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36,605 | 1,095,162,559 | Molecular_electronics | [
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"plaintext": "Molecular electronics is the study and application of molecular building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components. It is an interdisciplinary area that spans physics, chemistry, and materials science. The unifying feature is use of molecular building blocks to fabricate electronic components. Due to the prospect of size reduction in electronics offered by molecular-level control of properties, molecular electronics has generated much excitement. It provides a potential means to extend Moore's Law beyond the foreseen limits of small-scale conventional silicon integrated circuits.",
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"plaintext": "Molecular scale electronics, also called single-molecule electronics, is a branch of nanotechnology that uses single molecules, or nanoscale collections of single molecules, as electronic components. Because single molecules constitute the smallest stable structures possible, this miniaturization is the ultimate goal for shrinking electrical circuits.",
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"plaintext": "Conventional electronic devices are traditionally made from bulk materials. Bulk methods have inherent limits, and are growing increasingly demanding and costly. Thus, the idea was born that the components could instead be built up atom by atom in a chemistry lab (bottom up) as opposed to carving them out of bulk material (top down). In single-molecule electronics, the bulk material is replaced by single molecules. That is, instead of creating structures by removing or applying material after a pattern scaffold, the atoms are put together in a chemistry lab. The molecules used have properties that resemble traditional electronic components such as a wire, transistor, or rectifier. This concept of using a molecule as a traditional electronic component was first presented by Aviram and Ratner in 1974, when they proposed a theoretical molecular rectifier composed of donor and acceptor sites which are insulated from one another.",
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"plaintext": "Single-molecule electronics is an emerging field, and entire electronic circuits consisting exclusively of molecular sized compounds are still very far from being realized. However, the continuous demand for more computing power, together with the inherent limits of the present day lithographic methods make the transition seem unavoidable. Currently, the focus is on discovering molecules with interesting properties and on finding ways to obtain reliable and reproducible contacts between the molecular components and the bulk material of the electrodes.",
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"plaintext": "Molecular electronics operates in the quantum realm of distances less than 100 nanometers. Miniaturization down to single molecules brings the scale down to a regime where quantum mechanics effects are important. In contrast to the case in conventional electronic components, where electrons can be filled in or drawn out more or less like a continuous flow of electric charge, the transfer of a single electron alters the system significantly. The significant amount of energy due to charging has to be taken into account when making calculations about the electronic properties of the setup and is highly sensitive to distances to conducting surfaces nearby.",
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"plaintext": "One of the biggest problems with measuring on single molecules is to establish reproducible electrical contact with only one molecule and doing so without shortcutting the electrodes. Because the current photolithographic technology is unable to produce electrode gaps small enough to contact both ends of the molecules tested (in the order of nanometers) alternative strategies are put into use. These include molecular-sized gaps called break junctions, in which a thin electrode is stretched until it breaks. One of the way to over come the gap size issue is by trapping molecular functionalized nanoparticles (internanoparticle spacing is match able to the size of molecules) and later target molecule by place exchange reaction. Another method is to use the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to contact molecules adhered at the other end to a metal substrate. Another popular way to anchor molecules to the electrodes is to make use of sulfur's high chemical affinity to gold; though useful, the anchoring is non-specific and thus anchors the molecules randomly to all gold surfaces, and the contact resistance is highly dependent on the precise atomic geometry around the site of anchoring and thereby inherently compromises the reproducibility of the connection. To circumvent the latter issue, experiments have shown that fullerenes could be a good candidate for use instead of sulfur because of the large conjugated π-system that can electrically contact many more atoms at once than a single atom of sulfur. The shift from metal electrodes to semiconductor electrodes allows for more tailored properties and thus for more interesting applications. There are some concepts for contacting organic molecules using semiconductor-only electrodes, for example by using indium arsenide nanowires with an embedded segment of the wider bandgap material indium phosphide used as an electronic barrier to be bridged by molecules.",
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"plaintext": "One of the biggest hindrances for single-molecule electronics to be commercially exploited is the lack of means to connect a molecular sized circuit to bulk electrodes in a way that gives reproducible results. Also problematic is that some measurements on single molecules are done at cryogenic temperatures, near absolute zero, which is very energy consuming.",
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"plaintext": "The first time in history molecular electronics are mentioned was in 1956 by the German physicist Arthur Von Hippel, who suggested a bottom-up procedure of developing electronics from atoms and molecules rather than using prefabricated materials, an idea he named molecular engineering. However the first breakthrough in the field is",
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"plaintext": "considered by many the article by Ratner and Aviram in 1974. In this article named Molecular Rectifiers, they presented a theoretical calculation of transport through a modified charge-transfer molecule with donor acceptor groups that would allow transport only in one direction, essentially like a semiconductor diode. This was a breakthrough that inspired many years of research in the field of molecular electronics.",
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"plaintext": "The biggest advantage of conductive polymers is their processability, mainly by dispersion. Conductive polymers are not plastics, i.e., they are not thermoformable, yet they are organic polymers, like (insulating) polymers. They can offer high electrical conductivity but have different mechanical properties than other commercially used polymers. The electrical properties can be fine-tuned using the methods of organic synthesis and of advanced dispersion.",
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"plaintext": "The linear-backbone polymers such as polyacetylene, polypyrrole, and polyaniline are the main classes of conductive polymers. Poly(3-alkylthiophenes) are the archetypical materials for solar cells and transistors.",
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"plaintext": "Conducting polymers have backbones of contiguous sp2 hybridized carbon centers. One valence electron on each center resides in a pz orbital, which is orthogonal to the other three sigma-bonds. The electrons in these delocalized orbitals have high mobility when the material is doped by oxidation, which removes some of these delocalized electrons. Thus the conjugated p-orbitals form a one-dimensional electronic band, and the electrons within this band become mobile when it is emptied partly. Despite intensive research, the relationship between morphology, chain structure, and conductivity is poorly understood yet.",
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"plaintext": "Due to their poor processability, conductive polymers have few large-scale applications. They have some promise in antistatic materials and have been built into commercial displays and batteries, but have had limits due to the production costs, material inconsistencies, toxicity, poor solubility in solvents, and inability to directly melt process. Nevertheless, conducting polymers are rapidly gaining attraction in new uses with increasingly processable materials with better electrical and physical properties and lower costs. With the availability of stable and reproducible dispersions, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) and polyaniline have gained some large-scale applications. While PEDOT is mainly used in antistatic applications and as a transparent conductive layer in the form of PEDOT and polystyrene sulfonic acid (PSS, mixed form: PEDOT:PSS) dispersions, polyaniline is widely used to make printed circuit boards, in the final finish, to protect copper from corrosion and preventing its solderability. Newer nanostructured forms of conducting polymers provide fresh impetus to this field, with their higher surface area and better dispersability.",
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"plaintext": " Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling",
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"plaintext": " Molecular conductance",
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"plaintext": " Molecular wires",
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"plaintext": " Organic semiconductor",
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"plaintext": " Single-molecule magnet",
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"plaintext": " Spin transition",
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"plaintext": " Unimolecular rectifier",
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"plaintext": " Nanoelectronics",
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"plaintext": " Mark Ratner",
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"plaintext": " Mark Reed (physicist)",
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"plaintext": " James Tour",
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"plaintext": "Ian Brown (at the time the bassist) and guitarist John Squire, who knew each other from Altrincham Grammar School for Boys, formed a short-lived Clash-inspired band, the Patrol, in 1980 with singer/guitarist Andy Couzens and drummer Simon Wolstencroft. They played several gigs in 1980 and recorded a demo tape, but towards the end of that year decided on a change of direction. Brown had got a taste of being a frontman during the last Patrol show, singing Sweet's \"Block Buster!\" to close the set, with the band's friend/roadie Pete Garner standing in on bass, and Couzens wanting to concentrate on guitar. The band members lost enthusiasm in 1981, Brown selling his bass guitar to buy a scooter, and Wolstencroft joined Johnny Marr and Andy Rourke's pre-Smiths band Freak Party. Squire continued to practice guitar while working as an animator for Cosgrove Hall during the day, while Brown ran a Northern soul night in a Salford club. ",
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"plaintext": "Squire and Couzens started a new band, the Fireside Chaps, with bassist Gary \"Mani\" Mounfield, later recruiting a singer named David \"Kaiser\" Carty and drummer Chris Goodwin, and changing their name to the Waterfront (after the film On the Waterfront), their sound influenced by 1960s groups and contemporary bands such as Orange Juice. Goodwin left before the band recorded their first demo and, shortly after the demo, Squire asked Brown to join as singer. A meeting with Geno Washington at a party at Brown's flat in Hulme, in which Washington told Brown that he would be a star and should be a singer, convinced Brown to take Squire up on his offer. Brown joined the Waterfront in late 1983, for a time sharing vocals with Kaiser (Dave Carty).",
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"plaintext": "Like the earlier attempts at bands, the Waterfront fizzled out, but in late 1983 Couzens decided to try again at starting a band, and approached Brown. They decided on Wolstencroft (who had turned down the job of drummer in The Smiths) as drummer and Pete Garner as bassist (despite his admission that he could not play anything but \"Block Buster!\"). They also decided that they needed Squire in the band, and when he agreed the band's line-up was cemented. Leaving their previous bands behind, they worked solely on new material. Brown's vocal limitations prompted him to take singing lessons for three weeks. After rehearsing for some time without a band name, Squire came up with \"The Stone Roses\". Several stories later emerged suggesting that the band had initially been called \"English Rose\" or that the name was somehow linked to the Rolling Stones, but these were untrue, Brown explaining \"No, I don't know where that English Rose story came from. John thought up the name 'Stone Roses' - something with a contrast, two words that went against each other\". The band rehearsed for six months, during which time Wolstencroft had been auditioning for other bands, and he left to join Terry Hall's band the Colourfield. They got Goodwin to rejoin, but he lasted for only one rehearsal, so they advertised for a replacement and began auditioning, eventually recruiting Alan \"Reni\" Wren in May 1984.",
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"plaintext": "After rehearsing and writing songs over the summer, they recorded their first demo in late August, making 100 cassettes, with artwork by Squire, and set about trying to get gigs. They played their first gig as the Stone Roses on 23 October 1984, supporting Pete Townshend at an anti-heroin concert at the Moonlight Club in London, Brown having sent the demo with an accompanying letter stating \"I'm surrounded by skagheads, I wanna smash 'em. Can you give us a show?\". The show was seen by journalists including Sounds Garry Johnson, who arranged to interview the band a few weeks later. The band received management offers and more gigs soon followed.",
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"plaintext": "Howard(Ginger)Jones, who had recently left his job as Director and General manager of the Haçienda, producer Martin Hannett, and Tim Chambers agreed to work with the band on an album, setting up Thin Line Records to release it, with Jones taking on management of the band, although they had already made a similar agreement with Caroline Reed in London. The band got their first positive press in late December, with Johnson tipping them for success in 1985 in Sounds, with a feature on the band following in January.",
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"plaintext": "The band played their first headlining gig on 4 January 1985, supported by Last Party, after original headliners Mercenary Skank had pulled out. The band had their first recording session with Hannett in January 1985 at Strawberry Studios in Stockport, aiming to record tracks for a debut single and an album. Further sessions followed in March, during which they recorded their debut single, the double A-side \"So Young\"/\"Tell Me\". The band were invited to play a live session on Piccadilly Radio in March, for which they premiered a new song, \"I Wanna Be Adored\". Tony Michaelides (AKA Tony the Greek) from the station arranged for five local bands to play at Dingwalls in London on February 8th: Glee Company, Communal Drop, Fictitious Names, Laugh, and the Stone Roses. Mark Radcliffe, another Piccadilly DJ, was compère for the night. By this time the Stone Roses had started to build a sizeable following in Manchester and their first gig in the North of England at Clouds in Preston, which attracted a large audience, descended into a riot after technical problems and friction between the bands on the bill.",
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"plaintext": "The Roses embarked on a tour of Sweden in April, with their first gig in Manchester following on their return, at International 1, a venue run by future Stone Roses managers Matthew Cummins and Gareth Evans. A performance at a warehouse party on 20 July helped to build interest in the band, and in August they returned to the studio to record their debut album. Unhappy with the results, and with the band's sound changing, it was shelved (it was later released as Garage Flower). The \"So Young\"/\"Tell Me\" single, however, was released on Thin Line Records in September.",
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"plaintext": "Frustrated with the lack of attention they were getting locally, they engaged in a graffiti campaign, with Brown and Wren spraying the band's name on walls from West Didsbury to the city centre. It brought them much negative publicity, but added to their increasing notoriety. In 1986 they began working on new material, including \"Sally Cinnamon\", and the planned follow-up singles to \"So Young\" (\"I Wanna Be Adored\" and \"This Is the One\") were shelved. They parted company with Jones and took on Gareth Evans as manager, using Evans' International 1 venue as their new rehearsal space. Around this time the band played several UK tour dates including 11 August 1986 at the Mardi Gras club in Liverpool with local promoter and record label owner Ken Kelly and his band Innervision at which several record company executives would be in attendance.",
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"plaintext": "As Brown and Squire began collaborating more closely on songwriting, they decided that they should take a larger slice of the money than the other band members. Couzens and Wren left the band in protest, although they soon returned. Couzens played an ill-fated gig with the band at the end of May before being pushed out of the band by Evans after flying home alone while the rest of the band returned in their van. Although they failed to achieve further success in 1986, their repertoire expanded to include songs such as \"Sugar Spun Sister\", taking on influences from bands such as The Jesus & Mary Chain and the indie-pop era Primal Scream (\"Velocity Girl\" being a major influence on \"Made of Stone\"), and they stopped playing the older songs.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1986 they recorded their first demo as a four-piece, including the first studio recordings of \"Sugar Spun Sister\" and \"Elephant Stone\". In early 1987, Evans negotiated a deal with Black/FM Revolver for a one-off release on the specially created Black Records label. By the time of the release of the single, \"Sally Cinnamon\", the group's sound had changed considerably, with chiming guitar hooks and a strong melody, alienating some of their old fans, but attracting many new ones. \"Sally Cinnamon\" sold out its 1,000-copy run, but failed to make the desired impact.",
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"plaintext": "In June, Garner announced that he had decided to leave the band, although he stayed until they found a replacement. He played his final gig with the band at the 'Larks in the Park' festival in Liverpool. Rob Hampson was Garner's replacement, with Garner teaching him the bass parts before leaving, although Hampson lasted only a week. A more permanent replacement was found in the form of former-Waterfront bassist Mani (Gary Mounfield), who played his first gig with the band in November 1987. Brown recalled, \"When Mani joined it almost changed overnight. It became a totally different groove... Straight away, everything just fell into place\".",
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"plaintext": "In early 1988 the band played at Dingwalls in London, a show attended by representatives of Zomba and Rough Trade's Geoff Travis, and both subsequently wanted to sign the band. Rough Trade even funded studio time to record a single, \"Elephant Stone\", with Peter Hook producing. Hook was considered to produce an album for the band, but was unavailable due to commitments with New Order, so Travis suggested John Leckie. In May the band played a high-profile concert at Manchester's International II with James organized by Dave Haslam to raise funds for a campaign against Clause 28. The band attempted to usurp James by putting up posters around town listing the Stone Roses as headliners, and delaying their start time to get the headline time themselves and limit the time that James could play for. In the audience was a sixteen-year-old Liam Gallagher, for whom it was the inspiration to form a band himself. Noel Gallagher too has stated that he was inspired to the same by attending one of their gigs. Also in the audience was Glaswegian Roddy McKenna, A&R executive with Zomba, who later signed the band to the label. He asked if they could be transferred internally to Andrew Lauder's newly created guitar-based Silvertone Records subsidiary. The band were signed to an eight-album deal, buying the \"Elephant Stone\" tapes from Rough Trade and releasing them as a single in October 1988.",
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"plaintext": "The band were co-managed by Matthew Cummins who died in 2007 following an accident.",
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"plaintext": "In 1988 and early 1989 the Stone Roses recorded their debut album at Battery Studios and Konk Studios in London and Rockfield Studios in Wales, produced by Leckie. The first single for Silvertone, \"Elephant Stone\", made little impact, and in early 1989 the band's performances outside the north-west were still attracting small audiences. \"Made of Stone\" received more press attention and was picked up for airplay by DJ Richard Skinner on his late night Radio One show, but peaked at number ninety on the UK Singles Chart. The Stone Roses was released in April / May 1989, initially to mostly positive reviews, and entered the UK Albums Chart at number 32 in mid-May, the highest position it would reach that year. This was followed with the single \"She Bangs the Drums\", which gave them a top forty UK hit, and a number one on the UK Independent Chart, and by that point they were receiving much greater press attention and were selling out shows across the country. The band gained widespread notoriety when, one minute into a live 1989 TV performance on the BBC's The Late Show, the power failed, prompting Ian Brown to repeatedly squeal \"Amateurs!\" at Tracey MacLeod. Later in 1989 the band released a double A-side single, \"Fools Gold/What the World Is Waiting For\", which reached number eight on the UK Singles Chart in November. Originally intended as a B-side, \"Fools Gold\" quickly became the Roses' most famous song and a performance of it on Top of the Pops cemented their national fame. It gave them their first top ten hit and the album rose to number nineteen in the chart early the following year.",
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"plaintext": "Their biggest headline gigs in 1989 were to 4,000 people at Blackpool's Empress Ballroom on Saturday 12 August and to 7,000 people at London's Alexandra Palace on Saturday 18 November. The former of these was released as a live video in 1991 and later on YouTube.",
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"plaintext": "The group won four NME Readers poll awards that year; Band of the Year, Best New Band, Single of the Year (for \"Fools Gold\") and Album of the Year (for their debut album). The Stone Roses is now considered one of the greatest British albums, although the band themselves were unhappy with the sound on the album, Squire describing it as \"twee\" and not \"fat or hard enough\".",
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"plaintext": "The Stone Roses' outdoor concert at Spike Island in Widnes on 27 May 1990 was attended by some 27,000 people, the support acts included; DJs Dave Haslam, Paul Oakenfold, Frankie Bones, Dave Booth, a Zimbabwean drum orchestra, and the reggae artist Gary Clail. The event, considered a failure at the time due to sound problems and bad organisation, has become legendary over the years as a \"Woodstock for the baggy generation\". In mid-2010 footage of the concert was published on YouTube.",
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"plaintext": "By July the band had released their final single for Silvertone, \"One Love\", which reached number four in the UK Singles Chart, their highest placing yet. It was to be the Roses' last original release for four years as they entered a protracted legal battle to terminate their five-year contract with Silvertone, unhappy with how they had been paid by the label. Silvertone owners Zomba Records took out an injunction against the band in September 1990 to prevent them from recording with any other label, but in May 1991 the court sided with the group, which was then released from its contract. The Stone Roses subsequently signed with Geffen Records (garnering a million-pound advance for their next record) and began work on their second album. However, Silvertone appealed against the ruling, delaying the record for another year.",
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"plaintext": "Following the court case the Stone Roses separated themselves from Manchester's club culture and spent much of 1992 and 1993 travelling in Europe before starting work on their second album in mid-1993. Progress was slow, hampered by Brown's and Squire's new fatherhood and the death of several people close to the band. John Leckie ultimately left the project as the band would not sign a production contract. Afterwards the Stone Roses assumed production duties with engineer Simon Dawson at Rockfield Studios in Wales, where they spent 347 ten-hour days working on the album.",
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"plaintext": "The Stone Roses finally released the album, Second Coming, on 5 December 1994. Mostly written by John Squire, the music now had a shady, heavy blues rock sound, dominated by Squire's guitar riffs and solos. \"Love Spreads\" reached number two on the UK Singles Chart. Second Coming received a mixed reception from the British press, which music journalist Simon Reynolds attributed to \"the resentment that the Roses, divorced from the cultural moment that gave them meaning, were now just another band\".",
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"plaintext": "In March 1995, just two weeks before a tour in support of Second Coming was due to begin, Reni exited the band, following a disagreement with Ian Brown. A replacement drummer was found in Robbie Maddix, who had previously worked with Rebel MC. Also recruited around this time for the live shows was session-keyboardist/programmer Nigel Ippinson, who had previously played with the band on the \"Chic Remix\" re-working of \"Begging You\" for its release as a single. A secret \"come-back\" tour of the UK was planned for April 1995 but cancelled after the music press announced the dates. A major blow was the cancellation of their engagement at the Glastonbury Festival in June 1995. John Squire had suffered a mountain-biking accident in northern California weeks before the show, breaking his collarbone. The band finally organised a full UK tour for November and December 1995 and all dates sold out in a day.",
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"plaintext": "John Squire announced his departure on 1 April 1996, releasing a statement saying it was: \"the inevitable conclusion to the gradual social and musical separation that we have undergone in the past few years\". Simply Red's 1987/88 tour guitarist Aziz Ibrahim, a former classmate of Pete Garner's at Burnage High School, was recruited as a replacement. The band continued for another six months, but there was a noticeable deterioration in the quality of its public performances after Squire's loss, and at Benicassim Festival and the Reading Festival Brown's voice was described as \"so off-key it was excruciating to have to listen\". The music press was united in its criticism, the NME describing \"I Am the Resurrection\" as \"more like the eternal crucifixion\". Brown and Mani dissolved the group in October 1996.",
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"plaintext": "Ian Brown, John Squire and Mani have all had successful careers since the Roses' breakup. Squire formed the Seahorses, who released one album before breaking up, as well as releasing two solo albums. In 2007 he told a reporter that he was giving up music for good to focus on his career as a painter. Brown has released seven solo albums, a remixes and a greatest hits collection all but one of which have charted in the top 5 of the UK Albums Chart. Mani joined Primal Scream as bassist in 1996 and remained in the band until the Stone Roses reunited.",
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"plaintext": "Reni remained inactive for the most part after the Roses' breakup. He started a new band, the Rub, in 1999, and played several gigs but nothing has been heard of The Rub since. In an interview in 2005 he said he was writing new songs to perform with Mani.",
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"plaintext": "The 20th-anniversary edition of the band's debut album was released in August 2009, remastered by John Leckie and Ian Brown, including a collectors' box-set edition and the previously unreleased song \"Pearl Bastard\".",
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"plaintext": "After the newspaper The Sun published a story on 14 October 2011 citing that the Roses had signed for a series of gigs across the UK, rumours again began to circulate. The NME reported that Alan 'Reni' Wren had responded to these rumours, contacting them with a cryptic message that read: \"Not before 9T will I wear the hat 4 the Roses again\". On 17 October, Dynamo told The Sun that Brown had confirmed the reunion by saying that the band were \"ready to take the world by storm\", and that Brown had sent him a text message with the words \"It's happening\". On 18 October 2011, the Stone Roses announced at a press conference the end of a fifteen-year split. An \"extensive\" Reunion Tour of the world, starting in Warrington, for a low-key warm-up show, was scheduled. However, the main attractions of the tour were three homecoming shows at Heaton Park, Manchester, on 29–30 June and 1 July 2012 plus one show in Dublin's Phoenix Park on 5 July 2012. In a press conference interview, the members of the Stone Roses said they had plans to record a third album. 150,000 tickets for the two Heaton Park shows sold out in 14 minutes, with the band then announcing a third show at the venue to be held on 1 July 2012. They then announced a show would take place in Ireland, with Ian Brown saying \"After Manchester, Ireland is always next on our list\". The first leg of the tour would consist of two warm-up gigs in Barcelona in early June and then shows in the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Hungary, Germany and France.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 December 2011, Ian Brown and John Squire performed together live for the first time since 1995. They joined Mick Jones from the Clash, the Farm and Pete Wylie at the Manchester Ritz in aid of the Justice for Hillsborough campaign. They performed on versions of the Clash's \"Bankrobber\" and \"Armagidion Time\" as well as the Stone Roses' \"Elizabeth My Dear\". On 23 May 2012, the Stone Roses held their first public concert since their reunion, playing an 11-song set before 1000 fans at Parr Hall in Warrington. The show, which was only announced that afternoon, was free to attend for those who brought a Stone Roses CD, LP or shirt with them.",
