodynamics, processes are initiated by interventions called thermodynamic operations. In other branches of science, for example astronomy, the experimenter can often observe with negligible intervention.",
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"plaintext": "The theory of \"causal calculus\" (also known as do-calculus, Judea Pearl's Causal Calculus, Calculus of",
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"plaintext": "Actions) permits one to infer interventional probabilities from conditional probabilities in causal Bayesian networks with unmeasured variables. One very practical result of this theory is the characterization of confounding variables, namely, a sufficient set of variables that, if adjusted for, would yield the correct causal effect between variables of interest. It can be shown that a sufficient set for estimating the causal effect of on is any set of non-descendants of that -separate from after removing all arrows emanating from . This criterion, called \"backdoor\", provides a mathematical definition of \"confounding\" and helps researchers identify accessible sets of variables worthy of measurement.",
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"plaintext": "While derivations in causal calculus rely on the structure of the causal graph, parts of the causal structure can, under certain assumptions, be learned from statistical data. The basic idea goes back to Sewall Wright's 1921 work on path analysis. A \"recovery\" algorithm was developed by Rebane and Pearl (1987) which rests on Wright's distinction between the three possible types of causal substructures allowed in a directed acyclic graph (DAG):",
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"plaintext": "Type 1 and type 2 represent the same statistical dependencies (i.e., and are independent given ) and are, therefore, indistinguishable within purely cross-sectional data. Type 3, however, can be uniquely identified, since and are marginally independent and all other pairs are dependent. Thus, while the skeletons (the graphs stripped of arrows) of these three triplets are identical, the directionality of the arrows is partially identifiable. The same distinction applies when and have common ancestors, except that one must first condition on those ancestors. Algorithms have been developed to systematically determine the skeleton of the underlying graph and, then, orient all arrows whose directionality is dictated by the conditional independencies observed.",
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"plaintext": "Alternative methods of structure learning search through the many possible causal structures among the variables, and remove ones which are strongly incompatible with the observed correlations. In general this leaves a set of possible causal relations, which should then be tested by analyzing time series data or, preferably, designing appropriately controlled experiments. In contrast with Bayesian Networks, path analysis (and its generalization, structural equation modeling), serve better to estimate a known causal effect or to test a causal model than to generate causal hypotheses.",
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"plaintext": "For nonexperimental data, causal direction can often be inferred if information about time is available. This is because (according to many, though not all, theories) causes must precede their effects temporally. This can be determined by statistical time series models, for instance, or with a statistical test based on the idea of Granger causality, or by direct experimental manipulation. The use of temporal data can permit statistical tests of a pre-existing theory of causal direction. For instance, our degree of confidence in the direction and nature of causality is much greater when supported by cross-correlations, ARIMA models, or cross-spectral analysis using vector time series data than by cross-sectional data.",
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"plaintext": "Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon and philosopher Nicholas Rescher claim that the asymmetry of the causal relation is unrelated to the asymmetry of any mode of implication that contraposes. Rather, a causal relation is not a relation between values of variables, but a function of one variable (the cause) on to another (the effect). So, given a system of equations, and a set of variables appearing in these equations, we can introduce an asymmetric relation among individual equations and variables that corresponds perfectly to our commonsense notion of a causal ordering. The system of equations must have certain properties, most importantly, if some values are chosen arbitrarily, the remaining values will be determined uniquely through a path of serial discovery that is perfectly causal. They postulate the inherent serialization of such a system of equations may correctly capture causation in all empirical fields, including physics and economics.",
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"plaintext": "Some theorists have equated causality with manipulability. Under these theories, x causes y only in the case that one can change x in order to change y. This coincides with commonsense notions of causations, since often we ask causal questions in order to change some feature of the world. For instance, we are interested in knowing the causes of crime so that we might find ways of reducing it.",
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"plaintext": "These theories have been criticized on two primary grounds. First, theorists complain that these accounts are circular. Attempting to reduce causal claims to manipulation requires that manipulation is more basic than causal interaction. But describing manipulations in non-causal terms has provided a substantial difficulty.",
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"plaintext": "The second criticism centers around concerns of anthropocentrism. It seems to many people that causality is some existing relationship in the world that we can harness for our desires. If causality is identified with our manipulation, then this intuition is lost. In this sense, it makes humans overly central to interactions in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Some attempts to defend manipulability theories are recent accounts that do not claim to reduce causality to manipulation. These accounts use manipulation as a sign or feature in causation without claiming that manipulation is more fundamental than causation.",
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"plaintext": "Some theorists are interested in distinguishing between causal processes and non-causal processes (Russell 1948; Salmon 1984). These theorists often want to distinguish between a process and a pseudo-process. As an example, a ball moving through the air (a process) is contrasted with the motion of a shadow (a pseudo-process). The former is causal in nature while the latter is not.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon (1984) claims that causal processes can be identified by their ability to transmit an alteration over space and time. An alteration of the ball (a mark by a pen, perhaps) is carried with it as the ball goes through the air. On the other hand, an alteration of the shadow (insofar as it is possible) will not be transmitted by the shadow as it moves along.",
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"plaintext": "These theorists claim that the important concept for understanding causality is not causal relationships or causal interactions, but rather identifying causal processes. The former notions can then be defined in terms of causal processes.",
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"plaintext": "A subgroup of the process theories is the mechanistic view on causality. It states that that causal relations supervene on mechanisms. While the notion of mechanism is understood differently, the definition put forward by the group of philosophers referred to as the 'New Mechanists' dominate the literature.",
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"plaintext": "For the scientific investigation of efficient causality, the cause and effect are each best conceived of as temporally transient processes.",
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"plaintext": "Within the conceptual frame of the scientific method, an investigator sets up several distinct and contrasting temporally transient material processes that have the structure of experiments, and records candidate material responses, normally intending to determine causality in the physical world. For instance, one may want to know whether a high intake of carrots causes humans to develop the bubonic plague. The quantity of carrot intake is a process that is varied from occasion to occasion. The occurrence or non-occurrence of subsequent bubonic plague is recorded. To establish causality, the experiment must fulfill certain criteria, only one example of which is mentioned here. For example, instances of the hypothesized cause must be set up to occur at a time when the hypothesized effect is relatively unlikely in the absence of the hypothesized cause; such unlikelihood is to be established by empirical evidence. A mere observation of a correlation is not nearly adequate to establish causality. In nearly all cases, establishment of causality relies on repetition of experiments and probabilistic reasoning. Hardly ever is causality established more firmly than as more or less probable. It is most convenient for establishment of causality if the contrasting material states of affairs are precisely matched, except for only one variable factor, perhaps measured by a real number.",
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"plaintext": "One has to be careful in the use of the word cause in physics. Properly speaking, the hypothesized cause and the hypothesized effect are each temporally transient processes. For example, force is a useful concept for the explanation of acceleration, but force is not by itself a cause. More is needed. For example, a temporally transient process might be characterized by a definite change of force at a definite time. Such a process can be regarded as a cause. Causality is not inherently implied in equations of motion, but postulated as an additional constraint that needs to be satisfied (i.e. a cause always precedes its effect). This constraint has mathematical implications such as the Kramers-Kronig relations.",
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"plaintext": "Causality is one of the most fundamental and essential notions of physics. Causal efficacy cannot 'propagate' faster than light. Otherwise, reference coordinate systems could be constructed (using the Lorentz transform of special relativity) in which an observer would see an effect precede its cause (i.e. the postulate of causality would be violated).",
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"plaintext": "Causal notions appear in the context of the flow of mass-energy. Any actual process has causal efficacy that can propagate no faster than light. In contrast, an abstraction has no causal efficacy. Its mathematical expression does not propagate in the ordinary sense of the word, though it may refer to virtual or nominal 'velocities' with magnitudes greater than that of light. For example, wave packets are mathematical objects that have group velocity and phase velocity. The energy of a wave packet travels at the group velocity (under normal circumstances); since energy has causal efficacy, the group velocity cannot be faster than the speed of light. The phase of a wave packet travels at the phase velocity; since phase is not causal, the phase velocity of a wave packet can be faster than light.",
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"plaintext": "Causal notions are important in general relativity to the extent that the existence of an arrow of time demands that the universe's semi-Riemannian manifold be orientable, so that \"future\" and \"past\" are globally definable quantities.",
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"plaintext": "A causal system is a system with output and internal states that depends only on the current and previous input values. A system that has some dependence on input values from the future (in addition to possible past or current input values) is termed an acausal system, and a system that depends solely on future input values is an anticausal system. Acausal filters, for example, can only exist as postprocessing filters, because these filters can extract future values from a memory buffer or a file.",
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"plaintext": "Austin Bradford Hill built upon the work of Hume and Popper and suggested in his paper \"The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?\" that aspects of an association such as strength, consistency, specificity, and temporality be considered in attempting to distinguish causal from noncausal associations in the epidemiological situation. (See Bradford-Hill criteria.) He did not note however, that temporality is the only necessary criterion among those aspects. Directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) are increasingly used in epidemiology to help enlighten causal thinking.",
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"plaintext": "Psychologists take an empirical approach to causality, investigating how people and non-human animals detect or infer causation from sensory information, prior experience and innate knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "Attribution",
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"plaintext": "Attribution theory is the theory concerning how people explain individual occurrences of causation. Attribution can be external (assigning causality to an outside agent or force—claiming that some outside thing motivated the event) or internal (assigning causality to factors within the person—taking personal responsibility or accountability for one's actions and claiming that the person was directly responsible for the event). Taking causation one step further, the type of attribution a person provides influences their future behavior.",
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"plaintext": "The intention behind the cause or the effect can be covered by the subject of action. See also accident; blame; intent; and responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "Causal powers",
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"plaintext": "Whereas David Hume argued that causes are inferred from non-causal observations, Immanuel Kant claimed that people have innate assumptions about causes. Within psychology, Patricia Cheng attempted to reconcile the Humean and Kantian views. According to her power PC theory, people filter observations of events through an intuition that causes have the power to generate (or prevent) their effects, thereby inferring specific cause-effect relations.",
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"plaintext": "Causation and salience",
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"plaintext": "Our view of causation depends on what we consider to be the relevant events. Another way to view the statement, \"Lightning causes thunder\" is to see both lightning and thunder as two perceptions of the same event, viz., an electric discharge that we perceive first visually and then aurally.",
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"plaintext": "Naming and causality",
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"plaintext": "David Sobel and Alison Gopnik from the Psychology Department of UC Berkeley designed a device known as the blicket detector which would turn on when an object was placed on it. Their research suggests that \"even young children will easily and swiftly learn about a new causal power of an object and spontaneously use that information in classifying and naming the object.\"",
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"plaintext": "Perception of launching events",
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"plaintext": "Some researchers such as Anjan Chatterjee at the University of Pennsylvania and Jonathan Fugelsang at the University of Waterloo are using neuroscience techniques to investigate the neural and psychological underpinnings of causal launching events in which one object causes another object to move. Both temporal and spatial factors can be manipulated.",
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"plaintext": "See Causal Reasoning (Psychology) for more information.",
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"plaintext": "Statistics and economics usually employ pre-existing data or experimental data to infer causality by regression methods. The body of statistical techniques involves substantial use of regression analysis. Typically a linear relationship such as",
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"plaintext": "is postulated, in which is the ith observation of the dependent variable (hypothesized to be the caused variable), for j=1,...,k is the ith observation on the jth independent variable (hypothesized to be a causative variable), and is the error term for the ith observation (containing the combined effects of all other causative variables, which must be uncorrelated with the included independent variables). If there is reason to believe that none of the s is caused by y, then estimates of the coefficients are obtained. If the null hypothesis that is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis that and equivalently that causes y cannot be rejected. On the other hand, if the null hypothesis that cannot be rejected, then equivalently the hypothesis of no causal effect of on y cannot be rejected. Here the notion of causality is one of contributory causality as discussed above: If the true value , then a change in will result in a change in y unless some other causative variable(s), either included in the regression or implicit in the error term, change in such a way as to exactly offset its effect; thus a change in is not sufficient to change y. Likewise, a change in is not necessary to change y, because a change in y could be caused by something implicit in the error term (or by some other causative explanatory variable included in the model).",
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"plaintext": "The above way of testing for causality requires belief that there is no reverse causation, in which y would cause . This belief can be established in one of several ways. First, the variable may be a non-economic variable: for example, if rainfall amount is hypothesized to affect the futures price y of some agricultural commodity, it is impossible that in fact the futures price affects rainfall amount (provided that cloud seeding is never attempted). Second, the instrumental variables technique may be employed to remove any reverse causation by introducing a role for other variables (instruments) that are known to be unaffected by the dependent variable. Third, the principle that effects cannot precede causes can be invoked, by including on the right side of the regression only variables that precede in time the dependent variable; this principle is invoked, for example, in testing for Granger causality and in its multivariate analog, vector autoregression, both of which control for lagged values of the dependent variable while testing for causal effects of lagged independent variables.",
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"plaintext": "Regression analysis controls for other relevant variables by including them as regressors (explanatory variables). This helps to avoid false inferences of causality due to the presence of a third, underlying, variable that influences both the potentially causative variable and the potentially caused variable: its effect on the potentially caused variable is captured by directly including it in the regression, so that effect will not be picked up as an indirect effect through the potentially causative variable of interest. Given the above procedures, coincidental (as opposed to causal) correlation can be probabilistically rejected if data samples are large and if regression results pass cross-validation tests showing that the correlations hold even for data that were not used in the regression. Asserting with certitude that a common-cause is absent and the regression represents the true causal structure is in principle impossible.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from constructing statistical models of observational and experimental data, economists use axiomatic (mathematical) models to infer and represent causal mechanisms. Highly abstract theoretical models that isolate and idealize one mechanism dominate microeconomics. In macroeconomics, economists use broad mathematical models that are calibrated on historical data. A subgroup of calibrated models, dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models are employed to represent (in a simplified way) the whole economy and simulate changes in fiscal and monetary policy.",
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"plaintext": "For quality control in manufacturing in the 1960s, Kaoru Ishikawa developed a cause and effect diagram, known as an Ishikawa diagram or fishbone diagram. The diagram categorizes causes, such as into the six main categories shown here. These categories are then sub-divided. Ishikawa's method identifies \"causes\" in brainstorming sessions conducted among various groups involved in the manufacturing process. These groups can then be labeled as categories in the diagrams. The use of these diagrams has now spread beyond quality control, and they are used in other areas of management and in design and engineering. Ishikawa diagrams have been criticized for failing to make the distinction between necessary conditions and sufficient conditions. It seems that Ishikawa was not even aware of this distinction.",
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"plaintext": "In the discussion of history, events are sometimes considered as if in some way being agents that can then bring about other historical events. Thus, the combination of poor harvests, the hardships of the peasants, high taxes, lack of representation of the people, and kingly ineptitude are among the causes of the French Revolution. This is a somewhat Platonic and Hegelian view that reifies causes as ontological entities. In Aristotelian terminology, this use approximates to the case of the efficient cause.",
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"plaintext": "Some philosophers of history such as Arthur Danto have claimed that \"explanations in history and elsewhere\" describe \"not simply an event—something that happens—but a change\". Like many practicing historians, they treat causes as intersecting actions and sets of actions which bring about \"larger changes\", in Danto's words: to decide \"what are the elements which persist through a change\" is \"rather simple\" when treating an individual's \"shift in attitude\", but \"it is considerably more complex and metaphysically challenging when we are interested in such a change as, say, the break-up of feudalism or the emergence of nationalism\".",
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"plaintext": "Much of the historical debate about causes has focused on the relationship between communicative and other actions, between singular and repeated ones, and between actions, structures of action or group and institutional contexts and wider sets of conditions. John Gaddis has distinguished between exceptional and general causes (following Marc Bloch) and between \"routine\" and \"distinctive links\" in causal relationships: \"in accounting for what happened at Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, we attach greater importance to the fact that President Truman ordered the dropping of an atomic bomb than to the decision of the Army Air Force to carry out his orders.\" He has also pointed to the difference between immediate, intermediate and distant causes. For his part, Christopher Lloyd puts forward four \"general concepts of causation\" used in history: the \"metaphysical idealist concept, which asserts that the phenomena of the universe are products of or emanations from an omnipotent being or such final cause\"; \"the empiricist (or Humean) regularity concept, which is based on the idea of causation being a matter of constant conjunctions of events\"; \"the functional/teleological/consequential concept\", which is \"goal-directed, so that goals are causes\"; and the \"realist, structurist and dispositional approach, which sees relational structures and internal dispositions as the causes of phenomena\".",
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"plaintext": "According to law and jurisprudence, legal cause must be demonstrated to hold a defendant liable for a crime or a tort (i.e. a civil wrong such as negligence or trespass). It must be proven that causality, or a \"sufficient causal link\" relates the defendant's actions to the criminal event or damage in question. Causation is also an essential legal element that must be proven to qualify for remedy measures under international trade law.",
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"plaintext": "Vedic period (c.1750–500 BCE) literature has karma's Eastern origins. Karma is the belief held by Sanatana Dharma and major religions that a person's actions cause certain effects in the current life and/or in future life, positively or negatively. The various philosophical schools (darshanas) provide different accounts of the subject. The doctrine of satkaryavada affirms that the effect inheres in the cause in some way. The effect is thus either a real or apparent modification of the cause. The doctrine of asatkaryavada affirms that the effect does not inhere in the cause, but is a new arising. See Nyaya for some details of the theory of causation in the Nyaya school. In Brahma Samhita, Brahma describes Krishna as the prime cause of all causes.",
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"plaintext": "Bhagavad-gītā 18.14 identifies five causes for any action (knowing which it can be perfected): the body, the individual soul, the senses, the efforts and the supersoul.",
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"plaintext": "According to Monier-Williams, in the Nyāya causation theory from Sutra I.2.I,2 in the Vaisheshika philosophy, from causal non-existence is effectual non-existence; but, not effectual non-existence from causal non-existence. A cause precedes an effect. With a threads and cloth metaphors, three causes are:",
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"plaintext": " Co-inherence cause: resulting from substantial contact, 'substantial causes', threads are substantial to cloth, corresponding to Aristotle's material cause. ",
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"plaintext": " Non-substantial cause: Methods putting threads into cloth, corresponding to Aristotle's formal cause.",
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{
"plaintext": " Instrumental cause: Tools to make the cloth, corresponding to Aristotle's efficient cause.",
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"plaintext": "Monier-Williams also proposed that Aristotle's and the Nyaya's causality are considered conditional aggregates necessary to man's productive work.",
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"plaintext": "Karma is the causality principle focusing on 1) causes, 2) actions, 3) effects, where it is the mind's phenomena that guide the actions that the actor performs. Buddhism trains the actor's actions for continued and uncontrived virtuous outcomes aimed at reducing suffering. This follows the Subject–verb–object structure.",
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"plaintext": "The general or universal definition of pratityasamutpada (or \"dependent origination\" or \"dependent arising\" or \"interdependent co-arising\") is that everything arises in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions; nothing exists as a singular, independent entity. A traditional example in Buddhist texts is of three sticks standing upright and leaning against each other and supporting each other. If one stick is taken away, the other two will fall to the ground.",
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"plaintext": "Causality in the Chittamatrin Buddhist school approach, Asanga's () mind-only Buddhist school, asserts that objects cause consciousness in the mind's image. Because causes precede effects, which must be different entities, then subject and object are different. For this school, there are no objects which are entities external to a perceiving consciousness. The Chittamatrin and the Yogachara Svatantrika schools accept that there are no objects external to the observer's causality. This largely follows the Nikayas approach.",
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"plaintext": "The Vaibhashika (c.500 CE) is an early buddhist school which favors direct object contact and accepts simultaneous cause and effects. This is based in the consciousness example which says, intentions and feelings are mutually accompanying mental factors that support each other like poles in tripod. In contrast, simultaneous cause and effect rejectors say that if the effect already exists, then it cannot effect the same way again. How past, present and future are accepted is a basis for various Buddhist school's causality viewpoints.",
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"plaintext": "All the classic Buddhist schools teach karma. \"The law of karma is a special instance of the law of cause and effect, according to which all our actions of body, speech, and mind are causes and all our experiences are their effects.\"",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle identified four kinds of answer or explanatory mode to various \"Why?\" questions. He thought that, for any given topic, all four kinds of explanatory mode were important, each in its own right. As a result of traditional specialized philosophical peculiarities of language, with translations between ancient Greek, Latin, and English, the word 'cause' is nowadays in specialized philosophical writings used to label Aristotle's four kinds. In ordinary language, there are various meanings of the word cause, the commonest referring to efficient cause, the topic of the present article.",
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"plaintext": " Material cause, the material whence a thing has come or that which persists while it changes, as for example, one's mother or the bronze of a statue (see also substance theory).",
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"plaintext": " Formal cause, whereby a thing's dynamic form or static shape determines the thing's properties and function, as a human differs from a statue of a human or as a statue differs from a lump of bronze.",
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"plaintext": " Efficient cause, which imparts the first relevant movement, as a human lifts a rock or raises a statue. This is the main topic of the present article.",
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"plaintext": " Final cause, the criterion of completion, or the end; it may refer to an action or to an inanimate process. Examples: Socrates takes a walk after dinner for the sake of his health; earth falls to the lowest level because that is its nature.",
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"plaintext": "Of Aristotle's four kinds or explanatory modes, only one, the 'efficient cause' is a cause as defined in the leading paragraph of this present article. The other three explanatory modes might be rendered material composition, structure and dynamics, and, again, criterion of completion. The word that Aristotle used was . For the present purpose, that Greek word would be better translated as \"explanation\" than as \"cause\" as those words are most often used in current English. Another translation of Aristotle is that he meant \"the four Becauses\" as four kinds of answer to \"why\" questions.",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle assumed efficient causality as referring to a basic fact of experience, not explicable by, or reducible to, anything more fundamental or basic.",
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"plaintext": "In some works of Aristotle, the four causes are listed as (1) the essential cause, (2) the logical ground, (3) the moving cause, and (4) the final cause. In this listing, a statement of essential cause is a demonstration that an indicated object conforms to a definition of the word that refers to it. A statement of logical ground is an argument as to why an object statement is true. These are further examples of the idea that a \"cause\" in general in the context of Aristotle's usage is an \"explanation\".",
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"plaintext": "The word \"efficient\" used here can also be translated from Aristotle as \"moving\" or \"initiating\".",
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"plaintext": "Efficient causation was connected with Aristotelian physics, which recognized the four elements (earth, air, fire, water), and added the fifth element (aether). Water and earth by their intrinsic property gravitas or heaviness intrinsically fall toward, whereas air and fire by their intrinsic property levitas or lightness intrinsically rise away from, Earth's center—the motionless center of the universe—in a straight line while accelerating during the substance's approach to its natural place.",
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"plaintext": "As air remained on Earth, however, and did not escape Earth while eventually achieving infinite speed—an absurdity—Aristotle inferred that the universe is finite in size and contains an invisible substance that held planet Earth and its atmosphere, the sublunary sphere, centered in the universe. And since celestial bodies exhibit perpetual, unaccelerated motion orbiting planet Earth in unchanging relations, Aristotle inferred that the fifth element, aither, that fills space and composes celestial bodies intrinsically moves in perpetual circles, the only constant motion between two points. (An object traveling a straight line from point A to B and back must stop at either point before returning to the other.)",
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"plaintext": "Left to itself, a thing exhibits natural motion, but can—according to Aristotelian metaphysics—exhibit enforced motion imparted by an efficient cause. The form of plants endows plants with the processes nutrition and reproduction, the form of animals adds locomotion, and the form of humankind adds reason atop these. A rock normally exhibits natural motion—explained by the rock's material cause of being composed of the element earth—but a living thing can lift the rock, an enforced motion diverting the rock from its natural place and natural motion. As a further kind of explanation, Aristotle identified the final cause, specifying a purpose or criterion of completion in light of which something should be understood.",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle himself explained,",
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"plaintext": "Aristotle further discerned two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and accidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects are assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, and actual effects to operating causes.",
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"plaintext": "Averting infinite regress, Aristotle inferred the first mover—an unmoved mover. The first mover's motion, too, must have been caused, but, being an unmoved mover, must have moved only toward a particular goal or desire.",
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"plaintext": "While the plausibility of causality was accepted in Pyrrhonism, it was equally accepted that it was plausible that nothing was the cause of anything.",
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"plaintext": "In line with Aristotelian cosmology, Thomas Aquinas posed a hierarchy prioritizing Aristotle's four causes: \"final > efficient > material > formal\". Aquinas sought to identify the first efficient cause—now simply first cause—as everyone would agree, said Aquinas, to call it God. Later in the Middle Ages, many scholars conceded that the first cause was God, but explained that many earthly events occur within God's design or plan, and thereby scholars sought freedom to investigate the numerous secondary causes.",
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"plaintext": "For Aristotelian philosophy before Aquinas, the word cause had a broad meaning. It meant 'answer to a why question' or 'explanation', and Aristotelian scholars recognized four kinds of such answers. With the end of the Middle Ages, in many philosophical usages, the meaning of the word 'cause' narrowed. It often lost that broad meaning, and was restricted to just one of the four kinds. For authors such as Niccolò Machiavelli, in the field of political thinking, and Francis Bacon, concerning science more generally, Aristotle's moving cause was the focus of their interest. A widely used modern definition of causality in this newly narrowed sense was assumed by David Hume. He undertook an epistemological and metaphysical investigation of the notion of moving cause. He denied that we can ever perceive cause and effect, except by developing a habit or custom of mind where we come to associate two types of object or event, always contiguous and occurring one after the other. In Part III, section XV of his book A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume expanded this to a list of eight ways of judging whether two things might be cause and effect. The first three:",
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"plaintext": " \"The cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"The cause must be prior to the effect.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"There must be a constant union betwixt the cause and effect. 'Tis chiefly this quality, that constitutes the relation.\"",
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"plaintext": "And then additionally there are three connected criteria which come from our experience and which are \"the source of most of our philosophical reasonings\": ",
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"plaintext": "And then two more: ",
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"plaintext": "In 1949, physicist Max Born distinguished determination from causality. For him, determination meant that actual events are so linked by laws of nature that certainly reliable predictions and retrodictions can be made from sufficient present data about them. He describes two kinds of causation: nomic or generic causation and singular causation. Nomic causality means that cause and effect are linked by more or less certain or probabilistic general laws covering many possible or potential instances; this can be recognized as a probabilized version of Hume's criterion 3. An occasion of singular causation is a particular occurrence of a definite complex of events that are physically linked by antecedence and contiguity, which may be recognized as criteria 1 and 2.",
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"plaintext": "General",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Catch-22 (logic)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1172067
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal research",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
44155493
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal inference",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
37103476
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causality (book)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
52891788
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causation (sociology)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
21215203
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cosmological argument",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
6516
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Domino effect",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8286
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sequence of events",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
30012
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Mathematics",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal filter",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3304717
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal system",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
554087
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causality conditions",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
14346663
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chaos theory",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
6295
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Physics",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Anthropic principle",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2792
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arrow of time",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
296639
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Butterfly effect",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4024
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chain reaction",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
7834
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Delayed choice quantum eraser",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3474700
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Feedback",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
11545
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grandfather paradox",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
967315
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Quantum Zeno effect",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
648326
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Retrocausality",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
7506128
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
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27856
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},
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3062954
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"plaintext": "Philosophy",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aetiology",
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10055
],
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1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arche (ἀρχή)",
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"section_name": "See also",
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1850147
],
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Causa sui",
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3162419
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1,
10
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Chance (philosophy)",
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"section_name": "See also",
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416005
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1,
20
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Chicken or the egg",
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30878
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1,
19
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Condition of possibility",
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3709180
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1,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Determinism",
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"target_page_ids": [
47922
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1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mill's Methods",
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"target_page_ids": [
2041141
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Newcomb's paradox",
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"target_page_ids": [
66012
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Non sequitur (logic)",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3637937
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1,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ontological paradox",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
48402268
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1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Post hoc ergo propter hoc",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
174725
],
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1,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Predestination paradox",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
48402268
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Proposed proofs of universal validity (principle of causality)",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1137736
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
38
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Proximate and ultimate causation",
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"target_page_ids": [
1208460
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1,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Quidditism",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
55839098
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Supervenience",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
350990
],
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1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Philosophy of mind",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Synchronicity",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
146062
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Statistics",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal loop diagram",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3148264
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1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal Markov condition",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1169985
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Correlation does not imply causation",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
39834
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Experimental design",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
9541
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Granger causality",
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"target_page_ids": [
1648224
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Linear regression",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
48758386
],
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1,
18
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Randomness",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
19196523
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Causal model (structural causal model)",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
6672748
],
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1,
13
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Rubin causal model",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5700418
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Validity (statistics)",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
239140
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Psychology and medicine",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Adverse effect",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1474961
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clinical trial",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
241717
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Force dynamics",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1191449
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Iatrogenesis",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
24008546
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nocebo",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
981225
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Placebo",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
142821
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Scientific control",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1640288
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Suggestibility",
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"section_name": "See also",
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155779
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Suggestion",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2481523
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pathology and epidemiology",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Causal inference",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [
37103476
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Epidemiology",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
66997
],
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Etiology",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
10055
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Molecular pathology",
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"target_page_ids": [
9971636
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1,
20
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Molecular pathological epidemiology",
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39618075
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1,
36
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Pathogenesis",
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524246
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pathology",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
48791
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Sociology and economics",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Instrumental variable",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1514405
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Root cause analysis",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
318949
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
20
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Self-fulfilling prophecy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
232445
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Supply and demand ",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
29664
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Unintended consequence",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
97517
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Virtuous circle and vicious circle",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
384239
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Environmental issues",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Causes of global warming",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3201
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causes of deforestation",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8103
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causes of land degradation",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1436198
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causes of soil contamination",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4229946
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Causes of habitat fragmentation",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1259241
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arthur Danto (1965). Analytical Philosophy of History. Cambridge University Press.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1053706
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Idem, 'Complex Events', Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 30 (1969), 66–77.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Idem, 'On Explanations in History', Philosophy of Science, 23 (1956), 15–30.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Green, Celia (2003). The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem. Oxford: Oxford Forum. Includes three chapters on causality at the microlevel in physics.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hewitson, Mark (2014). History and Causality. Palgrave Macmillan. .",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Little, Daniel (1998). Microfoundations, Method and Causation: On the Philosophy of the Social Sciences. New York: Transaction.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lloyd, Christopher (1993). The Structures of History. Oxford: Blackwell.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Idem (1986). Explanation in Social History. Oxford: Blackwell.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Maurice Mandelbaum (1977). The Anatomy of Historical Knowledge. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
29632591
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Judea Pearl (2000). Causality: Models of Reasoning and Inference CAUSALITY, 2nd Edition, 2009 Cambridge University Press ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
699964,
73199
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
12
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95,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rosenberg, M. (1968). The Logic of Survey Analysis. New York: Basic Books, Inc.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Spirtes, Peter, Clark Glymour and Richard Scheines Causation, Prediction, and Search, MIT Press, ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
719601
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " University of California journal articles, including Judea Pearl's articles between 1984 and 1998 Search Results - Technical Reports.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
31921
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Miguel Espinoza, Théorie du déterminisme causal, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2006. .",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Causation – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
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"target_page_ids": [
1967949
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"anchor_spans": [
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13,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Metaphysics of Science – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
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"target_page_ids": [
1967949
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"anchor_spans": [
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26,
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},
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"plaintext": " Causal Processes at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
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"target_page_ids": [
357356
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25,
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"plaintext": " The Art and Science of Cause and Effect – A slide show and tutorial lecture by Judea Pearl",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donald Davidson: Causal Explanation of Action – The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Causal inference in statistics: An overview – By Judea Pearl (September 2009)",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " An R implementation of causal calculus ",
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " TimeSleuth - A tool for discovering causality",
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"Causality",
"Concepts_in_epistemology",
"Concepts_in_metaphysics",
"Conditionals",
"Philosophy_of_science"
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| 179,289 | 22,531 | 1,068 | 273 | 0 | 0 | causality | efficacy that connects a causing process with a resulting process or state, where the first process is partly accountable for the second and the second is dependent on the first | [
"causation",
"cause and effect"
]
|
37,197 | 1,078,069,811 | Isotope_separation | [
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"plaintext": "Isotope separation is the process of concentrating specific isotopes of a chemical element by removing other isotopes. The use of the nuclides produced is varied. The largest variety is used in research (e.g. in chemistry where atoms of \"marker\" nuclide are used to figure out reaction mechanisms). By tonnage, separating natural uranium into enriched uranium and depleted uranium is the largest application. In the following text, mainly the uranium enrichment is considered. This process is crucial in the manufacture of uranium fuel for nuclear power plants, and is also required for the creation of uranium-based nuclear weapons. Plutonium-based weapons use plutonium produced in a nuclear reactor, which must be operated in such a way as to produce plutonium already of suitable isotopic mix or grade.",
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"plaintext": "While different chemical elements can be purified through chemical processes, isotopes of the same element have nearly identical chemical properties, which makes this type of separation impractical, except for separation of deuterium.",
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"plaintext": "The third type of separation is still experimental; practical separation techniques all depend in some way on the atomic mass. It is therefore generally easier to separate isotopes with a larger relative mass difference. For example, deuterium has twice the mass of ordinary (light) hydrogen and it is generally easier to purify it than to separate uranium-235 from the more common uranium-238. On the other extreme, separation of fissile plutonium-239 from the common impurity plutonium-240, while desirable in that it would allow the creation of gun-type fission weapons from plutonium, is generally agreed to be impractical.",
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"plaintext": "All large-scale isotope separation schemes employ a number of similar stages which produce successively higher concentrations of the desired isotope. Each stage enriches the product of the previous step further before being sent to the next stage. Similarly, the tailings from each stage are returned to the previous stage for further processing. This creates a sequential enriching system called a cascade.",
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"plaintext": "There are two important factors that affect the performance of a cascade. The first is the separation factor, which is a number greater than 1. The second is the number of required stages to get the desired purity.",
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"plaintext": "To date, large-scale commercial isotope separation of only three elements has occurred. In each case, the rarer of the two most common isotopes of an element has been concentrated for use in nuclear technology:",
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"plaintext": " Uranium isotopes have been separated to prepare enriched uranium for use as nuclear reactor fuel and in nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": " Hydrogen isotopes have been separated to prepare heavy water for use as a moderator in nuclear reactors.",
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"plaintext": " Tritium is both a nuisance in the coolant / moderator of water moderated reactors and a valuable product, it is thus sometimes separated from the coolant",
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"plaintext": " Lithium-6 has been concentrated for use in thermonuclear weapons. Tritium is commonly produced from Lithium-6 which is often enriched for this purpose, too.",
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"plaintext": "Some isotopically purified elements are used in smaller quantities for specialist applications, especially in the semiconductor industry, where purified silicon is used to improve crystal structure and thermal conductivity, and carbon with greater isotopic purity to make diamonds with greater thermal conductivity.",
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"plaintext": "Isotope separation is an important process for both peaceful and military nuclear technology, and therefore the capability that a nation has for isotope separation is of extreme interest to the intelligence community.",
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"plaintext": "The only alternative to isotope separation is to manufacture the required isotope in its pure form. This may be done by irradiation of a suitable target, but care is needed in target selection and other factors to ensure that only the required isotope of the element of interest is produced. Isotopes of other elements are not so great a problem as they can be removed by chemical means.",
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"plaintext": "This is particularly relevant in the preparation of high-grade plutonium-239 for use in weapons. It is not practical to separate Pu-239 from Pu-240 or Pu-241. Fissile Pu-239 is produced following neutron capture by uranium-238, but further neutron capture will produce Pu-240 which is less fissile and worse, is a fairly strong neutron emitter, and Pu-241 which decays to Am-241, a strong alpha emitter that poses self-heating and radiotoxicity problems. Therefore, the uranium targets used to produce military plutonium must be irradiated for only a short time, to minimise the production of these unwanted isotopes. Conversely, blending plutonium with Pu-240 renders it less suitable for nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": "If the desired goal is not an atom bomb but running a nuclear power plant, the alternative to enrichment of uranium for use in a Light Water Reactor is the use of a neutron moderator with a lower neutron absorption cross section than protium. Options include heavy water as used in CANDU type reactors or graphite as used in Magnox or RBMK reactors. Obtaining heavy water however also requires isotope separation, in this case of Hydrogen isotopes, which is easier due to the bigger variation in atomic weight. Both Magnox and RBMK reactors had undesirable properties when run with natural uranium, which ultimately led to the replacement of this fuel with low enriched uranium, negating the advantage of foregoing enrichment. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors such as the CANDU are still in active use and India which has limited domestic uranium resources and been under a partial nuclear embargo ever since it became an atom bomb state in particular relies on heavy water moderated reactors for its nuclear power. A big downside of heavy water reactors is the enormous upfront cost of the heavy water.",
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"plaintext": "Often done with gases, but also with liquids, the diffusion method relies on the fact that in thermal equilibrium, two isotopes with the same energy will have different average velocities. The lighter atoms (or the molecules containing them) will travel more quickly and be more likely to diffuse through a membrane. The difference in speeds is proportional to the square root of the mass ratio, so the amount of separation is small and many cascaded stages are needed to obtain high purity. This method is expensive due to the work needed to push gas through a membrane and the many stages necessary.",
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"plaintext": "The first large-scale separation of uranium isotopes was achieved by the United States in large gaseous diffusion separation plants at Oak Ridge Laboratories, which were established as part of the Manhattan Project. These used uranium hexafluoride gas as the process fluid. Nickel powder and electro-deposited nickel mesh diffusion barriers were pioneered by Edward Adler and Edward Norris. See gaseous diffusion.",
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"plaintext": "Centrifugal schemes rapidly rotate the material allowing the heavier isotopes to go closer to an outer radial wall. This too is often done in gaseous form using a Zippe-type centrifuge.",
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"plaintext": "Centrifuging plasma can separate isotopes as well as separating ranges of elements for radioactive waste reduction, nuclear reprocessing, and other purposes. The process is called \"plasma mass separation\"; the devices are called \"plasma mass filter\" or \"plasma centrifuge\" (not to be confused with medical).",
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"plaintext": "The centrifugal separation of isotopes was first suggested by Aston and Lindemann in 1919 and the first successful experiments were reported by Beams and Haynes on isotopes of chlorine in 1936. However attempts to use the technology during the Manhattan project were unproductive. In modern times it is the main method used throughout the world to enrich uranium and as a result remains a fairly secretive process, hindering a more widespread uptake of the technology. In general a feed of UF6 gas is connected to a cylinder that is rotated at high speed. Near the outer edge of the cylinder heavier gas molecules containing U-238 collect, while molecules containing U-235 concentrate at the center and are then fed to another cascade stage. Use of gaseous centrifugal technology to enrich isotopes is desirable as power consumption is greatly reduced when compared to more conventional techniques such as diffusion plants since fewer cascade steps are required to reach similar degrees of separation. In fact, gas centrifuges using uranium hexafluoride have largely replaced gaseous diffusion technology for uranium enrichment. As well as requiring less energy to achieve the same separation, far smaller scale plants are possible, making them an economic possibility for a small nation attempting to produce a nuclear weapon. Pakistan is believed to have used this method in developing its nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Vortex tubes were used by South Africa in their Helikon vortex separation process. The gas is injected tangentially into a chamber with special geometry that further increases its rotation to a very high rate, causing the isotopes to separate. The method is simple because vortex tubes have no moving parts, but energy intensive, about 50 times greater than gas centrifuges. A similar process, known as jet nozzle, was created in Germany, with a demonstration plant built in Brazil, and they went as far as developing a site to fuel the country's nuclear plants.",
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"plaintext": "Electromagnetic separation is mass spectrometry on a large scale, so it is sometimes referred to as mass spectrometry. It uses the fact that charged particles are deflected in a magnetic field and the amount of deflection depends upon the particle's mass. It is very expensive for the quantity produced, as it has an extremely low throughput, but it can allow very high purities to be achieved. This method is often used for processing small amounts of pure isotopes for research or specific use (such as isotopic tracers), but is impractical for industrial use.",
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"plaintext": "At Oak Ridge and at the University of California, Berkeley, Ernest O. Lawrence developed electromagnetic separation for much of the uranium used in the first United States atomic bomb (see Manhattan Project). Devices using his principle are named calutrons. After the war the method was largely abandoned as impractical. It had only been undertaken (along with diffusion and other technologies) to guarantee there would be enough material for use, whatever the cost. Its main eventual contribution to the war effort was to further concentrate material from the gaseous diffusion plants to higher levels of purity.",
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"plaintext": "In this method a laser is tuned to a wavelength which excites only one isotope of the material and ionizes those atoms preferentially. The resonant absorption of light for an isotope is dependent upon its mass and certain hyperfine interactions between electrons and the nucleus, allowing finely tuned lasers to interact with only one isotope. After the atom is ionized it can be removed from the sample by applying an electric field. This method is often abbreviated as AVLIS (atomic vapor laser isotope separation). This method has only recently been developed as laser technology has improved, and is currently not used extensively. However, it is a major concern to those in the field of nuclear proliferation because it may be cheaper and more easily hidden than other methods of isotope separation. Tunable lasers used in AVLIS include the dye laser and more recently diode lasers.",
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"plaintext": "A second method of laser separation is known as molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS). In this method, an infrared laser is directed at uranium hexafluoride gas, exciting molecules that contain a U-235 atom. A second laser frees a fluorine atom, leaving uranium pentafluoride which then precipitates out of the gas. Cascading the MLIS stages is more difficult than with other methods because the UF5 must be fluorinated back to UF6 before being introduced into the next MLIS stage. Alternative MLIS schemes are currently being developed (using a first laser in the near-infrared or visible region) where an enrichment of over 95% can be obtained in a single stage, but the methods have not (yet) reached industrial feasibility. This method is called OP-IRMPD (Overtone Pre-excitation—IR Multiple Photon Dissociation).",
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"plaintext": "Finally, the 'Separation of isotopes by laser excitation' (SILEX) process, developed by Silex Systems in Australia, has been licensed to General Electric for the development of a pilot enrichment plant. The method uses uranium hexafluoride as a feedstock, and uses magnets to separate the isotopes after one isotope is preferentially ionized. Further details of the process are not disclosed.",
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"plaintext": "Quite recently yet another scheme has been proposed for the deuterium separation using Trojan wavepackets in circularly polarized electromagnetic field. The process of Trojan wave packet formation by the adiabatic-rapid passage depends in ultra-sensitive way on the reduced electron and nucleus mass which with the same field frequency further leads to excitation of Trojan or anti-Trojan wavepacket depending on the kind of the isotope. Those and their giant, rotating electric dipole moments are then -shifted in phase and the beam of such atoms splits in the gradient of the electric field in the analogy to Stern–Gerlach experiment.",
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"plaintext": "Although isotopes of a single element are normally described as having the same chemical properties, this is not strictly true. In particular, reaction rates are very slightly affected by atomic mass.",
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"plaintext": "Techniques using this are most effective for light atoms such as hydrogen. Lighter isotopes tend to react or evaporate more quickly than heavy isotopes, allowing them to be separated. This is how heavy water is produced commercially, see Girdler sulfide process for details. Lighter isotopes also disassociate more rapidly under an electric field. This process in a large cascade was used at the heavy water production plant at Rjukan.",
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"plaintext": "One candidate for the largest kinetic isotopic effect ever measured at room temperature, 305, may eventually be used for the separation of tritium (T). The effects for the oxidation of tritiated formate anions to HTO were measured as:",
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"plaintext": " {|",
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"plaintext": "| k(HCO2−) = 9.54 M−1s−1",
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"plaintext": "| k(H)/k(D) = 38",
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"plaintext": "| k(DCO2−) = 9.54 M−1s−1",
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"plaintext": "| k(D)/k(T) = 8.1",
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"plaintext": "| k(TCO2−) = 9.54 M−1s−1",
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"plaintext": "| k(H)/k(T) = 305",
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"plaintext": "Isotopes of carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen can be purified by chilling these gases or compounds nearly to their liquefaction temperature in very tall () columns. The heavier isotopes sink and the lighter isotopes rise, where they are easily collected. The process was developed in the late 1960s by scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory. This process is also called \"cryogenic distillation\".",
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"plaintext": "Separative Work Unit (SWU) is a complex unit which is a function of the amount of uranium processed and the degree to which it is enriched, i.e. the extent of increase in the concentration of the U-235 isotope relative to the remainder.",
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"plaintext": "The unit is strictly: Kilogram Separative Work Unit, and it measures the quantity of separative work (indicative of energy used in enrichment) when feed and product quantities are expressed in kilograms. The effort expended in separating a mass F of feed of assay xf into a mass P of product assay xp and waste of mass W and assay xw is expressed in terms of the number of separative work units needed, given by the expression SWU = WV(xw) + PV(xp) - FV(xf), where V(x) is the \"value function,\" defined as V(x) = (1 - 2x) ln ((1 - x) /x).",
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"plaintext": "Separative work is expressed in SWUs, kg SW, or kg UTA (from the German Urantrennarbeit )",
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"plaintext": " 1 SWU = 1kg SW = 1kg UTA",
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"plaintext": " 1 kSWU = 1.0 t SW = 1 t UTA",
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"plaintext": " 1 MSWU = 1 kt SW = 1 kt UTA",
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"plaintext": "If, for example, you begin with 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of natural uranium, it takes about 60 SWU to produce 10 kilograms (22 pounds) of uranium enriched in U-235 content to 4.5%.",
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"plaintext": "Radioactive beams of specific isotopes are widely used in the fields of experimental physics, biology and materials science. The production and formation of these radioactive atoms into an ionic beam for study is an entire field of research carried out at many laboratories throughout the world. The first isotope separator was developed at the Copenhagen Cyclotron by Bohr and coworkers using the principle of electromagnetic separation. Today, there are many laboratories around the world that supply beams of radioactive ions for use. Arguably the principal Isotope Separator On Line (ISOL) is ISOLDE at CERN, which is a joint European facility spread across the Franco-Swiss border near the city of Geneva. This laboratory uses mainly proton spallation of uranium carbide targets to produce a wide range of radioactive fission fragments that are not found naturally on earth. During spallation (bombardment with high energy protons), a uranium carbide target is heated to several thousand degrees so that radioactive atoms produced in the nuclear reaction are released. Once out of the target, the vapour of radioactive atoms travels to an ionizer cavity. This ionizer cavity is a thin tube made of a refractory metal with a high work function allowing for collisions with the walls to liberate a single electron from a free atom (surface ionization effect). Once ionized, the radioactive species are accelerated by an electrostatic field and injected into an electromagnetic separator. As ions entering the separator are of approximately equal energy, those ions with a smaller mass will be deflected by the magnetic field by a greater amount than those with a heavier mass. This differing radius of curvature allows for isobaric purification to take place. Once purified isobarically, the ion beam is then sent to the individual experiments. In order to increase the purity of the isobaric beam, laser ionization can take place inside the ionizer cavity to selectively ionize a single element chain of interest. At CERN, this device is called the Resonance Ionization Laser Ion Source (RILIS). Currently over 60% of all experiments opt to use the RILIS to increase the purity of radioactive beams.",
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| 920,846 | 7,169 | 229 | 112 | 0 | 0 | isotope separation | Physical process of concentrating specific isotopes of a chemical element by removing other isotopes | []
|
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"plaintext": " Laughing Matters: On writing M*A*S*H, Tootsie, Oh, God! And A Few Other Funny Things (1999) (Autobiography)",
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"plaintext": " C-Scam (2000) (TV)",
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"plaintext": " Bedazzled (with Harold Ramis and Peter Tolan) (2000)",
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"plaintext": " And Starring Pancho Villa as Himself (2003) (TV)",
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"plaintext": "The following is a list of M*A*S*H episodes (42 Total) written and/or directed by Gelbart.",
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"plaintext": " Episode 1: The Pilot (Written)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 4: \"Chief Surgeon Who?\" (Written)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 11: \"Germ Warfare\" (Written)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 12: \"Dear Dad\" (Written)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 18: \"Dear Dad...Again\" (Written with Sheldon Keller)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 21: \"Sticky Wicket\" (Teleplay with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 23: \"Ceasefire\" (Teleplay with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 24: \"Showtime\" (Teleplay with Robert Klane; Story)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 1: \"Divided We Stand\" (Written)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 2: \"Five O'Clock Charlie\" (Written with Laurence Marks & Keith Walker)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 6: \"Kim\" (Written with Marc Mandel & Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 7: \"L.I.P. (Local Indigenous Personnel)\" (Written with Carl Kleinschmitt & Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 9: \"Dear Dad...Three\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 11: \"Carry On, Hawkeye\" (Written with Bernard Dilbert & Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 12: \"The Incubator\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 13: \"Deal Me Out\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 16: \"Henry in Love\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 19: \"The Chosen People\" (Written Laurence Marks & Sheldon Keller)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 20: \"As You Were\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 21: \"Crisis\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 23: \"Mail Call\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 24: \"A Smattering of Intelligence\" (Written with Laurence Marks; Directed)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 1: \"The General Flipped at Dawn\" (Directed)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 2: \"Rainbow Bridge\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 4: \"Iron Guts Kelly\" (Written with Sid Dorfman)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 5: \"O.R.\" (Written with Laurence Marks)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 10: \"There's Nothing Like a Nurse\" (Written)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 16: \"Bulletin Board\" (Written with Simon Muntner)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 17: \"The Consultant\" (Story)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 19: \"Aid Station\" (Written with Simon Muntner)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 23: \"White Gold\" (Written with Simon Muntner)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 24: \"Abyssinia, Henry\" (Directed)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 1: \"Welcome to Korea\" (Written with Everett Greenbaum & Jim Fritzell)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 3: \"It Happened One Night\" (Teleplay with Simon Muntner)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 9: \"Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler?\" (Directed)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 13: \"The Gun\" (Written with Gene Reynolds)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 15: \"The Price of Tomato Juice\" (Written with Gene Reynolds)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 18: \"Hawkeye\" (Written with Simon Muntner; Directed)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 21: \"Smilin' Jack\" (Written with Simon Muntner)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 22: \"The More I See You\" (Written with Gene Reynolds)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 23: \"Deluge\" (Written with Simon Muntner)",
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"plaintext": " Episode 24: \"The Interview\" (Written and Directed)",
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"plaintext": " Isenberg, Barbara. State of the Arts: California Artists Talk About Their Work. 2005",
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"plaintext": " Larry Gelbart – Daily Telegraph obituary",
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"plaintext": " Abrogate – Larry Gelbart play, online @ BBC Radio 4",
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"plaintext": " Old Time Radio Researchers Database of People and Programs",
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"plaintext": " Larry Gelbart Archive of American Television Interview",
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"plaintext": " Nonstop Laughs Larry Gelbart, TIME Magazine",
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| 1,806,065 | 6,134 | 185 | 149 | 0 | 0 | Larry Gelbart | American comedy writer and playwright (1928-2009) | [
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|
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"plaintext": "In 1935 Watt was asked to comment on reports of a German death ray based on radio. Watt and his assistant Arnold Frederic Wilkins quickly determined it was not possible, but Wilkins suggested using radio signals to locate aircraft at long distances. This led to a February 1935 demonstration where signals from a BBC short-wave transmitter were bounced off a Handley Page Heyford aircraft. Watt led the development of a practical version of this device, which entered service in 1938 under the code name Chain Home. This system provided the vital advance information that helped the Royal Air Force win the Battle of Britain.",
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"plaintext": "After the success of his invention, Watson Watt was sent to the US in 1941 to advise on air defence after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. He returned and continued to lead radar development for the War Office and Ministry of Supply. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1941, was given a knighthood in 1942 and was awarded the US Medal for Merit in 1946.",
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"plaintext": "In 1916 Watson-Watt wanted a job with the War Office, but nothing obvious was available in communications. Instead he joined the Meteorological Office, which was interested in his ideas on the use of radio for the detection of thunderstorms. Lightning gives off a radio signal as it ionizes the air, and his goal was to detect this signal to warn pilots of approaching thunderstorms. The signal occurs across a wide range of frequencies, and could be easily detected and amplified by naval longwave sets. In fact, lightning was a major problem for communications at these common wavelengths.",
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"plaintext": "The first was an Adcock antenna, an arrangement of four masts that allowed the direction of a signal to be detected through phase differences. Using pairs of these antennas positioned at right angles, one could make a simultaneous measurement of the lightning's direction on two axes. Displaying the fleeting signals was a problem. This was solved by the second device, the WE-224 oscilloscope, recently acquired from Bell Labs. By feeding the signals from the two antennae into the X and Y channels of the oscilloscope, a single strike caused the appearance of a line on the display, indicating the direction of the strike. The scope's relatively \"slow\" phosphor only allowed the signal to be read long after the strike had occurred. Watt's new system was being used in 1926 and was the topic of an extensive paper by Watson-Watt and Herd.",
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"plaintext": "During the First World War, the Germans had used Zeppelins as long-range bombers over Britain and defences had struggled to counter the threat. Since that time, aircraft capabilities had improved considerably and the prospect of widespread aerial bombardment of civilian areas was causing the government anxiety. Heavy bombers were now able to approach at altitudes that anti-aircraft guns of the day were unable to reach. With enemy airfields across the English Channel potentially only 20 minutes' flying-time away, bombers would have dropped their bombs and be returning to base before any intercepting fighters could get to altitude. The only answer seemed to be to have standing patrols of fighters in the air, but with the limited cruising time of a fighter, this would require a huge air force. An alternative solution was urgently needed and, in 1934, the Air Ministry set up a committee, the CSSAD (Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Defence), chaired by Sir Henry Tizard to find ways to improve air defence in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "By 1937, the first three stations were ready and the associated system was put to the test. The results were encouraging, and the government immediately commissioned construction of 17 additional stations. This became Chain Home, the array of fixed radar towers on the east and south coasts of England. By the start of World War II, 19 were ready for the Battle of Britain, and by the end of the war, over 50 had been built. The Germans were aware of the construction of Chain Home but were not sure of its purpose. They tested their theories with a flight of the Zeppelin LZ 130 but concluded the stations were a new long-range naval communications system.",
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"plaintext": "In his English History 1914–1945, the historian A. J. P. Taylor paid the highest of praise to Watson-Watt, Sir Henry Tizard and their associates who developed radar, crediting them with being fundamental to victory in the Second World War.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1938, Watson-Watt left Bawdsey Manor and took up the post of Director of Communications Development (DCD-RAE). In 1939, Sir George Lee took over the job of DCD and Watson-Watt became Scientific Advisor on Telecommunications (SAT) to the Ministry of Aircraft Production, travelling to the US in 1941 to advise them on the severe inadequacies of their air defence, illustrated by the Pearl Harbor attack. He was knighted by George VI in 1942 and received the US Medal for Merit in 1946.",
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"plaintext": "Ten years after his knighthood, Watson-Watt was awarded £50,000 by the UK government for his contributions in the development of radar. He established a practice as a consulting engineer. In the 1950s, he moved to Canada and later he lived in the US, where he published Three Steps to Victory in 1958. Around 1958, he appeared as a mystery challenger on the American television programme To Tell The Truth. In 1956, Watson-Watt reportedly was pulled over for speeding in Canada by a radar gun-toting policeman. His remark was, \"Had I known what you were going to do with it I would never have invented it!\". He wrote an ironic poem (\"A Rough Justice\") afterwards,",
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"plaintext": "Watson-Watt was married on 20 July 1916 in Hammersmith, London to Margaret Robertson (d. 1988), the daughter of a draughtsman; they later divorced and he remarried in 1952 in Canada. His second wife was Jean Wilkinson, who died in 1964. He returned to Scotland in the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Nuclear Measurements Corporation",
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"plaintext": "Project Gnome",
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"plaintext": "Safety engineering",
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29278
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"plaintext": "Thermal hydraulics",
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"plaintext": " A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Waste Isolation Pilot Plant",
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{
"plaintext": " Ash, Milton, \"Nuclear reactor kinetics\", McGraw-Hill, (1965)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gowing, Margaret. Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945 (1964).",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gowing, Margaret, and Lorna Arnold. Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, Vol. I: Policy Making, 1945–52; Vol. II: Policy Execution, 1945–52 (London, 1974)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Johnston, Sean F. \"Creating a Canadian Profession: The Nuclear Engineer, 1940–68,\" Canadian Journal of History, Winter 2009, Vol. 44 Issue 3, pp 435–466",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Johnston, Sean F. \"Implanting a discipline: the academic trajectory of nuclear engineering in the USA and UK,\" Minerva, 47 (2009), pp.51–73",
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{
"plaintext": " Electric Generation from Commercial Nuclear Power",
"section_idx": 6,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hacettepe University Department of Nuclear Engineering",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear Engineering International magazine",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear Safety Info Resources",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear Science and Engineering technical journal",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Science and Technology of Nuclear Installation Open-Access Journal",
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| [
"Engineering_disciplines",
"Nuclear_technology"
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| 83,504 | 3,534 | 403 | 68 | 0 | 0 | nuclear engineering | applied science | []
|
37,208 | 1,107,715,140 | Landslide | [
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"plaintext": "Landslides, also known as landslips, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep-seated slope failures, mudflows, and debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case they are called submarine landslides. Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, but there are other factors affecting slope stability that produce specific conditions that make a slope prone to failure. In many cases, the landslide is triggered by a specific event (such as a heavy rainfall, an earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many others), although this is not always identifiable.",
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"plaintext": "Landslides occur when the slope (or a portion of it) undergoes some processes that change its condition from stable to unstable. This is essentially due to a decrease in the shear strength of the slope material, an increase in the shear stress borne by the material, or a combination of the two. A change in the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides include:",
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"plaintext": " saturation by rain water infiltration, snow melting, or glaciers melting;",
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"plaintext": "rising of groundwater or increase of pore water pressure (e.g. due to aquifer recharge in rainy seasons, or by rain water infiltration);",
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"plaintext": "increase of hydrostatic pressure in cracks and fractures;",
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{
"plaintext": " loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire – a fire in forests lasting for 3–4 days);",
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"plaintext": "erosion of the top of a slope by rivers or sea waves;",
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"plaintext": "physical and chemical weathering (e.g. by repeated freezing and thawing, heating and cooling, salt leaking in the groundwater or mineral dissolution);",
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"plaintext": " ground shaking caused by earthquakes, which can destabilize the slope directly (e.g., by inducing soil liquefaction) or weaken the material and cause cracks that will eventually produce a landslide;",
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"plaintext": " volcanic eruptions;",
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"plaintext": "Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as:",
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{
"plaintext": " deforestation, cultivation and construction;",
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"plaintext": " vibrations from machinery or traffic;",
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"plaintext": " blasting and mining;",
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"plaintext": " earthwork (e.g. by altering the shape of a slope, or imposing new loads);",
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"plaintext": " in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock;",
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"plaintext": " agricultural or forestry activities (logging), and urbanization, which change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.",
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"plaintext": "temporal variation in land use and land cover (LULC): it includes the human abandonment of farming areas, e.g. due to the economic and social transformations which occurred in Europe after the Second World War. Land degradation and extreme rainfall can increase the frequency of erosion and landslide phenomena.",
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"plaintext": "In traditional usage, the term landslide has at one time or another been used to cover almost all forms of mass movement of rocks and regolith at the Earth's surface. In 1978, geologist David Varnes noted this imprecise usage and proposed a new, much tighter scheme for the classification of mass movements and subsidence processes. This scheme was later modified by Cruden and Varnes in 1996, and refined by Hutchinson (1988), Hungr et al. (2001), and finally by Hungr, Leroueil and Picarelli (2014). The classification resulting from the latest update is provided below.",
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"plaintext": "Under this classification, six types of movement are recognized. Each type can be seen both in rock and in soil. A fall is a movement of isolated blocks or chunks of soil in free-fall. The term topple refers to blocks coming away by rotation from a vertical face. A slide is the movement of a body of material that generally remains intact while moving over one or several inclined surfaces or thin layers of material (also called shear zones) in which large deformations are concentrated. Slides are also sub-classified by the form of the surface(s) or shear zone(s) on which movement happens. The planes may be broadly parallel to the surface (\"planar slides\") or spoon-shaped (\"rotational slides\"). Slides can occur catastrophically, but movement on the surface can also be gradual and progressive. Spreads are a form of subsidence, in which a layer of material cracks, opens up, and expands laterally. Flows are the movement of fluidised material, which can be both dry or rich in water (such as in mud flows). Flows can move imperceptibly for years, or accelerate rapidly and cause disasters. Slope deformations are slow, distributed movements that can affect entire mountain slopes or portions of it. Some landslides are complex in the sense that they feature different movement types in different portions of the moving body, or they evolve from one movement type to another over time. For example, a landslide can initiate as a rock fall or topple and then, as the blocks disintegrate upon the impact, transform into a debris slide or flow. An avalanching effect can also be present, in which the moving mass entrains additional material along its path.",
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"plaintext": "Slope material that becomes saturated with water may produce a debris flow or mud flow. However, also dry debris can exhibit flow-like movement. Flowing debris or mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, and block bridges and rivers causing flooding along its path. This phenomenon is particularly hazardous in alpine areas, where narrow gorges and steep valleys are conducive of faster flows. Debris and mud flows may initiate on the slopes or result from the fluidization of landslide material as it gains speed or incorporates further debris and water along its path. River blockages as the flow reaches a main stream can generate temporary dams. As the impoundments fail, a domino effect may be created, with a remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, and in its destructive power.",
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"plaintext": "An earthflow is the downslope movement of mostly fine-grained material. Earthflows can move at speeds within a very wide range, from as low as 1 mm/yr to many km/h. Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall they are more slow-moving and are covered with solid material carried along by the flow from within. Clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to earthflows. These flows are usually controlled by the pore water pressures within the mass, which should be high enough to produce a low shearing resistance. On the slopes, some earthflow may be recognized by their elongated shape, with one or more lobes at their toes. As these lobes spread out, drainage of the mass increases and the margins dry out, lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process also causes the flow to thicken. Earthflows occur more often during periods of high precipitation, which saturates the ground and builds up water pressures. However, earthflows that keep advancing also during dry seasons are not uncommon. Fissures may develop during the movement of clayey materials, which facilitate the intrusion of water into the moving mass and produce faster responses to precipitation.",
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"plaintext": "A rock avalanche, sometimes referred to as sturzstrom, is a large and fast-moving landslide of the flow type. It is rarer than other types of landslides but it is often very destructive. It exhibits typically a long runout, flowing very far over a low-angle, flat, or even slightly uphill terrain. The mechanisms favoring the long runout can be different, but they typically result in the weakening of the sliding mass as the speed increases. The causes of this weakening are not completely understood. Especially for the largest landslides, it may involve the very quick heating of the shear zone due to friction, which may even cause the water that is present to vaporize and build up a large pressure, producing a sort of hovercraft effect. In some cases, the very high temperature may even cause some of the minerals to melt. During the movement, the rock in the shear zone may also be finely ground, producing a nanometer-size mineral powder that may act as a lubricant, reducing the resistance to motion and promoting larger speeds and longer runouts. The weakening mechanisms in large rock avalanches are similar to those occurring in seismic faults.",
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"plaintext": "Slides can occur in any rock or soil material and are characterized by the movement of a mass over a planar or curvilinear surface or shear zone. ",
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"plaintext": "A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of material mixed with water and/or ice. It is usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris. Debris flows and avalanches differ from debris slides because their movement is fluid-like and generally much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower shear resistances and steeper slopes. Debris slides generally begin with the detachment of rock chunks high on the slopes, which break apart as they slide towards the bottom. ",
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"plaintext": "Clay and silt slides are usually slow but can experience episodic acceleration in response to heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt. They are often seen on gentle slopes and move over planar surfaces, such as over the underlying bedrock. Failure surfaces can also form within the clay or silt layer itself, and they usually have concave shapes, resulting in rotational slides",
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"plaintext": "A landslide in which the sliding surface is located within the soil mantle or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth from few decimeters to some meters) is called a shallow landslide. Debris slides and debris flows are usually shallow. Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high permeable soils on top of low permeable soils. The low permeable soil traps the water in the shallower soil generating high water pressures. As the top soil is filled with water, it can become unstable and slide downslope.",
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"plaintext": "Deep-seated landslides are those in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located, for instance well below the maximum rooting depth of trees. They usually involve deep regolith, weathered rock, and/or bedrock and include large slope failures associated with translational, rotational, or complex movements. They tend to form along a plane of weakness such as a fault or bedding plane. They can be visually identified by concave scarps at the top and steep areas at the toe. Deep-seated landslides also shape landscapes over geological timescales and produce sediment that strongly alters the course of fluvial streams. ",
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"plaintext": "Landslides that occur undersea, or have impact into water e.g. significant rockfall or volcanic collapse into the sea, can generate tsunamis. Massive landslides can also generate megatsunamis, which are usually hundreds of meters high. In 1958, one such tsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska.",
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"plaintext": " An avalanche, similar in mechanism to a landslide, involves a large amount of ice, snow and rock falling quickly down the side of a mountain.",
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"plaintext": " A pyroclastic flow is caused by a collapsing cloud of hot ash, gas and rocks from a volcanic explosion that moves rapidly down an erupting volcano.",
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"plaintext": "Landslide hazard analysis and mapping can provide useful information for catastrophic loss reduction, and assist in the development of guidelines for sustainable land-use planning. The analysis is used to identify the factors that are related to landslides, estimate the relative contribution of factors causing slope failures, establish a relation between the factors and landslides, and to predict the landslide hazard in the future based on such a relationship. The factors that have been used for landslide hazard analysis can usually be grouped into geomorphology, geology, land use/land cover, and hydrogeology. Since many factors are considered for landslide hazard mapping, GIS is an appropriate tool because it has functions of collection, storage, manipulation, display, and analysis of large amounts of spatially referenced data which can be handled fast and effectively. Cardenas reported evidence on the exhaustive use of GIS in conjunction of uncertainty modelling tools for landslide mapping. Remote sensing techniques are also highly employed for landslide hazard assessment and analysis. Before and after aerial photographs and satellite imagery are used to gather landslide characteristics, like distribution and classification, and factors like slope, lithology, and land use/land cover to be used to help predict future events. Before and after imagery also helps to reveal how the landscape changed after an event, what may have triggered the landslide, and shows the process of regeneration and recovery.",
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"plaintext": "Using satellite imagery in combination with GIS and on-the-ground studies, it is possible to generate maps of likely occurrences of future landslides. Such maps should show the locations of previous events as well as clearly indicate the probable locations of future events. In general, to predict landslides, one must assume that their occurrence is determined by certain geologic factors, and that future landslides will occur under the same conditions as past events. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a relationship between the geomorphologic conditions in which the past events took place and the expected future conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Natural disasters are a dramatic example of people living in conflict with the environment. Early predictions and warnings are essential for the reduction of property damage and loss of life. Because landslides occur frequently and can represent some of the most destructive forces on earth, it is imperative to have a good understanding as to what causes them and how people can either help prevent them from occurring or simply avoid them when they do occur. Sustainable land management and development is also an essential key to reducing the negative impacts felt by landslides.",
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"plaintext": "GIS offers a superior method for landslide analysis because it allows one to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and display large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Because so many variables are involved, it is important to be able to overlay the many layers of data to develop a full and accurate portrayal of what is taking place on the Earth's surface. Researchers need to know which variables are the most important factors that trigger landslides in any given location. Using GIS, extremely detailed maps can be generated to show past events and likely future events which have the potential to save lives, property, and money.",
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"plaintext": "Since the ‘90s, GIS have been also successfully used in conjunction to decision support systems, to show on a map real-time risk evaluations based on monitoring data gathered in the area of the Val Pola disaster (Italy).",
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"plaintext": " Storegga Slide, some 8,000 years ago off the western coast of Norway. Caused massive tsunamis in Doggerland and other countries connected to the North Sea. A total volume of debris was involved; comparable to a thick area the size of Iceland. The landslide is thought to be among the largest in history.",
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"plaintext": " Landslide which moved Heart Mountain to its current location, the largest continental landslide discovered so far. In the 48million years since the slide occurred, erosion has removed most of the portion of the slide.",
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"plaintext": " Flims Rockslide, ca. , Switzerland, some 10000 years ago in post-glacial Pleistocene/Holocene, the largest so far described in the alps and on dry land that can be easily identified in a modestly eroded state.",
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"plaintext": " The landslide around 200BC which formed Lake Waikaremoana on the North Island of New Zealand, where a large block of the Ngamoko Range slid and dammed a gorge of Waikaretaheke River, forming a natural reservoir up to deep.",
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"plaintext": " Cheekye Fan, British Columbia, Canada, ca. , Late Pleistocene in age.",
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"plaintext": " The Manang-Braga rock avalanche/debris flow may have formed Marsyangdi Valley in the Annapurna Region, Nepal, during an interstadial period belonging to the last glacial period. Over 15km3 of material are estimated to have been moved in the single event, making it one of the largest continental landslides.",
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"plaintext": " Tsergo Ri landslide, a massive slope failure 60km north of Kathmandu, Nepal, involving an estimated 10–15km3. Prior to this landslide the mountain may have been the world's 15th mountain above 8000m.",
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"plaintext": " The 1806 Goldau landslide on September 2, 1806",
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"plaintext": " The Cap Diamant Québec rockslide on September 19, 1889",
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"plaintext": " Frank Slide, Turtle Mountain, Alberta, Canada, on 29 April 1903",
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"plaintext": " Khait landslide, Khait, Tajikistan, Soviet Union, on July 10, 1949",
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"plaintext": " A magnitude 7.5 earthquake in Yellowstone Park (August 17, 1959) caused a landslide that blocked the Madison River, and created Quake Lake.",
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"plaintext": " Monte Toc landslide () falling into the Vajont Dam basin in Italy, causing a megatsunami and about 2000 deaths, on October 9, 1963",
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"plaintext": " Hope Slide landslide () near Hope, British Columbia on January 9, 1965.",
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"plaintext": " The 1966 Aberfan disaster",
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"plaintext": " Tuve landslide in Gothenburg, Sweden on November 30, 1977.",
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"plaintext": " The 1979 Abbotsford landslip, Dunedin, New Zealand on August 8, 1979.",
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"plaintext": " The eruption of Mount St. Helens (May 18, 1980) caused an enormous landslide when the top 1300 feet of the volcano suddenly gave way.",
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"plaintext": " Val Pola landslide during Valtellina disaster (1987) Italy",
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"plaintext": " Thredbo landslide, Australia on 30 July 1997, destroyed hostel.",
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"plaintext": " Vargas mudslides, due to heavy rains in Vargas State, Venezuela, in December, 1999, causing tens of thousands of deaths.",
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"plaintext": " 2005 La Conchita landslide in Ventura, California causing 10 deaths.",
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"plaintext": " 2007 Chittagong mudslide, in Chittagong, Bangladesh, on June 11, 2007.",
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"plaintext": " 2008 Cairo landslide on September 6, 2008.",
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"plaintext": " The 2009 Peloritani Mountains disaster caused 37 deaths, on October 1.",
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"plaintext": " The 2010 Uganda landslide caused over 100 deaths following heavy rain in Bududa region.",
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"plaintext": " Zhouqu county mudslide in Gansu, China on August 8, 2010.",
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"plaintext": " Devil's Slide, an ongoing landslide in San Mateo County, California",