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"plaintext": "On 26 November 2012, it was announced via the event's Facebook page that the band would play the Isle of Wight Festival in June 2013. The Stone Roses played at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival on 12 and 19 April 2013. The Stone Roses also played at Finsbury Park, London on 7 and 8 June 2013 and Glasgow Green, Glasgow on 15 June 2013.",
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"plaintext": "A documentary was planned for the Stone Roses' reunion, with film director Shane Meadows chosen to film it. The documentary, titled Made of Stone, received its world premiere at Trafford Park in Manchester on 30 May 2013 and was simultaneously broadcast live in many cinemas across the United Kingdom. It had its general release on 5 June 2013.",
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"plaintext": "On 26 September 2016, the band announced three stadium gigs in the UK for 2017 - The SSE Arena in Belfast (Odyssey Complex) on 13 June, Wembley Stadium in London on 17 June and Hampden Park in Glasgow on 24 June. In December 2016, two more dates were added at the Leeds First Direct Arena on 20 and 21 June 2017.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 June 2017, the Stone Roses played at Hampden Park in Glasgow. During the performance Ian Brown addressed the crowd with the statement: \"Don't be sad that it's over, be happy that it happened,\" leading many to speculate that the performance would be their final concert. This would turn out to be true, as on 16 September 2019, Squire confirmed in an interview with The Guardian that the band had disbanded.",
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"plaintext": "A typical example is the Spike Island press conference in 1990, which was attended by much of the world's music press. This ended in chaos when the gathered journalists began a small riot, believing the band to be deliberately upsetting them.",
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"plaintext": "As John Robb commented: \"The Stone Roses would stonewall the journalist[s]. With shy guffaws, muttered asides, dispassionate staring, foot-shuffling silences and complete mind-numbing gaps, punctuated by the odd piece of incisive home-spun philosophy from Brown, who occasionally hinted at a well-read mind. There would be complete silence from John Squire, witty banter from Reni, and Mani spouting off if he let his guard drop.\" However, Robb clarified they \"were no fools when it came to the media\". He concluded: \"One feature of the band's career had been their ability to stay on the news pages of the rock press almost permanently for years on end, including the years when they did fuck all. And they did this by hardly saying anything at all.\"",
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"plaintext": "Although the aforementioned reformation conference in October 2011 displayed an elated and talkative Stone Roses engaging with the press, it was followed by total media silence. Other than Shane Meadows' documentary in 2013, the band provided no further interviews.",
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"plaintext": " The Stone Roses (1989)",
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"plaintext": "The Fatboy Slim album and Cook's second solo album, Better Living Through Chemistry (released on Skint Records in the UK and Astralwerks in the US), contained the Top 40 UK hit \"Everybody Needs a 303\". Fatboy Slim's next work was the single \"The Rockafeller Skank\", released before the album You've Come a Long Way, Baby, both of which were released in 1998. \"Praise You\", also from this album, was Cook's first UK solo number one. Its music video, starring Spike Jonze, won numerous awards. On 9 September 1999, he performed \"Praise You\" at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards in New York City, and won three awards, including the award for Breakthrough Video.",
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"plaintext": "The band's debut album, I Think We're Gonna Need a Bigger Boat, is the first to be co-produced by Cook's longtime engineer Simon Thornton, who also sings on one track. The album was released 6 January 2009 exclusively at Amazon.com on CD, with downloadable format and other stores scheduled for a month later on 3 February 2009.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010 Cook released a mix album titled The Legend Returns as a covermount album in the June 2010 issue of Mixmag. He returned as Fatboy Slim when performing at Ultra Music Festival in Miami in March 2012.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Fatboy Slim returned with his single \"Where U Iz\", released on 3 March. Later that year, he released another collaboration with Beardyman titled \"Boom F**king Boom\".",
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"plaintext": "In June 2005, Fatboy Slim filled the Friday night headline slot on the \"Other Stage\" at the Glastonbury Festival. In 2006, Fatboy Slim filled the Saturday headline slot at the Global Gathering festival at Long Marston Airfield in the English Midlands. He played a two-hour set, appearing in front of a visual stage set comprising video screens and 3D lighting. A fireworks display rounded off the show. Having been banned by police from playing in Brighton since 2002, Fatboy Slim was given permission in 2006 to play again in his home town. On 1 January 2007, he played to an audience of more than 20,000 fans along Brighton's seafront. Tickets to the event, titled \"Fatboy Slim's Big Beach Boutique 3\", were made available only to individuals with a BN postcode. The concert was deemed a \"stunning success\" by Sussex police, Fatboy Slim, and the crowd. The Cuban Brothers and David Guetta opened the concert. The next similar event, 'Big Beach Boutique 4', was held on 27 September 2008.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 March 2013, Fatboy Slim played at the House of Commons in Westminster, London. This was the first time a DJ ever performed there, and the performance was in aid of the Last Night A DJ Saved My Life Foundation, which is aimed at \"encouraging 16- to 25-year-olds to get more involved in their communities through grassroot initiatives and to raise awareness for community music projects\".",
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"plaintext": "In December 2014, Fatboy Slim played three sold-out shows including The Warehouse Project in Manchester & O2 Brixton Academy, with supporting acts such as VAS LEON with Arthur Baker for Slam Dunk'd, and DJ Fresh.",
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"plaintext": "On 15 May 2016 he played a private two-hour set \"Baby Loves Disco\" for preschool children and their parents during the festival Brighton Fringe holding.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2019, Cook performed a mashup of his track \"Right Here, Right Now\" and Greta Thunberg's United Nations speech during a concert in Gateshead, England.",
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"plaintext": "Known as DJ Quentox (The OX that Rocks), Cook and DJ Baptiste started putting on youth club hip hop jams in Brighton, sowing the seeds of the city's flourishing hip hop scene today. These primitive 1980s block parties are recalled in the music documentary South Coast, which documents Brighton's cult hip hop scene from its grass roots to the present day.",
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"plaintext": "Q magazine named Fatboy Slim part of their \"50 Bands to See Before You Die\" list.",
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"plaintext": "He married TV personality Zoe Ball in 1999 at Babington House in Somerset. In January 2003, Cook broke up with Ball, but three months later they reconciled. They have a son, Woody Fred Cook (born 15 December 2000), who appeared on the Channel 4 show The Circle in 2019, and performs under the record label Truth Tribe, and a daughter Nelly May Lois (born 14 January 2010), who premiered a DJ set as Fat Girl Slim with Camp Bestival during the COVID-19 pandemic to raise money for the Ellen MacArthur Cancer Trust and The Trussell Trust. They live in Western Esplanade, Portslade. On 24 September 2016, Cook and Ball announced their separation after 18 years.",
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"plaintext": " Asher D. Slim",
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"plaintext": "After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank of captain. In 1919, he became an aide-de-camp to General Pershing. Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing was Army Chief of Staff, Marshall worked on a number of projects that focused on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. He taught at the Army War College and was a key planner in the War Department. He then served as executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regiment in the Republic of China, where he remained for three years and learned to speak basic Mandarin. In 1927, as a lieutenant colonel, he was appointed assistant commandant of the Infantry School at Fort Benning, where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. Marshall placed Edwin F. Harding in charge of the Infantry School's publications, and Harding became editor of Infantry in Battle, a book that codified the lessons of World War I. Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall's first wife died in 1927. The following year, while stationed at Fort Benning, Marshall met Katherine Tupper Brown at a dinner party. They married on October 15, 1930, at Emmanuel Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland. The wedding made headlines as General Pershing served as Marshall's best man.",
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"plaintext": "From June 1932 to June 1933, Marshall was the commanding officer of the 8th Infantry Regiment at Fort Screven, Georgia. From July 1933 to October 1933 he was commander of Fort Moultrie, South Carolina, and District I of the Civilian Conservation Corps, and he was promoted to colonel in September 1933. During the Great Depression he became a strong supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. He was senior instructor and chief of staff for the Illinois National Guard's 33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall was promoted to general in 1936 and assigned to command the 5th Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver, Washington, from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936. In addition to obtaining a long-sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to the pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington. As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started a newspaper for the CCC region that provided a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed participants' skills and improved their health. Marshall's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the American Pacific Northwest and made that assignment what he called \"the most instructive service I ever had, and the most interesting.\"",
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"plaintext": "In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington, D.C., and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then-Brigadier General Marshall attended a White House conference at which President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a plan to expand the United States Army Air Corps by 15,000 aircraft per year in preparation for World War II. With all other attendees voicing support, Marshall was the only one to disagree, pointing out the lack of consideration for logistical support or training. Marshall also spoke in favor of a large ground army although Roosevelt had said a large air force would be a greater deterrent to enemies, pointing out that the United States Army did not yet have a single division at full operational strength. Despite others' belief then that Marshall had ended his career, his willingness to express disagreement resulted in Roosevelt nominating Marshall to be the Army Chief of Staff. At the time of the appointment, Marshall was only 34th in seniority, outranked by 21 major generals and 11 brigadier generals, but he was fifth under an unwritten rule that the chief of staff should be able to serve a four-year term before reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64.",
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"plaintext": "Upon the retirement of General Malin Craig on July 1, 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff. President Roosevelt favored Marshall because he was more supportive of New Deal liberalism than the conservative Douglas MacArthur, and because of the recommendations of Pershing, Craig, Louis A. Johnson, and most importantly Roosevelt's close advisor Harry Hopkins. Marshall was sworn in as chief of staff on September 1, 1939, just hours after the Wehrmacht launched its invasion of Poland. He held this post until retiring in November 1945.",
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"plaintext": "On May 11, 1940, the United States Congress cut $10 million from a $28 million appropriation budget for equipment to detect Imperial Japanese Armed Forces aircraft off the West Coast of the United States. Marshall met with Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. and they went to see Roosevelt; Marshall emphasized the supreme importance of getting the full amount and told Roosevelt \"you have got to do something and you've got to do it today\". Marshall's advocacy worked and he got \"all he wanted and more\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1941, Marshall became a Freemason, raised \"at sight\" by the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia. (\"At sight\" is the procedure by which a Grand Master confers on a candidate all three Masonic degrees - Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master - at one time.)",
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"plaintext": "As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at the Army War College, coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. During his first week in office he advised Roosevelt to issue an executive order expanding the Regular Army to 227,000 troops and the National Guard to 235,000 reservists, although the President could not immediately act because the United States Congress still favored isolationism. ",
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"plaintext": "Marshall's efforts to expand the United States Armed Forces began to have more success after the Axis powers conquered most of Western Europe in the Battle of France. Beginning in July 1940, he was greatly assisted in this effort by newly appointed Secretary of War Henry Stimson, who Marshall would gradually displace as the most significant leader of the U.S. military apparatus in a deviation from the United States' tradition of civilian control of the military. Though he had never actually led troops in combat, Marshall was a skilled organizer with a talent for inspiring other officers. Many of the American generals who were given top commands during the war were either picked or recommended by Marshall, including Dwight D. Eisenhower, Jacob L. Devers, George S. Patton, Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr., Lloyd Fredendall, Lesley J. McNair, Mark Wayne Clark and Omar Bradley.",
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"plaintext": "Faced with the necessity of turning an army of former civilians into a force of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed McNair as commander of Army Ground Forces to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics. At the time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large-scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads. In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa in Operation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when encountering German armored combat units in Africa in the Battle of Kasserine Pass and other major battles. Even as late as 1944, U.S. soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there.",
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"plaintext": "Originally, Marshall had planned a 265-division Army with a system of unit rotation such as practiced by the British and other Allies. By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of a 90-division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat. The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair exacerbated problems with unit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to new soldiers and officers. In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944. Hastily trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were often given only a few weeks' refresher training before being thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front-line combat.",
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"plaintext": "The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own weapons, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, sometimes within the first few days. Under such conditions, many soldiers suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veterans were kept at the front until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or illness. Incidents of soldiers going AWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self-inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war with Nazi Germany. As one historian concluded, \"Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans the most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job.\"",
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"plaintext": "Marshall's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. He was instrumental in advancing the careers of the highly capable generals such as Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, George S. Patton, Walter Krueger and Mark A. Clark. A notable exception was his recommendation of the swaggering Lloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as \"one of the best\" and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, \"I like that man; you can see determination all over his face.\" Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000-man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrous Battle of Kasserine Pass.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army and Army Air Forces for the invasion of Continental Europe. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. During the Arcadia Conference he convinced the United Kingdom to accept this strategy, including the focus on defeating Germany first and the establishment of international unified commands in control of all Allied forces in a given theatre. His push for unity of command, in particular through the Combined Chiefs of Staff and the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command, was met with resistance from the British Armed Forces under Alan Brooke because the scheme would allow the United States to dominate the Western Allied war effort, but the British government ultimately approved.",
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"plaintext": "He initially scheduled Operation Overlord for April 1, 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops to Allied invasion of Sicily for the invasion of Italy. Some authors think that World War II could have ended earlier if Marshall had had his way; others think that such an invasion would have meant utter failure. Marshall and his advisors also opposed the Allied invasion of French North Africa after it became clear that Vichy France would offer resistance, concerns over an Axis intervention through Francoist Spain and Gibraltar, and suspicions that the operation was intended to defend European colonial territory with little strategic value to the war. ",
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"plaintext": "When rumors circulated that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, many critics viewed the potential transfer as a demotion, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on the Combined Chiefs of Staff. While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for the position. Roosevelt selected Eisenhower, in large part because he did not want to do without Marshall in the Chief of Staff position. He told Marshall, \"I didn't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington.\"",
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"plaintext": "On December 16, 1944, Marshall became the first American Army general to be promoted to the newly created rank of General of the Army, a five-star rank that is the American equivalent of field marshal. He was the second American to be promoted to a five-star rank, as William Leahy was promoted to fleet admiral the previous day.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Churchill. Time magazine named Marshall Man of the Year for 1943. Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff on November 18, 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that Generals of the Army remain on active duty for life. He was succeeded as Army chief of staff by General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delay in sending General Walter Short, the Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall's lack of knowledge of the readiness of the Hawaiian Command during November and December 1941. Marshall also advised President Roosevelt to move part of the United States Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to assist Neutrality Patrols, and that the defenses at Oahu made a Japanese attack on the island impossible. These recommendations were dismissed by the President, but could have been catastrophic if they had not been. ",
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"plaintext": "Ten days after the attack, Lt. General Short and Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, commander of the United States Pacific Fleet at Naval Station Pearl Harbor, were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While the report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including to Marshall.",
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"plaintext": "A secret review of the Army's role, which resulted in the Clausen Report, was authorized by Secretary Henry Stimson. The report was critical of Short and also of Colonel Rufus S. Bratton of the Military Intelligence Division (G-2), who investigator Henry Clausen concluded arrived at the War Department later on the morning of December 7, 1941, than he initially claimed during testimony, and invented a story about a warning to affected army commanders about the imminent Pearl Harbor Attack being delayed because he had been unable to get in touch with Marshall, an allegation which \"nearly destroyed\" Marshall.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1945, President Harry Truman dispatched Marshall to the Republic of China, where he had served in the 1920s. His new mission was to prevent a resumption of the Chinese Civil War by brokering a coalition government between America's Kuomintang allies under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party of Mao Zedong. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists, but threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and he returned to the United States in January 1947. As Secretary of State, Marshall disagreed with the Defense and State Department views that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved. The war continued, and the Communists won in 1949.",
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"plaintext": "After Marshall's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed him Secretary of State. As one of the most well-regarded and least politicized national leaders, he made an ideal front office personality. He became the spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. He did not design the plans, and paid little attention to details or negotiations. He did not keep current on details of foreign affairs. As one biographer notes, he had never been a workaholic. He turned over major responsibilities to his deputies, especially Under-Secretary Robert A. Lovett, and refused to be troubled by minutiae. By 1948, with frailties building up, his participation was further curtailed. Marshall said, \"The fact of the matter is that Lovett bears the principal burden as I get away whenever possible.\"",
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"plaintext": "On June 5, 1947, in a speech at Harvard University, he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as the Marshall Plan. Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan would help Europe rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines, and open up new opportunities for international trade. Stalin ordered his satellites in Eastern Europe not to participate. Marshall was again named \"Man of the Year\" by Time in January 1948.",
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"plaintext": "Truman repeatedly rejected Marshall's advice on Middle Eastern policy. As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the newly formed state of Israel. Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared, a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did when the 1948 Arab–Israeli War began one day after Israel declared independence). Marshall saw recognizing the Jewish state as a political move to gain American Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose to Thomas E. Dewey. He told President Truman in May 1948, \"If you (recognize the state of Israel) and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you.\" However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle. ",
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"plaintext": "During his tenure as Secretary of State, Marshall also urged Truman to immediately call for The Netherlands to stop their invasion of Indonesia, a former Dutch colony which had declared independence in 1945. The Netherlands ignored the Truman administration's initial entreaties. As a result, the Marshall Plan program for the Netherlands' economic recovery was put on hold and the Truman administration threatened to cut all economic aid. The Netherlands finally agreed to withdraw and transferred sovereignty following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in 1949.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall resigned as Secretary of State because of ill health on January 7, 1949. He was severely exhausted throughout his tenure in the position. Dean Acheson in late 1947 said he was underperforming like \"a four-engine bomber going only on one engine.\" Truman named him to the largely honorific positions of chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross. He received the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work, despite the criticism that he was a warrior not a pacifist.",
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"plaintext": "When the early months of the Korean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was, President Truman fired Secretary Louis A. Johnson and named Marshall as Secretary of Defense in September 1950. The appointment required a congressional waiver because the National Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. This prohibition included Marshall since individuals promoted to General of the Army are not technically retired, but remain officially on active duty even after their active service has concluded. Marshall was the first person to be granted such a waiver; in 2017, Jim Mattis became the second and in January 2021, General Lloyd Austin became the third. Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale to the Defense Department while rebuilding the United States Armed Forces following their post-World War II demobilization.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall worked to provide more manpower to meet the demands of both the Korean War and the Cold War in Europe. To implement his priorities Marshall brought in a new leadership team, including Robert A. Lovett as his deputy and Anna M. Rosenberg, former head of the War Manpower Commission, as assistant secretary of defense for manpower. He also worked to rebuild the relationship between the Defense and State Departments, as well as the relationship between the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall participated in the post-Inchon landing discussion that led to authorizing Douglas MacArthur to conduct the UN offensive into North Korea. A secret \"eyes only\" signal from Marshall to MacArthur on September 29, 1950, declared the Truman administration's commitment: \"We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel\". At the same time, Marshall advised against public pronouncements which might lead to United Nations votes undermining or countermanding the initial mandate to restore the border between North and South Korea. Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment in accomplishing the intent of their superiors.",
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"plaintext": "Following Chinese military intervention in Korea during late November, Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff sought ways to aid MacArthur while avoiding all-out war with China. In the debate over what to do about China's increased involvement, Marshall opposed a cease–fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak in China's eyes, leading to demands for future concessions. In addition, Marshall argued that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. When British Prime Minister Clement Attlee suggested diplomatic overtures to China, Marshall opposed, arguing that it was impossible to negotiate with the Communist government. In addition, Marshall expressed concern that concessions to China would undermine confidence in the U.S. among its Asian allies, including Japan and the Philippines. When some in Congress favored expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, Marshall argued against a wider war in Korea, continuing instead to stress the importance of containing the Soviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Increasingly concerned about public statements from MacArthur, commander of United Nations Command forces fighting in the Korean War, which contradicted President Truman's on prosecution of the war, on the morning of April 6, 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Dean Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command.",
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"plaintext": "Harriman was emphatically in favor of MacArthur's relief, but Bradley opposed it. Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter. Acheson was in favor but did not disclose this, instead warning Truman that if he did it, MacArthur's relief would cause \"the biggest fight of your administration.\" At another meeting the following day, Marshall and Bradley continued to oppose MacArthur's relief. On April 8, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with Marshall, and each expressed the view that MacArthur's relief was desirable from a \"military point of view,\" suggesting that \"if MacArthur were not relieved, a large segment of our people would charge that civil authorities no longer controlled the military.\"",
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"plaintext": "Marshall, Bradley, Acheson and Harriman met with Truman again on April 9. Bradley informed the President of the views of the Joint Chiefs, and Marshall added that he agreed with them. Truman wrote in his diary that \"it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise.\" (The Joint Chiefs would later insist that they had only \"concurred\" with the relief, not \"recommended\" it.)",
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"plaintext": "On April 11, 1951, President Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley's signature, relieving MacArthur of his assignment in Korea and directing him to turn over command to Matthew Ridgway. In line with Marshall's view, and those of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, MacArthur's relief was looked upon by proponents as being necessary to reassert the tenet of civilian control of the military.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1951, after 49 years of continuous public service, Marshall retired to his home, Dodona Manor, in Leesburg, Virginia. Purchased by the Marshalls in 1941, Dodona had previously served as a quiet weekend retreat for the busy couple. The home was restored beginning in the 1990s and the house and its gardens are open to the public as a museum.",
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"plaintext": "It was at Dodona Manor that Marshall enjoyed his favorite food, roast leg of lamb, and his favorite beverage, an old fashioned. Gardening was one of Marshall's favorite pastimes, and in retirement he grew vegetables throughout the year, including tomatoes and pumpkins, while Katherine Marshall enjoyed tending to her rose garden. In a 1942 letter to David Burpee, president of the W. Atlee Burpee & Company, Marshall wrote, \"The business of seeds and flowers tantalizes me because I have been an amateur gardener, both flower and vegetable, since a boy of ten. There is nothing I would so much prefer to do this spring as to turn my mind to the wholesome business of gardening rather than the terrible problems and tragedies of war.\"",
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"plaintext": "Katherine's love of roses was well known, leading inventor Eugene S. Boerner to create the Katherine Tupper Marshall Rose, a pink hybrid tea rose. It was patented by Jackson and Perkins in 1943.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout his retirement, Marshall served as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission. He oversaw the construction of fourteen cemeteries in eight countries following World War II to memorialize those killed or missing in battle. In the early 1950s, Marshall argued for the speedy construction and funding of cemeteries despite budget and staff cuts for the Korean War. Marshall wrote to General Joseph McNarney in March 1951 saying, \"I am naturally hesitant to become personally involved in individual personnel problems, but in this case, am deeply concerned about the overall moral factor if our foreign national cemeteries are not adequately maintained....\" Marshall's efforts to secure building and maintenance staff for the cemeteries were successful, doubling the number of military officers assigned to the work. On September 13, 1952, Marshall attended the dedication ceremony of Suresnes American Cemetery in France.",
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"plaintext": "After retiring, Marshall largely withdrew from public life. A notable exception was in June 1953, when he accepted President Eisenhower's appointment to head the American delegation to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. The delegation included Earl Warren and Omar Bradley, and according to Bradley, as Marshall walked up the aisle of Westminster Abbey to take his seat before the ceremony, the audience rose to its feet as a gesture of respect. Marshall looked behind him to see who the arriving dignitary was, then realized the audience had stood for him. Marshall was also invited to the post-ceremony banquet at Buckingham Palace, and was the only non-royal seated at Queen Elizabeth's table.",
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"plaintext": "George Marshall was the youngest of three siblings. His older brother Stuart Bradford Marshall (1875–1956) was a graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, and became a manager and executive in several metal production corporations, including the American Manganese Manufacturing Company. He later worked as a metallurgist and consulting engineer specializing in the production and operation of blast furnaces, coke ovens, and foundries. George and Stuart Marshall were long estranged because George married Lily Coles, who a few years before had rejected Stuart's proposal. When Stuart found out George was engaged to Lily, Stuart made unkind remarks about her, and George \"cut him off my list.\" Marshall's sister, Marie Louise (1876–1962) was the wife of Dr. John Johnson Singer, an Army physician who died in 1934.",
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"plaintext": "On February 11, 1902, Marshall married Elizabeth Carter \"Lily\" Coles at her mother's home in Lexington, Virginia. Marshall met Lily after listening to her play the piano across the street from VMI. Marshall, being immediately smitten, would \"run the block,\" or leave barracks after hours, to be with her. After traveling abroad to Japan, Korea, and China with Marshall, Lily returned to the U.S. to have a goiter removed. She died on September 15, 1927, after thyroid surgery that strained her weak heart. They did not have children.",
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"plaintext": "On October 15, 1930, Marshall married Katherine Boyce Tupper (October 8, 1882 – December 18, 1978); They had no children, but she was the mother of three children with Baltimore lawyer Clifton Stevenson Brown. He had been murdered by a disgruntled client in 1928. The second Mrs. Marshall was a graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts; she later studied at the Comédie-Française, and toured with Frank Benson's English Shakespearean Company. She authored a memoir in 1946, Together: Annals of an Army Wife.",
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"plaintext": "One of Marshall's stepsons, Allen Tupper Brown, was an Army lieutenant who was killed in Italy on May 29, 1944. Another stepson was Major Clifton Stevenson Brown Jr. (1914–1952). Stepdaughter Molly Brown Winn, the mother of actress Kitty Winn, was married to Colonel James Julius Winn, who had been an aide to Marshall. Molly Winn was active in preserving Marshall's legacy, including preserving Dodona Manor and publishing Marshall's World War I memoirs.",
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"plaintext": "After a series of strokes, Marshall died at Walter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C., on October 16, 1959. Although he was entitled to official proceedings, Marshall preferred simplicity, so he received a special military funeral that dispensed with many of the usual activities. The ceremonies included lying in state at Washington National Cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by representatives from each U.S. armed service and a VMI cadet.",
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"plaintext": "President Eisenhower ordered flags flown at half-staff, and was among the 200 guests invited for the funeral service held at Fort Myer. Other dignitaries included former President Truman, Secretary of State Christian A. Herter, former Secretary of State Dean Acheson, former Governor W. Averell Harriman and Generals Omar N. Bradley, Alfred M. Gruenther, and Matthew B. Ridgway. His parish priest, Franklin Moss Jr., from St. James Episcopal Church in Leesburg conducted the chapel and graveside services, assisted by former chief chaplain and National Cathedral Canon the Reverend Luther Miller. In accordance with Marshall's wishes, there was no eulogy. Following the burial service, an artillery battery fired a 19-gun salute and a bugler played taps. The flag that draped Marshall's casket was folded and given to Mrs. Marshall by a VMI cadet.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Section 7, Grave 8198, beside his first wife and her mother, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles (1849–1929). His second wife was also buried with him after she died on December 18, 1978. On its reverse side, the marble headstone lists General Marshall's positions held: \"Chief of Staff U.S. Army, Secretary of State, President of American Red Cross, Secretary of Defense.\" The five-star rank adorns both sides of the stone.",
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"plaintext": "As William Taylor and other historians have recently emphasized, George Marshall was the best-known and most active – and most selfless – American leader in the early Cold War. His leadership had a distinct, signature style which contained \"Disdain for false speaking and dissembling\", \"Aura of Authority\" and \"Immensity of Integrity\". He viewed his world in definitive black and white with no vagueness in arguments or gray areas in decision-making. Marshall is best known for giving his name and prestige to the Marshall Plan to rebuild the European economy. However, he suffered several defeats – he failed in the year-long effort to resolve the Chinese Civil War; he was defeated in his proposal to impose universal military service on all American men; and he was overruled by President Truman when he opposed the recognition of Israel. Historians agree that Truman depended heavily upon Marshall's prestige at a time of intensely bitter partisanship. Wilson Miscamble points to Marshall's delayed recognition of the threat posed by the Soviet Union – not until April 1947 did he realize the dangers. Miscamble concludes that recent studies show that Marshall was:An important contributor but hardly a dominant figure in the making of postwar American foreign policy. He had a special gift for delegation and he drew forth impressive contributions from various capable subordinates.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall's reputation for excellence as a military organizer and planner was recognized early in his career, and became known throughout the Army. In a performance appraisal prepared while Marshall was a lieutenant in the Philippines, his superior, Captain E. J. Williams responded to the routine question of whether he would want the evaluated officer to serve under his command again by writing of Marshall \"Should the exigencies of active service place him in exalted command I would be glad to serve under him.\" (Emphasis added.)",
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"plaintext": "In 1913, Lieutenant Colonel Johnson Hagood completed a written evaluation of Marshall's performance in which he called Marshall a military genius. Responding to the question of whether he would want his subordinate Marshall to serve under him again, Hagood wrote \"Yes, but I would prefer to serve under his command.\" (Emphasis added.) Hagood went on to recommend Marshall's immediate promotion to brigadier general, despite the fact that there were more than 1,800 officers, including Hagood, who were senior to him.",
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"plaintext": "After the surrender of the Nazi German government in May 1945, Henry L. Stimson, the Secretary of War, paid tribute to Marshall in front of a gathering of members of the Army staff, concluding with: \"I have seen a great many soldiers in my lifetime and you, Sir, are the finest soldier I have ever known.\"",
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"plaintext": "Historians credit the high regard others had for Marshall's personal integrity as another reason for his positive legacy. In addition to his willingness to confront Pershing over Pershing's berating of the 1st Division chief of staff during World War I, Marshall cited other instances where he provided persistent advice that kept Pershing from creating needless controversy. In one, Marshall recalled a time when Pershing and James Harbord intended to change a War Department policy implemented by Peyton March, the chief of staff of the Army and Pershing's nominal superior, with whom Pershing had a long-running feud. Marshall counseled against it several times, and Pershing angrily indicated that his chief of staff Harbord and he intended to submit their proposal despite Marshall's advice. Rather than concede, Marshall replied that Pershing was letting his personal feud with March cloud his judgment and that Harbord, who also disliked March, was doing the same. Instead of continuing to \"pull rank,\" Pershing yielded to Marshall's judgment and said \"Well, have it your own way.\"",
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"plaintext": "In another incident that highlighted Marshall's reputation for integrity, when President Franklin Roosevelt, a former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, favored the Navy during World War II planning, Marshall suggested that Roosevelt stop referring to the Navy as \"us\" and the Army as \"them.\" Roosevelt laughed, but Marshall's humorous protest had made its point.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to his military success, Marshall is primarily remembered as the driving force behind the Marshall Plan, which provided billions of dollars in aid to post war Europe to restart the economies of the destroyed countries. In recent years, the cooperation required between former European adversaries as part of the Marshall Plan has been recognized as one of the earliest factors that led to European integration beginning with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the formation of the European Union.",
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"plaintext": "In a television interview after leaving office, Truman was asked which American he thought had made the greatest contribution of the preceding thirty years. Without hesitation, Truman picked Marshall, adding \"I don't think in this age in which I have lived, that there has been a man who has been a greater administrator; a man with a knowledge of military affairs equal to General Marshall.\"",
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"plaintext": "Orson Welles said in a 1970 interview with Dick Cavett that \"Marshall is the greatest man I ever met... I think he was the greatest human being who was also a great man... He was a tremendous gentleman, an old fashioned institution which isn't with us anymore.\" The story Welles related to Cavett to illustrate his point was about a time he saw Marshall take the time to speak with a young, overawed American soldier who had accidentally entered the same room.",
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"plaintext": "Two non-profit organizations, the George C. Marshall Foundation and the George C. Marshall International Center, actively propagate General Marshall's legacy. The Marshall Foundation oversees Marshall's official papers and over two million other documents relating to the 20th century. The International Center preserves Marshall's home, Dodona Manor, as a museum and hosts educational programs focusing on Marshall's life, leadership, and role in American history.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous streets are named for General Marshall, including George-Marshall-Straße in Wiesbaden, Germany and George-C.-Marshall-Ring in Oberursel, Germany.",
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"plaintext": "On April 30, 1998, the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies unveiled the first public statue of General Marshall in Europe in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. The slightly larger-than-life statue was sponsored by the Marshall Center, the Friends of the Marshall Center and the City of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. It shows Marshall in uniform walking across a bronze bridge, facing east, to greet new friends and allies and was designed by artist Christiane Horn of Wartenberg, Bavaria. Vernon A. Walters, former U.S. ambassador to Germany, was a keynote speaker during the dedication ceremony.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall has been played in film and television by:",
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"plaintext": " Keith Andes in the 1970 film Tora! Tora! Tora!",
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"plaintext": " Harris Yulin in the 1995 television movie Truman.",
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"plaintext": " Harve Presnell in the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan.",
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"plaintext": " Scott Wilson in the 2001 film Pearl Harbor.",
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"plaintext": " Donald Eugene McCoy in the 2009 Chinese movie The Founding of a Republic.",
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"plaintext": " Marshall is a character in three different alternate history timelines from Harry Turtledove novels: Worldwar, Joe Steele, and The Hot War.",
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"plaintext": "Marshall's dates of rank were:",
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"plaintext": "Note – Marshall relinquished his active duty status when he became secretary of state in January 1947. He was returned to active duty upon leaving office in January 1949.",
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"plaintext": " . Electronic version based on The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 2, \"We Cannot Delay,\" July 1, 1939 – December 6, 1941 (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p.616 [Pentagon Office, Selected Correspondence, Box 69, Folder 18. Holding ID: 2-553].",
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"plaintext": " * ",
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"plaintext": " Aldrich, Edward Farley. \"The Partnership: George Marshall, Henry Stimson, and the Extraordinary Collaboration that Won World War II.\" (Stackpole Books, 2022)",
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{
"plaintext": " Alperovitz, Gar, Robert L. Messer, and Barton J. Bernstein. \"Marshall, Truman, and the decision to drop the bomb.\" International Security 16.3 (1991): 204–221. online",
"section_idx": 23,
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"plaintext": " Brower, Charles F. George C. Marshall: Servant of the American Nation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) Excerpt.",
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"plaintext": " Bryan, Ferald J. \"George C. Marshall at Harvard: A Study of the Origins and Construction of the 'Marshall Plan' Speech.\" Presidential Studies Quarterly (1991): 489–502. online ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Clarcq, J., DeMartino, R., & Palanski, M. E. \"George C. Marshall: An enduring model of leadership effectiveness\" Journal of Character and Leadership Integration (2011). 2:17–34.",
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"plaintext": "Cray, Ed. General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman (W.W. Norton & Company, 1990)",
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"plaintext": " Findling, John E. and Frank W. Thackeray eds. Statesmen Who Changed the World: A Bio-Bibliographical Dictionary of Diplomacy (Greenwood, 1993) pp 337–45.",
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"plaintext": " Friedrich, Tamara L., et al. \"Collectivistic leadership and George C. Marshall: A historiometric analysis of career events.\" Leadership Quarterly 25.3 (2014): 449–467. online",
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"plaintext": " Gullan, Harold I. \"Expectations of Infamy: Roosevelt and Marshall Prepare for War, 1938–41.\" Presidential Studies Quarterly Volume: 28#3 1998. Pages 510+ online edition",
"section_idx": 23,
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"plaintext": " Higginbotham, Don. \"George Washington and George Marshall: Some Reflections on the American Military Tradition\" (U.S. Air Force Academy, 1984) online.",
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"plaintext": " Hopkins, Michael F. \"President Harry Truman's Secretaries of State: Stettinius, Byrnes, Marshall and Acheson.\" Journal of Transatlantic Studies 6.3 (2008): 290–304.",
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"plaintext": " Jordan, Jonathan W., American Warlords: How Roosevelt's High Command Led America to Victory in World War II (NAL/Caliber 2015).",
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"plaintext": " Kurtz-Phelan, Daniel. The China Mission: George Marshall's Unfinished War, 1945-1947 (W.W. Norton & Company, 2018) online review",
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"plaintext": " May, Ernest R. \"1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. Out of War in China\". Journal of Military History 2002 66(4): 1001–10. ",
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"plaintext": " Levine, Steven I. \"A New Look at American Mediation in the Chinese Civil War: the Marshall Mission and Manchuria.\" Diplomatic History 1979 3(4): 349–375. ",
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"plaintext": " Marshall, George C. Selected Speeches and Statements. Ed. Harvey A. DeWeerd (Infantry Journal, 1945).",
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"plaintext": " Munch, P. G. \"General George C. Marshall and the Army staff: A study in the effectiveness of staff leadership\". Military Review. (1994). 74:14–23",
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"plaintext": " Nelsen, J. T. \"General George C. Marshall: Strategic leadership and the challenges of reconstituting the Army, 1939–1941\" in Professional Readings in Military Strategy (Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 1993) 7: 1–95.",
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"plaintext": " Olsen, Howard A. \"George C. Marshall, emergence of a politician, 1 September 1939 to 6 December 1941\" (Army Command And General Staff College, 1990) online",
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{
"plaintext": " Parrish, Thomas. Roosevelt and Marshall: Partners in Politics and War .(W. Morrow, 1989). 608",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Perry, Mark. Partners in Command: George Marshall and Dwight Eisenhower in War and Peace. (Penguin Press, 2007)",
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"plaintext": " Forrest Pogue, Viking, (1963–87) Four-volume authorized biography: complete text is online",
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"plaintext": " George C. Marshall: Education of a General, 1880–1939",
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"plaintext": " George C Marshall: Ordeal and Hope, 1939–1943",
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"plaintext": " George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory 1943–1945",
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"plaintext": " George C. Marshall: Statesman 1945–1959",
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{
"plaintext": " Pops, Gerald. \"The ethical leadership of George C. Marshall.\" Public Integrity 8.2 (2006): 165–185. Online",
"section_idx": 23,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Puryear Jr., Edgar F. 19 Stars: A Study in Military Character and Leadership. (Presidio Press, 2003)",
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{
"plaintext": " Online free to borrow",
"section_idx": 23,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Roll, David L. George Marshall: Defender of the Republic. (Dutton, 2019) online",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Steele, Richard W. The First Offensive, 1942: Roosevelt, Marshall, and the Making of American Strategy. (Indiana University Press, 1973)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stoler, Mark C. George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century. (Twayne, 1989) 252",
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"plaintext": " Taaffe, Stephen R. Marshall and His Generals: U.S. Army Commanders in World War II. (University Press of Kansas, 2011) excerpt",
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"plaintext": "Thompson, Rachel Yarnell. Marshall: A Statesman Shaped in the Crucible of War. (George C. Marshall International Center, 2014). ",
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"plaintext": " Unger, Debi and Irwin with Stanley Hirshson. George Marshall: a Biography. (Harper, 2014). ",
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"plaintext": " Weissman, Alexander D. \"Pivotal politics—The Marshall Plan: A turning point in foreign aid and the struggle for democracy.\" History Teacher 47.1 (2013): 111–129. online, for middle and high school students",
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"plaintext": " Widener, Jeffrey M. \"From General to Diplomat: The Success and Failure of George C. Marshall's Mission to China after World War II.\" Chinese Historical Review 27.1 (2020): 32–49.",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Papers of George Catlett Marshall: (Larry I. Bland and Sharon Ritenour Stevens, eds.) online edition",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vol. 1: \"The Soldierly Spirit,\" December 1880 – June 1939. (1981)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vol. 2: \"We Cannot Delay,\" July 1, 1939 – December 6, 1941. (1986)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vol. 3: \"The Right Man for the Job,\" December 7, 1941 – May 31, 1943. (1991)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Vol. 4: \"Aggressive and Determined Leadership,\" June 1, 1943 – December 31, 1944. (1996)",
"section_idx": 23,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vol. 5: \"The Finest Soldier,\" January 1, 1945 – January 7, 1947. (2003)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vol. 6: \"The Whole World Hangs in the Balance,\" January 8, 1947 – September 30, 1949. (2012)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Vol. 7: \"The Man of the Age,\" October 1, 1949 – October 16, 1959. (2016)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bland, Larry; Jeans, Roger B.; and Wilkinson, Mark, ed. George C. Marshall's Mediation Mission to China, December 1945 – January 1947. Lexington, Va.: George C. Marshall Found., 1998. 661",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Marshall, George C. George C. Marshall: Interviews and Reminiscences for Forrest C. Pogue. Lexington, Va.: George C. Marshall Found., 1991. 698 online edition",
"section_idx": 23,
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{
"plaintext": " The Marshall Foundation",
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{
"plaintext": "The George C. Marshall International Center",
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"plaintext": " George C. Marshall Center, Garmisch Germany",
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{
"plaintext": " The Marshall Plan Speech MP3",
"section_idx": 24,
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{
"plaintext": " The Marshall Films Collection",
"section_idx": 24,
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{
"plaintext": " Marshall Scholarships",
"section_idx": 24,
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"plaintext": " The Marshall Plan Speech",
"section_idx": 24,
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"plaintext": " \"George C. Marshall: Soldier of Peace\" (Smithsonian Institution)",
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"plaintext": " Annotated bibliography for George Marshall from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues",
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"plaintext": " The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921–1969, Chapter XIX, General of the Army George C. Marshall, Special Military Funeral, 16 – October 20, 1959 by B.C.Mossman and M.W.Stark. United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90–1.",
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"plaintext": " The George C. Marshall Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, Part 1 and Part 2",
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"plaintext": " Task Force Marshall Information Page",
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"plaintext": " Joint Committee on The Investigation of Pearl Harbor, 79th Congress",
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{
"plaintext": "Generals of World War II",
"section_idx": 24,
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},
{
"plaintext": "United States Army Officers 1939–1945",
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"plaintext": "A newly developing human is typically referred to as an embryo until the ninth week after conception, when it is then referred to as a fetus. In other multicellular organisms, the word \"embryo\" can be used more broadly to any early developmental or life cycle stage prior to birth or hatching.",
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"plaintext": "First attested in English in the mid-14c., the word embryon derives from Medieval Latin embryo, itself from Greek (embruon), lit. \"young one\", which is the neuter of (embruos), lit. \"growing in\", from ἐν (en), \"in\" and βρύω (bruō), \"swell, be full\"; the proper Latinized form of the Greek term would be embryum.",
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"plaintext": "In animals, fertilization begins the process of embryonic development with the creation of a zygote, a single cell resulting from the fusion of gametes (e.g. egg and sperm). The development of a zygote into a multicellular embryo proceeds through a series of recognizable stages, often divided into cleavage, blastula, gastrulation, and organogenesis.",
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"plaintext": "Cleavage is the period of rapid mitotic cell divisions that occur after fertilization. During cleavage, the overall size of the embryo does not change, but the size of individual cells decrease rapidly as they divide to increase the total number of cells. Cleavage results in a blastula.",