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"plaintext": " 2011 Rio de Janeiro landslide in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on January 11, 2011, causing 610 deaths.",
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"plaintext": " 2014 Pune landslide, in Pune, India.",
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"plaintext": " 2014 Oso mudslide, in Oso, Washington",
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"plaintext": " 2017 Mocoa landslide, in Mocoa, Colombia",
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"plaintext": "Evidence of past landslides has been detected on many bodies in the solar system, but since most observations are made by probes that only observe for a limited time and most bodies in the solar system appear to be geologically inactive not many landslides are known to have happened in recent times. Both Venus and Mars have been subject to long-term mapping by orbiting satellites, and examples of landslides have been observed on both planets.",
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"plaintext": " Landslide dam",
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"plaintext": " Landslides vs. Rock strength",
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"plaintext": " Railway slide fence",
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"plaintext": " United States Geological Survey site",
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"plaintext": " British Geological Survey landslides site",
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"plaintext": " International Consortium on Landslides",
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"plaintext": "Skred",
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| [
"Landslides",
"Environmental_soil_science",
"Natural_disasters",
"Hazards_of_outdoor_recreation"
]
| 167,903 | 19,060 | 1,738 | 159 | 0 | 0 | landslide | type of natural disasters involving ground movements, often caused by slope instability triggered by specific event | [
"landslip",
"rock avalanche"
]
|
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"plaintext": "William I (Willem Frederik, Prince of Orange-Nassau; 24 August 1772 – 12 December 1843) was a Prince of Orange, the King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg.",
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"plaintext": "He was the son of the last Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, who went into exile to London in 1795 because of the Batavian Revolution. As compensation for the loss of all his father's possessions in the Low Countries, an agreement was concluded between France and Prussia in which William was appointed ruler of the newly created Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda in 1803; this was however short-lived and in 1806 he was deposed by Napoleon. With the death of his father in 1806, he became Prince of Orange and ruler of the Principality of Orange-Nassau, which he also lost the same year after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and subsequent creation of the Confederation of the Rhine at the behest of Napoleon. In 1813, when Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig, the Orange-Nassau territories were returned to William and he was asked as well to become the Sovereign Prince of the United Netherlands. He proclaimed himself King of the Netherlands on 16 March 1815. In that year, William I concluded a treaty with King Frederick William III in which he ceded the Principality of Orange-Nassau to Prussia in exchange for becoming the new Grand Duke of Luxembourg. In 1839, he furthermore became the Duke of Limburg as a result of the Treaty of London. After his abdication in 1840, he styled himself King William Frederick, Count of Nassau.",
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"plaintext": "As eldest son of the William V, Prince of Orange, William was informally referred to as Erfprins (Hereditary Prince) by contemporaries from his birth until the death of his father in 1806 to distinguish him from William V.",
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"plaintext": "Like his younger brother Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau he was tutored by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Dutch historian Herman Tollius. They were both tutored in the military arts by general Prince Frederick Stamford. After the Patriot revolt had been suppressed in 1787, he in 1788–89 attended the military academy in Brunswick which was considered an excellent military school, together with his brother. In 1790 he visited a number of foreign courts like the one in Nassau and the Prussian capital Berlin, where he first met his future wife.",
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"plaintext": "After the National Convention of the French First Republic had declared war on the stadtholder of the Dutch Republic in February 1793, William was appointed commander-in-chief of the veldleger (mobile army) of the States Army (his father remained the nominal head of the armed forces). As such he commanded the troops that took part in the Flanders Campaign of 1793–95. He took part in the battles of Veurne, Menin, and Wervik (where his brother was wounded) in 1793, the siege of Landrecies (1794), whose fortress surrendered to him, and the Battle of Fleurus (1794), to name the most important. In May 1794 he had replaced general Kaunitz as commander of the combined Austro-Dutch forces on the instigation of Emperor Francis II who apparently had a high opinion of him. But the French armies proved too strong, and the allied leadership too inept, and the allies were defeated. The French first entered Dutch Brabant which they dominated after the Battle of Boxtel. When in the winter of 1794–95 the rivers in the Rhine delta froze over, the French breached the southern Hollandic Water Line and the situation became militarily untenable. In many places Dutch revolutionaries took over the local government. After the Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam on 18 January 1795 the stadtholder decided to flee to Britain, and his sons accompanied him. (On this last day in Holland his father relieved William honorably of his commands). The next day the Batavian Republic was proclaimed.",
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"plaintext": "Soon after the departure to Britain the Hereditary Prince went back to the Continent, where his brother was assembling former members of the States Army in Osnabrück for a planned invasion into the Batavian Republic in the Summer of 1795. However, the neutral Prussian government forbade this.",
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"plaintext": "In 1799, William landed in the current North Holland as part of an Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. The Hereditary Prince was instrumental in fomenting a mutiny on the Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter, resulting in the surrender of the ships without a fight to the Royal Navy, which accepted the surrender in the name of the stadtholder. Not all the local Dutch population, however, was pleased with the arrival of the prince. One local Orangist was even executed. The hoped-for popular uprising failed to materialise. After several minor battles the Hereditary Prince was forced to leave the country again after the Convention of Alkmaar. The mutineers of the Batavian fleet, with their ships, and a large number of deserters from the Batavian army accompanied the retreating British troops to Britain. There William formed the King's Dutch Brigade with these troops, a military unit in British service, that swore oaths of allegiance to the British King, but also to the States General, defunct since 1795, \"whenever those would be reconstituted.\" This brigade trained on the Isle of Wight in 1800 and was eventually used by the British in Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "When peace was concluded between Great Britain and the French Republic under First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte the Orange exiles were at their nadir. The Dutch Brigade was dissolved on 12 July 1802. Many members of the brigade went home to the Batavian Republic, thanks to an amnesty. The surrendered ships of the Batavian navy were not returned, due to an agreement between the stadtholder and the British government of 11 March 1800. Instead the stadtholder was allowed to sell them to the Royal Navy for an appreciable sum.",
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"plaintext": "The stadtholder, feeling betrayed by the British, left for Germany. The Hereditary Prince, having a more flexible mind, went to visit Napoleon at St. Cloud in 1802. He apparently charmed the First Consul, and was charmed by him. Napoleon raised hopes for William that he might have an important role in a reformed Batavian Republic. Meanwhile, William's brother-in-law Frederick William III of Prussia, neutral at the time, promoted a Franco-Prussian convention of 23 May 1802, in addition to the Treaty of Amiens, that gave the House of Orange a few abbatial domains in Germany, that were combined to the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda by way of indemnification for its losses in the Batavian Republic. The stadtholder gave this principality immediately to his son.",
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"plaintext": "When Napoleon invaded Germany in 1806 and war broke out between the French Empire and Prussia, William supported his Prussian relatives, though he was nominally a French vassal. He received command of a Prussian division which took part in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt. The Prussians lost that battle and William was forced to surrender his troops rather ignominiously at Erfurt the day after the battle. He was made a prisoner of war, but was paroled soon. Napoleon punished him for his betrayal, however, by taking away his principality. As a parolee, William was not allowed to take part in the hostilities anymore. After the Peace of Tilsit William received a pension from France in compensation.",
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"plaintext": "In the same year, 1806, his father, the Prince of Orange died, and William not only inherited the title, but also his father's claims on the inheritance embodied in the Nassau lands. This would become important a few years later, when developments in Germany coincided to make William the Fürst (Prince) of a diverse assembly of Nassau lands that had belonged to other branches of the House of Nassau.",
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"plaintext": "But before this came about, in 1809 tensions between Austria and France became intense. William did not hesitate to join the Austrian army as a Feldmarschalleutnant (major-general) in May 1809 As a member of the staff of the Austrian supreme commander, Archduke Charles he took part in the Battle of Wagram, where he was wounded in the leg.",
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"plaintext": "Tsar Alexander I of Russia played a central role in the restoration of the Netherlands. Prince William VI (as he was now known), who had been living in exile in Prussia, met with Alexander I in March 1813. Alexander promised to support William and help restore an independent Netherlands with William as king. Russian troops in the Netherlands participated with their Prussian allies in restoring the dynasty. Dynastic considerations of marriage between the royal houses of Great Britain and the Netherlands, assured British approval.",
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"plaintext": "After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig (October 1813), the French troops retreated to France from all over Europe. The Netherlands had been annexed to the French Empire by Napoleon in 1810. But now city after city was evacuated by the French occupation troops. In the ensuing power vacuum a number of former Orangist politicians and former Patriots formed a provisional government in November 1813. Although a large number of the members of the provisional government had helped drive out William V 18 years earlier, it was taken for granted that his son would have to head any new government. They also agreed it would be better in the long term for the Dutch to restore him themselves, rather than have the Great Powers impose him on the country. The Dutch population were pleased with the departure of the French, who had ruined the Dutch economy, and this time welcomed the prince.",
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"plaintext": "After having been invited by the Triumvirate of 1813, on 30 November 1813 William disembarked from and landed at Scheveningen beach, only a few yards from the place where he had left the country with his father 18 years before, and on 6 December the provisional government offered him the title of King. William refused, instead proclaiming himself \"Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands\". He also wanted the rights of the people to be guaranteed by \"a wise constitution\".",
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"plaintext": "The constitution offered William extensive (almost absolute) powers. Ministers were only responsible to him, while a unicameral parliament (the States General) exercised only limited power. He was inaugurated as sovereign prince in the New Church in Amsterdam on 30 March 1814. In August 1814, he was appointed Governor-General of the former Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège (more or less modern-day Belgium) by the Allied Powers who occupied that country, ruling them on behalf of Prussia. He was also made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, having received that territory in return for trading his hereditary German lands to Prussia and the Duke of Nassau. The Great Powers had already agreed via the secret Eight Articles of London to unite the Low Countries into a single kingdom. It was believed that a united country on the North Sea would help keep France in check. With the de facto addition of the Austrian Netherlands and Luxembourg to his realm, William had fulfilled his family's three-century dream of uniting the Low Countries.",
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"plaintext": "Feeling threatened by Napoleon, who had escaped from Elba, William proclaimed the Netherlands a kingdom on 16 March 1815 at the urging of the powers gathered at the Congress of Vienna. His son, the future king William II, fought as a commander at the Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon had been sent into exile, William adopted a new constitution which included many features of the old constitution, such as extensive royal powers. He was formally confirmed as hereditary ruler of what was known as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the Congress of Vienna.",
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"plaintext": "The States General was divided into two chambers. The Eerste Kamer (First Chamber or Senate or House of Lords) was appointed by the King. The Tweede Kamer (Second Chamber or House of Representatives or House of Commons) was elected by the Provincial States, which were in turn chosen by census suffrage. The 110 seats were divided equally between the North and the South, although the population of the North (2 million) was significantly less than that of the South (3.5 million). The States General's primary function was to approve the King's laws and decrees. The constitution contained many present-day Dutch political institutions; however, their functions and composition have changed greatly over the years.",
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"plaintext": "The constitution was accepted in the North, but not in the South. The under-representation of the South was one of the causes of the Belgian Revolution. Referendum turnout was low, in the Southern provinces, but William interpreted all abstentions to be yes votes. He prepared a lavish inauguration for himself in Brussels, where he gave the people copper coins (leading to his first nickname, the Copper King).",
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"plaintext": "The spearhead of King William's policies was economic progress. As he founded many trade institutions, his second nickname was the King-Merchant. In 1822, he founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter Begunstiging van de Volksvlijt, which would become one of the most important institutions of Belgium after its independence. Industry flourished, especially in the South. In 1817, he also founded three universities in the Southern provinces, such as a new University of Leuven, the University of Ghent and the University of Liège. The Northern provinces, meanwhile, were the centre of trade. This, in combination with the colonies (Dutch East Indies, Surinam, Curaçao and Dependencies, and the Dutch Gold Coast) created great wealth for the Kingdom. However, the money flowed into the hands of Dutch directors. Only a few Belgians managed to profit from the economic growth. Feelings of economic inequity were another cause of the Belgian uprising.",
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"plaintext": "William was also determined to create a unified people, even though the north and the south had drifted far apart culturally and economically since the south was reconquered by Spain after the Act of Abjuration of 1581. The North was commercial, Protestant and entirely Dutch-speaking; the south was industrial, Roman Catholic and divided between Dutch and French-speakers.",
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"plaintext": "Officially, a separation of church and state existed in the kingdom. However, William himself was a strong supporter of the Reformed Church. This led to resentment among the people in the mostly Catholic south. William had also devised controversial language and school policies. Dutch was imposed as the official language in (the Dutch-speaking region of) Flanders; this angered French-speaking aristocrats and industrial workers. Schools throughout the Kingdom were required to instruct students in the Reformed faith and the Dutch language. Many in the South feared that the King sought to extinguish Catholicism and the French language.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1830 Daniel Auber's opera La muette de Portici, about the repression of Neapolitans, was staged in Brussels. Performances of this show seemed to crystallize a sense of nationalism and \"Hollandophobia\" in Brussels, and spread to the rest of the South. Rioting ensued, chiefly aimed at the kingdom's unpopular justice minister, Cornelis Felix van Maanen, who lived in Brussels. An infuriated William responded by sending troops to repress the riots. However, the riots had spread to other Southern cities. The riots quickly became popular uprisings. An independent state of Belgium emerged out of the 1830 Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "The next year, William sent his sons William, the Prince of Orange, and Prince Frederick to invade the new state. Although initially victorious in this Ten Days' Campaign, the Dutch army was forced to retreat after the threat of French intervention. Some support for the Orange dynasty (chiefly among Flemings) persisted for years but the Dutch never regained control over Belgium. William nevertheless continued the war for eight years. His economic successes became overshadowed by a perceived mismanagement of the war effort. High costs of the war came to burden the Dutch economy, fueling public resentment. In 1839, William was forced to end the war. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was dissolved by the Treaty of London (1839) and the northern part continued as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was not renamed, however, as the \"United\"-prefix had never been part of its official name, but rather was retrospectively added by historians for descriptive purposes (cf. Weimar Republic).",
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"plaintext": "Constitutional changes were initiated in 1840 because the terms which involved the United Kingdom of the Netherlands had to be removed. These constitutional changes also included the introduction of judicial ministerial responsibility. Although the policies remained uncontrolled by parliament, the prerogative was controllable now. The very conservative William could not live with these constitutional changes. This, the disappointment about the loss of Belgium, and his intention to marry Henrietta d'Oultremont (paradoxically both \"Belgian\" and Roman Catholic) made him wish to abdicate. He fulfilled this intent on 7 October 1840 and his eldest son acceded to the throne as king William II. William I died in 1843 in Berlin at the age of 71.",
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"plaintext": "With his wife Wilhelmina, King William I had six children:",
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"plaintext": "Willem Frederik George Lodewijk (b. The Hague, 6 December 1792 – d. Tilburg, 17 March 1849) later King William II of the Netherlands from 1840. Married Russian Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna.",
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"plaintext": "Stillborn son (Hampton Court, Palace, Middlesex, 18 August 1795).",
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"plaintext": "Willem Frederik Karel (b. Berlin, 28 February 1797 – d. Wassenaar, 8 September 1881), married on 21 May 1825 his first cousin Louise, daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia.",
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"plaintext": "Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Pauline Charlotte (b. Berlin, 1 March 1800 – d. Freienwalde, 22 December 1806).",
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"plaintext": "Stillborn son (Berlin, 30 August 1806).",
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"plaintext": "Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Charlotte Marianne (b. Berlin, 9 May 1810 – d. Schloss Reinhartshausen bei Erbach, 29 May 1883), married on 14 September 1830 with Prince Albert of Prussia. They divorced in 1849.",
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"plaintext": " :",
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"plaintext": " Founder and Grand Master of the Military Order of William, 30 April 1815",
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"plaintext": " Founder and Grand Master of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, 29 September 1815",
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"plaintext": " Sweden: Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, 14 April 1813",
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"plaintext": " : 876th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 5 July 1814",
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"plaintext": " 648th Knight of the Order of the Garter, 10 August 1814",
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"plaintext": " Honorary Knight of the Order of the Bath, 16 August 1814; Grand Cross (military), 2 January 1815",
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"plaintext": " Prussia: Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 8 February 1787",
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"plaintext": " Portugal: Grand Cross of the Sash of the Three Orders, October 1825",
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"plaintext": " : Grand Cross of the Order of St. Stephen, 1837",
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"plaintext": " : Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon, 20 November 1839",
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"plaintext": " Caraway, David Todd. \"Retreat from Liberalism: William I, Freedom of the Press, Political Asylum, and the Foreign Relations of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, 1814-1818\" PhD dissertation, U. of Delaware, 2003, 341pp. Abstract: Dissertation Abstracts International 2003, Vol. 64 Issue 3, p1030-1030",
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"plaintext": " Kossmann, E. H. The Low Countries 1780–1940 (1978) ch 3-4",
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"plaintext": " Willem I, Koning (1772-1843) at the Dutch Royal House website",
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| 2,079,957 | 13,697 | 648 | 167 | 0 | 0 | William I of the Netherlands | King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg 1815–1840 | [
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|
37,219 | 968,676,362 | Billung | [
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"plaintext": "The first known member of the house was Count Wichmann, mentioned as a Billung in 811. Oda, the wife of Count Liudolf, oldest known member of the Liudolfing House, was also a Billung as was Matilda of Ringelheim. ",
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"plaintext": "In the 10th century, the property of the family was centered in the Bardengau around Lüneburg and they controlled the march named after them. In the middle of the 10th century, when the Saxon dukes of the House of Liudolfing had also become German kings, King Otto the Great entrusted more and more of his ducal authority to Hermann Billung. For five generations, the House of Billung ruled the Duchy of Saxony. ",
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"plaintext": "The house submerged into the Welf and Ascania dynasties when Duke Magnus died in 1106 without sons; the family's property was divided between his two daughters. His daughter Wulfhilde married Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria, a member of the House of Welf; his daughter Eilika married Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, a member of the House of Ascania. As a consequence, for the following decades control of Saxony was contested between the Welfs and Ascanians.",
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"plaintext": " Hermann, died 973",
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37,220 | 1,107,908,745 | Infection | [
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"plaintext": "Infections can be caused by a wide range of pathogens, most prominently bacteria and viruses. Hosts can fight infections using their immune system. Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response.",
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"plaintext": "Specific medications used to treat infections include antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, antiprotozoals, and antihelminthics. Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of medicine that focuses on infections is referred to as infectious disease.",
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"plaintext": " Bacteria (e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Clostridium botulinum, and Salmonella spp.)",
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"plaintext": " Viruses and related agents such as viroids. (E.g. HIV, Rhinovirus, Lyssaviruses such as Rabies virus, Ebolavirus and Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2)",
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"plaintext": " Fungi, further subclassified into:",
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"plaintext": " Ascomycota, including yeasts such as Candida (the most common fungal infection); filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus; Pneumocystis species; and dermatophytes, a group of organisms causing infection of skin and other superficial structures in humans.",
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"plaintext": " Basidiomycota, including the human-pathogenic genus Cryptococcus.",
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"plaintext": " Parasites, which are usually divided into:",
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"plaintext": " Unicellular organisms (e.g. malaria, Toxoplasma, Babesia)",
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"plaintext": " Macroparasites (worms or helminths) including nematodes such as parasitic roundworms and pinworms, tapeworms (cestodes), and flukes (trematodes, such as schistosomes). Diseases caused by helminths are sometimes termed infestations, but are sometimes called infections.",
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"plaintext": " Arthropods such as ticks, mites, fleas, and lice, can also cause human disease, which conceptually are similar to infections, but invasion of a human or animal body by these macroparasites is usually termed infestation.",
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"plaintext": " Prions (although they do not secrete toxins)",
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"plaintext": "The signs and symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes, coughing, or a runny nose.",
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"plaintext": "In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a \"disease\" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.",
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"plaintext": "As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by antibiotics whereas bacterial infections can.",
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"plaintext": "There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the chain of infection. The chain of events involves several stepswhich include the infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place.",
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"plaintext": "Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.",
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"plaintext": "Wound colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter are the various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing.",
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"plaintext": "The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include:",
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"plaintext": " the route of entry of the pathogen and the access to host regions that it gains",
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"plaintext": " the intrinsic virulence of the particular organism",
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"plaintext": "As an example, several staphylococcal species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum, multiply without resistance and cause harm.",
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"plaintext": "An interesting fact that gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, 16S ribosomal RNA analysis, omics, and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly sterile. Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's \"Rational Clinical Examination Series\" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11–20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88).",
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"plaintext": "Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.",
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"plaintext": "Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.",
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"plaintext": "Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries.",
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"plaintext": "For infecting organisms to survive and repeat the infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes:",
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"plaintext": " Droplet contact, also known as the respiratory route, and the resultant infection can be termed airborne disease. If an infected person coughs or sneezes on another person the microorganisms, suspended in warm, moist droplets, may enter the body through the nose, mouth or eye surfaces.",
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"plaintext": " Fecal-oral transmission, wherein foodstuffs or water become contaminated (by people not washing their hands before preparing food, or untreated sewage being released into a drinking water supply) and the people who eat and drink them become infected. Common fecal-oral transmitted pathogens include Vibrio cholerae, Giardia species, rotaviruses, Entameba histolytica, Escherichia coli, and tape worms. Most of these pathogens cause gastroenteritis.",
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"plaintext": " Sexual transmission, with the resulting disease being called sexually transmitted disease",
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"plaintext": " Oral transmission, diseases that are transmitted primarily by oral means may be caught through direct oral contact such as kissing, or by indirect contact such as by sharing a drinking glass or a cigarette.",
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"plaintext": " Transmission by direct contact, Some diseases that are transmissible by direct contact include athlete's foot, impetigo and warts.",
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"plaintext": " Vehicle transmission, transmission by an inanimate reservoir (food, water, soil)",
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"plaintext": " Vertical transmission, directly from the mother to an embryo, fetus or baby during pregnancy or childbirth. It can occur as a result of a pre-existing infection or one acquired during pregnancy.",
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"plaintext": " Iatrogenic transmission, due to medical procedures such as injection or transplantation of infected material.",
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"plaintext": " Vector-borne transmission, transmitted by a vector, which is an organism that does not cause disease itself but that transmits infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another.",
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"plaintext": "The relationship between virulence versus transmissibility is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two. There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests a link between virulence and transmissibility.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.",
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"plaintext": "Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by a prion.",
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"plaintext": "The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called pathognomonic signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.",
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"plaintext": "In children the presence of cyanosis, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a petechial rash increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40°C.",
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"plaintext": "Many diagnostic approaches depend on microbiological culture to isolate a pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a \"lawn\". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses: the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a \"plaque\". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.",
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"plaintext": "In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi, an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut.",
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"plaintext": "Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.",
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"plaintext": "Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Bacillota and Actinomycetota, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia.",
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"plaintext": "Biochemical tests used in the identification of infectious agents include the detection of metabolic or enzymatic products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment carbohydrates in patterns characteristic of their genus and species, the detection of fermentation products is commonly used in bacterial identification. Acids, alcohols and gases are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in selective liquid or solid media.",
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"plaintext": "The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function.",
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"plaintext": "Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, \"Strep throat\" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the \"strep test\", they can be inexpensive.",
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"plaintext": "Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as immunoassays. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus.",
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"plaintext": "Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated process for diagnosis of infectious disease.",
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"plaintext": "Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of encephalitis, a severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed, despite extensive testing using the standard of care (microbiological culture) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. Metagenomic sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used rather than primers for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by next-generation sequencing or third-generation sequencing, alignment comparisons, and taxonomic classification using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal reference genomes. Simultaneously, antimicrobial resistance genes within pathogen and plasmid genomes are sequenced and aligned to the taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to antibiotic sensitivity testing – to facilitate antimicrobial stewardship and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection.",
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"plaintext": "Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is immunocompromised. An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally, the expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable.",
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"plaintext": "There is usually an indication for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large.",
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"plaintext": "Symptomatic infections are apparent and clinical, whereas an infection that is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called inapparent, silent, subclinical, or occult. An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a latent infection. An example of a latent bacterial infection is latent tuberculosis. Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of latent viral infections are any of those from the Herpesviridae family.",
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"plaintext": "The word infection can denote any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a sense implying a clinically apparent infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some ambiguity or prompts some usage discussion; to get around this it is common for health professionals to speak of Colonization (rather than infection) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present.",
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"plaintext": "Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an acute infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In chronic infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve. In subacute infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A focal infection is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel via the bloodstream to another area of the body.",
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"plaintext": "Among the many varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens.",
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"plaintext": "Primary pathogens cause disease as a result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic virulence (the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts.",
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"plaintext": "Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in a host with depressed resistance (immunodeficiency) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via trauma). Opportunistic infection may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as pathogenic bacteria or fungi in the gastrointestinal or the upper respiratory tract, and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in Clostridium difficile colitis) or from the environment as a result of traumatic introduction (as in surgical wound infections or compound fractures). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of genetic defects (such as chronic granulomatous disease), exposure to antimicrobial drugs or immunosuppressive chemicals (as might occur following poisoning or cancer chemotherapy), exposure to ionizing radiation, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with measles, malaria or HIV disease). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host.",
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"plaintext": "While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the root cause of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection is a sequela or complication of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a burn or penetrating trauma (the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or injury was the predisposing factor).",
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"plaintext": "Other types of infection consist of mixed, iatrogenic, nosocomial, and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is appendicitis, which is caused by Bacteroides fragilis and Escherichia coli. The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during a hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community.",
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"plaintext": "One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which require that first, the infectious agent be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract the infectious agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis.",
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"plaintext": "However, Koch's postulates cannot usually be tested in modern practice for ethical reasons. Proving them would require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Conversely, even clearly infectious diseases do not always meet the infectious criteria; for example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro – however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture.",
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"plaintext": "Epidemiology, or the study and analysis of who, why and where disease occurs, and what determines whether various populations have a disease, is another important tool used to understand infectious disease. Epidemiologists may determine differences among groups within a population, such as whether certain age groups have a greater or lesser rate of infection; whether groups living in different neighborhoods are more likely to be infected; and by other factors, such as gender and race. Researchers also may assess whether a disease outbreak is sporadic, or just an occasional occurrence; endemic, with a steady level of regular cases occurring in a region; epidemic, with a fast arising, and unusually high number of cases in a region; or pandemic, which is a global epidemic. If the cause of the infectious disease is unknown, epidemiology can be used to assist with tracking down the sources of infection.",
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"plaintext": "Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious diseases when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious, transmissible, or communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as \"contagious\", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of those affected. However, this specialized connotation of the word \"contagious\" and \"contagious disease\" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.",
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"plaintext": "Infectious diseases are commonly transmitted from person to person through direct contact. The types of contact are through person to person and droplet spread. Indirect contact such as airborne transmission, contaminated objects, food and drinking water, animal person contact, animal reservoirs, insect bites, and environmental reservoirs are another way infectious diseases are transmitted.",
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"plaintext": "Infections can be classified by the anatomic location or organ system infected, including:",
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"plaintext": " Urinary tract infection",
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"plaintext": " Skin infection",
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"plaintext": " Respiratory tract infection",
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"plaintext": " Odontogenic infection (an infection that originates within a tooth or in the closely surrounding tissues)",
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"plaintext": " Vaginal infections",
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"plaintext": " Intra-amniotic infection",
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"plaintext": "In addition, locations of inflammation where infection is the most common cause include pneumonia, meningitis and salpingitis.",
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"plaintext": "Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. Aseptic technique was introduced in medicine and surgery in the late 19th century and greatly reduced the incidence of infections caused by surgery. Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, wearing gloves, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.",
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"plaintext": "Antimicrobial substances used to prevent transmission of infections include:",
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"plaintext": " antiseptics, which are applied to living tissue/skin",
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"plaintext": " disinfectants, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.",
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"plaintext": " antibiotics, called prophylactic when given as prevention rather as treatment of infection. However, long term use of antibiotics leads to resistance of bacteria. While humans do not become immune to antibiotics, the bacteria does. Thus, avoiding using antibiotics longer than necessary helps preventing bacteria from forming mutations that aide in antibiotic resistance.",
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"plaintext": "One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by those affected, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate those infected extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, those affected by this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.",
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"plaintext": "Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "A general method to prevent transmission of vector-borne pathogens is pest control.",
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"plaintext": "In cases where infection is merely suspected, individuals may be quarantined until the incubation period has passed and the disease manifests itself or the person remains healthy. Groups may undergo quarantine, or in the case of communities, a cordon sanitaire may be imposed to prevent infection from spreading beyond the community, or in the case of protective sequestration, into a community. Public health authorities may implement other forms of social distancing, such as school closings, to control an epidemic.",
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"plaintext": "Infection with most pathogens does not result in death of the host and the offending organism is ultimately cleared after the symptoms of the disease have waned. This process requires immune mechanisms to kill or inactivate the inoculum of the pathogen. Specific acquired immunity against infectious diseases may be mediated by antibodies and/or T lymphocytes. Immunity mediated by these two factors may be manifested by:",
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"plaintext": " a direct effect upon a pathogen, such as antibody-initiated complement-dependent bacteriolysis, opsonoization, phagocytosis and killing, as occurs for some bacteria,",
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"plaintext": " neutralization of viruses so that these organisms cannot enter cells,",
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"plaintext": " or by T lymphocytes, which will kill a cell parasitized by a microorganism.",
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"plaintext": "The immune system response to a microorganism often causes symptoms such as a high fever and inflammation, and has the potential to be more devastating than direct damage caused by a microbe.",
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"plaintext": "Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens.",
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"plaintext": "There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.",
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"plaintext": "Immune resistance to an infectious disease requires a critical level of either antigen-specific antibodies and/or T cells when the host encounters the pathogen. Some individuals develop natural serum antibodies to the surface polysaccharides of some agents although they have had little or no contact with the agent, these natural antibodies confer specific protection to adults and are passively transmitted to newborns.",
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"plaintext": "The organism that is the target of an infecting action of a specific infectious agent is called the host. The host harbouring an agent that is in a mature or sexually active stage phase is called the definitive host. The intermediate host comes in contact during the larvae stage. A host can be anything living and can attain to asexual and sexual reproduction.",
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"plaintext": "The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from Nature demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.",
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"plaintext": "When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (antibiotic; including antitubercular), antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically. Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is resistance to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include penicillin, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, macrolides, quinolones and tetracyclines.",
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"plaintext": "Not all infections require treatment, and for many self-limiting infections the treatment may cause more side-effects than benefits. Antimicrobial stewardship is the concept that healthcare providers should treat an infection with an antimicrobial that specifically works well for the target pathogen for the shortest amount of time and to only treat when there is a known or highly suspected pathogen that will respond to the medication.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, about 10 million people died of infectious diseases.",
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"plaintext": "The World Health Organization collects information on global deaths by International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories. The following table lists the top infectious disease by number of deaths in 2002. 1993 data is included for comparison.",
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"plaintext": "The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.",
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"plaintext": "With their potential for unpredictable and explosive impacts, infectious diseases have been major actors in human history. A pandemic (or global epidemic) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area. For example:",
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"plaintext": " Plague of Justinian, from 541 to 542, killed between 50% and 60% of Europe's population.",
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"plaintext": " The Black Death of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over 5 years. The plague reduced the old world population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": " The introduction of smallpox, measles, and typhus to the areas of Central and South America by European explorers during the 15th and 16th centuries caused pandemics among the native inhabitants. Between 1518 and 1568 disease pandemics are said to have caused the population of Mexico to fall from 20 million to 3 million.",
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"plaintext": " Smallpox killed an estimated 60 million Europeans during the 18th century (approximately 400,000 per year). Up to 30% of those infected, including 80% of the children under 5 years of age, died from the disease, and one-third of the survivors went blind.",
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"plaintext": " In the 19th century, tuberculosis killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe; by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB.",
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"plaintext": " The Influenza Pandemic of 1918 (or the Spanish flu) killed 25–50 million people (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion). Today Influenza kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.",
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"plaintext": "In most cases, microorganisms live in harmony with their hosts via mutual or commensal interactions. Diseases can emerge when existing parasites become pathogenic or when new pathogenic parasites enter a new host.",
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"plaintext": " Coevolution between parasite and host can lead to hosts becoming resistant to the parasites or the parasites may evolve greater virulence, leading to immunopathological disease.",
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"plaintext": " Human activity is involved with many emerging infectious diseases, such as environmental change enabling a parasite to occupy new niches. When that happens, a pathogen that had been confined to a remote habitat has a wider distribution and possibly a new host organism. Parasites jumping from nonhuman to human hosts are known as zoonoses. Under disease invasion, when a parasite invades a new host species, it may become pathogenic in the new host.",
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"plaintext": "Several human activities have led to the emergence of zoonotic human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of vector-borne diseases, see also globalization and disease and wildlife disease:",
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"plaintext": " Encroachment on wildlife habitats. The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas force animals to live in dense populations, creating opportunities for microbes to mutate and emerge.",
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"plaintext": " Changes in agriculture. The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases.",
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"plaintext": " The destruction of rain forests. As countries make use of their rain forests, by building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring previously unknown microorganisms.",
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"plaintext": " Uncontrolled urbanization. The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries tends to concentrate large numbers of people into crowded areas with poor sanitation. These conditions foster transmission of contagious diseases.",
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"plaintext": " Modern transport. Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended \"passengers\", that can spread diseases to faraway destinations. While with international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a disease can carry it to distant lands, or home to their families, before their first symptoms appear.",
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"plaintext": "In Antiquity, the Greek historian Thucydides ( – ) was the first person to write, in his account of the plague of Athens, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others. In his On the Different Types of Fever (), the Greco-Roman physician Galen speculated that plagues were spread by \"certain seeds of plague\", which were present in the air. In the Sushruta Samhita, the ancient Indian physician Sushruta theorized: \"Leprosy, fever, consumption, diseases of the eye, and other infectious diseases spread from one person to another by sexual union, physical contact, eating together, sleeping together, sitting together, and the use of same clothes, garlands and pastes.\" This book has been dated to about the sixth century BC.",
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"plaintext": "A basic form of contagion theory was proposed by Persian physician Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in Europe) in The Canon of Medicine (1025), which later became the most authoritative medical textbook in Europe up until the 16th century. In Book IV of the Canon, Ibn Sina discussed epidemics, outlining the classical miasma theory and attempting to blend it with his own early contagion theory. He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with tuberculosis, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt. The concept of invisible contagion was later discussed by several Islamic scholars in the Ayyubid Sultanate who referred to them as najasat (\"impure substances\"). The fiqh scholar Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari (–1336), while discussing Islamic diet and hygiene, gave warnings about how contagion can contaminate water, food, and garments, and could spread through the water supply, and may have implied contagion to be unseen particles.",
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"plaintext": "When the Black Death bubonic plague reached Al-Andalus in the 14th century, the Arab physicians Ibn Khatima () and Ibn al-Khatib (1313–1374) hypothesised that infectious diseases were caused by \"minute bodies\" and described how they can be transmitted through garments, vessels and earrings. Ideas of contagion became more popular in Europe during the Renaissance, particularly through the writing of the Italian physician Girolamo Fracastoro. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) advanced the science of microscopy by being the first to observe microorganisms, allowing for easy visualization of bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-19th century John Snow and William Budd did important work demonstrating the contagiousness of typhoid and cholera through contaminated water. Both are credited with decreasing epidemics of cholera in their towns by implementing measures to prevent contamination of water. Louis Pasteur proved beyond doubt that certain diseases are caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for rabies. Robert Koch, provided the study of infectious diseases with a scientific basis known as Koch's postulates. Edward Jenner, Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin developed effective vaccines for smallpox and polio, which would later result in the eradication and near-eradication of these diseases, respectively. Alexander Fleming discovered the world's first antibiotic, Penicillin, which Florey and Chain then developed. Gerhard Domagk developed sulphonamides, the first broad spectrum synthetic antibacterial drugs.",
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"plaintext": "The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists. For example, an \"uncomplicated\" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists.",
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"plaintext": "An infectious disease team may be alerted when:",
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"plaintext": " The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup",
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"plaintext": " The patient is immunocompromised (for example, in AIDS or after chemotherapy);",
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"plaintext": " The infectious agent is of an uncommon nature (e.g. tropical diseases);",
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"plaintext": " The disease has not responded to first line antibiotics;",
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"plaintext": " The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated",
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"plaintext": "Several studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygyny may also be due to a lower male: female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were affected by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another Herrerasaurus. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include Acrocanthosaurus, Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and a tyrannosaur from the Kirtland Formation. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen.",
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"plaintext": "A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.",
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"plaintext": " Bioinformatics Resource Centers for Infectious Diseases",
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},
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},
{
"plaintext": " Spatiotemporal Epidemiological Modeler (STEM)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Spillover infection",
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},
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"plaintext": " Threshold host density",
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37,221 | 1,107,035,038 | North_Coast_Athletic_Conference | [
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"plaintext": "In 2008, Pullman led a campaign against the introduction of age bands on the covers of children's books, saying: \"It's based on a one-dimensional view of growth, which regards growing older as moving along a line like a monkey climbing a stick: now you're seven, so you read these books; and now you're nine so you read these.\" More than 1,200 authors, booksellers, illustrators, librarians and teachers joined the campaign; Pullman's own publisher, Scholastic, agreed to his request not to put the age bands on his book covers. Joel Rickett, deputy editor of The Bookseller, said: \"The steps taken by Mr Pullman and other authors have taken the industry by surprise and I think these proposals are now in the balance.\"",
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"plaintext": "In July 2011, Pullman was one of the lead campaigners signing a declaration that called for a 1,000-strong \"public jury\", selected at random, to draw up a \"public interest first\" test to ensure that power was taken away from \"remote interest groups\". The declaration was also signed by 56 academics, writers, trade unionists and politicians from the Labour Party, the Liberal Democrats and the Green Party.",
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"plaintext": "In advance of becoming president of the Society of Authors in August 2013, Pullman led a call for authors to be fairly paid for ebook library loans. Under arrangements in force at the time, authors were paid 6p per library loan by the government for physical books, but nothing for ebook loans. In addition, the Society found that publishers had possibly been inadvertently underpaying authors for ebook loans. Altogether, this may have resulted in authors losing up to two-thirds of the income they would have received on the sale and loan of a physical book. Addressing this issue, Pullman said: New media and new forms of buying and lending are all very interesting, for all kinds of reasons, but one principle remains unchanged: authors must be paid fairly for their work. Any arrangement that doesn't acknowledge that principle is a bad one, and needs to be changed. That is our whole argument.",
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"plaintext": "As a long-time enthusiast of William Blake, and president of the Blake Society, Pullman led a campaign in 2014 to buy the Sussex cottage where the poet lived between 1800 and 1803, saying: Surely it isn't beyond the resources of a nation that can spend enormous amounts of money on acts of folly and unnecessary warfare, a nation that likes to boast about its literary heritage, to find the money to pay for a proper memorial and a centre for the study of this great poet and artist. Not least because this is the place where he wrote the words now often sung as an alternative (and better) national anthem, the poem known as Jerusalem: \"And did those feet in ancient time\". Blake's feet walked in Felpham. Let's not let this opportunity pass by.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2016, Pullman resigned as patron of the Oxford Literary Festival after five years, saying that its continued refusal to pay authors fees for appearing as guest speakers at the event placed him in an \"awkward position\" because it conflicted with his presidency of the Society of Authors, which campaigns for authors to be paid for appearing at book festivals. He made the announcement on Twitter, saying that he had made lengthy attempts to persuade the Festival to pay authors, \"but they won't. Time to go\". Reporting Pullman's decision, UK daily newspaper The Independent noted: \"The Authors' Licensing and Collecting Society found in 2014 that the average earnings of a professional full-time author is just £11,000.\"",
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"plaintext": "Alan Jacobs (of Wheaton College) said that in His Dark Materials Pullman replaced the theist world-view of John Milton's Paradise Lost with a Rousseauist one. The books in the series have been criticised for their attitude to religion, especially Catholicism, by the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights and Focus on the Family.",
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"plaintext": "Writing in the Catholic Herald in 1999, Leonie Caldecott cited Pullman's work as an example of fiction \"far more worthy of the bonfire than Harry [Potter]\" on the grounds that \"[by] co-opting Catholic terminology and playing with Judaeo-Christian theological concepts, Pullman is effectively removing, among a mass audience of a highly impressionable age, some of the building blocks for future evangelisation\". Pullman was flattered and asked his publisher to include quotes from Caldecott's article in his next book. In 2002, the Catholic Herald published an article by Sarah Johnson that compared Pullman to a \"playground bully\" whose work \"attacks a religious minority\". The following year, after Benedict Allen's reference to the criticism during the BBC TV series The Big Read, the Catholic Herald republished both articles and Caldecott claimed her \"bonfire\" comment was a joke and accused Pullman and his supporters of quoting her out of context. In a longer article for Touchstone magazine earlier in 2003, Caldecott had also described Pullman's work as \"axe-grinding\" and \"a kind of Luciferian enterprise\".",
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"plaintext": "In a 2017 interview with The Times Magazine, Pullman said: \"The place religion has in our lives is a permanent one.\" He concluded that there was \"no point in condemning [religion]\", and mused that it is part of the human mind to ask philosophical questions such as the purpose of life. He reiterated that it was useless to \"become censorious about [religion], to say there is no God'. He also mentioned that his novel, The Book of Dust, is based on the \"extreme danger of putting power into the hands of those who believe in some absolute creed, whether that is Christianity or Islam or Marxism\".",
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"plaintext": " The Adventures of John Blake (2008), in The DFC and The Phoenix Mystery of the Ghost Ship storyline collected by David Fickling Books and in hardcover by Scholastic Inc.",
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"plaintext": " A TV mini-series, I Was a Rat, was produced by the BBC and aired in three one-hour instalments in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "All humans in Lyra's world, including witches, have a dæmon. It is the physical manifestation of a person's 'inner being', soul or spirit. It takes the form of a creature (moth, bird, dog, monkey, snake, etc.) and is usually the opposite sex to its human counterpart. The dæmons of children have the ability to change form - from one creature to another - but towards the end of a child's puberty, their dæmon \"settles\" into a permanent form, which reflects the person's personality. When a person dies, the dæmon dies too. Armoured bears, cliff ghasts and other creatures do not have dæmons. An armoured bear's armour is his soul.",
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"plaintext": "Lyra Belacqua, a wild 12-year-old girl, has grown up in the fictional Jordan College, Oxford. She is skinny with dark blonde hair and blue eyes. She prides herself on her capacity for mischief, especially her ability to lie, earning her the epithet \"Silvertongue\" from Iorek Byrnison. Lyra has a natural ability to use the alethiometer, which is capable of answering any question when properly manipulated and read.",
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"plaintext": "Pantalaimon is Lyra's dæmon. Like all children's dæmons, he changes form from one creature to another frequently. When Lyra reaches puberty, he assumes the permanent form of a pine marten. Pantalaimon and Lyra follow her father, Lord Asriel, when he travels to the newly discovered world of Cittagazze, where Lyra meets Will.",
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"plaintext": "Will Parry, a sensible, morally conscious, assertive 12-year-old boy from our world. He becomes the bearer of the subtle knife. Will is independent and responsible for his age, having looked after his mentally ill mother for several years.",
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"plaintext": "Kirjava is Will's dæmon (named by Serafina Pekkala). She does not settle before the end of the story; but it is hinted that she will take the form of a cat.",
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"plaintext": "The Authority is the first angel to have emerged from Dust. He controls the Church, an oppressive religious institution. He told the later-arriving angels that he created them and the universe, but this is a lie. Although he is one of the two primary adversaries in the trilogy – Lord Asriel is his primary opponent – he remains in the background; he makes his only appearance late in The Amber Spyglass. The Authority has grown weak and transferred most of his powers to his regent, Metatron. He is extremely aged, fragile and naive.",
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"plaintext": "Lord Asriel, ostensibly Lyra's uncle, is later revealed to be her father. He opens a rift between the worlds in his pursuit of Dust. His dream of establishing a Republic of Heaven to rival the Authority's Kingdom leads him to use his power to raise a grand army from across the multiverse to rise up in rebellion against the forces of the Church.",
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"plaintext": "Marisa Coulter is the coldly beautiful, manipulative mother of Lyra and former lover of Lord Asriel. She serves the Church by kidnapping children for research into the nature of Dust, in the course of which she separates them from their dæmons - a procedure known as intercision. She has black hair, a slim build, and looks younger than she is. Initially hostile to Lyra, she realises that she loves her daughter and seeks to protect her from agents of the Church, who want to kill Lyra. Her dæmon is a golden monkey with a cruel streak.",
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"plaintext": "Metatron, Asriel's principal adversary, was a human, Enoch, in biblical times, but was later transfigured into an angel. The Authority has displayed his declining health by appointing Metatron his Regent. As Regent, Metatron has implanted the monotheistic religions across the universes. He becomes vulnerable to the seductive advances of Marisa Coulter, who betrays him by luring him into the underworld to his death. He is the series' main antagonist.",
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"plaintext": "Lord Carlo Boreal, or Sir Charles Latrom, CBE as he is known as in Will Parry's world, serves as a minor character in Northern Lights, but is a main antagonist in The Subtle Knife. He is an old Englishman, appearing to be in his sixties. He normally wears pale suits and is described as smelling sweetly. He is ultimately poisoned by Mrs Coulter, to whom he has previously been a lover.",
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"plaintext": "Mary Malone, is a physicist and former nun from Will's world. She meets Lyra during Lyra's first visit to Will's world. Lyra provides Mary with insight into the nature of Dust. Agents of the Church force Mary to flee to the world of the Mulefa. There she constructs the amber spyglass, which enables her to see the otherwise invisible Dust. Her purpose is to learn why Dust, which mulefa civilisation depends on, is flowing out of the universe. Mary relates a story of a lost love to Will and Lyra, and later packs for them a lunch containing \"little red fruits\", which her computer, \"the Cave,\" had instructed her to do.",
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"plaintext": "Iorek Byrnison is a massive armoured bear. An armoured bear's armour is his soul. Iorek's armour is stolen, so he becomes despondent. With Lyra's help he regains his armour, his dignity, and his kingship over the armoured bears. In gratitude, and impressed by her cunning, he dubs her \"Lyra Silvertongue\". A powerful warrior and armoursmith, Iorek repairs the Subtle Knife when it shatters. He later goes to war against The Authority and Metatron.",
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"plaintext": "Lee Scoresby, a rangy Texan, is a balloonist. He helps Lyra in an early quest to reach Asriel's residence in the North, and he later helps John Parry reunite with his son Will.",
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"plaintext": "Serafina Pekkala is the beautiful queen of a clan of Northern witches. Her snow-goose dæmon Kaisa, like all witches' dæmons, can travel much farther apart from her than the dæmons of humans, without feeling the pain of separation.",
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"plaintext": "The Master of Jordan heads Jordan College, part of Oxford University in Lyra's world. Helped by other Jordan College employees, he is raising the supposedly orphaned Lyra. Faced with difficult choices that only later become apparent, he tries unsuccessfully to poison Lord Asriel.",
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"plaintext": "Roger Parslow is the kitchen boy at Jordan College and Lyra's best friend.",
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"plaintext": "John Parry is Will's father. He is an explorer from our world who discovered a portal to Lyra's world and became the shaman known as Stanislaus Grumman or Jopari, a corruption of his original name.",
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"plaintext": "The Four Gallivespians—Lord Roke, Madame Oxentiel, Chevalier Tialys and Lady Salmakia—are tiny people (a hand-span tall) with poisonous heel spurs.",
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"plaintext": "Ma Costa: A Gyptian woman whose son, Billy Costa is abducted by the \"Gobblers\". She rescues Lyra from Mrs Coulter and takes her to John Faa. We later discover that Ma Costa nursed Lyra when she was a baby.",
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"plaintext": "John Faa: The King of all the Gyptians. He journeys with Lyra to the North with his companion Farder Coram. Faa and Costa rescue Lyra when she runs away from Mrs Coulter. Then they take her to Iorek Byrnison.",
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"plaintext": "Father Gomez is a priest sent by the Church to assassinate Lyra. ",
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"plaintext": "Fra Pavel Rašek is a representative and alethiometrist of the Consistorial Court of Discipline. He is said to be a sluggish reader of the device, his dæmon is a frog.",
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"plaintext": "Balthamos is a rebel angel who, with his lover Baruch, join in Will's journey to find the captured Lyra. Near the end of the story, he saves their lives by killing Father Gomez, Balthamos then calls out Baruch's name and dies.",
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"plaintext": "Tony Makarios is a naive boy who is lured into captivity by Mrs Coulter.",
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"plaintext": "Mulefa are four-legged wheeled animals; they have one leg in front, one in back, and one on each side. The \"wheels\" are huge, round, hard seed-pods from seed-pod trees; an axle-like claw at the end of each leg grips a seed-pod. The Mulefa society is primitive.",
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"plaintext": "One distinctive aspect of Pullman's story is the presence of \"dæmons\" (pronounced \"demon\"). In the birth-universe of the story's protagonist Lyra Belacqua, a human individual's inner-self manifests itself throughout life as an animal-shaped \"dæmon\", that almost always stays near its human counterpart. During the childhood of its associated human, a dæmon can change its animal shape at will, but with the onset of adolescence it settles into a fixed, final animal form.",
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"plaintext": "Pullman has identified three major literary influences on His Dark Materials: the essay On the Marionette Theatre by Heinrich von Kleist, the works of William Blake, and, most important, John Milton's Paradise Lost, from which the trilogy derives its title. In his introduction, he adapts a famous description of Milton by Blake to quip that he (Pullman) \"is of the Devil's party and does know it\".",
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"plaintext": "Critics have compared the trilogy with The Chronicles of Narnia, by C. S. Lewis. Pullman however has characterised the Narnia series as \"blatantly racist\", \"monumentally disparaging of women\", \"immoral\", and \"evil\". The trilogy has also been compared with such fantasy books as Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson and A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L'Engle.",
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"plaintext": "The first volume, Northern Lights, won the Carnegie Medal for children's fiction in the UK in 1995. In 2007, the judges of the CILIP Carnegie Medal for children's literature selected it as one of the ten most important children's novels of the previous 70 years. In June 2007 it was voted, in an online poll, as the best Carnegie Medal winner in the seventy-year history of the award, the Carnegie of Carnegies. The Amber Spyglass won the 2001 Whitbread Book of the Year award, the first time that such an award has been bestowed on a book from their \"children's literature\" category.",
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"plaintext": "The trilogy came third in the 2003 BBC's Big Read, a national poll of viewers' favourite books, after The Lord of the Rings and Pride and Prejudice.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 May 2005, Pullman attended the British Library in London to receive formal congratulations for his work from culture secretary Tessa Jowell \"on behalf of the government\". On 25 May 2005, Pullman received the Swedish government's Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award for children's and youth literature (sharing it with Japanese illustrator Ryōji Arai). Swedes regard this prize as second only to the Nobel Prize in Literature; it has a value of 5 million Swedish Kronor or approximately £385,000. In 2008, The Observer cites Northern Lights as one of the 100 best novels. Time magazine in the US included Northern Lights (The Golden Compass) in its list of the 100 Best Young-Adult Books of All Time. In November 2019, the BBC listed His Dark Materials on its list of the 100 most influential novels.",
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"plaintext": "His Dark Materials has occasioned controversy, primarily among some Christian groups.",
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"plaintext": "Cynthia Grenier, in the Catholic Culture, said: \"In the world of Pullman, God Himself (the Authority) is a merciless tyrant. His Church is an instrument of oppression, and true heroism consists of overthrowing both\". William A. Donohue of the Catholic League has described Pullman's trilogy as \"atheism for kids\". Pullman said of Donohue's call for a boycott, \"Why don't we trust readers? [...] Oh, it causes me to shake my head with sorrow that such nitwits could be loose in the world\".",
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"plaintext": "In a November 2002 interview, Pullman was asked to respond to the Catholic Herald calling his books \"the stuff of nightmares\" and \"worthy of the bonfire\". He replied: \"My response to that was to ask the publishers to print it in the next book, which they did! I think it's comical, it's just laughable\". The original remark in Catholic Herald (which was \"there are numerous candidates that seem to me to be far more worthy of the bonfire than Harry Potter\") was written in the context of parents in South Carolina pressing their Board of Education to ban the Harry Potter books.",
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"plaintext": "Pullman expressed surprise over what he considered to be a relatively low level of criticism for His Dark Materials on religious grounds, saying \"I've been surprised by how little criticism I've got. Harry Potter's been taking all the flak... Meanwhile, I've been flying under the radar, saying things that are far more subversive than anything poor old Harry has said. My books are about killing God\". Others support this interpretation, arguing that the series, while clearly anticlerical, is also anti-theological because the death of god is represented as a fundamentally unimportant question.",
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"plaintext": "Pullman found support from some other Christians, most notably from Rowan Williams, the former archbishop of Canterbury (spiritual head of the Anglican Communion), who argued that Pullman's attacks focus on the constraints and dangers of dogmatism and the use of religion to oppress, not on Christianity itself.",
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"plaintext": "Williams also recommended the His Dark Materials series of books for inclusion and discussion in Religious Education classes, and stated that \"To see large school-parties in the audience of the Pullman plays at the National Theatre is vastly encouraging\". Pullman and Williams took part in a National Theatre platform debate a few days later to discuss myth, religious experience and its representation in the arts.",
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"plaintext": "Pullman renames various common objects or ideas of our world with archaic terms or new words of his own. Below are some of these renamings and new words.",
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"plaintext": " Aërodock: Airport. Airships are the dominant form of air travel in Lyra's world, which need to dock at a tower rather than on the land.",
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"plaintext": " Æsahættr: (literally \"God-destroyer\" in Old Norse) The formal name of the \"Subtle Knife\"; also deemed the \"last knife of all\".",
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"plaintext": " Alethiometer: A \"truth teller\", a rare device in Lyra's world which resembles a four-handed pocket watch, it can truthfully answer any possible question asked by a skilled user. From aletheia (Ancient Greek: ἀλήθεια), meaning 'Truth' and \"métron\" (Ancient Greek: μέτρον), meaning \"measure\".",
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{
"plaintext": " Anbaric, and the prefix anbaro-: Electric or electrical. From anbar, Arabic for amber; the English word \"electric\" is based on the Greek ήλεκτρον (élektron), meaning \"amber\". Both words derive from the electrostatic properties of amber.",
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],
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81,
86
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236
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},
{
"plaintext": " Atomcraft: Research into particle physics, paralleling the German term Atomkraft.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Brantwijn: Brandywine, similar to the Dutch brandewijn.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Byanroping or roping: in the Gyptian dialect, a formal meeting of all Gyptian families to discuss important matters.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Cauchuc: Rubber and possibly also plastic, from the Quechuan word cauchuc or caoutchouc, meaning the sap of the rubber tree.",
"section_idx": 9,
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10,
16
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53,
61
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113,
124
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Celestial geography: Celestial navigation.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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22,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chapel: A scientific laboratory. All scientific enquiry derives from the church and so the language that describes it has religious overtones (a chapel is ordinarily a place of religious worship). ",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chaplain: The head of a scientific laboratory. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Chocolatl: Chocolate. Sometimes hot chocolate; other times \"a bar of chocolatl\" (a chocolate bar). From chocolatl, the Nahuatl word for chocolate.",
"section_idx": 9,
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127
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chthonic Railway Station: An underground railway station. \"Chthonic\" is from Greek χθόνιος (chthonios), meaning pertaining to the earth; earthy.",
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cloud-pine: A type of wood used by witches for flying (akin to broomsticks in other literature).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Coal-silk: A synthetic fibre made from coal, was invented as a substitute for natural silk, akin to Nylon.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coal spirit: Petroleum or other hydrocarbon fuels derived from it.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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14,
23
],
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33,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dæmon: The animal embodiment of a human's inner-life. It is pronounced 'demon'.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dust: Mysterious cosmic particles that are integral to the plot. Dust is invisible to the human eye, and, unlike ordinary particles, Dust is conscious.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
5
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},
{
"plaintext": " Experimental theology: Science, especially Physics.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Electrum: An occasionally used Latin word for amber; see \"anbaric\" above.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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47,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fire-mine: A geothermal vent in which the panserbjorne work in metallurgy; supposedly impenetrable to humans and witches.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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],
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74
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gyropter: A helicopter, both words could be translated as \"rotating wing\" (Greek gyros/helikos + pteron = circle/spiral + wing).",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marchpane: Marzipan, \"marchpane\" is an archaic word for \"marzipan\".",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
12,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Naphtha: Oil or petroleum (as in oil-lamp, rather than naphtha-lamp). A petrochemical like kerosene.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
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8
],
[
10,
13
],
[
17,
26
],
[
92,
100
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Night-ghast: restless spirits, they are reminiscent of the spirits which - in some mythologies - were thought to be the cause of nightmares.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oratory: A church building.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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12,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ordinator: A computer (from the same root as ordinateur (French) and ordenador (Spanish)).",
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"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Philosophical: Having to do with the study of the physical laws of the universe (i.e. what we would call physics). In our own world, science and physics grew out of - and were, until the 19th century usually referred to as - natural philosophy.",
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244
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Photogram: A photograph; more primitive than those in our world but able to be developed in various ways.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Poppy: Opium. In Lyra's world opium use is quite legal and respectable. Oxford dons traditionally take it with wine after dinner. ",
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"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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8,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Projecting lantern: A magic lantern used for photograms. (Pullman noted in Northern Lightss Lantern Slides addendum that he based the projector in the book on one his grandfather owned.)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shadow (capitalised): The name, in our universe, of Dust.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Smokeleaf: Tobacco",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
12,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " (Experimental) Theologian: A physicist. From \"Natural Theology\" meaning \"science\".",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
30,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tokay: A highly prized wine in Lyra's world, the name is an archaic, Anglicised form of tokaji (a wine of the Tokaj-Hegyalja region in Hungary)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Pullman also uses archaic or adapted names for otherwise familiar peoples, regions and places.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Unless stated otherwise, these words are all capitalised.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Beringland: Northwest America, specifically Alaska and the Yukon Territories of Canada. Named after the explorer who first set out in the region, Vitus Bering.",
"section_idx": 9,
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147,
159
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brytain: A phonetically identical re-spelling of Britain. It has echoes of \"Brython\", a word for ancient British people and the lands they inhabited.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": " byanplats (lowercase): in the Gyptian dialect, the prominent area of raised land in the Fens.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cathay: China, taken from the medieval European name for China.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Corea: A phonetically identical respelling of the country Korea (used both in Cittàgazze and Lyra's world). This is an old spelling, used prior to the current one, with a \"K\".",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Terminology",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eastern Anglia: East Anglia, the region where John Faa's gyptians live; in Lyra's Brytain it has remained fenland with the Dutch influence remaining strong.",
"section_idx": 9,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eireland: Ireland, as referred to in the Cittàgazze universe. A mixture of the Irish (Éire) and English name.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Fireland: Iceland, named in the Peril of the Pole game in Once Upon a Time in the North. This name refers to Iceland's volcanoes rather than to its glaciers.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gebraltarik: Gibraltar, from its Arabic name Jabal Tāriq.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " German Ocean: The North Sea",
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},
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"plaintext": " Groenland: Greenland",
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12,
21
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Gyptians: A boat-dwelling, transient social group in Lyra's world. They live according to their own customs and traditions, outside mainstream society. They are reminiscent of \"Gypsies\" (Roma). Our word \"Gypsy\" is derived from the (mistaken) belief that Gypsies were Egyptian in origin.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
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"plaintext": " Lake Enara: Lake Inari, a lake in Northern Finland. From Enare, the Swedish-language name for the lake.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Lapland: The region corresponding in our world to Swedish Lapland and Northern Norway.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Lascar: An East Indian. This is an archaic, English word for a sailor or militiaman from the Indian subcontinent or thereabouts.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Mejico: Mexico, from the Mexican pronunciation.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Muscovy and Muscovites: A reference to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Territory approximates to our Russia (see 'Russia' below).",
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},
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"plaintext": " New Denmark: A region occupied by the United States of America, west of New France. Lee Scoresby is described as a 'New Dane', specifically from the 'country of Texas' (see 'Texas' below).",
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"plaintext": " New France: Includes the regions (in our world) of Quebec, much of eastern Canada, and the areas bought by the United States in the Louisiana Purchase. In the 17th and 18th century, the area around the St-Lawrence River and much of the North American Interior was called New France. Lee Scoresby recalls the Battle of the Alamo, in his world, as being between French and Danish settlers.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nippon and Nipponese: Japan and the Japanese language and/or people. From Nippon (\"land of the rising sun\"), a Japanese-language name for Japan.",
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"plaintext": " (Great) North Ocean: The North Atlantic Ocean combined with the European region of the Arctic Ocean.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
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"plaintext": " Norroway: Norway.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Nova Zembla: Novaya Zemlya, a Russian archipelago in the Arctic",
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Panserbjørne (generally italicised and lowercase): Armoured bears (as a whole race or as individuals); a warrior clan of sapient, talking polar bears based on the islands of Svalbard, known for crafting powerful armour from meteoric iron. The word \"panserbjørne\" literally means \"armour-bears\" in Danish. The singular is panserbjørn.",
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150
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[
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183
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},
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"plaintext": " Peaceable Ocean: The Pacific Ocean, calqued from the Latin.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Roman: The Latin language.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Russia: Mentioned in shipping entries at the end of Once Upon a Time in the North, and includes Finnish territory of the Russian Empire. As Muscovy is also mentioned on the same book page, 'Russia' might be separate from Muscovy.",
"section_idx": 9,
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},
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"plaintext": " Skræling: An Inuit, particularly one from Greenland. Natives of Greenland were similarly named by the Viking settlers of our world.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Tartar: A Tatar; Nomadic Turkic, warrior people of northern Asia, known for practising unusual spiritual rituals, including trepanning.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Texas: The homeland of Lee Scoresby and a sovereign nation within the region called New Denmark. The Republic of Texas was briefly an independent nation in our own world.",
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},
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"plaintext": "The first of two short books, Lyra's Oxford takes place two years after the timeline of The Amber Spyglass. A witch who seeks revenge for her son's death in the war against the Authority draws Lyra, now 15, into a trap. Birds mysteriously rescue her and Pan, and she makes the acquaintance of an alchemist, formerly the witch's lover.",
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"plaintext": "This novella serves as a prequel to His Dark Materials and focuses on the Texan aeronaut Lee Scoresby as a young man. After winning his hot-air balloon, Scoresby heads to the North, landing on the Arctic island Novy Odense, where he is pulled into a conflict between the oil tycoon Larsen Manganese, the corrupt mayoral candidate Ivan Poliakov, and his longtime enemy from the Dakota Country, Pierre McConville. The story tells of Lee and Iorek's first meeting and of how they overcame these enemies.",
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"plaintext": "A short story originally released exclusively as an audiobook by Audible in December 2014, narrated by actor Bill Nighy. The story refers to the early life of Mrs Coulter and is set in the senior common room of an Oxford college.",
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"plaintext": "New Line Cinema released a film adaptation, titled The Golden Compass, on 7 December 2007. Directed by Chris Weitz, the production had a mixed reception, and though worldwide sales were strong, its U.S. earnings were not as high as the studio had hoped.",
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37,225 | 1,084,628,279 | La_Brabançonne | [
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37,229 | 1,064,597,606 | Jan_Kjærstad | [
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"plaintext": "With a string of ingenious novels Kjærstad is established as one of the leading and most original writers in contemporary Norwegian literature. His writing in the 1980s was postmodern works that put special emphasis on the importance of the information society. Kjærstad has often been called an encyclopedic writer. His main work, the trilogy about Jonas Wergeland, a fictive biography that tells three different versions about the protagonists life, combines several different genres.",
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"plaintext": " The Earth Turns Quietly (\"Kloden dreier stille rundt\", Short stories, 1980)",
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"plaintext": " Mirrors (\"Speil\", Novel, 1982)",
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"plaintext": " Homo Falsus or the Perfect Murder (\"Homo Falsus eller det perfekte mord\", Novel, 1984)",
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"plaintext": " The Great Fairy Tale (\"Det store eventyret\". Novel, 1987)",
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"plaintext": " The Matrix of Man (\"Menneskets matrise\", Essays, 1989)",
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"plaintext": " The Arabian Nights, vols 1 and 2 (\"Tusen og én natt\", Bind 1 og 2. Ed. 1989)",
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"plaintext": " The Hunt for the Hidden Waffle Hearts (\"Jakten på de skjulte vaffelhjertene\", Picture book, 1989)",
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"plaintext": " Brink (\"Rand\", Novel, 1990)",
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"plaintext": " With Sheherazade, Imagination's Queen (\"Hos Sheherasad, fantasiens dronning\", Picture book, 1995)",
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"plaintext": " I am the Walker brothers (\"Jeg er brødrene Walker\", Novel, 2008)",
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"plaintext": "1984 – Mads Wiel Nygaards Endowment (a prize awarded to promising authors in memory of Mads Wiel Nygaard by the publisher Aschehoug)",
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"plaintext": "2001 – Nordic Council's Literature Prize for Oppdageren",
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| 473,196 | 218 | 22 | 19 | 0 | 0 | Jan Kjærstad | Norwegian author | []
|
37,231 | 1,107,885,146 | 13_(number) | [
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"plaintext": "13 (thirteen) is the natural number following 12 and preceding 14.",
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"plaintext": "Strikingly folkloric aspects of the number 13 have been noted in various cultures around the world: one theory is that this is due to the cultures employing lunar-solar calendars (there are approximately 12.41 lunations per solar year, and hence 12 \"true months\" plus a smaller, and often portentous, thirteenth month). This can be witnessed, for example, in the \"Twelve Days of Christmas\" of Western European tradition.",
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"plaintext": "The number 13 is the sixth prime number. It is a twin prime with 11, as well as a cousin prime with 17. It is the second Wilson prime, of three known (the others being 5 and 563), and the smallest emirp in decimal.",
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"plaintext": "13 is:",
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"plaintext": "The second star number:",
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"plaintext": "The third centered square number:",
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"plaintext": " A happy number and a lucky number.",
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"plaintext": "A Fibonacci number, preceded by 5 and 8.",
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"plaintext": "The smallest number whose fourth power can be written as a sum of two consecutive square numbers (1192 + 1202).",
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"plaintext": "The sum and the difference of 2 consecutive squares: 13 = (22 + 32) = (72 - 62).",
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"plaintext": "Also,",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 different ways for the three fastest horses in a horse race to finish, allowing for ties, a fact that can be expressed mathematically by 13 being the third ordered Bell number.",
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"plaintext": "Since 52 + 122 = 132, (5, 12, 13) forms a Pythagorean triple, and as such represent the sides of a right triangle.",
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"plaintext": "A 13-sided regular polygon is called a tridecagon.",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 hexagonal isohedral tilings. ",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 distinct cubic distance-regular graphs, of which the Platonic Tetrahedral graph and Dodecahedral graph are part.",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 Archimedean solids without counting enantiomorphic forms. Some also include the Elongated square gyrobicupola as another Archimedean solid.",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 architectonic honeycombs: 8 originate from the cubic group and 5 originate from the alternated cubic group and cyclic group. The 13 dual honeycombs to these are the 13 catoptric honeycombs, which are made of 13 types of stereohedra.",
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"plaintext": "A standard torus can be sliced into 13 pieces with just 3 plane cuts.",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 particular Coxeter groups that generate uniform prismatic tessellations in Euclidean 4-space.",
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"plaintext": "There are 13 collections of subsets of {1, 2} that are closed under union and intersection.",
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"plaintext": "The atomic number of Aluminium is 13.",
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"plaintext": " In all Germanic languages, 13 is the first compound number; the numbers 11 and 12 have their own names.",
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"plaintext": " The Romance languages use different systems: In Italian, 11 is the first compound number (undici), as in Romanian (unsprezece), while in Spanish and Portuguese, the numbers up to and including 15 (Spanish quince, Portuguese quinze), and in French up to and including 16 (seize) have their own names. This is also the case in most Slavic languages, Hindi-Urdu and other South Asian languages.",
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"plaintext": "In Germany, according to an old tradition, 13 (dreizehn), as the first compound number, was the first number written in digits; the numbers 0 (null) through 12 (zwölf) were spelled out. The Duden (the German standard dictionary) now calls this tradition (which was actually never written down as an official rule) outdated and no longer valid, but many writers still follow it.",
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"plaintext": "Thirteen is one of two numbers within the teen numerical range (13-19), along with fifteen, not derived by cardinal numeral (three) and the teen suffix; instead, it is derived from the ordinal numeral (third).",
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"plaintext": "In Shia, 13 signifies the 13th day of the month of Rajab (the Lunar calendar), which is the birth of Imam Ali. 13 also is a total of 1 Prophet and 12 Shia Imams in the Islamic School of Thought.",
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"plaintext": "The apparitions of the Virgin of Fátima in 1917 were claimed to occur on the 13th day of six consecutive months.",
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"plaintext": "In Catholic devotional practice, the number thirteen is also associated with Saint Anthony of Padua, since his feast day falls on June 13. A traditional devotion called the Thirteen Tuesdays of St. Anthony involves praying to the saint every Tuesday over a period of thirteen weeks. Another devotion, St. Anthony's Chaplet, consists of thirteen decades of three beads each.",
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"plaintext": "According to famous Sakhi (Evidence) or story of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, when he was an accountant at a town of Sultanpur Lodhi, he was distributing groceries to people. When he gave groceries to the 13th person, he stopped because in Gurmukhi and Hindi the word 13 is called Terah, which means yours. And Guru Nanak Dev Ji kept saying, \"Yours, yours, yours...\" remembering God. People reported to the emperor that Guru Nanak Dev Ji was giving out free food to the people. When treasures were checked, there was more money than before.",
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"plaintext": "The Vaisakhi, which commemorates the creation of \"Khalsa\" or pure Sikh was celebrated on April 13 for many years.",
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"plaintext": " In Judaism, 13 signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, i.e., a full member of the Jewish faith (counts as a member of Minyan).",
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"plaintext": " The number of principles of Jewish faith according to Maimonides.",
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"plaintext": " According to Rabbinic commentary on the Torah, God has 13 Attributes of Mercy.",
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"plaintext": "Since beginning of the Nowruz tradition, the 13th day of each new Iranian year is called Sizdah Be-dar, a festival dedicated to pranks and spending time outdoors.",
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"plaintext": " The Thirteen Classics is considered to be a part of the Chinese classics.",
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"plaintext": "According to Aztec mythology, the Thirteen Heavens were formed by the gods from the head of Cipactli during creation.",
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"plaintext": "A common tradition in the religion Wicca holds that the number of members for a coven is ideally thirteen, though this tradition is not universal.",
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"plaintext": "The number 13 is considered an unlucky number in some countries. The end of the Mayan calendar's 13th Baktun was superstitiously feared as a harbinger of the apocalyptic 2012 phenomenon. Fear of the number 13 has a specifically recognized phobia, triskaidekaphobia, a word first recorded in 1911. The superstitious sufferers of triskaidekaphobia try to avoid bad luck by keeping away from anything numbered or labelled thirteen. As a result, companies and manufacturers use another way of numbering or labelling to avoid the number, with hotels and tall buildings being conspicuous examples (thirteenth floor). It is also considered unlucky to have thirteen guests at a table. Friday the 13th has been considered an unlucky day.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of theories as to why the number thirteen became associated with bad luck, but none of them have been accepted as likely.",
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"plaintext": "The Last Supper: At Jesus Christ's Last Supper, there were thirteen people around the table, counting Christ and the twelve apostles. Some believe this is unlucky because one of those thirteen, Judas Iscariot, was the betrayer of Jesus Christ. From the 1890s, a number of English language sources relate the \"unlucky\" thirteen to an idea that at the Last Supper, Judas, the disciple who betrayed Jesus, was the 13th to sit at the table.",
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"plaintext": "Knights Templar: On Friday, 13 October 1307, King Philip IV of France ordered the arrest of the Knights Templar, and most of the knights were tortured and killed.",
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"plaintext": "Full Moons: A year with 13 full moons instead of 12 posed problems for the monks in charge of the calendars. \"This was considered a very unfortunate circumstance, especially by the monks who had charge of the calendar of thirteen months for that year, and it upset the regular arrangement of church festivals. For this reason, thirteen came to be considered an unlucky number.\" However, a typical century has about 37 years that have 13 full moons, compared to 63 years with 12 full moons, and typically every third or fourth year has 13 full moons.",
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"plaintext": "A Repressed Lunar Cult: In ancient cultures, the number 13 represented femininity, because it corresponded to the number of lunar (menstrual) cycles in a year (13 x 28 = 364 days). The theory is that, as the solar calendar triumphed over the lunar, the number thirteen became anathema.",