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"plaintext": "Depending on the species, a blastula or blastocyst stage embryo can appear as a ball of cells on top of yolk, or as a hollow sphere of cells surrounding a middle cavity. The embryo's cells continue to divide and increase in number, while molecules within the cells such as RNAs and proteins actively promote key developmental processes such as gene expression, cell fate specification, and polarity. Before implanting into the uterine wall the embryo is sometimes known as the pre-implantation embryo or pre-implantation conceptus. Sometimes this is called the pre-embryo a term employed to differentiate from an embryo proper in relation to embryonic stem cell discourses.",
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"plaintext": "Gastrulation is the next phase of embryonic development, and involves the development of two or more layers of cells (germinal layers). Animals that form two layers (such as Cnidaria) are called diploblastic, and those that form three (most other animals, from flatworms to humans) are called triploblastic. During gastrulation of triploblastic animals, the three germinal layers that form are called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. All tissues and organs of a mature animal can trace their origin back to one of these layers. For example, the ectoderm will give rise to the skin epidermis and the nervous system, the mesoderm will give rise to the vascular system, muscles, bone, and connective tissues, and the endoderm will give rise to organs of the digestive system and epithelium of the digestive system and respiratory system. Many visible changes in embryonic structure happen throughout gastrulation as the cells that make up the different germ layers migrate and cause the previously round embryo to fold or invaginate into a cup-like appearance.",
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"plaintext": "Past gastrulation, an embryo continues to develop into a mature multicellular organism by forming structures necessary for life outside of the womb or egg. As the name suggests, organogenesis is the stage of embryonic development when organs form. During organogenesis, molecular and cellular interactions prompt certain populations of cells from the different germ layers to differentiate into organ-specific cell types. For example, in neurogenesis, a subpopulation of cells from the ectoderm segregate from other cells and further specialize to become the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves.",
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"plaintext": "The embryonic period varies from species to species. In human development, the term fetus is used instead of embryo after the ninth week after conception, whereas in zebrafish, embryonic development is considered finished when a bone called the cleithrum becomes visible. In animals that hatch from an egg, such as birds, a young animal is typically no longer referred to as an embryo once it has hatched. In viviparous animals (animals whose offspring spend at least some time developing within a parent's body), the offspring is typically referred to as an embryo while inside of the parent, and is no longer considered an embryo after birth or exit from the parent. However, the extent of development and growth accomplished while inside of an egg or parent varies significantly from species to species, so much so that the processes that take place after hatching or birth in one species may take place well before those events in another. Therefore, according to one textbook, it is common for scientists interpret the scope of embryology broadly as the study of the development of animals.",
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"plaintext": "Flowering plants (angiosperms) create embryos after the fertilization of a haploid ovule by pollen. The DNA from the ovule and pollen combine to form a diploid, single-cell zygote that will develop into an embryo. The zygote, which will divide multiple times as it progresses throughout embryonic development, is one part of a seed. Other seed components include the endosperm, which is tissue rich in nutrients that will help support the growing plant embryo, and the seed coat, which is a protective outer covering. The first cell division of a zygote is asymmetric, resulting in an embryo with one small cell (the apical cell) and one large cell (the basal cell). The small, apical cell will eventually give rise to most of the structures of the mature plant, such as the stem, leaves, and roots. The larger basal cell will give rise to the suspensor, which connects the embryo to the endosperm so that nutrients can pass between them. The plant embryo cells continue to divide and progress through developmental stages named for their general appearance: globular, heart, and torpedo. In the globular stage, three basic tissue types (dermal, ground, and vascular) can be recognized. The dermal tissue will give rise to the epidermis or outer covering of a plant, ground tissue will give rise to inner plant material that functions in photosynthesis, resource storage, and physical support, and vascular tissue will give rise to connective tissue like the xylem and phloem that transport fluid, nutrients, and minerals throughout the plant. In heart stage, one or two cotyledons (embryonic leaves) will form. Meristems (centers of stem cell activity) develop during the torpedo stage, and will eventually produce many of the mature tissues of the adult plant throughout its life. At the end of embryonic growth, the seed will usually go dormant until germination. Once the embryo begins to germinate (grow out from the seed) and forms its first true leaf, it is called a seedling or plantlet.",
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"plaintext": "Plants that produce spores instead of seeds, like bryophytes and ferns, also produce embryos. In these plants, the embryo begins its existence attached to the inside of the archegonium on a parental gametophyte from which the egg cell was generated. The inner wall of the archegonium lies in close contact with the \"foot\" of the developing embryo; this \"foot\" consists of a bulbous mass of cells at the base of the embryo which may receive nutrition from its parent gametophyte. The structure and development of the rest of the embryo varies by group of plants.",
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"plaintext": "Since all land plants create embryos, they are collectively referred to as embryophytes (or by their scientific name, Embryophyta). This, along with other characteristics, distinguishes land plants from other types of plants, such as algae, which do not produce embryos.",
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"plaintext": "Embryos from numerous plant and animal species are studied in biological research laboratories across the world to learn about topics such as stem cells, evolution and development, cell division, and gene expression. Examples of scientific discoveries made while studying embryos that were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine include the Spemann-Mangold organizer, a group of cells originally discovered in amphibian embryos that give rise to neural tissues, and genes that give rise to body segments discovered in Drosophila fly embryos by Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus.",
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"plaintext": "Creating and/or manipulating embryos via assisted reproductive technology (ART) is used for addressing fertility concerns in humans and other animals, and for selective breeding in agricultural species. Between the years 1987 and 2015, ART techniques including in vitro fertilization (IVF) were responsible for an estimated 1 million human births in the United States alone. Other clinical technologies include preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which can identify certain serious genetic abnormalities, such as aneuploidy, prior to selecting embryos for use in IVF. Some have proposed (or even attempted - see He Jiankui affair) genetic editing of human embryos via CRISPR-Cas9 as a potential avenue for preventing disease; however, this has been met with widespread condemnation from the scientific community.",
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"plaintext": "ART techniques are also used to improve the profitability of agricultural animal species such as cows and pigs by enabling selective breeding for desired traits and/or to increase numbers of offspring. For example, when allowed to breed naturally, cows typically produce one calf per year, whereas IVF increases offspring yield to 9-12 calves per year. IVF and other ART techniques, including cloning via interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT), are also used in attempts to increase the numbers of endangered or vulnerable species, such as Northern white rhinos, cheetahs, and sturgeons.",
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"plaintext": "Cryoconservation of genetic resources involves collecting and storing the reproductive materials, such as embryos, seeds, or gametes, from animal or plant species at low temperatures in order to preserve them for future use. Some large-scale animal species cryoconservation efforts include \"frozen zoos\" in various places around the world, including in the UK's Frozen Ark, the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW) in the United Arab Emirates, and the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation in the United States. As of 2018, there were approximately 1,700 seed banks used to store and protect plant biodiversity, particularly in the event of mass extinction or other global emergencies. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway maintains the largest collection of plant reproductive tissue, with more than a million samples stored at .",
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"plaintext": "Fossilized animal embryos are known from the Precambrian, and are found in great numbers during the Cambrian period. Even fossilized dinosaur embryos have been discovered.",
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"plaintext": " Embryo loss",
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"plaintext": " A Comparative Embryology Gallery",
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"plaintext": "Medina, officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, ) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the Medina Province of Saudi Arabia. , the estimated population of the city is 1,488,782, making it the fourth-most populous city in the country. Located at the core of the Medina Province in the western reaches of the country, the city is distributed over , of which constitutes the city's urban area, while the rest is occupied by the Hejaz Mountains, empty valleys, agricultural spaces and older dormant volcanoes.",
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"plaintext": "Medina is generally considered to be the \"cradle of Islamic culture and civilization\". The city is considered to be the second-holiest of three key cities in Islamic tradition, with Mecca and Jerusalem serving as the holiest and third-holiest cities respectively. Al-Masjid al-Nabawi () is of exceptional importance in Islam and serves as burial site of the last Islamic prophet, Muhammad, by whom the mosque was built in 622 CE. Observant Muslims usually visit his tomb, or rawdhah, at least once in their lifetime during a pilgrimage known as Ziyarat, although this is not obligatory. The original name of the city before the advent of Islam was Yathrib (; ), and it is referred to by this name in Chapter 33 (Al-Aḥzāb, ) of the Quran. It was renamed to () after Muhammad's death and later to () before being simplified and shortened to its modern name, (), from which the English-language spelling of \"Medina\" is derived. Saudi road signage uses and interchangeably.",
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"plaintext": "Before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib (; ), supposedly named after an Amalekite king, Yathrib Mahlaeil. The word Yathrib appears in an inscription found in Harran, belonging to the Babylonian king Nabonidus (6th century BCE) and is well asserted in several texts in the subsequent centuries. The name has also been recorded in Āyah (verse) 13 of Surah (chapter) 33 of the Qur'an. and is thus known to have been the name of the city up to the Battle of the Trench. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad later forbade calling the city by this name.",
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"plaintext": "Sometime after the battle, Muhammad renamed the city Taybah (the Kind or the Good) (; ) and Tabah () which is of similar meaning. This name is also used to refer to the city in the popular folk song, \"Ya Taybah!\" (O Taybah!). The two names are combined in another name the city is known by, Taybat at-Tabah (the Kindest of the Kind).",
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"plaintext": "The city has also simply been called Al-Madinah (i.e. 'The City') in some ahadith. The names () and Madīnat un-Nabī (both meaning \"City of the Prophet\" or \"The Prophet's City\") and al-Madīnat ul-Munawwarah (\"The Enlightened City\") are all derivatives of this word. This is also the most commonly accepted modern name of the city, used in official documents and road signage, along with Madinah.",
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"plaintext": "Medina has been inhabited at least 1500 years before the Hijra, or approximately the 9th century BCE. By the fourth century CE, Arab tribes began to encroach from Yemen, and there were three prominent Jewish tribes that inhabited the city around the time of Muhammad: the Banu Qaynuqa, the Banu Qurayza, and Banu Nadir. Ibn Khordadbeh later reported that during the Persian Empire's domination in Hejaz, the Banu Qurayza served as tax collectors for the Persian Shah.",
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"plaintext": "The situation changed after the arrival of two new Arab tribes, the 'Aws or Banu 'Aws and the Khazraj, also known as the Banu Khazraj. At first, these tribes were allied with the Jewish tribes who ruled the region, but later revolted and became independent.",
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"plaintext": "Toward the end of the 5th century, the Jewish rulers lost control of the city to the two Arab tribes. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that \"by calling in outside assistance and treacherously massacring at a banquet the principal Jews\", Banu Aus and Banu Khazraj finally gained the upper hand at Medina.",
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"plaintext": "Most modern historians accept the claim of the Muslim sources that after the revolt, the Jewish tribes became clients of the 'Aws and the Khazraj. However, according to Scottish scholar, William Montgomery Watt, the clientship of the Jewish tribes is not borne out by the historical accounts of the period prior to 627, and he maintained that the Jewish populace retained a measure of political independence.",
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"plaintext": "Early Muslim chronicler Ibn Ishaq tells of an ancient conflict between the last Yemenite king of the Himyarite Kingdom and the residents of Yathrib. When the king was passing by the oasis, the residents killed his son, and the Yemenite ruler threatened to exterminate the people and cut down the palms. According to Ibn Ishaq, he was stopped from doing so by two rabbis from the Banu Qurayza tribe, who implored the king to spare the oasis because it was the place \"to which a prophet of the Quraysh would migrate in time to come, and it would be his home and resting-place.\" The Yemenite king thus did not destroy the town and converted to Judaism. He took the rabbis with him, and in Mecca, they reportedly recognized the Ka'bah as a temple built by Abraham and advised the king \"to do what the people of Mecca did: to circumambulate the temple, to venerate and honor it, to shave his head and to behave with all humility until he had left its precincts.\" On approaching Yemen, tells Ibn Ishaq, the rabbis demonstrated to the local people a miracle by coming out of a fire unscathed and the Yemenites accepted Judaism.",
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"plaintext": "Eventually the Banu 'Aws and the Banu Khazraj became hostile to each other and by the time of Muhammad's Hijrah (emigration) to Medina in 622, they had been fighting for 120 years and were sworn enemies The Banu Nadir and the Banu Qurayza were allied with the 'Aws, while the Banu Qaynuqa sided with the Khazraj. They fought a total of four wars.",
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"plaintext": "Their last and bloodiest known battle was the Battle of Bu'ath, fought a few years prior to the arrival of Muhammad. The outcome of the battle was inconclusive, and the feud continued. 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy, one Khazraj chief, had refused to take part in the battle, which earned him a reputation for equity and peacefulness. He was the most respected inhabitant of the city prior to Muhammad's arrival. To solve the ongoing feud, concerned residents of Yathrib met secretly with Muhammad in 'Aqaba, a place outside Mecca, inviting him and his small group of believers to come to the city, where Muhammad could serve a mediator between the factions and his community could practice its faith freely.",
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"plaintext": "In 622, Muhammad and an estimated 70 Meccan Muhajirun left Mecca over a period of a few months for sanctuary in Yathrib, an event that transformed the religious and political landscape of the city completely; the longstanding enmity between the Aus and Khazraj tribes was dampened as many of the two Arab tribes and some local Jews embraced the new religion of Islam. Muhammad, linked to the Khazraj through his great-grandmother, was agreed on as the leader of the city. The natives of Yathrib who had converted to Islam of any background—pagan Arab or Jewish—were called the Ansar (\"the Patrons\" or \"the Helpers\"), while the Muslims would pay the Zakat tax.",
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"plaintext": "According to Ibn Ishaq, all parties in the area agreed to the Constitution of Medina, which committed all parties to mutual cooperation under the leadership of Muhammad. The nature of this document as recorded by Ibn Ishaq and transmitted by Ibn Hisham is the subject of dispute among modern Western historians, many of whom maintain that this \"treaty\" is possibly a collage of different agreements, oral rather than written, of different dates, and that it is not clear exactly when they were made. Other scholars, however, both Western and Muslim, argue that the text of the agreement—whether a single document originally or several—is possibly one of the oldest Islamic texts we possess. In Yemenite Jewish sources, another treaty was drafted between Muhammad and his Jewish subjects, known as Kitāb Dimmat al-Nabi, written in the 3rd year of the Hijra (625), and which gave express liberty to Jews living in Arabia to observe the Sabbath and to grow-out their side-locks. In return, they were to pay the jizya annually for protection by their patrons.",
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"plaintext": "In the year 625, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, a senior chieftain of Mecca who later converted to Islam, led a Meccan force against Medina. Muhammad marched out to meet the Qurayshi army with an estimated 1,000 troops, but just as the army approached the battlefield, 300 men under 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy withdrew, dealing a severe blow to the Muslim army's morale. Muhammad continued marching with his now 700-strong force and ordered a group of 50 archers to climb a small hill, now called Jabal ar-Rummaah (The Archers' Hill) to keep an eye on the Meccan's cavalry and to provide protection to the rear of the Muslim's army. As the battle heated up, the Meccans were forced to retreat. The frontline was pushed further and further away from the archers and foreseeing the battle to be a victory for the Muslims, the archers decided to leave their posts to pursue the retreating Meccans. A small party, however, stayed behind; pleading the rest to not disobey Muhammad's orders.",
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"plaintext": "Seeing that the archers were starting to descend from the hill, Khalid ibn al-Walid commanded his unit to ambush the hill and his cavalry unit pursued the descending archers were systematically slain by being caught in the plain ahead of the hill and the frontline, watched upon by their desperate comrades who stayed behind up in the hill who were shooting arrows to thwart the raiders, but with little to no effect. However, the Meccans did not capitalize on their advantage by invading Medina and returned to Mecca. The Madanis (people of Medina) suffered heavy losses, and Muhammad was injured.",
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"plaintext": "In 627, Abu Sufyan led another force toward Medina. Knowing of his intentions, Muhammad asked for proposals for defending the northern flank of the city, as the east and west were protected by volcanic rocks and the south was covered with palm trees. Salman al-Farsi, a Persian Sahabi who was familiar with Sasanian war tactics recommended digging a trench to protect the city and Muhammad accepted it. The subsequent siege came to be known as the Battle of the Trench and the Battle of the Confederates. After a month-long siege and various skirmishes, the Meccans withdrew again due to the harsh winter.",
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"plaintext": "During the siege, Abu Sufyan contacted the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza and formed an agreement with them, to attack the Muslim defenders and effectively encircle the defenders. It was however discovered by the Muslims and thwarted. This was in breach of the Constitution of Medina and after the Meccan withdrawal, Muhammad immediately marched against the Qurayza and laid siege to their strongholds. The Jewish forces eventually surrendered. Some members of the Aws negotiated on behalf of their old allies and Muhammad agreed to appoint one of their chiefs who had converted to Islam, Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, as judge. Sa'ad judged by Jewish law that all male members of the tribe should be killed and the women and children enslaved as was the law stated in the Old Testament for treason in the Book of Deutoronomy. This action was conceived of as a defensive measure to ensure that the Muslim community could be confident of its continued survival in Medina. The French historian Robert Mantran proposes that from this point of view it was successful—from this point on, the Muslims were no longer primarily concerned with survival but with expansion and conquest.",
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"plaintext": "In the ten years following the hijra, Medina formed the base from which Muhammad and the Muslim army attacked and were attacked, and it was from here that he marched on Mecca, entering it without battle in 630. Despite Muhammad's tribal connection to Mecca, the growing importance of Mecca in Islam, the significance of the Ka'bah as the center of the Islamic world, as the direction of prayer (Qibla), and in the Islamic pilgrimage (Hajj), Muhammad returned to Medina, which remained for some years the most important city of Islam and the base of operations of the early Rashidun Caliphate.",
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"plaintext": "The city is presumed to have been renamed Madinat al-Nabi (\"City of the Prophet\" in Arabic) in honor of Muhammad's prophethood and the city being the site of his burial. Alternatively, Lucien Gubbay suggests the name Medina could also have been a derivative from the Aramaic word Medinta, which the Jewish inhabitants could have used for the city.",
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"plaintext": "Under the first three caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, Medina was the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire. During the reign of 'Uthman ibn al-Affan, the third caliph, a party of Arabs from Egypt, disgruntled at some of his political decisions, attacked Medina in 656 and assassinated him in his own home. Ali, the fourth caliph, changed the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in Iraq for being in a more strategic location. Since then, Medina's importance dwindled, becoming more a place of religious importance than of political power. Medina witnessed little to no economic growth during and after Ali's reign. ",
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"plaintext": "After al-Hasan, the son of 'Ali, ceded power to Mu'awiyah I, son of Abu Sufyan, Mu'awiyah marched into Kufa, Ali's capital, and received the allegiance of the local 'Iraqis. This is considered to be the beginning of the Umayyad caliphate. Mu'awiyah's governors took special care of Medina and dug the 'Ayn az-Zarqa'a (\"Blue Spring\") spring along with a project that included the creation of underground ducts for the purposes of irrigation. Dams were built in some of the wadis and the subsequent agricultural boom led to the strengthening of the economy.",
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"plaintext": "Following a period of unrest during the Second Fitna in 679, Husayn ibn 'Ali was martyred at Karbala and Yazid assumed unchecked control for the next three years. In 682, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr declared himself Caliph of Mecca and the people of Medina swore allegiance to him. This led to an eight-year-long period of economic distress for the city. In 692, the Umayyads regained power and Medina experienced its second period of huge economic growth. Trade improved and more people moved into the city. The banks of Wadi al-'Aqiq were now lush with greenery. This period of peace and prosperity coincided with the rule of 'Umar ibn Abdulaziz, who many consider to be the fifth of the Rashidun.",
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"plaintext": "Abdulbasit A. Badr, in his book, Madinah, The Enlightened City: History and Landmarks, divides this period into three distinct phases:",
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"plaintext": "Badr describes the period between 749 and 974 as a push-and-pull between peace and political turmoil, while Medina continued to pay allegiance to the Abbasids. From 974 to 1151, Medina was in a liaison with the Fatimids, even though the political stand between the two remained turbulent and did not exceed the normal allegiance. From 1151 onwards, Medina paid allegiance to the Zengids, and the Emir Nuruddin Zangi took care of the roads used by pilgrims and funded the fixing of the water sources and streets. When he visited Medina in 1162, he ordered the construction of a new wall that encompassed the new urban areas outside the old city wall. Zangi was succeeded by Salahuddin al-Ayyubi, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, who supported Qasim ibn Muhanna, the Governor of Medina, and greatly funded the growth of the city while slashing taxes paid by the pilgrims. He also funded the Bedouins who lived on the routes used by pilgrims to protect them on their journeys. The later Abbasids also continued to fund the expenses of the city. While Medina was formally allied with the Abbasids during this period, they maintained closer relations with the Zengids and Ayyubids. The historic city formed an oval, surrounded by a strong wall, high, dating from this period, and was flanked with towers. Of its four gates, the Bab al-Salam (\"The Gate of Peace\"), was remarked for its beauty. Beyond the walls of the city, the west and south were suburbs consisting of low houses, yards, gardens and plantations.",
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"plaintext": "After a brutal long conflict with the Abbasids, the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo took over the Egyptian governorate and effectively gained control of Medina. In 1256, Medina was threatened by lava from the Harrat Rahat volcanic region but was narrowly saved from being burnt after the lava turned northward. During Mamluk reign, the Masjid an-Nabawi caught fire twice. Once in 1256, when the storage caught fire, burning the entire mosque, and the other time in 1481, when the masjid was struck by lightning. This period also coincided with an increase in scholarly activity in Medina, with scholars such as Ibn Farhun, Al-Hafiz Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi, Al Sakhawi and others settling in the city. The striking iconic Green Dome also found its beginnings as a cupola built under Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun as-Salihi in 1297.",
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"plaintext": "In 1517, the first Ottoman period began with Selim I's conquest of Mamluk Egypt. This added Medina to their territory and they continued the tradition of showering Medina with money and aid. In 1532, Suleiman the Magnificent built a secure fortress around the city and constructed a strong castle armed by an Ottoman battalion to protect the city. This is also the period in which many of the Prophet's Mosque's modern features were built even though it wasn't painted green yet. These suburbs also had walls and gates. The Ottoman sultans took a keen interest in the Prophet's Mosque and redesigned it over and over to suit their preferences.",
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"plaintext": "As the Ottomans' hold over their domains broke loose, the Madanis pledged alliance to Saud bin Abdulaziz, founder of the First Saudi state in 1805, who quickly took over the city. In 1811, Muhammad Ali Pasha, Ottoman commander and Wali of Egypt, commanded two armies under each of his two sons to seize Medina, the first one, under the elder Towson Pasha, failed to take Medina. But the second one, a larger army under the command of Ibrahim Pasha, succeeded after battling a fierce resistance movement.",
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"plaintext": "After defeating his Saudi foes, Muhammad Ali Pasha took over governance of Medina and although he did not formally declare independence, his governance took on more of a semi-autonomous style. Muhammad's sons, Towson and Ibrahim, alternated in the governance of the city. Ibrahim renovated the city's walls and the Prophet's Mosque. He established a grand provision distribution center (taqiyya) to distribute food and alms to the needy and Medina lived a period of security and peace. In 1840, Muhammad moved his troops out of the city and officially handed the city to the central Ottoman command.",
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"plaintext": "Four years in 1844, after Muhammad Ali Pasha's departure, Davud Pasha was given the position of governor of Medina under the Ottoman sultan. Davud was responsible for renovating the Prophet's Mosque on Sultan Abdulmejid I's orders. When Abdul Hamid II assumed power, he made Medina stand out of the desert with a number of modern marvels, including a radio communication station, a power plant for the Prophet's Mosque and its immediate vicinity, a telegraph line between Medina and Istanbul, and the Hejaz railway which ran from Damascus to Medina with a planned extension to Mecca. Within one decade, the population of the city multiplied by leaps and bounds and reached 80,000. Around this time, Medina started falling prey to a new threat, the Hashemite Sharifate of Mecca in the south. Medina witnessed the longest siege in its history during and after World War I.",