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"plaintext": "Hammurabi's Code: There is a myth that the earliest reference to thirteen being unlucky or evil is in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (circa 1780 BC), where the thirteenth law is said to be omitted. In fact, the original Code of Hammurabi has no numeration. The translation by L.W. King (1910), edited by Richard Hooker, omitted one article: If the seller have gone to (his) fate (i. e., have died), the purchaser shall recover damages in said case fivefold from the estate of the seller. Other translations of the Code of Hammurabi, for example the translation by Robert Francis Harper, include the 13th article.",
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"plaintext": "France: 13 was traditionally considered a lucky number in France prior to the First World War, and was used in numerical form as a good luck symbol on postcards and charms.",
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"plaintext": "Italy: 13 was the lucky number in the Italian football pools (Totocalcio). The Italian expression \"fare tredici\" (literally, \"make thirteen\") means to hit the jackpot.",
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"plaintext": "USA: Colgate University also considers 13 a lucky number. They were founded in 1819 by 13 men with 13 dollars, 13 prayers and 13 articles. (To this day, members of the Colgate community consider the number 13 a good omen.) In fact, the campus address is 13 Oak Drive in Hamilton, New York, and the male a cappella group is called the Colgate 13.",
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"plaintext": "In the Mayan Tzolk'in calendar, trecenas mark cycles of 13-day periods. The pyramids are also set up in 9 steps divided into 7 days and 6 nights, 13 days total.",
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"plaintext": "In the standard 52-card deck of playing cards there are four suits, each of 13 ranks.",
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"plaintext": "A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, long dozen, or long measure is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The thirteenth loaf is called the vantage loaf because it is considered advantageous overall to get 13 loaves for the price of 12.",
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"plaintext": "In Arthurian legend, which was recorded in Medieval texts, King Arthur is resting in Avalon with the twelve greatest knights of the Round Table, totalling 13, and will return when his country is in peril.",
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"plaintext": "The Thirteen Treasures of Britain are a series of magical items listed in late Medieval texts.",
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"plaintext": "The Thirteen Postures of Tai Chi are thirteen postures (consisting of Eight Gates and Five Steps) which are considered to be of fundamental importance in the practice of Tai Chi.",
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"plaintext": "In astronomy there are 13 star constellations in the zodiac (including Ophiuchus); this can be compared with astrology where there are 12 signs of the zodiac.",
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"plaintext": "In Judaism, 13 signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, i.e., a full member of the Jewish faith (counts as a member of Minyan). The number of principles of Jewish faith according to Maimonides. According to Rabbinic commentary on the Torah, God has 13 Attributes of Mercy.",
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"plaintext": "In a tarot card deck, XIII is the card of Death, usually picturing the Pale horse with its rider.",
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"plaintext": "In Judaism, thirteen signifies the age at which a boy matures and becomes a Bar Mitzvah, i.e., a full member of the Jewish faith (is qualified to be counted as a member of Minyan).",
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"plaintext": "Thirteen is the minimum age of consent in Argentina, Burkina Faso, Japan, Niger, and two Mexican states.",
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"plaintext": "On many social media platforms in the United States, thirteen is the standard minimum age to be allowed to create an account in compliance with the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA).",
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"plaintext": "The Great Seal of the United States bears many images of the number thirteen, representing the Thirteen Colonies from which the United States was created. On the Seal's obverse, the overhead glory bears thirteen stars. The chest shield in front of the spread eagle bears thirteen stripes (seven white and six red). The eagle's right talon holds the Olive Branch of Peace, bearing thirteen olives and thirteen olive leaves. The eagle's left talon holds the Weapons of War, consisting of thirteen arrows. The eagle's mouth holds a scroll bearing the national motto \"E Pluribus Unum\" (which, by coincidence, consists of thirteen letters). On the Seal's reverse, the unfinished pyramid consists of thirteen levels.",
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"plaintext": " The jersey number 13 is worn by the starting loose forward or lock forward in most competitions. An exception is in the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.",
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"plaintext": " In triathlon, the number 13 is not used. As such, the numbering goes 11, 12, 14, 15 under the current numbering system.",
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"plaintext": " Effective with the 2020 season, Major League Baseball teams are allowed no more than 13 pitchers on their active rosters at any time during the season. The main exception is from September 1 to the end of the regular season, when this number increases to 14.",
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"plaintext": " In NCAA Division I men's college basketball, teams are allowed to provide scholarships to no more than 13 players at any given time.",
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"plaintext": " List of highways numbered 13",
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37,232 | 1,088,809,416 | Fermat's_principle | [
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"plaintext": "Fermat's principle, also known as the principle of least time, is the link between ray optics and wave optics. In its original \"strong\" form, Fermat's principle states that the path taken by a ray between two given points is the path that can be traveled in the least time. In order to be true in all cases, this statement must be weakened by replacing the \"least\" time with a time that is \"stationary\" with respect to variations of the path so that a deviation in the path causes, at most, a second-order change in the traversal time. To put it loosely, a ray path is surrounded by close paths that can be traversed in very close times. It A ray as a signal path (line of sight) that this technical definition corresponds to more intuitive notions of a ray, such as a line of sight or the path of a narrow beam.",
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"plaintext": "First proposed by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat in 1662, as a means of explaining the ordinary law of refraction of light (Fig.1), Fermat's principle was initially controversial because it seemed to ascribe knowledge and intent to nature. Not until the 19th century was it understood that nature's ability to test alternative paths is merely a fundamental property of waves. If points A and B are given, a wavefront expanding from A sweeps all possible ray paths radiating from A, whether they pass through B or not. If the wavefront reaches point B, it sweeps not only the ray path(s) from A to B, but also an infinitude of nearby paths with the same endpoints. Fermat's principle describes any ray that happens to reach pointB; there is no implication that the ray \"knew\" the quickest path or \"intended\" to take that path.",
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"plaintext": "For the purpose of comparing traversal times, the time from one point to the next nominated point is taken as if the first point were a point-source. Without this condition, the traversal time would be ambiguous; for example, if the propagation time from to were reckoned from an arbitrary wavefront W containing (Fig.2), that time could be made arbitrarily small by suitably angling the wavefront.",
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"plaintext": "Treating a point on the path as a source is the minimum requirement of Huygens' principle, and is part of the Derivation of Fermat's principle. But it Equivalence to Huygens' construction that the geometric construction by which Huygens tried to apply his own principle (as distinct from the principle itself) is simply an invocation of Fermat's principle. Hence all the conclusions that Huygens drew from that construction including, without limitation, the laws of rectilinear propagation of light, ordinary reflection, ordinary refraction, and the extraordinary refraction of \"Iceland crystal\" (calcite) are also consequences of Fermat's principle.",
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"plaintext": "Let us suppose that:",
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"plaintext": " A disturbance propagates sequentially through a medium (avacuum or some material, not necessarily homogeneous or isotropic), without action at a distance;",
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"plaintext": " During propagation, the influence of the disturbance at any intermediate point P upon surrounding points has a non-zero angular spread (as if P were a source), so that a disturbance originating at any point A arrives at any other point B via an infinitude of paths, by which B receives an infinitude of delayed versions of the disturbance at A; and",
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"plaintext": " These delayed versions of the disturbance will reinforce each other at B if they are synchronized within some tolerance.",
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"plaintext": "Then the various propagation paths from A to B will help each other if their traversal times agree within the said tolerance. For a small tolerance (in the limiting case), the permissible range of variations of the path is maximized if the path is such that its traversal time is stationary with respect to the variations, so that a variation of the path causes at most a second-order change in the traversal time.",
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"plaintext": "The most obvious example of a stationarity in traversal time is a (local or global) minimum that is, a path of least time, as in the \"strong\" form of Fermat's principle. But that condition is not essential to the argument.",
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"plaintext": "Having established that a path of stationary traversal time is reinforced by a maximally wide corridor of neighboring paths, we still need to explain how this reinforcement corresponds to intuitive notions of a ray. But, for brevity in the explanations, let us first define a ray path as a path of stationary traversal time.",
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"plaintext": "If the corridor of paths reinforcing a ray path from A to B is substantially obstructed, this will significantly alter the disturbance reaching B from A unlike a similar-sized obstruction outside any such corridor, blocking paths that do not reinforce each other. The former obstruction will significantly disrupt the signal reaching B from A, while the latter will not; thus the ray path marks a signal path. If the signal is visible light, the former obstruction will significantly affect the appearance of an object at A as seen by an observer at B, while the latter will not; so the ray path marks a line of sight.",
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"plaintext": "In optical experiments, a line of sight is routinely assumed to be a ray path.",
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"plaintext": "If the corridor of paths reinforcing a ray path from A to B is substantially obstructed, this will significantly affect the energy reaching B from A unlike a similar-sized obstruction outside any such corridor. Thus the ray path marks an energy path as does a beam.",
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"plaintext": "Suppose that a wavefront expanding from point A passes point P, which lies on a ray path from point A to point B. By definition, all points on the wavefront have the same propagation time from A. Now let the wavefront be blocked except for a window, centered on P, and small enough to lie within the corridor of paths that reinforce the ray path from A to B. Then all points on the unobstructed portion of the wavefront will have, nearly enough, equal propagation times to B, but not to points in other directions, so that B will be in the direction of peak intensity of the beam admitted through the window. So the ray path marks the beam. And in optical experiments, a beam is routinely considered as a collection of rays or (if it is narrow) as an approximation to a ray (Fig.3).",
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"plaintext": "According to the \"strong\" form of Fermat's principle, the problem of finding the path of a light ray from point A in a medium of faster propagation, to point B in a medium of slower propagation (Fig1), is analogous to the problem faced by a lifeguard in deciding where to enter the water in order to reach a drowning swimmer as soon as possible, given that the lifeguard can run faster than (s)he can swim. But that analogy falls short of explaining the behavior of the light, because the lifeguard can think about the problem (even if only for an instant) whereas the light presumably cannot. The discovery that ants are capable of similar calculations does not bridge the gap between the animate and the inanimate.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, the above assumptions (1) to (3) hold for any wavelike disturbance and explain Fermat's principle in purely mechanistic terms, without any imputation of knowledge or purpose.",
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"plaintext": "The principle applies to waves in general, including (e.g.) sound waves in fluids and elastic waves in solids. In a modified form, it even works for matter waves: in quantum mechanics, the classical path of a particle is obtainable by applying Fermat's principle to the associated wave except that, because the frequency may vary with the path, the stationarity is in the phase shift (or number of cycles) and not necessarily in the time.",
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"plaintext": "Fermat's principle is most familiar, however, in the case of visible light: it is the link between geometrical optics, which describes certain optical phenomena in terms of rays, and the wave theory of light, which explains the same phenomena on the hypothesis that light consists of waves.",
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"plaintext": "In this article we distinguish between Huygens' principle, which states that every point crossed by a traveling wave becomes the source of a secondary wave, and Huygens' construction, which is described below.",
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"plaintext": "Let the surface be a wavefront at time , and let the surface be the same wavefront at the later time (Fig.4). Let be a general point on . Then, according to Huygens' construction,",
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"plaintext": "The construction may be repeated in order to find successive positions of the primary wavefront, and successive points on the ray.",
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"plaintext": "The ray direction given by this construction is the radial direction of the secondary wavefront, and may differ from the normal of the secondary wavefront (cf.Fig2), and therefore from the normal of the primary wavefront at the point of tangency. Hence the ray velocity, in magnitude and direction, is the radial velocity of an infinitesimal secondary wavefront, and is generally a function of location and direction.",
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"plaintext": "Now let be a point on close to , and let be a point on close to . Then, by the construction,",
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"plaintext": "By (i), the ray path is a path of stationary traversal time from to ; and by (ii), it is a path of stationary traversal time from a point on to .",
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"plaintext": "So Huygens' construction implicitly defines a ray path as apath of stationary traversal time between successive positions of a wavefront, the time being reckoned from a point-source on the earlier wavefront. This conclusion remains valid if the secondary wavefronts are reflected or refracted by surfaces of discontinuity in the properties of the medium, provided that the comparison is restricted to the affect paths and the affected portions of the wavefronts.",
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"plaintext": "Fermat's principle, however, is conventionally expressed in point-to-point terms, not wavefront-to-wavefront terms. Accordingly, let us modify the example by supposing that the wavefront which becomes surface at time , and which becomes surface at the later time , is emitted from point at time. Let be a point on (as before), and a point on . And let , , , and be given, so that the problem is to find .",
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"plaintext": "If satisfies Huygens' construction, so that the secondary wavefront from is tangential to at , then is a path of stationary traversal time from to . Adding the fixed time from to , we find that is the path of stationary traversal time from to (possibly with a restricted domain of comparison, as noted above), in accordance with Fermat's principle. The argument works just as well in the converse direction, provided that has a well-defined tangent plane at . Thus Huygens' construction and Fermat's principle are geometrically equivalent.",
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"plaintext": "Through this equivalence, Fermat's principle sustains Huygens' construction and thence all the conclusions that Huygens was able to draw from that construction. In short, \"The laws of geometrical optics may be derived from Fermat's principle\". With the exception of the Fermat-Huygens principle itself, these laws are special cases in the sense that they depend on further assumptions about the media. Two of them are mentioned under the next heading.",
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"plaintext": "In an isotropic medium, because the propagation speed is independent of direction, the secondary wavefronts that expand from points on a primary wavefront in a given infinitesimal time are spherical, so that their radii are normal to their common tangent surface at the points of tangency. But their radii mark the ray directions, and their common tangent surface is a general wavefront. Thus the rays are normal (orthogonal) to the wavefronts.",
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"plaintext": "Because much of the teaching of optics concentrates on isotropic media, treating anisotropic media as an optional topic, the assumption that the rays are normal to the wavefronts can become so pervasive that even Fermat's principle is explained under that assumption, although in fact Fermat's principle is more general.",
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"plaintext": "In a homogeneous medium (also called a uniform medium), all the secondary wavefronts that expand from a given primary wavefront in a given time are congruent and similarly oriented, so that their envelope may be considered as the envelope of a single secondary wavefront which preserves its orientation while its center (source) moves over . If is its center while is its point of tangency with , then moves parallel to , so that the plane tangential to at is parallel to the plane tangential to at . Let another (congruent and similarly orientated) secondary wavefront be centered on , moving with , and let it meet its envelope at point . Then, by the same reasoning, the plane tangential to at is parallel to the other two planes. Hence, due to the congruence and similar orientations, the ray directions and are the same (but not necessarily normal to the wavefronts, since the secondary wavefronts are not necessarily spherical). This construction can be repeated any number of times, giving a straight ray of any length. Thus a homogeneous medium admits rectilinear rays.",
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"plaintext": "Let a path extend from point to point . Let be the arc length measured along the path from , and let be the time taken to traverse that arc length at the ray speed (that is, at the radial speed of the local secondary wavefront, for each location and direction on the path). Then the traversal time of the entire path is",
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"plaintext": "(where and simply denote the endpoints and are not to be construed as values of or ). The condition for to be a ray path is that the first-order change in due to a change in is zero; that is,",
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"plaintext": "Now let us define the optical length of a given path (optical path length, OPL) as the distance traversed by a ray in a homogeneous isotropic reference medium (e.g., a vacuum) in the same time that it takes to traverse the given path at the local ray velocity. Then, if denotes the propagation speed in the reference medium (e.g., the speed of light in a vacuum), the optical length of a path traversed in time is , and the optical length of a path traversed in time is . So, multiplying equation(1) through by , we obtain",
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"plaintext": "where is the ray index that is, the refractive index calculated on the ray velocity instead of the usual phase velocity (wave-normal velocity). For an infinitesimal path, we have indicating that the optical length is the physical length multiplied by the ray index: the OPL is a notional geometric quantity, from which time has been factored out. In terms of OPL, the condition for to be a ray path (Fermat's principle) becomes",
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"plaintext": "This has the form of Maupertuis's principle in classical mechanics (for a single particle), with the ray index in optics taking the role of momentum or velocity in mechanics.",
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"plaintext": "In an isotropic medium, for which the ray velocity is also the phase velocity, we may substitute the usual refractive index for.",
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"plaintext": "If are Cartesian coordinates and an overdot denotes differentiation with respect to , Fermat's principle (2) may be written",
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"plaintext": "In the case of an isotropic medium, we may replace with the normal refractive index , which is simply a scalar field. If we then define the optical Lagrangian as",
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"plaintext": "Fermat's principle becomes",
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"plaintext": "If the direction of propagation is always such that we can use instead of as the parameter of the path (and the overdot to denote differentiation w.r.t. instead of ), the optical Lagrangian can instead be written",
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"plaintext": "so that Fermat's principle becomes",
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"plaintext": "This has the form of Hamilton's principle in classical mechanics, except that the time dimension is missing: the third spatial coordinate in optics takes the role of time in mechanics. The optical Lagrangian is the function which, when integrated w.r.t.the parameter of the path, yields the OPL; it is the foundation of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian optics.",
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"plaintext": "If a ray follows a straight line, it obviously takes the path of least length. Hero of Alexandria, in his Catoptrics (1st century CE), showed that the ordinary law of reflection off a plane surface follows from the premise that the total length of the ray path is a minimum. In 1657, Pierre de Fermat received from Marin Cureau de la Chambre a copy of newly published treatise, in which LaChambre noted Hero's principle and complained that it did not work for refraction.",
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"plaintext": "Fermat replied that refraction might be brought into the same framework by supposing that light took the path of least resistance, and that different media offered different resistances. His eventual solution, described in a letter to LaChambre dated 1January 1662, construed \"resistance\" as inversely proportional to speed, so that light took the path of least time. That premise yielded the ordinary law of refraction, provided that light traveled more slowly in the optically denser medium.",
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"plaintext": "Fermat's solution was a landmark in that it unified the then-known laws of geometrical optics under a variational principle or action principle, setting the precedent for the principle of least action in classical mechanics and the corresponding principles in other fields (see History of variational principles in physics). It was the more notable because it used the method of adequality, which may be understood in retrospect as finding the point where the slope of an infinitesimally short chord is zero, without the intermediate step of finding a general expression for the slope (the derivative).",
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"plaintext": "It was also immediately controversial. The ordinary law of refraction was at that time attributed to René Descartes (d.1650), who had tried to explain it by supposing that light was a force that propagated instantaneously, or that light was analogous to a tennis ball that traveled faster in the denser medium, either premise being inconsistent with Fermat's. Descartes' most prominent defender, Claude Clerselier, criticized Fermat for apparently ascribing knowledge and intent to nature, and for failing to explain why nature should prefer to economize on time rather than distance. Clerselier wrote in part:",
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"plaintext": "1. The principle that you take as the basis of your demonstration, namely that nature always acts in the shortest and simplest ways, is merely a moral principle and not a physical one; it is not, and cannot be, the cause of any effect in nature.... For otherwise we would attribute knowledge to nature; but here, by \"nature\", we understand only this order and this law established in the world as it is, which acts without foresight, without choice, and by a necessary determination.",
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"plaintext": "2. This same principle would make nature irresolute... For I ask you... when a ray of light must pass from a point in a rare medium to a point in a dense one, is there not reason for nature to hesitate if, by your principle, it must choose the straight line as soon as the bent one, since if the latter proves shorter in time, the former is shorter and simpler in length? Who will decide and who will pronounce?",
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"plaintext": "Fermat, being unaware of the mechanistic foundations of his own principle, was not well placed to defend it, except as a purely geometric and kinematic proposition. The wave theory of light, first proposed by Robert Hooke in the year of Fermat's death, and rapidly improved by Ignace-Gaston Pardies and (especially) Christiaan Huygens, contained the necessary foundations; but the recognition of this fact was surprisingly slow.",
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"plaintext": "Huygens repeatedly referred to the envelope of his secondary wavefronts as the termination of the movement, meaning that the later wavefront was the outer boundary that the disturbance could reach in a given time, which was therefore the minimum time in which each point on the later wavefront could be reached. But he did not argue that the direction of minimum time was that from the secondary source to the point of tangency; instead, he deduced the ray direction from the extent of the common tangent surface corresponding to a given extent of the initial wavefront. His only endorsement of Fermat's principle was limited in scope: having derived the law of ordinary refraction, for which the rays are normal to the wavefronts, Huygens gave a geometric proof that a ray refracted according to this law takes the path of least time. He would hardly have thought this necessary if he had known that the principle of least time followed directly from the same common-tangent construction by which he had deduced not only the law of ordinary refraction, but also the laws of rectilinear propagation and ordinary reflection (which were also known to follow from Fermat's principle), and a previously unknown law of extraordinary refraction the last by means of secondary wavefronts that were spheroidal rather than spherical, with the result that the rays were generally oblique to the wavefronts. It was as if Huygens had not noticed that his construction implied Fermat's principle, and even as if he thought he had found an exception to that principle. Manuscript evidence cited by Alan E.Shapiro tends to confirm that Huygens believed the principle of least time to be invalid \"in double refraction, where the rays are not normal to the wave fronts\".",
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"plaintext": "Shapiro further reports that the only three authorities who accepted \"Huygens' principle\" in the 17th and 18th centuries, namely Philippe de La Hire, Denis Papin, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, did so because it accounted for the extraordinary refraction of \"Iceland crystal\" (calcite) in the same manner as the previously known laws of geometrical optics. But, for the time being, the corresponding extension of Fermat's principle went unnoticed.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 January 1809, Pierre-Simon Laplace, reporting on the work of his protégé Étienne-Louis Malus, claimed that the extraordinary refraction of calcite could be explained under the corpuscular theory of light with the aid of Maupertuis's principle of least action: that the integral of speed with respect to distance was a minimum. The corpuscular speed that satisfied this principle was proportional to the reciprocal of the ray speed given by the radius of Huygens' spheroid. Laplace continued:",
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"plaintext": "According to Huygens, the velocity of the extraordinary ray, in the crystal, is simply expressed by the radius of the spheroid; consequently his hypothesis does not agree with the principle of the least action: but it is remarkable that it agrees with the principle of Fermat, which is, that light passes, from a given point without the crystal, to a given point within it, in the least possible time; for it is easy to see that this principle coincides with that of the least action, if we invert the expression of the velocity.",
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"plaintext": "Laplace's report was the subject of a wide-ranging rebuttal by Thomas Young, who wrote in part:",
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"plaintext": "The principle of Fermat, although it was assumed by that mathematician on hypothetical, or even imaginary grounds, is in fact a fundamental law with respect to undulatory motion, and is the basis of every determination in the Huygenian theory... Mr.Laplace seems to be unacquainted with this most essential principle of one of the two theories which he compares; for he says, that \"it is remarkable,\" that the Huygenian law of extraordinary refraction agrees with the principle of Fermat; which he would scarcely have observed, if he had been aware that the law was an immediate consequence of the principle.",
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"plaintext": "In fact Laplace was aware that Fermat's principle follows from Huygens' construction in the case of refraction from an isotropic medium to an anisotropic one; a geometric proof was contained in the long version of Laplace's report, printed in 1810.",
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"plaintext": "Young's claim was more general than Laplace's, and likewise upheld Fermat's principle even in the case of extraordinary refraction, in which the rays are generally notperpendicular to the wavefronts. Unfortunately, however, the omitted middle sentence of the quoted paragraph by Young began \"The motion of every undulation must necessarily be in a direction perpendicular to its surface...\" (emphasis added), and was therefore bound to sow confusion rather than clarity.",
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"plaintext": "No such confusion subsists in Augustin-Jean Fresnel's \"Second Memoir\" on double refraction (SecMem), which addresses Fermat's principle in several places (without naming Fermat), proceeding from the special case in which rays are normal to wavefronts, to the general case in which rays are paths of least time or stationary time. (In the following summary, page numbers refer to SecMem.)",
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"plaintext": " For refraction of a plane wave at parallel incidence on one face of an anisotropic crystalline wedge (pp.291–2), in order to find the \"first ray arrived\" at an observation point beyond the other face of the wedge, it suffices to treat the rays outside the crystal as normal to the wavefronts, and within the crystal to consider only the parallel wavefronts (whatever the ray direction). So in this case, Fresnel does not attempt to trace the complete ray path.",
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"plaintext": " Next, Fresnel considers a ray refracted from a point-source M inside a crystal, through a point A on the surface, to an observation point B outside (pp.294–6). The surface passing through B and given by the \"locus of the disturbances which arrive first\" is, according to Huygens' construction, normal to \"the ray AB of swiftest arrival\". But this construction requires knowledge of the \"surface of the wave\" (that is, the secondary wavefront) within the crystal.",
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"plaintext": " Then he considers a plane wavefront propagating in a medium with non-spherical secondary wavefronts, oriented so that the ray path given by Huygens' construction from the source of the secondary wavefront to its point of tangency with the subsequent primary wavefront is not normal to the primary wavefronts (p.296). He shows that this path is nevertheless \"the path of quickest arrival of the disturbance\" from the earlier primary wavefront to the point of tangency.",
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"plaintext": " In a later heading (p.305) he declares that \"The construction of Huygens, which determines the path of swiftest arrival,\" is applicable to secondary wavefronts of any shape. He then notes that when we apply Huygens' construction to refraction into a crystal with a two-sheeted secondary wavefront, and draw the lines from the two points of tangency to the center of the secondary wavefront, \"we shall have the directions of the two paths of swiftest arrival, and consequently of the ordinary and of the extraordinary ray.\"",
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"plaintext": " Under the heading \"Definition of the word Ray\" (p.309), he concludes that this term must be applied to the line which joins the center of the secondary wave to a point on its surface, whatever the inclination of this line to the surface.",
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"plaintext": " As a \"new consideration\" (pp.310–11), he notes that if a plane wavefront is passed through a small hole centered on point E, then the direction ED of maximum intensity of the resulting beam will be that in which the secondary wave starting from E will \"arrive there the first\", and the secondary wavefronts from opposite sides of the hole (equidistant from E) will \"arrive at D in the same time\" as each other. This direction is not assumed to be normal to any wavefront.",
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"plaintext": "Thus Fresnel showed, even for anisotropic media, that the ray path given by Huygens' construction is the path of least time between successive positions of a plane or diverging wavefront, that the ray velocities are the radii of the secondary \"wave surface\" after unit time, and that a stationary traversal time accounts for the direction of maximum intensity of a beam. However, establishing the general equivalence between Huygens' construction and Fermat's principle would have required further consideration of Fermat's principle in point-to-point terms.",
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"plaintext": "Hendrik Lorentz, in a paper written in 1886 and republished in 1907, deduced the principle of least time in point-to-point form from Huygens' construction. But the essence of his argument was somewhat obscured by an apparent dependence on aether and aether drag.",
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"plaintext": "Lorentz's work was cited in 1959 by Adriaan J.de Witte, who then offered his own argument, which \"although in essence the same, is believed to be more cogent and more general.\" DeWitte's treatment is more original than that description might suggest, although limited to two dimensions; it uses calculus of variations to show that Huygens' construction and Fermat's principle lead to the same differential equation for the ray path, and that in the case of Fermat's principle, the converse holds. DeWitte also noted that \"The matter seems to have escaped treatment in textbooks.\"",
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"plaintext": " M. Born and E. Wolf, 1970, Principles of Optics, 4thEd., Oxford: Pergamon Press.",
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"plaintext": " J. Chaves, 2016, Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, 2ndEd., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, .",
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"plaintext": " O. Darrigol, 2012, A History of Optics: From Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century, Oxford, .",
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"plaintext": " A.J. de Witte, 1959, \"Equivalence of Huygens' principle and Fermat's principle in ray geometry\", American Journal of Physics, vol.27, no.5 (May 1959), pp.293–301, . Erratum: In Fig.7(b), each instance of \"ray\" should be \"normal\" (noted in vol.27, no.6, p.387).",
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"plaintext": " E. Frankel, 1974, \"The search for a corpuscular theory of double refraction: Malus, Laplace and the competition of 1808\", Centaurus, vol.18, no.3 (September 1974), pp.223–245, .",
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"section_name": "Bibliography",
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"plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1827, \"Mémoire sur la double réfraction\", Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France, vol. (for 1824, printed 1827), pp.45–176; reprinted as \"Second mémoire...\" in Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel, vol.2 (Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1868), pp.479–596; translated by A.W.Hobson as \"Memoir on double refraction\", in R.Taylor (ed.), Scientific Memoirs, vol. (London: Taylor & Francis, 1852), pp.238–333. (Cited page numbers are from the translation.)",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " C. Huygens, 1690, Traité de la Lumière (Leiden: Van der Aa), translated by S.P.Thompson as Treatise on Light, University of Chicago Press, 1912; Project Gutenberg, 2005. (Cited page numbers match the 1912 edition and the Gutenberg HTML edition.)",
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"plaintext": " P. Mihas, 2006, \"Developing ideas of refraction, lenses and rainbow through the use of historical resources\", Science & Education, vol.17, no.7 (August), pp.751–777 (online 6September 2006), .",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Bibliography",
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"plaintext": " I. Newton, 1730, Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light, 4thEd. (London: William Innys, 1730; Project Gutenberg, 2010); republished with Foreword by A.Einstein and Introduction by E.T.Whittaker (London: George Bell Sons, 1931); reprinted with additional Preface by I.B.Cohen and Analytical Table of Contents by D.H.D.Roller, Mineola, NY: Dover, 1952, 1979 (with revised preface), 2012. (Cited page numbers match the Gutenberg HTML edition and the Dover editions.)",
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"plaintext": " A.I. Sabra, 1981, Theories of Light: From Descartes to Newton (London: Oldbourne Book Co., 1967), reprinted Cambridge University Press, 1981, .",
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"plaintext": " A.E. Shapiro, 1973, \"Kinematic optics: A study of the wave theory of light in the seventeenth century\", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol.11, no.2/3 (June 1973), pp.134–266, .",
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"section_name": "Bibliography",
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"plaintext": " T. Young, 1809, Article in the Quarterly Review, vol.2, no.4 (November1809), .",
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"plaintext": " A. Ziggelaar, 1980, \"The sine law of refraction derived from the principle of Fermat prior to Fermat? The theses of Wilhelm Boelmans S.J. in 1634\", Centaurus, vol.24, no.1 (September1980), pp.246–62, .",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " J.Z. Buchwald, 1989, The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century, University of Chicago Press, , especially .",
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"plaintext": " M.S. Mahoney (1994), The Mathematical Career of Pierre de Fermat, 1601–1665, 2ndEd., Princeton University Press, .",
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"plaintext": " R. Marqués; F. Martín; M. Sorolla, 2008 (reprinted 2013), Metamaterials with Negative Parameters: Theory, Design, and Microwave Applications, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, .",
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"plaintext": " J.B. Pendry and D.R. Smith (2004), \"Reversing Light With Negative Refraction\", Physics Today, , .",
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| 331,041 | 6,022 | 61 | 76 | 0 | 0 | Fermat's principle | principle of least time | []
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37,235 | 1,107,918,775 | Society | [
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"plaintext": "A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent of members. In the social sciences, a larger society often exhibits stratification or dominance patterns in subgroups.",
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"plaintext": "Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts as acceptable or unacceptable. These patterns of behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. Societies, and their norms, undergo gradual and perpetual changes.",
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"plaintext": "Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology, and also applied to distinctive subsections of a larger society.",
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"plaintext": "More broadly, and especially within structuralist thought, a society may be illustrated as an economic, social, industrial or cultural infrastructure, made up of, yet distinct from, a varied collection of individuals. In this regard society can mean the objective relationships people have with the material world and with other people, rather than \"other people\" beyond the individual and their familiar social environment.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"society\" came from the 12th century French société (meaning 'company'). This was in turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius (\"comrade, friend, ally\"; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity (also: \"society in general\", \"society at large\", etc.), although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in this sense may be deemed to be \"antisocial\". In the 1630s it was used in reference to \"people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community\". However, in the 18th century the Scottish economist, Adam Smith taught that a society \"may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they refrain from doing injury to each other.\"",
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"plaintext": "Humans fall between presocial and eusocial in the spectrum of animal ethology. The great apes have always been more (Bonobo, Homo, Pan) or less (Gorilla, Pongo) social animals. According to anthropologist Maurice Godelier, one critical novelty in society, in contrast to humanity's closest biological relatives (chimpanzees and bonobos), is the parental role assumed by the males, which supposedly would be absent in our nearest relatives for whom paternity is not generally determinable.",
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"plaintext": "Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as \"...a human product, and nothing but a human product, that yet continuously acts upon its producers.\" According to him, society was created by humans, but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day.",
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"plaintext": "Sociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial, and (5) special (e.g. fishing societies or maritime societies). This is similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:",
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"plaintext": " Hunter-gatherer bands (categorization of duties and responsibilities). Then came the agricultural society.",
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"plaintext": " Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.",
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"plaintext": " Stratified structures led by chieftains.",
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"plaintext": " Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to this there are:",
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"plaintext": " Humanity, humankind, upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs.",
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"plaintext": " Virtual society, a society based on online identity, which is evolving in the information age.",
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"plaintext": "Over time, some cultures have progressed toward more complex forms of organization and control. This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal food stocks to become agrarian villages. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.",
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"plaintext": "Societies are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies, the ways that humans use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process of social stratification, the division of members of a society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.",
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"plaintext": "In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, and agricultural. ",
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"plaintext": "The main form of food production in such societies is the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter-gatherers move around constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a wide variety of artifacts, and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes. However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as the people of Tlingit in North America) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. Bands consist of 15 to 50 people related by kinship. Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands. Leadership is personal—charismatic—and used for special purposes only in tribal society. There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence. The family forms the main social unit, with most members being related by birth or marriage. The anthropologist Marshall Sahlins described hunter-gatherers as the \"original affluent society\" due to their extended leisure time: adults in foraging and horticultural societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours a day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.",
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"plaintext": "Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds from one pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor (the specialization by individuals or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes more complex. For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry, among other items of value. The production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their increased wealth. The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to centralize wealth and power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form of government in pastoral societies.",
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"plaintext": "Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Historians use the phrase Agricultural Revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 10,000 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals. Some horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren, horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.",
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"plaintext": "As with pastoral societies, surplus food leads to a more complex division of labor. Specialized roles in horticultural societies include craftspeople, shamans (religious leaders), and traders. This role specialization allows people to create a wide variety of artifacts. As in pastoral societies, surplus food can lead to inequalities in wealth and power within horticultural political systems, developed because of the settled nature of horticultural life.",
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"plaintext": "Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to cultivate crops over a large area. According to Lenski, the difference between horticultural and agrarian societies is the use of the plow. Increases in food supplies due to improved technology led to larger populations than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment.",
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"plaintext": "Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from \"lesser\" members of society.",
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"plaintext": "Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in European societies.",
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"plaintext": "Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods. This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of production of the industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now the surplus was not just agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.",
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"plaintext": "Once again, the population boomed. Increased productivity made more goods available to everyone. However, inequality became even greater than before. The breakup of agricultural-based societies caused many people to leave the land and seek employment in cities. This created a great surplus of labor and gave capitalists plenty of laborers who could be hired for extremely low wages.",
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"plaintext": "Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information, services, and high technology more than the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production. The United States is the first country to have over half of its workforce employed in service industries. Service industries include government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking.",
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"plaintext": "The division of humans into male and female gender roles has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power. Cultural differences by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.",
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"plaintext": "All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance.All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations.",
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"plaintext": "Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed. Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level.Also, there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group. Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "The early distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water, fertile soil, and temperate climate of different locations. As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities. As communities got bigger the need for some form of governance increased, as all large societies without a government have struggled to function. Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages. This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances.",
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"plaintext": "Governments create laws and policies that affect the citizens that they govern. There have been multiple forms of government throughout human history, each having various means of obtaining power and the ability to exert diverse controls on the population. As of 2017, more than half of all national governments are democracies, with 13% being autocracies and 28% containing elements of both. Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states.",
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"plaintext": "Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids. Evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals. Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian. The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods.",
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"plaintext": "Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system. Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells. Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money. Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people. There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population.",
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"plaintext": "Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but kill adult humans at a high rate (with infanticide being more common among other animals). It is predicted that 2% of early H. sapiens would be murdered, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times. There is great variation in violence between human populations with rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence at about 0.01%.",
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"plaintext": "The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought is that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and appeared due to changing social conditions. While not settled, the current evidence suggests warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that. War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"society\" is currently used to cover both a number of political and scientific connotations as well as a variety of associations.",
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"plaintext": "The development of the Western world has brought with it the emerging concepts of Western culture, politics, and ideas, often referred to simply as \"Western society\". Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. It sometimes also includes Eastern Europe, South America, and Israel.",
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"plaintext": "The cultures and lifestyles of all of these stem from Western Europe. They all enjoy relatively strong economies and stable governments, allow freedom of religion, have chosen democracy as a form of governance, favor capitalism and international trade, are heavily influenced by Judeo-Christian values, and have some form of political and military alliance or cooperation.",
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"plaintext": "Although the concept of information society has been under discussion since the 1930s, in the modern world it is almost always applied to the manner in which information technologies have impacted society and culture. It, therefore, covers the effects of computers and telecommunications on the home, the workplace, schools, government, and various communities and organizations, as well as the emergence of new social forms in cyberspace.",
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"plaintext": "One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society. Here policies are directed towards promoting an open and competitive digital economy, research into information and communication technologies, as well as their application to improve social inclusion, public services, and quality of life.",
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"plaintext": "The International Telecommunication Union's World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva and Tunis (2003 and 2005) has led to a number of policy and application areas where action is envisaged.",
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"plaintext": "As the access to electronic information resources increased at the beginning of the 21st century, special attention was extended from the information society to the knowledge society. An analysis by the Irish government stated, \"The capacity to manipulate, store and transmit large quantities of information cheaply has increased at a staggering rate over recent years. The digitisation of information and the associated pervasiveness of the Internet are facilitating a new intensity in the application of knowledge to economic activity, to the extent that it has become the predominant factor in the creation of wealth. As much as 70 to 80 percent of economic growth is now said to be due to new and better knowledge.\"",
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"plaintext": " Civil society",
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"plaintext": " Club (organization)",
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"plaintext": " Consumer society",
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"plaintext": " Eusociality",
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"plaintext": " Family",
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"plaintext": " High society (group)",
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"plaintext": " Mass society",
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"plaintext": " Open society",
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"plaintext": " Outline of society",
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"plaintext": " Presociality",
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"plaintext": " Professional society",
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"plaintext": " Religion (outline)",
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"plaintext": " Scientific society",
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364319
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},
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"plaintext": " Secret societies",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sociology ",
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18717981
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1,
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"plaintext": " Sociobiology",
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27919
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"plaintext": " Social actions",
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1696316
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1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social capital",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
45802
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social cohesion",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
13854259
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Societal collapse",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3328588
],
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social contract",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
39704
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social disintegration",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3328588
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1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social order",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
396418
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social solidarity",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2118929
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social structure",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
634444
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social system",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
10977439
],
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1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Social work",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
146717
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Structure and agency",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
735289
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana, 1976.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. Reading Capital. London: Verso, 2009.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
76907,
40979611
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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22,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bottomore, Tom (ed). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 1991. 45–48.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2370588
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Calhoun, Craig (ed), Dictionary of the Social Sciences Oxford University Press (2002)",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
6438599
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hall, Stuart. \"Rethinking the Base and Superstructure Metaphor\". Papers on Class, Hegemony and Party. Bloomfield, J., ed. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1977.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
481122
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chris Harman. \"Base and Superstructure \". International Socialism 2:32, Summer 1986, pp.3–44.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
39902663
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harvey, David. A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso, 2010.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1417002
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Larrain, Jorge. Marxism and Ideology. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1983.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1972.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
43069535
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2115308
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
167780
],
"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Leonid Griffen. The society as a superorganism . The scientific heritage. No 67 Vol 5. P. 51–60, 2021.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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"anchor_spans": []
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]
| [
"Society",
"Humans",
"Types_of_organization",
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| 8,425 | 46,619 | 1,628 | 204 | 0 | 0 | society | group of people related to each other through persistent relations | [
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37,238 | 1,105,096,228 | Kevin_J._Anderson | [
{
"plaintext": "Kevin James Anderson (born March 27, 1962) is an American science fiction author. He has written spin-off novels for Star Wars, StarCraft, Titan A.E. and The X-Files, and with Brian Herbert is the co-author of the Dune prequel series. His original works include the Saga of Seven Suns series and the Nebula Award–nominated Assemblers of Infinity. He has also written several comic books, including the Dark Horse Star Wars series Tales of the Jedi written in collaboration with Tom Veitch, Dark Horse Predator titles, and The X-Files titles for Topps. Some of Anderson's superhero novels include Enemies & Allies, about the first meeting of Batman and Superman, and The Last Days of Krypton, telling the story of how Superman's planet Krypton came to be destroyed.",
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"plaintext": "In 1881, the young Washington was named as the first leader of the new Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, founded for the higher education of blacks. He developed the college from the ground up, enlisting students in construction of buildings, from classrooms to dormitories. Work at the college was considered fundamental to students' larger education. They maintained a large farm to be essentially self-supporting, rearing animals and cultivating needed produce. Washington continued to expand the school. He attained national prominence for his Atlanta Address of 1895, which attracted the attention of politicians and the public. He became a popular spokesperson for African-American citizens. He built a nationwide network of supporters in many black communities, with black ministers, educators, and businessmen composing his core supporters. Washington played a dominant role in black politics, winning wide support in the black community of the South and among more liberal whites (especially rich Northern whites). He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education. Washington's efforts included cooperating with white people and enlisting the support of wealthy philanthropists. Washington had asserted that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate \"industry, thrift, intelligence and property\".",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 1912, he developed a relationship with philanthropist Julius Rosenwald, the owner of Sears Roebuck, who served on the board of trustees for the rest of his life and made substantial donations to Tuskegee. In addition, they collaborated on a pilot program for Tuskegee architects to design six model schools for African-American students in rural areas of the South. Such schools were historically underfunded by the state and local governments. Given their success in 1913 and 1914, Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Foundation in 1917 to aid schools. It provided matching funds to communities that committed to operate the schools and for the construction and maintenance of schools, with cooperation of white public school boards required. Nearly 5,000 new, small rural schools were built for black students throughout the South, most after Washington's death in 1915.",
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"plaintext": "Northern critics called Washington's widespread and powerful organization the \"Tuskegee Machine\". After 1909, Washington was criticized by the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B. Du Bois, who demanded a stronger tone of protest in order to advance the civil rights agenda. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks in society, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run. At the same time, he secretly funded litigation for civil rights cases, such as challenges to Southern constitutions and laws that had disenfranchised blacks across the South since the turn of the century. African Americans were still strongly affiliated with the Republican Party, and Washington was on close terms with national Republican Party leaders. He was often asked for political advice by presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to his contributions to education, Washington wrote 14 books; his autobiography, Up from Slavery, first published in 1901, is still widely read today. During a difficult period of transition, he did much to improve the working relationship between the races. His work greatly helped blacks to achieve education, financial power, and understanding of the U.S. legal system. This contributed to blacks' attaining the skills to create and support the civil rights movement, leading to the passage in the later 20th century of important federal civil rights laws.",
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"plaintext": "Booker was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved African-American woman on the plantation of James Burroughs in southwest Virginia, near Hale's Ford in Franklin County. He never knew the day, month, and year of his birth (although evidence emerged after his death that he was born on April 5, 1856). Nor did he ever know his father, said to be a white man who resided on a neighboring plantation. The man played no financial or emotional role in Washington's life.",
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"plaintext": "From his earliest years, Washington was known simply as \"Booker\", with no middle or surname, in the practice of the time. His mother, her relatives and his siblings struggled with the demands of slavery. He later wrote:",
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"plaintext": "I cannot remember a single instance during my childhood or early boyhood when our entire family sat down to the table together, and God's blessing was asked, and the family ate a meal in a civilized manner. On the plantation in Virginia, and even later, meals were gotten to the children very much as dumb animals get theirs. It was a piece of bread here and a scrap of meat there. It was a cup of milk at one time and some potatoes at another.",
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"plaintext": "When he was nine, Booker and his family in Virginia gained freedom under the Emancipation Proclamation as U.S. troops occupied their region. Booker was thrilled by the formal day of their emancipation in early 1865:",
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"plaintext": "As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom.... [S]ome man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper—the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.",
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"plaintext": "After emancipation Jane took her family to the free state of West Virginia to join her husband Washington Ferguson, who had escaped from slavery during the war and settled there. The illiterate boy Booker began to painstakingly teach himself to read and attended school for the first time.",
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"plaintext": "At school, Booker was asked for a surname for registration. He took the family name of Washington, after his stepfather. Still later he learned from his mother that she had originally given him the name \"Booker Taliaferro\" at the time of his birth, but his second name was not used by the master. Upon learning of his original name, Washington immediately readopted it as his own, and became known as Booker Taliaferro Washington for the rest of his life.",
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"plaintext": "Booker loved books:",
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"plaintext": "Washington worked in salt furnaces and coal mines in West Virginia for several years to earn money. He made his way east to Hampton Institute, a school established in Virginia to educate freedmen and their descendants, where he also worked to pay for his studies. He later attended Wayland Seminary in Washington, D.C. in 1878.",
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"plaintext": "In 1881, the Hampton Institute president Samuel C. Armstrong recommended Washington, then age 25, to become the first leader of Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (later Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University), the new normal school (teachers' college) in Alabama. The new school opened on July 4, 1881, initially using a room donated by Butler Chapel A.M.E. Zion Church.",
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"plaintext": "The next year, Washington purchased a former plantation to be developed as the permanent site of the campus. Under his direction, his students literally built their own school: making bricks, constructing classrooms, barns and outbuildings; and growing their own crops and raising livestock; both for learning and to provide for most of the basic necessities. Both men and women had to learn trades as well as academics. The Tuskegee faculty used all the activities to teach the students basic skills to take back to their mostly rural black communities throughout the South. The main goal was not to produce farmers and tradesmen, but teachers of farming and trades who could teach in the new lower schools and colleges for blacks across the South. The school expanded over the decades, adding programs and departments, to become the present-day Tuskegee University.",
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"plaintext": "The Oaks, \"a large comfortable home,\" was built on campus for Washington and his family. They moved into the house in 1900. Washington lived there until his death in 1915. His widow, Margaret, lived at The Oaks until her death in 1925.",
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"plaintext": "Washington led Tuskegee for more than 30 years after becoming its leader. As he developed it, adding to both the curriculum and the facilities on the campus, he became a prominent national leader among African Americans, with considerable influence with wealthy white philanthropists and politicians.",
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"plaintext": "Washington expressed his vision for his race through the school. He believed that by providing needed skills to society, African Americans would play their part, leading to acceptance by white Americans. He believed that blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by acting as responsible, reliable American citizens. Shortly after the Spanish–American War, President William McKinley and most of his cabinet visited Booker Washington. By his death in 1915, Tuskegee had grown to encompass more than 100 well-equipped buildings, roughly 1,500 students, 200 faculty members teaching 38 trades and professions, and an endowment of approximately $2million.",
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"plaintext": "Washington helped develop other schools and colleges. In 1891 he lobbied the West Virginia legislature to locate the newly authorized West Virginia Colored Institute (today West Virginia State University) in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia near Charleston. He visited the campus often and spoke at its first commencement exercise.",
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"plaintext": "Washington was a dominant figure of the African-American community, then still overwhelmingly based in the South, from 1890 to his death in 1915. His Atlanta Address of 1895 received national attention. He was considered as a popular spokesman for African-American citizens. Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, Washington was generally perceived as a supporter of education for freedmen and their descendants in the post-Reconstruction, Jim Crow-era South. He stressed basic education and training in manual and domestic labor trades because he thought these represented the skills needed in what was still a rural economy.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the final twenty years of his life, he maintained his standing through a nationwide network of supporters including black educators, ministers, editors, and businessmen, especially those who supported his views on social and educational issues for blacks. He also gained access to top national white leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, raised large sums, was consulted on race issues, and was awarded honorary degrees from Harvard University in 1896 and Dartmouth College in 1901.",
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"plaintext": "Late in his career, Washington was criticized by civil rights leader and NAACP founder W. E. B. Du Bois. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Address as the \"Atlanta Compromise\", because it suggested that African Americans should work for, and submit to, white political rule. Du Bois insisted on full civil rights, due process of law, and increased political representation for African Americans which, he believed, could only be achieved through activism and higher education for African-Americans. He believed that \"the talented Tenth\" would lead the race. Du Bois labeled Washington, \"the Great Accommodator.\" Washington responded that confrontation could lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome racism in the long run.",
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"plaintext": "While promoting moderation, Washington contributed secretly and substantially to mounting legal challenges activist African Americans launched against segregation and disenfranchisement of blacks. In his public role, he believed he could achieve more by skillful accommodation to the social realities of the age of segregation.",
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"plaintext": "Washington's work on education helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of many major white philanthropists. He became a friend of such self-made men as Standard Oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers; Sears, Roebuck and Company President Julius Rosenwald; and George Eastman, inventor of roll film, founder of Eastman Kodak, and developer of a major part of the photography industry. These individuals and many other wealthy men and women funded his causes, including Hampton and Tuskegee institutes.",
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"plaintext": "He also gave lectures to raise money for the school. On January 23, 1906, he lectured at Carnegie Hall in New York in the Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture. He spoke along with great orators of the day, including Mark Twain, Joseph Hodges Choate, and Robert Curtis Ogden; it was the start of a capital campaign to raise $1,800,000 for the school.",
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"plaintext": "The schools which Washington supported were founded primarily to produce teachers, as education was critical for the black community following emancipation. Freedmen strongly supported literacy and education as the keys to their future. When graduates returned to their largely impoverished rural southern communities, they still found few schools and educational resources, as the white-dominated state legislatures consistently underfunded black schools in their segregated system.",
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"plaintext": "To address those needs, in the 20th century Washington enlisted his philanthropic network to create matching funds programs to stimulate construction of numerous rural public schools for black children in the South. Working especially with Julius Rosenwald from Chicago, Washington had Tuskegee architects develop model school designs. The Rosenwald Fund helped support the construction and operation of more than 5,000 schools and related resources for the education of blacks throughout the South in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The local schools were a source of communal pride; African-American families gave labor, land and money to them, to give their children more chances in an environment of poverty and segregation. A major part of Washington's legacy, the model rural schools continued to be constructed into the 1930s, with matching funds for communities from the Rosenwald Fund.",
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"plaintext": "Washington also contributed to the Progressive Era by forming the National Negro Business League. It encouraged entrepreneurship among black businessmen, establishing a national network.",
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"plaintext": "His autobiography, Up from Slavery, first published in 1901, is still widely read in the early 21st century.",
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"plaintext": "Washington was married three times. In his autobiography Up from Slavery, he gave all three of his wives credit for their contributions at Tuskegee. His first wife Fannie N. Smith was from Malden, West Virginia, the same Kanawha River Valley town where Washington had lived from age nine to sixteen. He maintained ties there all his life, and Smith was a student of his when he taught in Malden. He helped her gain entrance into the Hampton Institute. Washington and Smith were married in the summer of 1882, a year after he became principal there. They had one child, Portia M. Washington, born in 1883. Fannie died in May 1884.",
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"plaintext": "In 1885 the widower Washington married again, to Olivia A. Davidson (1854–1889). Born free in Virginia to a free woman of color and a father who had been freed from slavery, she moved with her family to the free state of Ohio, where she attended common schools. Davidson later studied at Hampton Institute and went North to study at the Massachusetts State Normal School at Framingham. She taught in Mississippi and Tennessee before going to Tuskegee to work as a teacher. Washington recruited Davidson to Tuskegee, and promoted her to vice-principal. They had two sons, Booker T. Washington Jr. and Ernest Davidson Washington, before she died in 1889.",
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"plaintext": "In 1893 Washington married Margaret James Murray. She was from Mississippi and had graduated from Fisk University, a historically black college. They had no children together, but she helped rear Washington's three children. Murray outlived Washington and died in 1925.",
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"plaintext": "Washington's 1895 Atlanta Exposition address was viewed as a \"revolutionary moment\" by both African Americans and whites across the country. At the time W. E. B. Du Bois supported him, but they grew apart as Du Bois sought more action to remedy disfranchisement and improve educational opportunities for blacks. After their falling out, Du Bois and his supporters referred to Washington's speech as the \"Atlanta Compromise\" to express their criticism that Washington was too accommodating to white interests.",
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"plaintext": "Washington advocated a \"go slow\" approach to avoid a harsh white backlash. He has been criticized for encouraging many youths in the South to accept sacrifices of potential political power, civil rights, and higher education. Washington believed that African Americans should \"concentrate all their energies on industrial education, and accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South\". He valued the \"industrial\" education, as it provided critical skills for the jobs then available to the majority of African Americans at the time, as most lived in the South, which was overwhelmingly rural and agricultural. He thought these skills would lay the foundation for the creation of stability that the African-American community required in order to move forward. He believed that in the long term, \"blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by showing themselves to be responsible, reliable American citizens\". His approach advocated for an initial step toward equal rights, rather than full equality under the law, gaining economic power to back up black demands for political equality in the future. He believed that such achievements would prove to the deeply prejudiced white America that African Americans were not \"'naturally' stupid and incompetent\".",
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"plaintext": "Well-educated blacks in the North lived in a different society and advocated a different approach, in part due to their perception of wider opportunities. Du Bois wanted blacks to have the same \"classical\" liberal arts education as upper-class whites did, along with voting rights and civic equality. The latter two had been ostensibly granted since 1870 by constitutional amendments after the Civil War. He believed that an elite, which he called the Talented Tenth, would advance to lead the race to a wider variety of occupations. Du Bois and Washington were divided in part by differences in treatment of African Americans in the North versus the South; although both groups suffered discrimination, the mass of blacks in the South were far more constrained by legal segregation and disenfranchisement, which totally excluded most from the political process and system. Many in the North objected to being 'led', and authoritatively spoken for, by a Southern accommodationist strategy which they considered to have been \"imposed on them [Southern blacks] primarily by Southern whites\".",
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"plaintext": "Historian Clarence Earl Walker wrote that, for white Southerners,",
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"plaintext": "Free black people were 'matter out of place'. Their emancipation was an affront to southern white freedom. Booker T. Washington did not understand that his program was perceived as subversive of a natural order in which black people were to remain forever subordinate or unfree.",
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"plaintext": "Both Washington and Du Bois sought to define the best means post-Civil War to improve the conditions of the African-American community through education.",
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"plaintext": "Blacks were solidly Republican in this period, having gained emancipation and suffrage with President Lincoln and his party. Fellow Republican President Ulysses S. Grant defended African Americans' newly won freedom and civil rights in the South by passing laws and using federal force to suppress the Ku Klux Klan, which had committed violence against blacks for years to suppress voting and discourage education. After Federal troops left in 1877 at the end of the Reconstruction era, many paramilitary groups worked to suppress black voting by violence. From 1890 to 1908 Southern states disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites through constitutional amendments and statutes that created barriers to voter registration and voting. Such devices as poll taxes and subjective literacy tests sharply reduced the number of blacks in voting rolls. By the late nineteenth century, Southern white Democrats defeated some biracial Populist-Republican coalitions and regained power in the state legislatures of the former Confederacy; they passed laws establishing racial segregation and Jim Crow. In the border states and North, blacks continued to exercise the vote; the well-established Maryland African-American community defeated attempts there to disfranchise them.",
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"plaintext": "Washington worked and socialized with many national white politicians and industry leaders. He developed the ability to persuade wealthy whites, many of them self-made men, to donate money to black causes by appealing to their values. He argued that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate \"industry, thrift, intelligence and property\". He believed these were key to improved conditions for African Americans in the United States. Because African Americans had recently been emancipated and most lived in a hostile environment, Washington believed they could not expect too much at once. He said, \"I have learned that success is to be measured not so much by the position that one has reached in life as by the obstacles which he has had to overcome while trying to succeed.\"",
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"plaintext": "Along with Du Bois, Washington partly organized the \"Negro exhibition\" at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, where photos of Hampton Institute's black students were displayed. These were taken by his friend Frances Benjamin Johnston. The exhibition demonstrated African Americans' positive contributions to United States' society.",
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"plaintext": "State and local governments historically underfunded black schools, although they were ostensibly providing \"separate but equal\" segregated facilities. White philanthropists strongly supported education financially. Washington encouraged them and directed millions of their money to projects all across the South that Washington thought best reflected his self-help philosophy. Washington associated with the richest and most powerful businessmen and politicians of the era. He was seen as a spokesperson for African Americans and became a conduit for funding educational programs.",
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"plaintext": "His contacts included such diverse and well-known entrepreneurs and philanthropists as Andrew Carnegie, William Howard Taft, John D. Rockefeller, Henry Huttleston Rogers, George Eastman, Julius Rosenwald, Robert Curtis Ogden, Collis Potter Huntington, and William Henry Baldwin Jr. The latter donated large sums of money to agencies such as the Jeanes and Slater Funds. As a result, countless small rural schools were established through Washington's efforts, under programs that continued many years after his death. Along with rich white men, the black communities helped their communities directly by donating time, money, and labor to schools to match the funds required.",
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"plaintext": "A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and financier Henry H. Rogers (1840–1909). Henry Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest working-class family to become a principal officer of Standard Oil, and one of the richest men in the United States. Around 1894 Rogers heard Washington speak at Madison Square Garden. The next day he contacted Washington and requested a meeting, during which Washington later recounted that he was told that Rogers \"was surprised that no one had 'passed the hat' after the speech\". The meeting began a close relationship that extended over a period of 15 years. Although Washington and the very-private Rogers were seen as friends, the true depth and scope of their relationship was not publicly revealed until after Rogers' sudden death of a stroke in May 1909. Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his Fairhaven, Massachusetts summer home, and aboard his steam yacht Kanawha.",
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"plaintext": "A few weeks later Washington went on a previously planned speaking tour along the newly completed Virginian Railway, a $40-million enterprise that had been built almost entirely from Rogers' personal fortune. As Washington rode in the late financier's private railroad car, Dixie, he stopped and made speeches at many locations. His companions later recounted that he had been warmly welcomed by both black and white citizens at each stop.",
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"plaintext": "Washington revealed that Rogers had been quietly funding operations of 65 small country schools for African Americans, and had given substantial sums of money to support Tuskegee and Hampton institutes. He also noted that Rogers had encouraged programs with matching funds requirements so the recipients had a stake in the outcome.",
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"plaintext": "In 1907 Philadelphia Quaker Anna T. Jeanes (1822–1907) donated one million dollars to Washington for elementary schools for black children in the South. Her contributions and those of Henry Rogers and others funded schools in many poor communities.",
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"plaintext": "Julius Rosenwald (1862–1932) was another self-made wealthy man with whom Washington found common ground. By 1908 Rosenwald, son of an immigrant clothier, had become part-owner and president of Sears, Roebuck and Company in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of African-American education, especially in the segregated Southern states, where their schools were underfunded.",
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"plaintext": "In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Washington could spend less time fundraising and more managing the school. Later in 1912 Rosenwald provided funds to Tuskegee for a pilot program to build six new small schools in rural Alabama. They were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914, and overseen by Tuskegee architects and staff; the model proved successful.",
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"plaintext": "After Washington died in 1915, Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Fund in 1917, primarily to serve African-American students in rural areas throughout the South. The school building program was one of its largest programs. Using the architectural model plans developed by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent over $4million to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states, from Maryland to Texas. The Rosenwald Fund made matching grants, requiring community support, cooperation from the white school boards, and local fundraising. Black communities raised more than $4.7million to aid the construction and sometimes donated land and labor; essentially they taxed themselves twice to do so. These schools became informally known as Rosenwald Schools. But the philanthropist did not want them to be named for him, as they belonged to their communities. By his death in 1932, these newer facilities could accommodate one third of all African-American children in Southern U.S. schools.",
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"plaintext": "Washington's long-term adviser, Timothy Thomas Fortune (1856–1928), was a respected African-American economist and editor of The New York Age, the most widely read newspaper in the black community within the United States. He was the ghost-writer and editor of Washington's first autobiography, The Story of My Life and Work. Washington published five books during his lifetime with the aid of ghost-writers Timothy Fortune, Max Bennett Thrasher and Robert E. Park.",
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"plaintext": "In an effort to inspire the \"commercial, agricultural, educational, and industrial advancement\" of African Americans, Washington founded the National Negro Business League (NNBL) in 1900.",
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"plaintext": "When Washington's second autobiography, Up from Slavery, was published in 1901, it became a bestseller and had a major effect on the African-American community, its friends and allies. In October 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Washington to dine with him and his family at the White House. Although Republican presidents had met privately with black leaders, this was the first highly publicized social occasion when an African American was invited there on equal terms by the president. Democratic Party politicians from the South, including future governor of Mississippi James K. Vardaman and Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina, indulged in racist personal attacks when they learned of the invitation. Both used the derogatory term for African Americans in their statements.",
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"plaintext": "Vardaman described the White House as \"so saturated with the odor of the nigger that the rats have taken refuge in the stable,\" and declared, \"I am just as much opposed to Booker T. Washington as a voter as I am to the cocoanut-headed, chocolate-colored typical little coon who blacks my shoes every morning. Neither is fit to perform the supreme function of citizenship.\" Tillman said, \"The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they will learn their place again.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ladislaus Hengelmüller von Hengervár, the Austro-Hungarian ambassador to the United States, who was visiting the White House on the same day, said he found a rabbit's foot in Washington's coat pocket when he mistakenly put on the coat. The Washington Post described it as \"the left hind foot of a graveyard rabbit, killed in the dark of the moon\". The Detroit Journal quipped the next day, \"The Austrian ambassador may have made off with Booker T. Washington's coat at the White House, but he'd have a bad time trying to fill his shoes.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite his extensive travels and widespread work, Washington continued as principal of Tuskegee. Washington's health was deteriorating rapidly in 1915; he collapsed in New York City and was diagnosed by two different doctors as having Bright's disease, an inflammation of the kidneys, today called nephritis. Told he had only a few days left to live, Washington expressed a desire to die at Tuskegee. He boarded a train and arrived in Tuskegee shortly after midnight on November 14, 1915. He died a few hours later at the age of 59. His funeral was held on November 17, 1915, in the Tuskegee Institute Chapel. It was attended by nearly 8,000 people. He was buried nearby in the Tuskegee University Campus Cemetery.",
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"plaintext": "At the time he was thought to have died of congestive heart failure, aggravated by overwork. In March 2006, his descendants permitted examination of medical records: these showed he had hypertension, with a blood pressure more than twice normal, and that he died of kidney failure brought on by high blood pressure.",
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"plaintext": "At Washington's death, Tuskegee's endowment was close to $2,000,000 (). Washington's greatest life's work, the education of blacks in the South, was well underway and expanding.",
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"plaintext": "For his contributions to American society, Washington was granted an honorary master's degree from Harvard University in 1896, followed by an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College.",
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"plaintext": "At the center of Tuskegee University, the Booker T. Washington Monument was dedicated in 1922. Called Lifting the Veil, the monument has an inscription reading: ",
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"plaintext": "In 1934 Robert Russa Moton, Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for two African-American aviators. Afterward the plane was renamed as the Booker T. Washington.",
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"plaintext": "On April 7, 1940, Washington became the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp.",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, the liberty ship Booker T. Washington was named in his honor, the first major oceangoing vessel to be named after an African American. The ship was christened by noted singer Marian Anderson.",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, he was honored on the first coin to feature an African American, the Booker T. Washington Memorial half dollar, which was minted by the United States until 1951.",
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"plaintext": "On April 5, 1956, the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the house where he was born in Franklin County, Virginia, was designated as the Booker T. Washington National Monument.",
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"plaintext": "A state park in Chattanooga, Tennessee, was named in his honor, as was a bridge spanning the Hampton River adjacent to his alma mater, Hampton University.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984 Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic Emancipation Oak, establishing, in the words of the university, \"a relationship between one of America's great educators and social activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education\".",
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"plaintext": "Numerous high schools, middle schools and elementary schools across the United States have been named after Booker T. Washington.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, West Virginia State University (WVSU; then West Va. State College), in cooperation with other organizations including the Booker T. Washington Association, established the Booker T. Washington Institute, to honor Washington's boyhood home, the old town of Malden, and Washington's ideals.",
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"plaintext": "On October 19, 2009, WVSU dedicated a monument to Booker T. Washington. The event took place at WVSU's Booker T. Washington Park in Malden, West Virginia. The monument also honors the families of African ancestry who lived in Old Malden in the early 20th century and who knew and encouraged Washington. Special guest speakers at the event included West Virginia Governor Joe Manchin III, Malden attorney Larry L. Rowe, and the president of WVSU. Musical selections were provided by the WVSU \"Marching Swarm\".",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the 2008 presidential election, the defeated Republican candidate Senator John McCain recalled the stir caused a century before when President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to the White House. McCain noted the evident progress in the country with the election of Democratic Senator Barack Obama as the first African-American President of the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The historiography on Booker T. Washington has varied dramatically. After his death, he came under heavy criticism in the civil rights community for accommodationism to white supremacy. However, since the late 20th century, a more balanced view of his very wide range of activities has appeared. As of 2010, the most recent studies, \"defend and celebrate his accomplishments, legacy, and leadership\".",
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"plaintext": "Washington was held in high regard by business-oriented conservatives, both white and black. Historian Eric Foner argues that the freedom movement of the late nineteenth century changed directions so as to align with America's new economic and intellectual framework. Black leaders emphasized economic self-help and individual advancement into the middle class as a more fruitful strategy than political agitation. There was emphasis on education and literacy throughout the period after the Civil War. Washington's famous Atlanta speech of 1895 marked this transition, as it called on blacks to develop their farms, their industrial skills, and their entrepreneurship as the next stage in emerging from slavery.",
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"plaintext": "By this time, Mississippi had passed a new constitution, and other southern states were following suit, or using electoral laws to raise barriers to voter registration; they completed disenfranchisement of blacks at the turn of the 20th century to maintain white supremacy. But at the same time, Washington secretly arranged to fund numerous legal challenges to such voting restrictions and segregation, which he believed was the way they had to be attacked.",
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"plaintext": "Washington repudiated the historic abolitionist emphasis on unceasing agitation for full equality, advising blacks that it was counterproductive to fight segregation at that point. Foner concludes that Washington's strong support in the black community was rooted in its widespread realization that, given their legal and political realities, frontal assaults on white supremacy were impossible, and the best way forward was to concentrate on building up their economic and social structures inside segregated communities. Historian C. Vann Woodward in 1951 wrote of Washington, \"The businessman's gospel of free enterprise, competition, and laissez faire never had a more loyal exponent.\"",
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"plaintext": "Historians since the late 20th century have been divided in their characterization of Washington: some describe him as a visionary capable of \"read[ing] minds with the skill of a master psychologist,\" who expertly played the political game in 19th-century Washington by its own rules. Others say he was a self-serving, crafty narcissist who threatened and punished those in the way of his personal interests, traveled with an entourage, and spent much time fundraising, signing autographs, and giving flowery patriotic speeches with much flag waving – acts more indicative of an artful political boss than an altruistic civil rights leader.",
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"plaintext": "People called Washington the \"Wizard of Tuskegee\" because of his highly developed political skills, and his creation of a nationwide political machine based on the black middle class, white philanthropy, and Republican Party support. Opponents called this network the \"Tuskegee Machine\". Washington maintained control because of his ability to gain support of numerous groups, including influential whites and black business, educational and religious communities nationwide. He advised on the use of financial donations from philanthropists, and avoided antagonizing white Southerners with his accommodation to the political realities of the age of Jim Crow segregation.",
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"plaintext": "The Tuskegee machine collapsed rapidly after Washington's death. He was the charismatic leader who held it all together, with the aid of Emmett Jay Scott. But the trustees replaced Scott, and the elaborate system fell apart. Critics in the 1920s to 1960s, especially those connected with the NAACP, ridiculed Tuskegee as a producer of a class of submissive black laborers. Since the late 20th century historians have given much more favorable view, emphasizing the school's illustrious faculty and the progressive black movements, institutions and leaders in education, politics, architecture, medicine and other professions it produced who worked hard in communities across the United States, and indeed worldwide across the African Diaspora. Deborah Morowski points out that Tuskegee's curriculum served to help students achieve a sense of personal and collective efficacy. She concludes:",
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"plaintext": "The social studies curriculum provided an opportunity for the uplift of African Americans at time when these opportunities were few and far between for black youth. The curriculum provided inspiration for African Americans to advance their standing in society, to change the view of southern whites toward the value of blacks, and ultimately, to advance racial equality.",
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"plaintext": "At a time when most Blacks were poor farmers in the South, and were ignored by the national Black leadership, Washington's Tuskegee made their needs a high priority. They lobbied for government funds, and especially from philanthropies that enabled the institute to provide model farming techniques, advanced training, and organizational skills. These included Annual Negro Conferences, the Tuskegee Experiment Station, the Agricultural Short Course, the Farmers' Institutes, the Farmers' County Fairs, the Movable School, and numerous pamphlets and feature stories sent free to the South's black newspapers.",
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"plaintext": "Washington took the lead in promoting educational uplift for the African Diaspora, often with funding from the Phelps Stokes Fund or in collaboration with foreign sources, such as the German government.",
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"plaintext": "Washington's first daughter by Fannie, Portia Marshall Washington (1883–1978), was a trained pianist who married Tuskegee educator and architect William Sidney Pittman in 1900. They had three children. Pittman faced several difficulties in trying to build his practice while his wife built her musical profession. After he assaulted their daughter Fannie in the midst of an argument, Portia took Fannie and left Pittman. She resettled at Tuskegee. She was removed from the faculty in 1939, because she did not have an academic degree, but she opened her own piano teaching practice for a few years. After retiring in 1944 at the age of 61, she dedicated her efforts in the 1940s to memorializing her father. She succeeded in getting her father's bust placed in the Hall of Fame in New York, a 50-cent coin minted with his image, and his Virginia birthplace declared a National Monument. Portia Washington Pittman died on February 26, 1978, in Washington, D.C.",
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"plaintext": "Booker Jr. (1887–1945) married Nettie Blair Hancock (1887–1972). Their daughter, Nettie Hancock Washington (1917–1982), became a teacher and taught at a high school in Washington, D.C., for twenty years. She married physician Frederick Douglass III (1913–1942), great-grandson of famed abolitionist and orator Frederick Douglass. Nettie and Frederick's daughter, Nettie Washington Douglass, and her son, Kenneth Morris, co-founded the Frederick Douglass Family Initiatives, an anti-sex trafficking organization.",
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"plaintext": " Washington and his family's visit to the White House was dramatized as the subject of an opera, A Guest of Honor, by Scott Joplin, noted African-American composer. It was first produced in 1903.",
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"plaintext": " Documenting the American South. Other online full-text versions available via Project Gutenberg, UNC Library",
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"plaintext": " Fourteen-volume set of all letters to and from Booker T. Washington.",
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"plaintext": " . Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement.",
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"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": " ; 243 pp. Studies the content and influence of his philosophy of entrepreneurship",
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"plaintext": " Hamilton, Kenneth M. Booker T. Washington in American Memory (U of Illinois Press, 2017), 250 pp.",
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"plaintext": " Mathews, Basil Joseph, Booker T. Washington, educator and interracial interpreter (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1948)",
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"plaintext": " Bieze, Michael Scott, and Marybeth Gasman, eds. Booker T. Washington Rediscovered (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 265 pp. scholarly essays",
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"plaintext": " Zeringue, Joshua Thomas. \"Booker T. Washington and the Historians: How Changing Views on Race Relations, Economics, and Education Shaped Washington Historiography, 1915–2010\" (MA Thesis, LSU, 2015) online",
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"plaintext": " \"Booker T. Washington: The Man and the Myth Revisited.\" (2007) PowerPoint presentation By Dana Chandler",
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| 319,871 | 39,483 | 1,041 | 236 | 0 | 0 | Booker T. Washington | African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor (1856-1915) | [
"Booker Taliaferro Washington",
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|
37,243 | 1,106,757,563 | Harriet_Tubman | [
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"plaintext": "Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, March 10, 1913) was an American abolitionist and social activist. Born into slavery, Tubman escaped and subsequently made some 13 missions to rescue approximately 70 enslaved people, including family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. During the American Civil War, she served as an armed scout and spy for the Union Army. In her later years, Tubman was an activist in the movement for women's suffrage.",