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"plaintext": "The Sharif of Mecca, Husayn ibn Ali, first attacked Medina on 6 June 1916, in the middle of World War I. Four days later, Husayn held Medina in a bitter 3-year siege, during which the people faced food shortages, widespread disease and mass emigration. Fakhri Pasha, governor of Medina, tenaciously held on during the Siege of Medina from 10 June 1916 and refused to surrender and held on another 72 days after the Armistice of Moudros, until he was arrested by his own men and the city was taken over by the Sharifate on 10 January 1919. Husayn largely won the war due to his alliance with the British. In anticipation of the plunder and destruction to follow, Fakhri Pasha secretly dispatched the Sacred Relics of Muhammad to the Ottoman capital, Istanbul. As of 1920, the British described Medina as \"much more self-supporting than Mecca.\" After the Great War, the Sharif of Mecca, Sayyid Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed King of an independent Hejaz. Soon after, the people of Medina secretly entered an agreement with Ibn Saud in 1924, and his son, Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz conquered Medina as part of the Saudi conquest of Hejaz on 5 December 1925 which gave way to the whole of the Hejaz being incorporated into the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.",
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"plaintext": "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia focused more on the expansion of the city and the demolition of former sites that violated Islamic principles and Islamic law such as the tombs at al-Baqi. Nowadays, the city mostly only holds religious significance and as such, just like Mecca, has given rise to a number of hotels surrounding the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, which unlike the Masjid Al-Ḥarām, is equipped with an underground parking. The old city's walls have been destroyed and replaced with the three ring roads that encircle Medina today, named in order of length, King Faisal Road, King Abdullah Road and King Khalid Road. Medina's ring roads generally see less traffic overall compared to the four ring roads of Mecca.",
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"plaintext": "An international airport, named the Prince Mohammed Bin Abdulaziz International Airport, now serves the city and is located on Highway 340, known locally as the Old Qassim Road. The city now sits at the crossroads of two major Saudi Arabian highways, Highway 60, known as the Qassim–Medina Highway, and Highway 15 which connects the city to Mecca in the south and onward and Tabuk in the north and onward, known as the Al Hijrah Highway or Al Hijrah Road, after Muhammad's journey. The old Ottoman railway system was shutdown after their departure from the region and the old railway station has now been converted into a museum. The city has recently seen another connection and mode of transport between it and Mecca, the Haramain high-speed railway line connects the two cities via King Abdullah Economic City near Rabigh, King Abdulaziz International Airport and the city of Jeddah in under 3 hours.",
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"plaintext": "Though the city's sacred core of the old city is off limits to non-Muslims, the Haram area of Medina itself is much smaller than that of Mecca and Medina has recently seen an increase in the number of Muslim and Non-Muslim expatriate workers of other nationalities, most commonly South Asian peoples and people from other countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council. Almost all of the historic city has been demolished in the Saudi era. The rebuilt city is centered on the vastly expanded al-Masjid an-Nabawi.",
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"plaintext": "Saudi Arabia is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to shirk (idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, Medina has suffered from considerable destruction of its physical heritage including the loss of many buildings over a thousand years old. Critics have described this as \"Saudi vandalism\" and claim that 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost in Medina and Mecca over the last 50 years. The most famous example of this is the demolition of al-Baqi. ",
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"plaintext": "Medina is located in the Hejaz region which is a 200km (124mi) wide strip between the Nafud desert and the Red Sea. Located approximately 720km (447mi) northwest of Riyadh which is at the center of the Saudi desert, the city is 250km (155mi) away from the west coast of Saudi Arabia and at an elevation of approximately above sea level. It lies at 39º36' longitude east and 24º28' latitude north. It covers an area of about . The city has been divided into twelve districts, 7 of which have been categorized as urban districts, while the other 5 have been categorized as suburban.",
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"plaintext": "Like most cities in the Hejaz region, Medina is situated at a very high elevation. Almost three times as high as Mecca, the city is situated at above sea level. Mount Uhud is the highest peak in Medina and is 1,077 meters (3,533 feet) tall.",
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"plaintext": "Medina is a desert oasis surrounded by the Hejaz Mountains and volcanic hills. The soil surrounding Medina consists of mostly basalt, while the hills, especially noticeable to the south of the city, are volcanic ash which dates to the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era. It is surrounded by a number of famous mountains, most notably Jabal Al-Hujjaj (The Pilgrims' Mountain) to the west, Sal'aa Mountain to the north-west, Jabal al-'Ir or Caravan Mountain to the south and Mount Uhud to the north. The city is situated on a flat mountain plateau at the tripoint of the three valleys (wadis) of Wadi al 'Aql, Wadi al 'Aqiq, and Wadi al Himdh, for this reason, there are large green areas amidst a dry deserted mountainous region.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Köppen climate classification, Medina falls in a hot desert climate region (BWh). Summers are extremely hot and dry with daytime temperatures averaging about with nights about . Temperatures above are not unusual between June and September. Winters are milder, with temperatures from at night to in the day. There is very little rainfall, which falls almost entirely between November and May. In summer, the wind is north-western, while in the spring and winters, is south-western.",
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"plaintext": "Medina's importance as a religious site derives from the presence of two mosques, Masjid Quba'a and al-Masjid an-Nabawi. Both of these mosques were built by Muhammad himself. Islamic scriptures emphasize the sacredness of Medina. Medina is mentioned several times in the Quran, two examples are Surah At-Tawbah. verse 101 and Al-Hashr. verse 8. Medinan suras are typically longer than their Meccan counterparts and they are also larger in number. Muhammad al-Bukhari recorded in Sahih Bukhari that Anas ibn Malik quoted Muhammad as saying: \"Medina is a sanctuary from that place to that. Its trees should not be cut and no heresy should be innovated nor any sin should be committed in it, and whoever innovates in it an heresy or commits sins (bad deeds), then he will incur the curse of God, the angels, and all the people.\"",
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"plaintext": "According to Islamic tradition, a prayer in The Prophet's Mosque equates to 1,000 prayers in any other mosque except the Masjid al-Haram where one prayer equates to 100,000 prayers in any other mosque. The mosque was initially just an open space for prayer with a raised and covered minbar (pulpit) built within seven months and was located beside Muhammad's rawdhah (residence, although the word literally means garden) to its side along with the houses of his wives. The mosque was expanded several times throughout history, with many of its internal features developed overtime to suit contemporary standards.",
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"plaintext": "The modern Prophet's Mosque is famed for the Green Dome situated directly above Muhammad's rawdhah, which currently serves as the burial site for Muhammad, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Umar ibn al-Khattab and is used in road signage along with its signature minaret as an icon for Medina itself. The entire piazza of the mosque is shaded from the sun by 250 membrane umbrellas. ",
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"plaintext": "It is Sunnah to perform prayer at the Quba'a Mosque. According to a hadith, Sahl ibn Hunayf reported that Muhammad said, \"Whoever purifies himself in his house, then comes to the mosque of Quba' and prays in it, he will have a reward like the Umrah pilgrimage.\"",
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"plaintext": "and in another narration,\"Whoever goes out until he comes to this mosque – meaning the Mosque of Quba' – and prays there, that will be equivalent to 'Umrah.\"It has been recorded by al-Bukhari and Muslim that Muhammad used to go to Quba'a every Saturday to offer two rak'ahs of Sunnah prayer. The mosque at Quba'a was built by Muhammad himself upon his arrival to the old city of Medina. Quba'a and the mosque has been referred in the Qur'an indirectly in Surah At-Tawbah, verse 108.",
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"plaintext": "Masjid al-Qiblatayn is another mosque historically important to Muslims. Muslims believe that Muhammad was commanded to change his direction of prayer (qibla) from praying toward Jerusalem to praying toward the Ka'bah at Mecca, as he was commanded in Surah Al-Baqarah, verses 143 and 144. The mosque is currently being expanded to be able to hold more than 4,000 worshippers.",
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"plaintext": "Three of these historic six mosques were combined recently into the larger Masjid al-Fath with an open courtyard. Sunni sources claim that there is no hadith or any other evidence to prove that Muhammad may have said something about the virtue of these mosques.",
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"plaintext": "Al-Baqi' is a significant cemetery in Medina where several family members of Muhammad, caliphs and scholars are known to have been buried.",
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"plaintext": "Concerning the end of civilization in Medina, Abu Hurairah is recorded to have said that Muhammad said:\"The people will leave Medina in spite of the best state it will have, and none except the wild birds and the beasts of prey will live in it, and the last persons who will die will be two shepherds from the tribe of Muzaina, who will be driving their sheep towards Medina, but will find nobody in it, and when they reach the valley of Thaniyat-al-Wada'h, they will fall down on their faces dead.\" (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 98)Sufyan ibn Abu Zuhair said Muhammad said:\"Yemen will be conquered and some people will migrate (from Medina) and will urge their families, and those who will obey them to migrate (to Yemen) although Medina will be better for them; if they but knew. Sham will also be conquered and some people will migrate (from Medina) and will urge their families and those who will obey them, to migrate (to Sham) although Medina will be better for them; if they but knew. 'Iraq will be conquered and some people will migrate (from Medina) and will urge their families and those who will obey them to migrate (to 'Iraq) although Medina will be better for them; if they but knew.\" (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 99)",
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"plaintext": "With regards to Medina's protection from plague and ad-Dajjal, the following ahadith were recorded:",
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"plaintext": "by Abu Bakra:\"The terror caused by Al-Masih Ad-Dajjal will not enter Medina and at that time Medina will have seven gates and there will be two angels at each gate guarding them.\" (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 103)by Abu Hurairah:\"There are angels guarding the entrances (or roads) of Medina, neither plague nor Ad-Dajjal will be able to enter it.\" (al-Bukhari, Vol. 3, Book 30, Hadith 104)",
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"plaintext": "As of 2018, the recorded population was 2,188,138, with a growth rate of 2.32%. Being a destination of Muslims from around the world, Medina witnesses illegal immigration after performing Hajj or Umrah, despite the strict rules the government has enforced. However, the Central Hajj Commissioner Prince Khalid bin Faisal stated that the numbers of illegal staying visitors dropped by 29% in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "As with most cities in Saudi Arabia, Islam is the religion followed by the majority of the population of Medina.",
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"plaintext": "Sunnis of different schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali) constitute the majority, while there is a significant Shia minority in and around Medina, such as the Nakhawila. Outside the haram, there are significant numbers of Non-Muslim migrant workers and expats.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to that of Mecca, Medina exhibits a cross-cultural environment, a city where people of many nationalities and cultures live together and interact with each other on a daily basis. This only helps the King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Quran. Established in 1985, the biggest publisher of Quran in the world, it employs around 1100 people and publishes 361 different publications in many languages. It is reported that more than 400,000 people from around the world visit the complex every year. Every visitor is gifted a free copy of the Qur'an at the end of a tour of the facility.",
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"plaintext": "The Al Madinah Museum has several exhibits concerning the cultural and historical heritage of the city featuring different archeological collections, visual galleries and rare images of the old city. It also includes the Hejaz Railway Museum. The Dar Al Madinah Museum opened in 2011 and it uncovers the history of Medina specializing in the architectural and urban heritage of the city. There is no archeology or architecture from the time of Mohammed, except what remains of a few stone defensive towers The Holy Qur'an Exhibition houses rare manuscripts of the Quran, along with other exhibitions that encircle the Masjid an-Nabawi. ",
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"plaintext": "The Madinah Arts Center, founded in 2018 and operated by the MMDA's Cultural Wing, focuses on modern and contemporary arts. The center aims to enhance arts and enrich the artistic and cultural movement of society, empowering artists of all groups and ages. As of February 2020, before the implementation of social distancing measures and curfews, it held more than 13 group and solo art galleries, along with weekly workshops and discussions. The center is located in King Fahd Park, close to Quba Mosque on an area of 8,200 square meters (88,264 square feet)",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the MMDA launched Madinah Forum of Arabic Calligraphy, an annual forum to celebrate Arabic calligraphy and renowned Arabic calligraphers. The event includes discussions about Arabic Calligraphy, and a gallery to show the work of 50 Arabic calligraphers from 10 countries. The Dar al-Qalam Center for Arabic Calligraphy is located to the northwest of the Masjid an-Nabawi, just across the Hejaz Railway Museum. In April 2020, it was announced that the center was renamed the Prince Mohammed bin Salman Center for Arabic Calligraphy, and upgraded to an international hub for Arabic Calligraphers, in conjunction with the \"Year of Arabic Calligraphy\" event organized by the Ministry of Culture during the years 2020 and 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Other projects launched by the MMDA Cultural Wing include the Madinah Forum of Live Sculpture held at Quba Square, with 16 sculptors from 11 countries. The forum aimed to celebrate sculpture as it is an ancient art, and to attract young artists to this form of art.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, Medina's economy was dependent on the sale of dates and other agricultural activities. As of 1920, 139 varieties of dates were being grown in the area, along with other vegetables. Religious tourism plays a major part in Medina's economy, being the second holiest city in Islam, and holding many historical Islamic locations, it attracts more than 7million annual visitors who come to perform Hajj during the Hajj season, and Umrah throughout the year.",
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"plaintext": "Medina has two industrial areas, the larger one was established in 2003 with a total area of 10,000,000 m2, and managed by the Saudi Authority for Industrial Cities and Technology Zones (MODON). It is located 50km from Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz International Airport, and 200km from Yanbu Commercial Port, and has 236 factories, which produce petroleum products, building materials, food products, and many other products. The Knowledge Economic City (KEC) is a Saudi Arabian joint stock company founded in 2010. It focuses on real estate development and knowledge-based industries. The project is under development and is expected to highly increase the number of jobs in Medina by its completion.",
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"plaintext": "The Ministry of Education is the governing body of education in the al-Madinah Province and it operates 724 and 773 public schools for boys and girls respectively throughout the province. Taibah High School is one of the most notable schools in Saudi Arabia. Established in 1942, it was the second-largest school in the country at that time. Saudi ministers and government officials have graduated from this high school.",
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"plaintext": "Taibah University is a public university providing higher education for the residents of the province, it has 28 colleges, of which 16 are in Medina. It offers 89 academic programs and has a strength of 69210 students as of 2020. The Islamic University, established in 1961, is the oldest higher education institution in the region, with around 22000 students enrolled. It offers majors in Sharia, Qur'an, Usul ad-Din, Hadith, and the Arabic language. The university offers Bachelor of Arts degrees and also Master's and Doctorate degrees. The admission is open to Muslims based on scholarships programs that provide accommodation and living expenses. In 2012, the university expanded its programs by establishing the College of Science, which offers Engineering and Computer science majors. Al Madinah College of Technology, which is governed by TVTC, offers a variety of degree programs including Electrical engineering, Mechanical engineering, Computer Sciences and Electronic Sciences. Private universities at Medina include University of Prince Muqrin, the Arab Open University, and Al Rayyan Colleges.",
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"plaintext": "Medina is served by the Prince Mohammad bin Abdulaziz International Airport located off Highway 340. It handles domestic flights, while it has scheduled international services to regional destinations in the Middle East. It is the fourth-busiest airport in Saudi Arabia, handling 8,144,790 passengers in 2018. The airport project was announced as the world's best by Engineering News-Record'''s 3rd Annual Global Best Projects Competition held on 10 September 2015. The airport also received the first Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold certificate in the MENA region. The airport receives higher numbers of passengers during the Hajj. ",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, the MMDA announced Darb as-Sunnah (Sunnah Path) Project, which aims to develop and transform the 3km (2mi) Quba'a Road connecting the Quba'a Mosque to the al-Masjid an-Nabawi to an avenue, paving the whole road for pedestrians and providing service facilities to the visitors. The project also aims to revive the Sunnah where Muhammed used to walk from his house (al-Masjid an-Nabawi) to Quba'a every Saturday afternoon.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Medina lies at the junction of two of the most important Saudi highways, Highway 60 and Highway 15. Highway 15 connects Medina to Mecca in the south and onward and Tabuk and Jordan in the north. Highway 60 connects the city with Yanbu, a port city on the Red Sea in the west and Al Qassim in the east. The city is served by three ring roads: King Faisal Road, a 5km ring road that surrounds Al-Masjid an-Nabawi and the downtown area, King Abdullah Road, a 27km road that surrounds most of urban Medina and King Khalid Road is the biggest ring road that surrounds the whole city and some rural areas with 60km of roads.",
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"plaintext": "The bus transport system in Medina was established in 2012 by the MMDA and is operated by SAPTCO. The newly established bus system includes 10 lines connecting different regions of the city to Masjid an-Nabawi and the downtown area, and serves around 20,000 passengers on a daily basis. In 2017, the MMDA launched the Madinah Sightseeing Bus service. Open top buses take passengers on sightseeing trips throughout the day with two lines and 11 destinations, including Masjid an-Nabawi, Quba'a Mosque and Masjid al-Qiblatayn and offers audio tour guidance with 8 different languages. By the end of 2019, the MMDA announced its plan to expand the bus network with 15 BRT lines. The project was set to be done in 2023. In 2015, the MMDA announced a three-line metro project in extension to the public transportation master plan in Medina.",
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"plaintext": "The historic Ottoman railways were shut down and the railway stations, including the one in Medina, were converted into museums by the Saudi government. The Haramain High Speed Railway (HHR) came into operation in 2018, linking Medina and Mecca, and passes through three stations: Jeddah, King Abdul Aziz International Airport, and King Abdullah Economic City. It runs along 444 kilometers (276 miles) with a speed of 300km/h, and has an annual capacity of 60million passengers.",
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"plaintext": "Mubarakpuri, Safiur Rahman (2011). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet ﷺ. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers. ",
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"plaintext": "Mubarakpuri, Safiur Rahman (2004). The History of Madinah Munawwarah. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers. ",
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"plaintext": "Badr, Abdulbasit A. (2013). Madinah, The Enlightened City: History and Landmarks.'' Medina: Al-Madinah Al Munawwarah Research & Studies Center. ",
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"plaintext": "Bibliography of the history of Medina",
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| [
"Medina",
"Holy_cities",
"Islamic_holy_places",
"Shia_holy_cities",
"Populated_places_in_Medina_Province_(Saudi_Arabia)",
"Provincial_capitals_of_Saudi_Arabia",
"Capitals_of_caliphates",
"Historic_Jewish_communities",
"Closed_cities"
]
| 35,484 | 49,532 | 2,568 | 374 | 0 | 0 | Medina | Saudi Arabian city | [
"Madinah",
"Yathrib",
"Al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah",
"The Radiant City",
"Madīnah"
]
|
36,637 | 1,107,673,742 | Yorkshire | [
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire (; abbreviated Yorks), formally known as the County of York, is a historic county in northern England and by far the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its large area in comparison with other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographic territory and cultural region. The name is familiar and well understood across the United Kingdom and is in common use in the media and the military, and also features in the titles of current areas of civil administration such as North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire.",
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"plaintext": "Within the borders of the historic county of Yorkshire are large stretches of countryside, including the Yorkshire Dales, North York Moors and Peak District national parks. Yorkshire has been nicknamed \"God's Own County\".",
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"plaintext": "The emblem of Yorkshire is the White Rose of the English royal House of York, and the most commonly used flag representative of Yorkshire is the white rose on a blue field which, after nearly fifty years of use, was recognised by the Flag Institute on 29 July 2008. Yorkshire Day, held annually on 1 August, is a celebration of the general culture of Yorkshire, ranging from its history to its dialect.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire is covered by different Government Office Regions. Most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber while the extreme northern part of the county, such as Middlesbrough, Redcar, Holwick and Startforth, falls within North East England. Small areas in the west of the county are covered by the North West England region.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire (administrative area or county) of the city of York or York's Shire. \"York\" comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. The word \"Shire\" is either from the Old Norse word skyr or from Old English scir meaning share, care or official charge. The \"shire\" suffix is locally pronounced \"shuh\", or occasionally , a homophone of \"sheer\".",
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"plaintext": "Early: Celtic Brigantes and Parisi",
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"plaintext": "Early inhabitants of what is now Yorkshire were Hen Ogledd Brythonic Celts (old north British Celts), who formed separate tribes, the Brigantes (known to be in the north and west ridings of now Yorkshire) and the Parisi, East Riding. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of Northern England and more territory than most Celtic tribes on the isle of Great Britain. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county.",
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"plaintext": "The Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul (known today as Paris, France). Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber Estuary.",
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"plaintext": "43–400s: Britannia Inferior",
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"plaintext": "Although the Roman conquest of Britain began in 43AD, the Brigantes remained in control of their kingdom as a client state of Rome for an extended period, reigned over by the Brigantian monarchs Cartimandua and her husband Venutius. The capital was between the north and west ridings Isurium Brigantum (near Aldborough) civitas under Roman rule. Initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain.",
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"plaintext": "Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his armour bearer, Vellocatus, setting off a chain of events which changed control of the region. Cartimandua, due to her good relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom; however, her former husband staged rebellions against her and her Roman allies. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, conquered the Brigantes in 71AD.",
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"plaintext": "The fortified city of Eboracum (now known as York) was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint capital of all Roman Britain. The emperor Septimius Severus ruled the Roman Empire from Eboracum for the two years before his death.",
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"plaintext": "Another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Eboracum during a visit in 306AD. Thereafter his son Constantine the Great, who became renowned for his acceptance of Christianity, was proclaimed emperor in the city. In the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops. By this stage, the Western Empire was in intermittent decline.",
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"plaintext": "500s–800s: Celtic-Anglo kingdoms of Ebrauc, Elmet, Deira and Northumbria",
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"plaintext": "After the Romans left, small Celtic kingdoms arose in the region, including kingdoms of Deira to the east (domain of a settlements near Malton on Derwent), Ebrauc (domain of York) around the north and Elmet to the west. The latter two were successors of land south-west and north-east of the former Brigantia capital.",
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"plaintext": "Angles (hailing from southern Denmark and northern Germany, probably along with Swedish Geats) consolidated (merging Ebrauc) under Deira, York as capital. This was in turn was grouped with Bernicia, another former Celtic-Brigantes kingdom that was north of the River Tees and had come to be headed by Bamburgh, to form Northumbria . Elmet had remained independent from the Germanic Angles until some time in the early 7th century, when King Edwin of Northumbria expelled its last king, Certic, and annexed the region to his Deira region. The Celts never went away, but were assimilated. This explains the existence of many Celtic place names in Yorkshire today, such as Kingston upon Hull and Pen-y-ghent.",
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"plaintext": "As well as the Angles and Geats, other settlers included Frisians (thought to have founded Fryston and Frizinghall), Danes, Franks and Huns.",
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"plaintext": "At its greatest extent, Northumbria stretched from the Irish Sea to the North Sea and from Edinburgh down to Hallamshire in the south.",
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"plaintext": "800s–900s: Jórvík",
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"plaintext": "Scandinavian York (also referred to as Jórvík) or Danish/Norwegian York is a term used by historians for the south of Northumbria (modern day Yorkshire) during the period of the late 9th century and first half of the 10th century, when it was dominated by Norse warrior-kings; in particular, used to refer to York, the city controlled by these kings.",
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"plaintext": "Norse monarchy controlled varying amounts of Northumbria from 875 to 954, however the area was invaded and conquered for short periods by England between 927 and 954 before eventually being annexed into England in 954. It was closely associated with the much longer-lived Kingdom of Dublin throughout this period.",
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"plaintext": "An army of Danish Vikings, the Great Heathen Army as its enemies often referred to it, invaded Northumbrian territory in 866AD. The Danes conquered and assumed what is now York and renamed it Jórvík, making it the capital city of a new Danish kingdom under the same name. The area which this kingdom covered included most of Southern Northumbria, roughly equivalent to the borders of Yorkshire extending further West.",
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"plaintext": "The Danes went on to conquer an even larger area of England that afterwards became known as the Danelaw; but whereas most of the Danelaw was still English land, albeit in submission to Viking overlords, it was in the Kingdom of Jórvík that the only truly Viking territory on mainland Britain was ever established. The Kingdom prospered, taking advantage of the vast trading network of the Viking nations, and established commercial ties with the British Isles, North-West Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East.",
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"plaintext": "Founded by the Dane Halfdan Ragnarsson in 875, ruled for the great part by Danish kings, and populated by the families and subsequent descendants of Danish Vikings, the leadership of the kingdom nonetheless passed into Norwegian hands during its twilight years. Eric Bloodaxe, an ex-king of Norway who was the last independent Viking king of Jórvík, is a particularly noted figure in history, and his bloodthirsty approach towards leadership may have been at least partly responsible for convincing the Danish inhabitants of the region to accept English sovereignty so readily in the years that followed.",
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"plaintext": "800s–1000s: Yorkshire",
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{
"plaintext": "After around 100 years of its volatile existence, the Kingdom of Jorvik finally came to an end. The Kingdom of Wessex was now in its ascendancy and established its dominance over the North in general, placing Yorkshire again within Northumbria, which retained a certain amount of autonomy as an almost-independent earldom rather than a separate kingdom. The Wessex Kings of England were reputed to have respected the Norse customs in Yorkshire and left law-making in the hands of the local aristocracy.",
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"plaintext": "1000s–1100s: Harrying of the north",
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{
"plaintext": "In the weeks leading up to the Battle of Hastings in 1066AD, Harold II of England was distracted by pushing back efforts to reinstate the kingdom of Jorvik and Danelaw. His brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, having won the Battle of Fulford. The King of England marched north where the two armies met at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Tostig and Hardrada were both killed and their army was defeated decisively.",
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"plaintext": "Harold Godwinson was forced immediately to march his army south, where William the Conqueror was landing. The King was defeated in what is now known as the Battle of Hastings, which led to the Norman conquest of England.",
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"plaintext": "The people of the North rebelled against the Normans in September 1069AD, enlisting Sweyn II of Denmark. They tried to take back York, but the Normans burnt it before they could. What followed was the Harrying of the North ordered by William. From York to Durham, crops, domestic animals, and farming tools were scorched. Many villages between the towns were burnt and local northerners were indiscriminately murdered. During the winter that followed, families starved to death and thousands of peasants died of cold and hunger. Orderic Vitalis estimated that \"more than 100,000\" people from the North died from hunger.",
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"plaintext": "In the centuries following, many abbeys and priories were built in Yorkshire. Norman landowners increased their revenues and established new towns such as Barnsley, Doncaster, Hull, Leeds, Scarborough and Sheffield, among others. Of towns founded before the conquest, only Bridlington, Pocklington, and York continued at a prominent level.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 12th century, people of Yorkshire had to contend with the Battle of the Standard at Northallerton with the Scots. Representing the Kingdom of England led by Archbishop Thurstan of York, soldiers from Yorkshire defeated the more numerous Scots.",
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"plaintext": "1300s: Mass deaths",
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"plaintext": "The population of Yorkshire boomed until it was hit by the Great Famine of 1315 until 1322. The Black Death reached Yorkshire by 1349, killing around a third of the population.",
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"plaintext": "1400s: Wars of the Roses",
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"plaintext": "When King Richard II was overthrown in 1399, antagonism between the House of York and the House of Lancaster, both branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, began to emerge. Eventually the two houses fought for the throne of England in a series of civil wars, commonly known as the Wars of the Roses. Some of the battles took place in Yorkshire, such as those at Wakefield and Towton, the latter of which is known as the bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil. Richard III was the last Yorkist king.",
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"plaintext": "Henry Tudor, sympathiser to the House of Lancaster, defeated and killed Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He then became King Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Yorkist Edward IV, ending the wars. The two roses of white and red, emblems of the Houses of York and Lancaster respectively, were combined to form the Tudor Rose of England. This rivalry between the royal houses of York and Lancaster has passed into popular culture as a rivalry between the counties of Yorkshire and Lancashire, particularly in sport (for example the Roses Match played in County Cricket), although the House of Lancaster was based in York and the House of York in London.",
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"plaintext": "1500: Catholic-Protestant dissolution",
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"plaintext": "The English Reformation began under Henry VIII and the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 led to a popular uprising known as Pilgrimage of Grace, started in Yorkshire as a protest. Some Catholics in Yorkshire continued to practise their religion and those caught were executed during the reign of Elizabeth I. One such person was a York woman named Margaret Clitherow who was later canonised.",
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"plaintext": "1600s: Civil war",
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"plaintext": "During the English Civil War, which started in 1642, Yorkshire had divided loyalties; Hull (full name Kingston upon Hull) famously shut the gates of the city on the king when he came to enter a few months before fighting began, while the North Riding of Yorkshire in particular was strongly royalist. York was the base for Royalists, and from there they captured Leeds and Wakefield only to have them recaptured a few months later. The royalists won the Battle of Adwalton Moor meaning they controlled Yorkshire (with the exception of Hull). From their base in Hull the Parliamentarians (\"Roundheads\") fought back, re-taking Yorkshire town by town, until they won the Battle of Marston Moor and with it control of all of the North of England.",
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"plaintext": "1500-1600s: Explorative growth",
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"plaintext": "In the 16th and 17th centuries Leeds and other wool-industry-centred towns continued to grow, along with Huddersfield, Hull and Sheffield, while coal mining first came into prominence in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The wool textile industry, which had previously been a cottage industry, centred on the old market towns moved to the West Riding where entrepreneurs were building mills that took advantage of water power gained by harnessing the rivers and streams flowing from the Pennines. The developing textile industry helped Wakefield and Halifax grow.",
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"plaintext": "1800s: Victorian revolution",
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"plaintext": "The 19th century saw Yorkshire's continued growth, with the population growing and the Industrial Revolution continuing with prominent industries in coal, textile and steel (especially in Sheffield, Rotherham and Middlesbrough). However, despite the booming industry, living conditions declined in the industrial towns due to overcrowding. This saw bouts of cholera in both 1832 and 1848. However, advances were made by the end of the century with the introduction of modern sewers and water supplies. Several Yorkshire railway networks were introduced as railways spread across the country to reach remote areas.",
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"plaintext": "As Yorkshire was too large and unwieldy to have its own county council, separate county councils were created for the three ridings in 1889, but their area of control did not include the large towns, which became county boroughs, and included an increasingly large part of the population.",
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"plaintext": "Canals and turnpike roads were introduced in the late 18th century. In the following century the spa towns of Harrogate and Scarborough flourished, due to people believing mineral water had curative properties.",
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"plaintext": "Early 1900s: World wars",
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"plaintext": "During the Second World War, Yorkshire became an important base for RAF Bomber Command and brought the county into the cutting edge of the war.",
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"plaintext": "The County Borough of Teesside was created in 1968, drafted by the North Eastern General Review Area from 1962 to 1963 and executed under the Local Government Act 1958, adding settlements to the North Riding's north eastern edges, notably Stockton and Billingham. Twelve in total were placed into a county borough council area. This was the last county borough made and first county to use the local river and '-side' suffix before similar cross river focused counties were created in 1974.",
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"plaintext": "In 1974, they were large local government reforms throughout the United Kingdom. Some of the Local Government Act 1972 changes were unpopular, historic boundaries of Yorkshire and its ridings lost notability status as entities.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, the 'East Riding of Yorkshire' was created from Yorkshire parts of abolished Humberside and North Yorkshire gained Yorkshire parts of Cleveland. The Government Office entity currently containing most of Yorkshire is the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. This region includes the north-eastern part of Lincolnshire, but not northern parts of Yorkshire, as these areas, located around the River Tees, are in the North East England region. Parts in the North West England region are:",
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"plaintext": "Saddleworth (Greater Manchester)",
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"plaintext": "Forest of Bowland (Lancashire)",
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"plaintext": "Sedbergh and Dent (Cumbria) .",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, eighteen of the twenty-two local councils in the Yorkshire and Humber region voted to elect a mayor to represent the county, including a devolved deal for Yorkshire that would in some regards reunite the county under one deal and mayor. The proposal would allow the mayor similar powers to those possessed by the Mayor of London over Greater London. This would also allow Yorkshire to create up to 200,000 jobs across the county and provide similar funding and autonomy to that enjoyed by Greater Manchester.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the northern boundary of Yorkshire was the River Tees, the eastern boundary was the North Sea coast and the southern boundary was the Humber Estuary and Rivers Don and Sheaf. The western boundary meandered along the western slopes of the Pennine Hills to again meet the River Tees. It is bordered by several other historic counties: the county of Durham, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire, Lancashire and Westmorland. In Yorkshire there is a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the geological period in which they were formed. The Pennine chain of hills in the west is of Carboniferous origin. The central vale is Permo-Triassic. The North York Moors in the north-east of the county are Jurassic in age while the Yorkshire Wolds to the south east are Cretaceous chalk uplands.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire is drained by several rivers. In western and central Yorkshire the many rivers empty their waters into the River Ouse which reaches the North Sea via the Humber Estuary. The most northerly of the rivers in the Ouse system is the River Swale, which drains Swaledale before passing through Richmond and meandering across the Vale of Mowbray. Next, draining Wensleydale, is the River Ure, which the Swale joins east of Boroughbridge. Near Great Ouseburn the Ure is joined by the small Ouse Gill Beck, and below the confluence the river is known as the Ouse. The River Nidd rises on the edge of the Yorkshire Dales National Park and flows along Nidderdale before reaching the Vale of York and the Ouse. The River Wharfe, which drains Wharfedale, joins the Ouse upstream of Cawood. The Rivers Aire and Calder are more southerly contributors to the River Ouse and the most southerly Yorkshire tributary is the River Don, which flows northwards to join the main river at Goole. Further north and east the River Derwent rises on the North York Moors, flows south then westwards through the Vale of Pickering then turns south again to drain the eastern part of the Vale of York. It empties into the River Ouse at Barmby on the Marsh.",
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"plaintext": "In the far north of the county the River Tees flows eastwards through Teesdale and empties its waters into the North Sea downstream of Middlesbrough. The smaller River Esk flows from west to east at the northern foot of the North York Moors to reach the sea at Whitby. To the east of the Yorkshire Wolds the River Hull flows southwards to join the Humber Estuary at Kingston upon Hull.",
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"plaintext": "The western Pennines are drained by the River Ribble which flows westwards, eventually reaching the Irish Sea close to Lytham St Annes.",
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"plaintext": "The countryside of Yorkshire has acquired the common nickname of \"God's Own County\". Yorkshire includes the North York Moors and Yorkshire Dales National Parks, and part of the Peak District National Park. Nidderdale and the Howardian Hills are designated Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, as is the North Pennines (a part of which lies within the county). Spurn Point, Flamborough Head and the coastal North York Moors are designated Heritage Coast areas, and are noted for their scenic views with rugged cliffs such as the jet cliffs at Whitby, the limestone cliffs at Filey and the chalk cliffs at Flamborough Head. Moor House – Upper Teesdale, most of which is part of the former North Riding of Yorkshire, is one of England's largest national nature reserves. At High Force on the border with County Durham, the River Tees plunges over the Whin Sill (an intrusion of igneous rock). High Force is not, as is sometimes claimed, the highest waterfall in England (Hardraw Force in Wensleydale, also in Yorkshire, has a drop for example). However, High Force is unusual in being on a major river and carries a greater volume of water than any higher waterfall in England.",
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"plaintext": "The highest mountains in Yorkshire all lie in the Pennines on the western side of the county, with millstone grit and limestone forming the underlying geology and producing distinctive layered hills. The county top is the remote Mickle Fell (height above sea level) in the North Pennines southwest of Teesdale, which is also the highest point in the North Riding. The highest point in the West Riding is Whernside (height ) near to Ingleton in the Yorkshire Dales. Together with nearby Ingleborough (height ) and Pen-y-Ghent (height ), Whernside forms a trio of very prominent and popular summits (the Yorkshire Three Peaks) which can be climbed in a challenging single day's walk. The highest point in the Yorkshire part of the Peak District is Black Hill (height ) on the border with historic Cheshire (which also forms the historic county top of that county). The hill ranges along the eastern side of Yorkshire are lower than those of the west. The highest point of the North York Moors is Urra Moor (height ). The highest point of the Yorkshire Wolds, a range of low chalk downlands east of York, is Bishop Wilton Wold (height ), which is also the highest point of the East Riding. The view from Sutton Bank at the southeastern edge of the North York Moors near Thirsk encompasses a vast expanse of the Yorkshire lowlands with the Pennines forming a backdrop. It was called the \"finest view in England\" by local author and veterinary surgeon James Herriot in his 1979 guidebook James Herriot's Yorkshire.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds runs nature reserves such as the one at Bempton Cliffs with coastal wildlife such as the northern gannet, Atlantic puffin and razorbill. Spurn Point is a narrow long sand spit. It is a national nature reserve owned by the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust and is noted for its cyclical nature whereby the spit is destroyed and re-created approximately once every 250 years. There are seaside resorts in Yorkshire with sandy beaches; Scarborough is Britain's oldest seaside resort dating back to the spa town-era in the 17th century, while Whitby has been voted as the United Kingdom's best beach, with a \"postcard-perfect harbour\".",
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"plaintext": "The northern extent of Yorkshire is the Tees and the southern extent was the Humber. East is the North Sea and west are the Pennines and the Aire Gap.",
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"plaintext": "York has historically been recognised as a city \"by ancient prescriptive right\", having been the seat of a bishop for many centuries, rather than through specific charters or declarations. Its status as a city was reaffirmed as part of the administrative reforms in 1974 and again in 1996. The smallest city in Yorkshire is Ripon which associated its city status with the establishment of Church of England dioceses. When the Diocese of Ripon was created in 1836 the corporation of Ripon assumed that this inferred city status, however, uncertainty surrounding this led to its status being clarified by a parliamentary bill in 1865 known as the City of Ripon Act.",
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"plaintext": "In 1871, Wakefield had a population of around 28,000, less than half the size of the towns of Huddersfield and Halifax, yet when the Ripon diocese was divided to create a diocese for the West Riding it was the Church of All Saints, Wakefield that was chosen to be the cathedral and upon the establishment of the new diocese in 1888 Wakefield petitioned for city status with letters patent being granted soon after. Bradford, Kingston upon Hull, Leeds and Sheffield became cities in the 1890s. They had all seen significant growth throughout the 19th century and were all larger than any of the preceding cities in Yorkshire. More recently city status was conferred through local government reform in 1974 to the metropolitan boroughs created at that time, some of which were already based on existing city areas (such as Leeds and Sheffield). ",
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"plaintext": "In May 2022 it was announced that, as part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours, Doncaster would receive city status by letters patent later in 2022.",
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"plaintext": "The form and makeup of local government administration has changed over time to address the perceived political challenges that public administration is in place to deal with. Legislation has created and abolished local authorities, has redrawn boundaries of administrative areas and has altered the names of such bodies over time. During these processes the geographical and traditional historic boundaries of Yorkshire outside of the local government layer has remained unchanged.",
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"plaintext": "For statistical purposes, Yorkshire is divided, as of 2018, between three regions of England. Most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county, such as south of the Tees Valley sub-region, Holwick and Startforth, fall within North East England. Small areas in the west of the historic county, like Saddleworth, Barnoldswick and Sedbergh, fall within North West England.",
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"plaintext": "South Yorkshire is in the Sheffield sub-region. West Yorkshire, city of York, borough of Harrogate, district of Craven and district of Selby are a part of the Leeds sub-region. The borough of Barnsley is the only borough in Yorkshire to be part of two sub-regions, Leeds and Sheffield.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, Yorkshire was divided into three ridings and the Ainsty of York. The term 'riding' is of Viking origin and derives from Threthingr (equivalent to third-ing) meaning one acting part of three to York's share. The three ridings in Yorkshire were named the East Riding, West Riding, and North Riding. The North Riding bordering on the Derwent to the East Riding. The East Riding and west Riding the west and north parts are bordered by the Ouse and Ure/Nidd watershed. Each historic riding included wapentakes, local meeting points. Urban areas of Yorkshire later became independent county boroughs and other areas becoming districts.",
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"plaintext": "Local government reform in 1974 saw the three ridings abolished and replaced with the present day ceremonial counties of the East Riding, North, South and West Yorkshire, with York incorporated into North Yorkshire. County boroughs disbanded and became smaller unitary authorities, independent of the county authority however included in the new counties.",
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"plaintext": "Further reform in 1996 gave Yorkshire its current size, smaller but roughly the same as before 1974. This reform split Humberside; East Riding of Yorkshire was created from northern Humberside, to match the naming of other current Yorkshire counties and to differentiate it from a district in the county. It is commonly referred to as East Yorkshire. The ambiguous County of Cleveland, part County Durham and part North Yorkshire, was a later and larger-sized successor of the County Borough of Teesside. The latter former county covered what is still known unofficially as Teesside. Certain legal functions (such as policing) still exist under the old county names from before the 1996 reform, for example Cleveland Fire Brigade.",
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"plaintext": "Ceremonial counties and the administrative units of local government, such as unitary authorities, are detailed at Local government divisions of Yorkshire and the Humber, Local government divisions of North East England and Local government divisions of North West England.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has been the focus of various industrial promotion and development initiatives, such as Yorkshire Forward, and today various local enterprise partnerships. There are also a number of innovation centres belonging to leading companies, and a range of spin-off companies linked to major universities.",
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"plaintext": "Many large British companies are based in Yorkshire or were founded there. Yorkshire has a mixed economy, accounting for about 8% of UK GDP.",
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"plaintext": "The City of Leeds is Yorkshire's largest city and the leading centre of trade and commerce. Leeds is also one of the UK's larger financial centres. Leeds' traditional industries were mixed; service-based industries, textile manufacturing and coal mining being examples. Tourism is also significant and a growing sector in the city. In 2015, the value of tourism was in excess of £7billion. Businesses of Leeds are Wharfedale, Asda, Jet2.com, Optare, Yorkshire Bank, Marks and Spencer, Burtons, First Direct, Tetley's Brewery and GHD.",
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"plaintext": "Bradford, Halifax, Keighley and Huddersfield once were centres of wool milling. Areas such as Bradford, Dewsbury and Keighley have suffered a decline in their economy since. Notable companies in the area are Jaeger (Ilkley), Magnet Kitchens (Keighley), Timothy Taylor Brewery (Keighley), Bradford and Bingley (Bingley). Morrisons, Yorkshire Building Society, Provident Financial are based in Bradford. Halifax Bank is notably from Halifax.",
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"plaintext": "Sheffield once had heavy industries, such as coal mining and the steel industry. Since the decline of such industries Sheffield has attracted tertiary and administrative businesses including more retail trade; Meadowhall being an example. However, while Sheffield's heavy industry has declined, the region has reinvented itself as a centre for specialist engineering companies such as Boeing and Maclaren. A cluster of hi-tech facilities including The Welding Institute and the Boeing partnered Advanced Materials Research Centre have all helped to raise the region's profile and to bring significant investment into Yorkshire. In Sheffield large companies include HSBC, Ronseal, Little Chef, Plusnet, Quidco.",
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"plaintext": "Coal mining was extremely active in the south of the county during the 19th century and for most of the 20th century, particularly around Barnsley and Wakefield. As late as the 1970s, the number of miners working in the area was still in six figures. The industry was placed under threat on 6 March 1984 when the National Coal Board announced the closure of 20 pits nationwide (some of them in South Yorkshire). By March 2004, a mere three coalpits remained open in the area. Three years later, the only remaining coal pit in the region was Maltby Colliery near Rotherham. Maltby Colliery closed in 2013.",
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"plaintext": "North Yorkshire has an established tourist industry, supported by the presence of two national parks (Yorkshire Dales National Park, North York Moors National Park), Harrogate, York and Scarborough.",
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"plaintext": "Tourism is a huge part of the economy of York with a value of over £765 million to the city and supporting 24,000 jobs in 2019. Harrogate draws numerous visitors because of its conference facilities. In 2016 such events alone attracted 300,000 visitors to Harrogate.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston upon Hull is Yorkshire's largest port and has a large manufacturing base, its fishing industry has however declined somewhat in recent years. Businesses in Hull are Aunt Bessie's, Birds Eye, Seven Seas, Fenner, Rank Organisation, William Jackson Food Group, Reckitt and Sons, KCOM Group and SGS Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Harrogate and Knaresborough both have small legal and financial sectors. Harrogate is a European conference and exhibition destination with both the Great Yorkshire Showground and Harrogate International Centre in the town. Bettys and Taylors of Harrogate is a notable company from Harrogate.",
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"plaintext": "PD Ports owns and operates Teesport, between Middlesbrough and Redcar. The company also operates the Hull Container Terminal at the Port of Hull and owns a short river port in Howdendyke (near Howden).",
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"plaintext": "Other businesses in the two counties are Plaxton (Scarborough), McCains (Scarborough), Ebuyer (Howden) and Skipton Building Society (Skipton).",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has a large base of primary and secondary schools operated by both local authorities and private bodies, and a dozen universities, along with a wide range of colleges and further education facilities. Five universities are based in Leeds, two in Sheffield, two in York, and one each in Bradford, Hull, Middlesbrough and Huddersfield. The largest universities by enrolment are Sheffield Hallam University and the University of Leeds, each with over 31,000 students, followed by Leeds Beckett University, and the most recent to attain university status is the Leeds Arts University. There are also branches of institutions headquartered in other parts of England, such as the Open University and Britain's first for-profit university (since 2012), the University of Law. The tertiary sector is in active cooperation with industry, and a number of spin-off companies have been launched.",
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"plaintext": "The most prominent road in Yorkshire, historically called the Great North Road, is known as the A1. This trunk road passes through the centre of the county and is the prime route from London to Edinburgh. Another important road is the more easterly A19 road which starts in Doncaster and ends just north of Newcastle upon Tyne at Seaton Burn. The M62 motorway crosses the county from east to west from Hull towards Greater Manchester and Merseyside. The M1 carries traffic from London and the south of England to Yorkshire. In 1999, about was added to make it swing east of Leeds and connect to the A1. The East Coast Main Line rail link between London and Scotland runs roughly parallel with the A1 through Yorkshire and the Trans Pennine rail link runs east to west from Hull to Liverpool via Leeds.",