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"plaintext": "Born enslaved in Dorchester County, Maryland, Tubman was beaten and whipped by her various masters as a child. Early in life, she suffered a traumatic head wound when an irate overseer threw a heavy metal weight intending to hit another enslaved person, but hit her instead. The injury caused dizziness, pain, and spells of hypersomnia, which occurred throughout her life. After her injury, Tubman began experiencing strange visions and vivid dreams, which she ascribed to premonitions from God. These experiences, combined with her Methodist upbringing, led her to become devoutly religious.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman was born Araminta \"Minty\" Ross to enslaved parents, Harriet (\"Rit\") Green and Ben Ross. Rit was enslaved by Mary Pattison Brodess (and later her son Edward). Ben was enslaved by Anthony Thompson, who became Mary Brodess's second husband, and who ran a large plantation near the Blackwater River in the Madison area of Dorchester County, Maryland.",
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"plaintext": "As a child, Tubman also worked at the home of a planter named James Cook. She had to check the muskrat traps in nearby marshes, even after contracting measles. She became so ill that Cook sent her back to Brodess, where her mother nursed her back to health. Brodess then hired her out again. She spoke later of her acute childhood homesickness, comparing herself to \"the boy on the Swanee River\", an allusion to Stephen Foster's song \"Old Folks at Home\". As she grew older and stronger, she was assigned to field and forest work, driving oxen, plowing, and hauling logs.",
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"plaintext": "Anthony Thompson promised to manumit Tubman's father at the age of 45. After Thompson died, his son followed through with that promise in 1840. Tubman's father continued working as a timber estimator and foreman for the Thompson family. Several years later, Tubman contacted a white attorney and paid him five dollars to investigate her mother's legal status. The lawyer discovered that a former owner had issued instructions that Tubman's mother, Rit, like her husband, would be manumitted at the age of 45. The record showed that a similar provision would apply to Rit's children, and that any children born after she reached 45 years of age were legally free, but the Pattison and Brodess families ignored this stipulation when they inherited the enslaved people. Challenging it legally was an impossible task for Tubman.",
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"plaintext": "Around 1844, she married a free Black man named John Tubman. Although little is known about him or their time together, the union was complicated because of her enslaved status. The mother's status dictated that of children, and any children born to Harriet and John would be enslaved. Such blended marriagesfree people of color marrying enslaved peoplewere not uncommon on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, where by this time, half the Black population was free. Most African-American families had both free and enslaved members. Larson suggests that they might have planned to buy Tubman's freedom.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman changed her name from Araminta to Harriet soon after her marriage, though the exact timing is unclear. Larson suggests this happened right after the wedding, and Clinton suggests that it coincided with Tubman's plans to escape from slavery. She adopted her mother's name, possibly as part of a religious conversion, or to honor another relative.",
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"plaintext": "In 1849, Tubman became ill again, which diminished her value in the eyes of the slave traders. Edward Brodess tried to sell her, but could not find a buyer. Angry at him for trying to sell her and for continuing to enslave her relatives, Tubman began to pray for her owner, asking God to make him change his ways. She said later: \"I prayed all night long for my master till the first of March; and all the time he was bringing people to look at me, and trying to sell me.\" When it appeared as though a sale was being concluded, \"I changed my prayer\", she said. \"First of March I began to pray, 'Oh Lord, if you ain't never going to change that man's heart, kill him, Lord, and take him out of the way. A week later, Brodess died, and Tubman expressed regret for her earlier sentiments.",
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"plaintext": "As in many estate settlements, Brodess's death increased the likelihood that Tubman would be sold and her family broken apart. His widow, Eliza, began working to sell the family's enslaved people. Tubman refused to wait for the Brodess family to decide her fate, despite her husband's efforts to dissuade her. \"[T]here was one of two things I had a right to\", she explained later, \"liberty or death; if I could not have one, I would have the other\".",
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"plaintext": "Tubman and her brothers, Ben and Henry, escaped from slavery on September 17, 1849. Tubman had been hired out to Anthony Thompson (the son of her father's former owner), who owned a large plantation in an area called Poplar Neck in neighboring Caroline County; it is likely her brothers labored for Thompson as well. Because the enslaved were hired out to another household, Eliza Brodess probably did not recognize their absence as an escape attempt for some time. Two weeks later, she posted a runaway notice in the Cambridge Democrat, offering a reward of up to $100 each for their capture and return to slavery. Once they had left, Tubman's brothers had second thoughts. Ben may have just become a father. The two men went back, forcing Tubman to return with them.",
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"plaintext": "Soon afterward, Tubman escaped again, this time without her brothers. She tried to send word of her plans beforehand to her mother. She sang a coded song to Mary, a trusted fellow enslaved person, that was a farewell. \"I'll meet you in the morning\", she intoned, \"I'm bound for the promised land.\" While her exact route is unknown, Tubman made use of the network known as the Underground Railroad. This informal but well-organized system was composed of free and enslaved Black people, white abolitionists, and other activists. Most prominent among the latter in Maryland at the time were members of the Religious Society of Friends, often called Quakers. The Preston area near Poplar Neck contained a substantial Quaker community and was probably an important first stop during Tubman's escape. From there, she probably took a common route for people fleeing slaverynortheast along the Choptank River, through Delaware and then north into Pennsylvania. A journey of nearly by foot would have taken between five days and three weeks.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman had to travel by night, guided by the North Star and trying to avoid slave catchers eager to collect rewards for fugitive slaves. The \"conductors\" in the Underground Railroad used deceptions for protection. At an early stop, the lady of the house instructed Tubman to sweep the yard so as to seem to be working for the family. When night fell, the family hid her in a cart and took her to the next friendly house. Given her familiarity with the woods and marshes of the region, Tubman likely hid in these locales during the day. The particulars of her first journey are unknown; because other fugitives from slavery used the routes, Tubman did not discuss them until later in life. She crossed into Pennsylvania with a feeling of relief and awe, and recalled the experience years later:",
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"plaintext": "After reaching Philadelphia, Tubman thought of her family. \"I was a stranger in a strange land,\" she said later. \"[M]y father, my mother, my brothers, and sisters, and friends were [in Maryland]. But I was free, and they should be free.\" She worked odd jobs and saved money. The U.S. Congress meanwhile passed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which heavily punished abetting escape and forced law enforcement officialseven in states that had outlawed slaveryto assist in their capture. The law increased risks for those who had escaped slavery, more of whom therefore sought refuge in Southern Ontario (then part of the United Province of Canada) which, as part of the British Empire, had abolished slavery. Racial tensions were also increasing in Philadelphia as waves of poor Irish immigrants competed with free Blacks for work.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1850, Tubman was warned that her niece Kessiah and her two children, six-year-old James Alfred, and baby Araminta, would soon be sold in Cambridge. Tubman went to Baltimore, where her brother-in-law Tom Tubman hid her until the sale. Kessiah's husband, a free Black man named John Bowley, made the winning bid for his wife. Then, while the auctioneer stepped away to have lunch, John, Kessiah and their children escaped to a nearby safe house. When night fell, Bowley sailed the family on a log canoe to Baltimore, where they met with Tubman, who brought the family to Philadelphia.",
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"plaintext": "Early next year she returned to Maryland to help guide away other family members. During her second trip, she recovered her brother Moses and two unidentified men. Tubman likely worked with abolitionist Thomas Garrett, a Quaker working in Wilmington, Delaware. Word of her exploits had encouraged her family, and biographers agree that with each trip to Maryland, she became more confident.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1851, Tubman returned to Dorchester County for the first time since her escape, this time to find her husband John. She saved money from various jobs, purchased a suit for him, and made her way south. Meanwhile, John had married another woman named Caroline. Tubman sent word that he should join her, but he insisted that he was happy where he was. Tubman at first prepared to storm their house and make a scene, but then decided he was not worth the trouble. Suppressing her anger, she found some enslaved people who wanted to escape and led them to Philadelphia. John and Caroline raised a family together, until he was killed 16 years later in a roadside argument with a white man named Robert Vincent.",
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"plaintext": "Because the Fugitive Slave Law had made the northern United States a more dangerous place for those escaping slavery to remain, many escapees began migrating to Southern Ontario. In December 1851, Tubman guided an unidentified group of 11 fugitives, possibly including the Bowleys and several others she had helped rescue earlier, northward. There is evidence to suggest that Tubman and her group stopped at the home of abolitionist and formerly enslaved Frederick Douglass. In his third autobiography, Douglass wrote: \"On one occasion I had eleven fugitives at the same time under my roof, and it was necessary for them to remain with me until I could collect sufficient money to get them on to Canada. It was the largest number I ever had at any one time, and I had some difficulty in providing so many with food and shelter. ... \" The number of travelers and the time of the visit make it likely that this was Tubman's group.",
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"plaintext": "Douglass and Tubman admired one another greatly as they both struggled against slavery. When an early biography of Tubman was being prepared in 1868, Douglass wrote a letter to honor her. He compared his own efforts with hers, writing:",
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"plaintext": "Over 11 years, Tubman returned repeatedly to the Eastern Shore of Maryland, rescuing some 70 enslaved people in about 13 expeditions, including her other brothers, Henry, Ben, and Robert, their wives and some of their children. She also provided specific instructions to 50 to 60 additional fugitives who escaped to the north. Because of her efforts, she was nicknamed \"Moses\", alluding to the prophet in the Book of Exodus who led the Hebrews to freedom from Egypt. One of her last missions into Maryland was to retrieve her aging parents. Her father, Ben, had purchased Rit, her mother, in 1855 from Eliza Brodess for $20. But even when they were both free, the area became hostile to their presence. Two years later, Tubman received word that her father was at risk of arrest for harboring a group of eight people escaping slavery. She traveled to the Eastern Shore and led them north to St. Catharines, Ontario, where a community of formerly enslaved people (including Tubman's brothers, other relatives, and many friends) had gathered.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman's dangerous work required tremendous ingenuity; she usually worked during winter months, to minimize the likelihood that the group would be seen. One admirer of Tubman said: \"She always came in the winter, when the nights are long and dark, and people who have homes stay in them.\" Once she had made contact with those escaping slavery, they left town on Saturday evenings, since newspapers would not print runaway notices until Monday morning.",
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"plaintext": "Her journeys into the land of slavery put her at tremendous risk, and she used a variety of subterfuges to avoid detection. Tubman once disguised herself with a bonnet and carried two live chickens to give the appearance of running errands. Suddenly finding herself walking toward a former owner in Dorchester County, she yanked the strings holding the birds' legs, and their agitation allowed her to avoid eye contact. Later she recognized a fellow train passenger as another former master; she snatched a nearby newspaper and pretended to read. Tubman was known to be illiterate, and the man ignored her.",
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"plaintext": "While being interviewed by author Wilbur Siebert in 1897, Tubman named some of the people who helped her and places that she stayed along the Underground Railroad. She stayed with Sam Green, a free black minister living in East New Market, Maryland; she also hid near her parents' home at Poplar Neck. She would travel from there northeast to Sandtown and Willow Grove, Delaware, and to the Camden area where free black agents, William and Nat Brinkley and Abraham Gibbs, guided her north past Dover, Smyrna, and Blackbird, where other agents would take her across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal to New Castle and Wilmington. In Wilmington, Quaker Thomas Garrett would secure transportation to William Still's office or the homes of other Underground Railroad operators in the greater Philadelphia area. Still is credited with aiding hundreds of freedom seekers escape to safer places farther north in New York, New England, and present-day Southern Ontario.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman's religious faith was another important resource as she ventured repeatedly into Maryland. The visions from her childhood head injury continued, and she saw them as divine premonitions. She spoke of \"consulting with God\", and trusted that He would keep her safe. Thomas Garrett once said of her, \"I never met with any person of any color who had more confidence in the voice of God, as spoken direct to her soul.\" Her faith in the divine also provided immediate assistance. She used spirituals as coded messages, warning fellow travelers of danger or to signal a clear path. She sang versions of \"Go Down Moses\" and changed the lyrics to indicate that it was either safe or too dangerous to proceed. As she led fugitives across the border, she would call out, \"Glory to God and Jesus, too. One more soul is safe!\"",
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"plaintext": "She carried a revolver, and was not afraid to use it. The gun afforded some protection from the ever-present slave catchers and their dogs; however, she also purportedly threatened to shoot any escaped person who tried to turn back on the journey since that would threaten the safety of the remaining group. Tubman told the tale of one man who insisted he was going to go back to the plantation when morale got low among a group of escapees. She pointed the gun at his head and said, \"You go on or die.\" Several days later, he was with the group as they entered Canada.",
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"plaintext": "Slaveholders in the region, meanwhile, never knew that \"Minty\", the petite, , disabled slave who had run away years before and never come back, was responsible for so many escapes in their community. By the late 1850s, they began to suspect a northern white abolitionist was secretly enticing away the people they had enslaved. Though a popular legend persists about a reward of for Tubman's capture, this is a manufactured figure. In 1868, in an effort to entice support for Tubman's claim for a Civil War military pension, a former abolitionist named Salley Holley wrote an article claiming $40,000 \"was not too great a reward for Maryland slaveholders to offer for her\". Such a high reward would have garnered national attention, especially at a time when a small farm could be purchased for a mere and the federal government offered $25,000 for the capture of each of John Wilkes Booth's co-conspirators in President Lincoln's assassination in 1865. A reward offering of $12,000 has also been claimed, though no documentation has been found for either figure. Catherine Clinton suggests that the $40,000 figure may have been a combined total of the various bounties offered around the region.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the efforts of the slaveholders, Tubman and the fugitives she assisted were never captured. Years later, she told an audience: \"I was conductor of the Underground Railroad for eight years, and I can say what most conductors can't say– I never ran my train off the track and I never lost a passenger.\"",
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"plaintext": "In April 1858, Tubman was introduced to the abolitionist John Brown, an insurgent who advocated the use of violence to destroy slavery in the United States. Although she never advocated violence against whites, she agreed with his course of direct action and supported his goals. Like Tubman, he spoke of being called by God, and trusted the divine to protect him from the wrath of slaveholders. She, meanwhile, claimed to have had a prophetic vision of meeting Brown before their encounter.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, as he began recruiting supporters for an attack on slaveholders, Brown was joined by \"General Tubman\", as he called her. Her knowledge of support networks and resources in the border states of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and his planners. Although other abolitionists like Douglass did not endorse his tactics, Brown dreamed of fighting to create a new state for those freed from slavery, and made preparations for military action. He believed that after he began the first battle, the enslaved would rise up and carry out a rebellion across the slave states. He asked Tubman to gather the formerly enslaved then living in present-day Southern Ontario who might be willing to join his fighting force, which she did.",
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"plaintext": "On May 8, 1858, Brown held a meeting in Chatham, Ontario, where he unveiled his plan for a raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia. When word of the plan was leaked to the government, Brown put the scheme on hold and began raising funds for its eventual resumption. Tubman aided him in this effort and with more detailed plans for the assault.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman was busy during this time, giving talks to abolitionist audiences and tending to her relatives. In late 1859, as Brown and his men prepared to launch the attack, Tubman could not be contacted. When the raid on Harpers Ferry took place on October 16, Tubman was not present. Some historians believe she was in New York at the time, ill with fever related to her childhood head injury. Others propose she may have been recruiting more escapees in Ontario, and Kate Clifford Larson suggests she may have been in Maryland, recruiting for Brown's raid or attempting to rescue more family members. Larson also notes that Tubman may have begun sharing Frederick Douglass's doubts about the viability of the plan.",
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"plaintext": "The raid failed; Brown was convicted of treason, murder, and inciting a slave rebellion, and he was hanged on December 2. His actions were seen by many abolitionists as a symbol of proud resistance, carried out by a noble martyr. Tubman herself was effusive with praise. She later told a friend: \"[H]e done more in dying, than 100 men would in living.\"",
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"plaintext": "In early 1859, abolitionist Republican U.S. Senator William H. Seward sold Tubman a small piece of land on the outskirts of Auburn, New York, for . The city was a hotbed of antislavery activism, and Tubman seized the opportunity to deliver her parents from the harsh Canadian winters. Returning to the U.S. meant that those who had escaped enslavement were at risk of being returned to the South and re-enslaved under the Fugitive Slave Law, and Tubman's siblings expressed reservations. Catherine Clinton suggests that anger over the 1857 Dred Scott decision may have prompted Tubman to return to the U.S. Her land in Auburn became a haven for Tubman's family and friends. For years, she took in relatives and boarders, offering a safe place for Black Americans seeking a better life in the north.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after acquiring the Auburn property, Tubman went back to Maryland and returned with her \"niece\", an eight-year-old light-skinned black girl named Margaret. There is great confusion about the identity of Margaret's parents, although Tubman indicated they were free blacks. The girl left behind a twin brother and both parents in Maryland. Years later, Margaret's daughter Alice called Tubman's actions selfish, saying, \"she had taken the child from a sheltered good home to a place where there was nobody to care for her\". Alice described it as a \"kidnapping\".",
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"plaintext": "However, both Clinton and Larson present the possibility that Margaret was in fact Tubman's daughter. Larson points out that the two shared an unusually strong bond, and argues that Tubman– knowing the pain of a child separated from her mother– would never have intentionally caused a free family to be split apart. Clinton presents evidence of strong physical similarities, which Alice herself acknowledged. Both historians agree that no concrete evidence has been found for such a possibility, and the mystery of Tubman's relationship with young Margaret remains to this day.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1860, Tubman conducted her last rescue mission. Throughout the 1850s, Tubman had been unable to effect the escape of her sister Rachel, and Rachel's two children Ben and Angerine. Upon returning to Dorchester County, Tubman discovered that Rachel had died, and the children could be rescued only if she could pay a bribe of . She had no money, so the children remained enslaved. Their fates remain unknown. Never one to waste a trip, Tubman gathered another group, including the Ennalls family, ready and willing to take the risks of the journey north. It took them weeks to safely get away because of slave catchers forcing them to hide out longer than expected. The weather was unseasonably cold and they had little food. The children were drugged with paregoric to keep them quiet while slave patrols rode by. They safely reached the home of David and Martha Wright in Auburn on December 28, 1860.",
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"plaintext": "When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Tubman saw a Union victory as a key step toward the abolition of slavery. General Benjamin Butler, for instance, aided escapees flooding into Fort Monroe in Virginia. Butler had declared these fugitives to be \"contraband\"property seized by northern forcesand put them to work, initially without pay, in the fort. Tubman hoped to offer her own expertise and skills to the Union cause, too, and soon she joined a group of Boston and Philadelphia abolitionists heading to the Hilton Head district in South Carolina. She became a fixture in the camps, particularly in Port Royal, South Carolina, assisting fugitives.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman met with General David Hunter, a strong supporter of abolition. He declared all of the \"contrabands\" in the Port Royal district free, and began gathering formerly enslaved people for a regiment of Black soldiers. U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, however, was not prepared to enforce emancipation on the southern states, and reprimanded Hunter for his actions. Tubman condemned Lincoln's response and his general unwillingness to consider ending slavery in the U.S., for both moral and practical reasons:",
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"plaintext": "Tubman served as a nurse in Port Royal, preparing remedies from local plants and aiding soldiers suffering from dysentery. She rendered assistance to men with smallpox; that she did not contract the disease herself started more rumors that she was blessed by God. At first, she received government rations for her work, but newly freed blacks thought she was getting special treatment. To ease the tension, she gave up her right to these supplies and made money selling pies and root beer, which she made in the evenings.",
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"plaintext": "When Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, Tubman considered it an important step toward the goal of liberating all black people from slavery. She renewed her support for a defeat of the Confederacy, and in early 1863 she led a band of scouts through the land around Port Royal. The marshes and rivers in South Carolina were similar to those of the Eastern Shore of Maryland; thus, her knowledge of covert travel and subterfuge among potential enemies was put to good use. Her group, working under the orders of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, mapped the unfamiliar terrain and reconnoitered its inhabitants. She later worked alongside Colonel James Montgomery, and provided him with key intelligence that aided in the capture of Jacksonville, Florida.",
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"plaintext": "Later that year, Tubman became the first woman to lead an armed assault during the Civil War. When Montgomery and his troops conducted an assault on a collection of plantations along the Combahee River, Tubman served as a key adviser and accompanied the raid. On the morning of June 2, 1863, Tubman guided three steamboats around Confederate mines in the waters leading to the shore. Once ashore, the Union troops set fire to the plantations, destroying infrastructure and seizing thousands of dollars worth of food and supplies. When the steamboats sounded their whistles, enslaved people throughout the area understood that they were being liberated. Tubman watched as those fleeing slavery stampeded toward the boats, describing a scene of chaos with women carrying still-steaming pots of rice, pigs squealing in bags slung over shoulders, and babies hanging around their parents' necks, which she punctuated by saying: \"I never saw such a sight!\" Although those who enslaved them, armed with handguns and whips, tried to stop the mass escape, their efforts were nearly useless in the tumult. As Confederate troops raced to the scene, steamboats packed full of people escaping slavery took off toward Beaufort.",
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"plaintext": "More than 750 enslaved people were rescued in the Combahee River Raid. Newspapers heralded Tubman's \"patriotism, sagacity, energy, [and] ability\", and she was praised for her recruiting efforts– most of the newly liberated men went on to join the Union army. Tubman later worked with Colonel Robert Gould Shaw at the assault on Fort Wagner, reportedly serving him his last meal. She described the battle: ",
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"plaintext": "For two more years, Tubman worked for the Union forces, tending to newly liberated people, scouting into Confederate territory, and nursing wounded soldiers in Virginia. She also made periodic trips back to Auburn to visit her family and care for her parents. The Confederacy surrendered in April 1865; after donating several more months of service, Tubman headed home to Auburn.",
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"plaintext": "During a train ride to New York in 1869, the conductor told her to move from a half-price section into the baggage car. She refused, showing the government-issued papers that entitled her to ride there. He cursed at her and grabbed her, but she resisted and he summoned two other passengers for help. While she clutched at the railing, they muscled her away, breaking her arm in the process. They threw her into the baggage car, causing more injuries. As these events transpired, other white passengers cursed Tubman and shouted for the conductor to kick her off the train. Her act of defiance became a historical symbol, later cited when Rosa Parks refused to move from a bus seat in 1955.",
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"plaintext": "Despite her years of service, Tubman never received a regular salary and was for years denied compensation. Her unofficial status and the unequal payments offered to black soldiers caused great difficulty in documenting her service, and the U.S. government was slow in recognizing its debt to her. Her constant humanitarian work for her family and the formerly enslaved, meanwhile, kept her in a state of constant poverty, and her difficulties in obtaining a government pension were especially difficult for her.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman spent her remaining years in Auburn, tending to her family and other people in need. She worked various jobs to support her elderly parents, and took in boarders to help pay the bills. One of the people Tubman took in was a farmer named Nelson Charles Davis. Born in North Carolina, he had served as a private in the 8th United States Colored Infantry Regiment from September 1863 to November 1865. He began working in Auburn as a bricklayer, and they soon fell in love. Though he was 22 years younger than she was, on March 18, 1869, they were married at the Central Presbyterian Church. They adopted a baby girl named Gertie in 1874, and lived together as a family; Nelson died on October 14, 1888, of tuberculosis.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman's friends and supporters from the days of abolition, meanwhile, raised funds to support her. One admirer, Sarah Hopkins Bradford, wrote an authorized biography entitled Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman. The 132-page volume was published in 1869 and brought Tubman some $1,200 in income. Criticized by modern biographers for its artistic license and highly subjective point of view, the book nevertheless remains an important source of information and perspective on Tubman's life. In 1886 Bradford released a re-written volume, also intended to help alleviate Tubman's poverty, called Harriet, the Moses of her People. In both volumes Harriet Tubman is hailed as a latter-day Joan of Arc.",
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"plaintext": "Facing accumulated debts (including payments for her property in Auburn), Tubman fell prey in 1873 to a swindle involving gold transfer. Two men, one named Stevenson and the other John Thomas, claimed to have in their possession a cache of gold smuggled out of South Carolina. They offered this treasure– worth about $5,000, they claimed– for $2,000 in cash. They insisted that they knew a relative of Tubman's, and she took them into her home, where they stayed for several days. She knew that white people in the South had buried valuables when Union forces threatened the region, and also that black men were frequently assigned to digging duties. Thus the situation seemed plausible, and a combination of her financial woes and her good nature led her to go along with the plan. She borrowed the money from a wealthy friend named Anthony Shimer and arranged to receive the gold late one night. Once the men had lured her into the woods, however, they attacked her and knocked her out with chloroform, then stole her purse and bound and gagged her. When she was found by her family, she was dazed and injured, and the money was gone.",
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"plaintext": "New York responded with outrage to the incident, and while some criticized Tubman for her naïveté, most sympathized with her economic hardship and lambasted the con men. The incident refreshed the public's memory of her past service and her economic woes. In 1874, Representatives Clinton D. MacDougall of New York and Gerry W. Hazelton of Wisconsin introduced a bill (H.R. 2711/3786) providing that Tubman be paid \"the sum of $2,000 for services rendered by her to the Union Army as scout, nurse, and spy\". The bill was defeated in the Senate.",
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"plaintext": "The Dependent and Disability Pension Act of 1890 made Tubman eligible for a pension as the widow of Nelson Davis. After she documented her marriage and her husband's service record to the satisfaction of the Bureau of Pensions, in 1895 Tubman was granted a monthly widow's pension of , plus a lump sum of to cover the five-year delay in approval. In December 1897, New York Congressman Sereno E. Payne introduced a bill to grant Tubman a soldier's monthly pension for her own service in the Civil War at . Although Congress received documents and letters to support Tubman's claims, some members objected to a woman being paid a full soldier's pension. In February 1899, the Congress passed and President William McKinley signed H.R. 4982, which approved a compromise amount of $20 per month (the $8 from her widow's pension plus $12 for her service as a nurse), but did not acknowledge her as a scout and spy. In 2003, Congress approved a payment of of additional pension to compensate for the perceived deficiency of the payments made during her life. The funds were directed to the maintenance of her relevant historical sites.",
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"plaintext": "In her later years, Tubman worked to promote the cause of women's suffrage. A white woman once asked Tubman whether she believed women ought to have the vote, and received the reply: \"I suffered enough to believe it.\" Tubman began attending meetings of suffragist organizations, and was soon working alongside women such as Susan B. Anthony and Emily Howland.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman traveled to New York, Boston and Washington, D.C. to speak out in favor of women's voting rights. She described her actions during and after the Civil War, and used the sacrifices of countless women throughout modern history as evidence of women's equality to men. When the National Federation of Afro-American Women was founded in 1896, Tubman was the keynote speaker at its first meeting.",
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"plaintext": "This wave of activism kindled a new wave of admiration for Tubman among the press in the United States. A publication called The Woman's Era launched a series of articles on \"Eminent Women\" with a profile of Tubman. An 1897 suffragist newspaper reported a series of receptions in Boston honoring Tubman and her lifetime of service to the nation. However, her endless contributions to others had left her in poverty, and she had to sell a cow to buy a train ticket to these celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "At the turn of the 20th century, Tubman became heavily involved with the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Auburn. In 1903, she donated a parcel of real estate she owned to the church, under the instruction that it be made into a home for \"aged and indigent colored people\". The home did not open for another five years, and Tubman was dismayed when the church ordered residents to pay a $100 entrance fee. She said: \"[T]hey make a rule that nobody should come in without they have a hundred dollars. Now I wanted to make a rule that nobody should come in unless they didn't have no money at all.\" She was frustrated by the new rule, but was the guest of honor nonetheless when the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged celebrated its opening on June 23, 1908.",
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"plaintext": "As Tubman aged, the seizures, headaches, and her childhood head trauma continued to trouble her. At some point in the late 1890s, she underwent brain surgery at Boston's Massachusetts General Hospital. Unable to sleep because of pains and \"buzzing\" in her head, she asked a doctor if he could operate. He agreed and, in her words, \"sawed open my skull, and raised it up, and now it feels more comfortable\". She had received no anesthesia for the procedure and reportedly chose instead to bite down on a bullet, as she had seen Civil War soldiers do when their limbs were amputated.",
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"plaintext": "By 1911, Tubman's body was so frail that she was admitted into the rest home named in her honor. A New York newspaper described her as \"ill and penniless\", prompting supporters to offer a new round of donations. Surrounded by friends and family members, she died of pneumonia on March 10, 1913. Just before she died, she told those in the room: \"I go to prepare a place for you.\" Tubman was buried with semi-military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn.",
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"plaintext": "Widely known and well-respected while she was alive, Tubman became an American icon in the years after she died. A survey at the end of the 20th century named her as one of the most famous civilians in American history before the Civil War, third only to Betsy Ross and Paul Revere. She inspired generations of African Americans struggling for equality and civil rights; she was praised by leaders across the political spectrum. The city of Auburn commemorated her life with a plaque on the courthouse. Although it showed pride for her many achievements, its use of dialect (\"I nebber run my train off de track\"), apparently chosen for its authenticity, has been criticized for undermining her stature as an American patriot and dedicated humanitarian. Nevertheless, the dedication ceremony was a powerful tribute to her memory, and Booker T. Washington delivered the keynote address.",
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"plaintext": "In 1937 a gravestone for Harriet Tubman was erected by the Empire State Federation of Women's Clubs; it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999. The Harriet Tubman Home was abandoned after 1920, but was later renovated by the AME Zion Church and opened as a museum and education center. A Harriet Tubman Memorial Library was opened nearby in 1979.",
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"plaintext": "In southern Ontario, the Salem Chapel BME Church was designated a National Historic Site in 1999, on the recommendation of the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. The chapel in St. Catharines, Ontario was a focus of Tubman's years in the city, when she lived nearby, in what was a major terminus of the Underground Railroad and center of abolitionist work. In Tubman's time, the chapel was known as Bethel Chapel, and was part of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, prior to a change to the British Methodist Episcopal Church in 1856. Tubman herself was designated a National Historic Person after the Historic Sites and Monuments Board recommended it in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 2008, advocacy groups in Maryland and New York, and their federal representatives, pushed for legislation to establish two national historical parks honoring Harriet Tubman: one to include her place of birth on Maryland's eastern shore, and sites along the route of the Underground Railroad in Caroline, Dorchester, and Talbot counties in Maryland; and a second to include her home in Auburn. For the next six years, bills to do so were introduced, but were never enacted. In 2013, President Barack Obama used his executive authority to create the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument, consisting of federal lands on Maryland's Eastern Shore at Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2014, authorization for a national historical park designation was incorporated in the 2015 National Defense Authorization Act. Despite opposition from some legislators, the bill passed with bipartisan support and was signed into law by President Obama on December 19, 2014. The Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Auburn, authorized by the act, was established on January 10, 2017. In March 2017 the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Visitor Center was inaugurated in Maryland within Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park. The act also created the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park in Maryland within the authorized boundary of the national monument, while permitting later additional acquisitions. The Harriet Tubman Museum opened in Cape May, New Jersey in 2020.",
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"plaintext": "The National Museum of African American History and Culture has items owned by Tubman, including eating utensils, a hymnal, and a linen and silk shawl given to her by Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Related items include a photographic portrait of Tubman (one of only a few known to exist), and three postcards with images of Tubman's 1913 funeral.",
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"plaintext": "In Schenectady, New York, There is a full size bronze statue of William Seward and Harriet Tubman outside the Schenectady Public Library. The theme is \"Leaders, Friendship, Diversity, Freedom.\" and \"By the people, for the people.\" Sculpted and cast by Dexter Benedict, unveiled May 17, 2019.",
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"plaintext": "On April 20, 2016, then-U.S. Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced plans to add a portrait of Tubman to the front of the twenty-dollar bill, moving the portrait of President Andrew Jackson, himself an enslaver of human beings, to the rear of the bill. Lew instructed the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to expedite the redesign process, and the new bill was expected to enter circulation sometime after 2020. However, in 2017 U.S. Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin said that he would not commit to putting Tubman on the twenty-dollar bill, saying, \"People have been on the bills for a long period of time. This is something we'll consider; right now we have a lot more important issues to focus on.\" In 2021, under the Biden administration, the Treasury Department resumed the effort to add Tubman's portrait to the front of the $20 bill and hoped to expedite the process.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman is the subject of works of art including songs, novels, sculptures, paintings, movies, and theatrical productions. Musicians have celebrated her in works such as \"The Ballad of Harriet Tubman\" by Woody Guthrie, the song \"Harriet Tubman\" by Walter Robinson, and the instrumental \"Harriet Tubman\" by Wynton Marsalis.",
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"plaintext": "There have been several operas based on Tubman's life, including Thea Musgrave's Harriet, the Woman Called Moses, which premiered in 1985 at the Virginia Opera. Nkeiru Okoye also wrote the opera Harriet Tubman: When I Crossed that Line to Freedom first performed in 2014. In 2018 the world premier of the opera Harriet by Hilda Paredes was given by Muziektheater Transparant in Huddersfield, UK. The libretto came from poetry by Mayra Santos-Febres and dialogue from Lex Bohlmeijer Stage plays based on Tubman's life appeared as early as the 1930s, when May Miller and Willis Richardson included a play about Tubman in their 1934 collection Negro History in Thirteen Plays. Other plays about Tubman include Harriet's Return by Karen Jones Meadows and Harriet Tubman Visits a Therapist by Carolyn Gage.",
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"plaintext": "In printed fiction, in 1948 Tubman was the subject of Anne Parrish's A Clouded Star, a biographical novel that was criticized for presenting negative stereotypes of African-Americans. A Woman Called Moses, a 1976 novel by Marcy Heidish, was criticized for portraying a drinking, swearing, sexually active version of Tubman. Tubman biographer James A. McGowan called the novel a \"deliberate distortion\". The 2019 novel The Tubman Command by Elizabeth Cobbs focuses on Tubman's leadership of the Combahee River Raid. Tubman also appears as a character in other novels, such as Terry Bisson's 1988 science fiction novel Fire on the Mountain, James McBride's 2013 novel The Good Lord Bird, and the 2019 novel The Water Dancer by Ta-Nehisi Coates.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman's life was dramatized on television in 1963 on the CBS series The Great Adventure in an episode titled \"Go Down Moses\" with Ruby Dee starring as Tubman. In December 1978, Cicely Tyson portrayed her for the NBC miniseries A Woman Called Moses, based on the novel by Heidish. In 1994, Alfre Woodard played Tubman in the television film Race to Freedom: The Underground Railroad. In 2017, Aisha Hinds portrayed Tubman in the second season of the WGN America drama series Underground. In 2018, Christine Horn portrayed her in an episode of the science fiction series Timeless, which covers her role in the Civil War. Harriet, a biographical film starring Cynthia Erivo in the title role, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2019. The production received good reviews, and Academy Award nominations for Best Actress and Best Song. The film became \"one of the most successful biographical dramas in the history of Focus Features\" and made $43 million against a production budget of $17 million.",
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"plaintext": "Visual artists have depicted Tubman as an inspirational figure. In 1931, painter Aaron Douglas completed Spirits Rising, a mural of Tubman at the Bennett College for Women in Greensboro, North Carolina. Douglas said he wanted to portray Tubman \"as a heroic leader\" who would \"idealize a superior type of Negro womanhood\". A series of paintings about Tubman's life by Jacob Lawrence appeared at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1940. He called Tubman's life \"one of the great American sagas\". On February 1, 1978, the United States Postal Service issued a 13-cent stamp in honor of Tubman, designed by artist Jerry Pinkney. She was the first African-American woman to be honored on a U.S. postage stamp. A second, 32-cent stamp featuring Tubman was issued on June 29, 1995. In 2019, artist Michael Rosato depicted Tubman in a mural along U.S. Route 50, near Cambridge, Maryland, and in another mural in Cambridge on the side of the Harriet Tubman Museum.",
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"plaintext": "Tubman is commemorated together with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Amelia Bloomer, and Sojourner Truth in the calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church on July 20. The calendar of saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America remembers Tubman and Sojourner Truth on March 10. Since 2003, the state of New York has also commemorated Tubman on March 10, although the day is not a legal holiday.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous structures, organizations, and other entities have been named in Tubman's honor. These include dozens of schools, streets and highways in several states, and various church groups, social organizations, and government agencies. In 1944, the United States Maritime Commission launched the , its first Liberty ship ever named for a black woman. An asteroid, (241528) Tubman, was named after her in 2014. A section of the Wyman Park Dell in Baltimore, Maryland was renamed Harriet Tubman Grove in March 2018; the grove was previously the site of a double equestrian statue of Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, which was among four statues removed from public areas around Baltimore in August 2017. In 2021, a park in Milwaukee was renamed from Wahl Park to Harriet Tubman Park.",
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"plaintext": "The Lapidus Center for the Historical Analysis of Transatlantic Slavery awards the annual Harriet Tubman Prize for \"the best nonfiction book published in the United States on the slave trade, slavery, and anti-slavery in the Atlantic World\".",
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"plaintext": "The first modern biography of Tubman to be published after Sarah Hopkins Bradford's 1869 and 1886 books was Earl Conrad's Harriet Tubman (1943). Conrad had experienced great difficulty in finding a publisherthe search took four yearsand endured disdain and contempt for his efforts to construct a more objective, detailed account of Tubman's life for adults. Several highly dramatized versions of Tubman's life had been written for children, and many more came later, but Conrad wrote in an academic style to document the historical importance of her work for scholars and the nation's collective memory. The book was finally published by Carter G. Woodson's Associated Publishers in 1943. Though she was a popular significant historical figure, another Tubman biography for adults did not appear for 60 years, when Jean Humez published a close reading of Tubman's life stories in 2003. Larson and Clinton both published their biographies soon after in 2004. Author Milton C. Sernett discusses all the major biographies of Tubman in his 2007 book Harriet Tubman: Myth, Memory, and History.",
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"plaintext": " List of enslaved people",
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"plaintext": " Harriet Tubman: Online Resources, from the Library of Congress",
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"plaintext": " Full text of Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman, from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill",
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"plaintext": " Michals, Debra. \"Harriet Tubman\". National Women's History Museum. 2015.",
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"plaintext": " Maurer, Elizabeth L. \"Harriet Tubman\". National Women's History Museum. 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Radionuclides occur naturally or are artificially produced in nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators. There are about 730 radionuclides with half-lives longer than 60 minutes (see list of nuclides). Thirty-two of those are primordial radionuclides that were created before the earth was formed. At least another 60 radionuclides are detectable in nature, either as daughters of primordial radionuclides or as radionuclides produced through natural production on Earth by cosmic radiation. More than 2400 radionuclides have half-lives less than 60 minutes. Most of those are only produced artificially, and have very short half-lives. For comparison, there are about 252 stable nuclides. (In theory, only 146 of them are stable, and the other 106 are believed to decay via alpha decay, beta decay, double beta decay, electron capture, or double electron capture.)",
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"plaintext": "All chemical elements can exist as radionuclides. Even the lightest element, hydrogen, has a well-known radionuclide, tritium. Elements heavier than lead, and the elements technetium and promethium, exist only as radionuclides. (In theory, elements heavier than dysprosium exist only as radionuclides, but some such elements, like gold and platinum, are observationally stable and their half-lives have not been determined).",
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"plaintext": "Unplanned exposure to radionuclides generally has a harmful effect on living organisms including humans, although low levels of exposure occur naturally without harm. The degree of harm will depend on the nature and extent of the radiation produced, the amount and nature of exposure (close contact, inhalation or ingestion), and the biochemical properties of the element; with increased risk of cancer the most usual consequence. However, radionuclides with suitable properties are used in nuclear medicine for both diagnosis and treatment. An imaging tracer made with radionuclides is called a radioactive tracer. A pharmaceutical drug made with radionuclides is called a radiopharmaceutical.",
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"plaintext": "Secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides. They arise in the decay chain of the primordial isotopes thorium-232, uranium-238, and uranium-235. Examples include the natural isotopes of polonium and radium.",
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"plaintext": "Many of these radionuclides exist only in trace amounts in nature, including all cosmogenic nuclides. Secondary radionuclides will occur in proportion to their half-lives, so short-lived ones will be very rare. For example, polonium can be found in uranium ores at about 0.1mg per metric ton (1 part in 1010). Further radionuclides may occur in nature in virtually undetectable amounts as a result of rare events such as spontaneous fission or uncommon cosmic ray interactions.",
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"plaintext": "As well as being extracted from nuclear waste, radioisotopes can be produced deliberately with nuclear reactors, exploiting the high flux of neutrons present. These neutrons activate elements placed within the reactor. A typical product from a nuclear reactor is iridium-192. The elements that have a large propensity to take up the neutrons in the reactor are said to have a high neutron cross-section.",
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"plaintext": "In nuclear medicine, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. Radioactive chemical tracers emitting gamma rays or positrons can provide diagnostic information about internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs, including the human brain. This is used in some forms of tomography: single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography (PET) scanning and Cherenkov luminescence imaging. Radioisotopes are also a method of treatment in hemopoietic forms of tumors; the success for treatment of solid tumors has been limited. More powerful gamma sources sterilise syringes and other medical equipment.",
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"plaintext": "In food preservation, radiation is used to stop the sprouting of root crops after harvesting, to kill parasites and pests, and to control the ripening of stored fruit and vegetables. Food irradiation usually uses beta-decaying nuclides with strong gamma emissions like Cobalt-60 or Caesium-137.",
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"plaintext": "In industry, and in mining, radionuclides are used to examine welds, to detect leaks, to study the rate of wear, erosion and corrosion of metals, and for on-stream analysis of a wide range of minerals and fuels.",
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"plaintext": "In spacecraft, radionuclides are used to provide power and heat, notably through radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and radioisotope heater units (RHUs).",
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"plaintext": "In astronomy and cosmology, radionuclides play a role in understanding stellar and planetary process. ",
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"plaintext": "In particle physics, radionuclides help discover new physics (physics beyond the Standard Model) by measuring the energy and momentum of their beta decay products (for example, neutrinoless double beta decay and the search for weakly interacting massive particles).",
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"plaintext": "In ecology, radionuclides are used to trace and analyze pollutants, to study the movement of surface water, and to measure water runoffs from rain and snow, as well as the flow rates of streams and rivers. ",
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"plaintext": "In geology, archaeology, and paleontology, natural radionuclides are used to measure ages of rocks, minerals, and fossil materials.",
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"plaintext": "The following table lists properties of selected radionuclides illustrating the range of properties and uses.",
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"plaintext": "Key: Z=atomic number; N=neutron number; DM=decay mode; DE=decay energy; EC=electron capture",
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"plaintext": "Radionuclides are present in many homes as they are used inside the most common household smoke detectors. The radionuclide used is americium-241, which is created by bombarding plutonium with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. It decays by emitting alpha particles and gamma radiation to become neptunium-237. Smoke detectors use a very small quantity of 241Am (about 0.29 micrograms per smoke detector) in the form of americium dioxide. 241Am is used as it emits alpha particles which ionize the air in the detector's ionization chamber. A small electric voltage is applied to the ionized air which gives rise to a small electric current. In the presence of smoke, some of the ions are neutralized, thereby decreasing the current, which activates the detector's alarm.",
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"plaintext": "Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as radioactive contamination. They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by radiation poisoning. Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and \"can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to radiation burns and acute radiation syndrome. Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure.\"",
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"plaintext": "Following is a summary table for the list of 989 nuclides with half-lives greater than one hour. A total of 252 nuclides have never been observed to decay, and are classically considered stable. Of these, 90 are believed to be absolutely stable except to proton decay (which has never been observed), while the rest are \"observationally stable\" and theoretically can undergo radioactive decay with extremely long half-lives.",
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"plaintext": "The remaining tabulated radionuclides have half-lives longer than 1 hour, and are well-characterized (see list of nuclides for a complete tabulation). They include 30 nuclides with measured half-lives longer than the estimated age of the universe (13.8billion years), and another four nuclides with half-lives long enough (>100million years) that they are radioactive primordial nuclides, and may be detected on Earth, having survived from their presence in interstellar dust since before the formation of the solar system, about 4.6 billion years ago. Another 60+ short-lived nuclides can be detected naturally as daughters of longer-lived nuclides or cosmic-ray products. The remaining known nuclides are known solely from artificial nuclear transmutation.",
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"plaintext": "Numbers are not exact, and may change slightly in the future, as \"stable nuclides\" are observed to be radioactive with very long half-lives.",
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"plaintext": "This is a summary table for the 989 nuclides with half-lives longer than one hour (including those that are stable), given in list of nuclides.",
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"plaintext": "This list covers common isotopes, most of which are available in very small quantities to the general public in most countries. Others that are not publicly accessible are traded commercially in industrial, medical, and scientific fields and are subject to government regulation.",
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"plaintext": "List of nuclides shows all radionuclides with half-life > 1 hour",
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"plaintext": "Hyperaccumulators table – 3",
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"plaintext": "Radioactivity in biology",
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"plaintext": "Radiometric dating",
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{
"plaintext": "Radionuclide cisternogram",
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},
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"plaintext": "Uses of radioactivity in oil and gas wells",
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},
{
"plaintext": "EPA – Radionuclides – EPA's Radiation Protection Program: Information.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "FDA – Radionuclides – FDA's Radiation Protection Program: Information.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Interactive Chart of Nuclides – A chart of all nuclides",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "National Isotope Development Center – U.S. Government source of radionuclides – production, research, development, distribution, and information",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Live Chart of Nuclides – IAEA",
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"section_name": "External links",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Radionuclides production simulator – IAEA",
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| [
"Radioactivity",
"Isotopes",
"Nuclear_physics",
"Nuclear_chemistry"
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| 192,900 | 6,604 | 1,172 | 132 | 0 | 0 | radionuclide | atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable | [
"radioactive nuclide",
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|
37,252 | 1,106,265,121 | John_Knox | [
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"plaintext": "John Knox (), born ( – 24 November 1572) was a Scottish minister, Reformed theologian, and writer who was a leader of the country's Reformation. He was the founder of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland.",
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"plaintext": "Born in Giffordgate, a street in Haddington, East Lothian, Knox is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal David Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549.",
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"plaintext": "While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England, where he rose in the ranks to serve King Edward VI of England as a royal chaplain. He exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer. In England, he met and married his first wife, Margery Bowes. When Mary I ascended the throne of England and re-established Catholicism, Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country. Knox moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt. In Geneva, he met John Calvin, from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity. He created a new order of service, which was eventually adopted by the reformed church in Scotland. He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy, thus ending his association with the Church of England.",
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"plaintext": "On his return to Scotland, Knox led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility. The movement may be seen as a revolution since it led to the ousting of Mary of Guise, who governed the country in the name of her young daughter Mary, Queen of Scots. Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk. He wrote his five-volume The History of the Reformation in Scotland between 1559 and 1566. He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants throughout Mary's reign. In several interviews with the Queen, Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices. After she was imprisoned for her alleged role in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley, and King James VI was enthroned in her stead, Knox openly called for her execution. He continued to preach until his final days.",
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"plaintext": "John Knox was born sometime between 1505 and 1515 in or near Haddington, the county town of East Lothian. His father, William Knox, was a merchant. All that is known of his mother is that her maiden name was Sinclair and that she died when John Knox was a child. Their eldest son, William, carried on his father's business, which helped in Knox's international communications.",
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"plaintext": "Knox was probably educated at the grammar school in Haddington. At this time, the priesthood was the only path for those whose inclinations were academic rather than mercantile or agricultural. He proceeded to further studies at the University of St Andrews or possibly at the University of Glasgow. He studied under John Major, one of the greatest scholars of the time. Knox was ordained a Catholic priest in Edinburgh on Easter Eve of 1536 by William Chisholm, Bishop of Dunblane.",
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"plaintext": "Knox first appears in public records as a priest and a notary in 1540. He was still serving in these capacities as late as 1543 when he described himself as a \"minister of the sacred altar in the diocese of St. Andrews, notary by apostolic authority\" in a notarial deed dated 27 March. Rather than taking up parochial duties in a parish, he became tutor to two sons of Hugh Douglas of Longniddry. He also taught the son of John Cockburn of Ormiston. Both of these lairds had embraced the new religious ideas of the Reformation.",
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"plaintext": "Knox did not record when or how he was converted to the Protestant faith, but perhaps the key formative influences on Knox were Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart. Wishart was a reformer who had fled Scotland in 1538 to escape punishment for heresy. He first moved to England, where in Bristol he preached against the veneration of the Virgin Mary. He was forced to make a public recantation and was burned in effigy at the Church of St Nicholas as a sign of his abjuration. He then took refuge in Germany and Switzerland. While on the Continent, he translated the First Helvetic Confession into English. He returned to Scotland in 1544, but the timing of his return was unfortunate. In December 1543, James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault, the appointed regent for the infant Mary, Queen of Scots, had decided with the Queen Mother, Mary of Guise, and Cardinal David Beaton to persecute the Protestant sect that had taken root in Scotland. Wishart travelled throughout Scotland preaching in favour of the reformation and when he arrived in East Lothian, Knox became one of his closest associates. Knox acted as his bodyguard, bearing a two-handed sword in order to defend him. In December 1545, Wishart was seized on Beaton's orders by the Earl of Bothwell and taken to the Castle of St Andrews. Knox was present on the night of Wishart's arrest and was prepared to follow him into captivity, but Wishart persuaded him against this course saying, \"Nay, return to your bairns [children] and God bless you. One is sufficient for a sacrifice.\" Wishart was subsequently prosecuted by Beaton's Public Accuser of Heretics, Archdeacon John Lauder. On 1 March 1546, he was burnt at the stake in the presence of Beaton.",
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"plaintext": "Knox had avoided being arrested by Lord Bothwell through Wishart's advice to return to tutoring. He took shelter with Douglas in Longniddry. Several months later he was still in charge of the pupils, the sons of Douglas and Cockburn, who wearied of moving from place to place while being pursued. He toyed with the idea of fleeing to Germany and taking his pupils with him. While Knox remained a fugitive, Beaton was murdered on 29 May 1546, within his residence, the Castle of St Andrews, by a gang of five persons in revenge for Wishart's execution. The assassins seized the castle and eventually their families and friends took refuge with them, about a hundred and fifty men in all. Among their friends was Henry Balnaves, a former secretary of state in the government, who negotiated with England for the financial support of the rebels. Douglas and Cockburn suggested to Knox to take their sons to the relative safety of the castle to continue their instruction in reformed doctrine, and Knox arrived at the castle on 10 April 1547.",
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"plaintext": "Knox's powers as a preacher came to the attention of the chaplain of the garrison, John Rough. While Rough was preaching in the parish church on the Protestant principle of the popular election of a pastor, he proposed Knox to the congregation for that office. Knox did not relish the idea. According to his own account, he burst into tears and fled to his room. Within a week, however, he was giving his first sermon to a congregation that included his old teacher, John Major. He expounded on the seventh chapter of the Book of Daniel, comparing the Pope with the Antichrist. His sermon was marked by his consideration of the Bible as his sole authority and the doctrine of justification by faith alone, two elements that would remain in his thoughts throughout the rest of his life. A few days later, a debate was staged that allowed him to lay down additional theses including the rejection of the Mass, Purgatory, and prayers for the dead.",
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"plaintext": "John Knox's chaplaincy of the castle garrison was not to last long. While Hamilton was willing to negotiate with England to stop their support of the rebels and bring the castle back under his control, Mary of Guise decided that it could be taken only by force and requested the king of France, Henry II to intervene. On 29 June 1547, 21 French galleys approached St Andrews under the command of Leone Strozzi, prior of Capua. The French besieged the castle and forced the surrender of the garrison on 31 July. The Protestant nobles and others, including Knox, were taken prisoner and forced to row in the French galleys. The galley slaves were chained to benches and rowed throughout the day without a change of posture while an officer watched over them with a whip in hand. They sailed to France and navigated up the Seine to Rouen. The nobles, some of whom would have an impact later in Knox's life such as William Kirkcaldy and Henry Balnaves, were sent to various castle-prisons in France. Knox and the other galley slaves continued to Nantes and stayed on the Loire throughout the winter. They were threatened with torture if they did not give proper signs of reverence when mass was performed on the ship. Knox recounted an incident in which one of the prisoners—possibly himself, as Knox tended to narrate personal anecdotes in the third person—was required to show devotion to a picture of the Virgin Mary. The prisoner was told to give it a kiss of veneration. He refused and when the picture was pushed up to his face, the prisoner seized the picture and threw it into the sea, saying, \"Let our Lady now save herself: she is light enough: let her learn to swim.\" After that, according to Knox, the Scottish prisoners were no longer forced to perform such devotions.",
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"plaintext": "In summer 1548, the galleys returned to Scotland to scout for English ships. Knox's health was now at its lowest point due to the severity of his confinement. He was ill with a fever and others on the ship were afraid for his life. Even in this state, Knox recalled, his mind remained sharp and he comforted his fellow prisoners with hopes of release. While the ships were lying offshore between St Andrews and Dundee, the spires of the parish church where he preached appeared in view. James Balfour, a fellow prisoner, asked Knox whether he recognised the landmark. He replied that he knew it well, recognising the steeple of the place where he first preached and he declared that he would not die until he had preached there again.",
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"plaintext": "On his release, Knox took refuge in England. The Reformation in England was a less radical movement than its Continental counterparts, but there was a definite breach with Rome. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, and the regent of King Edward VI, the Duke of Somerset, were decidedly Protestant-minded. However, much work remained to bring reformed ideas to the clergy and to the people. On 7 April 1549, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England. His first commission was in Berwick-upon-Tweed. He was obliged to use the recently released 1549 Book of Common Prayer, which maintained the structure of the Sarum Rite while adapting the content to the doctrine of the reformed Church of England. Knox, however, modified its use to accord with the doctrinal emphases of the Continental reformers. In the pulpit, he preached Protestant doctrines with great effect as his congregation grew.",
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"plaintext": "In England, Knox met his wife, Margery Bowes (died ). Her father, Richard Bowes (died 1558), was a descendant of an old Durham family and her mother, Elizabeth Aske, was an heiress of a Yorkshire family, the Askes of Richmondshire. Elizabeth presumably met Knox when he was employed in Berwick. Several letters reveal a close friendship between them. It is not recorded when Knox married Margery Bowes. Knox attempted to obtain the consent of the Bowes family, but her father and her brother Robert Bowes were opposed to the marriage.",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of 1550, Knox was appointed a preacher of St Nicholas' Church in Newcastle upon Tyne. The following year he was appointed one of the six royal chaplains serving the King. On 16 October 1551, John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, overthrew the Duke of Somerset to become the new regent of the young King. Knox condemned the coup d'état in a sermon on All Saints Day. When Dudley visited Newcastle and listened to his preaching in June 1552, he had mixed feelings about the firebrand preacher, but he saw Knox as a potential asset. Knox was asked to come to London to preach before the Court. In his first sermon, he advocated a change for the 1552 Book of Common Prayer. The liturgy required worshippers to kneel during communion. Knox and the other chaplains considered this to be idolatry. It triggered a debate where Archbishop Cranmer was called upon to defend the practice. The end result was a compromise in which the famous Black Rubric, which declared that no adoration is intended while kneeling, was included in the second edition.",
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"plaintext": "Soon afterwards, Dudley, who saw Knox as a useful political tool, offered him the bishopric of Rochester. Knox refused, and he returned to Newcastle. On 2 February 1553 Cranmer was ordered to appoint Knox as vicar of All Hallows, Bread Street, in London, placing him under the authority of the Bishop of London, Nicholas Ridley. Knox returned to London in order to deliver a sermon before the King and the Court during Lent and he again refused to take the assigned post. Knox was then told to preach in Buckinghamshire and he remained there until Edward's death on 6 July. Edward's successor, Mary Tudor, re-established Roman Catholicism in England and restored the Mass in all the churches. With the country no longer safe for Protestant preachers, Knox left for the Continent in January 1554 on the advice of friends. On the eve of his flight, he wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Sometime I have thought that impossible it had been, so to have removed my affection from the realm of Scotland, that any realm or nation could have been equal dear to me. But God I take to record in my conscience, that the troubles present (and appearing to be) in the realm of England are double more dolorous unto my heart than ever were the troubles of Scotland.",
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"plaintext": "Knox disembarked in Dieppe, France, and continued to Geneva, where John Calvin had established his authority. When Knox arrived Calvin was in a difficult position. He had recently overseen the Company of Pastors, which prosecuted charges of heresy against the scholar Michael Servetus, although Calvin himself was not capable of voting for or against a civil penalty against Servetus. Knox asked Calvin four difficult political questions: whether a minor could rule by divine right, whether a female could rule and transfer sovereignty to her husband, whether people should obey ungodly or idolatrous rulers, and what party godly persons should follow if they resisted an idolatrous ruler. Calvin gave cautious replies and referred him to the Swiss reformer Heinrich Bullinger in Zürich. Bullinger's responses were equally cautious, but Knox had already made up his mind. On 20 July 1554, he published a pamphlet attacking Mary Tudor and the bishops who had brought her to the throne. He also attacked the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, calling him \"no less enemy to Christ than was Nero\".",
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"plaintext": "In a letter dated 24 September 1554, Knox received an invitation from a congregation of English exiles in Frankfurt to become one of their ministers. He accepted the call with Calvin's blessing. But no sooner had he arrived than he found himself in a conflict. The first set of refugees to arrive in Frankfurt had subscribed to a reformed liturgy and used a modified version of the Book of Common Prayer. More recently arrived refugees, however, including Edmund Grindal, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, favoured a stricter application of the book. When Knox and a supporting colleague, William Whittingham, wrote to Calvin for advice, they were told to avoid contention. Knox therefore agreed on a temporary order of service based on a compromise between the two sides. This delicate balance was disturbed when a new batch of refugees arrived that included Richard Cox, one of the principal authors of the Book of Common Prayer. Cox brought Knox's pamphlet attacking the emperor to the attention of the Frankfurt authorities, who advised that Knox leave. His departure from Frankfurt on 26 March 1555 marked his final breach with the Church of England.",
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"plaintext": "After his return to Geneva, Knox was chosen to be the minister at a new place of worship petitioned from Calvin. As such, he exerted an influence on French Protestants, whether they were exiled in Geneva or in France. In the meantime, Elizabeth Bowes wrote to Knox, asking him to return to Margery in Scotland, which he did at the end of August. Despite initial doubts about the state of the Reformation in Scotland, Knox found the country significantly changed since he was carried off in the galley in 1547. When he toured various parts of Scotland preaching the reformed doctrines and liturgy, he was welcomed by many of the nobility including two future regents of Scotland, the Earl of Moray and the Earl of Mar.",
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"plaintext": "Though the Queen Regent, Mary of Guise, made no move against Knox, his activities caused concern among the church authorities. The bishops of Scotland viewed him as a threat to their authority and summoned him to appear in Edinburgh on 15 May 1556. He was accompanied to the trial by so many influential persons that the bishops decided to call the hearing off. Knox was now free to preach openly in Edinburgh. William Keith, the Earl Marischal, was impressed and urged Knox to write to the Queen Regent. Knox's unusually respectful letter urged her to support the Reformation and overthrow the church hierarchy. Queen Mary took the letter as a joke and ignored it.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after Knox sent the letter to the Queen Regent, he suddenly announced that he felt his duty was to return to Geneva. In the previous year on 1 November 1555, the congregation in Geneva had elected Knox as their minister and he decided to take up the post. He wrote a final letter of advice to his supporters and left Scotland with his wife and mother-in-law. He arrived in Geneva on 13 September 1556.",
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"plaintext": "For the next two years, he lived a happy life in Geneva. He recommended Geneva to his friends in England as the best place of asylum for Protestants. In one letter he wrote:",
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"plaintext": "I neither fear nor eschame to say, is the most perfect school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days of the apostles. In other places I confess Christ to be truly preached; but manners and religion so sincerely reformed, I have not yet seen in any other place...",
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"plaintext": "Knox led a busy life in Geneva. He preached three sermons a week, each lasting well over two hours. The services used a liturgy that was derived by Knox and other ministers from Calvin's Formes des Prières Ecclésiastiques. The church in which he preached, the Église de Notre Dame la Neuve—now known as the Auditoire de Calvin—had been granted by the municipal authorities, at Calvin's request, for the use of the English and Italian congregations. Knox's two sons, Nathaniel and Eleazar, were born in Geneva, with Whittingham and Myles Coverdale their respective godfathers.",
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"plaintext": "In the summer of 1558, Knox published his best-known pamphlet, The first blast of the trumpet against the monstruous regiment of women. In calling the \"regimen\" or rule of women \"monstruous\", he meant that it was \"unnatural\". Knox states that his purpose was to demonstrate \"how abominable before God is the Empire or Rule of a wicked woman, yea, of a traiteresse and bastard\". The women rulers that Knox had in mind were Queen Mary I of England and Mary of Guise, the Dowager Queen of Scotland and regent on behalf of her daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots. This biblical position was not unusual in Knox's day; however, even he was aware that the pamphlet was dangerously seditious. He therefore published it anonymously and did not tell Calvin, who denied knowledge of it until a year after its publication, that he had written it. In England, the pamphlet was officially condemned by royal proclamation. The impact of the document was complicated later that year when Elizabeth Tudor became Queen of England. Although Knox had not targeted Elizabeth, he had deeply offended her, and she never forgave him.",
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"plaintext": "With a Protestant on the throne, the English refugees in Geneva prepared to return home. Knox himself decided to return to Scotland. Before his departure, various honours were conferred on him, including the freedom of the city of Geneva. Knox left in January 1559, but he did not arrive in Scotland until 2 May 1559, owing to Elizabeth's refusal to issue him a passport through England.",
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"plaintext": "Two days after Knox arrived in Edinburgh, he proceeded to Dundee where a large number of Protestant sympathisers had gathered. Knox was declared an outlaw, and the Queen Regent summoned the Protestants to Stirling. Fearing the possibility of a summary trial and execution, the Protestants proceeded instead to Perth, a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege. At the church of St John the Baptist, Knox preached a fiery sermon and a small incident precipitated into a riot. A mob poured into the church and it was soon gutted. The mob then attacked two friaries (Blackfriars and Greyfriars) in the town, looting their gold and silver and smashing images. Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and a small French army. She dispatched the Earl of Argyll and Lord Moray to offer terms and avert a war. She promised not to send any French troops into Perth if the Protestants evacuated the town. The Protestants agreed, but when the Queen Regent entered Perth, she garrisoned it with Scottish soldiers on the French payroll. This was seen as treacherous by Lord Argyll and Lord Moray, who both switched sides and joined Knox, who now based himself in St Andrews. Knox's return to St Andrews fulfilled the prophecy he made in the galleys that he would one day preach again in its church. When he did give a sermon, the effect was the same as in Perth. The people engaged in vandalism and looting. In June 1559, a Protestant mob incited by the preaching of John Knox ransacked the cathedral; the interior of the building was destroyed. The cathedral fell into decline following the attack and became a source of building material for the town. By 1561 it had been abandoned and left to fall into ruin. ",
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"plaintext": "With Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties, the Queen Regent retreated to Dunbar. By now, the mob fury had spilled over central Scotland. Her own troops were on the verge of mutiny. On 30 June, the Protestant Lords of the Congregation occupied Edinburgh, though they were able to hold it for only a month. But even before their arrival, the mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries. On 1 July, Knox preached from the pulpit of St Giles', the most influential in the capital. The Lords of the Congregation negotiated their withdrawal from Edinburgh by the Articles of Leith signed 25 July 1559, and Mary of Guise promised freedom of conscience.",
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"plaintext": "Knox knew that the Queen Regent would ask for help from France, so he negotiated by letter under the assumed name John Sinclair with William Cecil, Elizabeth's chief adviser, for English support. Knox sailed secretly to Lindisfarne, off the northeast coast of England at the end of July, to meet James Croft and Sir Henry Percy at Berwick upon Tweed. Knox was indiscreet and news of his mission soon reached Mary of Guise. He returned to Edinburgh telling Croft he had to return to his flock, and suggested that Henry Balnaves should go to Cecil.",
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"plaintext": "When additional French troops arrived in Leith, Edinburgh's seaport, the Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh. This time, on 24 October 1559, the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency. Her secretary, William Maitland of Lethington, defected to the Protestant side, bringing his administrative skills. From then on, Maitland took over the political tasks, freeing Knox for the role of religious leader. For the final stage of the revolution, Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination. Following the Treaty of Berwick, support from England finally arrived and by the end of March, a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces. The sudden death of Mary of Guise in Edinburgh Castle on 10 June 1560 paved the way for an end to hostilities, the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh, and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland. On 19 July, Knox held a National Thanksgiving Service at St Giles'.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 August, the Scottish Parliament met to settle religious issues. Knox and five other ministers, all called John, were called upon to draw up a new confession of faith. Within four days, the Scots Confession was presented to Parliament, voted upon, and approved. A week later, the Parliament passed three acts in one day: the first abolished the jurisdiction of the Pope in Scotland, the second condemned all doctrine and practice contrary to the reformed faith, and the third forbade the celebration of Mass in Scotland. Before the dissolution of Parliament, Knox and the other ministers were given the task of organising the newly reformed church or the Kirk. They would work for several months on the Book of Discipline, the document describing the organisation of the new church. During this period, in December 1560, Knox's wife, Margery, died, leaving Knox to care for their two sons, aged three and a half and two years old. John Calvin, who had lost his own wife in 1549, wrote a letter of condolence.",
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"plaintext": "Parliament reconvened on 15 January 1561 to consider the Book of Discipline. The Kirk was to be run on democratic lines. Each congregation was free to choose or reject its own pastor, but once he was chosen he could not be fired. Each parish was to be self-supporting, as far as possible. The bishops were replaced by ten to twelve \"superintendents\". The plan included a system of national education based on universality as a fundamental principle. Certain areas of law were placed under ecclesiastical authority. The Parliament did not approve the plan, however, mainly for reasons of finance. The Kirk was to be financed out of the patrimony of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland. Much of this was now in the hands of the nobles, who were reluctant to give up their possessions. A final decision on the plan was delayed because of the impending return of Mary, Queen of Scots.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 August 1561, cannons were fired in Leith to announce Queen Mary's arrival in Scotland. When she attended Mass being celebrated in the royal chapel at Holyrood Palace five days later, this prompted a protest in which one of her servants was jostled. The next day she issued a proclamation that there would be no alteration in the current state of religion and that her servants should not be molested or troubled. Many nobles accepted this, but not Knox. The following Sunday, he protested from the pulpit of St Giles'. As a result, just two weeks after her return, Mary summoned Knox. She accused him of inciting a rebellion against her mother and of writing a book against her own authority. Knox answered that as long as her subjects found her rule convenient, he was willing to accept her governance, noting that Paul the Apostle had been willing to live under Nero's rule. Mary noted, however, that he had written against the principle of female rule itself. He responded that she should not be troubled by what had never harmed her. When Mary asked him whether subjects had a right to resist their ruler, he replied that if monarchs exceeded their lawful limits, they might be resisted, even by force.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 December 1562, Mary sent for Knox again after he gave a sermon denouncing certain celebrations which Knox had interpreted as rejoicing at the expense of the Reformation. She charged that Knox spoke irreverently of the Queen in order to make her appear contemptible to her subjects. After Knox gave an explanation of the sermon, Mary stated that she did not blame Knox for the differences of opinion and asked that in the future he come to her directly if he heard anything about her that he disliked. Despite her friendly gesture, Knox replied that he would continue to voice his convictions in his sermons and would not wait upon her.",
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"plaintext": "During Easter in 1563, some priests in Ayrshire celebrated Mass, thus defying the law. Some Protestants tried to enforce the law themselves by apprehending these priests. This prompted Mary to summon Knox for the third time. She asked Knox to use his influence to promote religious toleration. He defended their actions and noted she was bound to uphold the laws and if she did not, others would. Mary surprised Knox by agreeing that the priests would be brought to justice.",
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"plaintext": "The most dramatic interview between Mary and Knox took place on 24 June 1563. Mary summoned Knox to Holyrood after hearing that he had been preaching against her proposed marriage to Don Carlos, the son of Philip II of Spain. Mary began by scolding Knox, then she burst into tears. \"What have ye to do with my marriage?\" she asked, and \"What are ye within this commonwealth?\" \"A subject born within the same, Madam,\" Knox replied. He noted that though he was not of noble birth, he had the same duty as any subject to warn of dangers to the realm. When Mary started to cry again, he said, \"Madam, in God's presence I speak: I never delighted in the weeping of any of God's creatures; yea I can scarcely well abide the tears of my own boys whom my own hand corrects, much less can I rejoice in your Majesty's weeping.\" He added that he would rather endure her tears, however, than remain silent and \"betray my Commonwealth\". At this, Mary ordered him out of the room.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 March 1566, Mary's secretary, David Rizzio, was murdered by conspirators loyal to Darnley. Mary escaped from Edinburgh to Dunbar and by 18 March returned with a formidable force. Knox fled to Kyle in Ayrshire, where he completed the major part of his magnum opus, History of the Reformation in Scotland. When he returned to Edinburgh, he found the Protestant nobles divided over what to do with Mary. Lord Darnley had been murdered and the Queen almost immediately married the chief suspect, the Earl of Bothwell. The indictment of murder thus upon her, she was forced to abdicate and was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle. Lord Moray had become the regent of King James VI. Other old friends of Knox, Lord Argyll and William Kirkcaldy, stood by Mary. On 29 July 1567, Knox preached James VI's coronation sermon at the church in Stirling. During this period Knox thundered against her in his sermons, even to the point of calling for her death. However, Mary's life was spared, and she escaped on 2 May 1568.",
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"plaintext": "In his will, Knox claimed: \"None have I corrupted, none have I defrauded; merchandise have I not made.\" The paltry sum of money Knox bequeathed to his family, which would have left them in dire poverty, showed that he had not profited from his work in the Kirk. The regent, Lord Morton, asked the General Assembly to continue paying his stipend to his widow for one year after his death, and the regent ensured that Knox's dependents were decently supported.",
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"plaintext": "A regency, which included his uncle, Prince Nicolae, Patriarch Miron Cristea, and the country's Chief Justice (Gheorghe Buzdugan, and from October 1929, ) functioned on behalf of the five-year-old Michael, when he succeeded Ferdinand in 1927. In 1930, Carol II returned to the country at the invitation of politicians dissatisfied with the Regency in the context of the Great Depression, and was proclaimed king by the Parliament. Michael was designated as Crown Prince with the title \"Grand Voivode of Alba Iulia\". In November 1939, Michael joined the Romanian Senate, as the 1938 Constitution guaranteed him a seat there upon reaching the age of eighteen.",
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"plaintext": "Just days after the Second Vienna Award, the pro-Nazi anti-Soviet régime of Prime Minister Marshal Ion Antonescu staged a coup d'état against Carol II, whom the Marshal claimed to be \"anti-German\". Antonescu suspended the Constitution, dissolved the Parliament, and re-installed the 18-year-old Michael as king, by popular acclaim in September 1940. (Although the Constitution was restored in 1944, and the Romanian Parliament in 1946, Michael did not subsequently take a formal oath nor have his reign approved retroactively by Parliament.) Michael was crowned with the Steel Crown and anointed King of Romania by the Orthodox Patriarch of Romania, Nicodim Munteanu, in the Patriarchal Cathedral of Bucharest, on the day of his accession, 6 September 1940. Although King Michael was formally the Supreme Head of the Army, named Conducător (\"Leader of the people\"), and entitled to appoint the Prime Minister with full powers, in reality he was forced to remain a figurehead for most of the war, until August 1944. Michael had lunch with Adolf Hitler twice— once with his father in Bavaria in 1937, and with his mother in Berlin in 1941. He also met Benito Mussolini in Italy in 1941.",
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"plaintext": "In 1944, World War II was going badly for the Axis powers, but the military dictator Prime Minister Marshal Ion Antonescu was still in control of Romania. By August 1944, the Soviet conquest of Romania had become inevitable, and was expected in a few months. On 23 August 1944, Michael joined the pro-Allies politicians, a number of army officers, and armed Communist-led civilians in staging a coup against Antonescu. King Michael ordered his arrest by the Royal Palace Guard. On the same night, the new Prime Minister, Lt. General Constantin Sănătescu— appointed by King Michael—gave custody of Antonescu to the communists (in spite of alleged instructions to the contrary by the King), and the latter delivered him to the Soviets on 1 September. In a radio broadcast to the Romanian nation and army, Michael issued a cease-fire just as the Red Army was penetrating the Moldavian front, proclaimed Romania's loyalty to the Allies, announced the acceptance of the armistice offered by the United Kingdom, the United States, and the USSR, and declared war on Germany.<ref>Dictatura a luat sfarsit si cu ea inceteaza toate asupririle (\"The Dictatorship Has Ended and along with It All Oppression\") – From The Proclamation to The Nation of King Michael I on The Night of 23 August 1944, Curierul Naţional, 7 August 2004</ref> However, this did not avert a rapid Soviet occupation and capture of about 130,000 Romanian soldiers, who were transported to the Soviet Union where many perished in prison camps.",
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"plaintext": "Although the country's alliance with Nazi Germany was ended, the coup sped the Red Army's advance into Romania. The armistice was signed three weeks later on 12 September 1944, on terms the Soviets virtually dictated. Under the terms of the armistice, Romania recognized its defeat by the USSR and was placed under occupation of the Allied forces, with the Soviets, as their representative, in control of media, communication, post, and civil administration behind the front. The coup effectively amounted to a \"capitulation\", an \"unconditional\" \"surrender\". It has been suggested by Romanian historians that the coup may have shortened World War II by six months, thus saving hundreds of thousands of lives.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the war, King Michael was awarded the highest degree (Chief Commander) of the American Legion of Merit by U.S. President Harry S. Truman. He was also decorated with the Soviet Order of Victory by Joseph Stalin \"for the courageous act of the radical change in Romania's politics towards a break-up from Hitler's Germany and an alliance with the United Nations, at the moment when there was no clear sign yet of Germany's defeat\", according to the official description of the decoration. With the death of Michał Rola-Żymierski in 1989, Michael became the sole surviving recipient of the Order of Victory.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1945, political pressures forced King Michael to appoint a pro-Soviet government headed by Petru Groza. For the next two-plus years, Michael functioned again as little more than a figurehead. Between August 1945 and January 1946, during what was later known as the \"royal strike\", King Michael tried unsuccessfully to oppose the Groza government by refusing to sign its decrees. In response to Soviet, British, and American pressures, King Michael eventually gave up his opposition to the communist government and stopped demanding its resignation.",
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"plaintext": "He did not pardon Mareșal Antonescu, the former Prime Minister, who was sentenced to death \"for betrayal of the Romanian people for the benefit of Nazi Germany, for the economic and political subjugation of Romania to Germany, for cooperation with the Iron Guard, for murdering his political opponents, for the mass murder of civilians and crimes against peace\". Nor did King Michael manage to save such leaders of the opposition as Iuliu Maniu and the Bratianus, victims of Communist political trials, as the Constitution prevented him from doing so without the counter-signature of Communist Justice Minister Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu (who himself was later eliminated by Gheorghiu-Dej's opposing Communist faction). The memoirs of King Michael's aunt Princess Ileana quoted Emil Bodnăraș — her alleged lover, Romania's Communist minister of defence, and a Soviet spy—as saying: \"Well, if the King decides not to sign the death warrant, I promise that we will uphold his point of view.\" Princess Ileana was sceptical: \"You know quite well (...) that the King will never of his free will sign such an unconstitutional document. If he does, it will be laid at your door, and before the whole nation your government will bear the blame. Surely you do not wish this additional handicap at this moment!\"",
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"plaintext": "In November 1947, King Michael travelled to London for the wedding of his cousins, Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II) and Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, an occasion during which he met Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma (his second cousin once removed), who was to become his wife. According to his own account, King Michael rejected any offers of asylum and decided to return to Romania, contrary to the confidential, strong advice of the British Ambassador to Romania.",
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"plaintext": "Early on the morning of 30 December 1947, Michael was preparing for a New Year's party at Peleș Castle in Sinaia, when Groza summoned him back to Bucharest. Michael returned to Elisabeta Palace in Bucharest, to find it surrounded by troops from the Tudor Vladimirescu Division, an army unit completely loyal to the Communists. Groza and Communist Party leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej were waiting for him, and demanded that he sign a pre-typed instrument of abdication. Unable to call in loyal troops, due to his telephone lines allegedly being cut, Michael signed the document. Later the same day, the Communist-dominated government announced the abolition of the monarchy, and its replacement by a People's Republic, broadcasting the King's pre-recorded radio proclamation of his own abdication. On 3 January 1948, Michael was forced to leave the country, followed over a week later by Princesses Elisabeth and Ileana, who collaborated so closely with the Soviets that they became known as the King's \"Red Aunts\". He was the last monarch behind the Iron Curtain to lose his throne.",
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"plaintext": "Michael's own account of the abdication varied along the time, and was gradually embellished, especially after 1990. Thus, in accounts published in 1950 and 1977, Michael only mentioned seeing armed groups with machine-guns on their shoulders around the palace, while in much later accounts these were described as \"heavy artillery, ready to fire at any moment\". The story of the supposed blackmail also evolved: in the 1950 account, Groza tried to negotiate some form of material compensations for the abdication, noting he could not guarantee for Michael's life in case he refused, and his refusal could lead to thousand of arrests and possibly a civil war; in a hearing before the United States House of Representatives in 1954, Michael mentioned Groza's generic threats regarding his personal security, bloodshed and ruin of the country, as well as \"vague hints\" of persecution, with Groza suggesting the government had a large dossier on Michael; the possible arrest of thousands and a generic threat of bloodshed is also mentioned in the 1977 account; however, beginning with 1990, Michael claimed that Groza threatened to shoot 1,000 students that had already been arrested for publicly showing their attachment to the throne. Thus, while according to a Time article published in 1948, Groza threatened to arrest thousands of people and order a bloodbath unless Michael abdicated, in an interview with The New York Times from 2007, Michael recounted: \"It was blackmail. They said, 'If you don't sign this immediately we are obliged' — why obliged I don't know — 'to kill more than 1,000 students' that they had in prison.\" In historian Ioan Scurtu's opinion, the new account was created in order to leverage the recent Revolution of 1989, presented at the time as a revolution of the youth and the students. Another new element in Michael's account after 1990 was that Groza had threatened him at gunpoint; in earlier accounts Michael mentioned that Groza had shown him the pistol he was carrying only after Michael signed the abdication.",
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"plaintext": "According to the autobiography of the former head of the Soviet intelligence agency NKVD, Major General Pavel Sudoplatov, the Deputy Soviet Foreign Commissar Andrey Vyshinsky personally conducted negotiations with King Michael for his abdication, guaranteeing part of a pension to be paid to Michael in Mexico. According to a few articles in Jurnalul Naţional, Michael's abdication was negotiated with the Communist government, which allowed him to leave the country with the goods he requested, accompanied by some of the royal retinue.",
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"plaintext": "According to Albanian Communist leader Enver Hoxha's account of his conversations with the Romanian Communist leaders on the monarch's abdication, it was Gheorghiu-Dej, not Groza, who forced Michael's abdication at gunpoint. He was allowed to leave the country accompanied by some of his entourage and, as confirmed also by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev recounting Gheorghiu-Dej's confessions, with whatever properties he desired, including gold and rubies. Hoxha also wrote that pro-Communist troops surrounded the palace, to counter army units who were still loyal to the King.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1948, Michael denounced his abdication as illegal, and contended he was still the rightful King of Romania. According to Time magazine, he would have done so sooner, but for much of early 1948, he had been negotiating with the Communists over properties he had left in Romania.",
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"plaintext": "There are reports that Romanian Communist authorities allowed King Michael to depart with 42 valuable Crown-owned paintings in November 1947, so that he would leave Romania faster. Some of these paintings were reportedly sold through the famed art dealer Daniel Wildenstein. One of the paintings belonging to the Romanian Crown, which was supposedly taken out of the country by King Michael in November 1947, returned to Romania in 2004 as a donation made by John Kreuger, the former husband of King Michael's daughter Princess Irina.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Romanian Prime Minister Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu denied these accusations about King Michael, stating that the Romanian government has no proof of any such action by King Michael and that, prior to 1949, the government had no official records of any artwork taken over from the former royal residences. However, according to some historians, such records existed as early as April 1948, having been, in fact, officially published in June 1948.",
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"plaintext": "According to Ivor Porter's authorized biography, Michael of Romania: The King and The Country (2005), which quotes Queen-Mother Helen's daily diary, the Romanian royal family took out paintings belonging to the Romanian Royal Crown, on their November 1947 trip to London to the wedding of the future Queen Elizabeth II; two of these paintings, signed by El Greco, were sold in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "According to declassified Foreign Office documents that were the subject of news reports in 2005, when he left Romania, the exiled King Michael's only assets amounted to 500,000 Swiss francs. Recently declassified Soviet transcripts of talks between Joseph Stalin and the Romanian Prime Minister Petru Groza show that shortly before his abdication, King Michael received from the communist government assets amounting to 500,000 Swiss francs. King Michael, however, repeatedly denied that the Communist government had allowed him to take into exile any financial assets or valuable goods besides four personal automobiles loaded on two train cars.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1947, Michael I met a distant relative, Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma who was visiting London for the wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh. In fact, a year previously Queen Helen, The Queen Mother had invited Anne, her mother, and brothers for a visit to Bucharest, but the plan did not come off. Meanwhile, King Michael I had glimpsed Princess Anne in a newsreel and requested a photograph from the film footage.",
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"plaintext": "She did not want to accompany her parents to London for the royal wedding as she wished to avoid meeting Michael I in official surroundings. Instead, she planned to stay behind, go alone to the Paris railway station and, pretending to be a passerby in the crowd, privately observe the king as his entourage escorted him to his London-bound train. However, at the last moment she was persuaded by her first cousin, Prince Jean, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, to come to London, where he planned to host a party. Upon arrival in London, she stopped by Claridge's to see her parents, and found herself being introduced unexpectedly to King Michael I. Abashed to the point of confusion, she clicked her heels instead of curtseying, and fled in embarrassment. Charmed, the king saw her again the night of the wedding at the Luxembourg embassy soirée, confided in her some of his concerns about the Communist takeover of Romania and fears for his mother's safety, and nicknamed her Nan. They saw each other several times thereafter on outings in London, always chaperoned by her mother or brother.",
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"plaintext": "A few days later, she accepted an invitation to accompany Michael and his mother when he piloted a Beechcraft aeroplane to take his aunt Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta, back home to Lausanne. Sixteen days after meeting, Michael proposed to Anne while the couple were out on a drive in Lausanne. She initially declined, but later accepted after taking long walks and drives with him. Although Michael gave her an engagement ring a few days later, he felt obliged to refrain from a public announcement until he informed his government, despite the fact that the press besieged them in anticipation.",
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"plaintext": "Michael I returned to Romania, where he was told by the prime minister that a wedding announcement was not \"opportune\". Yet within days it was used as the government's public explanation for Michael's sudden \"abdication\", when in fact the king was deposed by the Communists on 30 December. Princess Anne was unable to get further news of King Michael I until he left the country. They finally reunited in Davos on 23 January 1948.",
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"plaintext": "As a Bourbon, Anne was bound by the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, which required that she receive a dispensation to marry a non-Catholic Christian (King Michael I was Orthodox). At the time, such a dispensation was normally only given if the non-Roman Catholic partner promised to allow the children of the marriage to be raised as Roman Catholics. Michael refused to make this promise since it would have violated Romania's monarchical constitution, and would be likely to have a detrimental impact upon any possible restoration. The Holy See (which handled the matter directly since King Michael I was a member of a reigning dynasty) refused to grant the dispensation unless Michael made the required promise.",
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"plaintext": "Helen, Queen Mother of Romania and her sister Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta (an Orthodox married to a Catholic Prince) met with the fiancée's parents in Paris, where the two families resolved to take their case to the Vatican in person. In early March, the couple's mothers met with Pope Pius XII who, despite the entreaties of the Queen Mother and the fact that Anne's mother, Princess Margrethe pounded her fist on the table in anger, refused permission for Anne to marry King Michael I.",
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"plaintext": "It has been surmised that the Pope's refusal was, in part, motivated by the fact that when Princess Giovanna of Savoy married Anne's cousin, King Boris III of Bulgaria, in 1930, the couple had undertaken to raise their future children as Roman Catholics, but had baptized them in the Orthodox faith in deference to Bulgaria's state religion. However, King Michael I declined to make a promise he could not keep politically, while Anne's mother was herself the daughter of a mixed marriage between a Catholic (Princess Marie d'Orléans) and a Protestant (Prince Valdemar of Denmark), who had abided by their pre-ne temere compromise to raise their sons as Protestant and their daughter, Margrethe, as Catholic.",
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"plaintext": "Although under a great deal of stress, the engaged couple resolved to proceed. Anne's paternal uncle, Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma, issued a statement objecting to any marriage conducted against the will of the Pope and the bride's family. It was he, not the Pontiff, who forbade Anne's parents to attend the wedding. King Michael I's spokesman declared on 9 June that the parents had been asked and had given their consent, and that the bride's family would be represented at the nuptials by her maternal uncle, the Protestant Prince Erik of Denmark, who was to give the bride away.",
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"plaintext": "The wedding ceremony was held on 10 June 1948 in Athens, Greece, in the throne room of the Royal Palace; the ceremony was performed by Archbishop Damaskinos, and King Paul I of Greece served as koumbaros. Guests at the wedding included: Michael's mother The Queen Mother of Romania, aunts Queen Frederica, The Dowager Duchess of Aosta, Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark; cousins Prince Amedeo, 5th Duke of Aosta, Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark, Crown Prince Constantine of Greece and Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark, the three youngest ones serving as bridesmaids and pageboy; Anne's maternal uncle Prince Erik of Denmark; Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia, Princess Olga of Greece and Denmark, Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia, Prince George Wilhelm of Hanover and many other dignitaries. King Michael I's father, Carol, and his sisters, Maria, Queen Mother of Yugoslavia, Princess Elisabeth of Romania (ex-Queen Consort of Greece) and Princess Ileana of Romania were notified, but not invited.",
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"plaintext": "As no papal dispensation was given for the marriage, when it was celebrated according to the rites of the Eastern Orthodox Church, it was deemed invalid by the Roman Catholic Church, but perfectly legal by every other authority. The couple eventually took part in a religious ceremony again, on 9 November 1966, at the Roman Catholic Church of St Charles in Monaco, thus satisfying Roman Catholic canon law.",
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"plaintext": "Margareta, Custodian of the Crown of Romania (b. 26 March 1949 at Clinique de Mont Choisi in Lausanne); she married Radu Duda in 1996. They have not had issue.",
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"plaintext": "Princess Elena of Romania (b. 15 November 1950 at Clinique de Mont Choisi in Lausanne); she married Robin Medforth-Mills on 20 July 1983 and divorced on 28 November 1991. They have two children. She married a second time, with Alexander McAteer on 14 August 1998. ",
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"plaintext": "Nicholas de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills (b. 1 April 1985 in La Tour Hospital in Geneva); he married civilly Alina Maria Binder on 6 October 2017. He also has a daughter from a previous relationship.",
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"plaintext": "Maria Alexandra de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills (b. 7 November 2020)",
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"plaintext": "Michael de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills (b. 15 April 2022)",
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"plaintext": "Elisabeta-Karina de Roumanie-Medforth-Mills (b. 4 January 1989 at Princess Mary Maternity Hospital in Newcastle upon Tyne, England)",
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"plaintext": "Princess Irina of Romania (b. 28 February 1953 at Clinique de Mont Choisi in Lausanne); she married John Kreuger on 4 October 1983 and divorced on 24 November 2003. They have two children and three grandchildren. She married a second time, with John Wesley Walker on 10 November 2007. ",
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"plaintext": "Michael-Torsten de Roumanie-Kreuger (b. 25 February 1984 at Bay Area Hospital in Coos Bay, Oregon); he married Tara Marie Littlefield on 26 February 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Kohen de Roumanie-Kreuger (b. 28 March 2012)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Angelica-Margareta Bianca de Roumanie-Kreuger (b. 29 December 1986 at Bay Area Hospital in Coos Bay, Oregon); she married Richard Robert Knight on 25 October 2009 (divorced in November 2018).",
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"plaintext": "Courtney Bianca Knight (b. 31 May 2007)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Diana Knight (b. 2011)",
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},
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"plaintext": "Princess Sophie of Romania (b. 29 October 1957 at Tatoi Palace in Athens); she married Alain Michel Biarneix on 29 August 1998 and divorced in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Elisabeta-Maria de Roumanie-Biarneix (b. 15 August 1999 in Paris)",
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"plaintext": "Princess Maria of Romania (b. 13 July 1964 at Gentofte Hospital in Copenhagen); she married Kazimierz Wiesław Mystkowski on 16 September 1995 and divorced in December 2003.",
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"plaintext": "Michael would never see his father again, after Carol II's 1940 abdication. Michael could see no point in meeting his father who had humiliated his mother so many times via his open affairs and did not attend his father's funeral in 1953.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In January 1948, Michael began using one of his family's ancestral titles, \"Prince of Hohenzollern\", instead of using the title of \"King of Romania\". After denouncing his abdication as forced and illegal in March 1948, Michael resumed use of the kingly title.",
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"plaintext": "The couple lived near Florence, Italy, until 1948, near Lausanne, Switzerland, until 1950, and then in Hampshire, England, until 1956. After that, the couple settled near Versoix, Switzerland, where they would live for the next 45 years. The Communist Romanian authorities stripped Michael of his Romanian citizenship in 1948. During exile, Michael worked as farmer, pilot, entrepreneur and stockbroker. With his wife, he had five daughters born between 1949 and 1964.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 December 1990—a year after the revolution which overthrew the Communist dictatorship of Nicolae Ceaușescu—Michael, accompanied by several members of the royal family, landed at Otopeni Airport and entered Romania for the first time in 43 years. Using a Danish diplomatic passport, Michael was able to obtain a 24-hour visa. He intended to reach Curtea de Argeș Cathedral, pray at the tombs of his royal ancestors and attend the Christmas religious service. However, on their way to Curtea de Argeș, the former King and his companions were stopped by a police filter, taken to the airport and forced to leave the country.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992, the Romanian government allowed Michael to return to Romania for Easter celebrations, where he drew large crowds. His speech from the balcony of a Hotel Continental 1st Fl. room drew over 100,000 people. His visit in Bucharest drew over a million people in the streets of the capital to see him. Michael refused the offer of the president of the National Liberal Party, Radu Câmpeanu, to run for elections as president of Romania. Michael's popularity alarmed the government of President Ion Iliescu, and he was forbidden to visit Romania, being denied entry twice in 1994 and 1995.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, after Iliescu's defeat by Emil Constantinescu, the Romanian government restored Michael's citizenship and again allowed him to visit the country. He then lived partly in Switzerland at Aubonne and partly in Romania, either at Săvârșin Castle in Arad County or in an official residence in Bucharest—the Elisabeta Palace—voted by the Romanian Parliament by a law concerning arrangements for former heads of state. Besides Săvârșin Castle, the former private residences Peleș Castle and Pelișor Castle were also restituted. While Peleș and Pelișor are open to the public, Elisabeta Palace and Săvârșin are used as private residences. ",
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"plaintext": "Michael neither encouraged nor opposed monarchist agitation in Romania and royalist parties have made little impact in post-communist Romanian politics. He took the view that the restoration of the monarchy in Romania can only result from a decision by the Romanian people. \"If the people want me to come back, of course, I will come back,\" he said in 1990. \"Romanians have had enough suffering imposed on them to have the right to be consulted on their future.\" King Michael's belief was that there is still a role for, and value in, the monarchy today: \"We are trying to make people understand what the Romanian monarchy was, and what it can still do [for them].\"",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2007 opinion poll conducted at the request of the Romanian royal family, only 14% of Romanians were in favour of the restoration of the monarchy. Another 2008 poll found that only 16% of Romanians are monarchists. Michael himself, however, was shown to be much more popular personally with the Romanian people: In a July 2013 survey, 45% of Romanians had a good or very good opinion of Michael, with 6.5% thinking the opposite. The royal family also enjoyed similar numbers, with 41% having a good or very good opinion of it, and just 6.5% having a poor or very poor one.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Michael undertook some quasi-diplomatic roles on behalf of post-communist Romania. In 1997 and 2002 he toured Western Europe, lobbying for Romania's admission into NATO and the European Union, and was received by heads of state and government officials.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2003, allegedly to the \"stupefaction of the public opinion in Romania\", Michael awarded the \"Man of The Year 2003\" prize to Prime Minister Adrian Năstase, leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD), on behalf of the tabloid VIP. The daily Evenimentul Zilei subsequently complained that 'such an activity was unsuited to a king and that Michael was wasting away his prestige', with the majority of the political analysts 'considering his gesture as a fresh abdication'.",
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"plaintext": "On 10 May 2007, King Michael received the Prague Society for International Cooperation and 's 6th Annual Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award, previously awarded to Vladimir Ashkenazy, Madeleine Albright, Václav Havel, Lord Robertson, and Miloš Forman. On 8 April 2008, King Michael and Patriarch Daniel were elected as honorary members of the Romanian Academy.",
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"plaintext": "Michael participated in the Victory Parade in Moscow in 2010 as the only living Supreme Commander-in-Chief of a European State in the Second World War. The name of Michael I is listed on the memorial in the Grand Kremlin Palace as one of only 20 recipients of the Order of Victory.",
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"plaintext": "In old age, Michael enjoyed a strong revival in popularity. On 25 October 2011, on the occasion of his 90th birthday, he delivered a speech before the assembled chambers of the Romanian Parliament. An opinion poll in January 2012 placed him as the most trusted public figure in Romania, far ahead of the political leaders. Later, in October 2012, celebrating Michael's 91st birthday, a square in Bucharest was renamed after him.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On 1 August 2016, he became a widower when Queen Anne died at the age of 92.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On 2 March 2016, the Royal Council announced King Michael's retirement from public life; with tasks assumed by Crown Princess Margareta, his daughter. After surgery, King Michael was diagnosed with chronic leukemia and metastatic epidermoid carcinoma and faced a complex and lengthy treatment.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2017, the Royal House stated in a press release that \"His Majesty's health is fragile but stable. King Michael is quiet, has soulful appreciation and appreciates the care of his medical team. Along with the King, they are permanently employed by His Majesty's House, detached in Switzerland, and two Orthodox nuns.\"",
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},
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"plaintext": "At the end of August 2017, the Royal House announced that \"King Michael I is in a fragile but balanced state, and has a good mood,\" stating that Princess Elena had completed a visit to Switzerland for a few days next to King Michael, at the private residence. According to the Royal House, King Michael I \"continues to stay daily under close supervision of physicians, medical staff of various specialties, and in the presence of devoted members of the staff of His Majesty's House, stationed in Switzerland.\" Also, two Orthodox nuns, detached from the Romanian Orthodox Church, were still in the private residence.",
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},
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"plaintext": "On 5 December 2017, King Michael I died at his residence in Switzerland at the age of 96, in the presence of his youngest daughter Princess Maria.",
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"plaintext": "On Wednesday, 13 December 2017, at 11:00 am, King Michael I's coffin, draped by his Royal Standard, was brought back to Romania, arriving at the Otopeni Airport in Bucharest from Lausanne, via Payerne Air Base, escorted by his second daughter, Princess Elena with her husband Alexander Nixon, fourth daughter Princess Sophie and also members of the Royal Household, were transported by the Romanian Air Force's Alenia C-27J Spartan transport aircraft, which was flanked by four Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 jet fighters.",
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"plaintext": "The coffin was first taken to Peleș Castle at Sinaia in the Carpathian Mountains. Then, it was brought to Bucharest, where it was laid and displayed at the Royal Palace for two days. King Michael I was buried on 16 December with full state honours in the Mausoleum of the Royal Family, on the grounds of the Curtea de Argeș Cathedral together his wife Queen Anne who died in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Foreign royalty that attended the state funeral included: ",
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"plaintext": " King Juan Carlos I of Spain and his wife, queen Sofia; ",
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"plaintext": " King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden and his wife, queen Silvia; ",
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"plaintext": " Queen Anne-Marie, her son, Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark, and sister-in-law, Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark; ",
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"plaintext": " Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales, British prince",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Princess Muna al-Hussein of Jordan, ",
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"plaintext": " Henri, grand duke of Luxembourg, ",
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1,
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]
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"plaintext": " Maria Vladimirovna, grand duchess of Russia, ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Georg Friedrich, prince of Prussia, ",
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"plaintext": " Archduke Karl and archduke Georg of Austria and ",
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"plaintext": " Princess Astrid and prince Lorenz of Belgium. ",
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"plaintext": "His body was transferred from Bucharest to Curtea de Argeș with the help of a funeral train, the Royal Train, and a repainted domestic-traffic carriage, being led by a diesel locomotive. His funeral is stated to have been one of the largest in Romania, with almost a million Romanians flocking to the capital to pay their respects and watch the funeral, with it being comparable to the one of Corneliu Coposu in 1995.",
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"plaintext": "According to the succession provisions of the Romanian kingdom's last democratically approved monarchical constitution of 1923, upon the death of King Michael without sons, the claim to the Crown devolves once again upon the Hohenzollern family. However, on 30 December 2007, on the 60th anniversary of his abdication, King Michael signed the Fundamental Rules of the Royal Family of Romania, by which he designated Princess Margareta as his heir. The document has no legal standing, as it regulates an institution that is no longer extant. ",
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"plaintext": "On 10 May 2011, on a background of lawsuits in Germany brought against his family by Michael’s German relatives regarding the former name Hohenzollern-Veringen of his son-in-law, Radu, and of fears expressed by some that the German Hohenzollerns may claim succession to the headship of the Romanian royal house, Michael severed all of the dynastic and historical ties with the princely house of Hohenzollern, changed the name of his family to \"of Romania\", and gave up all princely titles conferred upon him and his family by the German Hohenzollerns.",
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"plaintext": " \"World War II – 60 Years After: Former Romanian Monarch Remembers Decision To Switch Sides\", Radio Free Europe, 6 May 2005",
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"plaintext": " Costel Oprea, \"Regele Mihai, retrocedare de un miliard de euro\", România liberă, 27 April 2007",
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|
37,257 | 1,102,279,844 | Radioactive_waste | [
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"plaintext": "Radioactive waste is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons reprocessing. The storage and disposal of radioactive waste is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health and the environment.",
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"plaintext": "Radioactive waste is broadly classified into low-level waste (LLW), such as paper, rags, tools, clothing, which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity, intermediate-level waste (ILW), which contains higher amounts of radioactivity and requires some shielding, and high-level waste (HLW), which is highly radioactive and hot due to decay heat, so requires cooling and shielding.",
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"plaintext": "In nuclear reprocessing plants about 96% of spent nuclear fuel is recycled back into uranium-based and mixed-oxide (MOX) fuels. The residual 4% is minor actinides and fission products the latter of which are a mixture of stable and quickly decaying (most likely already having decayed in the spent fuel pool) elements, medium lived fission products such as Strontium-90 and Caesium-137 and finally seven long-lived fission products with half lives in the hundreds of thousands to millions of years. The minor actinides meanwhile are heavy elements other than uranium and plutonium which are created by neutron capture. Their half lives range from years to millions of years and as alpha emitters they are particularly radiotoxic. While there are proposed - and to a much lesser extent current - uses of all those elements, commercial scale reprocessing using the PUREX-process disposes of them as waste together with the fission products. The waste is subsequently converted into a glass-like ceramic for storage in a deep geological repository.",
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"plaintext": "The time radioactive waste must be stored for depends on the type of waste and radioactive isotopes it contains. Short-term approaches to radioactive waste storage have been segregation and storage on the surface or near-surface. Burial in a deep geological repository is a favored solution for long-term storage of high-level waste, while re-use and transmutation are favored solutions for reducing the HLW inventory. Boundaries to recycling of spent nuclear fuel are regulatory and economic as well as the issue of radioactive contamination if chemical separation processes cannot achieve a very high purity. Furthermore, elements may be present in both useful and troublesome isotopes, which would require costly and energy intensive isotope separation for their use - a currently uneconomic prospect.",
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"plaintext": "A summary of the amounts of radioactive waste and management approaches for most developed countries are presented and reviewed periodically as part of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)'s Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management.",
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"plaintext": "A quantity of radioactive waste typically consists of a number of radionuclides, which are unstable isotopes of elements that undergo decay and thereby emit ionizing radiation, which is harmful to humans and the environment. Different isotopes emit different types and levels of radiation, which last for different periods of time.",
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"plaintext": "The radioactivity of all radioactive waste weakens with time. All radionuclides contained in the waste have a half-life — the time it takes for half of the atoms to decay into another nuclide. Eventually, all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements (i.e., stable nuclides). Since radioactive decay follows the half-life rule, the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long-lived isotope like iodine-129 will be much less intense than that of a short-lived isotope like iodine-131. The two tables show some of the major radioisotopes, their half-lives, and their radiation yield as a proportion of the yield of fission of uranium-235.",
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"plaintext": "The energy and the type of the ionizing radiation emitted by a radioactive substance are also important factors in determining its threat to humans. The chemical properties of the radioactive element will determine how mobile the substance is and how likely it is to spread into the environment and contaminate humans. This is further complicated by the fact that many radioisotopes do not decay immediately to a stable state but rather to radioactive decay products within a decay chain before ultimately reaching a stable state.",
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"plaintext": "Exposure to radioactive waste may cause health impacts due to ionizing radiation exposure. In humans, a dose of 1 sievert carries a 5.5% risk of developing cancer, and regulatory agencies assume the risk is linearly proportional to dose even for low doses. Ionizing radiation can cause deletions in chromosomes. If a developing organism such as a fetus is irradiated, it is possible a birth defect may be induced, but it is unlikely this defect will be in a gamete or a gamete-forming cell. The incidence of radiation-induced mutations in humans is small, as in most mammals, because of natural cellular-repair mechanisms, many just now coming to light. These mechanisms range from DNA, mRNA and protein repair, to internal lysosomic digestion of defective proteins, and even induced cell suicide—apoptosis",
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"plaintext": "Depending on the decay mode and the pharmacokinetics of an element (how the body processes it and how quickly), the threat due to exposure to a given activity of a radioisotope will differ. For instance, iodine-131 is a short-lived beta and gamma emitter, but because it concentrates in the thyroid gland, it is more able to cause injury than caesium-137 which, being water soluble, is rapidly excreted through urine. In a similar way, the alpha emitting actinides and radium are considered very harmful as they tend to have long biological half-lives and their radiation has a high relative biological effectiveness, making it far more damaging to tissues per amount of energy deposited. Because of such differences, the rules determining biological injury differ widely according to the radioisotope, time of exposure, and sometimes also the nature of the chemical compound which contains the radioisotope.",
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"plaintext": "Radioactive waste comes from a number of sources. In countries with nuclear power plants, nuclear armament, or nuclear fuel treatment plants, the majority of waste originates from the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear weapons reprocessing. Other sources include medical and industrial wastes, as well as naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) that can be concentrated as a result of the processing or consumption of coal, oil, and gas, and some minerals, as discussed below.",
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"plaintext": "Waste from the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle is usually alpha-emitting waste from the extraction of uranium. It often contains radium and its decay products.",
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"plaintext": "Uranium dioxide (UO2) concentrate from mining is a thousand or so times as radioactive as the granite used in buildings. It is refined from yellowcake (U3O8), then converted to uranium hexafluoride gas (UF6). As a gas, it undergoes enrichment to increase the U-235 content from 0.7% to about 4.4% (LEU). It is then turned into a hard ceramic oxide (UO2) for assembly as reactor fuel elements.",
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"plaintext": "The main by-product of enrichment is depleted uranium (DU), principally the U-238 isotope, with a U-235 content of ~0.3%. It is stored, either as UF6 or as U3O8. Some is used in applications where its extremely high density makes it valuable such as anti-tank shells, and on at least one occasion even a sailboat keel. It is also used with plutonium for making mixed oxide fuel (MOX) and to dilute, or downblend, highly enriched uranium from weapons stockpiles which is now being redirected to become reactor fuel.",
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"plaintext": "The back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle, mostly spent fuel rods, contains fission products that emit beta and gamma radiation, and actinides that emit alpha particles, such as uranium-234 (half-life 245thousand years), neptunium-237 (2.144million years), plutonium-238 (87.7years) and americium-241 (432 years), and even sometimes some neutron emitters such as californium (half-life of 898 years for californium-251). These isotopes are formed in nuclear reactors.",
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"plaintext": "It is important to distinguish the processing of uranium to make fuel from the reprocessing of used fuel. Used fuel contains the highly radioactive products of fission (see high-level waste below). Many of these are neutron absorbers, called neutron poisons in this context. These eventually build up to a level where they absorb so many neutrons that the chain reaction stops, even with the control rods completely removed. At that point, the fuel has to be replaced in the reactor with fresh fuel, even though there is still a substantial quantity of uranium-235 and plutonium present. In the United States, this used fuel is usually \"stored\", while in other countries such as Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and India, the fuel is reprocessed to remove the fission products, and the fuel can then be re-used. The fission products removed from the fuel are a concentrated form of high-level waste as are the chemicals used in the process. While most countries reprocess the fuel carrying out single plutonium cycles, India is planning multiple plutonium recycling schemes and Russia pursues closed cycle.",
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"plaintext": "The use of different fuels in nuclear reactors results in different spent nuclear fuel (SNF) composition, with varying activity curves. The most abundant material being U-238 with other uranium isotopes, other actinides, fission products and activation products.",
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"plaintext": "Long-lived radioactive waste from the back end of the fuel cycle is especially relevant when designing a complete waste management plan for SNF. When looking at long-term radioactive decay, the actinides in the SNF have a significant influence due to their characteristically long half-lives. Depending on what a nuclear reactor is fueled with, the actinide composition in the SNF will be different.",
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"plaintext": "An example of this effect is the use of nuclear fuels with thorium. Th-232 is a fertile material that can undergo a neutron capture reaction and two beta minus decays, resulting in the production of fissile U-233. The SNF of a cycle with thorium will contain U-233. Its radioactive decay will strongly influence the long-term activity curve of the SNF around a million years. A comparison of the activity associated to U-233 for three different SNF types can be seen in the figure on the top right. The burnt fuels are thorium with reactor-grade plutonium (RGPu), thorium with weapons-grade plutonium (WGPu), and Mixed oxide fuel (MOX, no thorium). For RGPu and WGPu, the initial amount of U-233 and its decay around a million years can be seen. This has an effect on the total activity curve of the three fuel types. The initial absence of U-233 and its daughter products in the MOX fuel results in a lower activity in region 3 of the figure on the bottom right, whereas for RGPu and WGPu the curve is maintained higher due to the presence of U-233 that has not fully decayed. Nuclear reprocessing can remove the actinides from the spent fuel so they can be used or destroyed (see ).",
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"plaintext": "Since uranium and plutonium are nuclear weapons materials, there have been proliferation concerns. Ordinarily (in spent nuclear fuel), plutonium is reactor-grade plutonium. In addition to plutonium-239, which is highly suitable for building nuclear weapons, it contains large amounts of undesirable contaminants: plutonium-240, plutonium-241, and plutonium-238. These isotopes are extremely difficult to separate, and more cost-effective ways of obtaining fissile material exist (e.g., uranium enrichment or dedicated plutonium production reactors).",
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"plaintext": "High-level waste is full of highly radioactive fission products, most of which are relatively short-lived. This is a concern since if the waste is stored, perhaps in deep geological storage, over many years the fission products decay, decreasing the radioactivity of the waste and making the plutonium easier to access. The undesirable contaminant Pu-240 decays faster than the Pu-239, and thus the quality of the bomb material increases with time (although its quantity decreases during that time as well). Thus, some have argued, as time passes, these deep storage areas have the potential to become \"plutonium mines\", from which material for nuclear weapons can be acquired with relatively little difficulty. Critics of the latter idea have pointed out the difficulty of recovering useful material from sealed deep storage areas makes other methods preferable. Specifically, high radioactivity and heat (80°C in surrounding rock) greatly increase the difficulty of mining a storage area, and the enrichment methods required have high capital costs.",
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"plaintext": "Pu-239 decays to U-235 which is suitable for weapons and which has a very long half-life (roughly 109 years). Thus plutonium may decay and leave uranium-235. However, modern reactors are only moderately enriched with U-235 relative to U-238, so the U-238 continues to serve as a denaturation agent for any U-235 produced by plutonium decay.",
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"plaintext": "One solution to this problem is to recycle the plutonium and use it as a fuel e.g. in fast reactors. In pyrometallurgical fast reactors, the separated plutonium and uranium are contaminated by actinides and cannot be used for nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Waste from nuclear weapons decommissioning is unlikely to contain much beta or gamma activity other than tritium and americium. It is more likely to contain alpha-emitting actinides such as Pu-239 which is a fissile material used in bombs, plus some material with much higher specific activities, such as Pu-238 or Po.",
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"plaintext": "In the past the neutron trigger for an atomic bomb tended to be beryllium and a high activity alpha emitter such as polonium; an alternative to polonium is Pu-238. For reasons of national security, details of the design of modern bombs are normally not released to the open literature.",
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"plaintext": "Some designs might contain a radioisotope thermoelectric generator using Pu-238 to provide a long-lasting source of electrical power for the electronics in the device.",
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"plaintext": "It is likely that the fissile material of an old bomb which is due for refitting will contain decay products of the plutonium isotopes used in it, these are likely to include U-236 from Pu-240 impurities, plus some U-235 from decay of the Pu-239; due to the relatively long half-life of these Pu isotopes, these wastes from radioactive decay of bomb core material would be very small, and in any case, far less dangerous (even in terms of simple radioactivity) than the Pu-239 itself.",
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"plaintext": "The beta decay of Pu-241 forms Am-241; the in-growth of americium is likely to be a greater problem than the decay of Pu-239 and Pu-240 as the americium is a gamma emitter (increasing external-exposure to workers) and is an alpha emitter which can cause the generation of heat. The plutonium could be separated from the americium by several different processes; these would include pyrochemical processes and aqueous/organic solvent extraction. A truncated PUREX type extraction process would be one possible method of making the separation.",
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"plaintext": "Naturally occurring uranium is not fissile because it contains 99.3% of U-238 and only 0.7% of U-235.",
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"plaintext": "Due to historic activities typically related to the radium industry, uranium mining, and military programs, numerous sites contain or are contaminated with radioactivity. In the United States alone, the Department of Energy states there are \"millions of gallons of radioactive waste\" as well as \"thousands of tons of spent nuclear fuel and material\" and also \"huge quantities of contaminated soil and water.\" Despite copious quantities of waste, the DOE has stated a goal of cleaning all presently contaminated sites successfully by 2025. The Fernald, Ohio site for example had \"31 million pounds of uranium product\", \"2.5 billion pounds of waste\", \"2.75 million cubic yards of contaminated soil and debris\", and a \"223 acre portion of the underlying Great Miami Aquifer had uranium levels above drinking standards.\" The United States has at least 108 sites designated as areas that are contaminated and unusable, sometimes many thousands of acres. DOE wishes to clean or mitigate many or all by 2025, using the recently developed method of geomelting, however the task can be difficult and it acknowledges that some may never be completely remediated. In just one of these 108 larger designations, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, there were for example at least \"167 known contaminant release sites\" in one of the three subdivisions of the site. Some of the U.S. sites were smaller in nature, however, cleanup issues were simpler to address, and DOE has successfully completed cleanup, or at least closure, of several sites.",
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"plaintext": "Radioactive medical waste tends to contain beta particle and gamma ray emitters. It can be divided into two main classes. In diagnostic nuclear medicine a number of short-lived gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used. Many of these can be disposed of by leaving it to decay for a short time before disposal as normal waste. Other isotopes used in medicine, with half-lives in parentheses, include:",
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"plaintext": " Y-90, used for treating lymphoma (2.7 days)",
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"plaintext": " I-131, used for thyroid function tests and for treating thyroid cancer (8.0 days)",
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"plaintext": " Sr-89, used for treating bone cancer, intravenous injection (52 days)",
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{
"plaintext": " Ir-192, used for brachytherapy (74 days)",
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"plaintext": " Co-60, used for brachytherapy and external radiotherapy (5.3 years)",
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"plaintext": " Cs-137, used for brachytherapy and external radiotherapy (30 years)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Tc-99, product of the decay of Technetium-99m (221,000 years)",
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"plaintext": "Industrial source waste can contain alpha, beta, neutron or gamma emitters. Gamma emitters are used in radiography while neutron emitting sources are used in a range of applications, such as oil well logging.",
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"plaintext": "Substances containing natural radioactivity are known as NORM (naturally occurring radioactive material). After human processing that exposes or concentrates this natural radioactivity (such as mining bringing coal to the surface or burning it to produce concentrated ash), it becomes technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM). A lot of this waste is alpha particle-emitting matter from the decay chains of uranium and thorium. The main source of radiation in the human body is potassium-40 (40K), typically 17 milligrams in the body at a time and 0.4 milligrams/day intake. Most rocks, especially granite, have a low level of radioactivity due to the potassium-40, thorium and uranium contained.",
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"plaintext": "Usually ranging from 1 millisievert (mSv) to 13mSv annually depending on location, average radiation exposure from natural radioisotopes is 2.0mSv per person a year worldwide. This makes up the majority of typical total dosage (with mean annual exposure from other sources amounting to 0.6mSv from medical tests averaged over the whole populace, 0.4mSv from cosmic rays, 0.005mSv from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing, 0.005mSv occupational exposure, 0.002mSv from the Chernobyl disaster, and 0.0002mSv from the nuclear fuel cycle).",
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"plaintext": "TENORM is not regulated as restrictively as nuclear reactor waste, though there are no significant differences in the radiological risks of these materials.",
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"plaintext": "Coal contains a small amount of radioactive uranium, barium, thorium, and potassium, but, in the case of pure coal, this is significantly less than the average concentration of those elements in the Earth's crust. The surrounding strata, if shale or mudstone, often contain slightly more than average and this may also be reflected in the ash content of 'dirty' coals. The more active ash minerals become concentrated in the fly ash precisely because they do not burn well. The radioactivity of fly ash is about the same as black shale and is less than phosphate rocks, but is more of a concern because a small amount of the fly ash ends up in the atmosphere where it can be inhaled. According to U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) reports, population exposure from 1000-MWe power plants amounts to 490 person-rem/year for coal power plants, 100 times as great as nuclear power plants (4.8 person-rem/year). The exposure from the complete nuclear fuel cycle from mining to waste disposal is 136 person-rem/year; the corresponding value for coal use from mining to waste disposal is \"probably unknown\".",
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"plaintext": "Residues from the oil and gas industry often contain radium and its decay products. The sulfate scale from an oil well can be very radium rich, while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contain radon. The radon decays to form solid radioisotopes which form coatings on the inside of pipework. In an oil processing plant, the area of the plant where propane is processed is often one of the more contaminated areas of the plant as radon has a similar boiling point to propane.",
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"plaintext": "Radioactive elements are an industrial problem in some oil wells where workers operating in direct contact with the crude oil and brine can be actually exposed to doses having negative health effects. Due to the relatively high concentration of these elements in the brine, its disposal is also a technological challenge. In the United States, the brine is however exempt from the dangerous waste regulations and can be disposed of regardless of radioactive or toxic substances content since the 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "Due to natural occurrence of radioactive elements such as thorium and radium in rare-earth ore, mining operations also result in production of waste and mineral deposits that are slightly radioactive. ",
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"plaintext": "Classification of radioactive waste varies by country. The IAEA, which publishes the Radioactive Waste Safety Standards (RADWASS), also plays a significant role. The proportion of various types of waste generated in the UK:",
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"plaintext": " 94% – low-level waste (LLW)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " ~6% – intermediate-level waste (ILW)",
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},
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"plaintext": " <1% – high-level waste (HLW)",
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"plaintext": "Uranium tailings are waste by-product materials left over from the rough processing of uranium-bearing ore. They are not significantly radioactive. Mill tailings are sometimes referred to as 11(e)2 wastes, from the section of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 that defines them. Uranium mill tailings typically also contain chemically hazardous heavy metal such as lead and arsenic. Vast mounds of uranium mill tailings are left at many old mining sites, especially in Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah.",
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"plaintext": "Although mill tailings are not very radioactive, they have long half-lives. Mill tailings often contain radium, thorium and trace amounts of uranium.",
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"plaintext": "Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. Low-level wastes include paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, and other materials which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. Materials that originate from any region of an Active Area are commonly designated as LLW as a precautionary measure even if there is only a remote possibility of being contaminated with radioactive materials. Such LLW typically exhibits no higher radioactivity than one would expect from the same material disposed of in a non-active area, such as a normal office block. Example LLW includes wiping rags, mops, medical tubes, laboratory animal carcasses, and more. LLW waste makes 94% of all radioactive waste volume in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Some high-activity LLW requires shielding during handling and transport but most LLW is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. Low-level waste is divided into four classes: class A, class B, class C, and Greater Than Class C (GTCC).",
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"plaintext": "Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity compared to low-level waste. It generally requires shielding, but not cooling. Intermediate-level wastes includes resins, chemical sludge and metal nuclear fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumen or mixed with silica sand and vitrified for disposal. As a general rule, short-lived waste (mainly non-fuel materials from reactors) is buried in shallow repositories, while long-lived waste (from fuel and fuel reprocessing) is deposited in geological repository. Regulations in the United States do not define this category of waste; the term is used in Europe and elsewhere. ILW makes 6% of all radioactive waste volume in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "High-level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors and the reprocessing of nuclear fuel. The exact definition of HLW differs internationally. After a nuclear fuel rod serves one fuel cycle and is removed from the core, it is considered HLW. Spent fuel rods contain mostly uranium with fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. Spent fuel is highly radioactive and often hot. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear electricity generation but it contributes to less than 1% of volume of all radioactive waste produced in the UK. Overall, the 60-year-long nuclear program in the UK up until 2019 produced 2150m3 of HLW. ",
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"plaintext": "The radioactive waste from spent fuel rods consists primarily of cesium-137 and strontium-90, but it may also include plutonium, which can be considered transuranic waste. The half-lives of these radioactive elements can differ quite extremely. Some elements, such as cesium-137 and strontium-90 have half-lives of approximately 30 years. Meanwhile, plutonium has a half-life that can stretch to as long as 24,000 years.",
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"plaintext": "The amount of HLW worldwide is currently increasing by about 12,000 tonnes every year. A 1000-megawatt nuclear power plant produces about 27 t of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year. For comparison, the amount of ash produced by coal power plants in the United States alone is estimated at 130,000,000 t per year and fly ash is estimated to release 100 times more radiation than an equivalent nuclear power plant. ",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, it was estimated that about 250,000 t of nuclear HLW were stored globally. This does not include amounts that have escaped into the environment from accidents or tests. Japan is estimated to hold 17,000 t of HLW in storage in 2015. As of 2019, the United States has over 90,000 t of HLW. HLW have been shipped to other countries to be stored or reprocessed and, in some cases, shipped back as active fuel.",
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"plaintext": "The ongoing controversy over high-level radioactive waste disposal is a major constraint on the nuclear power's global expansion. Most scientists agree that the main proposed long-term solution is deep geological burial, either in a mine or a deep borehole. As of 2019 no dedicated civilian high-level nuclear waste is operational as small amounts of HLW did not justify the investment before. Finland is in the advanced stage of the construction of the Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository, which is planned to open in 2025 at 400–450 m depth. France is in the planning phase for a 500 m deep Cigeo facility in Bure. Sweden is planning a site in Forsmark. Canada plans a 680 m deep facility near Lake Huron in Ontario. The Republic of Korea plans to open a site around 2028. The site in Sweden enjoys 80% support from local residents as of 2020.",
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"plaintext": "The Morris Operation in Grundy County, Illinois, is currently the only de facto high-level radioactive waste storage site in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Transuranic waste (TRUW) as defined by U.S. regulations is, without regard to form or origin, waste that is contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranic radionuclides with half-lives greater than 20 years and concentrations greater than 100nCi/g (3.7MBq/kg), excluding high-level waste. Elements that have an atomic number greater than uranium are called transuranic (\"beyond uranium\"). Because of their long half-lives, TRUW is disposed of more cautiously than either low- or intermediate-level waste. In the United States, it arises mainly from nuclear weapons production, and consists of clothing, tools, rags, residues, debris, and other items contaminated with small amounts of radioactive elements (mainly plutonium).",
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"plaintext": "Under U.S. law, transuranic waste is further categorized into \"contact-handled\" (CH) and \"remote-handled\" (RH) on the basis of the radiation dose rate measured at the surface of the waste container. CH TRUW has a surface dose rate not greater than 200 mrem per hour (2mSv/h), whereas RH TRUW has a surface dose rate of 200mrem/h (2mSv/h) or greater. CH TRUW does not have the very high radioactivity of high-level waste, nor its high heat generation, but RH TRUW can be highly radioactive, with surface dose rates up to 1,000,000mrem/h (10,000mSv/h). The United States currently disposes of TRUW generated from military facilities at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in a deep salt formation in New Mexico.",
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"plaintext": "A future way to reduce waste accumulation is to phase out current reactors in favor of Generation IV reactors, which output less waste per power generated. Fast reactors such as BN-800 in Russia are also able to consume MOX fuel that is manufactured from recycled spent fuel from traditional reactors.",
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"plaintext": "The UK's Nuclear Decommissioning Authority published a position paper in 2014 on the progress on approaches to the management of separated plutonium, which summarises the conclusions of the work that NDA shared with UK government.",
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"plaintext": "Of particular concern in nuclear waste management are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 15.7 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np-237 (half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half-life 24,000 years). Nuclear waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from interacting with the biosphere. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term management strategy involving storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form. Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, though there has been limited progress toward long-term waste management solutions.",
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"plaintext": "In the second half of the 20th century, several methods of disposal of radioactive waste were investigated by nuclear nations, which are :",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"Long-term above-ground storage\", not implemented.",
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"section_name": "Management",
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},
{
"plaintext": " \"Disposal in outer space\" (for instance, inside the Sun), not implemented—as it would be currently too expensive.",
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},
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"plaintext": " \"Deep borehole disposal\", not implemented.",
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"plaintext": " \"Rock melting\", not implemented.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"Disposal at subduction zones\", not implemented.",
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"plaintext": " Ocean disposal, by the USSR, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, the United States, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Japan, Sweden, Russia, Germany, Italy and South Korea (1954–93). This is no longer permitted by international agreements.",
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"plaintext": " \"Sub-seabed disposal\", not implemented, not permitted by international agreements.",
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"plaintext": " \"Disposal in ice sheets\", rejected in Antarctic Treaty",
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"plaintext": " \"Deep well injection\", by USSR and USA.",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear transmutation, using lasers to cause beta decay to convert the unstable atoms to those with shorter half-lives.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, waste management policy completely broke down with the ending of work on the incomplete Yucca Mountain Repository. At present there are 70 nuclear power plant sites where spent fuel is stored. A Blue Ribbon Commission was appointed by President Obama to look into future options for this and future waste. A deep geological repository seems to be favored. 2018 Nobel Prize for Physics-winner Gérard Mourou has proposed using Chirped pulse amplification to generate high-energy and low-duration laser pulses to transmute highly radioactive material (contained in a target) to significantly reduce its half-life, from thousands of years to only a few minutes.",
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"plaintext": "Long-term storage of radioactive waste requires the stabilization of the waste into a form that will neither react nor degrade for extended periods. It is theorized that one way to do this might be through vitrification. Currently at Sellafield the high-level waste (PUREX first cycle raffinate) is mixed with sugar and then calcined. Calcination involves passing the waste through a heated, rotating tube. The purposes of calcination are to evaporate the water from the waste and de-nitrate the fission products to assist the stability of the glass produced.",
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"plaintext": "The 'calcine' generated is fed continuously into an induction heated furnace with fragmented glass. The resulting glass is a new substance in which the waste products are bonded into the glass matrix when it solidifies. As a melt, this product is poured into stainless steel cylindrical containers (\"cylinders\") in a batch process. When cooled, the fluid solidifies (\"vitrifies\") into the glass. After being formed, the glass is highly resistant to water.",
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"plaintext": "After filling a cylinder, a seal is welded onto the cylinder head. The cylinder is then washed. After being inspected for external contamination, the steel cylinder is stored, usually in an underground repository. In this form, the waste products are expected to be immobilized for thousands of years.",
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"plaintext": "The glass inside a cylinder is usually a black glossy substance. All this work (in the United Kingdom) is done using hot cell systems. Sugar is added to control the ruthenium chemistry and to stop the formation of the volatile RuO4 containing radioactive ruthenium isotopes. In the West, the glass is normally a borosilicate glass (similar to Pyrex), while in the former Soviet Union it is normal to use a phosphate glass. The amount of fission products in the glass must be limited because some (palladium, the other Pt group metals, and tellurium) tend to form metallic phases which separate from the glass. Bulk vitrification uses electrodes to melt soil and wastes, which are then buried underground. In Germany a vitrification plant is in use; this is treating the waste from a small demonstration reprocessing plant which has since been closed down.",
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"plaintext": "Vitrification is not the only way to stabilize the waste into a form that will not react or degrade for extended periods. Immobilization via direct incorporation into a phosphate-based crystalline ceramic host is also used. The diverse chemistry of phosphate ceramics under various conditions demonstrates a versatile material that can withstand chemical, thermal, and radioactive degradation over time. The properties of phosphates, particularly ceramic phosphates, of stability over a wide pH range, low porosity, and minimization of secondary waste introduces possibilities for new waste immobilization techniques.",
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"plaintext": "It is common for medium active wastes in the nuclear industry to be treated with ion exchange or other means to concentrate the radioactivity into a small volume. The much less radioactive bulk (after treatment) is often then discharged. For instance, it is possible to use a ferric hydroxide floc to remove radioactive metals from aqueous mixtures. After the radioisotopes are absorbed onto the ferric hydroxide, the resulting sludge can be placed in a metal drum before being mixed with cement to form a solid waste form. In order to get better long-term performance (mechanical stability) from such forms, they may be made from a mixture of fly ash, or blast furnace slag, and Portland cement, instead of normal concrete (made with Portland cement, gravel and sand).",
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"plaintext": "The Australian Synroc (synthetic rock) is a more sophisticated way to immobilize such waste, and this process may eventually come into commercial use for civil wastes (it is currently being developed for U.S. military wastes). Synroc was invented by Prof Ted Ringwood (a geochemist) at the Australian National University. The Synroc contains pyrochlore and cryptomelane type minerals. The original form of Synroc (Synroc C) was designed for the liquid high-level waste (PUREX raffinate) from a light-water reactor. The main minerals in this Synroc are hollandite (BaAl2Ti6O16), zirconolite (CaZrTi2O7) and perovskite (CaTiO3). The zirconolite and perovskite are hosts for the actinides. The strontium and barium will be fixed in the perovskite. The caesium will be fixed in the hollandite. A Synroc waste treatment facility began construction in 2018 at ANSTO",
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"plaintext": "The time frame in question when dealing with radioactive waste ranges from 10,000 to 1,000,000 years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses. Researchers suggest that forecasts of health detriment for such periods should be examined critically. Practical studies only consider up to 100 years as far as effective planning and cost evaluations are concerned. Long term behavior of radioactive wastes remains a subject for ongoing research projects in geoforecasting.",
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"plaintext": "Algae has shown selectivity for strontium in studies, where most plants used in bioremediation have not shown selectivity between calcium and strontium, often becoming saturated with calcium, which is present in greater quantities in nuclear waste. Strontium-90 with a half life around 30 years, is classified as high-level waste.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers have looked at the bioaccumulation of strontium by Scenedesmus spinosus (algae) in simulated wastewater. The study claims a highly selective biosorption capacity for strontium of S. spinosus, suggesting that it may be appropriate for use of nuclear wastewater. A study of the pond alga Closterium moniliferum using non-radioactive strontium found that varying the ratio of barium to strontium in water improved strontium selectivity.",
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"plaintext": "Dry cask storage typically involves taking waste from a spent fuel pool and sealing it (along with an inert gas) in a steel cylinder, which is placed in a concrete cylinder which acts as a radiation shield. It is a relatively inexpensive method which can be done at a central facility or adjacent to the source reactor. The waste can be easily retrieved for reprocessing.",
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"plaintext": "The process of selecting appropriate deep final repositories for high-level waste and spent fuel is now underway in several countries with the first expected to be commissioned sometime after 2010. The basic concept is to locate a large, stable geologic formation and use mining technology to excavate a tunnel, or large-bore tunnel boring machines (similar to those used to drill the Channel Tunnel from England to France) to drill a shaft to below the surface where rooms or vaults can be excavated for disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The goal is to permanently isolate nuclear waste from the human environment. Many people remain uncomfortable with the immediate stewardship cessation of this disposal system, suggesting perpetual management and monitoring would be more prudent.",
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"plaintext": "Because some radioactive species have half-lives longer than one million years, even very low container leakage and radionuclide migration rates must be taken into account. Moreover, it may require more than one half-life until some nuclear materials lose enough radioactivity to cease being lethal to living things. A 1983 review of the Swedish radioactive waste disposal program by the National Academy of Sciences found that country's estimate of several hundred thousand years—perhaps up to one million years—being necessary for waste isolation \"fully justified.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ocean floor disposal of radioactive waste has been suggested by the finding that deep waters in the North Atlantic Ocean do not present an exchange with shallow waters for about 140 years based on oxygen content data recorded over a period of 25 years. They include burial beneath a stable abyssal plain, burial in a subduction zone that would slowly carry the waste downward into the Earth's mantle, and burial beneath a remote natural or human-made island. While these approaches all have merit and would facilitate an international solution to the problem of disposal of radioactive waste, they would require an amendment of the Law of the Sea.",
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"plaintext": "Article 1 (Definitions), 7., of the 1996 Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, (the London Dumping Convention) states:",
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"plaintext": "\"\"Sea\" means all marine waters other than the internal waters of States, as well as the seabed and the subsoil thereof; it does not include sub-seabed repositories accessed only from land.\"",
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"plaintext": "The proposed land-based subductive waste disposal method disposes of nuclear waste in a subduction zone accessed from land and therefore is not prohibited by international agreement. This method has been described as the most viable means of disposing of radioactive waste, and as the state-of-the-art as of 2001 in nuclear waste disposal technology.",
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"plaintext": "Another approach termed Remix & Return would blend high-level waste with uranium mine and mill tailings down to the level of the original radioactivity of the uranium ore, then replace it in inactive uranium mines. This approach has the merits of providing jobs for miners who would double as disposal staff, and of facilitating a cradle-to-grave cycle for radioactive materials, but would be inappropriate for spent reactor fuel in the absence of reprocessing, due to the presence of highly toxic radioactive elements such as plutonium within it.",
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"plaintext": "Deep borehole disposal is the concept of disposing of high-level radioactive waste from nuclear reactors in extremely deep boreholes. Deep borehole disposal seeks to place the waste as much as beneath the surface of the Earth and relies primarily on the immense natural geological barrier to confine the waste safely and permanently so that it should never pose a threat to the environment. The Earth's crust contains 120 trillion tons of thorium and 40 trillion tons of uranium (primarily at relatively trace concentrations of parts per million each adding up over the crust's 3 × 1019 ton mass), among other natural radioisotopes. Since the fraction of nuclides decaying per unit of time is inversely proportional to an isotope's half-life, the relative radioactivity of the lesser amount of human-produced radioisotopes (thousands of tons instead of trillions of tons) would diminish once the isotopes with far shorter half-lives than the bulk of natural radioisotopes decayed.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2013, Cumbria county council rejected UK central government proposals to start work on an underground storage dump for nuclear waste near to the Lake District National Park. \"For any host community, there will be a substantial community benefits package and worth hundreds of millions of pounds\" said Ed Davey, Energy Secretary, but nonetheless, the local elected body voted 7–3 against research continuing, after hearing evidence from independent geologists that \"the fractured strata of the county was impossible to entrust with such dangerous material and a hazard lasting millennia.\"",
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"plaintext": "Horizontal drillhole disposal describes proposals to drill over one km vertically, and two km horizontally in the earth’s crust, for the purpose of disposing of high-level waste forms such as spent nuclear fuel, Caesium-137, or Strontium-90. After the emplacement and the retrievability period, drillholes would be backfilled and sealed. A series of tests of the technology were carried out in November 2018 and then again publicly in January 2019 by a U.S. based private company. The test demonstrated the emplacement of a test-canister in a horizontal drillhole and retrieval of the same canister. There was no actual high-level waste used in this test.",
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"plaintext": "European Commission Joint Research Centre report of 2021 (see above) concluded:",
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"plaintext": "There have been proposals for reactors that consume nuclear waste and transmute it to other, less-harmful or shorter-lived, nuclear waste. In particular, the integral fast reactor was a proposed nuclear reactor with a nuclear fuel cycle that produced no transuranic waste and, in fact, could consume transuranic waste. It proceeded as far as large-scale tests but was eventually canceled by the U.S. Government. Another approach, considered safer but requiring more development, is to dedicate subcritical reactors to the transmutation of the left-over transuranic elements.",
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"plaintext": "An isotope that is found in nuclear waste and that represents a concern in terms of proliferation is Pu-239. The large stock of plutonium is a result of its production inside uranium-fueled reactors and of the reprocessing of weapons-grade plutonium during the weapons program. An option for getting rid of this plutonium is to use it as a fuel in a traditional light-water reactor (LWR). Several fuel types with differing plutonium destruction efficiencies are under study.",
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"plaintext": "Transmutation was banned in the United States in April 1977 by President Carter due to the danger of plutonium proliferation, but President Reagan rescinded the ban in 1981. Due to economic losses and risks, the construction of reprocessing plants during this time did not resume. Due to high energy demand, work on the method has continued in the EU. This has resulted in a practical nuclear research reactor called Myrrha in which transmutation is possible. Additionally, a new research program called ACTINET has been started in the EU to make transmutation possible on a large, industrial scale. According to President Bush's Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) of 2007, the United States is actively promoting research on transmutation technologies needed to markedly reduce the problem of nuclear waste treatment.",
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"plaintext": "There have also been theoretical studies involving the use of fusion reactors as so-called \"actinide burners\" where a fusion reactor plasma such as in a tokamak, could be \"doped\" with a small amount of the \"minor\" transuranic atoms which would be transmuted (meaning fissioned in the actinide case) to lighter elements upon their successive bombardment by the very high energy neutrons produced by the fusion of deuterium and tritium in the reactor. A study at MIT found that only 2 or 3 fusion reactors with parameters similar to that of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) could transmute the entire annual minor actinide production from all of the light-water reactors presently operating in the United States fleet while simultaneously generating approximately 1 gigawatt of power from each reactor.",
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"plaintext": "Spent nuclear fuel contains abundant fertile uranium and traces of fissile materials. Methods such as the PUREX process can be used to remove useful actinides for the production of active nuclear fuel.",
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"plaintext": "Another option is to find applications for the isotopes in nuclear waste so as to re-use them. Already, caesium-137, strontium-90 and a few other isotopes are extracted for certain industrial applications such as food irradiation and radioisotope thermoelectric generators. While re-use does not eliminate the need to manage radioisotopes, it can reduce the quantity of waste produced.",
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"plaintext": "The Nuclear Assisted Hydrocarbon Production Method, Canadian patent application 2,659,302, is a method for the temporary or permanent storage of nuclear waste materials comprising the placing of waste materials into one or more repositories or boreholes constructed into an unconventional oil formation. The thermal flux of the waste materials fractures the formation and alters the chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material within the subterranean formation to allow removal of the altered material. A mixture of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other formation fluids is produced from the formation. The radioactivity of high-level radioactive waste affords proliferation resistance to plutonium placed in the periphery of the repository or the deepest portion of a borehole.",
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"plaintext": "Breeder reactors can run on U-238 and transuranic elements, which comprise the majority of spent fuel radioactivity in the 1,000–100,000-year time span.",
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"plaintext": "Space disposal is attractive because it removes nuclear waste from the planet. It has significant disadvantages, such as the potential for catastrophic failure of a launch vehicle, which could spread radioactive material into the atmosphere and around the world. A high number of launches would be required because no individual rocket would be able to carry very much of the material relative to the total amount that needs to be disposed of. This makes the proposal impractical economically and increases the risk of at least one or more launch failures. To further complicate matters, international agreements on the regulation of such a program would need to be established. Costs and inadequate reliability of modern rocket launch systems for space disposal has been one of the motives for interest in non-rocket spacelaunch systems such as mass drivers, space elevators, and other proposals.",
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"plaintext": "Sweden and Finland are furthest along in committing to a particular disposal technology, while many others reprocess spent fuel or contract with France or Great Britain to do it, taking back the resulting plutonium and high-level waste. \"An increasing backlog of plutonium from reprocessing is developing in many countries... It is doubtful that reprocessing makes economic sense in the present environment of cheap uranium.\"",
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"plaintext": "In many European countries (e.g., Britain, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland) the risk or dose limit for a member of the public exposed to radiation from a future high-level nuclear waste facility is considerably more stringent than that suggested by the International Commission on Radiation Protection or proposed in the United States. European limits are often more stringent than the standard suggested in 1990 by the International Commission on Radiation Protection by a factor of 20, and more stringent by a factor of ten than the standard proposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository for the first 10,000 years after closure.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. EPA's proposed standard for greater than 10,000 years is 250 times more permissive than the European limit. The U.S. EPA proposed a legal limit of a maximum of 3.5 millisieverts (350 millirem) each annually to local individuals after 10,000 years, which would be up to several percent of the exposure currently received by some populations in the highest natural background regions on Earth, though the U.S. United States Department of Energy (DOE) predicted that received dose would be much below that limit. Over a timeframe of thousands of years, after the most active short half-life radioisotopes decayed, burying U.S. nuclear waste would increase the radioactivity in the top 2000 feet of rock and soil in the United States (10 million km2) by approximately 1 part in 10 million over the cumulative amount of natural radioisotopes in such a volume, but the vicinity of the site would have a far higher concentration of artificial radioisotopes underground than such an average.",
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"plaintext": "After serious opposition about plans and negotiations between Mongolia with Japan and the United States of America to build nuclear-waste facilities in Mongolia, Mongolia stopped all negotiations in September 2011. These negotiations had started after U.S. Deputy Secretary of Energy Daniel Poneman visited Mongolia in September 2010. Talks took place in Washington, D.C. between officials of Japan, the United States, and Mongolia in February 2011. After this the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which wanted to buy nuclear fuel from Mongolia, joined in the negotiations. The talks were kept secret and, although the Mainichi Daily News reported on them in May, Mongolia officially denied the existence of these negotiations. However, alarmed by this news, Mongolian citizens protested against the plans and demanded the government withdraw the plans and disclose information. The Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj issued a presidential order on September 13 banning all negotiations with foreign governments or international organizations on nuclear-waste storage plans in Mongolia. The Mongolian government has accused the newspaper of distributing false claims around the world. After the presidential order, the Mongolian president fired the individual who was supposedly involved in these conversations.",
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"plaintext": "Authorities in Italy are investigating a 'Ndrangheta mafia clan accused of trafficking and illegally dumping nuclear waste. According to a whistleblower, a manager of the Italy's state energy research agency Enea paid the clan to get rid of 600 drums of toxic and radioactive waste from Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and the United States, with Somalia as the destination, where the waste was buried after buying off local politicians. Former employees of Enea are suspected of paying the criminals to take waste off their hands in the 1980s and 1990s. Shipments to Somalia continued into the 1990s, while the 'Ndrangheta clan also blew up shiploads of waste, including radioactive hospital waste, sending them to the sea bed off the Calabrian coast. According to the environmental group Legambiente, former members of the 'Ndrangheta have said that they were paid to sink ships with radioactive material for the last 20 years.",
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"plaintext": "A few incidents have occurred when radioactive material was disposed of improperly, shielding during transport was defective, or when it was simply abandoned or even stolen from a waste store. In the Soviet Union, waste stored in Lake Karachay was blown over the area during a dust storm after the lake had partly dried out. At Maxey Flat, a low-level radioactive waste facility located in Kentucky, containment trenches covered with dirt, instead of steel or cement, collapsed under heavy rainfall into the trenches and filled with water. The water that invaded the trenches became radioactive and had to be disposed of at the Maxey Flat facility itself. In other cases of radioactive waste accidents, lakes or ponds with radioactive waste accidentally overflowed into the rivers during exceptional storms. In Italy, several radioactive waste deposits let material flow into river water, thus contaminating water for domestic use. In France in the summer of 2008, numerous incidents happened: in one, at the Areva plant in Tricastin, it was reported that, during a draining operation, liquid containing untreated uranium overflowed out of a faulty tank and about 75kg of the radioactive material seeped into the ground and, from there, into two rivers nearby; in another case, over 100 staff were contaminated with low doses of radiation. There are ongoing concerns around the deterioration of the nuclear waste site on the Enewetak Atoll of the Marshall Islands and a potential radioactive spill.",
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"plaintext": "Scavenging of abandoned radioactive material has been the cause of several other cases of radiation exposure, mostly in developing nations, which may have less regulation of dangerous substances (and sometimes less general education about radioactivity and its hazards) and a market for scavenged goods and scrap metal. The scavengers and those who buy the material are almost always unaware that the material is radioactive and it is selected for its aesthetics or scrap value. Irresponsibility on the part of the radioactive material's owners, usually a hospital, university, or military, and the absence of regulation concerning radioactive waste, or a lack of enforcement of such regulations, have been significant factors in radiation exposures. For an example of an accident involving radioactive scrap originating from a hospital see the Goiânia accident.",
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"plaintext": "On 15 December 2011, top government spokesman Osamu Fujimura of the Japanese government admitted that nuclear substances were found in the waste of Japanese nuclear facilities. Although Japan did commit itself in 1977 to these inspections in the safeguard agreement with the IAEA, the reports were kept secret for the inspectors of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Japan did start discussions with the IAEA about the large quantities of enriched uranium and plutonium that were discovered in nuclear waste cleared away by Japanese nuclear operators. At the press conference Fujimura said: \"Based on investigations so far, most nuclear substances have been properly managed as waste, and from that perspective, there is no problem in safety management,\" But according to him, the matter was at that moment still being investigated.",
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"plaintext": " Alsos Digital Library – Radioactive Waste (annotated bibliography)",
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"plaintext": " Euridice European Interest Group in charge of Hades URL operation (link)",
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"plaintext": " Ondraf/Niras, the waste management authority in Belgium (link)",
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"plaintext": "Carol II (4 April 1953) was King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until his forced abdication on 6 September 1940. The eldest son of Ferdinand I, he became crown prince upon the death of his grand-uncle, King Carol I in 1914. He was the first of the Hohenzollern kings of Romania to be born in the country; both of his predecessors had been born in Germany and came to Romania only as adults. As such, he was the first member of the Romanian branch of the Hohenzollerns who spoke Romanian as his first language, and was also the first member of the royal family to be raised in the Orthodox faith.",
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"plaintext": "Carol's first controversy was his desertion from the army during World War I, followed by his marriage to Zizi Lambrino, which resulted in two attempts to give up the rights of succession to the royal crown of Romania, refused by King Ferdinand.",
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"plaintext": "After the dissolution of his marriage, he traveled the world, culminating in a meeting with Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark, daughter of King Constantine I of Greece. They married in March 1921, having a child in the same year, Prince Michael. His continued affairs with Elena Lupescu obliged him to renounce his succession rights in 1925 and leave the country. His name was removed from the royal house of Romania by King Ferdinand. Carol moved to France with Lupescu, under the name Carol Caraiman. Michael, aged 5, inherited the throne on the death of King Ferdinand in 1927. Princess Helen eventually divorced Carol in 1928.",
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"plaintext": "In the political crisis created by the deaths of Ferdinand I and Ion I. C. Brătianu, as well as the ineffective regency of Prince Nicholas of Romania, Miron Cristea, and Gheorghe Buzdugan, Carol was allowed to return to Romania in 1930 and his name was restored by the royal house of Romania, dethroning his own son. His reign was marked at the beginning by the effects of the Great Depression. Carol II weakened the party system, often appointing minority factions of historical parties to the government and attempting to form nationally concentrated governments, such as the Iorga-Argetoianu government. He also allowed the formation of a corrupt chamber around him, under the patronage of Elena Lupescu. Taking advantage of the political crisis of the December 1937 elections, where no party achieved an absolute majority and a coalition could not be formed due to disagreements between the National Liberal Party and those that could have formed a majority with them, the National Peasants Party and the Iron Guard, Carol established a royal dictatorship in 1938 by removing the 1923 constitution and abolishing the political parties, replaced by a single party, the National Renaissance Front, mostly composed of former members of the National Peasants Party and National Christian Party patronized by the king. The National Renaissance Front was the last of several attempts to counter the popularity of the fascist Iron Guard.",
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"plaintext": "Following the start of World War II, Carol II reaffirmed the Polish–Romanian alliance; the military assistance was however declined by Poland, who wished to follow the Romanian Bridgehead plan that required a neutral Romania. Following the fall of Poland and the involvement of the USSR, Carol II maintained a neutrality policy. After the fall of France, Carol II's policy changed towards re-alignment with Nazi Germany in hopes of gaining a German guarantee. He was however not aware of the secret clauses of the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact that would see Romania lose significant parts of its territory. The year 1940 marked the fragmentation of Greater Romania by the loss of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to USSR, Northern Transylvania to Hungary and Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. Although a German guarantee was finally achieved, the situation had a disastrous effect on the reputation of Carol II. The reorientation of Romania's foreign policy towards Nazi Germany could not save his regime and he was forced to abdicate by General Ion Antonescu, newly appointed prime minister, and was succeeded by his son Michael. He was allowed to leave the country with a special train loaded with fortunes, an assassination attempt was made by the Iron Guard, who fired on the train. After World War II, Carol II wanted to return to the helm of the country and dethrone his son again, but was stopped by the Western Allies. He eventually married Elena Lupescu and died in exile.",
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"plaintext": "Carol was born in Peleș Castle, and grew up under the thumb of his dominating grand-uncle, King Carol I. King Carol I largely excluded Carol's parents, the German-born Crown Prince Ferdinand and the British-born Crown Princess Marie, from any role in bringing him up. Romania in the early 20th century had a famously relaxed \"Latin\" sexual morality, and the British Princess Marie of Edinburgh despite or perhaps because of her Victorian upbringing ended up \"going native\", having a long series of affairs with various Romanian men with whom she could obtain more emotional and sexual satisfaction than she could with Ferdinand, who fiercely resented being cuckolded. The stern Carol I felt that Marie was unqualified to raise Prince Carol because of her affairs and her young age, as she was only seventeen when Carol was born, while Marie regarded the King as a cold, overbearing tyrant who would crush the life out of her son.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, the childless Carol I, who had always wanted a son, treated Prince Carol as his surrogate son and thoroughly spoiled him, indulging his every whim. Ferdinand was a rather shy and weak man who was easily overshadowed by the charismatic Marie, who become the most loved member of the Romanian royal family. Growing up, Carol felt ashamed of his father, whom both his grand-uncle and mother pushed around. Carol's childhood was spent being caught up in an emotional tug-of-war between Carol I and Marie, who had very different ideas about how to raise him. The Romanian historian Marie Bucur described the battle between Carol I and Princess Marie as one between traditional 19th century Prussian conservatism as personified by Carol I versus the 20th century liberal, modernist and sexually deviant values of the \"New Woman\" as personified by Princess Marie. Aspects of both Marie's and Carol I's personalities were present in Carol II. Largely because of the battle between the King and Marie, Carol ended being both spoiled and deprived of love. ",
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"plaintext": "During his teenage years, Carol acquired the \"playboy\" image that was to become his defining persona for the rest of his life. Carol I expressed some concern at the direction that Prince Carol was taking, as the young Prince's only serious interest was stamp collecting and he spent an inordinate amount of time drinking, partying, chasing after women; young Carol fathered at least two illegitimate children by the teenage schoolgirl Maria Martini by the time that he was 19. Carol rapidly become a favorite of gossip columnists around the world owing to the frequent photographs that appeared in the newspapers showing him at various parties with him holding a drink in one hand and a woman in the other.",
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"plaintext": "In order to teach the Prince the value of the Prussian virtues, the King had the Prince commissioned as an officer into a Prussian guards regiment in 1913. His time with the 1st Prussian Guards regiment did not achieve the desired results, and Carol remained the \"playboy prince\". Romania in the early 20th century was an intensely Francophile nation, indeed perhaps the most Francophile nation in the entire world as the Romanian elite obsessively went about embracing all things French as the model for perfection in everything. To a certain extent, Carol was influenced by the prevailing Francophilia, but at the same time he inherited from Carol I, in the words of the American historian Margaret Sankey, a \"profound love of German militarism\" and the idea that all democratic governments were weak governments.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1914, Carol joined the Romanian Senate, as the 1866 Constitution guaranteed him a seat there upon reaching maturity. Known more for his romantic misadventures than for any leadership skills, Carol (Romanian for \"Charles\") was first married in the Cathedral Church of Odessa, Ukraine, 31 August 1918 (under the occupation of the Central Powers at that time), to Joanna Marie Valentina Lambrino (1898–1953), known as \"Zizi\", the daughter of a Romanian general, Constantin Lambrino. The fact that Carol technically had deserted as he left his post at the Army without permission to marry Zizi Lambrino caused immense controversy at the time. The marriage was annulled on 29 March 1919 by the Ilfov County Court. Carol and Zizi continued to live together after the annulment. Their only child, Mircea Gregor Carol Lambrino, was born 8 January 1920.",
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"plaintext": "Carol next married Princess Helen of Greece and Denmark, who was known in Romania as Crown Princess Elena, on 10 March 1921 in Athens, Greece. They were second cousins, both of them great-grandchildren of Queen Victoria, as well as third cousins in descent from Nicholas I of Russia. Helen had known Carol's dissolute behaviour and previous marriage, but was undeterred, being in love with Carol. The intention behind this arranged marriage was to help organise a dynastic alliance between Greece and Romania. Bulgaria had territorial disputes with Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia and all three of the latter states tended to be close during the interwar period owing to their shared fears of the Bulgarians. Helen and Carol's only child, Michael, was born seven months after their marriage, sparking rumours that Michael was conceived out of wedlock. Apparently close at first, Carol and Helen drifted apart. Carol's marriage with Princess Helen was an unhappy one, and he frequently engaged in extramarital affairs. The elegant wallflower Helen found the bohemian Carol, with his love of heavy drinking and constant partying, rather too wild for her tastes. Carol disliked royal and aristocratic women, whom he found too stiff and formal for his tastes, and had an extremely marked preference for commoners, much to the chagrin of his parents. Carol found low-born women to have the qualities that he sought in a woman, such as informality, spontaneity, humor and passion.",
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"plaintext": "The marriage soon collapsed in the wake of Carol's affair with Elena \"Magda\" Lupescu (1895?–1977), the Roman Catholic daughter of Jewish parents who had converted to Christianity. Magda Lupescu had formerly been the wife of Army officer Ion Tâmpeanu. The National Liberal Party, which dominated Romania's politics, made much of Carol's relationship with Lupescu to argue that he was unqualified to be king. One of the leading figures of the National Liberals was Prince Barbu Știrbey—who was also Queen Marie's lover—and Carol had a strong dislike of Știrbey, who had humiliated his father via his indiscreetly disguised relationship with Marie, and hence of the National Liberals. Knowing that Carol was ill-disposed towards them, the National Liberals waged a sustained campaign to keep him from the throne. The campaign waged by the National Liberals had less to do with disgust with Carol's relationship with Madame Lupescu than with an effort to remove a potential \"loose cannon\", as Carol made it clear when he succeeded to the throne that he would not be content to let the National Liberals dominate politics in the way that the previous Hohenzollern kings had.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the scandal, Carol renounced his right to the throne on 28 December 1925 in favour of his son by Crown Princess Helen, Michael (Mihai), who became king in July 1927 upon the death of his paternal grandfather King Ferdinand I. Helen divorced Carol in 1928. After renouncing his right to the throne, Carol moved to Paris, where he lived openly in a common-law relationship with Madame Lupescu. The National Liberal Party was largely a vehicle for the powerful Brătianu family to exercise power and, after the National Liberal Prime Minister Ion I. C. Brătianu died in 1927, the Brătianus were unable to agree upon a successor, causing the fortunes of the National Liberals to go into decline. In the 1928 elections, the National Peasant Party under Iuliu Maniu won a resounding victory, taking 78% of the vote. As Prince Nicolae, the chief of the Regency Council that governed for King Michael, was known to be friendly with the National Liberals, the new prime minister was determined to dispose of the regency council by bringing back Carol.",
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"plaintext": "Returning to the country on 7 June 1930, in a coup d'état engineered by National Peasant Prime Minister Iuliu Maniu, Carol was recognized by the Parliament as king of Romania the following day. For the next decade he sought to influence the course of Romanian political life, first through manipulation of the rival Peasant and Liberal parties and anti-Semitic factions, and subsequently (January 1938) through a ministry of his own choosing. Carol also sought to build up his own personality cult against the growing influence of the Iron Guard, for instance by setting up a paramilitary youth organization known as Straja Țării in 1935. The American historian Stanley G. Payne described Carol as \"the most cynical, corrupt and power-hungry monarch who ever disgraced a throne anywhere in twentieth-century Europe\". A colorful character, Carol was in the words of the British historian Richard Cavendish:\"Dashing, wilful and reckless, a lover of women, champagne and speed, Carol drove racing cars and piloted planes, and on state occasions appeared in operetta uniforms with enough ribbons, chains and orders to sink a small destroyer.\" The Romanian historian Maria Bucur wrote about Carol: \"Of course, he loved luxury; being born to privilege he expected nothing less than the grand lifestyle he saw in the other courts of Europe. Yet his style was not outlandish or grotesque like Nicolae Ceaușescu's unique brand of kitsch. He liked things large but relatively simple-his royal palace testifies to that trait. Carol’s true passions were Lupescu, hunting and cars and he spared no expense on them.Carol liked to present an impressive and populist persona to the public, wearing garish military uniforms adorned with medals, and to be the benefactor of every philanthropic endeavor in the land. He loved parades and grandiose festivals and watched them closely, but he was not taken in by these events as more than shows of his power; he did not take them as a show of sincere popularity as Ceaușescu did during his later years. Carol had a populist style, depicting himself as the defender of the common man against the corrupt Francophile elites (especially the National Liberals) mixed in with generous elements of nationalism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Carol's tendency to throw together populism, authoritarianism, a vaguely xenophobic nationalism and Orthodoxy superficially resembled the style of the Iron Guard, albeit Carol's message was far less passionate than that of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, \"the Captain\" who preached a message of ferociously xenophobic ultra-nationalism, intense Orthodox mysticism, extremely violent anti-Semitism, a populist disdain for all the elites and a glorification of death in the service of the cause as the most beautiful, glorious, noble and erotic experience in the entire world. Codreanu, a man with death fetish had made the Iron Guard into a macabre death cult and often sent his followers out on what were clearly suicidal missions. After committing murders, Iron Guardsmen rarely attempted to flee and instead waited to be arrested as they wanted to be executed for their crimes. Many found the way that Legionaries went to their executions positively giddy and joyful about the prospect of their own deaths, happily proclaiming their deaths were the happiest moment of their life a deeply eerie experience. Carol regarded Codreanu's death fetish together with his claim that the Archangel Michael had told him that God had chosen him to save Romania as evidence that Codreanu was \"crazy\".",
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"plaintext": "Carol had sworn in his coronation oath to uphold the constitution of 1923, a promise he had no intention of keeping and right from the start of his reign, the king meddled in politics to increase his own power. Carol was an opportunist with no real principles or values other than the belief he was the right man to rule Romania and that what his kingdom needed was a modernizing dictatorship. Carol ruled via an informal body known as the camarilla comprising courtiers together with senior diplomats, army officers, politicians and industrialists who were all in some way dependent upon royal favor to advance their careers. The most important member of the camarilla was Carol's mistress Madame Lupescu whose political advice Carol greatly valued. Maniu had brought Carol to the throne out of the fear that the Regency for Michael I was dominated by National Liberals who would ensure that their party would always win the elections. Madame Lupescu was deeply unpopular with the Romanian people, and Maniu had demanded that Carol return to his wife, Princess Helen of Greece as part of the price of being given the throne. When Carol broke his own word and continued to live with Madame Lupescu, Maniu resigned in protest in October 1930, and was to emerge as one of Carol's leading enemies. At the same time, Carol's return had prompted a break in the National Liberals with Gheorghe I. Brătianu breaking away to found a new party, the National Liberal Party-Brătianu that was willing to work with the new king. Despite his dislike of the National Liberals, Maniu's enmity towards Carol left the king with little choice, but to enlist as his allies the break-away factions of the National Liberals against the National Peasants who demanding that Carol banish Lupescu and return to Princess Helen of Greece.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Red Queen\", as Lupescu was known to the Romanian people on the account of the color of her hair, was the most hated woman in 1930s Romania. She was a woman whom ordinary Romanians saw as \"the embodiment of evil\", in the words of the British historian Rebecca Haynes. Princess Helen was widely viewed as the wronged woman while Lupescu was seen as the femme fatale who had stolen Carol away from the loving arms of Helen. Lupescu was Roman Catholic, but because of her parents' background, she was widely viewed as Jewish. Lupescu's personality did not win her many friends as she was arrogant, pushy, manipulative and extremely greedy with an insatiable taste for buying the most expensive French clothes, cosmetics and jewelry. At a time when many Romanians were suffering from the Great Depression in Romania, Carol's habit of indulging Lupescu's expensive tastes caused much resentment with many of Carol's subjects grumbling that the money would have been better spent on alleviating poverty in the kingdom. Further adding to Lupescu's immense unpopularity, she was a businesswoman who used her connections to the Crown to engage in dubious transactions that usually involved large sums of public money going into her pocket. However the contemporary viewpoint that Carol was a mere puppet of Lupescu is incorrect and Lupescu's influence on political decision-making was much exaggerated at the time. Lupescu was primarily interested in enriching herself to support her extravagant lifestyle, and had no real interest in politics beyond protecting her ability to engage in corruption. Unlike Carol, Lupescu had utterly no interest in social policy or foreign affairs and was such a self-absorbed narcissist that she was unaware of just how unpopular she was with ordinary people. Carol by contrast was interested in the affairs of the state, and through he never sought to deny his relationship with Lupescu, he was careful not to display her too much in public as he knew that this would bring him unpopularity.",
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"plaintext": "Carol sought to play the National Liberals, the National Peasant Party and the Iron Guard off against each other with the ultimate aim of making himself master of Romanian politics and disposing of all the parties in Romania. With regards to the Legion of the Archangel Michael, Carol had no intention of ever letting the Iron Guard come to power, but insofar as the Legion was a disruptive force that weakened both the National Liberals and the National Peasants, Carol welcomed the rise of the Iron Guard in the early 1930s and he sought to use the Legion for his own ends. On 30 December 1933, the Iron Guard assassinated the National Liberal Prime Minister Ion G. Duca, which led to the first of several bans placed on the Legion. The assassination of Duca, which was Romania's first political murder since 1862 shocked Carol, who saw the willingness of Codreanu to order the assassination of the Prime Minister as a sign that the egomaniacal Codreanu was getting out of control and that Codreanu would not play the role assigned by the king as a disruptive force threatening the National Liberals and National Peasant alike. In 1934, when Codreanu was brought to trial for ordering Duca's assassination, he used as his defense that the entire Francophile elite were completely corrupt and not properly Romanian, and as such Duca as just another corrupt National Liberal politician who deserved to die. The jury acquitted Codreanu, an act that worried Carol as it showed that Codreanu's revolutionary message that the entire elite needed to be destroyed was winning popular approval. In the spring of 1934 after Codreanu was acquitted, Carol together with the Bucharest police prefect Gavrilă Marinescu and Madame Lupescu were involved in a half-hearted plot to kill Codreanu by poisoning his coffee, an effort that was abandoned before being attempted. Until 1935, Carol was a leading contributor to the \"Friends of the Legion\", the group who collected contributions to the Legion. Carol only stopped contributing to the Legion after Codreanu started calling Lupescu a \"Jewish whore\". Carol's image was always that of the \"playboy king\"; a hedonistic monarch more interested in womanizing, drinking, gambling and partying than in affairs of state, and to the extent that he cared about politics, Carol was viewed as a scheming, dishonest man only interested in wrecking the democratic system to seize power for himself.",
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"plaintext": "To compensate for his rather negative and well-deserved \"playboy king\" image, Carol created a lavish personality cult around himself that grew more extreme as his reign went on, which portrayed the king as a Christ-like being \"chosen\" by God to create a \"new Romania\". In the 1934 book The Three Kings by Cezar Petrescu, which was intended for a less educated audience, Carol was constantly described as being almost god-like, the \"father of the villagers and workers of the land\" and the \"king of culture\" who was the greatest of all the Hohenzollern kings, and whose return from exile from France via airplane in June 1930 was a \"descent from the heavens\". Petrescu depicted Carol's return as the beginning of his God-appointed task of becoming \"the maker of eternal Romania\", the start of a glorious golden age as Petrescu asserted that rule by monarchs was what God wanted for Romanians.",
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"plaintext": "Carol had little understanding or interest in economics, but his most influential economic advisor was Mihail Manoilescu who favored an etatist model of economic development with the state intervening in the economy to encourage growth. Carol was very active in the cultural realm, being a generous patron of the arts and actively supported the work of the Royal Foundation, an organisation with broad remit to promote and study Romanian culture in all fields. In particular, Carol supported the work of the sociologist Dimitrie Gusti of the Social Service of the Royal Foundation, who in the early 1930s started to bring social scientists from various disciplines like sociology, anthropology, ethnography, geography, musicology, medicine and biology to work together in a \"science of the nation\". Gusti took teams of professors from the various disciplines to the countryside to study an entire community from all vantage points every summer, who then produce a lengthy report about the community.",
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"plaintext": "For most of the interwar period, Romania was in the French sphere of influence and in June 1926 a defensive alliance was signed with France. The alliance with France together with an alliance with Poland signed in 1921 and the Little Entente which united Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were the cornerstones of Romanian foreign policy. Starting in 1919, the French had sought to create the Cordon sanitaire that would keep both Germany and the Soviet Union out of Eastern Europe. Carol did not seek to replace the foreign policy he had inherited in 1930 at first as he regarded the continuation of the cordon sanitaire as the best guarantee of Romania's independence and territorial integrity, and as such, his foreign policy was essentially pro-French. At the time that Romania signed the alliance with France, the Rhineland region of Germany was demilitarised and the thinking in Bucharest had always been that if Germany should commit any act of aggression anywhere in Eastern Europe, the French would begin an offensive into the Reich. Starting in 1930 when the French began to build the Maginot Line along their border with Germany, some doubts started to be expressed in Bucharest about whether the French might actually come to Romania's aid in the event of German aggression. In 1933, Carol had Nicolae Titulescu-an outspoken champion of collective security under the banner of League of Nations-appointed foreign minister with instructions to use principles of collective security as the building blocks for creating some sort of security structure intended to keep both Germany and the Soviet Union out of Eastern Europe. Carol and Titulescu personally disliked one another, but Carol wanted Titulescu as a foreign minister as he believed he was the best man for strengthening ties with France and for bringing Great Britain into the affairs of Eastern Europe under the guise of the collective security commitments contained the League Covenant.",
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"plaintext": "The process of Gleichschaltung (coordination) in National Socialist Germany did not extend only to the Reich, but was rather thought of by the National Socialist leadership as a worldwide process in which the NSDAP would take control over all of the ethnic German communities around the entire world. The Foreign Policy Department of the NSDAP headed by Alfred Rosenberg starting in 1934 had attempted to take over the volksdeutsch (ethnic German) community in Romania, a policy that greatly offended Carol who regarded this as outrageous German interference in Romania's internal affairs. As Romania had half-million volksdeutsch citizens in the 1930s, the Nazi campaign to take over the German community in Romania was a real concern for Carol, who feared that the German minority might become a fifth column. In addition, Rosenberg's agents had established contracts with the Romanian extreme right, most notably with the National Christian Party headed by Octavian Goga and less substantial links with the Iron Guard headed by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, which further annoyed Carol. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote about Carol's foreign policy views that: \"He admired and feared Germany, but feared and disliked the Soviet Union\". The fact that the first leader to visit Nazi Germany (albeit not in an official capacity) was the Hungarian Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös-who during his visit to Berlin in October 1933 signed an economic treaty that placed Hungary within the German economic sphere of influence-was a source of much alarm to Carol. For the entire interwar period, Budapest refused to recognize the frontiers imposed by the Treaty of Trianon and laid claim to Transylvania region of Romania. Carol like the rest of the Romanian elite was worried by the prospect of an alliance of the revisionist states that rejected the legitimacy of the international order created by the Allies in 1918-20 as indicating that Germany would support Hungary's claims to Transylvania. Hungary had territorial disputes with Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, all of which happened to be allies of France. Accordingly, Franco-Hungarian relations were extremely bad during the interwar period, and so it seemed natural that Hungary would ally itself with France's archenemy, Germany.",