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"plaintext": "Before the advent of rail transport, the seaports of Hull and Whitby played an important role in transporting goods. Historically canals were used, including the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which is the longest canal in England. Mainland Europe (the Netherlands and Belgium) can be reached from Hull via regular ferry services from P&O Ferries. Yorkshire also has air transport services from Leeds Bradford Airport. This airport has experienced significant and rapid growth in both terminal size and passenger facilities since 1996, when improvements began, until the present day. South Yorkshire is served by Doncaster Sheffield Airport, based in Finningley. Sheffield City Airport opened in 1997 after years of Sheffield having no airport, due to a council decision in the 1960s not to develop one because of the city's good rail links with London and the development of airports in other nearby areas. The newly opened airport never managed to compete with larger airports such as Leeds Bradford Airport and East Midlands Airport and attracted only a few scheduled flights, while the runway was too short to support low cost carriers. The opening of Doncaster Sheffield Airport effectively made the airport redundant and it officially closed in April 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend on public transport in Yorkshire on a weekday is 77 minutes. 26.6% of public transport users travel for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transport is 16 minutes, while 24.9% of passengers wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transport is 7km, while 10% travel for over 12km in a single direction.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout Yorkshire many castles were built during the Norman-Breton period, particularly after the Harrying of the North. These included Bowes Castle, Pickering Castle, Richmond Castle, Skipton Castle, York Castle and others. Later medieval castles at Helmsley, Middleham and Scarborough were built as a means of defence against the invading Scots. Middleham is notable because Richard III of England spent his childhood there. The remains of these castles, some being English Heritage sites, are popular tourist destinations.",
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"plaintext": "There are stately homes in Yorkshire that carry the name \"castle\" in a similar way to the non-distinctive use of chateau in French. The most notable examples are Allerton Castle and Castle Howard, both linked to the Howard family. Castle Howard and the Earl of Harewood's residence, Harewood House, are included amongst the nine Treasure Houses of England.",
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"plaintext": "Large estates with significant buildings were constructed at Brodsworth Hall, Temple Newsam, Wentworth Woodhouse (the largest fronted private home in Europe), and Wentworth Castle. There are properties which are conserved and managed by the National Trust, such as Nunnington Hall, Ormesby Hall, the Rievaulx Terrace & Temples and Studley Royal Park.",
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"plaintext": "Buildings built for industry during the Victorian era are found throughout the region; West Yorkshire has various cotton mills, the Leeds Corn Exchange and the Halifax Piece Hall.",
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"plaintext": "There are various buildings built for local authorities:",
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"plaintext": "Grade I listed; Leeds Town Hall, Sheffield Town Hall, Wakefield County Hall and York Guildhall",
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"plaintext": "Grade II* listed; Middlesbrough Town Hall, Leeds Civic Hall, Hull Guildhall, Hull City Hall and Sheffield City Hall.",
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"plaintext": "Religious architecture includes extant cathedrals as well as the ruins of monasteries and abbeys. Many of these prominent buildings suffered from the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII; these include Bolton Abbey, Fountains Abbey, Gisborough Priory, Rievaulx Abbey, St Mary's Abbey and Whitby Abbey among others. Notable religious buildings of historic origin still in use include York Minster, the largest Gothic cathedral in northern Europe, Beverley Minster, Bradford Cathedral, Rotherham Minster and Ripon Cathedral.",
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"plaintext": "The culture of the people of Yorkshire is an accumulated product of a number of different civilisations who have influenced its history, including; the Celts (Brigantes and Parisii), Romans, Angles, Norse Vikings, and Normans amongst others. The western part of the historic North Riding had an additional infusion of Breton culture due to the Honour of Richmond being occupied by Alain Le Roux, grandson of Geoffrey I, Duke of Brittany. The people of Yorkshire are immensely proud of their county and local culture, and it is sometimes suggested they identify more strongly with their county than they do with their country. Yorkshire people have their own Yorkshire dialects and accents and are, or rather were, known as Broad Yorkshire or Tykes, with its roots in Old English and Old Norse.",
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"plaintext": "The British Library provides a four minute long voice recording made in 1955, by a \"female housekeeper\", Miss Madge Dibnahon, on its web site and an example of the a Yorkshire dialect used at that time, in an unstated location. \"Much of her speech remains part of the local dialect to this day\", according to the Library. Yorkshire is a massive territory and the dialects are not identical in all areas. In fact, the dialect in North Yorkshire and Humberside/East Yorkshire is \"quite different [than in West Yorkshire and South Yorkshire] and has a much stronger Scandinavian influence\".",
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"plaintext": "One report explains the geographic difference in detail:This distinction was first recognised formally at the turn of the 19th / 20th centuries, when linguists drew an isophone diagonally across the county from the northwest to the southeast, separating these two broadly distinguishable ways of speaking. It can be extended westwards through Lancashire to the estuary of the River Lune, and is sometimes called the Humber-Lune Line. Strictly speaking, the dialects spoken south and west of this isophone are Midland dialects, whereas the dialects spoken north and east of it are truly Northern. It is possible that the Midland form moved up into the region with people gravitating towards the manufacturing districts of the West Riding during the Industrial Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "Though distinct accents remain, dialects are no longer in everyday use. Some have argued the dialect was a fully fledged language in its own right. The county has also produced a set of Yorkshire colloquialisms, which are in use in the county. Among Yorkshire's traditions is the Long Sword dance. The most famous traditional song of Yorkshire is On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at (\"On Ilkley Moor without a hat\"), it is considered the unofficial anthem of the county.",
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"plaintext": "Although the first Professor of English Literature at Leeds University, F.W. Moorman, claimed the first extant work of English literature, Beowulf, was written in Yorkshire, this view does not have common acceptance today. However, when Yorkshire formed the southern part of the kingdom of Northumbria there were several notable poets, scholars and ecclesiastics, including Alcuin, Cædmon and Wilfrid. The most esteemed literary family from the county are the three Brontë sisters, with part of the county around Haworth being nicknamed Brontë Country in their honour. Their novels, written in the mid-19th century, caused a sensation when they were first published, yet were subsequently accepted into the canon of great English literature. Among the most celebrated novels written by the sisters are Anne Brontë's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre and Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights. Wuthering Heights was almost a source used to depict life in Yorkshire, illustrating the type of people that reside there in its characters, and emphasising the use of the stormy Yorkshire moors. Nowadays, the parsonage which was their former home is now a museum in their honour. Bram Stoker authored Dracula while living in Whitby and it includes several elements of local folklore including the beaching of the Russian ship Dmitri, which became the basis of Demeter in the book.",
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"plaintext": "The novelist tradition in Yorkshire continued into the 20th and 21st centuries, with authors such as J. B. Priestley, Alan Bennett, Stan Barstow, Dame Margaret Drabble, Winifred Holtby (South Riding, The Crowded Street), A S Byatt, Barbara Taylor Bradford, Marina Lewycka and Sunjeev Sahota being prominent examples. Taylor Bradford is noted for A Woman of Substance which was one of the top-ten best selling novels in history. Another well-known author was children's writer Arthur Ransome, who penned the Swallows and Amazons series. James Herriot, the best selling author of over 60 million copies of books about his experiences of some 50 years as a veterinarian in Thirsk, North Yorkshire, the town which he refers to as Darrowby in his books (although born in Sunderland), has been admired for his easy reading style and interesting characters.",
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"plaintext": "Poets include Ted Hughes, W. H. Auden, William Empson, Simon Armitage, David Miedzianik and Andrew Marvell.",
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"plaintext": "Three well known sculptors emerged in the 20th century; contemporaries Henry Moore and Barbara Hepworth, and Leeds-raised eco artist Andy Goldsworthy. Some of their works are available for public viewing at the Yorkshire Sculpture Park. There are several art galleries in Yorkshire featuring extensive collections, such as Ferens Art Gallery, Leeds Art Gallery, Millennium Galleries and York Art Gallery. Some of the better known local painters are William Etty and David Hockney; many works by the latter are housed at Salts Mill 1853 Gallery in Saltaire.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional cuisine of Yorkshire, in common with the North of England in general, is known for using rich-tasting ingredients, especially with regard to sweet dishes, which were affordable for the majority of people. There are several dishes which originated in Yorkshire or are heavily associated with it. Yorkshire pudding, a savoury batter dish, is by far the best known of Yorkshire foods, and is eaten throughout England. It is commonly served with roast beef and vegetables to form part of the Sunday roast but is traditionally served as a starter dish filled with onion gravy within Yorkshire. Yorkshire pudding is the base for toad in the hole, a dish containing sausage.",
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"plaintext": "Other foods associated with the county include Yorkshire curd tart, a curd tart recipe with rosewater; parkin, a sweet ginger cake which is different from standard ginger cakes in that it includes oatmeal and treacle; and Wensleydale cheese, a cheese made with milk from Wensleydale and often eaten as an accompaniment to sweet foods. The beverage ginger beer, flavoured with ginger, came from Yorkshire and has existed since the mid-18th century. Liquorice sweet was first created by George Dunhill from Pontefract, who in the 1760s thought to mix the liquorice plant with sugar. Yorkshire and in particular the city of York played a prominent role in the confectionery industry, with chocolate factories owned by companies such as Rowntree's, Terry's and Thorntons inventing many of Britain's most popular sweets. Another traditional Yorkshire food is pikelets, which are similar to crumpets but much thinner. The Rhubarb Triangle is a location within Yorkshire which supplies most of the rhubarb to locals.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years curries have become popular in the county, largely due to the immigration and successful integration of Asian families. There are many famous curry empires with their origins in Yorkshire, including the 850-seater Aakash restaurant in Cleckheaton, which has been described as \"the world's largest curry house\".",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has a number of breweries including Black Sheep, Copper Dragon, Cropton Brewery, John Smith's, Sam Smith's, Kelham Island Brewery, Theakstons, Timothy Taylor, Wharfedale Brewery, Harrogate Brewery and Leeds Brewery.",
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"plaintext": "The beer style most associated with the county is bitter. As elsewhere in the North of England, when served through a handpump, a sparkler is used giving a tighter, more solid head.",
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"plaintext": "Brewing has taken place on a large scale since at least the 12th century, for example at the now derelict Fountains Abbey which at its height produced 60 barrels of strong ale every ten days. Most current Yorkshire breweries date from the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has a heritage of folk music and folk dance including the Long Sword dance. Yorkshire folk song was distinguished by the use of dialect, particularly in the West Riding and exemplified by the song 'On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at', probably written in the late 19th century, using a Kent folk tune (almost certainly borrowed via a Methodist hymnal), seen as an unofficial Yorkshire anthem. Famous folk performers from the county include the Watersons from Hull, who began recording Yorkshire versions of folk songs from 1965; Heather Wood (born 1945) of the Young Tradition; the short-lived electric folk group Mr Fox (1970–72), The Deighton Family; Julie Matthews; Kathryn Roberts; and Kate Rusby. Yorkshire has a flourishing folk music culture, with over forty folk clubs and thirty annual folk music festivals. The 1982 Eurovision Song Contest was held in the Harrogate International Centre. In 2007 the Yorkshire Garland Group was formed to make Yorkshire folk songs accessible online and in schools.",
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"plaintext": "In the field of classical music, Yorkshire has produced some major and minor composers, including Frederick Delius, George Dyson, Philip Wilby, Edward Bairstow, William Baines, Kenneth Leighton, Eric Fenby, Haydn Wood, Arthur Wood, Arnold Cooke, Gavin Bryars, John Casken, and in the area of TV, film and radio music, John Barry and Wally Stott. Opera North is based at the Grand Theatre, Leeds. Leeds is also home to the Leeds International Piano Competition. The Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival takes place annually in November. Huddersfield Choral Society is one of the UK's most celebrated amateur choirs. The National Centre for Early Music is located in York.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has remained a popular location for filming in more recent times. For example, much of ITV's highly acclaimed Victoria was filmed in the region, at locations such as Harewood House in Leeds and Beverley Minster (with the latter being used to depict Westminster Abbey and St James’ Palace), whilst Channel 5 has programmed numerous Yorkshire-themed documentary series such as Our Yorkshire Farm and The Yorkshire Steam Railway: All Aboard across its schedule.",
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"plaintext": "West Yorkshire has particularly benefited from a great deal of production activity. For example, portions of the BBC television series Happy Valley and Last Tango in Halifax were filmed in the area, in Huddersfield and other cities; in addition to exteriors, some of the studio filming for Happy Valley was done at North Light Film Studios at Brookes Mill, Huddersfield. Although set in the fictional town of Denton, popular ITV detective series A Touch Of Frost was filmed in Yorkshire, mainly in and around Leeds. The BBC's Jamaica Inn and Remember Me and the ITV series Black Work were also filmed at the studios and in nearby West Yorkshire locations. More recently, many of the exteriors of the BBC series Jericho were filmed at the nearby Rockingstone Quarry, and some interior work was done at North Light Film Studios.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has a long tradition in the field of sports, with participation in cricket, football, rugby league and horse racing being the most established sporting ventures.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire County Cricket Club represents the historic county in the domestic first class cricket County Championship; with a total of 33 championship titles (including one shared), 13 more than any other county, Yorkshire is the most decorated county cricket club. Some of the most highly regarded figures in the game were born in the county, amongst them:",
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"plaintext": "Stanley Jackson",
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"plaintext": "Hedley Verity",
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"plaintext": "The four ECB Premier Leagues in the county are: Bradford, North-Yorkshire-&-South-Durham, Yorkshire North and Yorkshire South. The league winners qualify to take part in a yearly Yorkshire Championship, the highest NYSD club based in Yorkshire qualifies if a Durham side wins.",
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"plaintext": "Football clubs founded in Yorkshire include, four of which have been league champions:",
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"plaintext": "Halifax Town",
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"plaintext": "Huddersfield Town",
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"plaintext": "Middlesbrough",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire is officially recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, as Sheffield FC founded in 1857 are certified as the oldest association football club in the world. The world's first inter-club match and local derby was competed in the county, at the world's oldest ground Sandygate Road. The Laws of the Game, used worldwide, were drafted by Ebenezer Cobb Morley from Hull.",
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"plaintext": "Huddersfield were the first club to win three consecutive league titles. Leeds United reached the 2001 UEFA Champions League semi-finals and had a dominance period in the 1970s. Sheffield Wednesday who have had similar spells of dominance, such as the early 1990s. Middlesbrough won the 2004 League Cup and reach the 2006 UEFA Cup Final.",
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"plaintext": "Noted players from Yorkshire who have influenced the game include World Cup-winning goalkeeper Gordon Banks and two time European Footballer of the Year award winner Kevin Keegan. Prominent managers include Herbert Chapman, Brian Clough, Bill Nicholson, George Raynor and Don Revie.",
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"plaintext": "The Yorkshire football team, controlled by the Yorkshire International Football Association (YIFA), represents Yorkshire in CONIFA matches. The team was founded in 2017, joined CONIFA on 6 January 2018 and plays at various venues throughout Yorkshire.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire has along history of rugby union in the county with Leeds Tykes (formerly Yorkshire Carnegie) featuring in the Aviva Premiership for eight seasons between 2001 and 2011 when they were relegated to the Championship. From 2020 the teams has reverted to its amateur status and plays in National League 1. Rotherham Titans also played in the top tier of English rugby in 2000–01 and 2003–04.",
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"plaintext": "Many England international players have emerged from Yorkshire including World Cup winners Jason Robinson and Mike Tindall. Other successful players from the region include Rob Andrew, Tim Rodber, Brian Moore, Danny Care, Rory Underwood and Sir Ian McGeechan.",
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"plaintext": "The Rugby Football League and with it the sport of rugby league was founded in 1895 at the George Hotel, Huddersfield, after a North-South schism within the Rugby Football Union. The top league is the Super League and the most decorated Yorkshire clubs are Huddersfield Giants, Hull FC, Bradford Bulls, Hull Kingston Rovers, Wakefield Trinity, Castleford Tigers and Leeds Rhinos. In total six Yorkshiremen have been inducted into the Rugby Football League Hall of Fame amongst them is Roger Millward, Jonty Parkin and Harold Wagstaff.",
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"plaintext": "In the area of boxing \"Prince\" Naseem Hamed from Sheffield achieved title success and widespread fame, in what the BBC describes as \"one of British boxing's most illustrious careers\". Along with Leeds-born Nicola Adams who in 2012 became the first female athlete to win a boxing gold medal at the Olympics.",
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"plaintext": "A number of athletes from or associated with Yorkshire took part in the 2012 Summer Olympics as members of Team GB; the Yorkshire Post stated that Yorkshire's athletes alone secured more gold medals than those of Spain.",
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"plaintext": "Notable Yorkshire athletes include Jessica Ennis-Hill and the Brownlee brothers, Jonathan and Alistair. Jessica Ennis-Hill is from Sheffield and won gold at the 2012 Olympics in London and silver at the 2016 Olympics in Rio. Triathletes Alastair and Jonny Brownlee have won two golds and a silver and bronze respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Yorkshire also has an array of racecourses: in North Yorkshire there are Catterick, Redcar, Ripon, Thirsk and York; in the East Riding of Yorkshire there is Beverley; in West Yorkshire there are Pontefract and Wetherby; while in South Yorkshire there is Doncaster.",
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"plaintext": "England's oldest horse race, which began in 1519, is run each year at Kiplingcotes near Market Weighton. Continuing this tradition in the field of horse racing, there are currently nine established racecourses in the county. Britain's oldest organised fox hunt is the Bilsdale, founded in 1668.",
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"plaintext": "Sheffield is home to the Sheffield Sharks who play in the British Basketball League and, from 2021, Leeds Rhinos have featured in the Netball Superleague.",
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"plaintext": "From 1290, Yorkshire was represented by two members of parliament of the House of Commons of the Parliament of England. After the union with Scotland, two members represented the county in the Parliament of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800 and of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1832. In 1832 the county benefited from the disfranchisement of Grampound by taking an additional two members. Yorkshire was represented at this time as one single, large, county constituency. Like other counties, there were also some county boroughs within Yorkshire, the oldest of which was the City of York, which had existed since the ancient Montfort's Parliament of 1265. After the Reform Act 1832, Yorkshire's political representation in parliament was drawn from its subdivisions, with members of parliament representing each of the three historic Ridings of Yorkshire; East Riding, North Riding, and West Riding constituencies.",
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"plaintext": "A number of claims have been made for the distinctiveness of Yorkshire, as a geographical, cultural and political entity, and these have been used to demand increased political autonomy. In the early twentieth century, F. W. Moorman, the first professor of English Language at Leeds University, claimed Yorkshire was not settled by Angles or Saxons following the end of Roman rule in Britain, but by a different Germanic tribe, the Geats. As a consequence, he claimed, it is possible the first work of English literature, Beowulf, believed to have been composed by Geats, was written in Yorkshire, and this distinctive ethnic and cultural origin is the root of the unique status of Yorkshire today. One of Moorman's students at Leeds University, Herbert Read, was greatly influenced by Moorman's ideas on Yorkshire identity, and claimed that until recent times Yorkshire was effectively an island, cut off from the rest of England by rivers, fens, moors and mountains. This distancing of Yorkshire from England led Read to question whether Yorkshire people were really English at all. Combined with the suggested ethnic difference from the rest of England, Read quoted Frederic Pearson, who wrote:",
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"plaintext": "During the premiership of William Pitt the Younger the hypothetical idea of Yorkshire becoming independent was raised in the British parliament in relation to the question whether Ireland should become part of the United Kingdom. This resulted in an anonymous pamphlet being published in London in 1799 arguing at length that Yorkshire could never be an independent state as it would always be reliant on the rest of the United Kingdom to provide it with essential resources.",
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"plaintext": "Although in the devolution debates in the House of Commons of the late 1960s, which paved the way for the 1979 referendums on the creation of a Scottish parliament and Welsh assembly, parallel devolution for Yorkshire was suggested, this was opposed by the Scottish National Party Member of Parliament for Hamilton, Winifred Ewing. Ewing argued that it was offensive to Scots to argue that an English region had the same status as an 'ancient nation' such as Scotland.",
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"plaintext": "The relationship between Yorkshire and Scottish devolution was again made in 1975 by Richard Wainwright, MP for Colne Valley, who claimed in a speech in the House of Commons:",
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"plaintext": "In more recent years, in 1998 the Campaign for Yorkshire was established to push for the creation of a Yorkshire regional assembly, sometimes dubbed the Yorkshire Parliament. In its defining statement, the Campaign for Yorkshire made reference to the historical notions that Yorkshire had a distinctive identity:",
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"plaintext": "The Campaign for Yorkshire was led by Jane Thomas as Director and Paul Jagger as chairman. Jagger claimed in 1999 that Yorkshire had as much right to a regional parliament or assembly as Scotland and Wales because Yorkshire 'has as clear a sense of identity as Scotland or Wales.' One of those brought into the Campaign for Yorkshire by Jane Thomas was Herbert Read scholar Michael Paraskos, who organised a series of events in 2000 to highlight the distinctiveness of Yorkshire culture. This included a major exhibition of Yorkshire artists. Paraskos also founded a Yorkshire Studies degree course at Hull University. Interviewed by The Guardian newspaper, Paraskos linked the start of this course to the contemporary devolution debates in Yorkshire, Scotland and Wales, claiming:",
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"plaintext": "In March 2013, the Yorkshire Devolution Movement was founded as an active campaign group by Nigel Sollitt, who had administrated the social media group by that name since 2011, Gareth Shanks, a member of the social media group, and Stewart Arnold, former Chair of the Campaign for Yorkshire. In September 2013, the executive committee was joined by Richard Honnoraty and Richard Carter (as an advisor), who had also been involved in the Campaign for Yorkshire. The Movement campaigns for a directly elected parliament for the whole of the traditional county of Yorkshire with powers second to no other devolved administration in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Two Combined Authorities, which serve to devolve certain powers, have been established in Yorkshire, the West Yorkshire Combined Authority, and the Sheffield Combined Authority, in South Yorkshire. A mayoralty has been established in the Sheffield City Region, and elections for the Mayor of West Yorkshire are due to take place in 2021. An alternative proposal was also made for a cross-Yorkshire Authority, dubbed \"One Yorkshire\", which was supported by 18 of the 20 Yorkshire councils, with Sheffield and Rotherham both preferring the South Yorkshire alternative. The government rejected the devolution deal, and alongside the two existing authorities, further proposals have been made in North Yorkshire and the East Riding, although some support for the whole Yorkshire deal has continued.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Richard Carter, Stewart Arnold and Richard Honnoraty, founded Yorkshire First, a political party campaigning for the creation of a Yorkshire parliament by 2050 based on the Scottish Parliament. It was later renamed the Yorkshire Party. A Social democratic party, it has parish, town, district and county councillors, and stood in 28 constituencies in the 2019 general election. Yorkshire Party candidates have also run for the position of directly elected mayors in Doncaster in 2017 (receiving 3,235 votes, 5.04%) and the Sheffield City Region in 2018 (receiving 22,318 votes, 8.6).",
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"plaintext": "When the territory of Yorkshire began to take shape as a result of the invasion of the Danish vikings, they instituted a monarchy based at the settlement of Jórvík, York. The reign of the Viking kings came to an end with the last king Eric Bloodaxe dying in battle in 954 after the invasion and conquest by the Kingdom of England from the south. Jórvík was the last of the independent kingdoms to be taken to form part of the Kingdom of England and thus the local monarchal title became defunct.",
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"plaintext": "Though the monarchal title became defunct, it was succeeded by the creation of the Earl of York title of nobility by king of England Edgar the Peaceful in 960. (The earldom covered the general area of Yorkshire and is sometimes referred to as the Earl of Yorkshire.) The title passed through the hands of various nobles, decided upon by the king of England. The last man to hold the title was William le Gros, however the earldom was abolished by Henry II as a result of a troubled period known as The Anarchy.",