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"plaintext": "In 1934, Titulescu played a leading role in creating the Balkan Entente which brought together Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey in an alliance intended to counter Bulgarian revanchism. The Balkan Entente was intended to be the beginning of an alliance that would bring together all of the anti-revisionist states of Eastern Europe. Like France, Romania was allied to both Czechoslovakia and Poland, but because of the Teschen dispute in Silesia, Warsaw and Prague were bitter enemies. Like the diplomats of the Quai d'Orsay, Carol was exasperated by the bitter Polish-Czechoslovak dispute, arguing that it was absurd for anti-revisionist Eastern European states to be feuding with one another in the face of the rise of German and Soviet power. Several times, Carol attempted to mediate the Teschen dispute and thus end the Polish-Czechoslovak feud without much success. Reflecting his initially pro-French orientation, in June 1934 when the French foreign minister Louis Barthou visited Bucharest to meet with the foreign ministers of the Little Entente of Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, Carol organized lavish celebrations to welcome Barthou that were made to symbolized the enduring Franco-Romanian friendship between the two \"Latin sisters\". The German minister to Romania, Count Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg complained with a disgust in a report to Berlin that everyone in the Romanian elite was an incurable Francophile who told him that Romania would never betray its \"Latin sister\" France.",
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"plaintext": "At the same time, Carol also considered the possibility that if Romanian-German relations were improved, then perhaps Berlin could be persuaded not to support Budapest in its campaign to regain Transylvania. Further pressing Carol towards Germany was the desperate state of the Romanian economy. Even before the worldwide Great Depression, Romania had been a poor country and the Great Depression hit Romania hard with Romanians been unable to export much owing to the global trade war set off by the American Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, which in turn led to a decline in the value of the lei as Romanian's reserves of foreign exchange were being used up. In June 1934, the Romanian finance minister Victor Slăvescu visited Paris to ask the French to inject millions of francs into Romanian treasury and to lower their tariffs on Romanian goods. When the French refused both requests, an annoyed Carol wrote in his diary that the \"Latin sister\" France was behaving in a less than sisterly way towards Romania. In April 1936 when Wilhelm Fabricius was appointed German minister in Bucharest, the Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath in his instructions to the new minister described Romania as an unfriendly, pro-French state, but suggested that the prospect of more trade with the Reich might bring the Romanians out of the French orbit. Neurath further instructed Fabricius that while Romania was a not a major power in a military sense, it was a state of crucial importance to Germany because of its oil.",
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"plaintext": "Carol often encouraged splits in the political parties to encourage his own ends. In 1935, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, the leader of the Transylvanian branch of the National Peasants broke away to form the Romanian Front with Carol's encouragement. During the same time, Carol developed close contacts with Armand Călinescu, an ambitious National Peasant leader who founded a faction opposed to the leadership of Carol's archenemy Iuliu Maniu, and wanted the National Peasants to work with the Crown. In the same way, Carol encouraged the \"Young Liberal\" faction headed by Gheorghe Tătărescu as a way of weakening the power of the Brătianu family who dominated the National Liberals. Pointedly, Carol was willing to allow the \"Young Liberal\" faction under Tătărescu to come to power, but excluded the main National Liberal faction under the leadership of Dinu Brătianu from obtaining power; Carol had not forgotten how the Brătianus had excluded him from the succession in the 1920s.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1935, the Legion's Corneliu Zelea Codreanu who until then had regarded as an ally of Carol for the first time attacked the king directly when he organized demonstrations outside of the royal palace attacking Carol after Dr. Dimitrie Gerota had been imprisoned for writing an article exposing the corrupt business dealings of Lupescu. Codreanu in his speech before the Royal Palace called Lupescu a \"Jewish whore\" who was robbing Romania blind, which led to an insulted Carol calling on one of the members of his camarilla, the Bucharest police prefect Gavrilă Marinescu who sent the police out to break up the Iron Guard rally with much violence.",
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"plaintext": "The doubts about the French willingness to undertake an offensive against Germany were further reinforced by the Remilitarization of the Rhineland in March 1936 which had the effect of allowing the Germans to start building the Siegfried line along the border with France, something that considerably lessened the prospect of a French offensive into western Germany if the Reich should invade any of the states of the cordon sanitaire. A British Foreign Office memo from March 1936 stated that only nations in the world that would apply sanctions on Germany for remilitarizing the Rhineland if the League of Nations should vote for such a step were Britain, France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union and Romania. In the aftermath of the remilitarization of the Rhineland and once it was clear that no sanctions were going to be applied against Germany, Carol started to voice his fears that the days of French influence in Eastern Europe were numbered and Romania might have to seek some understanding with Germany to preserve its independence. With continuing the alliance with France, after March 1936 Carol also began a policy of attempting to improve relations with Germany.",
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"plaintext": "On the domestic front, in the summer of 1936 Codreanu and Maniu formed an alliance to oppose the growing power of the Crown and the National Liberal government. In August 1936, Carol had Titulescu fired as foreign minister and in November 1936, Carol sent the renegade National Liberal politician Gheorghe I. Brătianu to Germany to meet with Adolf Hitler, the Foreign Minister Baron Konstantin von Neurath and Hermann Göring to tell them of Romania's desire for a rapprochement with the Reich. Carol was much relieved when Brătianu reported that Hitler, Neurath and Göring had all reassured him that the Reich had no interest in supporting Hungarian revanchism, and were neutral on the Transylvania dispute. The decoupling of Berlin's campaign to overthrow the international system created by the Treaty of Versailles from Budapest's campaign to overthrow the system created by the Treaty of Trianon was welcome news to Carol, creating possibility that a greater Germany would not mean a greater Hungary. Göring, the newly appointed chief of the Four Year Plan organization designed to have Germany ready to wage a total war by 1940 was especially interested in Romania's oil, and talked much to Brătianu about a new era of German-Romanian economic relations. Germany had almost no oil of its own, and throughout the Third Reich control of Romania's oil was a key foreign policy goal. Reflecting the changed emphasis, Carol vetoed in February 1937 a plan promoted by France and Czechoslovakia for a new alliance which would formally unite France with the Little Entente and envisioned more much closer military ties between the French and their allies in Eastern Europe. Because of its oil, the French were keen to keep the alliance with Romania strong, and because Romania's manpower was a way of compensating the French for their lower population vs. Germany's (the French had 40 million people while Germany had 70 million people). Additionally it was assumed in Paris that if Germany invaded Czechoslovakia that Hungary would also attack Czechoslovakia to regain Slovakia and Ruthenia. French military planners envisioned the role of Romania and Yugoslavia in such a war as invading Hungary to relieve the pressure on Czechoslovakia.",
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"plaintext": "Up until 1940, Carol's foreign policy teetered uneasily between the traditional alliance with France and an alignment with the newly ascendant power of Germany. In the summer of 1937, Carol told French diplomats if the Germany attacked Czechoslovakia, he would not allow the Red Army transit rights across Romania, but was willing to ignore the Soviets if they crossed Romanian airspace on their way to Czechoslovakia. On 9 December 1937, a German-Romanian economic treaty was signed that placed Romania within the German economic sphere of influence, but which left the Germans unsatisfied as the Reich'''s enormous demand for oil to power its increasingly large war machine was not fulfilled by the 1937 treaty. Germany had a tremendous need for oil, and no sooner had the 1937 agreement had been signed than the Germans asked for a new economic treaty in 1938. At the same time that the German-Romanian treaty was signed in December 1937, Carol was receiving the French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos to show that the alliance with France was not yet dead.",
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"plaintext": "In the summer of 1937, Carol paid an extended visit to Paris, during which he indicated to the French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos that Romanian democracy would soon end. In November 1937 in a campaign speech for the general elections due that December, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu of the Legion of the Archangel Michael gave a speech in which called for an end to the alliance with France and stated: \" I am for a Romanian foreign policy with Rome and Berlin. I am with the states of the National Revolution against Bolshevism...Within forty-eight hours of a Legionary movement victory, Romania will have an alliance with Rome and Berlin\". Without realizing it, Codreanu had sealed his doom with that speech. Carol had always insisted that control of foreign policy was his own, exclusive royal prerogative which no-else was allowed to interfere with. Despite the constitution which stated that the foreign minister was responsible to the prime minister, in practice the foreign ministers had always reported to the king. By challenging Carol's right to control foreign policy, Codreanu had crossed the Rubicon in the king's eyes and that time onward, Carol was committed to the destruction of the arrogant upstart Codreanu and his movement who had dared to challenge the king's prerogative. In the December 1937 elections, the National Liberal government of Prime Minister Gheorghe Tătărescu won the largest number of seats, but less than the 40% required to form a majority government in parliament. After assassinating Prime Minister Duca in 1933, the Iron Guard had been banned from participating in elections, and to get around the ban Codreanu founded the All for Fatherland! party as a front for the Legion. The All for Fatherland! party won 16% of the vote in the 1937 election, marking the highpoint of the Iron Guard's electoral success.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 December 1937, Carol swore in the radical anti-Semitic poet Octavian Goga of the National Christian Party-which only won 9% of the vote-as Prime Minister. Carol's reasons for appointing Goga Prime Minister were partly because he hoped that anti-Semitic policies Goga would bring in would win him support from the All for Fatherland! voters, and thus weaken the Legion and partly because he hoped that Goga would prove so incompetent as Prime Minister as to provoke such a crisis that would allow him to seize power for himself. Carol wrote in his diary that the markedly stupid Goga could not possibly last long as Prime Minister, and that Goga's failure would allow him to \"be free to take stronger measures which will free me and the country from the tyranny of party interests\". Carol agreed to Goga's request to dissolve parliament for new elections on 18 January 1938. As leader of the fourth party in parliament, Goga's government was certain to be defeated on a vote of no-confidence when parliament convened as the National Liberals, National Peasants and the All for the Fatherland Party had all come out against Goga, albeit for very different reasons. The election got off to a violent start with a brawl in Bucharest between Goga's Lăncieri paramilitary group and the Iron Guard that left two dead, 52 hospitalized and 450 people arrested. The 1938 election was one of the most violent elections in Romanian history as the Iron Guard and Lăncieri battled one another for control of the streets while seeking to establish their anti-Semitic creditations by assaulting Jews. As Parliament never met during the Goga government, Goga had to pass laws via emergency decree, which all had to be countersigned by the king.",
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"plaintext": "The harsh anti-Semitic policies of the Goga government impoverished the Jewish minority, and led to immediate complaints from the British, French and American governments that Goga's policies were going to lead to a Jewish exodus out of Romania. Neither Britain, France or the United States had any wish to take in the Jewish refugees that Goga was creating by imposing increasingly oppressive anti-Semitic laws, and all three governments pressed for Carol to dismiss Goga as a way of nipping the developing humanitarian crisis caused by Goga in the bud. The British minister Sir Reginald Hoare and French minister Adrien Thierry both submitted notes of protest against the Goga government's anti-Semitism while President Roosevelt of the United States wrote a letter to Carol complaining about the anti-Semitic policies he was tolerating. On 12 January 1938, Goga stripped all Romanian Jews of their Romanian citizenship, a preparatory move towards Goga's ultimate goal of the expulsion of all Romanian Jews. Carol was personally not an anti-Semite, but in the words of his biographer Paul D. Quinlan the king was \"simply indifferent\" to the sufferings of his Jewish subjects caused by Goga's oppressive anti-Semitic laws. The opportunistic Carol did not believe in antisemitism anymore than he believed in anything else other than power, but if raison d'Etat meant tolerating an anti-Semitic government as the price of power, Carol was quite prepared to sacrifice the rights of his Jewish subjects. At the same time, Goga proved himself a better poet than politician, and there was a crisis atmosphere in early 1938 as the Goga government, which obsessed with solving the \"Jewish Question\" to the exclusion of everything else was clearly floundering. Weinberg wrote about Goga that he was \"Unprepared for office and untouched by any leadership ability...\" and whose clownish antics left diplomats stationed in Bucharest \"half-amused, half-appalled\". As Carol had expected, Goga proved to be such an inept leader as to discredit democracy while his anti-Semitic policies ensured that the none of the democratic great powers would object to Carol proclaiming a dictatorship.",
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"plaintext": "Coming to realize belatedly that he was being used by Carol, Goga had a meeting with Codreanu on 8 February 1938 at the house of Ion Gigurtu to arrange for a deal under which the Iron Guard would withdraw its candidates from the election in order to ensure that the radical anti-Semitic right would have a majority. Carol quickly learned of the Goga-Codreanu pact, and used it as the justification for the self-coup he had been planning since late 1937. On 10 February 1938, Carol suspended the Constitution and seized emergency powers. Carol proclaimed martial law and suspended all civil liberties under the grounds that the violent election campaign was running the risk of plunging the nation into civil war.",
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"plaintext": "Having outlived his usefulness, Goga was sacked as Prime Minister and Carol appointed Patriarch Elie Cristea, the head of the Romanian Eastern Orthodox Church, as his successor. Carol knew he would command wide respect in a country where the majority of the population was Orthodox. On 11 February 1938, Carol drafted a new constitution. Although it was superficially similar to its 1923 predecessor, it was actually a severely authoritarian and corporatist document. The new constitution effectively codified the emergency powers Carol had seized in February, turning his government into a de facto legal dictatorship. It concentrated virtually all governing power in his hands, almost to the point of absolute monarchy. The new constitution was approved in a plebiscite held under far-from-secret conditions; voters were required to appear before an election bureau and verbally state whether they approved the constitution; silence was deemed as a \"yes\" vote. Under these conditions, an implausible 99.87 percent were reported as having approved the new charter.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of his coup in February 1938, Carol informed the German minister Wilhelm Fabricius of his wish for closer ties between his country and Germany. Thierry told Carol in a meeting after the coup that his new government was \"well received\" in Paris, and the French would not allow the end of democracy to affect their relations with Romania. The new government of Patriarch Cristea did not introduce new anti-Semitic laws, but did not repeal the laws passed by Goga either, though Cristea was less extreme about enforcing these laws. When asked by a Jewish friend if his citizenship would be restored now that Goga was gone, the Interior Minister Armand Călinescu-who detested the Iron Guard and antisemitism-replied that the Cristea government had no interest in restoring citizenship back to the Jews.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1938, Armand Călinescu, the Interior Minister who had emerged as one of Carol's closet allies and who was to serve as the \"strong man\" of the new regime demanded the Iron Guard be finally destroyed. In April 1938, Carol moved to crush the Iron Guard by having Codreanu imprisoned for libeling the historian Nicolae Iorga after Codreanu had published a public letter accusing Iorga of dishonest business dealings. After Codreanu's conviction on 19 April 1938, he was convicted again in a second trial on 27 May 1938 of high treason where he was accused of working in the pay of Germany to effect a revolution since 1935 and sentenced to 10 years in prison.",
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"plaintext": "Carol was made the 892nd Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1938 by his second cousin, George VI (King of the United Kingdom). In 1937, he was awarded the Grand Cross of Justice of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem and given the Grand Collar of the Order on 16 October 1938. He served as the Grand Bailiwick of the budding Grand Bailiwick of Romania.",
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"plaintext": "In the fall of 1938, Carol together with the rest of the Romanian elite was deeply shocked by the Munich Agreement of 30 September 1938, which he saw as allowing all of Eastern Europe to fall within the German sphere of influence. Romania had long been one of the most Francophile nations in the world, which meant that the effects of Munich were felt especially strongly there. Weinberg wrote about the effect of Munich on Franco-Romanian relations: \"In view of the traditional ties going back to the beginnings of Romanian independence and manifested in the way in which the Romanian elite looked to France as the model for everything from fashion to government, the revelation of France's abdication was particularly shocking.\" In October 1938, the Iron Guard had begun a terrorist campaign of assassinating police officers and bureaucrats and staging bombings of government offices as part of an effort to overthrow Carol. Carol struck back hard, ordering the police to arrest without warrant Iron Guardsmen and to summarily execute those found with weapons.",
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"plaintext": "In view of Germany's desperate need for oil and the repeated German requests for a new economic agreement which would allow for more Romanian oil to be shipped to the Reich, Carol met Fabricius to tell him that he wanted such an agreement to create a lasting understanding between Germany and Romania. At the same time in October–November 1938, Carol was playing a double game and appealed to Britain for help, offering to place Romania within the British economic sphere of influence, and visited London between 15 and 20 November 1938 to hold unsuccessful talks on that subject. On 24 November 1938, Carol visited Germany to meet with Hitler in order to improve German-Romanian relations. During the talks for the new German-Romanian economic agreement which was signed on 10 December 1938, Weinberg wrote that: \"Carol made the needed concessions, but he demonstrated his concern for his country's independence by driving a very hard bargain\". The British historian D.C. Watt wrote that Carol had a \"trump card\" in his control of the oil Germany needed so badly and that the Germans were willing to pay a very high price for Romanian oil without which their military could not function. During his summit with Hitler, Carol was much offended when Hitler demanded that Carol free Codreanu and appoint him Prime Minister. Carol believed that as long as Codreanu lived, there was a possible alternative leadership in Romania for Hitler to back, and that if this possibility was eliminated then Hitler would have no choice other than to deal with him.",
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"plaintext": "Carol had initially planned to keep Codreanu in prison, but after the terrorist campaign began in October 1938, Carol agreed to Călinescu's plan drawn up in the spring to murder all of the Iron Guard leaders in custody. On the night of 30 November 1938, Carol had Codreanu and 13 other Iron Guard leaders murdered with the official story being that they were \"shot while trying to escape\". The killings on the night of 30 November 1938 which saw much of the Iron Guard's leadership wiped out have gone down in Romanian history as \"the night of the vampires\". The Germans were much offended by the murder of Codreanu and for a period in late 1938 waged a violent propaganda campaign against Carol with German newspapers regularly running stories casting doubt about the official version of events that Codreanu had been \"shot while trying to escape\" while calling Codreanu's murder \"a victory for the Jews\" but ultimately economic concerns, especially the German need for Romanian oil caused the Nazis to get over their outrage over the killings of the Iron Guard leaders by early 1939, and relations with Carol soon went back to normal.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1938, the National Renaissance Front was formed as the country's only legal party. That same month, Carol appointed his friend since childhood and another member of the camarilla Grigore Gafencu as foreign minister. Gafencu was appointed foreign minister partly because Carol knew he could trust Gafencu and partly because of Gafencu's friendship with Colonel Józef Beck, the Polish foreign minister as Carol wanted to strengthen ties with Poland. Gafencu was to prove himself something of an opportunist as foreign minister, the man who always wanted to take the path of least resistance, in marked contrast to Armand Călinescu, the tough, \"almost freakish-looking\", diminutive, one-eyed Interior Minister (and soon to be Prime Minister) who proved himself a consistent opponent of fascism both in Romania and abroad and encouraged Carol to stand with the Allies. Carol's foreign policy going into 1939 was strengthen Romania's alliances with Poland and the Balkan Entente, work to avoid conflicts with Romania's enemies Hungary and Bulgaria, encourage Britain and France to get involved in the Balkans while trying to avoid giving offense to Germany. On 6 March 1939, the Patriarch Cristea died and was replaced as Prime Minister by Călinescu.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1939, Göring dispatched his deputy Helmuth Wohlthat of the Four Year Plan organisation to Bucharest with instructions to sign yet another German-Romanian economic treaty that would allow Germany total economic domination of Romania, especially its oil industry. That Wohlthat, the number two man in the Four Year Plan organisation was sent to Bucharest indicated the importance of the German-Romanian talks. Carol had resisted German demands for more oil in the December 1938 agreement, and instead had succeeded by early 1939 placing Romania to a certain extent within the British economic sphere of influence. To counterbalance the increasingly powerful German influence in the Balkans, Carol wanted closer ties with Britain. At the same time, the Four Year Plan was running into major difficulties by early 1939 and in particular, Göring's plans to have synthetic oil plants which would make oil from coal were well behind schedule. The new technology of making synthetic oil from lignite coal had run into major technical problems and cost overruns, and Göring had been informed in early 1939 that the synthetic oil plants whose construction had started in 1936 would not be operative by 1940 as planned. It was not until the summer of 1942 that Germany's first synthetic oil plants finally start operating. It was making painfully obvious to Göring in the first months of 1939 that the German economy would not be ready to support a total war by 1940 as the Four Year Plan of 1936 had envisioned while at the same time his economic experts were telling him the Reich needed to import 400,000 tons of oil per month while Germany had in fact imported only 61,000 tons of oil per month in the last four months of 1938.",
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"plaintext": "In 1938, Romania produced 6.6 million tons of crude oil, 284,000 tons of crude steel, 133,000 tons of pig iron, 510,000 tons of cement and 289,000 tons of rolled steel.",
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"plaintext": "Hence Wohlthat demanded during his talks with the Romanian Foreign Minister Grigore Gafencu that Romania nationalize their entire oil industry which was henceforward to controlled by a new corporation owned jointly by the German and Romanian governments while demanding Romania \"respect German export interests\" by only selling their oil to Germany. In addition, Wohlthat demanded a host of other measures that to all practical purposes would have converted Romania into a German economic colony. As Carol had no intention of giving in to these demands, the talks in Bucharest went very badly. It was at this point that Carol began what become known as the \"Tilea affair\" when on 17 March 1939 Virgil Tilea, the Romanian minister in London burst unexpectedly into the office of the British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax in an agitated state to announce that his country was faced with an imminent German invasion, and asked Halifax for British support. At same time, Carol mobilized five infantry corps on the Hungarian border to guard the supposed invasion. The British \"economic offensive\" in the Balkans was causing Germany very real economic pain as the British bought up Romanian oil that the Germans badly needed, hence their demands for control of the Romanian oil industry that so offended Carol. As the British believed in Tilea's claims, the \"Tilea affair\" had an immense impact of British foreign policy and led to the Chamberlain government doing a volta-face from appeasement of Germany to a policy of \"containing\" the Reich. Carol denied, unconvincingly, knowing anything about what Tilea was up to in London, but the British warnings to Germany against invading Romania in March 1939 led to the Germans to relax their demands and the latest German-Romanian economic treaty signed on 23 March 1939 was in the words of Watt 'very vague\". Despite the \"Tilea affair\", Carol had decided that he would refuse to become involved in any diplomacy that would force him to decisively choose between Germany and Britain, and he would never accept any support from the Soviet Union to deter Germany.",
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"plaintext": "As part of their new policy of seeking to \"contain\" Germany starting in March 1939, the British sought the construction of the \"peace front\" that was to comprise at a minimum Britain, France, Poland, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Romania, Greece and Yugoslavia. For his part, Carol was obsessed with fears in the first half of 1939 that Hungary with German support would soon attack his kingdom. On 6 April 1939, a cabinet meeting decided that Romania would not join the \"peace front\", but would seek Anglo-French support for its independence. The same meeting decided that Romania would work to strengthen ties with other Balkan nations, but would seek to prevent the Anglo-French efforts to link the security of the Balkans to the security of Poland. On 13 April 1939 the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain speaking in the House of Commons and the French Premier Édouard Daladier speaking in the Chamber of Deputies announced a joint Anglo-French \"guarantee\" of the independence of Romania and Greece. Carol promptly accepted the \"guarantee\". On 5 May 1939, the French Marshal Maxime Weygand visited Bucharest to meet with Carol and his Prime Minister Armand Călinescu to discuss Romania's possible participation in the \"peace front\". Both Carol and Călinescu were supportive, but evasive, saying that they would welcome having the Soviet Union fight against Germany, but would never allow the Red Army to enter Romania even if Germany should invade. Carol told Weygand: \"I do not wish to let my country be engaged in a war which would result, in a few weeks, in the destruction of its army and the occupation of its territory...We do not wish to be the lighting conductor for the coming storm\". Carol went on to complain that he had enough equipment for only two-thirds of his army, which also lacked tanks, anti-aircraft guns, heavy artillery and anti-tank guns while his air force had only about 400 antiquated aircraft of French manufacture that were no match for latest German aircraft. Weygand reported to Paris that Carol wanted Anglo-French support, but would not fight for the Allies if war came.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 May 1939, an Anglo-Romanian agreement was signed under which Britain committed itself to grant Romania a credit of £5 million pound sterling and promised to buy 200, 000 tons of Romanian wheat at above-market prices. When Yugoslavia reacted negatively to the Anglo-Turkish Declaration of 12 May 1939 promising to \"ensure the establishment of security in the Balkans\" and threatened to pull out of the Balkan Pact, Gafencu had a summit with the Yugoslav Foreign Minister Aleksandar Cincar-Marković at 21 May 1939 at the Iron Gates to ask the Yugoslavs to stay in the Balkan Pact. However, Cincar-Marković's talk of leaving the Balkan Pact turned out to be a ploy by the Yugoslav Regent, Prince Paul, who was backing a plan mooted by the Turkish Foreign Minister Şükrü Saracoğlu to have Bulgaria join the Balkan Pact in exchange for Romania ceding part of the Dobrudja region. In a letter to Carol, Paul stated that he wanted the Bulgarians \"off my back\" as he was afraid of the Italians building up their forces in their new colony of Albania, and asked his friend to make this concession for him. Carol in response stated it was out of the question for him to cede any territory to Bulgarians, partly because he was against giving any of his realm on principle and partly because to cede the Dobrudja would only encourage the Hungarians to renew their claims on Transylvania.",
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"plaintext": "Despite his formal opposition to joining the \"peace front\", Carol did decide to strengthen the Balkan Entente, and especially to strengthen ties with Turkey. Since Britain and France were working for an alliance with Turkey while at same time holding talks with the Soviet Union, Carol reasoned that if Romania was to be firmly allied to Turkey, that this would be a way of associating Romania with the emerging \"peace front\" without actually joining it. Despite the way in which Carol disappointed Paul, he very much wanted to strengthen Yugoslav-Romanian relations as Yugoslavia was one of Romania's few friendly neighbors. He was awarded the Yugoslav Order of Karađorđe's Star. To resist Bulgarian claims on the Dubrujda, Carol also wanted better relations with Bulgaria's archenemy, Greece.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1939, the king had a major clash with Fritz Fabritius, the leader of Nazified German National Party which was the largest of the volksdeutsch parties and which joined the National Renaissance Front in January 1939. Fabritius had taken to calling himself the Führer, had formed two para-military groups, the National Workers Front and the German Youth, and was holding ceremonies in which members of Romania's 800,000 strong German minority had to swear personal oaths of loyalty to him. In early July, Fabritius had during a visit to Munich given a speech in which he stated that the Romanian volksdeutsch were loyal to Germany, not Romania, and spoke of wish to see a \"Greater German Reich\" which would be secured by armed peasant settlements along the Carpathians, Ural and Caucasus mountains. In this Grossraum (an untranslatable German word meaning roughly \"greater space\"), only Germans would be allowed to live and those not willing to be Germanized would have to leave. In response to this speech, when Fabritius returned to Romania, he was summoned to a meeting with Călinescu on 13 July who told him that the king had enough and was going to take action against him. Fabritius promised to behave, but was expelled from Romania shortly afterwards when one of his staffers accidentally left on a train a briefcase full of documents showing Fabritius's supporters were arming themselves and that Führer Fabritius was being financed by Germany.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1939, when Carol heard rumors that Hungary supported by Germany was planning on invading Romania following a new crisis in Romanian-Hungarian relations caused by complaints from Budapest that the Romanians were mistreating the Magyar minority in Transylvania (which were supported by Berlin), the king ordered general mobilization of his military while taking off in the royal yacht to Istanbul. During his unexpected trip to Istanbul, Carol held talks with the Turkish President İsmet İnönü and the Turkish Foreign Minister Şükrü Saracoğlu during which the Turks promised him that Turkey would immediately mobilize its military in the event of an Axis attack on Romania. The Turks in their turn pressed Carol to sign an alliance with the Soviet Union, something that Carol said very reluctantly he might do if the Turks were to serve as the middlemen and if the Soviets were to promise to recognize the border with Romania. The show of Romanian resolve supported by Turkey had the effect of causing the Hungarians to back off on their demands against Romania.",
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"plaintext": "The news of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact in August 1939, was received with horror by Carol, who had sought to play off both sides against each other. Carol allowed Călinescu to tell Thierry that the Romanians would destroy their oil fields if the Axis should invade while at the same time Gafencu told the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop of his firm friendship with Germany, his opposition to the \"peace front\" and of his desire to sell more oil to the Germans. After the signing of the German-Soviet non-aggression pact, Călinescu advised Carol: \"Germany is the real danger. An alliance with it is tantamount to a protectorate. Only Germany's defeat by France and Britain can ward off the danger\". On 27 August 1939 Gafencu told Fabricius that Romania would declare neutrality if Germany invaded Poland and that he wanted to sell to Germany some 450, 000 tons of oil per month in exchange for 1 million and half Reichsmark plus a number of modern German aircraft for free. Carol met with the German air force attaché on 28 August 1939 to congratulate the Germans on the great diplomatic success they had gained with the pact with the Soviet Union. Unknown to Carol, the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact had in its infamous \"secret protocols\" assigned the Romanian region of Bessarabia to the Soviet Union. In the short run, the German-Soviet pact was a blessing for Carol since Germany now had access to Soviet oil, which reduced the pressure on Romania.",
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"plaintext": "When World War II began in September 1939, Carol proclaimed neutrality. In doing so Carol violated the letter of the treaty of alliance with Poland signed in 1921 and the spirit of treaty of alliance signed with France in 1926. Carol justified his policy under the grounds that with Germany and the Soviet Union allied in the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact of August 1939 and France holding its forces behind the Maginot line, unwilling to start an offensive into Germany, that neutrality was his only hope of preserving his kingdom's independence. As usual with Carol, he sought to play a careful balancing act between the Allies and the Axis, on one hand signing a new economic treaty with Germany while on the other hand allowing for a considerable period of time for the Polish troops to cross into Romania while declining to intern them as international law required. Instead the Poles were allowed to travel to Constanța to board ships to take them to Marseille to continue the fight against Germany from France. The Romanian Bridgehead remained a key escape route for thousands of Poles in the desperate days of September 1939. It was only after receiving a number of furious complaints from Fabricius about the passage of Polish soldiers across Romania that Carol finally started to intern the fleeing Poles.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 September 1939, Prime Minister Călinescu was assassinated by the Iron Guard in a plot organized out of Berlin, thus silencing the strongest pro-Allied voice amongst Carol's camarilla. The next day, the nine assassins of Călinescu were publicity shot without the benefit of a trial and on the week of 22–28 September 1939 242 Iron Guards were the victims of extrajudicial executions. Because of its oil, Romania was highly important by both sides, and during the Phoney War of 1939-40 there occurred what Weinberg called a \"silent struggle over Romania's oil\" with the German government doing everything within its power to have as much Romanian oil as possible while the British and French governments equally doing everything possible to deny it. The British launched an unsuccessful campaign to sabotage Romanian oil fields and the transportation network that took Romanian oil to Germany. In January 1940, Carol broadcast a speech to proclaim that it was his brilliant handing of foreign policy that kept Romania neutral and safe from danger. He also announced that he was going to be building a gigantic defense line around the kingdom and as such, taxes would have to rise to pay for it. Romanians called the proposed line the Imaginot Line, as the line was considered to be a purely imaginary version of the Maginot line and many of Carol's subjects suspected that the money raised by higher taxes would go to the king's Swiss bank accounts.",
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"plaintext": "Carol had hedged his bets about whether to choose between the Allies and the Axis. It was only in late May 1940 when France was clearly losing the war that Carol swung decisively over to the Axis side. During the later period of the Phoney War after waging a campaign of bloody repression against the Iron Guard, which reached its peak after Călinescu's assassination, Carol began a policy of reaching out to the surviving Iron Guard leaders. Carol felt that a \"tamed\" Iron Guard could be used as a source of popular support. In April 1940, Carol had reached an agreement with Vasile Noveanu, the leader of the underground Iron Guard in Romania, but it was not until early May 1940 that Horia Sima, the leader of the Iron Guards in exile in Germany could be persuaded to support the government. On 26 May 1940 Sima returned to Romania from Germany to begin talks with General Mihail Moruzov of the secret service about the Iron Guard joining the government. On 28 May 1940 after learning of the surrender of Belgium, Carol told the Crown Council that Germany was going to win the war, and Romania accordingly needed to realign its foreign and domestic policies with the victors. On 13 June 1940, an agreement was reached whereas the Iron Guard would be allowed to join the National Renaissance Front in exchange for more harsher anti-Semitic laws. The National Renaissance Front was reorganized as the Party of the Nation, which was described as \"a single and totalitarian party under the supreme leadership of His Majesty, King Carol II.\" On 21 June 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany. Romania's elite had been so obsessively Francophile for so long that France's defeat had the effect of discrediting that elite in the eyes of public opinion and led to an upswing of popular support for the pro-German Iron Guard.",
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"plaintext": "In amidst of the turn towards the Iron Guard and Germany came a bombshell from abroad. On 26 June 1940, the Soviet Union submitted an ultimatum demanding that Romania hand over the Bessarabia region (which had been Russian until 1918) and the northern part of Bukovina (which had never been Russian) to the Soviet Union, and threatened war within next two days if the ultimatum was rejected. Carol had at one moment considered following the example of Finland in 1939 when faced with a similar Soviet ultimatum, but the outcome of the Winter War was scarcely an inspiring example. Carol at first considered rejecting the ultimatum, but upon being informed that the Romanian Army would be no match for the Red Army, agreed to cede Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union. Carol appealed to Berlin for support against the Soviet ultimatum, only to be told to comply with Stalin's demands. The loss of the regions without any fighting to the Soviet Union was felt to be a national humiliation by the Romanian people, and was a huge blow to Carol's prestige. Carol's personality cult had by 1940 reached such extreme heights that the withdrawal without any resistance from Bessarabia and northern Bukovina revealed that Carol was a mere man after all, and so badly dented his prestige more than would have been the case if Carol had maintained a more modest image.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 June 1940, Sima entered the cabinet as Under-secretary of State at the Ministry of Education. On 1 July 1940, Carol in a radio speech renounced both the 1926 alliance with France and the 1939 Anglo-French \"guarantee\" of Romania, saying that henceforth Romania would seek in its place in the German-dominated \"New Order\" in Europe. The next day, Carol invited a German military mission to train the Romanian Army. On 4 July 1940, Carol sworn in a new government headed by Ion Gigurtu with Sima Minister of Arts and Culture. Gigurtu had been a leading figure in the anti-Semitic National Christian Party in the 1930s, was a millionaire businessman with many connections to Germany and was a well-known Germanophile. For all these reasons, Carol hoped that having Gigurtu was Prime Minister would win him Hitler's good-will, and thus prevented any further loss of territory. Along the same lines, Carol signed a new economic treaty with Germany on 8 August 1940 that finally gave the Germans the economic domination of Romania and its oil that they had been seeking all through the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately afterwards, inspired by the Soviet example in gaining Romanian territory led to the Bulgarians demanding the return of Dobruja lost in the Second Balkan War of 1913 while the Hungarians demanded the return of Transylvania lost to Romania after World War I. Romania and Bulgaria opened talks that led to the Treaty of Craiova that saw the southern Dobruja ceded to Bulgaria. In particular, Carol proved unwilling to cede Transylvania and had it not been for the diplomatic intervention of Germany and Italy, Romania and Hungary would have gone to war with each other in the summer of 1940. In the meantime, Carol had on 9 July 1940 imprisoned General Ion Antonescu after the latter had criticized the king, charging it was the corruption of the royal government that was responsible for the military backwardness of Romania, and hence the loss of Bessarabia. Both Fabricius and Hermann Neubacher, the man in charge of the Four Year Plan's operations in the Balkans intervened with Carol, saying that Antonescu's \"accidental death\" or being \"shot while trying to escape\" would \"make a very bad impression on the German headquarters\" as Antonescu was known to be a leading advocate of an alliance with Germany. On 11 July 1940, Carol had Antonescu freed, but kept under house arrest at the Bisțria monastery.",
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"plaintext": "Hitler was alarmed about the possibility of a Hungarian-Romanian war which he feared might result in the destruction of Romania's oil fields and/or might lead to the Soviets intervening to seize all of Romania. At this time, Hitler was already seriously considering invading the Soviet Union in 1941, and if he were to take such a step, he would need Romanian oil to power his military. At the Second Vienna Award of 30 August 1940, the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and the Italian Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano ruled that northern Transylvania was to go to Hungary while southern Transylvania would stay with Romania; a compromise that left both Budapest and Bucharest deeply unhappy with the Vienna award. For economic reasons, Romania was far more important to Hitler than was Hungary, but Romania had been allied to France since 1926 and had flirted with joining the British-inspired \"peace front\" in 1939, so Hitler-who personally disliked and mistrusted Carol-felt that Romania deserved to be punished for waiting so long to align with the Axis. After the fall of Paris in June 1940, the Germans had captured the archives of the Quai d'Orsay and were thus well-informed about the double-line that Carol had pursued until the spring of 1940. Hitler was annoyed with Carol's efforts to forge closer ties with France at the same time proclaiming his friendship towards Germany. At the same time, Hitler offered Carol a \"guarantee\" of the rest of Romania against further territorial losses, which Carol promptly accepted.",
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"plaintext": "The acceptance of the Second Vienna Award completely discredited Carol with his people, and in early September 1940 enormous demonstrations broke out all over Romania demanding that Carol abdicate. On 1 September 1940, Sima who had resigned from the government gave a speech calling upon Carol to abdicate, and the Iron Guard began to organize demonstrations all over Romania to press for king's abdication. On 2 September 1940, Valer Pop, a courtier and an important member of the camarilla first advised Carol to appoint General Ion Antonescu as Prime Minister as the solution to the crisis. Pop's reasons for advising Carol to have Antonescu as Prime Minister was partly because Antonescu - who was known to be friendly with the Iron Guard and had been imprisoned under Carol - was believed to have enough of an oppositional background to appease the public and partly because Pop knew that Antonescu for all his Legionary sympathies was a member of the elite and would never turn against it. As the increasingly large crowds started to assemble outside of the royal palace demanding the king's abdication, Carol considered Pop's advice, but was reluctant to have Antonescu as Prime Minister. As more and more people started to join the protests, Pop feared that Romania was on the verge of a revolution that might not only sweep away the king's regime, but also the elite who had dominated the country since the 19th century. To apply further pressure on Carol, Pop met with Fabricius on the night of 4 September 1940 to ask him to tell Carol that the Reich wanted Antonescu as Prime Minister, which led to Fabricius promptly calling Carol to tell him to appoint the general as the prime minister. Additionally, the very ambitious General Antonescu who long coveted the Premiership now suddenly started to downplay his long-standing antipathy to Carol, and he suggested that he was prepared to forgive past slights and disputes.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 September 1940, Antonescu became Prime Minister, and Carol transferred most of his dictatorial powers to him. As Prime Minister, Antonescu was a man acceptable to both the Iron Guard and the traditional elite. Carol planned to stay as king after appointing Antonescu and initially Antonescu did not support the popular demand for Carol's abdication. Antonescu had become Prime Minister, but he had a weak political base. As an Army officer, Antonescu was a loner, an arrogant and aloft man with an extremely bad temper who as a consequence was very unpopular with his fellow officers. Antonescu's relations with the politicians were no better, and as such Antonescu was initially unwilling to move against the king until he had some political allies. Carol ordered Antonescu and General Dumitru Coroamă who commanded the troops in Bucharest to shoot down demonstrators in front of the royal palace, an order that both refused to obey. It was only on 6 September 1940, when Antonescu learned of a plot to murder him headed by another member of the camarilla General Paul Teodorescu that Antonescu joined the chorus demanding Carol's abdication. With public opinion solidly against him and with the Army refusing to obey his orders, Carol was forced to abdicate.",
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"plaintext": "Concerning the claim of the American historian Larry Watts that it was Carol that allied Romania to Nazi Germany and that Marshal Ion Antonescu had unwillingly inherited an alliance with Germany in 1940, the Canadian historian Dov Lungu wrote:\"The author's [Watts] claim that Romania's de facto alliance with Germany under Antonescu was the work of Carol, who began laying its foundations for it as early as 1938, is wide off the mark. Carol's concessions to Germany were made half-heartedly and delayed as much as possible in the hope that the western powers would regain the initiative on the political-diplomatic front and, from September 1939, the military one. He finally did change his country's external economic and political orientation, but only in the spring of 1940, when German hegemony on the Continent seemed imminent. In addition, there is more than a subtle distinction between Carol's request in the last weeks of his rule for the dispatch of a German military mission to train the ill-prepared Romanian Army and Antonescu's decision almost immediately after assuming power to fight on Germany's side until the very end. In fact, in his desire to regain the province of Bessarabia, Antonescu was keener than the Germans' in Romania's participation in an anti-Soviet war\".",
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"plaintext": "Forced under Soviet and subsequently Hungarian, Bulgarian, and German pressure to surrender parts of his kingdom to foreign rule, he was finally outmaneuvered by the pro-German administration of Marshal Ion Antonescu, and abdicated in favour of Michael in September 1940. He went into exile, initially in Mexico, but ultimately settled in Portugal. While in Portugal, he stayed in Estoril, at Casa do Mar e Sol. Carol and Lupescu settled in Mexico City, where he purchased a house in one of Mexico City's most expensive districts. During World War II, Carol tried to set up a Free Romania movement based in Mexico to overthrow General Antonescu. Carol had hopes that his Free Romania movement would be recognized as a government-in-exile, and would ultimately lead to him being restored. The closest Carol ever got to having his Free Romania movement recognized came in 1942 when President Manuel Ávila Camacho allowed Carol to stand beside him while reviewing his troops. Carol would have liked to operate out of the United States, but the American government refused him permission to enter. However, Carol was in contact with two Eastern Orthodox priests living in Chicago, Father Glicherie Moraru and Father Alexandru Opreanu, who organized an unsuccessful campaign in the Romanian-American community to pressure the American government to recognize the \"Free Romania\" committee as the legitimate government of Romania.",
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"plaintext": "To advance his cause, Carol published a magazine in America called The Free Romanian and published several books in both Romanian and English. A major problem for Carol's efforts to mobilize the Romanian-American community was the Immigration Control Act of 1924, which drastically limited immigration from Eastern Europe into the United States. As such, the majority of Romanian-Americans in the 1940s were either people who immigrated prior to 1924 or their children; in either case, Carol did not mean much to them. Furthermore, many Romanian-Americans were Jews who had neither forgiven nor forgotten that it was Carol who had appointed the anti-Semitic fanatic Goga as Prime Minister in 1937. To improve his image amongst Jews, Carol persuaded Leon Fischer, the former vice-president of the United Romanian Jews of America, to write articles on his behalf in American Jewish magazines that portrayed the former king as the friend and protector of the Jews and an enemy of anti-Semitism. The reaction to Fischer's articles was overwhelmingly negative with a flood of letters to the editor who complained bitterly that it was Carol who signed in all of Goga's laws that took away Romanian citizenship from Jews and made it illegal for Romanian Jews to own land and shares in public companies and work as lawyers, doctors, teachers, etc. Furthermore, the writers of the letters noted that Carol allowed these laws to remain on the statute books after dismissing Goga and sarcastically commented that if Carol was the best friend of the Jews in Romania, then Romanian Jews certainly did not need enemies.",
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"plaintext": "Carol's offers to have his Free Romania committee recognized as a government-in-exile was hindered by his unpopularity in his own homeland with many British and American diplomats arguing that supporting the former king was likely to increase public support for General Antonescu. Beyond that, there was a rival Free Romania committee headed by Viorel Tilea based in London that wanted to have nothing to do with Carol's committee in Mexico City. Virgil Tilea had as a university student in the 1930s supported the Iron Guard. Unusually for a Romanian in this period, Tilea was an Anglophile rather a Francophile, and had attended Cambridge University as an exchange student. Tilea's time in Britain changed his political views as he later stated that seeing many different types of people living in harmony in Britain made him realize that it was not necessary for one ethnic group to dominate all the others as Codreanu had proclaimed, leading him to break with Iron Guard. When General Antonescu was sworn in as Prime Minister as the new \"National Legionary State\", Tilea resigned as Romanian minister in London in protest at the appointment. Later in 1940, Tilea formed his Free Romania committee in London that attracted support from a number of Romanians who fled the Antonescu regime into exile.",
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"plaintext": "Tilea's Free Committee was not officially recognized by the British government, but was known to have the support of Britain and to be very close to the Polish government-in-exile, which was a major reason why the British spurned the Carol's rival Free Romania committee based in Mexico City, which tended to attract support only from those Romanians who been closely associated with the king's camarilla. Tilea's committee had an office in Istanbul which regularly sent couriers to a safe house in Bucharest, where messages were exchanged with one of Carol's former prime ministers Constantin Argetoianu who in turn acted as an emissary for those opposed to Antonescu. Argetoianu reported that King Michael was opposed to the Antonescu regime and wanted to stage a coup d'état to depose Antonescu, waiting only for the Allies to invade the Balkans. General Antonescu was the dictator, but Romanian army officers took their oath of loyalty to the king, so there was reason to believe in London that the Romanian Army would side with the king against the prime minister if the two came into conflict. From the British viewpoint, associating themselves with Carol's campaign to once again depose his own son would only complicate their dealings with King Michael.",
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"plaintext": "Carol and Magda Lupescu were married in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 3June 1947, Magda calling herself Princess Elena von Hohenzollern. In 1947 after the Communist take-over of Romania, a Romanian National Committee was set up to oppose the Communist regime. Carol's efforts to join the Romanian National Committee were rebuffed as all the factions were opposed to him, and Romanian monarchists on the committee made it clear that they regarded King Michael, not his father as the legitimate king of Romania. Carol remained in exile for the rest of his life. He was never to see his son, King Michael, after his 1940 departure from Romania. Michael could see no point in meeting his father who had humiliated his mother so many times via his open affairs and did not attend his funeral.",
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"plaintext": "Carol died in Estoril, on the Portuguese Riviera in 1953. His coffin was placed inside the Pantheon of the House of Braganza in Lisbon. His remains were finally returned to the Curtea de Argeș monastery in Romania in 2003, the traditional burial ground of Romanian royalty, at the request and expense of the government of Romania (led by Adrian Năstase). They initially lay outside the cathedral, the burial place of Romanian kings and queens, as Elena was not of royal blood. Neither of his sons participated in either ceremony. King Michael was represented by his daughter, Princess Margarita, and her husband, Prince Radu of Romania.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2018, it was announced that the remains of King Carol II would be moved to the new Archdiocesan and Royal Cathedral, along with those of Princess Helen. In addition, the remains of Prince Mircea would also be moved to the new cathedral. His remains were at the time interred at the Bran Castle's Chapel. King Carol II of Romania was reburied at the New Episcopal and Royal Cathedral in Curtea de Argeș on 8 March 2019.",
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"plaintext": "Carol Lambrino was forbidden (since 1940) from entering Romanian territory, but a Romanian court declared him a legitimate son in 2003. Carol visited Bucharest in November 2005, shortly before his death.",
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"plaintext": "Young Prince Carol's letters to his grandfather, Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, are preserved in the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family archive, which is in the State Archive of Sigmaringen (Staatsarchiv Sigmaringen) in the town of Sigmaringen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. There are also letters from young Carol (together with letters from his mother, Crown Princess Marie) to his great-grandmother, Josephine of Baden, preserved in the State Archive of Sigmaringen (Staatsarchiv Sigmaringen).",
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"plaintext": "Carol II of Romania's letters to Zizi Lambrino as well as documents about their marriage are preserved in the \"Jeanne Marie Valentine Lambrino Papers\" collection in the Hoover Institution Archives (Stanford, California, USA).",
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"plaintext": "Carol appears as a character [as Prince Carol] in the final episode of the third season of Mr Selfridge, where he is played in a cameo appearance by British actor Anton Blake.",
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"plaintext": "Carol is also considered to be the inspiration for the character Prince Charles of Carpathia in the 1953 play The Sleeping Prince and the 1957 related film The Prince and the Showgirl.",
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"plaintext": "\"Ex-King Carol Weds Lupescu\" was front-page news next to an article announcing a downed flying saucer in Roswell, New Mexico",
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"plaintext": "Carol appears in the 2016 World War II grand strategy video game Hearts of Iron IV, for the Death or Dishonor expansion, and can lead a royal dictatorship.",
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"plaintext": "He makes an appearance in the 2019 film as an antagonist along with his mistress.",
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"plaintext": " Kings of Romania",
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"plaintext": " European interwar dictatorships",
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"plaintext": " Bucur, Maria. \"King Carol II of Romania.\" in Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of Southeast Europe ed. by Bernd J. Fischer (2007) pp 87–117.",
"section_idx": 18,
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"plaintext": " Easterman, Alexander Levvey. King Carol, Hitler and Lupescu (1942) online",
"section_idx": 18,
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"plaintext": " Fischer-Galați, Stephen A. Twentieth century Rumania (1991) online",
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"plaintext": "; 592pp",
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"plaintext": " Ilie, Mihaela. \"Processing the political image of a king: an overview of the interwar and communist discourse about Carol II of Romania.\" Revista de Științe Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques 47 (2015): 206–215. online",
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"plaintext": " Ilie, Mihaela, \"The Game Of Power: King Carol II and the Political Parties at the End of the Year 1937\" Analele UniversitaNii din Craiova. Istorie, Anul XXIII Nr. 1(33)/2018 online",
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"plaintext": " Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans (2 vol 1983)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Jowitt, Kenneth, ed. Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940 (California UP, 1978)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Michelson, Paul E. \"Recent American historiography on Romania and the second world war\" Romanian Civilization. (1996) 5#2 pp 23–42.",
"section_idx": 18,
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"plaintext": " Oțetea, Andrei, ed. A Concise history of Romania (1985) online",
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"plaintext": " Pavlowitch, Stevan K. A History of the Balkans 1804-1945 (Routledge, 2014).",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Quinlan, Paul D. The Playboy King: Carol II of Romania (Greenwood, 1995), popular.",
"section_idx": 18,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Roberts, Henry L. Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State (Yale UP, 1951), scholarly",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seton-Watson, R. W. History of the Roumanians (Cambridge UP, 1934). excerpt",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe between the Wars (1946) online",
"section_idx": 18,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Spânu, Alin. \"Foreign Intelligence Collaboration during King Carol II Dictatorship (1938-1940).\" Romanian Military Thinking 1.2 (2020): 114–123.",
"section_idx": 18,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Stavrianos, L.S. The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), major scholarly history; online free to borrow",
"section_idx": 18,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Treptow, Kurt W., and Marcel Popa. Historical Dictionary of Romania'' (1996) 384pp",
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| [
"1893_births",
"1953_deaths",
"20th-century_Kings_of_Romania",
"Kings_of_Romania",
"Eastern_Orthodox_monarchs",
"Honorary_members_of_the_Romanian_Academy",
"Romanian_philatelists",
"Romanian_people_of_World_War_II",
"World_War_II_political_leaders",
"Extra_Knights_Companion_of_the_Garter",
"Eastern_Orthodox_Christians_from_Romania",
"Members_of_the_Romanian_Orthodox_Church",
"Monarchs_who_abdicated",
"Presidents_of_the_Romanian_Football_Federation",
"Romanian_sports_executives_and_administrators",
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| 212,897 | 18,588 | 620 | 236 | 0 | 0 | Carol II of Romania | King of Romania | [
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|
37,261 | 1,101,742,137 | Ion_Antonescu | [
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"plaintext": "Ion Antonescu (; ; – 1 June 1946) was a Romanian military officer and marshal who presided over two successive wartime dictatorships as Prime Minister and Conducător during most of World War II. ",
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"plaintext": "A Romanian Army career officer who made his name during the 1907 peasants' revolt and the World War I Romanian Campaign, the antisemitic Antonescu sympathized with the far-right and fascist National Christian and Iron Guard groups for much of the interwar period. He was a military attaché to France and later Chief of the General Staff, briefly serving as Defense Minister in the National Christian cabinet of Octavian Goga as well as the subsequent First Cristea cabinet, in which he also served as Air and Marine Minister. During the late 1930s, his political stance brought him into conflict with King Carol II and led to his detainment. Antonescu nevertheless rose to political prominence during the political crisis of 1940, and established the National Legionary State, an uneasy partnership with the Iron Guard's leader Horia Sima. After entering Romania into an alliance with Nazi Germany and ensuring Adolf Hitler's confidence, he eliminated the Guard during the Legionary Rebellion of 1941. In addition to being Prime Minister, he served as his own Foreign Minister and Defense Minister. Soon after Romania joined the Axis in Operation Barbarossa, recovering Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Antonescu also became Marshal of Romania.",
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"plaintext": "Aerial attacks on Romania by the Allies occurred in 1944 and Romanian troops suffered heavy casualties on the Eastern Front, prompting Antonescu to open peace negotiations with the Allies, ending with inconclusive results. On 23 August 1944, the king Michael I led a coup d'état against Antonescu, who was arrested; after the war he was convicted of war crimes, and executed in June 1946. His involvement in the Holocaust was officially reasserted and condemned following the 2003 Wiesel Commission report.",
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"plaintext": "Born in the town of Pitești, north-west of the capital Bucharest, Antonescu was the scion of an upper-middle class Romanian Orthodox family with some military tradition. He was especially close to his mother, Lița Baranga, who survived his death. His father, an army officer, wanted Ion to follow in his footsteps and thus sent him to attend the Infantry and Cavalry School in Craiova. During his childhood, his father divorced his mother to marry a woman who was a Jewish convert to Orthodoxy. The breakup of his parents' marriage was a traumatic event for the young Antonescu, and he made no secret of his dislike of his stepmother, whom he always depicted as a femme fatale who destroyed what he saw as his parents' happy marriage.",
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"plaintext": "According to one account, Ion Antonescu was briefly a classmate of Wilhelm Filderman, the future Romanian Jewish community activist whose interventions with Conducător Antonescu helped save a number of his coreligionists. After graduation, in 1904, Antonescu joined the Romanian Army with the rank of Second Lieutenant. He spent the following two years attending courses at the Special Cavalry Section in Târgoviște. Reportedly, Antonescu was a zealous and goal-setting student, upset by the slow pace of promotions, and compensated for his diminutive stature through toughness. In time, the reputation of being a tough and ruthless commander, together with his reddish hair, earned him the nickname Câinele Roșu (\"The Red Dog\"). Antonescu also developed a reputation for questioning his commanders and for appealing over their heads whenever he felt they were wrong.",
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"plaintext": "During the repression of the 1907 peasants' revolt, he headed a cavalry unit in Covurlui County. Opinions on his role in the events diverge: while some historians believe Antonescu was a particularly violent participant in quelling the revolt, others equate his participation with that of regular officers or view it as outstandingly tactful. In addition to restricting peasant protests, Antonescu's unit subdued socialist activities in Galați port. His handling of the situation earned him praise from King Carol I, who sent Crown Prince (future monarch) Ferdinand to congratulate him in front of the whole garrison. The following year, Antonescu was promoted to Lieutenant, and, between 1911 and 1913, he attended the Advanced War School, receiving the rank of Captain upon graduation. In 1913, during the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria, Antonescu served as a staff officer in the First Cavalry Division in Dobruja.",
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"plaintext": "After 1916, when Romania entered World War I on the Allied side, Ion Antonescu acted as chief of staff for General Constantin Prezan. When enemy troops crossed the mountains from Transylvania into Wallachia, Antonescu was ordered to design a defense plan for Bucharest.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian royal court, army, and administration were subsequently forced to retreat into Moldavia. Antonescu took part in an important decision involving defensive efforts, an unusual promotion which probably stoked his ambitions. In December, as Prezan became the Chief of the General Staff, Antonescu, who was by now a major, was named the head of operations, being involved in the defence of Moldavia. He contributed to the tactics used during the Battle of Mărășești (July–August 1917), when Romanians under General Eremia Grigorescu managed to stop the advance of German forces under the command of Field Marshal August von Mackensen. Being described as \"a talented if prickly individual\", Antonescu lived in Prezan's proximity for the remainder of the war and influenced his decisions. Such was the influence of Antonescu on General Prezan that General Alexandru Averescu used the formula \"Prezan (Antonescu)\" in his memoirs to denote Prezan's plans and actions.",
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"plaintext": "That autumn, Romania's main ally, the Russian Provisional Government, left the conflict. Its successor, Bolshevik Russia, made peace with the Central Powers, leaving Romania the only enemy of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front. In these conditions, the Romanian government made its own peace treaty with the Central Powers. Romania broke the treaty later in the year, on the grounds that King Ferdinand I had not signed it. During the interval, Antonescu, who viewed the separate peace as \"the most rational solution,\" was assigned command over a cavalry regiment. The renewed offensive played a part in ensuring the union of Transylvania with Romania. After the war, Antonescu's merits as an operations officer were noticed by, among others, politician Ion G. Duca, who wrote that \"his [Antonescu's] intelligence, skill and activity, brought credit on himself and invaluable service to the country.\" Another event occurring late in the war is also credited with having played a major part in Antonescu's life: in 1918, Crown Prince Carol (the future King Carol II) left his army posting to a commoner. This outraged Antonescu, who developed enduring contempt for the future king.",
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"plaintext": "Lieutenant Colonel Ion Antonescu retained his visibility in the public eye during the interwar period. He participated in the political campaign to earn recognition at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 for Romania's gains in Transylvania. His nationalist argument about a future state was published as the essay Românii. Origina, trecutul, sacrificiile și drepturile lor (\"The Romanians. Their Origin, Their Past, Their Sacrifices and Their Rights\"). The booklet advocated extension of Romanian rule beyond the confines of Greater Romania, and recommended, at the risk of war with the emerging Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the annexation of all Banat areas and the Timok Valley. Antonescu was known for his frequent and erratic changes of mood, going from being extremely angry to being calm to angry again to being calm again within minutes, behaviour that often disoriented those who had to work with him. The Israeli historian Jean Ancel wrote that Antonescu's frequent changes of mood were due to the syphilis he contracted as a young man, a condition he suffered from for the rest of his life. ",
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"plaintext": "He became attache in Paris in 1922. He negotiated a credit worth 100 million French francs to purchase French weaponry. He worked together with Romanian diplomat Nicolae Titulescu; the two became personal friends. He was also in contact with the Romanian-born conservative aristocrat and writer Marthe Bibesco, who introduced Antonescu to the ideas of Gustave Le Bon, a researcher of crowd psychology who had an influence on Fascism. Bibesco saw Antonescu as a new version of 19th century nationalist Frenchman Georges Boulanger, introducing him as such to Le Bon. In 1923, he made the acquaintance of lawyer Mihai Antonescu, who was to become his close friend, legal representative and political associate.",
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"plaintext": "After returning to Romania in 1926, Antonescu resumed his teaching in Sibiu, and, in the autumn of 1928, became Secretary-General of the Defense Ministry in the Vintilă Brătianu cabinet. He married Maria Niculescu, for long a resident of France, who had been married twice before: first to a Romanian Police officer, with whom she had a son, Gheorghe (died 1944), and then to a Frenchman of Jewish origin. After a period as Deputy Chief of the General Staff, he was appointed its Chief (1933–1934). These assignments coincided with the rule of Carol's underage son Michael I and his regents, and with Carol's seizure of power in 1930. During this period Antonescu first grew interested in the Iron Guard, an antisemitic and fascist-related movement headed by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. In his capacity as Deputy Chief of Staff, he ordered the Army's intelligence unit to compile a report on the faction, and made a series of critical notes on Codreanu's various statements.",
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"plaintext": "As Chief of Staff, Antonescu reportedly had his first confrontation with the political class and the monarch. His projects for weapon modernization were questioned by Defense Minister Paul Angelescu, leading Antonescu to present his resignation. According to another account, he completed an official report on the embezzlement of Army funds which indirectly implicated Carol and his camarilla (see Škoda Affair). The king consequently ordered him out of office, provoking indignation among sections of the political mainstream. On Carol's orders, Antonescu was placed under surveillance by the Siguranța Statului intelligence service, and closely monitored by the Interior Ministry Undersecretary Armand Călinescu. The officer's political credentials were on the rise, as he was able to establish and maintain contacts with people on all sides of the political spectrum, while support for Carol plummeted. Among these were contacts with the two main democratic groups, the National Liberal and the National Peasants', parties known respectively as PNL and PNȚ. He was also engaged in discussions with the rising far right, antisemitic and fascist movements; although in competition with each other, both the National Christian Party (PNC) of Octavian Goga and the Iron Guard sought to attract Antonescu to their side. In 1936, to the authorities' alarm, Army General and Iron Guard member Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul arranged a meeting between Ion Antonescu and the movement's leader, Corneliu Codreanu. Antonescu is reported to have found Codreanu arrogant, but to have welcomed his revolutionizing approach to politics.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1937, after the December general election came to an inconclusive result, Carol appointed Goga Prime Minister over a far right cabinet that was the first executive to impose racial discrimination in its treatment of the Jewish community. Goga's appointment was meant to curb the rise of the more popular and even more radical Codreanu. Initially given the Communications portfolio by his rival, Interior Minister Armand Călinescu, Antonescu repeatedly demanded the office of Defense Minister, which he was eventually granted. His mandate coincided with a troubled period, and saw Romania having to choose between its traditional alliance with France, Britain, the crumbling Little Entente and the League of Nations or moving closer to Nazi Germany and its Anti-Comintern Pact. Antonescu's own contribution is disputed by historians, who variously see him as either a supporter of the Anglo-French alliance or, like the PNC itself, more favourable to cooperation with Adolf Hitler's Germany. At the time, Antonescu viewed Romania's alliance with the Entente as insurance against Hungarian and Soviet revanchism, but, as an anti-communist, he was suspicious of the Franco-Soviet rapprochement. Particularly concerned about Hungarian demands in Transylvania, he ordered the General Staff to prepare for a western attack. However, his major contribution in office was in relation to an internal crisis: as a response to violent clashes between the Iron Guard and the PNC's own fascist militia, the Lăncieri, Antonescu extended the already imposed martial law.",
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"plaintext": "Soon afterward, Călinescu, acting on indications from the monarch, arrested Codreanu and prosecuted him in two successive trials. Antonescu, whose mandate of Defense Minister had been prolonged under the premiership of Miron Cristea, resigned in protest of Codreanu's arrest. Antonescu's mandate ended on 30 March 1938. He also served as Air and Marine Minister between 2 February and his resignation on 30 March. He was a celebrity defense witness at the latter's first and second trials. During the latter, which resulted in Codreanu's conviction for treason, Antonescu vouched for his friend's honesty while shaking his hand in front of the jury. Upon the conclusion of the trial, the king ordered his former minister interned at Predeal, before assigning him to command the Third Army in the remote eastern region of Bessarabia (and later removing him after Antonescu expressed sympathy for Guardists imprisoned in Chișinău). Attempting to discredit his rival, Carol also ordered Antonescu's wife to be tried for bigamy, based on a false claim that her divorce had not been finalized. Defended by Mihai Antonescu, the officer was able to prove his detractors wrong. Codreanu himself was taken into custody and discreetly killed by the Gendarmes acting on Carol's orders (November 1938).",
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"plaintext": "Carol's regime slowly dissolved into crisis, a dissolution accelerated after the start of World War II, when the military success of the core Axis Powers and the non-aggression pact signed by Germany and the Soviet Union saw Romania isolated and threatened (see Romania during World War II). In 1940, two of Romania's regions, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, were lost to a Soviet occupation consented to by the king. This came as Romania, exposed by the Fall of France, was seeking to align its policies with those of Germany. Ion Antonescu himself had come to value a pro-Axis alternative after the 1938 Munich Agreement, when Germany imposed demands on Czechoslovakia with the acquiescence of France and the United Kingdom, leaving locals to fear that, unless reoriented, Romania would follow. Angered by the territorial losses of 1940, General Antonescu sent Carol a general note of protest, and, as a result, was arrested and interned at Bistrița Monastery. While there, he commissioned Mihai Antonescu to establish contacts with Nazi German officials, promising to advance German economic interest, particularly in respect to the local oil industry, in exchange for endorsement. Commenting on Ion Antonescu's ambivalent stance, Hitler's minister to Romania, Wilhelm Fabricius, wrote to his superiors: \"I am not convinced that he is a safe man.\"",
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"plaintext": "Romania's elite had been intensely Francophile ever since Romania had won its independence in the 19th century, indeed so Francophile that the defeat of France in June 1940 had the effect of discrediting the entire elite. Antonescu's internment ended in August, during which interval, under Axis pressure, Romania had ceded Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria (see Treaty of Craiova) and Northern Transylvania to Hungary (see Second Vienna Award). The latter grant caused consternation among large sections of Romania's population, causing Carol's popularity to fall to a record low and provoking large-scale protests in Bucharest, the capital. These movements were organized competitively by the pro-Allied PNȚ, headed by Iuliu Maniu, and the pro-Nazi Iron Guard. The latter group had been revived under the leadership of Horia Sima, and was organizing a coup d'état. In this troubled context, Antonescu simply left his assigned residence. He may have been secretly helped in this by German intercession, but was more directly aided to escape by socialite Alice Sturdza, who was acting on Maniu's request. Antonescu subsequently met with Maniu in Ploiești, where they discussed how best to manage the political situation. While these negotiations were carried out, the monarch himself was being advised by his entourage to recover legitimacy by governing in tandem with the increasingly popular Antonescu, while creating a new political majority from the existing forces. On 2 September 1940, Valer Pop, a courtier and an important member of the camarilla, first advised Carol to appoint Antonescu as Prime Minister as the solution to the crisis. Pop's reasons for advising Carol to appoint Antonescu as Prime Minister were partly because Antonescu, who was known to be friendly with the Iron Guard and who had been imprisoned under Carol, was believed to have enough of an oppositional background to Carol's regime to appease the public and partly because Pop knew that Antonescu, for all his Legionary sympathies, was a member of the elite and believed he would never turn against it. When Carol proved reluctant to make Antonescu Prime Minister, Pop visited the German legation to meet with Fabricius on the night of 4 September 1940 to ask that the German minister phone Carol to tell him that the Reich wanted Antonescu as Prime Minister, and Fabricius's promptly did just that. Carol and Antonescu accepted the proposal, Antonescu being ordered to approach political party leaders Maniu of the PNȚ and Dinu Brătianu of the PNL. They all called for Carol's abdication as a preliminary measure, while Sima, another leader sought after for negotiations, could not be found in time to express his opinion. Antonescu partly complied with the request but also asked Carol to bestow upon him the reserve powers for Romanian heads of state. Carol yielded and, on 5 September 1940, the general became Prime Minister, and Carol transferred most of his dictatorial powers to him. The latter's first measure was to curtail potential resistance within the Army by relieving Bucharest Garrison chief Gheorghe Argeșanu of his position and replacing him with Dumitru Coroamă. Shortly afterward, Antonescu heard rumours that two of Carol's loyalist generals, Gheorghe Mihail and Paul Teodorescu, were planning to have him killed. In reaction, he forced Carol to abdicate, while General Coroamă was refusing to carry out the royal order of shooting down Iron Guardist protesters.",
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"plaintext": "Michael ascended the throne for the second time, while Antonescu's dictatorial powers were confirmed and extended. On 6 September, the day Michael formally assumed the throne, he issued a royal decree declaring Antonescu Conducător (leader) of the state. The same decree relegated the monarch to a ceremonial role. Among Antonescu's subsequent measures was ensuring the safe departure into self-exile of Carol and his mistress Elena Lupescu, granting protection to the royal train when it was attacked by armed members of the Iron Guard. The regime of King Carol had been notorious for being the most corrupt regime in Europe during the 1930s, and when Carol fled Romania, he took with him the better part of the Romanian treasury, leaving the new government with enormous financial problems. Antonescu had expected, perhaps naïvely, that Carol would take with him enough money to provide for a comfortable exile, and was surprised that Carol had cleared out almost the entire national treasury. For the next four years, a major concern of Antonescu's government was attempting to have the Swiss banks where Carol had deposited the assets return the money to Romania; this effort did not meet with success. Horia Sima's subsequent cooperation with Antonescu was endorsed by high-ranking Nazi German officials, many of whom feared the Iron Guard was too weak to rule on its own. Antonescu therefore received the approval of Ambassador Fabricius. Despite early promises, Antonescu abandoned projects for the creation of a national government, and opted instead for a coalition between a military dictatorship lobby and the Iron Guard. He later justified his choice by stating that the Iron Guard \"represented the political base of the country at the time.\" Right from the outset, Antonescu clashed with Sima over economic questions, with Antonescu's main concern being to get the economy growing so as to provide taxes for a treasury looted by Carol, while Sima favored populist economic measures that Antonescu insisted there was no money for.",
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"plaintext": "The resulting regime, deemed the National Legionary State, was officially proclaimed on 14 September. On that date, the Iron Guard was remodelled into the only legally permitted party in Romania. Antonescu continued as Premier and Conducător, and was named as the Guard's honorary commander. Sima became Deputy Premier and leader of the Guard. Antonescu subsequently ordered the Guardists imprisoned by Carol to be set free. On 6 October, he presided over the Iron Guard's mass rally in Bucharest, one in a series of major celebratory and commemorative events organized by the movement during the late months of 1940. However, he tolerated the PNȚ and PNL's informal existence, allowing them to preserve much of their political support.",
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"plaintext": "There followed a short-lived and always uneasy partnership between Antonescu and Sima. In late September, the new regime denounced all pacts, accords and diplomatic agreements signed under Carol, bringing the country into Germany's orbit while subverting its relationship with a former Balkan ally, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Germans troops entered the country in stages, in order to defend the local oil industry and help instruct their Romanian counterparts on Blitzkrieg tactics. On 23 November, Antonescu was in Berlin, where his signature sealed Romania's commitment to the main Axis instrument, the Tripartite Pact. Two days later, the country also adhered to the Nazi-led Anti-Comintern Pact. Other than these generic commitments, Romania had no treaty binding it to Germany, and the Romanian-German alliance functioned informally. Speaking in 1946, Antonescu claimed to have followed the pro-German path in continuation of earlier policies, and for fear of a Nazi protectorate in Romania.",
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"plaintext": "During the National Legionary State period, earlier antisemitic legislation was upheld and strengthened, while the \"Romanianization\" of Jewish-owned enterprises became standard official practice. Immediately after coming into office, Antonescu himself expanded the anti-Jewish and Nuremberg law-inspired legislation passed by his predecessors Goga and Ion Gigurtu, while tens of new anti-Jewish regulations were passed in 1941–1942. This was done despite his formal pledge to Wilhelm Filderman and the Jewish Communities Federation that, unless engaged in \"sabotage,\" \"the Jewish population will not suffer.\" Antonescu did not reject the application of Legionary policies, but was offended by Sima's advocacy of paramilitarism and the Guard's frequent recourse to street violence. He drew much hostility from his partners by extending some protection to former dignitaries whom the Iron Guard had arrested. One early incident opposed Antonescu to the Guard's magazine Buna Vestire, which accused him of leniency and was subsequently forced to change its editorial board. By then, the Legionary press was routinely claiming that he was obstructing revolution and aiming to take control of the Iron Guard, and that he had been transformed into a tool of Freemasonry (see Anti-Masonry). The political conflict coincided with major social challenges, including the influx of refugees from areas lost earlier in the year and a large-scale earthquake affecting Bucharest.",
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"plaintext": "Disorder peaked in the last days of November 1940, when, after uncovering the circumstances of Codreanu's death, the fascist movement ordered retaliations against political figures previously associated with Carol, carrying out the Jilava Massacre, the assassinations of Nicolae Iorga and Virgil Madgearu, and several other acts of violence. As retaliation for this insubordination, Antonescu ordered the Army to resume control of the streets, unsuccessfully pressured Sima to have the assassins detained, ousted the Iron Guardist prefect of Bucharest Police Ștefan Zăvoianu, and ordered Legionary ministers to swear an oath to the Conducător. His condemnation of the killings was nevertheless limited and discreet, and, the same month, he joined Sima at a burial ceremony for Codreanu's newly discovered remains. The widening gap between the dictator and Sima's party resonated in Berlin. When, in December, Legionary Foreign Minister Mihail R. Sturdza obtained the replacement of Fabricius with Manfred Freiherr von Killinger, perceived as more sympathetic to the Iron Guard, Antonescu promptly took over leadership of the ministry, with the compliant diplomat Constantin Greceanu as his right hand. In Germany, such leaders of the Nazi Party as Heinrich Himmler, Baldur von Schirach and Joseph Goebbels threw their support behind the Legionaries, whereas Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and the Wehrmacht stood by Antonescu. The latter group was concerned that any internal conflict would threaten Romania's oil industry, vital to the German war effort. The German leadership was by then secretly organizing Operation Barbarossa, the attack on the Soviet Union.",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu's plan to act against his coalition partners in the event of further disorder hinged on Hitler's approval, a vague signal of which had been given during ceremonies confirming Romania's adherence to the Tripartite Pact. A decisive turn occurred when Hitler invited Antonescu and Sima both over for discussions: whereas Antonescu agreed, Sima stayed behind in Romania, probably plotting a coup d'état. While Hitler did not produce a clear endorsement for clamping down on Sima's party, he made remarks interpreted by their recipient as oblique blessings. On 14 January 1941 during a German-Romanian summit, Hitler informed Antonescu of his plans to invade the Soviet Union later that year and asked Romania to participate. By this time, Hitler had come to the conclusion that while Sima was ideologically closer to him, Antonescu was the more competent leader capable of ensuring stability in Romania while being committed to aligning his country with the Axis.",
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"plaintext": "The Antonescu-Sima dispute erupted into violence in January 1941, when the Iron Guard instigated a series of attacks on public institutions and a pogrom, incidents collectively known as the \"Legionary Rebellion.\" This came after the mysterious assassination of Major Döring, a German agent in Bucharest, which was used by the Iron Guard as a pretext to accuse the Conducător of having a secret anti-German agenda, and made Antonescu oust the Legionary Interior Minister, Constantin Petrovicescu, while closing down all of the Legionary-controlled \"Romanianization\" offices. Various other clashes prompted him to demand the resignation of all Police commanders who sympathized with the movement. After two days of widespread violence, during which Guardists killed some 120 Bucharest Jews, Antonescu sent in the Army, under the command of General Constantin Sănătescu. German officials acting on Hitler's orders, including the new Ambassador Manfred Freiherr von Killinger, helped Antonescu eliminate the Iron Guardists, but several of their lower-level colleagues actively aided Sima's subordinates. Goebbels was especially upset by the decision to support Antonescu, believing it to have been advantageous to \"the Freemasons.\"",
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"plaintext": "After the purge of the Iron Guard, Hitler kept his options open by granting political asylum to Sima—whom Antonescu's courts sentenced to death—and to other Legionaries in similar situations. The Guardists were detained in special conditions at Buchenwald and Dachau concentration camps. In parallel, Antonescu publicly obtained the cooperation of Codreanists, members of an Iron Guardist wing which had virulently opposed Sima, and whose leader was Codreanu's father Ion Zelea Codreanu. Antonescu again sought backing from the PNȚ and PNL to form a national cabinet, but his rejection of parliamentarism made the two groups refuse him.",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu traveled to Germany and met Hitler on eight more occasions between June 1941 and August 1944. Such close contacts helped cement an enduring relationship between the two dictators, and Hitler reportedly came to see Antonescu as the only trustworthy person in Romania, and the only foreigner to consult on military matters. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that Hitler after first meeting Antonescu \"...was greatly impressed by him; no other leader Hitler met other than Mussolini ever received such consistently favourable comments from the German dictator. Hitler even mustered the patience to listen to Antonescu's lengthy disquisitions on the glorious history of Romania and the perfidy of the Hungarians—a curious reversal for a man who was more accustomed to regaling visitors with tirades of his own.\" In later statements, Hitler offered praise to Antonescu's \"breadth of vision\" and \"real personality.\" A remarkable aspect of the Hitler-Antonescu friendship was neither could speak others' language. Hitler only knew German while the only foreign language Antonescu knew was French, in which he was completely fluent. During their meetings, Antonescu spoke in French which was then translated into German by Hitler's translator Paul Schmidt and vice versa since Schmidt did not speak Romanian either. The German military presence increased significantly in early 1941, when, using Romania as a base, Hitler invaded the rebellious Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Kingdom of Greece (see Balkans Campaign). In parallel, Romania's relationship with the United Kingdom, at the time the only major adversary of Nazi Germany, erupted into conflict: on 10 February 1941, British Premier Winston Churchill recalled His Majesty's Ambassador Reginald Hoare, and approved the blockade of Romanian ships in British-controlled ports. On 12 June 1941, during another summit with Hitler, Antonescu first learned of the \"special\" nature of Operation Barbarossa, namely, that the war against the Soviet Union was to be an ideological war to \"annihilate\" the forces of \"Judeo-Bolshevism,\" a \"war of extermination\" to be fought without any mercy; Hitler even showed Antonescu a copy of the \"Guidelines for the Conduct of the Troops in Russia\" he had issued to his forces about the \"special treatment\" to be handed out to Soviet Jews. Antonescu completely accepted Hitler's ideas about Operation Barbarossa as a \"race war\" between the Aryans, represented by the Nordic Germans and Latin Romanians on the Axis side vs. the Slavs and Asians, commanded by the Jews on the Soviet side. Besides anti-Semitism, there was an extremely strong current of anti-Slavic and anti-Asian racism to Antonescu's remarks about the \"Asiatic hordes\" of the Red Army. The Asians Antonescu referred were the various Asian peoples of the Soviet Union, such as the Kazakhs, Kalmyks, Mongols, Uzbeks, Buryats, etc. During his summit with Hitler in June 1941, Antonescu told the Führer that he believed it was necessary to \"once and for all\" eliminate Russia as a power because the Russians were the most powerful Slavic nation and that as a Latin people, the Romanians had an inborn hatred of all Slavs and Jews. Antonescu went on to tell Hitler: \"Because of its racial qualities, Romania can continue to play its role as an anti-Slavic buffer for the benefit of Germany.\" Ancel wrote that Romanian anti-Slavic racism differed from the German variety in that the Romanians had traditionally feared the Slavic peoples whereas the Germans had traditionally held the Slavic peoples in contempt. In Antonescu's mind, the Romanians as a Latin people had attained a level of civilization that the Slavs were nowhere close to, but theoretically the Slavic Russians and Ukrainians might be able to reach under Romanian auspices, through Antonescu's remarks to Hitler that \"We must fight this race (i.e. the Slavs) resolutely\" together, with the need for \"colonization\" of Transnistria, suggested that he did think this would happen in his own lifetime. Subsequently, the Romanians assigned to Barbarossa were to learn that as a Latin people, the Germans considered them to be their inferiors, albeit not as inferior as the Slavs, Asians and Jews who were viewed as untermenschen (\"sub-humans\"). Hitler's promise to Antonescu that after the war, the Germanic and Latin races would rule the world in a partnership turned out to be meaningless.",
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"plaintext": "In June of that year, Romania joined the attack on the Soviet Union, led by Germany in coalition with Hungary, Finland, the State of Slovakia, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Independent State of Croatia. Antonescu had been made aware of the plan by German envoys, and supported it enthusiastically even before Hitler extended Romania an offer to participate. On 18 June 1941, Antonescu gave orders to his generals about \"cleansing the ground\" of Jews when Romanian forces entered Bessarabia and Bukovina. Right from the start, Antonescu proclaimed the war against the Soviet Union to be a \"holy war\", a \"crusade\" in the name of Eastern Orthodox faith and the Romanian race against the forces of \"Judeo-Bolshevism\". The propaganda of the Antonescu regime demonized everything Jewish as Antonescu believed that Communism was invented by the Jews, and all of the Soviet leaders were really Jews. Reflecting Antonescu's anti-Slavic feelings, despite the fact that the war was billed as a \"crusade\" in defence of Orthodoxy against \"Judeo-Bolshevism\", the war was not presented as a struggle to liberate the Orthodox Russians and Ukrainians from Communism; instead rule by \"Judeo-Bolshevism\" was portrayed as something brought about the innate moral inferiority of the Slavs, who thus needed to be ruled by the Germans and the Romanians. The Romanian force engaged formed a General Antonescu Army Group under the effective command of German general Eugen Ritter von Schobert. Romania's campaign on the Eastern Front began without a formal declaration of war, and was consecrated by Antonescu's statement: \"Soldiers, I order you, cross the Prut River\" (in reference to the Bessarabian border between Romania and post-1940 Soviet territory). A few days after this, a large-scale pogrom was carried out in Iași with Antonescu's agreement; thousands of Jews were killed in the bloody Iași pogrom. Antonescu had followed a generation of younger right-wing Romanian intellectuals led by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu who in the 1920s–30s had rejected the traditional Francophila of the Romanian elites and their adherence to Western notions of universal democratic values and human rights. Antonescu made it clear that his regime rejected the moral principles of the \"demo-liberal world\" and he saw the war as an ideological struggle between his spiritually pure \"national-totalitarian regime\" vs. \"Jewish morality\". Antonescu believed that the liberal humanist-democratic-capitalist values of the West and Communism were both invented by the Jews to destroy Romania. In a lengthy speech just before the war, Antonescu attacked democracy in the most violent terms as it allowed Jews equal rights and thus to undercut the Romanian \"national idea\". As such, Antonescu stated what was needed was a \"new man\" who would be \"tough\", \"virile\" and willing to fight for an ethnically and religiously \"pure\" Romania. Despite his quarrel with Sima, much of Antonescu's speech clearly reflected the influence of the ideas of the Iron Guard that Antonescu had absorbed in the 1930s. Antonescu's anti-Semitism and sexism went so far that he tacitly condoned the rape of Jewish women and girls in Bessarabia and northern Bukovinia by his forces under the grounds that he was going take away all of the property that the Jews had \"stolen\" from the Romanians, and as far he was concerned, Jewish females were just another piece of property. Since the Jewish women were going to exterminated anyway, Antonescu felt there was nothing wrong about letting his soldiers and gendarmes have \"some fun\" before shooting them.",
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"plaintext": "After becoming the first Romanian to be granted the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, which he received from Hitler at their 6 August meeting in the Ukrainian city of Berdychiv, Ion Antonescu was promoted to Marshal of Romania by royal decree on 22 August, in recognition for his role in restoring the eastern frontiers of Greater Romania. In a report to Berlin, a German diplomat wrote that Marshal Antonescu had syphilis and that \"among [Romanian] cavalry officers this disease is as widespread as a common cold is among German officers. The Marshal suffers from severe attacks of it every several months.\" Antonescu took one of his most debated decisions when, with Bessarabia's conquest almost complete, he committed Romania to Hitler's war effort beyond the Dniester—that is, beyond territory that had been part of Romania between the wars—and thrust deeper into Soviet territory, thus waging a war of aggression. On 30 August, Romania occupied a territory it deemed \"Transnistria\", formerly a part of the Ukrainian SSR (including the entire Moldavian ASSR and further territories). Like the decision to continue the war beyond Bessarabia, this earned Antonescu much criticism from the semi-clandestine PNL and PNȚ. Insofar as the war against the Soviet Union was a war to recover Bessarabia and northern Bukovina – both regions that been a part of Romania until June 1940 and that had Romanian majorities – the conflict had been very popular with the Romanian public opinion. But the idea of conquering Transnistria was not as that region had never been part of Romania, and a minority of the people were ethnic Romanian. Soon after the takeover, the area was assigned to a civil administration apparatus headed by Gheorghe Alexianu and became the site for the main component of the Holocaust in Romania: a mass deportation of the Bessarabian and Ukrainian Jews, followed later by transports of Romani Romanians and Jews from Moldavia proper (that is, the portions of Moldavia west of the Prut).",
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"plaintext": "The accord over Transnistria's administration, signed in Tighina, also placed areas between the Dniester and the Dnieper under Romanian military occupation, while granting control over all resources to Germany. In September 1941, Antonescu ordered Romanian forces to take Odessa, a prize he badly wanted for reasons of prestige. Russians had traditionally been seen in Romania as brutal aggressors, and for Romanian forces to take a major Soviet city and one of the largest Black Sea ports like Odessa would be a sign of how far Romania had been \"regenerated\" under Antonescu's leadership. Much to Antonescu's intense fury, the Red Army were able to halt the Romanian offensive on Odessa and 24 September 1941 Antonescu had to reluctantly ask for the help of the Wehrmacht with the drive on Odessa. On 16 October 1941 Odessa fell to the German-Romanian forces. The Romanian losses had been so heavy that the area around Odessa was known to the Romanian Army as the Vale of Tears. Antonescu's anti-Semitism was sharpened by the Odessa fighting as he was convinced that the only reason why the Red Army had fought so fiercely around Odessa was that the average Russian soldier had been terrorized by bloodthirsty Jewish commissars into fighting hard. When Wilhelm Filderman wrote a letter to Antonescu complaining about the murder of Jews in Odessa, Antonescu wrote back: \"Your Jews, who have become Soviet commissars, are driving Soviet soldiers in the Odessa region into a futile bloodbath, through horrendous terror techniques as the Russian prisoners themselves have admitted, simply to cause us heavy losses\". Antonescu ended his letter with the claim that Russian Jewish commissars had savagely tortured Romanian POWs and that the entire Jewish community of Romania, Filderman included were morally responsible for all of the losses and sufferings of the Romanians around Odessa. In the fall of 1941, Antonescu planned to deport all of the Jews of the Regat, southern Bukovina and southern Transylvania into Transnistria as the prelude to killing them, but this operation was vetoed by Germany, who complained that Antonescu had not finished killing the Jews of Transnistria yet. This veto was largely motivated by bureaucratic politics, namely if Antonescu exterminated all of the Jews of Romania himself, there would be nothing for the SS and the Auswärtiges Amt to do. Killinger informed Antonescu that Germany would reduce its supplies of arms if Antonescu went ahead with his plans to deport the Jews of the Regat into Transnistria and told him he would be better off deporting the Jews to the death camps in Poland that the Germans were already busy building. Since Romania had almost no arms industry of its own and was almost entirely dependent upon weapons from Germany to fight the war, Antonescu had little choice, but to comply with Killinger's request.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian Army's inferior arms, insufficient armour and lack of training had been major concerns for the German commanders since before the start of the operation. One of the earliest major obstacles Antonescu encountered on the Eastern Front was the resistance of Odessa, a Soviet port on the Black Sea. Refusing any German assistance, he ordered the Romanian Army to maintain a two-month siege on heavily fortified and well-defended positions. The ill-equipped 4th Army suffered losses of some 100,000 men. Antonescu's popularity again rose in October, when the fall of Odessa was celebrated triumphantly with a parade through Bucharest's Arcul de Triumf, and when many Romanians reportedly believed the war was as good as won. In Odessa itself, the aftermath included a large-scale massacre of the Jewish population, ordered by the Marshal as retaliation for a bombing which killed a number of Romanian officers and soldiers (General Ioan Glogojeanu among them). The city subsequently became the administrative capital of Transnistria. According to one account, the Romanian administration planned to change Odessa's name to Antonescu. Antonescu's planned that once the war against the Soviet Union was won to invade Hungary to take back Transylvania and Bulgaria to take back the Dobruja with Antonescu being especially keen on the former. Antonescu planned on attacking Hungary to recover Transylvania at the first opportunity and regarded Romanian involvement on the Eastern Front in part as a way of proving to Hitler that Romania was a better German ally than Hungary, and thus deserving of German support when the planned Romanian-Hungarian war began. The Conducător had also created an intra-Axis alliance against Hungary along with Croatia and Slovakia.",
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"plaintext": "As the Soviet Union recovered from the initial shock and slowed down the Axis offensive at the Battle of Moscow (October 1941 – January 1942), Romania was asked by its allies to contribute a larger number of troops. A decisive factor in Antonescu's compliance with the request appears to have been a special visit to Bucharest by Wehrmacht chief of staff Wilhelm Keitel, who introduced the Conducător to Hitler's plan for attacking the Caucasus (see Battle of the Caucasus). The Romanian force engaged in the war reportedly exceeded German demands. It came to around 500,000 troops and thirty actively involved divisions. As a sign of his satisfaction, Hitler presented his Romanian counterpart with a luxury car. On 7 December 1941, after reflecting on the possibility for Romania, Hungary and Finland to change their stance, the British government responded to repeated Soviet requests and declared war on all three countries. Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and in compliance with its Axis commitment, Romania declared war on the United States within five days. These developments contrasted with Antonescu's own statement of 7 December: \"I am an ally of the [German] Reich against [the Soviet Union], I am neutral in the conflict between Great Britain and Germany. I am for America against the Japanese.\"",
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"plaintext": "A crucial change in the war came with the Battle of Stalingrad in June 1942 – February 1943, a major defeat for the Axis. Romania's armies alone lost some 150,000 men (either dead, wounded or captured) and more than half of the country's divisions were wiped out. ",
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"plaintext": "The loss of two entire Romanian armies who all either killed or captured by the Soviets produced a major crisis in German-Romanian relations in the winter of 1943 with many people in the Romanian government for the first time questioning the wisdom of fighting on the side of the Axis. Outside of the elites, by 1943 the continuing heavy losses on the Eastern Front, anger at the contempt which the Wehrmacht treated their Romanian allies and declining living standards within Romania made the war unpopular with the Romanian people, and consequently the Conducător himself. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that: \"The string of broken German promises of equipment and support, the disregard of warnings about Soviet offensive preparations, the unfriendly treatment of retreating Romanian units by German officers and soldiers and the general German tendency to blame their own miscalculations and disasters on their allies all combined to produce a real crisis in German-Romanian relations.\" For part of that interval, the Marshal had withdrawn from public life, owing to an unknown affliction, which is variously rumoured to have been a mental breakdown, a foodborne illness or a symptom of the syphilis he had contracted earlier in life. He is known to have been suffering from digestive problems, treating himself with food prepared by Marlene von Exner, an Austrian-born dietitian who moved into Hitler's service after 1943. ",
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"plaintext": "Upon his return, Antonescu blamed the Romanian losses on German overseer Arthur Hauffe, whom Hitler agreed to replace. In parallel with the military losses, Romania was confronted with large-scale economic problems. Romania's oil was the Reich'''s only source of natural oil after the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 to August 1944 (Germany also had synthetic oil plants operating from 1942 onwards), and as such for economic reasons, Romania was always treated as a major ally by Hitler. While Germany monopolized Romania's exports, it defaulted on most of its payments. Like all countries whose exports to Germany, particularly in oil, exceeded imports from that country, Romania's economy suffered from Nazi control of the exchange rate (see Economy of Nazi Germany). On the German side, those directly involved in harnessing Romania's economic output for German goals were economic planners Hermann Göring and Walther Funk, together with Hermann Neubacher, the Special Representative for Economic Problems. A recurring problem for Antonescu was attempting to obtain payments for all of the oil he shipped to Germany while resisting German demands for increased oil production. The situation was further aggravated in 1942, as USAAF and RAF were able to bomb the oil fields in Prahova County (see Bombing of Romania in World War II, Operation Tidal Wave). Official sources from the following period amalgamate military and civilian losses of all kinds, which produces a total of 554,000 victims of the war. To improve the Romanian army's effectiveness, the Mareșal tank destroyer was developed starting in late 1942. Marshal Antonescu, after whom the vehicle was named, was involved in the project himself. The vehicle later influenced the development of the German Hetzer.",
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"plaintext": "In this context, the Romanian leader acknowledged that Germany was losing the war, and he therefore authorized his Deputy Premier and new Foreign Minister Mihai Antonescu to set up contacts with the Allies. In early 1943, Antonescu authorized his diplomats to contact British and American diplomats in Portugal and Switzerland to see if were possible for Romania to sign an armistice with the Western powers. The Romanian diplomats were informed that no armistice was possible until an armistice was signed with the Soviet Union, a condition Antonescu rejected. In parallel, he allowed the PNȚ and the PNL to engage in parallel talks with the Allies at various locations in neutral countries. The discussions were strained by the Western Allies' call for an unconditional surrender, over which the Romanian envoys bargained with Allied diplomats in Sweden and Egypt (among them the Soviet representatives Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov and Alexandra Kollontai). Antonescu was also alarmed by the possibility of war being carried on Romanian territory, as had happened in Italy after Operation Avalanche. The events also prompted hostile negotiations aimed at toppling Antonescu, and involving the two political parties, the young monarch, diplomats and soldiers. A major clash between Michael and Antonescu took place during the first days of 1943, when the 21-year-old monarch used his New Year's address on national radio to part with the Axis war effort.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1944, the Soviet Red Army broke the Southern Bug and Dniester fronts, advancing on Bessarabia. This came just as Field Marshal Henry Maitland Wilson, the British Allied commander of the Mediterranean theatre, presented Antonescu with an ultimatum. After a new visit to Germany and a meeting with Hitler, Antonescu opted to continue fighting alongside the remaining Axis states, a decision which he later claimed was motivated by Hitler's promise to allow Romania possession of Northern Transylvania in the event of an Axis victory. Upon his return, the Conducător oversaw a counteroffensive which stabilized the front on a line between Iași and Chișinău to the north and the lower Dniester to the east. This normalized his relations with Nazi German officials, whose alarm over the possible loss of an ally had resulted in the Margarethe II plan, an adapted version of the Nazi takeover in Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "However, Antonescu's non-compliance with the terms of Wilson's ultimatum also had drastic effects on Romania's ability to exit the war. By then, Antonescu was conceiving of a separate peace with the Western Allies, while maintaining contacts with the Soviets. In parallel, the mainstream opposition movement came to establish contacts with the Romanian Communist Party (PCR), which, although minor numerically, gained importance for being the only political group to be favored by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. On the PCR side, the discussions involved Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu and later Emil Bodnăraș. Another participating group at this stage was the old Romanian Social Democratic Party.",
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"plaintext": "Large-scale Allied bombings of Bucharest took place in spring 1944, while the Soviet Red Army approached Romanian borders. The Battle for Romania began in late summer: while German commanders Johannes Frießner and Otto Wöhler of the Army Group South Ukraine attempted to hold Bukovina, Soviet Steppe Front leader Rodion Malinovsky stormed into the areas of Moldavia defended by Petre Dumitrescu's troops. In reaction, Antonescu attempted to stabilize the front on a line between Focșani, Nămoloasa and Brăila, deep inside Romanian territory. On 5 August, he visited Hitler one final time in Kętrzyn. On this occasion, the German leader reportedly explained that his people had betrayed the Nazi cause, and asked him if Romania would go on fighting (to which Antonescu reportedly answered in vague terms). After Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov more than once stated that the Soviet Union was not going to require Romanian subservience, the factions opposing Antonescu agreed that the moment had come to overthrow him, by carrying out the Royal Coup of 23 August. On that day, the sovereign asked Antonescu to meet him in the royal palace building, where he presented him with a request to take Romania out of its Axis alliance. The Conducător refused, and was promptly arrested by soldiers of the guard, being replaced as Premier with General Constantin Sănătescu, who presided over a national government.",
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"plaintext": "The new Romanian authorities declared peace with the Allies and advised the population to greet Soviet troops. On 25 August, as Bucharest was successfully defending itself against German retaliations, Romania declared war on Nazi Germany. The events disrupted German domination in the Balkans, putting a stop to the Maibaum offensive against Yugoslav Partisans. The coup was nevertheless a unilateral move, and, until the signature of an armistice on 12 September, the country was still perceived as an enemy by the Soviets, who continued to take Romanian soldiers as prisoners of war. In parallel, Hitler reactivated the Iron Guardist exile, creating a Sima-led government in exile that did not survive the war's end in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Placed in the custody of PCR militants, Ion Antonescu spent the interval at a house in Bucharest's Vatra Luminoasă quarter. He was afterward handed to the Soviet occupation forces, who transported him to Moscow, together with his deputy Mihai Antonescu, Governor of Transnistria Gheorghe Alexianu, Defense Minister Constantin Pantazi, Gendarmerie commander Constantin Vasiliu and Bucharest Police chief Mircea Elefterescu. They were subsequently kept in luxurious detention at a mansion nearby the city, and guarded by SMERSH, a special counter-intelligence body answering directly to Stalin. Shortly after Germany surrendered in May 1945, the group was moved to Lubyanka prison. There, Antonescu was interrogated and reputedly pressured by SMERSH operatives, among them Viktor Semyonovich Abakumov, but transcripts of their conversations were never sent back to Romania by the Soviet authorities. Later research noted that the main issues discussed were the German-Romanian alliance, the war on the Soviet Union, the economic toll on both countries, and Romania's participation in the Holocaust (defined specifically as crimes against \"peaceful Soviet citizens\"). At some point during this period, Antonescu attempted suicide in his quarters. He was returned to Bucharest in spring 1946 and held in Jilava prison. He was subsequently interrogated by prosecutor Avram Bunaciu, to whom he complained about the conditions of his detainment, contrasting them with those in Moscow, while explaining that he was a vegetarian and demanding a special diet.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1946, Ion Antonescu was prosecuted at the first in a series of People's Tribunals, on charges of war crimes, crimes against the peace and treason. The tribunals had first been proposed by the PNȚ, and were comparable to the Nuremberg Trials in Allied-occupied Germany. The Romanian legislative framework was drafted by coup participant Pătrășcanu, a PCR member who had been granted leadership of the Justice Ministry. Despite the idea having earned support from several sides of the political spectrum, the procedures were politicized in a sense favourable to the PCR and the Soviet Union, and posed a legal problem for being based on ex post facto decisions. The first such local trial took place in 1945, resulting in the sentencing of Iosif Iacobici, Nicolae Macici, Constantin Trestioreanu and other military commanders directly involved in planning or carrying out the Odessa massacre.",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu was represented by Constantin Paraschivescu-Bălăceanu and Titus Stoica, two public defenders whom he had first consulted with a day before the procedures were initiated. The prosecution team, led by Vasile Stoican, and the panel of judges, presided over by Alexandru Voitinovici, were infiltrated by PCR supporters. Both consistently failed to admit that Antonescu's foreign policies were overall dictated by Romania's positioning between Germany and the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, and although references to the mass murders formed just 23% of the indictment and corpus of evidence (ranking below charges of anti-Soviet aggression), the procedures also included Antonescu's admission of and self-exculpating take on war crimes, including the deportations to Transnistria. They also evidence his awareness of the Odessa massacre, accompanied by his claim that few of the deaths were his direct responsibility. One notable event at the trial was a testimony by PNȚ leader Iuliu Maniu. Reacting against the aggressive tone of other accusers, Maniu went on record saying: \"We [Maniu and Antonescu] were political adversaries, not cannibals.\" Upon leaving the bench, Maniu walked toward Antonescu and shook his hand.",
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"plaintext": "Ion Antonescu was found guilty of the charges. This verdict was followed by two sets of appeals, which claimed that the restored and amended 1923 Constitution did not offer a framework for the People's Tribunals and prevented capital punishment during peacetime, while noting that, contrary to the armistice agreement, only one power represented within the Allied Commission had supervised the tribunal. They were both rejected within six days, in compliance with a legal deadline on the completion of trials by the People's Tribunals. King Michael subsequently received pleas for clemency from Antonescu's lawyer and his mother, and reputedly considered asking the Allies to reassess the case as part of the actual Nuremberg Trials, taking Romanian war criminals into foreign custody. Subjected to pressures by the new Soviet-backed Petru Groza executive, he issued a decree in favour of execution. Together with his co-defendants Mihai Antonescu, Alexianu and Vasiliu, the former Conducător was executed by a military firing squad on 1 June 1946. Ion Antonescu's supporters circulated false rumours that regular soldiers had refused to fire at their commander, and that the squad was mostly composed of Jewish policemen. Another apologetic claim insists that he himself ordered the squad to shoot, but footage of the event has proven it false. However, he did refuse a blindfold and raised his hat in salute once the order was given. The execution site, some distance away from the locality of Jilava and the prison fort, was known as Valea Piersicilor (\"Valley of the Peach Trees\"). His final written statement was a letter to his wife, urging her to withdraw into a convent, while stating the belief that posterity would reconsider his deeds and accusing Romanians of being \"ungrateful\".",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu's policies were motivated, in large part, by ethnic nationalism. A firm believer in the restoration of Greater Romania as the union of lands inhabited by ethnic Romanians, he never reconciled himself to Hungary's incorporation of Northern Transylvania. Although Hungary and Romania were technically allied through the Axis system, their relationship was always tense, and marked by serious diplomatic incidents. The Romanian leader kept contacts with representatives of ethnic Romanian communities directly affected by the Second Vienna Award, including Transylvanian Greek-Catholic clergy. Another aspect of Antonescu's nationalist policies was evidenced after the Balkans Campaign. Antonescu's Romania did not partake in the military action, but laid a claim to the territories in eastern Vojvodina (western Banat) and the Timok Valley, home to a sizeable Romanian community. Reportedly, Germany's initial designs of granting Vojvodina to Hungary enhanced the tensions between Antonescu and Miklós Horthy to the point where war between the two countries became a possibility. Such incidents made Germany indefinitely prolong its occupation of the region. The Romanian authorities issued projects for an independent Macedonia with autonomy for its Aromanian communities, while an official memorandum on the Timok Valley, approved by Antonescu, made mention of \"Romanian\" areas \"from Timok [...] to Salonika\". The Conducător also maintained contacts with Aromanian fascists in Axis-occupied Greece, awarding refuge to Alcibiades Diamandi and Nicola Matussi of the Roman Legion, whose pro-Romanian policies had brought them into conflict with other Aromanian factions.",
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"plaintext": "Conducător Antonescu thought Hitler willing to revise his stance on Northern Transylvania, and claimed to have obtained the German leader's agreement, using it to justify participation on the Eastern Front after the recovery of Bessarabia. However, transcripts of the Hitler-Antonescu conversations do not validate his interpretation. Another version has it that Hitler sent Antonescu a letter informing him that Bessarabia's political status still ultimately depended on German decisions. In one of his letters to Hitler, Antonescu himself stated his anti-communist ideological motivation: \"I confirm that I will pursue operations in the east to the end against that great enemy of civilization, of Europe, and of my country: Russian Bolshevism [...] I will not be swayed by anyone not to extend this military cooperation into new territory.\" Antonescu's ideological perspective blended national sentiment with generically Christian and particularly Romanian Orthodox traits. British historian Arnold D. Harvey writes that while this ideology seems a poor match with Nazi doctrine, especially its anti-religious elements, \"It seems that Hitler was not even perturbed by the militant Christian orientation of the Antonescu regime\".",
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"plaintext": "It is also possible that, contrary to Antonescu's own will, Hitler viewed the transfer of Transnistria as compensation for the Transylvanian areas, and that he therefore considered the matter closed. According to the Romanian representative in Berlin, Raoul Bossy, various German and Hungarian officials recommended the extension of permanent Romanian rule into Transnistria, as well as into Podolia, Galicia and Pokuttya, in exchange for delivering the whole of Transylvania to Hungary (and relocating its ethnic Romanian majority to the new provinces). American political scientist Charles King writes: \"There was never any attempt to annex the occupied territory [of Transnistria], for it was generally considered by the Romanian government to be a temporary buffer zone between Greater Romania and the Soviet front line.\" At his 1946 trial, Antonescu claimed that Transnistria had been occupied to prevent Romania being caught in a \"pincer\" between Germany's Drang nach Osten and the Volksdeutsch communities to the east, while denying charges of having exploited the region for Romania's benefit.",
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"plaintext": "Romanian historian Lucian Boia believes that Ion Antonescu may have nevertheless had expansionist goals to the east, and that he implicitly understood Operation Barbarossa as a tool for containing Slavic peoples. Similar verdicts are provided by other researchers. Another Romanian historian, Ottmar Trașcă, argues that Antonescu did not wish to annex the region \"at least until the end of the war\", but notes that Antonescu's own statements make reference to its incorporation in the event of a victory. In addition to early annexation plans to the Southern Bug (reportedly confessed to Bossy in June 1941), the Conducător is known to have presented his ministers with designs for the region's colonization. The motivation he cited was alleged malnutrition among Romanian peasants, to which he added: \"I'll take this population, I'll lead it into Transnistria, where I shall give it all the land it requires\". Several nationalists sympathetic to Antonescu acclaimed the extension of Romanian rule into Transnistria, which they understood as permanent.",
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"plaintext": "A recurring element in Antonescu's doctrines is racism, and in particular antisemitism. This was linked to his sympathy for ethnocratic ideals, and complemented by his statements in favor of \"integral nationalism\" and \"Romanianism\". Like other far right Romanians, he saw a Jewish presence behind liberal democracy, and believed in the existence of Judeo-Masonry. His earliest thoughts on Codreanu's ideology criticize the Legionary leader for advocating \"brutal measures\" in dealing with the \"invasion of Jews\", and instead propose \"the organization of Romanian classes\" as a method for reaching the same objective. Politician Aureliu Weiss, who met General Antonescu during that interval, recalled that, although antisemitic \"to the core\", he was capable of restraint in public. According to historian Mihail Ionescu, the Conducător was not averse to the Iron Guard's \"Legionary principles\", but wanted antisemitism to be \"applied in an orderly fashion\", as opposed to Horia Sima's revolutionary ways. Historian Ioan Scurtu believes that, during the Legionary Rebellion, Antonescu deliberately waited before stepping in, in order for the Guard to be \"profoundly discredited\" and for himself to be perceived as a \"savior\". In April 1941, he let his ministers know that he was considering letting \"the mob\" deal with the Jews, \"and after the slaughter, I will restore order.\" Lucian Boia notes that the Romanian leader was indeed motivated by antisemitic beliefs, but that these need to be contextualized in order to understand what separates Antonescu from Hitler in terms of radicalism. However, various other researchers assess that, by aligning himself with Hitler before and during Operation Barbarossa, Antonescu implicitly agreed with his thoughts on the \"Jewish Question\", choosing racial over religious antisemitism. According to Harvey, the Iași pogrom made the Germans \"evidently willing to accept that organized Christianity in Romania was very different from what it was in Germany\".",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu was a firm believer in the conspiracy theory of \"Jewish Bolshevism\", according to which all Jews were supporters of communism and the Soviet Union. His arguments on the matter involved a spurious claim that, during the 1940 retreat from Bessarabia, the Jews had organized themselves and attacked Romanian soldiers. In part, this notion exaggerated unilateral reports of enthusiasm among the marginalized Jews upon the arrival of Red Army troops. In a summer 1941 address to his ministers, Antonescu stated: \"The Satan is the Jew. [Ours] is a battle of life and death. Either we win and the world will be purified, either they win and we will become their slaves.\" At around the same time, he envisaged the ethnic cleansing (\"cleaning out\") of Jews from the eastern Romanian-held territories. However, as early as February 1941, Antonescu was also contemplating the ghettoization of all Jewish Romanians, as an early step toward their expulsion. In this context, Antonescu frequently depicted Jews as a disease or a poison. After the Battle of Stalingrad, he encouraged the army commanders to resist the counteroffensive, as otherwise the Soviets \"will bring Bolshevism to the country, wipe out the entire leadership stratum, impose the Jews on us, and deport masses of our people.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ion Antonescu's antiziganism manifested itself as the claim that some or all Romani people, specifically nomadic ones, were given to criminal behavior. The regime did not act consistently on this belief: in various cases, those deported had close relatives drafted into the Romanian Army. Although racist slogans targeting Romani people had been popularized by the Iron Guard, it was only under Antonescu's unchallenged rule that solving the \"Gypsy problem\" became official policy and antiziganist measures were enforced. After a February 1941 inspection, Antonescu singled out Bucharest's Romani community for alleged offences committed during the blackout, and called on his ministers to present him with solutions. Initially, he contemplated sending all Romani people he considered undesirable to the inhospitable Bărăgan Plain, to join the ranks of a local community of manual labourers. In 1942, he commissioned the Romanian Central Institute for Statistics to compile a report on Romani demography, which, in its edited form, provided scientifically racist conclusions, warning the Conducător about alleged Romani-Romanian miscegenation in rural Romania. In doing so, Antonescu offered some credit to a marginal and pseudoscientific trend in Romanian sociology, which, basing itself on eugenic theories, recommended the marginalization, deportation or compulsory sterilization of the Romani people, whose numeric presence it usually exaggerated. Among those who signed the report was demographer Sabin Manuilă, who saw the Romani presence as a major racial problem. The exact effect of the report's claims on Antonescu is uncertain.",
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"plaintext": "There is a historiographic dispute about whether Ion Antonescu's regime was fascist or more generically right-wing authoritarian, itself integrated within a larger debate about the aspects and limits of fascism. Israeli historian of fascism Zeev Sternhell describes Antonescu, alongside his European counterparts Pierre-Étienne Flandin, Francisco Franco, Miklós Horthy, François de La Rocque, Philippe Pétain and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III, as a \"conservative\", noting that all of them \"were not deceived by a [fascist] propaganda trying to place them in the same category [as the fascist movements].\" A similar verdict is provided by German historian of Europe Hagen Schulze, who views Horthy, Franco and the Romanian leader alongside Portugal's Estado Novo theorist António de Oliveira Salazar and Second Polish Republic founder Józef Piłsudski, as rulers of \"either purely military dictatorships, or else authoritarian governments run by civilian politicians\", and thus a category apart from the leaders of \"Fascist states.\" For Schulze, the defining elements of such governments is the presence of a \"conservative establishment\" which ensured \"social stability\" by extending the control of a \"traditional state\" (thus effectively blocking \"revolutionary suggestions\" from the far left and the far right alike). The term \"conservative autocrat\" is used in relation to the Conducător by British political theorist Roger Griffin, who attributes to the Iron Guard the position of a subservient fascist movement, while others identify Antonescu's post-1941 rule as a military rather than a fascist dictatorship. Several other scholars prefer \"conservative\" as a defining term for Antonescu's policies. Antonescu described himself as \"by fate a dictator\", and explained that his policies were \"militaristic\" or, on one occasion, \"national-totalitarian\".",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, other historians theorize a synthesis of fascist and conservative elements, performed by Antonescu and other European leaders of his day. Routledge's 2002 Companion to Fascism and the Far Right uses the terms \"para-fascist\" to define Antonescu, adding: \"generally regarded as an authoritarian conservative [Antonescu] incorporated fascism into his regime, in the shape of the Iron Guard, rather than embodying fascism himself.\" \"Para-fascist\" is also used by Griffin, to denote both Antonescu and Carol II. American historian of fascism Robert Paxton notes that, like Salazar, Romania's dictator crushed a competing fascist movement, \"after copying some of [its] techniques of popular mobilization.\" Political scientists John Gledhill and Charles King discuss the Iron Guard as Romania's \"indigenous fascist movement\", remark that Antonescu \"adopted much of the ideology of the Guardists\", and conclude that the regime he led was \"openly fascist\". References to the fascist traits of Antonescu's dictatorship are also made by other researchers.",
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"plaintext": "The synthetic aspect of Antonescu's rule is discussed in detail by various authors. British historian Dennis Deletant, who notes that the fascist label relies on both Antonescu's adoption of some fascist \"trappings\" and the \"dichotomy of wartime and postwar evaluation\" of his regime, also notes that post-1960 interpretations \"do more to explain his behaviour than the preceding orthodoxy.\" Deletant contrasts the lack of \"mass political party or ideology\" with the type of rule associated with Nazism or Italian fascism. British-born sociologist and political analyst Michael Mann writes: \"The authoritarian regimes of Antonescu [...] and Franco [...] purported to be 'traditional', but actually their fascist-derived corporatism was a new immanent ideology of the right.\" Another distinct view is held by Romanian-born historian of ideas Juliana Geran Pilon, who describes Romania's \"military fascist regime\" as a successor to Iron Guardist \"mystical nationalism\", while mentioning that Antonescu's \"national ideology was rather more traditionally militaristic and conservative.\"",
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"plaintext": "In theory, Antonescu's policies had at least one revolutionary aspect. The leader himself claimed: \"I want to introduce a patriotic, heroic, military-typed education, because economic education and all the others follow from it.\" According to Boia, his arrival in power was explicitly meant to \"regenerate\" Romania, and his popularity hinged on his being perceived as a \"totalitarian model\" and a \"saviour\" figure, like Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and Carol II before him. The \"providential\" and \"saviour\" themes are also emphasized by historian Adrian Majuru, who notes that Antonescu both adopted such ideals and criticized Carol for failing to live up to them. Seeing his rule as legitimized by the national interest, the general is also known to have referred to political pluralism as poltronerie (\"poltroonishness\"). Accordingly, Antonescu formally outlawed all political forces in February 1941, codifying penal labor as punishment for most public forms of political expression. In Deletant's assessment, his regenerative program was more declarative than factual, and contradicted by Antonescu's own decision to allow the informal existence of some opposition forces. At the same time, some historians believe his monopolizing of power in the name of a German alliance turned Romania into either a \"puppet state\" of Hitler or one of Germany's \"satellite\" governments. However, Deletant notes: \"Romania retained her sovereignty throughout the period of the alliance [with Nazi Germany]. [...] Antonescu had, of course, his own country's interests uppermost in his mind, but in following Hitler, he served the Nazi cause.\" He describes Romania's contribution to the war as that of \"a principal ally of Germany\", as opposed to a \"minor Axis satellite.\"",
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"plaintext": "Although he assigned an unimportant role to King Michael, Antonescu took steps to increase the monarchy's prestige, personally inviting Carol's estranged wife, Queen Mother Helen, to return home. However, his preferred military structures functioned in cooperation with a bureaucracy inherited from the National Renaissance Front. According to historian of fascism Philip Morgan: \"Antonescu probably wanted to create, or perpetuate, something like Carol's front organization.\" Much of his permanent support base comprised former National Christian Party members, to the point where he was seen as successor to Octavian Goga. While maintaining a decorative replacement for Parliament—known as Adunarea Obștească Plebiscitară a Națiunii Române (\"The General Plebiscitary Assembly of the Romanian Nation\") and convoked only twice— he took charge of hierarchical appointments, and personally drafted new administrative projects. In 1941, he disestablished participative government in localities and counties, replacing it with a corporatist structure appointed by prefects whom he named. In stages between August and October 1941, he instituted civilian administration of Transnistria under Governor Gheorghe Alexianu, whose status he made equivalent to that of a cabinet minister. Similar measures were taken in Bukovina and Bessarabia (under Governors Corneliu Calotescu and Gheorghe Voiculescu, respectively). Antonescu strictly relied on the chain of command, and his direct orders to the Army overrode civilian hierarchies. This system allowed room for endemic political corruption and administrative confusion. The Romanian leader also tolerated a gradual loss of authority over the German communities in Romania, in particular the Transylvanian Saxon and Banat Swabian groups, in agreement with Hitler's views on the Volksdeutsche. This trend was initiated by Saxon Nazi activist Andreas Schmidt in cooperation with the Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle, resulting in de facto self-governance under a Nazi system which was also replicated among the 130,000 Black Sea Germans of Transnistria. Many young German Romanian men opted to join the Schutzstaffel as early as 1940 and, in 1943, an accord between Antonescu and Hitler automatically sent ethnic Germans of recruitable age into the Wehrmacht.",
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"plaintext": "The regime was characterized by the leader's attempts to regulate even remote aspects of public life, including relations between the sexes. He imposed drastic penalties for misdemeanors, and the legal use of capital punishment was extended to an unprecedented level. He personally set standards for nightclub programs, for the length of skirts and for women's use of bicycles, while forcing all men to wear coats in public. His wife Maria was a patron of state-approved charitable organizations, initially designed to compete with successful Iron Guardist ventures such as Ajutorul Legionar. According to Romanian-born gender studies academic Maria Bucur, although the regime allowed women \"to participate in the war effort on the front in a more regularized, if still marginal, fashion\", the general tone was sexist.",
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"plaintext": "The administrative apparatus included official press and propaganda sectors, which moved rapidly from constructing Carol's personality cult to doing the same for the new military leader: journals Universul and Timpul, as well as Camil Petrescu's România magazine, were particularly active in this process. Some other such venues were Porunca Vremii, Nichifor Crainic's Sfarmă-Piatră, as well as all the seemingly independent newspapers and some ten new periodicals the government founded for this purpose. Among the individual journalists involved in propaganda were Crainic, Petrescu, Stelian Popescu, and Curentul editor Pamfil Șeicaru (the Conducător purposefully ignored support from Carol's former adviser, corporatist economist and newspaperman Mihail Manoilescu, whom he reportedly despised). Much of the propaganda produced during the Antonescu era supported the antisemitic theses put forth by the Conducător. Antisemitism was notable and virulent at the level of Romanian Army units addressing former Soviet citizens in occupied lands, and reflected the regime's preference for the ethnic slur jidani (akin to \"kikes\" or \"Yids\" in English). The religious aspect of anti-communism surfaced in such venues, which frequently equated Operation Barbarossa with a holy war or a crusade. Romania's other enemies were generally treated differently: Antonescu himself issued objections to the anti-British propaganda of explicitly pro-Nazi papers such as Porunca Vremii. A special segment of Antonescu's post-1941 propaganda was Codrenist: it revisited the Iron Guard's history to minimize Sima's contributions and to depict him as radically different from Codreanu.",
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"plaintext": "Three weeks after gaining power and inaugurating the National Legionary regime, Ion Antonescu declared to Italian interviewers at La Stampa that solving the \"Jewish Question\" was his pressing concern, and that he considered himself \"haunted\" by the large Jewish presence in Moldavian towns. Antonescu's crimes against the Jewish population were inaugurated by new racial discrimination laws: urban Jewish property was expropriated, Jews were banned from performing a wide range of occupations and forced to provide community work for the state (muncă de interes obștesc) instead of the inaccessible military service, mixed Romanian-Jewish marriages were forbidden and many Jews, primarily those from strategic areas such as Ploiești, were confined to internment camps. The expulsion of Jewish professionals from all walks of life was also carried out in the National Legionary period, and enforced after the Legionary Rebellion. After a post-Legionary hiatus, \"Romanianization\" commissions resumed their work under the supervision of a National Center, and their scope was extended.",
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"plaintext": "Often discussed as a prelude to the Holocaust in Romania and in connection with Antonescu's views on \"Jewish Bolshevism\", the Iași pogrom occurred just days after the start of Operation Barbarossa, and was partly instigated, partly tolerated by the authorities in Bucharest. For a while before the massacre, these issued propaganda claiming that the Jews in Iași, whose numbers had been increased by forced evictions from smaller localities, were actively helping Soviet bombers find their targets through the blackout and plotting against the authorities, with Antonescu himself ordering that the entire community be expelled from the city on such grounds. The discourse appealed to local antisemites, whose murderous rampage, carried out with the officials' complicity, resulted in several thousand deaths among Jewish men, women and children.",
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"plaintext": "In the aftermath of the pogrom, thousands of survivors were loaded into the so-called \"death trains\". These overcrowded and sealed Romanian Railways cattle wagons circled the countryside in the extreme heat of the summer, and periodically stopped to unload the dead. At least 4,000 people died during the initial massacre and the subsequent transports. Varied estimates of the Iași massacre and related killings place the total number of Jews killed at 8,000, 10,000, 12,000 or 14,000. Some assistance in their murder was provided by units of the German XXXth Army Corps, a matter which later allowed the authorities to shift blame from themselves and from Antonescu—who was nonetheless implicated by the special orders he had released. The complicity of the Special Intelligence Service and its director Eugen Cristescu was also advanced as a possibility. The subsequent attempts at a cover-up included omissive explanations given by the central authorities to foreign diplomats and rewriting official records.",
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"plaintext": "Right upon setting up camp in Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Romanian troops joined the Wehrmacht and the Schutzstaffel-organized Einsatzgruppen in mass shootings of Bessarabian and Ukrainian Jews, resulting in the deaths of 10,000 to 20,000 people. Scholar Christopher R. Browning compares these killings with similar atrocities perpetrated by locals in Reichskommissariat Ukraine, Lithuania and Latvia (see Holocaust in Latvia, Holocaust in Lithuania, Holocaust in Ukraine). From then on, as the fighting troops progressed over the Dniester, the local administration deported large numbers of Jews into the fighting zone, in hopes that they would be exterminated by the Germans. Antonescu himself stated: \"I am in favor of expelling the Jews from Bessarabia and [Northern] Bukovina to the other side of the border [...]. There is nothing for them to do here and I don't mind if we appear in history as barbarians [...]. There has never been a time more suitable in our history to get rid of the Jews, and if necessary, you are to make use of machine guns against them.\" He also explained that his aim was: \"the policy of purification of the Romanian race, and I will not give way before any obstacle in achieving this historical goal of our nation. If we do not take advantage of the situation which presents itself today [...] we shall miss the last chance that history offers to us. And I do not wish to miss it, because if I do so further generations will blame me.\" He made a contradictory statement about the murder of Jews in Chișinău, claiming that their perpetrators were \"bastards\" who \"stained\" his regime's reputation. Antonescu saw the \"war\" against the Jews as being just as important as the war against the Soviet Union, and regularly demanded reports from his officers in Bessarabia and Transnistria about their measures against the Jews. In late August 1941, in Tighina, Antonescu called a secret conference attended by himself, the governors of Bessarabia and Bukovina and the governor-designate of Transnistria to discuss his plans regarding the Jews in those regions.",
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"plaintext": "Many deaths followed, as the direct results of starvation and exhaustion, while the local German troops carried out selective shootings. The survivors were sent back over the river, and the German commanders expressed irritation over the methods applied by their counterparts. Romanian authorities subsequently introduced ghettos or transit camps. After the annexation of Transnistria, there ensued a systematic deportation of Jews from Bessarabia, with additional transports of Jews from the Old Kingdom (especially Moldavia-proper). Based on an assignment Antonescu handed down to General Ioan Topor, the decision involved specific quotas, and the transports, most of which were carried out by foot, involved random murders. In conjunction with Antonescu's expansionist ambitions, it is possible that the ultimate destination for the survivors, once circumstances permitted it, was further east than the Southern Bug. On 11 October 1941, the chief of the Federation of Jewish Communities, Wilhelm Filderman issued a public letter to Antonescu asking him to stop the deportations, writing: \"This is death, death for no reason except that they are Jews.\" Antonescu replied to Filderman in a long letter explaining that because the entire Jewish community of Bessarabia had allegedly collaborated with the Soviets during the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia, his policies were a justified act of revenge. On 11 November 1941, Antonescu sent Filderman a second letter stating no Jews would be allowed to live in the \"liberated territories\" and as for the Jews of the Regat:",
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"plaintext": "We decided to defend our Romanian rights because our all-too-tolerant past was taken advantage of by the Jews and facilitated the abuse of our rights by foreigners, particularly the Jews...We are determined to put an end to this situation. We cannot afford to put in jeopardy the existence of our nation because of several hundred thousand Jews, or in order to salvage some principle of humane democracy that has not been understood properly.\"",
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"plaintext": "The deportees' remaining property was nationalized, confiscated or left available for plunder. With its own Jewish population confined and subjected to extermination, Transnistria became infamous in short time, especially so for its five main concentration camps: Peciora, Akhmechetka, Bogdanovka, Domanovka and Obodovka. Manned by Romanian Gendarmes and local Ukrainian auxiliaries who acted with the consent of central authorities, Transnistrian localities became the sites of mass executions, particularly after the administrators became worried about the spread of typhus from the camps and into the surrounding region. At a Cabinet meeting on 16 December 1941 to discuss the fate of the Jews of Transnistria, Antonescu stated:",
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"plaintext": "The question of the Yids is being discussed in Berlin. The Germans want to bring the Yids from Europe to Russia and settle them in certain areas, but there is still time before this plan is carried out. Meanwhile, what should we do? Shall we wait for a decision in Berlin? Shall we wait for a decision that concerns us? Shall we ensure their safety? Pack them into catacombs! Throw them into the Black Sea! As far I am concerned, 100 may die, 1,000 may die, all of them may die\"",
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"plaintext": "Between 21–24 and 28–31 December 1941, Romanian gendarmes and Ukrainian auxiliaries killed about 70,000 Jews at the Bogdanovca camp; the massacre was Antonescu's way of dealing with a typhus epidemic that had broken out among the Jews of Transnistria owing to the poor living conditions that had been forced to endure. The last wave of Jewish deportations, occurring in June 1942, came mainly from the Cernăuți area in Northern Bukovina.",
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"plaintext": "Also in the summer of 1942, Ion Antonescu became a perpetrator of the Porajmos, or Holocaust-related crimes against the Romani people, when he ordered the Transnistrian deportation of Romanian Romani from the Old Kingdom, transited through camps and resettled in inhumane conditions near the Southern Bug. They were joined there by 2,000 conscientious objectors of the Inochentist church, a millennialist denomination. As Antonescu admitted during his trial, he personally supervised these operations, giving special orders to the Gendarmerie commanders. In theory, the measures taken against Romani people were supposed to affect only nomads and those with a criminal record created or updated recently, but arbitrary exceptions were immediately made to this rule, in particular by using the vague notion of \"undesirable\" to define some members of sedentary communities. The central authorities noted differences in the criteria applied locally, and intervened to prevent or sanction under-deportation and, in some cases, over-deportation. Antonescu and Constantin Vasiliu had been made aware of the problems Transnistria faced in feeding its own population, but ignored them when deciding in favour of expulsion. With most of their property confiscated, the Romani men, women and children were only allowed to carry hand luggage, on which they were supposed to survive winter. Famine and disease ensued from criminal negligence, Romani survival being largely dependent on occasional government handouts, the locals' charity, stealing and an underground economy. Once caught, escapees who made their way back into Romania were returned by the central authorities, even as local authorities were objecting.",
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"plaintext": "The Odessa massacre, an act of collective punishment carried out by the Romanian Army and Gendarmes, took the lives of a minimum of between 15,000 and 25,000 to as many as 40,000 or even more than 50,000 Jewish people of all ages. The measure came as the enforcement of Antonescu's own orders, as retaliation for an explosion that killed 67 people at Romanian headquarters on that city. Antonescu believed that the original explosion was a terrorist act, rejecting the possibility of the building in question having been fitted with land mines by the retreating Soviets. In addition, Antonescu blamed the Jews, specifically \"Jewish commissars\" in the Red Army, for the losses suffered by his 4th Army throughout the siege, although both an inquiry he had ordered and German assessments pointed to the ill-preparedness of Romanian soldiers. While the local command took the initiative for the first executions, Antonescu's personal intervention amplified the number of victims required, and included specific quotas (200 civilians for every dead officer, 100 for every dead soldier). By the time of the explosion, the Jewish population was already rounded up into makeshift ghettos, being made subject to violence and selective murders.",
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"plaintext": "Purportedly the largest single massacre of Jews in the war's history, it involved mass shootings, hangings, acts of immolation and a mass detonation. Antonescu is quoted saying that the Romanian Army's criminal acts were \"reprisals, not massacres\". Survivors were deported to the nearby settlement of Slobidka, and kept in inhumane conditions. Alexianu himself intervened with Antonescu for a solution to their problems, but the Romanian leader decided he wanted them out of the Odessa area, citing the nearby resistance of Soviet troops in the Siege of Sevastopol as a ferment for similar Jewish activities. His order to Alexianu specified: \"Pack them into the catacombs, throw them into the Black Sea, but get them out of Odessa. I don't want to know. A hundred can die, a thousand can die, all of them can die, but I don't want a single Romanian official or officer to die.\" Defining the presence of Jews in occupied Odessa as \"a crime\", Antonescu added: \"I don't want to stain my activity with such lack of foresight.\" As a result of this, around 35,000–40,000 Jewish people were deported out of Odessa area and into other sectors of Transnistria. Several thousands were purposefully driven into Berezivka and other areas inhabited by the Black Sea Germans, where Selbstschutz organizations massacred them.",
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"plaintext": "A common assessment ranks Antonescu's Romania as second only to Nazi Germany in its antisemitic extermination policies. According to separate works by historians Dennis Deletant and Adrian Cioroianu, the flaws of Antonescu's 1946 trial notwithstanding, his responsibility for war crimes was such that he would have been equally likely to be found guilty and executed in a Western Allied jurisdiction. The often singular brutality of Romanian-organized massacres was a special topic of reflection for Jewish Holocaust escapee and American political theorist Hannah Arendt, as discussed in her 1963 work Eichmann in Jerusalem. Official Romanian estimates made in 2003 by the Wiesel Commission mention that between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews were killed by Romanian authorities under Antonescu's rule. The Transnistria deportations account for 150,000 to 170,000 individual expulsions of Jews from Romania proper, of whom some 90,000–120,000 never returned. According to Romanian-born Israeli historian Jean Ancel, the Transnistria deportations from other areas account for around 145,000 deaths, while the number of local Transnistrian Jews killed could be as high as 280,000. More conservative estimates for the latter number mention some 130,000–180,000 victims. Other overall estimates speak of 200,000 to over 300,000 Jews purposefully killed as a result of Romania's action. According to historians Antony Polonsky and Joanna B. Michlic: \"none of these massacres was carried out by the Germans, although [the latter] certainly encouraged such actions and, in some cases, may have coordinated them.\" The Romani deportations affected some 25,000 people, at least 11,000 of whom died in Transnistria.",
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"plaintext": "The Jewish population in the Old Kingdom, numbering between 300,000 and 400,000 people, survived the Holocaust almost intact. Reflecting on this fact, Lucian Boia noted that Antonescu could not \"decently\" be viewed as a rescuer of Jews, but that there still is a fundamental difference between the effects of his rule and those of Hitler's, concluding that the overall picture is not \"completely dark.\" For Dennis Deletant, this situation is a \"major paradox\" of Antonescu's time in power: \"more Jews survived under [Antonescu's] rule than in any other country within Axis Europe.\" American historian of Romania William O. Oldson views Antonescu's policies as characterized by \"violence, inconsistency and inanity\", but places them in the wider context of local antisemitism, noting some ideological exceptions from their respective European counterparts. These traits, he argues, became \"providential\" for the more assimilated Jewish communities of the Old Romanian Kingdom, while exposing Jews perceived as foreign. Discussing Antonescu's policy of ethnic cleansing, Polonksy and Mihlic note: \"[it] raises important questions about the thin line between the desire to expel an unwanted minority and a small-scale genocidal project under sanctioned conditions.\" American military historian Gerhard L. Weinberg made reference to the Antonescu regime's \"slaughter of large number of Jews in the areas ceded to the Soviet Union in 1940 when those areas were retaken in 1941 as well as in [...] Transnistria\", but commented: \"the government of Marshal Ion Antonescu preferred to rob and persecute Jews [from Romania]; the government would not turn them over to the Germans for killing.\"",
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"plaintext": "Alongside the noticeable change in fortunes on the Eastern Front, a main motivator for all post-1943 changes, noted by various historians, was the manifold financial opportunity of Jewish survival. Wealthier Jews were financially extorted in order to avoid community work and deportation, and the work of some professionals was harnessed by the public sector, and even by the Army. From the beginning, the regime had excepted from deportations some Jews who were experts in fields such as forestry and chemistry, and some others were even allowed to return despite antisemitic protests in their home provinces. Economic exploitation was institutionalized in late 1941-early 1942, with the creation of a Central Jewish Office. Supervised by Commissioner Radu Lecca and formally led by the Jewish intellectuals Nandor Gingold and Henric Streitman, it collected funds which were in part redirected toward Maria Antonescu's charities. Small numbers of Romanian Jews left independently for the Palestine as early as 1941, but British opposition to Zionist plans made their transfer perilous (one notorious example of this being the MV Struma). On a personal level, Antonescu's encouragement of crimes alternated with periods when he gave in to the pleas of Jewish community leader Wilhelm Filderman. In one such instance, he reversed his own 1942 decision to impose the wearing of yellow badges, which nevertheless remained in use everywhere outside the Old Kingdom and, in theory, to any Romanian Jews elsewhere in Axis-controlled Europe. Assessing these contradictions, commentators also mention the effect of Allied promises to prosecute those responsible for genocide throughout Europe. In the late stages of the war, Antonescu was attempting to shift all blame for crimes from his regime while accusing Jews of \"bring[ing] destruction upon themselves\".",
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"plaintext": "The regime permitted non-deported Romanian Jews and American charities to send humanitarian aid into Transnistrian camps, a measure it took an interest in enforcing in late 1942. Deportations of Jews ceased altogether in October of the same year. A common explanation historians propose for this reassessment of policies is the change in Germany's fortunes on the Eastern Front, with mention that Antonescu was considering using the Jewish population as an asset in his dealings with the Western Allies. It nevertheless took the regime more than a year to allow more selective Jewish returns from Transnistria, including some 2,000 orphans. After Transnistria's 1944 evacuation, Antonescu himself advocated the creation of new camps in Bessarabia. In conversations with his cabinet, the Conducător angrily maintained that surviving Jews were better off than Romanian soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "The policies applied in respect to the Romani population were ambivalent: while ordering the deportation of those he considered criminals, Ion Antonescu was taking some interest in improving the lives of Romani laborers of the Bărăgan Plain. According to Romanian historian Viorel Achim, although it had claimed the existence of a \"Gypsy problem\", the Antonescu regime \"did not count it among its priorities.\" By 1943, Antonescu was gradually allowing those deported to return home. Initially, Constantin Vasiliu allowed the families of soldiers to appeal their deportation on a selective basis. Romanian authorities also appear to have been influenced by the objections of Nazi administrators in the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, who feared that the newly arrived population would outnumber local Germans. By January 1944, the central authorities ordered local ones not to send back apprehended fugitives, instructed them to provide these with some food and clothing, and suggested corporal punishment for Romani people who did not adhere to a behavioural code. As the Romanian administrators abandoned Transnistria, most survivors from the group returned on their own in summer 1944.",
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"plaintext": "Ion Antonescu and his subordinates were for long divided on the issue of the Final Solution, as applied in territories under direct Nazi control from 1941. At an early stage, German attempts to impose the RSHA's direct control over Old Kingdom Jews drew some objections from Mihai Antonescu, but the two sides agreed to a common policy with reference to Soviet Jews. In various of his early 1940s statements, Ion Antonescu favorably mentions the Axis goal of eliminating the Jewish presence in the event of victory. The unrestrained character of some Romanian actions toward Jews alarmed Nazi officials, who demanded a methodical form of extermination. When confronted with German decisions to push back Jews he had expelled before the occupation of Transnistria, Antonescu protested, arguing that he had conformed with Hitler's decisions regarding \"eastern Jews\". In August 1941, in preparation for the Final Solution's universal application, Hitler remarked: \"As for the Jewish question, today in any case one could say that a man like Antonescu, for example, proceeds much more radically in this manner than we have done until now. But I will not rest or be idle until we too have gone all the way with the Jews.\"",
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"plaintext": "By summer 1942, German representatives in Romania obtained Antonescu's approval to deport the remaining Jewish population to extermination camps in occupied Poland. Among those involved on the German side were mass murderer Adolf Eichmann and his aide Gustav Richter, while the Romanian side was represented by Jewish Affairs Commissioner Lecca (reporting to Antonescu himself). Richter directed Lecca in setting up the Central Jewish Office, which he assumed would function as a Judenrat to streamline extermination policies. According to such plans, only some 17,000 Jews, labeled useful to Romania's economy, were to be exempt. The transports had already been announced to the Romanian Railways by autumn 1942, but the government eventually decided to postpone these measures indefinitely as was done with most other deportations to Transnistria. Antonescu's new orders on the matter were brought up in his conversations with Hitler at Schloss Klessheim, where both leaders show themselves aware of the fate awaiting Jewish deportees to Poland. By then, German authorities charged with applying the Final Solution in Eastern Europe completely abandoned their plans with respect to Romania. In August 1942, Antonescu had worked out plans with the SS for deporting all of the Jews of the Regat or the \"Old Kingdom\" to the German-run death camps in Poland, but then cancelled the deportation. The principal reasons for his change of mind were signs of disapproval from court circles, a warning from the American government passed on by the Swiss ambassador that he would prosecuted for war crimes and crimes against humanity after the Allies had won if the deportation went ahead, and most importantly because Hitler would not undo the Second Vienna Award and return northern Transylvania to Romania. Antonescu saw the deportation of the Jews of the Regat as the pro quid quo for the return of Transylvania and unable to obtain satisfactory promises from the German Ambassador Baron Manfred von Killinger that Romania would be rewarded with the return of Transylvania in exchange for handing over its Jews, Antonescu cancelled the deportation until the Germans would make him a better offer.",
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"plaintext": "According to Oldson, by the final stage of the war Romania rejected \"all extreme measures against Jews who could not be proven to be communists.\" The planned transports to Palestine, the prospect of which irritated Nazi German observers, implied a hope that the Allies' focus would shift away from the regime's previous guilt and, at the same time, looked forward to payments to be made in exchange for each person saved. The contrary implications of Romanian nationalism, manifested as reluctance to obey German commands and discomfort with drastic change in general, are occasionally offered as further explanations of the phenomenon. While reflecting upon the issue of emigration to Palestine, Antonescu also yielded to pleas of Jewish community leaders, and allowed safe passage through Romania for various Northern Transylvanian Jews fleeing the Holocaust in Hungary. He was doing the same for certain Northern Transylvanian Romani communities who had escaped southwards. In that context, Nazi German ideologues began objecting to Antonescu's supposed leniency. Antonescu nevertheless alternated tolerance of illegal immigration with drastic measures. In early 1944, he issued an order to shoot illegal immigrants, which was probably never enforced by the Border Police (who occasionally turned in Jewish refugees to the German authorities). The Antonescu regime allowed the extermination of the Romanian Jewish diaspora in other parts of Europe, formally opposing their deportation in some cases where it appeared Germany was impinging upon Romania's sovereignty.",
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"plaintext": "The circumstances of wartime accounted for cautious and ambivalent approaches to Antonescu's rule from among the Romanian political mainstream, which grouped advocates of liberal democracy and anti-fascism. According to Gledhill and King: \"Romanian liberals had been critical of their government's warm relationship with Hitler, which had been developing throughout the 1930s, but the [1940] Soviet attack on Romanian territory left them with little chance but to support Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union.\" Other authors also cite the Greater Romanian agenda of the Antonescu executive as a reason behind the widespread acquiescence. The tendency was illustrated by Dinu Brătianu, who, in late January 1941, told his National Liberal colleagues that the new \"government of generals\" was \"the best solution possible to the current crisis\", urging the group to provide Antonescu with \"all the support we can give him.\" An early point of contention between Antonescu and the National Peasants' Party came in spring 1941, when Antonescu's support for the Balkans Campaign and Romania's claim to parts of Vojvodina were met with a letter of protest from Iuliu Maniu, which Antonescu dismissed. Maniu and Brătianu also issued several condemnations of Antonescu's decision to continue the war beyond the Dniester. One such letter, signed by both, claimed that, while earlier steps had been \"legitimized by the entire soul of the nation, the Romanian people will never consent to the continuation of the struggle beyond our national borders.\" Maniu specifically mentioned the possibility of Allied victory, accused Antonescu of diverting attention from the goal of Greater Romania (Northern Transylvania included), and stressed that Romania's ongoing participation in the Axis was \"troubling enough\".",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu is known to have publicly admonished opposition leaders for their disobedience, which he equated with obstruction, and to have monitored their activities through the Special Intelligence Service. However, some early communiqués he addressed to Brătianu also feature offers of resignation, which their recipient reluctantly rejected. The Germans objected to such ambiguities, and Hitler once advised Antonescu to have Maniu killed, an option which the Conducător rejected because of the PNȚ leader's popularity with the peasants. While tolerating contacts between Maniu and the Allies, Antonescu arrested the clandestine British envoys to Romania, thus putting a stop to the 1943 Operation Autonomous. In parallel, his relationship with Queen Mother Helen and Michael rapidly deteriorated after he began advising the royal family on how to conduct its affairs. Dissent from Antonescu's policies sometimes came from inside his own camp. Both the officer corps and the General Staff were divided on the issue of war beyond the Dniester, although it is possible that the majority agreed it would bring Northern Transylvania back to Romania. A prominent case was that of Iosif Iacobici, the Chief of the Romanian General Staff, whose objection to the massive transfer of Romanian troops to the Eastern Front resulted in his demotion and replacement with Ilie Șteflea (January 1942). Șteflea issued similar calls, and Antonescu's eventually agreed to preserve a home army just before the Battle of Stalingrad. Various other military men extended their protection to persecuted Jews. Overall, Antonescu met significant challenges in exercising control over the politicized sectors in the armed forces.",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu's racial discrimination laws and Romania's participation in the Holocaust earned significant objections from various individuals and groups in Romanian society. One noted opponent was Queen Mother Helen, who actively intervened to save Jews from being deported. The Mayor of Cernăuți, Traian Popovici, publicly objected to the deportation of Jews, as did Gherman Pântea, his counterpart in Odessa. The appeals of Queen Helen, King Michael, the Orthodox Metropolitan of Transylvania Nicolae Bălan, Apostolic Nuncio Andrea Cassulo and Swiss Ambassador René de Weck are credited with having helped avert the full application of the Final Solution in Antonescu's Romania. Cassulo and Bălan together pleaded for the fate of certain Jews, including all who had converted to Christianity, and the former publicly protested against deportations. While Romania and the United States were still at peace, American Minister Plenipotentiary Franklin Mott Gunther repeatedly attempted to make his superiors aware of Romanian actions against the Jews, and Turkish diplomats unsuccessfully sought American approval for transferring Romanian Jews to safe passage through Anatolia and into Palestine. Dinu Brătianu also condemned antisemitic measures, prompting Antonescu to accuse him of being an ally of \"the Yid in London\". Together with Maniu and Ion Mihalache, Brătianu signed statements condemning the isolation, persecution and expulsion of Jews, which prompted Antonescu to threaten to clamp down on them. However, both parties were occasionally ambiguous on racial issues, and themselves produced antisemitic messages. Brătianu is also known for publicly defending the cause of Romani people, opposing their deportation on grounds that it would \"turn back the clock on several centuries of history\", a stance which drew support from his civilian peers. In parallel, some regular Romanians such as nurse Viorica Agarici intervened to save Jewish lives, while, from inside the Jewish community, Chief Rabbi Alexandru Șafran and activist Mișu Benvenisti rallied with Wilhelm Filderman in public protests against Antonescu's decisions, being occasionally joined by A. L. Zissu. In 1943, Filderman himself was deported to Mohyliv-Podilskyi, but eventually allowed to return.",
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"plaintext": "Organized resistance movements in Antonescu's Romania were comparatively small-scale and marginal. In addition to a Zionist underground which aided Jews to pass through or flee the country, the regime was confronted with local political movements of contrasting shades. One of them comprised far left and left-wing elements, which Antonescu's rise to power had caught in an unusual position. The minor Romanian Communist Party, outlawed since the rule of Ferdinand I for its Cominternist national policies, had been rendered virtually inactive by the German-Soviet non-aggression pact. Once reanimated by Operation Barbarossa, the PCR was unable to create an actual armed resistance movement, although it was able to coordinate the policies of several other small leftist groups. Speaking shortly before the invasion of the Soviet Union, and adopting the \"Jewish Bolshevism\" position, Antonescu ordered authorities to compile lists comprising \"the names of all Jewish and communist agents\", who were to be kept under close surveillance. Among people arrested on suspicion of communism, Jews were sent to Transnistrian sites such as Vapniarka and Rîbnița, while others were interned in regular facilities such as those in Caransebeș and Târgu Jiu. In all, some 2,000 Jewish Romanian deportees to the region had been accused of political crimes (the category also included those who had tried to escape forced labor). According to one estimate, people held on charges of being communists accounted for just under 2,000 people, of whom some 1,200 were jailed in Romania proper. Capital punishment was used against various partisan-like activists, while the vast majority of communist prisoners in Rîbnița were massacred in March 1944. At the other end of the political spectrum, after the Legionary Rebellion and the Iron Guard's decapitation, many Legionaries who opposed the regime, and whom Antonescu himself believed were \"communists in [Legionary] green shirts\", were killed or imprisoned. An Iron Guardist underground was nevertheless formed locally, and probably numbered in thousands. Some of Antonescu's political prisoners from both camps were given a chance to redeem themselves by joining units on the Eastern Front.",
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"plaintext": "Although repressed, divided and weak, the PCR capitalized on the Soviet victories, being integrated into the mainstream opposition. At the same time, a \"prison faction\" emerged around Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, opposing both the formal leadership and the so-called \"Muscovite\" communists who had taken refuge in the Soviet Union before the war. While maneuvering for control within the PCR during and after 1944, \"prison\" communists destroyed a third group, formed around the PCR's nominal leader Ștefan Foriș (whom they kidnapped and eventually killed). The PCR leadership was still suffering from a crisis of legitimacy after beginning talks with the larger parties. The Soviets and \"Muscovite\" communists campaigned among Romanian prisoners of war in order to have them switch sides in the war, and eventually managed to set up the Tudor Vladimirescu Division.",
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"plaintext": "Measures enforced by the Ion Antonescu regime had contradictory effects on the Romanian cultural scene. According to Romanian literary historians Letiția Guran and Alexandru Ștefan, \"the Antonescu regime [...] did not affect negatively cultural modernity. The Romanian cultural elite regarded Antonescu's policies for the most part with sympathy.\" Nevertheless, other researchers record the dissent of several cultural environments: the classic liberalism and cosmopolitanism of aging literary theorist Eugen Lovinescu, the \"Lovinescian\" Sibiu Literary Circle, and the rebellious counterculture of young avant-garde writers (Ion Caraion, Geo Dumitrescu, Dimitrie Stelaru, Constant Tonegaru). Prominent left-wing writers Tudor Arghezi, Victor Eftimiu and Zaharia Stancu were political prisoners during the Antonescu years. Author George Călinescu also stood out against the official guidelines, and, in 1941, took a risk by publishing a synthesis of Romanian literature which emphasized Jewish contributions, while composer George Enescu pleaded with Antonescu personally for the fate of Romani musicians. Similar acts of solidarity were performed by various prominent intellectuals and artists. In August 1942, King Michael received a manifesto endorsed by intellectuals from various fields, deploring the murders in Transnistria, and calling for a realignment of policies. Another such document of April 1944 called for an immediate peace with the Soviet Union. On a more intimate level, a diary kept by philosopher and art critic Alice Voinescu expresses her indignation over the antisemitic measures and massacres.",
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"plaintext": "A special aspect of political repression and cultural hegemony was Antonescu's persecution of Evangelical or Restorationist Christian denominations, first outlawed under the National Legionary regime. Several thousand adherents of the Pentecostal Union and the Baptist Union were reportedly jailed in compliance with his orders. Persecution targeted groups of religiously motivated conscientious objectors. In addition to the Inochentist movement, these groups included the Pentecostal Union, the Seventh-day Adventist Conference and the Jehovah's Witnesses Association. Antonescu himself recounted having contemplated using the death penalty against \"sects\" who would not allow military service, and ultimately deciding in favor of deporting \"recalcitrant\" ones.",
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"plaintext": "The period following Antonescu's fall returned Romania to a democratic regime and the 1923 Constitution, as well as its participation in the war alongside the Allies. However, it also saw the early stages of a communist takeover—which culminated with King Michael's forced abdication on 30 December 1947 and the subsequent establishment of Communist Romania. The Antonescu trial thus fit into a long series of similar procedures and political purges on charges of collaborationism, instrumented by the Romanian People's Tribunals and various other institutions. During the rigged general election of 1946 and for years after Ion Antonescu's execution, the Romanian Communist Party and its allies began using the implications of his trial as an abusive means of compromising some of their political opponents. One such early example was Iuliu Maniu, by then one of the country's prominent anti-communists, who was accused of being a fascist and an Antonescu sympathizer, mainly for having shaken his hand during the trial. The enlistment of ethnic Germans into Nazi German units, as approved by Antonescu, was used as a pretext for a Soviet-led expulsion of Germans from Romania. On similar grounds, the Soviet occupation forces organized the capture of certain Romanian citizens, as well as the return of war refugees from Romania proper into Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Both the arrestees and the returnees were often deported deeper into the Soviet Union. As part of its deteriorating relationship with Romanian Roman Catholics, and urged on by the Soviets, the communist cabinet of Petru Groza also deemed Apostolic Nuncio Andrea Cassulo a collaborator of Antonescu and a persona non grata, based on transcripts of the Cassulo-Antonescu conversations. It also used such allegations to pressure several Greek-Catholic clergymen into accepting union with the Romanian Orthodox Church.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, Romanian-born Holocaust historian Radu Ioanid notes, few Romanians involved in organizing the Holocaust were prosecuted, and, of those, none were executed after the Antonescu trial. He attributes this to nationalist resistance within the administrative and judicial apparatus, to communist fears of alienating a too large number of people, to the emigration of Zionist survivors, and to the open hostility of some communists toward liberal Jewish community leaders. Jews also faced conflict with the new authorities and with the majority population, as described by other researchers. There were, nonetheless, sporadic trials for Holocaust-related crimes, including one of Maria Antonescu. Arrested in September 1944 and held 1945–1946 in Soviet custody, she was re-arrested at home in 1950, tried and ultimately found guilty of economic crimes for her collaboration with the Central Jewish Office. Five years later, she was sent into internal exile, and died of heart problems in 1964. After 1950, a large number of convicted war criminals, even some sentenced to life imprisonment, were deemed fit for \"social cohabitation\" (that is, fit to live amongst the general population) and released, while some suspects were never prosecuted.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Marxist analytical works of the increasingly marginalized communist figure Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu make isolated mentions of the Holocaust, the heavily politicized official discourse inspired by Soviet historiography interpreted Romania's wartime evolution exclusively based on the Marxist-Leninist idea of class conflict. In this context, the main effort to document and expose the Antonescu-era massacres came from Jewish Romanians. This began in 1945, when Jewish journalists Marius Mircu and Maier Rudrich contributed first-hand testimonies. In 1946–1948, the Jewish community leader Matatias Carp published Cartea neagră (\"The Black Book\"), a voluminous and detailed account of all stages of the Holocaust. After forming a secondary element in Antonescu's indictment, the deportation of Romani people was largely ignored in official discourse.",
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"plaintext": "The communist regime overemphasized the part played by the PCR in King Michael's Coup, while commemorating its 23 August date as a national holiday. The Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej faction emerged as the winner of the interior PCR struggles and incorporated nationalist discourse. That faction claimed a decisive role in toppling Antonescu, even though a majority of its members had been jailed for most of the period. In accordance with Stalinist principles, censorship produced historical revisionism that excluded focus on such negative aspects of Romanian behavior during the war as antisemitism and the Holocaust, and obscured Romania's participation on the Eastern Front. Beginning in the mid-1960s, when Nicolae Ceaușescu took power and embarked on a national communist course, the celebration of 23 August as the inception of the communist regime was accompanied by a contradictory tendency, which implied a gradual rehabilitation of Antonescu and his regime. Historians who focused on this period believe that the revival of nationalist tenets and the relative distance taken from Soviet policies contributed to the rehabilitation process. After a period of liberalization, the increasingly authoritarian Ceaușescu regime revived the established patterns of personalized rule, and even made informal use of the title Conducător. Beginning in the early 1970s, when the new policies were consecrated by the July Theses, Ceaușescu tolerated a nationalist, antisemitic and Holocaust denialist intellectual faction, illustrated foremost by Săptămîna and Luceafărul magazines of Eugen Barbu and Corneliu Vadim Tudor, by poet Adrian Păunescu and his Flacăra journal, and by novelist Ion Lăncrănjan. The regime also came to cultivate a relationship with exiled tycoon Iosif Constantin Drăgan, a former Iron Guard member who had come to endorse both Antonescu's rehabilitation and the national communist version of protochronism. In contrast, much of dissident culture and the Romanian diaspora embraced the image of Michael I as its counterpart to the increasingly official Antonescu myth. Lucian Boia described this as \"the spectacular confrontation between the two contradictory myths [transposing] into historical and mythological terms a fundamental fissure which divides the Romanian society of today.\"",
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"plaintext": "Topics relating to the Holocaust in Romania were distorted during the communist era. Ceaușescu himself mentioned the number of survivors of the deportations (some 50,000 people) as a total number of victims, failed to mention the victims' ethnic background, and presented most of them as \"communists and antifascists.\" The regime also placed emphasis on the Holocaust in Northern Transylvania (where the Final Solution had been applied by the Germans and the local Arrow Cross Party). Vladimir Tismăneanu has said Antonescu has a \"pseudo-sacred aura\" and many Romanians consider the attempts to diminsh this to be an affront to their national dignity: \"In post-Communist societies, fantasies of persecution offer immense gratification to large strata of frustrated individuals\". These national views are based on propaganda advanced during the Ceaușescu regime.",
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"plaintext": "Earlier accounts of the massacres, which had already been placed under restricted use, were completely removed from public libraries. While a special politicized literature dealt with the Holocaust in Hungary, the entire Ceaușescu period produced only one work entirely dedicated to Romania's participation. Centred on the Iași pogrom, it shifted the blame from Romanian authorities and advanced a drastically reduced death toll. In its preface, official historian Nicolae Minei claimed that Romania was not responsible for any deaths among Jews. Other official texts made more radical claims, openly denying that Antonescu's regime was antisemitic, and that all those killed were victims of Germany or of circumstance.",
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"plaintext": "Romanians' image of Antonescu shifted several times after the 1989 Revolution toppled communism. Polls carried out in the 1990s show the Conducător was well liked by portions of the general public. This tendency, Lucian Boia argues, was similar to a parallel trend favoring Wallachia's 15th century Prince Vlad III the Impaler, indicating a preference for \"authoritarian solutions\" and reflecting \"a pantheon that was largely set in place in the 'Ceaușescu era' \". It was also popular at the time to see the 1944 Coup exclusively as the onset of communization in Romania, while certain sections of the public opinion revived the notion of \"Jewish Bolshevism\", accusing Jews of having brought communism to Romania. British historian Tony Judt connected such reflexes to growing anti-Russian sentiment and Holocaust denial in various countries of the former Eastern Bloc, and termed them collectively \"mis-memory of anti-communism\". Vladimir Tismăneanu, a prominent Romanian-born political scientist, referred to Antonescu's \"pseudo-sacred\" image with the post-1989 public, and to the phenomenon as \"fantasies of persecution.\" The wartime dictator's image appealed to many politicians of the post-1989 period, and sporadic calls for his rehabilitation were issued at the highest levels of authority. Far right groups issued calls for his canonization by the Romanian Orthodox Church (together with a similar request to canonize Corneliu Zelea Codreanu). Certain neofascist groups claim to represent a legacy of Codrenism from which Sima was a deviationist, and these have also become Antonescu apologists.",
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"plaintext": "A particular case in this process was that of forces gathered around the Greater Romania Party, a group often characterized as merging xenophobic or neofascist messages and the legacy of Ceaușescu's national communism. Founded by party leader and former Săptămîna contributor Corneliu Vadim Tudor, România Mare magazine is known to have equated Antonescu and Ceaușescu, presenting them both as \"apostles of the Romanian people\". In his bid for the office of President during the 1996 election, Vadim Tudor vowed to be a new Antonescu. Boia remarks that this meeting of extremes offers an \"extraordinary paradox\". Drăgan also openly resumed his activities in Romania, often in collaboration with Vadim Tudor's group, founding three organizations tasked with campaigning for Antonescu's rehabilitation: the media outlet Europa Nova, the Ion Antonescu Foundation and the Ion Antonescu League. His colleague Radu Theodoru endorsed such projects while accusing Jews of being \"a long-term noxious factor\" and claiming that it was actually ethnic Romanians who were victims of a communist Holocaust. Ion Coja and Paul Goma notably produced radical claims relying on fabricated evidence and deflecting blame for the crimes onto the Jews themselves. Several journals edited by Ion Cristoiu repeatedly argued in favor of Antonescu's rehabilitation, also making xenophobic claims; similar views were sporadically present in national dailies of various hues, such as Ziua, România Liberă and Adevărul.",
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"plaintext": "Various researchers argue that the overall tendency to exculpate Antonescu was endorsed by the ruling National Salvation Front (FSN) and its successor group, later known as Social Democratic Party, who complemented an emerging pro-authoritarian lobby while depicting their common opponent King Michael and his supporters as traitors. Similar attempts to deny the role of Antonescu in the Holocaust were also made by the main opposition parties, the Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party and the National Liberal Party, with Radu Câmpeanu, the latter party's president, publicly describing the wartime leader as a \"great Romanian\" who tried to defend the Jews. Sections of both governing and opposition groups contemplated the idea of rehabilitating the wartime leader, and, in May 1991, Parliament observed a moment of silence in his memory. The perceived governmental tolerance of Antonescu's rehabilitation raised international concern and protests. While the FSN-supported Romanian President Ion Iliescu publicly opposed attempts to rehabilitate Antonescu and acknowledged the \"crimes he committed against the Jews\", it was his successor, Emil Constantinescu, a representative of the Democratic Convention, who in 1997 became the first Romanian officeholder to recognize the collective responsibility of Romanian authorities. Nevertheless, during the same period, Attorney General Sorin Moisescu followed a since-deprecated special appeal procedure to overturn sentences passed against Antonescu and other 1946 defendants, which he eventually withdrew.",
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"plaintext": "To a certain degree, such pro-Antonescu sentiments were also present in post-1989 historiography. Reflecting back on this phenomenon in 2004, Maria Bucur wrote: \"the perverse image of Antonescu is not the product of a propaganda campaign led by right-wing extremists, but a pervasive myth fed by historical debates and political contests, and which the public seems indifferent to or accepts unproblematically.\" After the Revolution, archival sources concerning Antonescu, including those in the National Archives of Romania, were made more available to researchers, but documents confiscated or compiled by Soviet officials, kept in Russia, remained largely inaccessible. Although confronted with more evidence from the newly opened archives, several historians, including some employed by official institutions, continued to deny the Holocaust in Romania, and attributed the death toll exclusively to German units. In parallel, some continued an exclusive focus on Northern Transylvanian massacres. Local authors who have actively promoted Antonescu's image as a hero and wrote apologetic accounts of his politics include historians Gheorghe Buzatu and Mihai Pelin, and researcher Alex Mihai Stoenescu. Larry L. Watts published a similarly controversial monograph in the United States. Although criticized for denying the uniqueness of the Holocaust and downplaying Antonescu's complicity, Dinu C. Giurescu was recognized as the first post-communist Romanian historian to openly acknowledge his country's participation, while his colleagues Șerban Papacostea and Andrei Pippidi were noted as early critics of attempts to exculpate Antonescu. The matter of crimes in Transnistria and elsewhere was first included within the Romanian curriculum with a 1999 state-approved alternative textbook edited by Sorin Mitu.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, after a period in which his own equivocal stance on the matter had drawn controversy, Constantinescu's successor Ion Iliescu established the Wiesel Commission, an international group of expert historians whose mission was the study of the Holocaust in Romania, later succeeded by the Elie Wiesel National Institute. The Final Report compiled by the Commission brought the official recognition of Ion Antonescu's participation in the Holocaust. After that moment, public displays of support for Antonescu became illegal. Antonescu's SMERSH interrogations were recovered from the Russian archives and published in 2006. Despite the renewed condemnation and exposure, Antonescu remained a popular figure: as a result of the 2006 Mari Români series of polls conducted by the national station TVR 1, viewers nominated Antonescu as the 6th greatest Romanian ever. The vote's knockout phase included televised profiles of the ten most popular figures, and saw historian Adrian Cioroianu using the portion dedicated to Antonescu to expose and condemn him, giving voters reasons not to see the dictator as a great Romanian. The approach resulted in notable controversy after Ziua newspaper criticized Cioroianu, who defended himself by stating he had an obligation to tell the truth.",
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"plaintext": "The same year, on 5 December, the Bucharest Court of Appeals overturned Antonescu's conviction for certain crimes against peace, on the grounds that the objective conditions of 1940 justified a preventive war against the Soviet Union, which would make Article 3 of the 1933 Convention for the Definition of Aggression inapplicable in his case (as well as in those of Alexianu, Constantin Pantazi, Constantin Vasiliu, Sima and various Iron Guard politicians). This act raised official protests in Moldova, the independent state formed in Bessarabia upon the breakup of the Soviet Union, and in Russia, the Soviet successor state, as well as criticism by historians of the Holocaust. The Court of Appeals decision was overturned by the Romanian Supreme Court in May 2008. The same year, Maria Antonescu's collateral inheritors advanced a claim on a Predeal villa belonging to the couple, but a Brașov tribunal rejected their request, citing laws which confiscated the property of war criminals.",
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"plaintext": "Beyond their propaganda and censorship efforts, Antonescu and his regime had a sizable impact on Romanian culture, art and literature. Owing to austere guidelines on culture and to the circumstances of wartime, this period's direct imprint is less than that of other periods in the country's history. Few large heroes' memorials were built during the war years. Memorials produced at the time were mainly roadside triptychs (troițe). The Heroes' Cult organization received expropriation rights to Bucharest's Jewish cemetery in 1942, and proposed to replace it with a major monument of this category, but that plan was eventually abandoned. Antonescu and his wife preferred donating to Orthodox churches, and were ktitors of churches in three separate Bucharest areas: Mărgeanului Church in Rahova, one in Dămăroaia, and the Saints Constantine and Helena Church in Muncii, where both the Marshal and his wife are depicted in a mural. After floods took a toll on his native Argeș County, the Marshal himself established Antonești, a model village in Corbeni (partly built by Ukrainian prisoners of war, and later passed into state property), while ordering hydroelectric exploitation of the Argeș River. He also had sporadic contacts with the artistic and literary environment, including an interview he awarded to his supporter, writer Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești. His 1946 trial was notably attended and documented by George Călinescu in a series of articles for Națiunea journal. Political humor of the 1940s preserved distinct images of the Romanian leader. Romanian jokes circulated under Antonescu's rule ridiculed his adoption of the title Marshal of Romania, viewing it as a self-promotion and dubbing him the \"Auto-Marshal\". During the war, Soviet agitprop portrayed Antonescu and the other secondary Axis leaders as villains and servile dog-like creatures, representations notably present in musical theater and puppetry shows, as well as in press cartoons.",
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"plaintext": "Marin Preda's 1975 novel Delirul displays the Ceaușescu regime's ambiguous relationship with Antonescu. Critics John Neubauer and Marcel Cornis-Pope remark that the novel is \"admittedly not [Preda's] best work\", and discuss his \"complex representation\" of Antonescu as \"an essentially flawed but active leader who tried to negotiate some maneuvering room between the demands of Germany and the threats of the Soviet Union [and whose failure] led to the dismantling of Romania's fragile democratic system.\" The book sought Antonescu's rehabilitation for his attitudes on the Bessarabia-Northern Bukovina issue, but did not include any mention of his antisemitic policies, of which Preda himself may have been ignorant. An international scandal followed, once negative comments on the book were published by the Soviet magazine Literaturnaya Gazeta. Although an outspoken nationalist, Eugen Barbu produced a satirical image of Antonescu in his own 1975 novel, Incognito, which was described by Deletant as \"character assassination\".",
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"plaintext": "During the 1990s, monuments to Antonescu were raised and streets were named after him in Bucharest and several other cities. Among those directly involved in this process were Iosif Constantin Drăgan, the nationalist Mayor of Cluj-Napoca, Gheorghe Funar, and General Mircea Chelaru, whose resignation from the Army was subsequently requested and obtained. Also during that interval, in 1993, filmmaker and Social Democratic politician Sergiu Nicolaescu produced Oglinda, which depicts Antonescu (played by Ion Siminie) apologetically. The rehabilitation trend was also represented at an October 1994 commemorative exhibit at the National Military Museum. The same year, a denialist documentary film, Destinul mareșalului (\"The Marshal's Destiny\"), was distributed by state-owned companies, a matter which raised concern. After the Wiesel Commission presented its findings and such public endorsement was outlawed, statues in Antonescu's likeness were torn down or otherwise made unavailable for public viewing. An unusual case is that of his Saints Constantine and Helena Church, where, after lengthy debates, his bust was sealed inside a metal box. Outside of this context, the publicized display of Antonescu's portraits and racist slogans by football hooligans during Liga I's 2005–2006 season prompted UEFA intervention (see Racism Breaks the Game). As of 2019, Romania has nine streets named after Antonescu; locations include Constanța, Râmnicu Sărat and Bechet.",
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"plaintext": "Antonescu received a number of awards and decorations throughout his military career, most notable being the Order of Michael the Brave, which was personally awarded to him by King Ferdinand I during the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919. He also received several decorations from foreign countries. He was the first Romanian to receive the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, being awarded it by Hitler himself.",
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"plaintext": "Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, Polirom, Iași, 2004. ",
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"plaintext": "Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, Central European University Press, Budapest, 2004. ",
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"plaintext": "Jean Ancel,",
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"plaintext": "Preludiu la asasinat. Pogromul de la Iași, 29 iunie 1941, Polirom, Iași, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": "\" 'The New Jewish Invasion' – The Return of the Survivors in Transnistria\", in David Bankier (ed.), The Jews are Coming Back: The Return of the Jews to Their Countries of Origin after WWII, Berghahn Books, Providence, 2005, pp.231–256. ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "Lucian Boia, Istorie și mit în conștiința românească, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1997. ",
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"plaintext": "Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 2004. ",
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"plaintext": "Maria Bucur,",
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"plaintext": "\"Edifices of the Past: War Memorials and Heroes in Twentieth-century Romania\", in Maria Todorova (ed.), Balkan Identities: Nation and Memory, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, London, 2004, pp.158–179. ",
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"plaintext": "\"Women's Stories as Sites of Memory: Gender and Remembering Romania's World Wars\", in Nancy M. Wingfield, Maria Bucur (eds.), Gender & War in Twentieth-century Eastern Europe, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 2006, pp.171–192",
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"plaintext": "Christopher Chant, The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II, Routledge & Kegan Paul Books Ltd., London, 1987. ",
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"plaintext": "Adrian Cioroianu, , Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": "Marcel Cornis-Pope, John Neubauer (eds.), History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe, John Benjamins, Amsterdam & Philadelphia, 2004. ; see:",
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"plaintext": "Letiția Guran, Alexandru Ștefan, \"Romanian Literature under Stalinism\", pp.112–124",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "John Neubauer et al., \"1945\", pp.143–177",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Dennis Deletant, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania, 1940–1944, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006. ",
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"plaintext": " Deletant, Dennis. \"Romania\" in The Oxford Companion to World War II edited by I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot (2001) pp 954–959.",
"section_idx": 8,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Stanislaw Frankowski, \"Post-Communist Europe\", in Peter Hodgkinson, Andrew Rutherford (eds.), Capital Punishment: Global Issues and Prospects, Waterside Press, Winchester, 1996, pp.215–242. ",
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"section_name": "References and further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Aleksander Gella, Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1989. ",
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"plaintext": "Juliana Geran Pilon, The Bloody Flag. Post-Communist Nationalism in Eastern Europe. Spotlight on Romania (Studies in Social Philosophy & Policy No. 16), Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick & London, 1992. ",
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"plaintext": " Giurescu, Dinu C. Romania in the Second World War: 1939–1945 (East European Monographs, 2000).",
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},
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"plaintext": "Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, Routledge, London, 1993. ",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": "Arnold D. Harvey, Collision of Empires: Britain in Three World Wars, 1793–1945, Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 1992. ",
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"plaintext": "Monty Noam Penkower, The Jews Were Expendable: Free World Diplomacy and the Holocaust, Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1988. ",
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"plaintext": "Antony Polonsky, Joanna B. Michlic, introduction to The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2004, pp.1–43. ",
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"plaintext": "Sabrina P. Ramet, \"The Way We Were—And Should Be Again? European Orthodox Churches and the 'Idyllic Past' \", in Timothy A. Byrnes, Peter J. Katzenstein (eds.), Religion in an Expanding Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006. ",
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"plaintext": "Michael Shafir, \"The Mind of Romania's Radical Right\", in Sabrina P. Ramet (ed.), The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989, Penn State University Press, University Park, 1999, pp.213–232. ",
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"plaintext": " Thomas, Martin. \"To arm an ally: French arms sales to Romania, 1926–1940.\" Journal of Strategic Studies 19.2 (1996): 231–259.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Ottmar Trașcă, \"Ocuparea orașului Odessa de căre armata română și măsurile adoptate față de populația evreiască\" , in the Romanian Academy George Bariț Institute of History's Historica Yearbook 2008, pp.377–425",
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"plaintext": "Francisco Veiga, Istoria Gărzii de Fier, 1919–1941: Mistica ultranaționalismului, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993. ",
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"plaintext": "Petru Weber, \"Die Wahrnehmung des »Domestic Holocaust« im Rumänien der Nachkriegsjahre\", in Regina Fritz, Carola Sachse, Edgar Wolfrum (eds.), Nationen und ihre Selbstbilder. Postdiktatorische Gesellschaften in Europa, Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen, 2008, pp.150–167. ",
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|
37,262 | 1,093,272,796 | Jørn_Utzon | [
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"plaintext": "Jørn Oberg Utzon, , Hon. FAIA (; 9 April 191829 November 2008) was a Danish architect. He was most notable for designing the Sydney Opera House in Australia, completed in 1973. When it was declared a World Heritage Site on 28 June 2007, Utzon became only the second person to have received such recognition for one of his works during his lifetime, after Oscar Niemeyer. Other noteworthy works include Bagsværd Church near Copenhagen and the National Assembly Building in Kuwait. He also made important contributions to housing design, especially with his Kingo Houses near Helsingør.",
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"plaintext": "Utzon was born in Copenhagen, the son of a naval architect, and grew up in Aalborg, Denmark, where he became interested in ships and a possible naval career. As a result of his family's interest in art, from 1937 he attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where he studied under Kay Fisker and Steen Eiler Rasmussen. Following his graduation in 1942, he joined Gunnar Asplund in Stockholm where he worked together with Arne Jacobsen and Poul Henningsen. He took a particular interest in the works of American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1946 he visited Alvar Aalto in Helsinki. In 1947–48 he travelled in Europe, in 1948 he went to Morocco where he was taken by the tall clay buildings. In 1949, he travelled to the United States and Mexico, where the pyramids provided further inspiration. Fascinated by the way the Mayans built towards the sky to get closer to God, he commented that his time in Mexico was \"One of the greatest architectural experiences in my life.\"",
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"plaintext": "In America, he visited Frank Lloyd Wright's home, Taliesin West, in the Arizona desert and met Charles and Ray Eames. In 1950 he established his own studio in Copenhagen and, in 1952, built an open-plan house for himself, the first of its kind in Denmark. In 1957, he travelled first to China (where he was particularly interested in the Chinese desire for harmony), Japan (where he learnt much about the interaction between interiors and exteriors) and India, before arriving in Australia in 1957 where he stayed until 1966. All this contributed to Utzon's understanding of factors which contribute to successful architectural design.",
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"plaintext": "Utzon had a Nordic sense of concern for nature which, in his design, emphasized the synthesis of form, material and function for social values. His fascination with the architectural legacies of the ancient Mayas, the Islamic world, China, and Japan also informed his practice . This developed into what Utzon later referred to as Additive Architecture, comparing his approach to the growth patterns of nature.",
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"plaintext": "A design can grow like a tree, he explained: \"If it grows naturally, the architecture will look after itself.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1957, Utzon unexpectedly won the competition to design the Sydney Opera House. His submission was one of 233 designs from 32 countries, many of them from the most famous architects of the time. Although he had won six other architectural competitions previously, the Opera House was his first non-domestic project. One of the judges, Eero Saarinen, described it as \"genius\" and declared he could not endorse any other choice.",
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"plaintext": "The designs Utzon submitted were little more than preliminary drawings. Dr. Emory Kemp's consulting career began at Ove Arup, where, he conducted analytical calculations for the roof, noting this was no simple task, as Utzon’s sketches were designed to embellish the beauty of the international landmark, not necessarily for simple mathematics. Concerned that delays would lead to lack of public support, the Cahill government of New South Wales nonetheless gave the go-ahead for work to begin in 1958. The British engineering consultancy Ove Arup and Partners put out tenders without adequate working drawings and construction work began on 2 March 1959. As a result, the podium columns were not strong enough to support the roof and had to be rebuilt. The situation was complicated by Cahill's death in October 1959.",
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"plaintext": "The extraordinary structure of the shells themselves represented a puzzle for the engineers. This was not resolved until 1961, when Utzon himself finally came up with the solution. He replaced the original elliptical shells with a design based on complex sections of a sphere. Utzon says his design was inspired by the simple act of peeling an orange: the 14 shells of the building, if combined, would form a perfect sphere. ",
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"plaintext": "Although Utzon had spectacular, innovative plans for the interior of these halls, he was unable to realise this part of his design. In mid-1965, the New South Wales Liberal government of Robert Askin was elected. Askin had been a 'vocal critic of the project prior to gaining office.' His new Minister for Public Works, Davis Hughes, was even less sympathetic. Elizabeth Farrelly, Australian architecture critic has written that ",
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"plaintext": "Utzon soon found himself in conflict with the new Minister. Attempting to rein in the escalating cost of the project, Hughes began questioning Utzon's capability, his designs, schedules and cost estimates, refusing to pay running costs. In 1966, after a final request from Utzon that plywood manufacturer Ralph Symonds should be one of the suppliers for the roof structure was refused, he resigned from the job, closed his Sydney office and vowed never to return to Australia. When Utzon left, the shells were almost complete, and costs amounted to only $22.9million. Following major changes to the original plans for the interiors, costs finally rose to $103million.",
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"plaintext": "The Opera House was finally completed, and opened in 1973 by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia. The architect was not invited to the ceremony, nor was his name even mentioned during any of the speeches. He was, however, to be recognised later when he was asked to design updates to the interior of the opera house. The Utzon Room, overlooking Sydney Harbour, was officially dedicated in October 2004. In a statement at the time Utzon wrote: \"The fact that I'm mentioned in such a marvellous way, it gives me the greatest pleasure and satisfaction. I don't think you can give me more joy as the architect. It supersedes any medal of any kind that I could get and have got.\" Furthermore, Frank Gehry, one of the Pritzker Prize judges, commented: \"Utzon made a building well ahead of its time, far ahead of available technology, and he persevered through extraordinarily malicious publicity and negative criticism to build a building that changed the image of an entire country.\"",
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"plaintext": "While some of Utzon's most notable works are spread around the globe, he was most prolific in his native Denmark, whose landscape inspired him more than any other. Bagsværd Church, just north of Copenhagen, is considered to be a masterpiece of contemporary church architecture, thanks to its bright, naturally illuminated interior and its concrete ceiling straddled with softly-rounded vaulting inspired by clouds. Designed in 1968, the church was completed in 1976. The Kingo Houses in Helsingør (1958) consist of 63 L-shaped homes based on the design of traditional Danish farmhouses with central courtyards. Built in rows following the undulations of the site, each of the houses not only has a view of its own but enjoys the best possible conditions for sunlight and shelter from the wind. Utzon described the arrangement as \"flowers on the branch of a cherry tree, each turning towards the sun.\" In general, Utzon's houses display sophisticated and varied relationships to the path of the sun.",
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"plaintext": "A few years later, he went on to design the Fredensborg Houses (1963) for Danish pensioners who had worked for long periods abroad. Utzon helped select the site, and planned a complex consists of 47 courtyard homes and 30 terraced houses as well as a central building with a restaurant, meeting rooms and nine guest rooms. His design was inspired by housing in Beijing's Forbidden City. The homes are located around a square in groups of three, designed to maximize privacy, natural lighting, and views of the surrounding countryside. When he was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2003, Utzon was specifically lauded for his working designing housing projects that, the jury said, were \"designed with people in mind.\"",
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"plaintext": "His Paustian Furniture Store (1988) on Copenhagen's waterfront stands on a multitude of columns inspired by a beech forest. A temple-like finish is achieved by 11 columns with fan-shaped capitals overlooking the harbour. Similar columns are also present inside the spacious interior, stretching up to the skylight dominating the roof.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, in close collaboration with his son Kim Utzon, he helped to plan the Utzon Center in Aalborg (completed 2008) designed to inspire young students of architecture. Located on the waterfront, its high sculptured roofs rise over an auditorium, a boathall and a library while the lower roofs of its exhibition rooms and workshops surround a central courtyard, sheltered from the wind.",
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"plaintext": "Kuwait's National Assembly Building, completed in 1982, stands on the sea front with (in Utzon's words) \"haze and white light and an untidy town behind.\" Benefiting from an understanding of Islamic architecture, Utzon designed a building consisting of a covered square, a parliamentary chamber, a conference hall, and a mosque. Its waving roof conveys the impression of moving fabric. Its columns are reminiscent of the Karnak temples.",
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"plaintext": "The Melli Bank building in Tehran, slightly set back from the lines of the busy street where it stands, has a reinforced concrete frame faced with natural stone. The ground-level banking hall, naturally illuminated by skylight vaults, is connected to the upper floor by a central spiral staircase, providing maximum flexibility of space.",
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"plaintext": " Skagen Odde Nature Centre, Skagen, Denmark, 1989 (completed by his son Jan Utzon in 1999–2000)",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, The Courtyard Houses: Logbook Vol. I, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2004, 180 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, Bagsværd Church: Logbook Vol. II, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2005, 168 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, Two Houses on Majorca: Logbook Vol. III, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2004, 76 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, Kuwait National Assembly: Logbook Vol. IV, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2008, 312 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, Additive Architecture: Logbook Vol. V, Copenhagen, Edition Bløndal, 2009, 312 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon and Philip Drew, Sydney Opera House, London, Phaidon Press, 1995, 60 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Martin Keiding and Kim Dirckinck-Holmfeld (ed.), Utzon and the new tradition, Utzon Library, Copenhagen, Danish Architectural Press, 2005, 262 pages. ",
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"plaintext": "Martin Keiding and Kim Dirckinck-Holmfeld (ed.), Utzon's own houses, Utzon Library, Copenhagen, Danish Architectural Press, 2004. ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon and Tobias Faber, Tendenser i nutidens arkitektur, Arkitektur, Copenhagen, 1947 ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, Additiv arkitektur, Arkitektur, Copenhagen 1970, No. 1 ",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon, Platforms and Plateaus: Ideas of a Danish Architect, Zodiac 10, Milan 1962",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon and others, A survey of Utzon's work, some descriptions by Utzon, and the Sydney Opera House as finally contemplated, Zodiac 5, Milan 1959",
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"plaintext": "Jørn Utzon and others, Utzon's descriptions of the Sydney Opera House, the Silkeborg Museum and the Zurich Theatre. Also Giedion's Jørn Utzon and the Third Generation, Zodiac 14, Milan 1965",
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"plaintext": "On 17 May 1985, Utzon was made an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia (AC). He was given the Keys to the City of Sydney in 1998. He was involved in redesigning the Opera House, and in particular, the Reception Hall, beginning in 1999. In 2003, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Sydney; his son accepted the award on his behalf. In 2003, he received the Pritzker Prize, architecture's highest honor.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2006, Queen ElizabethII opened the western colonnade addition to the building designed by Utzon who had not returned to Australia since 1966. His son, Jan, took his place at the opening ceremony instead, saying his father was \"too old by now to take the long flight to Australia. But he lives and breathes the Opera House, and as its creator he just has to close his eyes to see it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Following Utzon's death in 2008, on 25 March 2009, a state memorial and reconciliation concert was held in the Concert Hall at Sydney Opera House.",
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"plaintext": "List of honours",
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"plaintext": " 1967 C. F. Hansen Medal",
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"plaintext": " 1978 RIBA Royal Gold Medal",
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"plaintext": "According to Kenneth Frampton, Utzon's architectural influence is manifest on three levels: the emphasis given to the roof element, the importance given to the grounding of the building, and the commitment to \"the cultural validity of organic growth\".<ref>Frampton, Kenneth: \"Between Artifice and Nature\" in Louisiana Revy Vol.44 No.2 Jørn Utzon: The Architects Universe\", Louisiana Museum of Art, 2004</ref> Kim Dirkinck-Holmfeld, writing in Dansk Arkitektur: 1960–1995, comments: Utzon did not obtain many commissions in his mother country but his importance was considerable in terms of direct imitation or inspiration. And he was the only Danish architect who made a significant contribution to the global development of Modernism.",
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"plaintext": " Françoise Fromonot: Jørn Utzon, The Sydney Opera House. Corte Madera, California: Gingko Press, 1998. ",
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"plaintext": " Richard Weston: Utzon — Inspiration, Vision, Architecture. Denmark: Edition Bløndal, 2002. ",
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"plaintext": " J.J. Ferrer Forés: Jørn Utzon. Obras y Proyectos. Works and Projects. Spain: GG 2006. ",
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"plaintext": " Katarina Stübe and Jan Utzon, Sydney Opera House: A Tribute to Jørn Utzon. Reveal Books, 2009. ",
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"Jørn_Utzon_buildings_in_Denmark",
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"20th-century_Danish_architects",
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]
| 180,398 | 8,069 | 179 | 119 | 0 | 0 | Jørn Utzon | Danish architect | [
"Joern Utzon",
"Jørn Oberg Utzon",
"Jorn Utzon"
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1,
45
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{
"plaintext": " Charles II of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606)",
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14312148
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1,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Christoph of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1552–1592)",
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34608555
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1,
37
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruled over a small principality in southwest Germany, with a seat at Sigmaringen Castle. Unlike the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg-Prussia, the Hohenzollerns of Sigmaringen remained Roman Catholic, along with their cousins of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (the senior line of the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern) and Hohenzollern-Haigerloch.",
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360,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The principality became a sovereign state in 1815 after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and an independent realm following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Its ruler, Charles, was deposed in the revolutions of 1848. His son, Karl Anton, succeeded him, and turned to Prussia for aid. Prussian troops arrived in August 1849, and in a treaty signed in December Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was annexed by Prussia, effective in March 1850. The annexation of their state did not, however, mean the end of the importance of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.",
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45420,
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142,
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206,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The last prince, Karl Anton, served as Minister President of Prussia from 1858–61. Karl Anton's second son, Karl Eitel of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen became prince (1866–1881) and then King of Romania, under the name Carol (reigned 1881–1914). The house remained on the throne until the end of the Romanian monarchy in 1947. The last King of Romania, Michael, died on 5 December 2017.",
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17,
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39,
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108,
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182,
197
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Because the eldest Hechingen line of the Hohenzollerns became extinct in 1869 with the death of Constantine, Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, the head of the Sigmaringen branch, Karl Anton, dropped his line's suffix and took the title of Prince (Fürst) of (all) Hohenzollern.",
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18180759
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96,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "French opposition to the candidacy of Carol's elder brother Prince Leopold for the throne of Spain triggered the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), which led to the founding of the German Empire in January 1871.",
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"target_page_ids": [
6689442,
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60,
74
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113,
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179,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The head of the Swabian branch of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ruled over the following territories:",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " county of Hohenzollern (1061)",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
13849
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " burgraviate of Nuremberg (1192)",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
3528668
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " county of Veringen (1535)",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
6016917
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"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " lordship of Haigerloch (1634)",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
3823666
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"anchor_spans": [
[
13,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " lordship of Wehrstein (1634)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " county of Bergh (1781)",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
22048582
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "From 1061 until 1806 five of these fiefs (not including Nuremberg) constituted an immediate territory of the Holy Roman Empire under the counts of Zollern, vassals of the Holy Roman Emperor.",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
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82,
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171,
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},
{
"plaintext": "From 1806 until 1813 the Hohenzollern lands were a realm of the Confederation of the Rhine, a short-lived state set up by Napoleon I Bonaparte. From 1815 until 1849 the principality was a sovereign country and a member of the German Confederation. In 1849 it lost its independence, and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia as the Province of Hohenzollern.",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
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188,
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[
226,
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],
[
312,
330
],
[
338,
362
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The German Confederation was succeeded in 1866 by the North German Confederation, which itself was succeeded by the German Empire in 1871. In 1918, the kingdom of Prussia became the Free State of Prussia, and the German Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic. In 1933 the republic was replaced by the Third Reich. After the defeat of the Nazis the province of Hohenzollern was merged with other territories into the state of Württemberg-Hohenzollern. This state was part of the Allied Occupation Zones in Germany until 1952. In that year, the state of Württemberg-Hohenzollern was merged into Baden-Württemberg, a state of the Federal Republic of Germany.",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
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305,
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[
342,
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[
429,
453
],
[
482,
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],
[
597,
614
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631,
658
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern is the head of the princely Swabian line.",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
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8422446
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0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The head of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is the historical heir to the titles of:",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Prince (Fürst) of Hohenzollern",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
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51511,
232810
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burgrave (Burggraf) of Nuremberg",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
196447
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Imperial Count (Reichsgraf) of Hohenzollern",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
31854372
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Count (Graf) of Sigmaringen",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Count (Graf) of Veringen",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Count (Graf) of Bergh",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
22048582
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
17,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lord (Herr) of Haigerloch",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
69304
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lord (Herr) of Wehrstein",
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"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The historical titulature of rulers of the House of Hohenzollern was, in the German original: Seine Durchlaucht (S.D.) [name] von Gottes Gnaden, Fürst von Hohenzollern, Burggraf von Nürnberg, Graf zu Sigmaringen, Veringen und Berg, Herr zu Haigerloch und Wehrstein",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The English translation is: His Serene Highness (HSH) [name] by the Grace of God, Prince of Hohenzollern, Burgrave of Nuremberg, Count of Sigmaringen, Veringen and Berg, Lord of Haigerloch and Wehrstein.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Territories, titles and styles",
"target_page_ids": [
3739389
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
61,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The modern state of Romania was formed by union of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859, under the prince domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza. He was replaced by Karl Eitel of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1866, who ascended the throne as Carol I, Prince of Romania.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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],
[
86,
95
],
[
115,
130
],
[
131,
150
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania, which was a functionally independent vassal of the Ottoman Empire, proclaimed its full independence. After the commander of the Russian armies had requested Romania's help, Carol accepted to enter the war with the condition of being appointed as commander of the armies that were besieging Plevna. After the end of the Romanian War of Independence in the 1878, at the Treaty of Berlin, Romania was subsequently recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.",
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"section_name": "Romanian branch",
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319,
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],
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407,
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492,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In return for reverting to the Russian Empire three southern Bessarabian districts that had been regained by Moldavia after the Crimean War in 1852, Dobruja was acquired.",
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"section_name": "Romanian branch",
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31,
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128,
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],
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149,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I. He reigned until his death in 1914, and was succeeded by his nephew, Ferdinand. Shortly after taking the throne, Ferdinand, a Roman Catholic like his predecessor, agreed to have his children reared in the Romanian Orthodox Church.",
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"section_name": "Romanian branch",
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],
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157,
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],
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293,
317
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In 1918 Transylvania and Bessarabia were incorporated. In 1918–19, confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 and the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, most of the Banat became part of Romania. Also, Bukovina was incorporated in 1918.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
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84,
104
],
[
121,
138
],
[
160,
165
],
[
197,
205
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ferdinand died in 1927. His eldest son, Crown Prince Carol, having renounced his rights, Carol's only son Michael ascended the throne. In 1930, however, Carol reclaimed the throne and was crowned Carol II. Carol was forced to abdicate in 1940, and Michael re-mounted the throne. His reign, and that of the dynasty, ended when he was forced to abdicate by a communist regime in 1947.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
37256,
37258
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"anchor_spans": [
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106,
113
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196,
204
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "On 10 May 2011, following lawsuits brought in Germany against his family by his German relatives regarding attribution of the title Prince of Hohenzollern-Veringen to his son-in-law, Radu Duda, Michael severed dynastic ties with the princely house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, changed the name of his family to \"of Romania\", and ceased the use of all princely titles borne by him and his family that derived from the German Hohenzollerns.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
3525896
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"anchor_spans": [
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183,
192
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The head of the Romanian branch continues, since abolition of the monarchy, to use the hereditary title he bore while reigning:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
206246
],
"anchor_spans": [
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49,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael I, King of Romania",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
158558
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
12,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "During the reign of Carol II of Romania his son, Michael, was styled \"Măria Sa (M.S.) Marele Voievod de Alba Iulia\" or the English translation \"His Highness The Grand Voivode of Alba Julia\".",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
37258,
37256,
149044
],
"anchor_spans": [
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20,
39
],
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49,
56
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167,
174
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Romanian original is: Majestatea Sa (M.S.) N.N., Regele Românilor (or Maiestatea Sa (M.S.) N.N., Regele României; both forms are accepted by the Romanian Academy)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [
286162
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
149,
165
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The English translation is: His Majesty (H.M.) N.N., King of Romania",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Romanian branch",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The combined coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
55284
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
13,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Escutcheon: quartering of the shield, parted per pale, twice parted per fess, with an inescutcheon",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
827735,
2569394,
41698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
23
],
[
31,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " first sixth: Burgraviate of Nuremberg (1214), on or (gold) a lion rampant sable (black) and a bordure of argent (silver) and gules (red)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
3528668,
5237726,
105249,
27119,
105251,
25825
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
38
],
[
95,
102
],
[
106,
112
],
[
114,
120
],
[
126,
131
],
[
133,
136
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " second sixth: Hereditary Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Empire (1504), on gules (red, two crossed scepters in or (gold) ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
1004779,
26052054,
1095461,
12240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
15,
62
],
[
98,
105
],
[
110,
112
],
[
114,
118
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " third sixth: Lordship of Haigerloch and Wehrstein (1634), parted per fess gules (red) and argent (silver) ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
3823666
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " fourth sixth: Countship of Sigmaringen (1535), on gules (red) a deer or (gold) ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
238523,
38428
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
15,
39
],
[
65,
69
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " fifth sixth: Countship of Veringen (1535), on or (gold) three deerhorns horizontally with twice four, and once three antlerpoints gules (red) ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
6016917,
57500
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
35
],
[
118,
124
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " sixth sixth: County of Berg (1781), on argent (white) a lion rampant gules (red) and a bordure of sable (black) with roundels or (gold) ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
186717,
36896,
41733671
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
14,
28
],
[
57,
69
],
[
118,
125
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " inescutcheon: Countship of Zollern (1061), quarterly sable (black) and argent (silver)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
13849
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
15,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " helm: or (gold) a helmet barred and affronté (sovereign), crowned with a coronet of a German prince (Fürstenkrone)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
21473990,
18544577,
566083
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
37,
45
],
[
74,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " crest: sable (black) and argent (white) a head and shoulders of a German hound (Deutsche Bracke) (1317)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
867055,
63031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
67,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " wreath: sable (black) and argent (white)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
249314
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " mantling: manteld sable (black), doubled argent (white) upon a crowned (Fürstenkrone) baldeqin gules (red), doubled ermine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
204717,
3716706
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
117,
123
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " motto:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
70210
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " until the 19th century: (We were always good Zollern)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " from the 19th century onwards: Nihil Sine Deo (Nothing without God)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
6298444
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The combined coat of arms with inclusion of the House coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
55284
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
13,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Escutcheon: quartering of the shield, parted per pale, twice parted per fess, with an inescutcheon",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Coats of arms",
"target_page_ids": [
827735,
2569394,
41698
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
23
],
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31,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " first sixth: Burgraviate of Nuremberg (1214), on or (gold) a lion rampant sable (black) and a bordure of argent (silver) and gules (red)",
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"plaintext": " second sixth: Hereditary Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Empire, on gules (red, two crossed scepters in or (gold) ",
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"plaintext": " third sixth: Lordship of Haigerloch and Wehrstein (1634), parted per fess gules (red) and argent (silver) ",
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"plaintext": " fourth sixth: Countship of Sigmaringen (1535), on gules (red) a deer or (gold)",
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"plaintext": " fifth sixth: Countship of Veringen (1535), on or (gold) three dearhorns horizontally with twice four, and once three antlerpoints gules (red) ",
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"plaintext": " sixth sixth: County of Berg (1781), on argent (white) a lion rampant gules (red) and a bordure of sable (black) with roundels or (gold) ",
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"plaintext": " inescutcheon: Countship of Zollern (1061), quarterly sable (black) and argent (silver)",
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"plaintext": " helm: seven particular helmets, equivalent to the seven particular coat of arms (Hohenzollern, Nuremberg, Sigmaringen, Veringen, Berg, Haigerloch and Wehrstein)",
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"plaintext": " crest: seven particular crests, equivalent to the seven particular coat of arms (Hohenzollern, Nuremberg, Sigmaringen, Veringen, Berg, Haigerloch and Wehrstein)",
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"plaintext": " wreath: sable (black) and argent (white)",
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"plaintext": " mantling: manteld sable (black), doubled argent (white)",
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"plaintext": " supporter: two German hounds",
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"plaintext": " compartment: grassy",
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"plaintext": "The major coat of arms of the kingdom of the Romanians consisted, from 1922 onwards, of:",
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{
"plaintext": " an escutcheon of the combination of the territories of :",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wallachia ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Moldavia ",
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"plaintext": " Dobruja ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Transylvania ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Bessarabia ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Banat ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Oltenia ",
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"plaintext": " Bukovina ",
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},
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"plaintext": " an inescutcheon of the House of Hohenzollern (quarterly sable (black) and argent (silver)",
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},
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"plaintext": " helm: The Steel Crown of Romania",
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"plaintext": " mantling: a crowned baldeqin gules (red), doubled ermine",
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{
"plaintext": " motto: Nihil Sine Deo (Nothing without God)",
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},
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"plaintext": " supporter: two rampant lions",
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"plaintext": " compartment: ground",
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"plaintext": "Members of the House of Hohenzollern reigned as monarchs in Europe.",
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"plaintext": " Karl II, Count 1576–1606 (1547–1606), second surviving son of Karl I of Hohenzollern",
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{
"plaintext": " Johann, Count 1606–1623 (1578–1638), created Reichsfürst von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 1623",
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"plaintext": " Johann, 1st Prince 1623–1638 (1578–1638)",
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"plaintext": " Meinrad I, 2nd Prince 1638–1681 (1605–1681)",
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"plaintext": " Maximilian, 3rd Prince 1681–1689 (1636–1689)",
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"plaintext": " Meinrad II, 4th Prince 1689–1715 (1673–1715)",
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"plaintext": " Josef Friedrich Ernst, 5th Prince 1715–1769 (1702–1769)",
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"plaintext": " Karl Friedrich, 6th Prince 1769–1785 (1724–1785)",
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"plaintext": " Karl, 8th Prince 1831–1848 (1785–1853), abdicated 1848",
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"plaintext": " Karl Anton, 9th Prince 1848–1849 (1811–1885), ceded sovereignty to Prussia 1849",
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"plaintext": "Following cession of their sovereignty over the principality to their kinsmen the Kings of Prussia in 1849, the heirs of Karl Anton continued to bear the same title, \"Prince (Fürst) of Hohenzollern\":",
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"plaintext": " Karl Anton, Prince 1849–1885 (1811–1885), became Prince of Hohenzollern on the death of the last Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen in 1869",
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"plaintext": " Leopold, Prince 1885–1905 (1835–1905)",
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"plaintext": " Wilhelm, Prince 1905–1927 (1864–1927)",
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"plaintext": " Friedrich, Prince 1927–1965 (1891–1965)",
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"plaintext": " Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince 1965–2010 (1924–2010)",
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"plaintext": " Karl Friedrich, Prince 2010–present (born 1952)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern (born 1960)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Prince Aloys of Hohenzollern (1999)",
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"plaintext": " Prince Fidelis of Hohenzollern (born 2001)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932–2016)",
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"plaintext": " Prince Nicolas of Hohenzollern (born 1999)",
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"plaintext": " Prince Hubertus of Hohenzollern (born 1966)",
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"plaintext": " Franz Joseph, Prince of Hohenzollern-Emden (1891–1964)",
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"plaintext": " Prince Carl Alexander of Hohenzollern-Emden (born 1970)",
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},
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"plaintext": " \"Das Fürstliche Haus Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen\" by Hartmut Platte (in German)",
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| [
"1576_establishments_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire",
"1850_disestablishments_in_Europe",
"States_and_territories_established_in_1576",
"House_of_Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen",
"Former_states_and_territories_of_Baden-Württemberg",
"States_of_the_German_Confederation",
"States_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine",
"Counties_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire",
"Early_Modern_history_of_Germany"
]
| 157,013 | 5,148 | 187 | 213 | 0 | 0 | Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen | historical principality in Germany | []
|
37,266 | 1,104,761,534 | Ferdinand_I_of_Romania | [
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"plaintext": "In 1889, Ferdinand became Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Romania, following the renunciation of his father (in 1880) and older brother, Wilhelm (in 1886), to the rights of succession to the royal crown of Romania. From the moment he settled in Romania, he continued his military career, gaining a series of honorary commands and being promoted to the rank of corps general. He married in 1893 Princess Maria Alexandra Victoria, later known as Queen Marie of Romania, granddaughter of Queen Victoria and Emperor Alexander II and daughter of Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia.",
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"plaintext": "Ferdinand became King of Romania on 10 October 1914, under the name Ferdinand I, following the death of his uncle, King Carol I. He ruled Romania during World War I, choosing to side with the Triple Entente against the Central Powers. This led to Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany removing his name from the royal house of Hohenzollern. At the war's end, Romania emerged as a much-enlarged kingdom due to Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș became part of the Kingdom of Romania in 1920, and Ferdinand was crowned king of \"Greater Romania\" in a grand ceremony in 1922. In the years following the establishment of Greater Romania, Romanian society went through a series of major transformations, especially to the application of the agrarian reform and of the universal vote. In 1925, his eldest son, Prince Carol, gave up the rights of succession to the royal crown of Romania leading to a dynastic crisis, as the next prince in line of succession was 4-year-old Prince Michael. This determined Ferdinand to remove Prince Carol's name from the royal house of Romania.",
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"plaintext": "Prince Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was born in Sigmaringen in southwestern Germany. The name was later shortened simply to Hohenzollern after the extinction of the Hohenzollern-Hechingen branch in 1869. The princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen had ruled the principality until 1850, when it was annexed to Prussia.",
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"plaintext": "Ferdinand I was the son of Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, and Infanta Antónia of Portugal (1845–1913), daughter of Queen Maria II of Portugal and Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, heir to the Hungarian magnates of Koháry on his mother's side.",
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"plaintext": "Following the renunciations, first of his father in 1880 and then of his elder brother Prince Wilhelm of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1886, young Ferdinand became the heir-presumptive to the throne of his childless uncle, King Carol I of Romania, who would reign until his death in October 1914. In 1889, the Romanian parliament recognized Ferdinand as a prince of Romania. The Romanian government did not require his conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy from Catholicism, as was the common practice prior to this date, thus allowing him to continue with his born creed, but it was required that his children be raised Orthodox, the state religion of Romania. For agreeing to this, Ferdinand was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, although this was later lifted.",
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"plaintext": "Ferdinand's mother's first cousin Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria sat on the throne of the neighbouring Bulgaria beginning in 1887, and was to become the greatest opponent of the kingdom of his Romanian cousins. The neighboring Emperor Francis Joseph, monarch of Austria-Hungary and as such, ruler of Transylvania, was Ferdinand's grandmother's first cousin.",
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"plaintext": "Ferdinand, a complete stranger in his new home, started to get close to one of Queen Elisabeth's ladies in waiting, Elena Văcărescu. Elisabeth, the Queen consort of Romania, very close to Elena herself, encouraged the romance, although she was perfectly aware of the fact that a marriage between the two was forbidden by the Romanian constitution (according to the 1866 Constitution of Romania, the heir-presumptive to the throne was not allowed to marry a Romanian).",
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"plaintext": "The affair caused a sort of dynastic crisis in 1891. The result of this was the exile of both Elisabeth (in Neuwied) and Elena (in Paris), as well as a trip by Ferdinand through Europe in search of a suitable bride, whom he eventually found in Queen Victoria's granddaughter, Princess Marie of Edinburgh.",
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"plaintext": "In Sigmaringen on 10 January 1893, Prince Ferdinand of Romania married his distant cousin, the Lutheran Princess Marie of Edinburgh, daughter of Anglican Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, and the Orthodox Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia. Marie and Ferdinand were third cousins in descent from Franz Frederick Anton, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Marie's paternal grandparents were Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; her maternal grandparents were Alexander II of Russia and Marie of Hesse and by Rhine. The reigning emperor of neighbouring Russia at the time of the marriage was Marie's uncle, Tsar Alexander III, who would be succeeded by his eldest son, Marie's first cousin, Tsar Nicholas II, the following year.",
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"plaintext": "The royal Romanian marriage produced three sons (Carol, Nicholas, and Mircea – the last of whom died in infancy) and three daughters (Elisabeta, Maria – called \"Mignon\" – and Ileana), but it was unhappy. Indeed, the couple's two youngest children, Ileana and Mircea, are widely believed to have been sired by Marie's long-time lover, Barbu Știrbey.",
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"plaintext": "On 10 October 1914, Ferdinand's uncle, Carol I, died without surviving issue. Ferdinand succeeded him as King of Romania, reigning until his own death on 20 July 1927.",
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"plaintext": "Ferdinand was appointed as the 1,174th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria in 1909 and as the 868th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1924.",
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"plaintext": "Though a member of a cadet branch of Germany's ruling Hohenzollern imperial family, Ferdinand presided over his country's entry into World War I on the side of the Triple Entente against the Central Powers, on 27 August 1916. Thus he gained the sobriquet \"the Loyal\", having kept the oath he swore before the Romanian Parliament in 1914: \"I will reign as a good Romanian.\"",
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"plaintext": "As a consequence of this \"betrayal\" of his German origin, Kaiser Wilhelm II had Ferdinand's name erased from the Hohenzollern House register.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the setbacks after the entry into war, when Dobruja and Wallachia were occupied by the Central Powers, Romania fought in 1917 and stopped the German advance into Moldavia. When the new Bolshevik government of Russia sued for peace in 1918, Romania was surrounded by the Central Powers and forced to conclude a peace treaty of its own; however, Ferdinand refused to sign and ratify the Treaty of Bucharest. Allied forces then advanced on the Thessaloniki front and they knocked Bulgaria out of the war. Ferdinand ordered the re-mobilization of the Romanian Army, and Romania re-entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente.",
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"plaintext": "The outcome of Romania's war effort was the union of Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. Ferdinand became the ruler of a greatly enlarged Romanian state in 1918–1920 following the victory of the Entente over the Central Powers, a war between the Kingdom of Romania and the new Hungarian Soviet Republic, and the Russian civil war. He was crowned king of \"Greater Romania\" in a spectacular ceremony on 15 October 1922 in the courtyard of the newly consecrated \"Coronation Cathedral\" in the historic princely seat of Alba Iulia in Transylvania.",
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"plaintext": "A new period of Romanian history began on the day of the Union of Transylvania with Romania (Great Union Day, Marea Unire). This period would come to an end with international treaties, in the years leading to World War II, which ceded parts of Romania to its neighbors. As such, they are widely seen as an attempt to provoke the country into taking sides and joining the war.",
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"plaintext": "Domestic political life during his reign was dominated by the conservative National Liberal Party, which was led by the brothers Ion and Vintilă Brătianu. The acquisition of Transylvania had the unintended effect of enlarging the electoral base of the opposition, whose principal parties united in January 1925 – October 1926 to form the National Peasant Party.",
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"plaintext": "Ferdinand died from cancer in Sinaia in 1927, and was succeeded by his grandson Crown Prince Michael under a regency (Michael's father having renounced his rights to the throne in December 1925). The regency had three members, one of whom was Ferdinand's second son, Prince Nicholas.",
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"plaintext": "He received the following honours:",
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"plaintext": " Wolbe, Eugen:Ferdinand I – Întemeietorul României Mari (Ferdinand I, founder of Greater Romania), Humanitas, 2006.",
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| 57,165 | 14,114 | 392 | 112 | 0 | 0 | Ferdinand I of Romania | King of Romania (1865-1927; ruled 1914-1927) | [
"Prince Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen"
]
|
37,268 | 1,089,235,787 | Cephalic_index | [
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"plaintext": "The cephalic index or cranial index is the ratio of the maximum width (biparietal diameter or BPD, side to side) of the head of an organism multiplied by 100 and then divided by their maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or OFD, front to back). The index is used to categorize both humans and animals alike, the latter to dogs and cats especially.",
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"plaintext": "The cephalic index was widely used by anthropologists in the early 20th century to categorize human populations. It is now mainly used to describe individuals' appearances and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons.",
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"plaintext": "The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in Europe. The theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. American anthropologist Carleton S. Coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited.",
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"plaintext": "Humans are characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index.",
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"plaintext": "Cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table:",
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"plaintext": "Technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest (behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella (between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head.",
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"plaintext": "The usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by Giuseppe Sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry. Also, Franz Boas studied the children of immigrants to the United States in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape.",
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"plaintext": "Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. Scholars such as Earnest A. Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a \"relatively high genetic component\" of head shape. Ralph Holloway of Columbia University argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have \"adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that most of Boas's original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks's and Jantz's analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks's and Jantz's data support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment. Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor.",
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"plaintext": "Jantz and Sparks responded to Gravlee et al., reiterating that Boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of Boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate. In a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects Boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general \"American environment\" which caused populations in America to converge to a common cranial type, as Boas had suggested.",
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"plaintext": "The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats. ",
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"plaintext": "A brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as \"Extreme Brachycephalic\". Because of the health issues brachycephaly is regarded as torture breeding as it often leads to the Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. ",
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{
"plaintext": " English Mastiff",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1199328
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " English Bulldog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
242068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " French Bulldog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
758442
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " King Charles Spaniel",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1267456
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lhasa Apso",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
973887
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lowchen",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1741676
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Neapolitan Mastiff",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
19883616
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Newfoundland",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
349865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Olde English Bulldogge",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1864265
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pekingese",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
456079
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Perro de Presa Canario",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
724222
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pit bull",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
64235
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pug",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
21234727
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shar-Pei",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
15167244
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tibetan Spaniel",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1005582
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tosa",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2176900
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "* British Shorthair",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
45323
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burmese Cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
261787
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Exotic Shorthair",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
71025
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Himalayan cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
146031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Persian cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
33876998
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Scottish Fold",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
145684
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " White tiger",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
7780536
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Middle White",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
24393531
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vietnamese Potbelly",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2375896
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jersey Wooly",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2009437
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lionhead rabbit",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
14852437
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lop rabbit",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
14629572
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Netherland Dwarf rabbit",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1612059
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Giant panda",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
12713
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ross seal",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2636288
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spectacled bear",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1169181
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Walrus",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
33709
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wombat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
33864
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "A mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. Mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not \"mesocephalic\", but rather \"mesaticephalic\", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. The breeds below exemplify this category.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " African Wild Dog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
23275627
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alaskan Malamute",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
274142
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " almost all spaniels",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
519903
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
12,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " almost all spitz, except for the Chow Chow",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
740355
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
12,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American Eskimo Dog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
174751
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American Foxhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2208001
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Cattle Dog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
445359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Australian Shepherd",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
514816
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Basenji",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
4765
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beagle",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
4368
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bearded Collie",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
547121
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beauceron",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
275617
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Belgian Malinois",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
601367
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Belgian Sheepdog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
601367
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bernese Mountain Dog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
274779
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bichon Frisé",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
95910
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Black and Tan Coonhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
206213
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Border Collie",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
102136
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cardigan Welsh Corgi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
515410
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chesapeake Bay Retriever",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
203745
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " pear- and deer-headed Chihuahuas",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
26998504
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
23,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chinese Crested",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
212756
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chinook",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
282243
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Curly-Coated Retriever",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2416889
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dalmatian",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
19255892
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dhole",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
8626
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " English Foxhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2208191
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Field Spaniel",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
857691
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Finnish Lapphund",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
3093291
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Finnish Spitz",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
714379
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Flat-Coated Retriever",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
275583
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " German Shorthaired Pointer",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
519105
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " German Wirehaired Pointer ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
519126
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " German Spitz",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1561942
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Golden Retriever",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
21022536
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Irish Setter",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
766926
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Komondor",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
17273
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Labrador Retriever",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
79280
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Miniature Pinscher",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
952060
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pomeranian",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
170595
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Poodle (Miniature and Toy)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
515115
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " most terriers",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
176426
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
6,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mudi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
274079
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pembroke Welsh Corgi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
515508
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Puli",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
518938
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rottweiler",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
271052
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samoyed",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
174678
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Siberian Husky",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
28475
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " St. Bernard",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
550028
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vizsla",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
177742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Weimaraner",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
519161
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wirehaired Vizsla",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
17984604
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Xoloitzcuintle",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
243549
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Note: Almost all felines are mesaticephalic",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Abyssinian",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
30875080
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American Shorthair",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
638469
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American Bobtail",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
148839
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bengal cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
63064
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Birman",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
146048
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bombay cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
638492
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burmese cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
261787
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chartreux",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
638548
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chausie",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1022343
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colorpoint Shorthair",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2570560
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cymric cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
145675
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Egyptian Mau",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
386875
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Felid hybrids",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2665989
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Felis, or small cats",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
244841
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maine Coon",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
70024
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Manx",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
145672
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Munchkin cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
145780
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norwegian forest cat ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
173757
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ocicat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
145785
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pallas's cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
273706
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ragdoll",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
610191
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russian Blue",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
144792
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russian White, Black and Tabby",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
12556065
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Selkirk Rex",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
64022
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Siberian cat",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
639735
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Somali",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
148091
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toyger",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2884695
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Turkish Angora",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
639754
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Turkish Van",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
69704
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dutch rabbit",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2587122
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mini Rex",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
8922076
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Polish rabbit",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2580548
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " New Zealand rabbit",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
26441016
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American Sable",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
13440857
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aardwolf",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
681
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alligator",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
267370
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " American black bear",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
51054
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brown bear",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
4402
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brown hyena",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
595974
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fur seal",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
11780
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guinea pig",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
62696
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leopard seal",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
385156
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raccoon",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
18600991
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sea lion",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
60258
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sloth bear",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
399740
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spotted hyena",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
595995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Striped hyena",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
595962
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sun bear",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
563137
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tasmanian devil",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
31392
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length).",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Afghan Hound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2835
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Airedale Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
175765
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Azawakh",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2836
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Basset Hound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
68453
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bedlington Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
611087
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bloodhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
22220263
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Borzoi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
4764
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bull terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1617407
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cesky Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
863270
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coyote",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
6710
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dachshund",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
8518
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Doberman Pinscher",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2139688
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dingo",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
62893
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fox Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
468974
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Galgo Español",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
29166
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " German Shepherd Dog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
79289
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Great Dane",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
83416
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Greyhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
12938
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Irish Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
685939
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Irish Wolfhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
15335
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Italian Greyhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
15336
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kangaroo hound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
6921243
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kanni",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
3087794
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kerry Blue Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
796253
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Khalag Tazi",
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"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2835
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Long dog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
3117496
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lurcher",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1009313
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Manchester Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
2333138
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Miniature Bull Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1617708
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peruvian Inca Orchid",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
672645
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pharaoh Hound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
62387
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Poodle (Standard)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
515115
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rampur Greyhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
11886343
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Red fox",
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"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
20647108
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rough Collie",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
522413
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russian Black Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
999011
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Saluki",
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"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
29162
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Schnauzer",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
889014
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Scottish Deerhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
29164
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Scottish Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
182631
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sealyham Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
685972
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Serbian Hound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
274911
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shetland Sheepdog",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
177575
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Silken Windhound",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
5385506
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sloughi",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
29165
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Smooth Collie",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
518548
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taigan",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
14636275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Welsh Terrier",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
685953
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Whippet",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
33956
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wolf",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
33702
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Balinese",
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"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
42964218
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Devon Rex",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
146038
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Donskoy",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
1065489
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jaguar",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
16217
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Javanese",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
638898
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leopard",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Modern use in animal breeding",
"target_page_ids": [
44303
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lion",
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"plaintext": " Brachycephalic Experienced Veterinarians Database ",
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| 1,998,874 | 7,055 | 111 | 260 | 0 | 0 | cephalic index | Ration of width to length of the head of an organism | [
"cranial index"
]
|
37,274 | 1,107,259,385 | Wall_Street | [
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"plaintext": "Wall Street is an eight-block-long street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It runs between Broadway in the west to South Street and the East River in the east. The term \"Wall Street\" has become a metonym for the financial markets of the United States as a whole, the American financial services industry, New York–based financial interests, or the Financial District itself. Anchored by Wall Street, New York has been described as the world's principal financial center.",
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"plaintext": "Wall Street was originally known in Dutch as \"de Waalstraat\" when it was part of New Amsterdam in the 17th century, though the origins of the name vary. An actual wall existed on the street from 1685 to 1699. During the 17th century, Wall Street was a slave trading marketplace and a securities trading site, and from the early eighteenth century (1703) the location of Federal Hall, New York's first city hall. In the early 19th century, both residences and businesses occupied the area, but increasingly business predominated, and New York City's financial industry became centered on Wall Street. In the 20th century, several early skyscrapers were built on Wall Street, including 40 Wall Street, once the world's tallest building.",
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"plaintext": "The Wall Street area is home to the New York Stock Exchange, the world's largest stock exchange by total market capitalization, as well as the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and many commercial banks and insurance companies. Several other stock and commodity exchanges have also been located in downtown Manhattan near Wall Street, including the New York Mercantile Exchange and other commodity futures exchanges, and the American Stock Exchange. To support the business they did on the exchanges, many brokerage firms had offices nearby. However the direct economic impacts of Wall Street activities extend worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Wall Street itself is a narrow winding street running from the East River to Broadway and lined with skyscrapers, as well as the New York Stock Exchange Building and Federal Hall National Memorial and One Wall Street at its western end. The street is nearby multiple subway lines and ferry terminals and both the World Trade Center (1973–2001) site and the New World Trade Center.",
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"plaintext": "There are varying accounts about how the Dutch-named \"de Waalstraat\" (literally: Walloon Street) got its name. Two conflicting explanations can be considered.",
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"plaintext": "One explanation maintains that Wall Street was named after Walloons, the Dutch name for a Walloon being Waal. Among the first settlers that embarked on the ship Nieu Nederlandt in 1624 were 30 Walloon families. In 1626, Peter Minuit, the governor of the colony, who became famous by the purchase of Manhattan Island for the Dutch West India Company, was a Walloon.",
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"plaintext": "Another explanation is that the name of the street was derived from a wall or rampart (actually a wooden palisade) on the northern boundary of the New Amsterdam settlement, built to protect against potential incursions from Native Americans, pirates, and the English. The wall was built of dirt and wooden planks, measuring long and tall.",
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"plaintext": "While the Dutch word \"wal\" can be translated as \"rampart\", it only appeared as \"De Wal Straat\" on some English maps of New Amsterdam, whereas other English maps show the name as \"De Waal Straat\".",
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"plaintext": "In the 1640s, basic picket and plank fences denoted plots and residences in the colony. Later, on behalf of the Dutch West India Company, Peter Stuyvesant, using both enslaved Africans and white colonists, collaborated with the city government in the construction of a more substantial fortification, a strengthened wall. In 1685, surveyors laid out Wall Street along the lines of the original stockade. The wall started at Pearl Street, which was the shoreline at that time, crossing the Indian path Broadway and ending at the other shoreline (today's Trinity Place), where it took a turn south and ran along the shore until it ended at the old fort. In these early days, local merchants and traders would gather at disparate spots to buy and sell shares and bonds, and over time divided themselves into two classes—auctioneers and dealers. Wall Street was also the marketplace where owners could hire out their slaves by the day or week. The rampart was removed in 1699 and a new City Hall built at Wall and Nassau in 1700.",
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"plaintext": "Slavery was introduced to Manhattan in 1626, but it was not until December 13, 1711, that the New York City Common Council made Wall Street the city's first official slave market for the sale and rental of enslaved Africans and Indians. The slave market operated from 1711 to 1762 at the corner of Wall and Pearl Streets. It was a wooden structure with a roof and open sides, although walls may have been added over the years and could hold approximately 50 men. The city directly benefited from the sale of slaves by implementing taxes on every person who was bought and sold there.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 18th century, there was a buttonwood tree at the foot of Wall Street under which traders and speculators would gather to trade securities. The benefit was being in proximity to each other. In 1792, traders formalized their association with the Buttonwood Agreement which was the origin of the New York Stock Exchange. The idea of the agreement was to make the market more \"structured\" and \"without the manipulative auctions\", with a commission structure. Persons signing the agreement agreed to charge each other a standard commission rate; persons not signing could still participate but would be charged a higher commission for dealing.",
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"plaintext": "In 1789, Wall Street was the scene of the United States' first presidential inauguration when George Washington took the oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall on April 30, 1789. This was also the location of the passing of the Bill of Rights. Alexander Hamilton, who was the first Treasury secretary and \"architect of the early United States financial system\", is buried in the cemetery of Trinity Church, as is Robert Fulton famed for his steamboats.",
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"plaintext": "In the first few decades, both residences and businesses occupied the area, but increasingly business predominated. \"There are old stories of people's houses being surrounded by the clamor of business and trade and the owners complaining that they can't get anything done,\" according to a historian named Burrows. The opening of the Erie Canal in the early 19th century meant a huge boom in business for New York City, since it was the only major eastern seaport which had direct access by inland waterways to ports on the Great Lakes. Wall Street became the \"money capital of America\".",
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"plaintext": "Historian Charles R. Geisst suggested that there has constantly been a \"tug-of-war\" between business interests on Wall Street and authorities in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States by then. Generally during the 19th century Wall Street developed its own \"unique personality and institutions\" with little outside interference.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1840s and 1850s, most residents moved further uptown to Midtown Manhattan because of the increased business use at the lower tip of the island. The Civil War had the effect of causing the northern economy to boom, bringing greater prosperity to cities like New York which \"came into its own as the nation's banking center\" connecting \"Old World capital and New World ambition\", according to one account. J. P. Morgan created giant trusts and John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil moved to New York City. Between 1860 and 1920, the economy changed from \"agricultural to industrial to financial\" and New York maintained its leadership position despite these changes, according to historian Thomas Kessner. New York was second only to London as the world's financial capital.",
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"plaintext": "In 1884, Charles Dow began tracking stocks, initially beginning with 11 stocks, mostly railroads, and looked at average prices for these eleven. Some of the companies included in Dow's original calculations were American Tobacco Company, General Electric, Laclede Gas Company, National Lead Company, Tennessee Coal & Iron, and United States Leather Company. When the average \"peaks and troughs\" went up consistently, he deemed it a bull market condition; if averages dropped, it was a bear market. He added up prices, and divided by the number of stocks to get his Dow Jones average. Dow's numbers were a \"convenient benchmark\" for analyzing the market and became an accepted way to look at the entire stock market. In 1889 the original stock report, Customers' Afternoon Letter, became The Wall Street Journal. Named in reference to the actual street, it became an influential international daily business newspaper published in New York City. After October 7, 1896, it began publishing Dow's expanded list of stocks. A century later, there were 30 stocks in the average.",
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"plaintext": "Business writer John Brooks in his book Once in Golconda considered the start of the 20th century period to have been Wall Street's heyday. The address of 23 Wall Street, the headquarters of J. P. Morgan & Company, known as The Corner, was \"the precise center, geographical as well as metaphorical, of financial America and even of the financial world\".",
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"plaintext": "Wall Street has had changing relationships with government authorities. In 1913, for example, when authorities proposed a $4 stock transfer tax, stock clerks protested. At other times, city and state officials have taken steps through tax incentives to encourage financial firms to continue to do business in the city.",
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"plaintext": "On September 16, 1920, close to the corner of Wall and Broad Street, the busiest corner of the Financial District and across the offices of the Morgan Bank, a powerful bomb exploded. It killed 38 and seriously injured 143 people. The perpetrators were never identified or apprehended. The explosion did, however, help fuel the Red Scare that was underway at the time. A report from The New York Times:",
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"plaintext": "The area was subjected to numerous threats; one bomb threat in 1921 led to detectives sealing off the area to \"prevent a repetition of the Wall Street bomb explosion\".",
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"plaintext": "September 1929 was the peak of the stock market. October 3, 1929 was when the market started to slip, and it continued throughout the week of October 14.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1929, renowned Yale economist Irving Fisher reassured worried investors that their \"money was safe\" on Wall Street. A few days later, on October 24, stock values plummeted. The stock market crash of 1929 ushered in the Great Depression, in which a quarter of working people were unemployed, with soup kitchens, mass foreclosures of farms, and falling prices. During this era, development of the Financial District stagnated, and Wall Street \"paid a heavy price\" and \"became something of a backwater in American life\".",
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"plaintext": "During the New Deal years, as well as the 1940s, there was much less focus on Wall Street and finance. The government clamped down on the practice of buying equities based only on credit, but these policies began to ease. From 1946 to 1947, stocks could not be purchased \"on margin\", meaning that an investor had to pay 100% of a stock's cost without taking on any loans. However, this margin requirement was reduced four times before 1960, each time stimulating a mini-rally and boosting volume, and when the Federal Reserve reduced the margin requirements from 90% to 70%. These changes made it somewhat easier for investors to buy stocks on credit. The growing national economy and prosperity led to a recovery during the 1960s, with some down years during the early 1970s in the aftermath of the Vietnam War. Trading volumes climbed; in 1967, according to Time Magazine, volume hit 7.5 million shares a day which caused a \"traffic jam\" of paper with \"batteries of clerks\" working overtime to \"clear transactions and update customer accounts\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1973, the financial community posted a collective loss of $245 million, which spurred temporary help from the government. Reforms were instituted; the Securities & Exchange Commission eliminated fixed commissions, which forced \"brokers to compete freely with one another for investors' business\". In 1975, the SEC threw out the NYSE's \"Rule 394\" which had required that \"most stock transactions take place on the Big Board's floor\", in effect freeing up trading for electronic methods. In 1976, banks were allowed to buy and sell stocks, which provided more competition for stockbrokers. Reforms had the effect of lowering prices overall, making it easier for more people to participate in the stock market. Broker commissions for each stock sale lessened, but volume increased.",
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"plaintext": "The Reagan years were marked by a renewed push for capitalism and business, with national efforts to de-regulate industries such as telecommunications and aviation. The economy resumed upward growth after a period in the early 1980s of languishing. A report in The New York Times described that the flushness of money and growth during these years had spawned a drug culture of sorts, with a rampant acceptance of cocaine use although the overall percent of actual users was most likely small. A reporter wrote:",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, the stock market plunged, and, in the relatively brief recession following, the surrounding area lost 100,000 jobs according to one estimate. Since telecommunications costs were coming down, banks and brokerage firms could move away from the Financial District to more affordable locations. One of the firms looking to move away was the NYSE. In 1998, the NYSE and the city struck a $900 million deal which kept the NYSE from moving across the river to Jersey City; the deal was described as the \"largest in city history to prevent a corporation from leaving town\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, the Big Board, as some termed the NYSE, was described as the world's \"largest and most prestigious stock market\". When the World Trade Center was destroyed on September 11, 2001, the attacks \"crippled\" the communications network and destroyed many buildings in the Financial District, although the buildings on Wall Street itself saw only little physical damage. One estimate was that 45% of Wall Street's \"best office space\" had been lost. The NYSE was determined to re-open on September 17, almost a week after the attack. During this time Rockefeller Group Business Center opened additional offices at 48 Wall Street. Still, after September 11, the financial services industry went through a downturn with a sizable drop in year-end bonuses of $6.5 billion, according to one estimate from a state comptroller's office.",
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"plaintext": "To guard against a vehicular bombing in the area, authorities built concrete barriers, and found ways over time to make them more aesthetically appealing by spending $5000 to $8000 apiece on bollards. Parts of Wall Street, as well as several other streets in the neighborhood, were blocked off by specially designed bollards:",
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"plaintext": "The Guardian reporter Andrew Clark described the years of 2006 to 2010 as \"tumultuous\", in which the heartland of America was \"mired in gloom\" with high unemployment around 9.6%, with average house prices falling from $230,000 in 2006 to $183,000, and foreboding increases in the national debt to $13.4 trillion, but that despite the setbacks, the American economy was once more \"bouncing back\". What had happened during these heady years? Clark wrote:",
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"plaintext": "The first months of 2008 was a particularly troublesome period which caused Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke to \"work holidays and weekends\" and which did an \"extraordinary series of moves\". It bolstered U.S. banks and allowed Wall Street firms to borrow \"directly from the Fed\" through a vehicle called the Fed's Discount Window, a sort of lender of last report. These efforts were highly controversial at the time, but from the perspective of 2010, it appeared the Federal exertions had been the right decisions. By 2010, Wall Street firms, in Clark's view, were \"getting back to their old selves as engine rooms of wealth, prosperity and excess\". A report by Michael Stoler in The New York Sun described a \"phoenix-like resurrection\" of the area, with residential, commercial, retail and hotels booming in the \"third largest business district in the country\". At the same time, the investment community was worried about proposed legal reforms, including the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act which dealt with matters such as credit card rates and lending requirements. The NYSE closed two of its trading floors in a move towards transforming itself into an electronic exchange. Beginning in September 2011, demonstrators disenchanted with the financial system protested in parks and plazas around Wall Street.",
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"plaintext": "On October 29, 2012, Wall Street was disrupted when New York and New Jersey were inundated by Hurricane Sandy. Its 14-foot-high storm surge, a local record, caused massive street flooding nearby. The NYSE was closed for weather-related reasons, the first time since Hurricane Gloria in September 1985 and the first two-day weather-related shutdown since the Blizzard of 1888.",
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"plaintext": "Wall Street's architecture is generally rooted in the Gilded Age. The older skyscrapers often were built with elaborate facades, which have not been common in corporate architecture for decades. There are numerous landmarks on Wall Street, some of which were erected as the headquarters of banks. These include:",
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"plaintext": " Federal Hall National Memorial (26 Wall Street), built in 1833–1842. The building, which previously housed the United States Custom House and then the Subtreasury, is now a national monument.",
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"plaintext": " 55 Wall Street, erected in 1836–1841 as the four-story Merchants Exchange, was turned into the United States Custom House in the late 19th century. An expansion in 1907–1910 turned it into the eight-story National City Bank Building.",
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"plaintext": " 14 Wall Street, a 32-story skyscraper with a 7-story stepped pyramid, built in 1910–1912 with an expansion in 1931–1933. It was originally the Bankers Trust Company Building.",
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"plaintext": " 23 Wall Street, a four-story headquarters built in 1914, was known as the \"House of Morgan\" and served for decades as the J.P. Morgan & Co. bank's headquarters and, by some accounts, was considered an important address in American finance. Cosmetic damage from the 1920 Wall Street bombing is still visible on the Wall Street side of this building.",
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"plaintext": " 48 Wall Street, a 32-story skyscraper built in 1927–1929 as the Bank of New York & Trust Company Building.",
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"plaintext": " 40 Wall Street, a 71-story skyscraper built in 1929–1930 as the Bank of Manhattan Company Building; it later became the Trump Building.",
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"plaintext": " 1 Wall Street, a 50-story skyscraper built in 1929–1931 with an expansion in 1963–1965. It was previously known as the Irving Trust Company Building and the Bank of New York Building.",
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"plaintext": " 75 Wall Street, built in 1987. It was built to be the U.S. headquarters of Barclays although several firms leased space in the building after it opened. It was converted in 2006–2009 into a mixed-use building with condominiums and a hotel. ",
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"plaintext": " 60 Wall Street, built in 1988. It was formerly the J.P. Morgan & Co. headquarters before becoming the U.S. headquarters of Deutsche Bank. It is the last remaining major investment bank headquarters on Wall Street.",
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"plaintext": "Another key anchor for the area is the New York Stock Exchange Building at the corner of Broad Street. It houses the New York Stock Exchange, which is by far the world's largest stock exchange per market capitalization of its listed companies, at US$28.5trillion as of June 30, 2018. City authorities realize its importance, and believed that it has \"outgrown its neoclassical temple at the corner of Wall and Broad streets\", and in 1998, offered substantial tax incentives to try to keep it in the Financial District. Plans to rebuild it were delayed by the September 11 attacks. The exchange still occupies the same site. The exchange is the locus for a large amount of technology and data. For example, to accommodate the three thousand people who work directly on the exchange floor requires 3,500 kilowatts of electricity, along with 8,000 phone circuits on the trading floor alone, and 200 miles of fiber-optic cable below ground.",
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"plaintext": "Finance professor Charles R. Geisst wrote that the exchange has become \"inextricably intertwined into New York's economy\". Wall Street pay, in terms of salaries and bonuses and taxes, is an important part of the economy of New York City, the tri-state metropolitan area, and the United States. Anchored by Wall Street, New York City has been called the world's most economically powerful city and leading financial center. As such, a falloff in Wall Street's economy could have \"wrenching effects on the local and regional economies\". In 2008, after a downturn in the stock market, the decline meant $18 billion less in taxable income, with less money available for \"apartments, furniture, cars, clothing and services\".",
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"plaintext": "Estimates vary about the number and quality of financial jobs in the city. One estimate was that Wall Street firms employed close to 200,000 persons in 2008. Another estimate was that in 2007, the financial services industry which had a $70 billion profit became 22 percent of the city's revenue. Another estimate (in 2006) was that the financial services industry makes up 9% of the city's work force and 31% of the tax base. An additional estimate from 2007 by Steve Malanga of the Manhattan Institute was that the securities industry accounts for 4.7 percent of the jobs in New York City but 20.7 percent of its wages, and he estimated there were 175,000 securities-industries jobs in New York (both Wall Street area and midtown) paying an average of $350,000 annually. Between 1995 and 2005, the sector grew at an annual rate of about 6.6% annually, a respectable rate, but that other financial centers were growing faster. Another estimate, made in 2008, was that Wall Street provided a fourth of all personal income earned in the city, and 10% of New York City's tax revenue. The city's securities industry, enumerating 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to form the largest segment of the city's financial sector and an important economic engine, accounting in 2012 for 5 percent of private sector jobs in New York City, 8.5 percent (US$3.8 billion) of the city's tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city's total wages, including an average salary of US$360,700.",
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"plaintext": "The seven largest Wall Street firms in the 2000s were Bear Stearns, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Merrill Lynch and Lehman Brothers. During the recession of 2008–10, many of these firms, including Lehman, went out of business or were bought up at firesale prices by other financial firms. In 2008, Lehman filed for bankruptcy, Bear Stearns was bought by JPMorgan Chase forced by the U.S. government, and Merrill Lynch was bought by Bank of America in a similar shot-gun wedding. These failures marked a catastrophic downsizing of Wall Street as the financial industry goes through restructuring and change. Since New York's financial industry provides almost one-fourth of all income produced in the city, and accounts for 10% of the city's tax revenues and 20% of the state's, the downturn has had huge repercussions for government treasuries. New York's mayor Michael Bloomberg reportedly over a four-year period dangled over $100 million in tax incentives to persuade Goldman Sachs to build a 43-story headquarters in the Financial District near the destroyed World Trade Center site. In 2009, things looked somewhat gloomy, with one analysis by the Boston Consulting Group suggesting that 65,000 jobs had been permanently lost because of the downturn. But there were signs that Manhattan property prices were rebounding with price rises of 9% annually in 2010, and bonuses were being paid once more, with average bonuses over $124,000 in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "A requirement of the New York Stock Exchange was that brokerage firms had to have offices \"clustered around Wall Street\" so clerks could deliver physical paper copies of stock certificates each week. There were some indications that midtown had been becoming the locus of financial services dealings even by 1911. But as technology progressed, in the middle and later decades of the 20th century, computers and telecommunications replaced paper notifications, meaning that the close proximity requirement could be bypassed in more situations. Many financial firms found that they could move to Midtown Manhattan, only four miles away, and still operate effectively. For example, the former investment firm of Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette was described as a Wall Street firm but had its headquarters on Park Avenue in Midtown. A report described the migration from Wall Street:",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, a key magnet for the Wall Street remains the New York Stock Exchange Building. Some \"old guard\" firms such as Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch (bought by Bank of America in 2009), have remained \"fiercely loyal to the Financial District\" location, and new ones such as Deutsche Bank have chosen office space in the district. So-called \"face-to-face\" trading between buyers and sellers remains a \"cornerstone\" of the NYSE, with a benefit of having all of a deal's players close at hand, including investment bankers, lawyers, and accountants.",
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"plaintext": "After Wall Street firms started to expand westward in the 1980s into New Jersey, the direct economic impacts of Wall Street activities have gone beyond New York City. The employment in the financial services industry, mostly in the \"back office\" roles, has become an important part of New Jersey's economy. In 2009, the Wall Street employment wages were paid in the amount of almost $18.5 billion in the state. The industry contributed $39.4 billion or 8.4 percent to the New Jersey's gross domestic product in the same year.",
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"plaintext": "The most significant area with Wall Street employment is in Jersey City. In 2008, the \"Wall Street West\" employment contributed to one third of the private sector jobs in Jersey City. Within the Financial Service cluster, there were three major sectors: more than 60 percent were in the securities industry; 20 percent were in banking; and 8 percent in insurance.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, New Jersey has become the main technology infrastructure to support the Wall Street operations. A substantial amount of securities traded in the United States are executed in New Jersey as the data centers of electronic trading in the U.S. equity market for all major stock exchanges are located in North and Central Jersey. A significant amount of securities clearing and settlement workforce is also in the state. This includes the majority of the workforce of Depository Trust Company, the primary U.S. securities depository; and the Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation, the parent company of National Securities Clearing Corporation, the Fixed Income Clearing Corporation and Emerging Markets Clearing Corporation.",
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"plaintext": "Having a direct tie to Wall Street employment can be problematic for New Jersey, however. The state lost 7.9 percent of its employment base from 2007 to 2010 in the financial services sector in the fallout of the subprime mortgage crisis.",
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"plaintext": "Of the street's importance as a financial center, New York Times analyst Daniel Gross wrote:",
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"plaintext": "An example is the alternative trading platform known as BATS, based in Kansas City, which came \"out of nowhere to gain a 9 percent share in the market for trading United States stocks\". The firm has computers in the U.S. state of New Jersey, and only two salespeople in New York City; the remaining 33 employees work in a center in Kansas.",
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"plaintext": "Wall Street in a conceptual sense represents financial and economic power. To Americans, it can sometimes represent elitism and power politics, and its role has been a source of controversy throughout the nation's history, particularly beginning around the Gilded Age period in the late 19th century. Wall Street became the symbol of a country and economic system that many Americans see as having developed through trade, capitalism, and innovation.",
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"plaintext": "But chief banking analyst at Goldman Sachs, Richard Ramsden, is \"unapologetic\" and sees \"banks as the dynamos that power the rest of the economy\". Ramsden believes \"risk-taking is vital\" and said in 2010:",
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"plaintext": "The financial misdeeds of various figures throughout American history sometimes casts a dark shadow on financial investing as a whole, and include names such as William Duer, Jim Fisk and Jay Gould (the latter two believed to have been involved with an effort to collapse the U.S. gold market in 1869) as well as modern figures such as Bernard Madoff who \"bilked billions from investors\".",
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"plaintext": "Wall Street firms have, however, also contributed to projects such as Habitat for Humanity, as well as done food programs in Haiti, trauma centers in Sudan, and rescue boats during floods in Bangladesh.",
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"plaintext": " Herman Melville's classic short story \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\" (first published in 1853 and republished in revised edition in 1856) is subtitled \"A Story of Wall Street\" and portrays the alienating forces at work within the confines of Wall Street.",
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"plaintext": " In the Star Trek universe, the Ferengi are said to make regular pilgrimages to Wall Street, which they worship as a holy site of commerce and business.",
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"plaintext": " On January 26, 2000, the band Rage Against the Machine filmed the music video for \"Sleep Now in the Fire\" on Wall Street, which was directed by Michael Moore. The New York Stock Exchange closed early that day, at 2:52p.m.",
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"plaintext": " In the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises, Bane attacks the Gotham City Stock Exchange. Scenes were filmed in and around the New York Stock Exchange, with the J.P. Morgan Building at Wall Street and Broad Street standing in for the Exchange.",
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"plaintext": " The 2013 film The Wolf of Wall Street is a dark comedy about Jordan Belfort, a New York stockbroker who ran Stratton Oakmont, a firm from Lake Success, New York, that engaged in securities fraud and corruption on Wall Street from 1987 to 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Many people associated with Wall Street have become famous; although in most cases their reputations are limited to members of the stock brokerage and banking communities, others have gained national and international fame. For some, like hedge fund manager Ray Dalio, their fame is due to skillful investment strategies, financing, reporting, legal or regulatory activities, while others such as Ivan Boesky, Michael Milken and Bernie Madoff are remembered for their notable failures or scandal.",
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"plaintext": "With Wall Street being historically a commuter destination, a plethora of transportation infrastructure has been developed to serve it. Pier 11 near Wall Street's eastern end is a busy terminal for New York Waterway, NYC Ferry, New York Water Taxi, and SeaStreak. The Downtown Manhattan Heliport also serves Wall Street.",
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"plaintext": " Wall Street station at William Street ()",
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"plaintext": " Broad Street station at Broad Street, with an entrance at Wall Street ()",
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"plaintext": " Atwood, Albert W. and Erickson, Erling A. \"Morgan, John Pierpont, (April 17, 1837– March 31, 1913),\" in Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 7 (1934)",
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"plaintext": " Caplan, Sheri J. Petticoats and Pinstripes: Portraits of Women in Wall Street's History. Praeger, 2013. ",
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"plaintext": " Carosso, Vincent P. The Morgans: Private International Bankers, 1854–1913. Harvard University Press, 1987. 888 pp.",
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"plaintext": " Carosso, Vincent P. Investment Banking in America: A History Harvard University Press (1970)",
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"plaintext": " Chernow, Ron. The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance, (2001) ",
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"plaintext": " Geisst, Charles R. Wall Street: A History from Its Beginnings to the Fall of Enron. Oxford University Press, 2004. online edition",
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"plaintext": " Jaffe, Stephen H. & Lautin, Jessica. Capital of Capital: Money, Banking, and Power in New York City, 1784–2012 (2014)",
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"plaintext": " Moody, John. The Masters of Capital: A Chronicle of Wall Street Yale University Press, (1921) online edition",
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"plaintext": " Morris, Charles R. The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Jay Gould, and J. P. Morgan Invented the American Supereconomy (2005) ",
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"plaintext": " Perkins, Edwin J. Wall Street to Main Street: Charles Merrill and Middle-class Investors (1999)",
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"plaintext": " Sobel, Robert. The Big Board: A History of the New York Stock Market (1962)",
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"plaintext": " Sobel, Robert. Inside Wall Street: Continuity & Change in the Financial District (1977)",
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"plaintext": " Strouse, Jean. Morgan: American Financier. Random House, 1999. 796 pp.",
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"plaintext": " Kindleberger, Charles. The world in Depression 1929–1939. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, (1973)",
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"plaintext": "One of the major drawbacks (and, conversely, the most important use) of utilizing Rb and Sr to derive a radiometric date is their relative mobility, especially in hydrothermal fluids. Rb and Sr are relatively mobile alkaline elements and as such are relatively easily moved around by the hot, often carbonated hydrothermal fluids present during metamorphism or magmatism.",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, these fluids may metasomatically alter a rock, introducing new Rb and Sr into the rock (generally during potassic alteration or calcic (albitisation) alteration. Rb-Sr can then be used on the altered mineralogy to date the time of this alteration, but not the date at which the rock formed.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, assigning age significance to a result requires studying the metasomatic and thermal history of the rock, any metamorphic events, and any evidence of fluid movement. A Rb-Sr date which is at variance with other geochronometers may not be useless, it may be providing data on an event which is not representing the age of formation of the rock.",
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"plaintext": "The Rb-Sr dating method has been used extensively in dating terrestrial and lunar rocks, and meteorites. If the initial amount of Sr is known or can be extrapolated, the age can be determined by measurement of the Rb and Sr concentrations and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio. The dates indicate the true age of the minerals only if the rocks have not been subsequently altered.",
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"plaintext": "The important concept in isotopic tracing is that Sr derived from any mineral through weathering reactions will have the same 87Sr/86Sr as the mineral. Although this is a potential source of error for terrestrial rocks, it is irrelevant for lunar rocks and meteorites, as there are no chemical weathering reactions in those environments.",
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"plaintext": "Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios are a useful tool in archaeology, forensics and paleontology because the 87Sr/86Sr of a skeleton, sea shell or indeed a clay artefact is directly comparable to the source rocks upon which it was formed or upon which the organism lived. Thus, by measuring the current-day 87Sr/86Sr ratio (and often the 143Nd-144Nd ratios as well) the geological fingerprint of an object or skeleton can be measured, allowing migration patterns to be determined.",
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"plaintext": "Strontium isotope stratigraphy relies on recognised variations in the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater over time. The application of Sr isotope stratigraphy is generally limited to carbonate samples for which the Sr seawater curve is well defined. This is well known for the Cenozoic time-scale but, due to poorer preservation of carbonate sequences in the Mesozoic and earlier, it is not completely understood for older sequences.",
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"plaintext": "In older sequences diagenetic alteration combined with greater uncertainties in estimating absolute ages due to lack of overlap between other geochronometers (for example U–Th) leads to greater uncertainties in the exact shape of the Sr isotope seawater curve.",
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"plaintext": "CSIRO Petroleum - Global Sr Seawater Isotope Evolution",
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]
| [
"Radiometric_dating",
"Rubidium",
"Strontium"
]
| 1,499,814 | 822 | 64 | 36 | 0 | 0 | rubidium-strontium dating | radiometric dating technique for rocks and minerals based on the quantities of specific isotopes of rubidium (⁸⁷Rb) and strontium (⁸⁷Sr, ⁸⁶Sr) | []
|
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