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"plaintext": "The peerage was recreated by Edward III in 1385, this time in the form of the prestigious title of Duke of York which he gave to his son Edmund of Langley. Edmund founded the House of York; later the title was merged with that of the King of England. Much of the modern-day symbolism of Yorkshire, such as the White Rose of York, is derived from the Yorkists, giving the house a special affinity within the culture of Yorkshire. Especially celebrated is the Yorkist king Richard III who spent much of his life at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire. Since that time the title has passed through the hands of many, being merged with the crown and then recreated several times. The title of Duke of York is given to the second son of the British monarch.",
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"plaintext": " Though the Wars of the Roses were fought between royal houses bearing the names of York and Lancaster, the wars took place over a wide area of England. They were a dynastic clash between cadet branches of the House of Plantagenet. The most prominent family in Yorkshire, below the monarchy, the Nevilles of Sheriff Hutton and Middleham, fought for the Yorkists, as did the Scropes of Bolton, the Latimers of Danby and Snape, as well as the Mowbrays of Thirsk and Burton in Lonsdale. Yet some fought for the Lancastrians, such as the Percies, the Cliffords of Skipton, Ros of Helmsley, Greystock of Henderskelfe, Stafford of Holderness, and Talbot of Sheffield.",
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"plaintext": " John Speed's proof map of Yorkshire made between 1603 and 1611, in Cambridge Digital Library",
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"plaintext": "Lindsey Adams Buckingham (born October 3, 1949) is an American singer, musician, songwriter, and producer, best known as the lead guitarist and male lead singer of the music group Fleetwood Mac from 1975 to 1987 and 1997 to 2018. In addition to his tenure with Fleetwood Mac, Buckingham has released seven solo albums and three live albums. As a member of Fleetwood Mac, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998. Buckingham was ranked 100th in Rolling Stones 2011 list of \"The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\". Buckingham is known for his fingerpicking guitar style.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood Mac, the band that gave Buckingham his greatest exposure, had been around since the late 1960s, beginning as a British blues outfit led by Peter Green. After Green left the group, they experienced several tumultuous years without a stable frontman. Buckingham was invited to join the group in 1974; they had recorded in the same studio, and the band was lacking a guitarist and male lead vocal. As a stipulation to joining, Buckingham insisted his musical and romantic partner Stevie Nicks also be included. Buckingham and Nicks became the face of Fleetwood Mac during its most commercially successful period, highlighted by the multi-platinum album Rumours, which sold over 40 million copies worldwide. Though highly successful, the group experienced almost constant creative and personal conflict, and Buckingham left the band in 1987 to focus on his solo career.",
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"plaintext": "Lindsey Adams Buckingham was born on October 3, 1949, in Palo Alto, California, to Rutheda (née Elliott) and Morris Buckingham. He had two older brothers, Jeffrey and Gregory. Growing up in the San Francisco Bay Area community of Atherton, he attended Menlo-Atherton High School where Buckingham and his brothers were encouraged to swim competitively. Though Buckingham dropped out of athletics to pursue music, his brother Gregory went on to win a silver medal at the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City. Buckingham attended San José State University, but did not graduate.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham's first forays into guitar playing took place on a toy Mickey Mouse guitar, playing along to his brother Jeff's extensive collection of 45s. Noticing his talent, Buckingham's parents bought their son a $35 Harmony guitar.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham never took guitar lessons and does not read music. By age 13, he became interested in folk music and, influenced by banjo methods, practiced the energetic style of the Kingston Trio. From 1966 to 1971, Buckingham performed psychedelic and folk rock with the high school rock band originally named The Fritz Rabyne Memorial Band as a bassist and vocalist. The band regrouped in 1967 due to band member changes and shortened their name to Fritz. Buckingham invited friend Stevie Nicks to join Fritz as a second vocalist. Their romantic relationship began after both left Fritz five years later.",
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"plaintext": "While investigating Sound City recording studio in California, Mick Fleetwood heard the song \"Frozen Love\" from the Buckingham Nicks album. Impressed, he asked who the guitarist was. By chance, Buckingham and Nicks were also in Sound City recording demos, and Buckingham and Fleetwood were introduced. When Bob Welch left Fleetwood Mac in December 1974, Fleetwood immediately contacted Buckingham and offered him the vacant guitar slot in his band. Buckingham told Fleetwood that he and Nicks were a team and that he didn't want to work without her. Fleetwood agreed to hire both of them, without an audition. Buckingham and Nicks then began a short tour to promote the Buckingham Nicks album. The touring band included drummers Bob Aguirre and Gary Hodges (playing simultaneously) and bassist Tom Moncrieff, who later played bass on Nicks' 1981 album Bella Donna. When they played in Alabama, the one area where they saw appreciable sales, they told their fans they had joined Fleetwood Mac.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood Mac released their eponymously titled album in 1975, which reached number one on the American charts. Buckingham contributed two songs to the album, \"Monday Morning\" and \"I'm So Afraid\", while also singing lead on \"Blue Letter\" and Nicks' song \"Crystal\". \"I'm So Afraid\" and \"Monday Morning\" were intended for the second Buckingham Nicks LP, but they were instead used with Fleetwood Mac.",
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"plaintext": "After the resounding commercial success of Rumours (during the making of which Buckingham and Nicks split), Buckingham was determined to avoid falling into repeating the same musical pattern. The result was Tusk (1979), a double album that Buckingham primarily directed. Once again, Buckingham wrote the lead single, the title track that peaked at No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100. Buckingham convinced Fleetwood to let his work on their next album be more experimental and to be allowed to work on tracks at home before bringing them to the rest of the band in the studio. It produced three hit singles: Lindsey Buckingham's \"Tusk\" (US No. 8), which featured the USC Trojan Marching Band, Christine McVie's \"Think About Me\" (US No. 20), and Stevie Nicks' 6½-minute opus \"Sara\" (US No. 7). \"Sara\" was cut to 4½ minutes for both the hit single and the first CD-release of the album, but the unedited version has since been restored on the 1988 greatest hits compilation, the 2004 reissue of Tusk and Fleetwood Mac's 2002 release of The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac. Original guitarist Peter Green also took part in the sessions of Tusk, although his playing on the Christine McVie track \"Brown Eyes\" is not credited on the album. It was during this time that Buckingham moved in with record company secretary and aspiring model Carol Ann Harris, with whom he lived until 1984. Though by most standards a hit, Tusk failed to come close to Rumours record sales, and the album was followed by a hiatus in the band's studio recording efforts.",
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"plaintext": "After a large world tour that ended in 1980, Fleetwood Mac took a year-long break before reconvening to record their next album Mirage (1982), a more pop-friendly work that returned the band to the top of the US album chart. However, by this time various members of the band were enjoying success as solo artists (particularly Nicks) and the next Fleetwood Mac album was not released until five years later.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983 he wrote and performed the songs \"Holiday Road\" and \"Dancin' Across the USA\" for the film National Lampoon's Vacation. \"Holiday Road\" was released as a single, and reached No. 82 on Billboards Hot 100.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, after ending his 7-year relationship with Carol Ann Harris, he released his second solo album, Go Insane. The title track was a modest hit, reaching No. 23 on the Hot 100. In 2008, he revealed the title track was about his post-breakup relationship with Stevie Nicks; however, Harris claimed in her memoir Storms that the song was written about her breakup with Buckingham. The last track of the album, \"D. W. Suite\", was a tribute to the late Beach Boys drummer Dennis Wilson, a close friend of Fleetwood Mac who was briefly engaged to Christine McVie. The next year, Buckingham performed on USA for Africa's fundraising single, \"We Are the World\". In 1986 he co-wrote \"Since You've Gone\" for Belinda Carlisle's first solo album. He did other soundtrack work, including the song \"Time Bomb Town\" from Back to the Future (1985). Buckingham played all of the instruments on the track except drums, which were played by Michael Huey.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham’s fifth album with Fleetwood Mac, Tango in the Night, was released in 1987. Buckingham had already released two solo albums and had given up much of the material for what would have been his third solo album for the project, including \"Big Love\", \"Tango in the Night \", \"Family Man\", \"You and I\" and \"Caroline\". \"Big Love\", released as the first single from the album, became a top ten hit in the US and the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Propelled by a string of hit singles, Tango in the Night became the band's biggest album since Rumours a decade earlier. However, following its release, Buckingham left Fleetwood Mac largely because of his desire not to tour and the strain he was feeling within the band. \"I needed to get some separation from Stevie especially because I don't think I'd ever quite gotten closure on our relationship,\" he said. \"I needed to get on with the next phase of my creative growth and my emotional growth. When you break up with someone and then for the next 10 years you have to be around them and do for them and watch them move away from you, it's not easy.\" Fleetwood Mac continued without him, and Buckingham was replaced by guitarists Rick Vito and Billy Burnette.",
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"plaintext": "Following his split with Fleetwood Mac in 1987, Buckingham spent much of the next five years in the studio, working on his third solo album, Out of the Cradle, which was released in 1992. Many of the songs deal with his relationship with Nicks and his decision to leave the band. \"There were things lingering for years having to do with relationships and the band, hurtful things, that were impossible to deal with until I left. If you were in a relationship and split up, then had to see that person every day for the next 15 years, it might keep you from dealing with some of those things. While we made Rumours (in 1977) there were two couples breaking up in the band (Buckingham and Nicks, and John and Christine McVie), and we had to say, 'This is an important thing we're doing, so we've got to put this set of feelings on this side of the room and get on with it.' And when you do that long enough you forget that those feelings are even there. On this album, I'm putting all these feelings in the healthiest possible perspective and that, looking at it broadly, is a lot of what the album is dealing with. It's a catharsis, absolutely.\" \"Wrong\" was a gentle rebuke of former bandmate Mick Fleetwood's tell-all biography. Out of the Cradle received some favorable reviews but did not achieve the sales levels associated with Fleetwood Mac. However, Buckingham toured throughout 1992–93 for the first time as a solo artist; his band included an army of seven other guitarists (Buckingham himself calls them \"the crazy band\" on his Soundstage DVD), each of whom he individually taught the entire two-and-a-half hours of music from the concert (Lindsey Buckingham: Behind the Music documentary for VH-1, 2001).",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, newly elected president Bill Clinton asked Fleetwood Mac to come together to perform the song he had chosen for his campaign, the Christine McVie-penned \"Don't Stop\", at the First inauguration of Bill Clinton on January 20, 1993. Buckingham agreed to be part of the performance, but the experience was something of a one-off for the band, who were still very much at odds with one another and had no plans to reunite officially.",
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"plaintext": "While assembling material for a planned fourth solo album in the mid-1990s, Buckingham contacted Mick Fleetwood for assistance on a song. Their collaboration lasted much longer than anticipated, and the two eventually decided to call upon Stevie Nicks, John and Christine McVie. The band's old chemistry was clearly still there, and plans for a reunion tour were soon in the works. In 1997, Buckingham and all four of his bandmates from the Rumours-era line-up of Fleetwood Mac went on the road for the first time together since 1982 in a reunion tour titled The Dance. The tour was hugely successful and did much to heal the damage that had been done between Buckingham and his bandmates. However, Christine McVie left the band in 1998 because of her fear of flying and to be with her family in the UK, thus making the band now a foursome.",
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"plaintext": "A subsequent fourth solo album, entitled Gift of Screws, was recorded between 1995–2001 and presented to Warner Bros./Reprise for release. Executives at the label managed to persuade Buckingham to hold the album back and instead take several tracks from Gift of Screws and use them with Fleetwood Mac. In 2003, the reformed band released the first studio album involving Buckingham and Nicks in 15 years, Say You Will. Buckingham's song \"Peacekeeper\" was the first single from the album, and the band went on a world concert tour that lasted almost a year and a half. Seven songs from Gift of Screws appear on the Fleetwood Mac album Say You Will, in substantially the same form as Buckingham had recorded them for his solo release. Bootleg copies of Gift of Screws—taken from an original CD-R presented to Warner Bros/Reprise—are known to exist and have been widely distributed among fans through the use of torrent sites and other peer-to-peer networks.",
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"plaintext": "On his 57th birthday, October 3, 2006, Buckingham's fourth solo album, an acoustic album now entitled Under the Skin, was released. Under the Skin features Buckingham on almost all instruments, with the exception of two tracks that feature Fleetwood Mac's rhythm section of John McVie and Mick Fleetwood. The album includes a cover of the Rolling Stones classic \"I Am Waiting\". Three days after the album's release, Buckingham embarked on a tour in support of the album that lasted until the end of June 2007. A live album and DVD, Live at the Bass Performance Hall, was released documenting the Fort Worth, Texas show from this tour.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008 the Gift of Screws album was finally released, containing three tracks from the originally planned album, as well as seven new recordings. Buckingham then commenced a short tour to promote Gift of Screws in September and October, opening in Saratoga, California and closing in New York City.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood Mac toured in 2009, with the first date of the \"UNLEASHED\" Tour as March 1, 2009, in Mellon Arena (Pittsburgh). Christine McVie was not involved with this project.",
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"plaintext": "On November 3, 2010, Buckingham's website announced that he was working on an untitled album with release planned in early 2011. Buckingham had finished recording the album, titled Seeds We Sow in April, and on April 22, 2011, he filmed a concert for DVD release to support the album. Seeds We Sow was released on September 6, 2011. On September 10, Buckingham kicked off the Seeds We Sow Tour in Reno, Nevada; the tour ended in Tulsa, Oklahoma, on November 14. Buckingham had planned to conduct his first solo tour of the United Kingdom and Ireland in December. However, in early December, Buckingham postponed all UK dates due to his guitarist suffering a back injury. The UK dates were subsequently cancelled.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham began a \"solo\" (no backing band) tour of the United States on May 3, 2012, in Solana Beach, California and in November 2012 released a completely solo live album One Man Show via download at iTunes that was recorded from a single night in Des Moines, Iowa. One Man Show was released on Buckingham's own label Buckingham Records LLC.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Live World\" tour commenced on April 4, 2013, in Columbus, Ohio. On April 30, the band released their first new studio material since 2003's Say You Will via digital download on iTunes with the four-track EP containing three new songs from Buckingham and one new song from the Buckingham Nicks sessions (\"Without You\").",
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"plaintext": "In January 2015, Buckingham suggested that the new album and the new tour might be Fleetwood Mac's last act and that the band would cease to operate in 2015 or soon afterward. He concluded: \"We're going to continue working on the new album, and the solo stuff will take a back seat for a year or two. A beautiful way to wrap up this last act\". On the other hand, Mick Fleetwood stated that the new album could take a few years to complete and that they were waiting for contributions from Stevie Nicks, who had been ambivalent about committing to a new record.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2016, Fleetwood said that while the band has \"a huge amount of recorded music\", virtually none of it features Stevie Nicks. Buckingham and Christine McVie, however, had contributed multiple songs to the new project. Fleetwood told Ultimate Classic Rock, \"She [McVie] ... wrote up a storm ... She and Lindsey could probably have a mighty strong duet album if they want. In truth, I hope it will come to more than that. There really are dozens of songs. And they're really good. So we'll see.\"",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham and Christine McVie announced a new album titled Lindsey Buckingham Christine McVie, which also features Mick Fleetwood and John McVie. The album was originally planned as a Fleetwood Mac album. Stevie Nicks did not participate due to her preference for a solo tour with the Pretenders. Lindsey Buckingham/Christine McVie was released on June 9, 2017, and was preceded by the single, \"In My World\". A 38-date tour began on June 21, 2017, and ended on November 16.",
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"plaintext": "Mick Fleetwood and the band appeared on CBS This Morning on April 25, 2018, and said that Buckingham would not sign off on a tour that the group had been planning for a year and that they had reached a \"huge impasse\" and \"hit a brick wall\". When asked if Buckingham had been fired, he said, \"Well, we don't use that word because I think it's ugly.\" He also said that \"Lindsey has huge amounts of respect and kudos to what he's done within the ranks of Fleetwood Mac and always will.\" In October 2018, Buckingham filed a lawsuit against Fleetwood Mac for breach of fiduciary duty, breach of oral contract and intentional interference with prospective economic advantage, among other charges; the lawsuit was settled in December of the same year.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham stated he learned about the firing after receiving a call from Fleetwood Mac manager Irving Azoff with a message for Buckingham from Stevie Nicks. Buckingham stated that Azoff told him: \"Stevie never wants to be on a stage with you again.\" According to Azoff, Nicks had taken issue with, on the evening of MusicCares, the guitarist's outburst just before the band's set over the intro music—the studio recording of Nicks' \"Rhiannon\"—and the way he \"smirked\" during Nicks' thank-you speech. Buckingham conceded that \"It wasn't about it being 'Rhiannon'. It just undermined the impact of our entrance. That's me being very specific about the right and wrong way to do something.\" Days later, Buckingham called Azoff and asked, \"Is Stevie leaving the band, or am I getting kicked out?\" Azoff told him that he was \"getting ousted\" from the band after Nicks gave the other band members \"an ultimatum: Either [Buckingham] go[es] or she's going to go,\" to which they decided to fire him. Former Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers guitarist Mike Campbell and Neil Finn of Crowded House were named to replace Buckingham. Buckingham has stated since that he would be open to rejoining Fleetwood Mac but does not foresee it in the future.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2018, Reprise issued a press release for a new solo anthology The Best of Lindsey Buckingham that focused on Buckingham's solo career since 1981. The anthology was released on October 5, 2018, followed two days later by a solo tour throughout North America. In 2020, Buckingham collaborated with the Killers on their studio album Imploding the Mirage, playing guitar on the first single \"Caution\". In 2021, Buckingham played on a new version of \"The Past Is the Past\" by Brandy Clark, issued as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of her album Your Life Is a Record.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham was in the same high school as Stevie Nicks but a year behind her. He started a relationship with Nicks after the breakup of their group Fritz. He then suffered from a bout of mononucleosis, which delayed their move to Los Angeles in 1971. They recorded an album together before joining Fleetwood Mac in 1975, while their relationship had broken down by 1977. The breakup was chronicled in a number of songs written by the two, such as \"Silver Springs\" and \"Dreams\" by Nicks and \"Go Your Own Way\" and \"Second Hand News\" by Buckingham.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham had his first child, William Gregory, with Kristen Messner on July 8, 1998. Buckingham then married Messner in 2000, and they had two daughters, Leelee in 2000 and Stella in 2004. Buckingham and Messner, who is a photographer and interior designer, have developed homes in Brentwood, California.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham underwent emergency open heart surgery in February 2019. His wife Kristen said that \"Lindsey Buckingham experienced severe chest pains and was taken to the hospital where he subsequently underwent emergency open heart surgery. It’s with great relief and thankful hearts that we report the surgery was successful in its purpose. Unfortunately, the life-saving procedure caused vocal cord damage, the permanency of which is unclear. Lindsey is slowly recovering at home with the support of his wife and children.\"",
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"plaintext": "Unlike most rock guitarists, Buckingham does not play with a pick; instead, he picks the strings with his fingers and fingernails and tends to strum with his middle and ring fingers. Initially after joining Fleetwood Mac, Buckingham used a Gibson Les Paul Custom. Before the band, a Fender Telecaster was his main guitar, and was used on his first Fleetwood Mac album alongside Fender Stratocasters fitted with an Alembic Blaster. In 1979, he worked with Rick Turner, owner of Renaissance Guitars, to create the Model One. He has used it extensively since, both with Fleetwood Mac and for his solo efforts. He uses a Taylor Guitar 814ce for most of his acoustic performances but uses a custom-made Gibson Chet Atkins guitar for his live performances of \"Big Love\". He has also used an Ovation Balladeer in the past from the early 1970s to the late 1980s. In the 1980s, he also extensively used the Fairlight CMI.",
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"plaintext": "His influences include Brian Wilson and Phil Spector. Buckingham has also worked extensively as a producer both for Fleetwood Mac and for his solo work. \"I think of myself as a stylist, and the process of writing a song is part and parcel with putting it together in the studio.\"",
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"plaintext": "In an interview with Guitar World Acoustic Magazine, Buckingham said:",
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"plaintext": "I've always believed that you play to highlight the song, not to highlight the player. The song is all that matters. There are two ways you can choose to go. You can try to be someone like Eddie Van Halen, who is a great guitarist, a virtuoso. Yet he doesn't make good records because what he plays is totally lost in the context of this band's music. Then there are guitar players like Chet Atkins, who weren't out there trying to show themselves off as guitarists per se, but were using the guitar as a tool to make good records. I remember loving Chet's work when I was a kid, but it was only later, when I really listened to his guitar parts, that I realized how much they were a part of the song's fabric, and how much you'd be going 'Oh, that song just isn't working' if they weren't there.",
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"plaintext": "In another interview to Guitar World, he said about using his fingers rather than a plectrum:",
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"plaintext": "I started playing very young and from early on, the people I was listening to had some element of finger style. Probably the first guitarist I was emulating was Scotty Moore, when I was maybe 6 or 7. And he played with a pick, but he also used fingers. And a lot of the session players, like Chet Atkins, they played with fingers or a pick. Then I listened to a certain amount of light classical guitar playing. And of course later on, when the first wave of rock 'n' roll kind of fell away, folk music was very popular and very influential in my style. So it was really less of a choice than what I fell into. I use a pick occasionally. I certainly use it more in the studio when you want to get a certain tone. But it's just the way I came up. I wasn't taught. I just sort of figured things out on my own terms. I guess that was one of the ways that I became comfortable and it just kind of set in.",
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"plaintext": "Buckingham has been portrayed by Bill Hader in a recurring sketch titled \"What Up with That?\" on NBC's Saturday Night Live. The show features Hader as Buckingham, who repeatedly appears as a guest on a talk show in the sketch; however, the segment always runs out of time before he can be interviewed. Buckingham has stated he does not understand the parody, though he considers it a compliment, and he eventually appeared as himself on the May 14, 2011, episode during this sketch, offering to explain why there were two Lindsey Buckinghams.",
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"plaintext": "1984 – \"Slow Dancing\"",
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"plaintext": " Another interview about his playing",
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"plaintext": "Encouraged to continue her career, McVie recorded a solo album, Christine Perfect; following her success as a member of Fleetwood Mac, the album was reissued under the name The Legendary Christine Perfect Album. After marrying John McVie, she joined Fleetwood Mac in 1970. She had already contributed backup vocals and painted the cover for Kiln House. The band had just lost founding member Peter Green, and its members were nervous about touring without him. McVie had been a huge fan of the Peter Green-era Fleetwood Mac, and since she knew all the lyrics to their songs, she went along.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, McVie began an on-the-road affair with the band's lighting director, which inspired her to write \"You Make Loving Fun\", a top-10 hit on the landmark smash Rumours, one of the best-selling albums of all-time. Her biggest hit was \"Don't Stop\", which reached number three. The Rumours tour also included McVie's \"Songbird\", a ballad played as the encore of many Fleetwood Mac concerts.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2004 interview, McVie admitted to not listening much to pop music anymore and stated, instead, a preference for Classic FM. In December 2003, McVie went to see Fleetwood Mac's last UK performance on the Say You Will tour in London, but did not join her former bandmates on stage. Mid-2004 had the release of McVie's new solo album, In the Meantime, her third in a career spanning five decades. Recording in her converted barn in Kent, she worked on the project with her nephew, Dan Perfect, who contributed guitar-playing, backing vocals, and songwriting. No tour was organised to promote this album; instead, McVie conducted several press interviews in both Britain and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The album Lindsey Buckingham Christine McVie was released on 9 June 2017, and was preceded by the single, \"In My World\". A 38-date tour began on 21 June 2017 and ended on 16 November. The album was originally planned as a Fleetwood Mac album. Stevie Nicks did not participate due to her preference for a solo tour with The Pretenders.",
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"plaintext": "When McVie married John McVie in 1968, Peter Green was best man. Instead of a honeymoon they celebrated at a hotel in Birmingham with Joe Cocker, who happened to be staying there, before going off with their own separate bands. The couple divorced in 1976 but have remained friends and maintained a professional partnership. During the production of Rumours she had an affair with Fleetwood Mac's lighting engineer, Curry Grant, which inspired the song \"You Make Loving Fun\". From 1979 to 1982, she dated Dennis Wilson of the Beach Boys. McVie married Portuguese keyboardist and songwriter Eddy Quintela on 18 October 1986. Quintela and McVie collaborated on a number of songs together including \"Little Lies\". They divorced in 2003, and Quintela died in 2020.",
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"plaintext": "McVie sang with Dennis Wilson on his song \"Love Surrounds Me\" for The Beach Boys' 1979 album L.A. (Light Album). She also sang with Christopher Cross on the song \"Never Stop Believing\" on his 1988 album Back of My Mind, as well as with Bob Welch on his solo version of \"Sentimental Lady\". McVie released an album with fellow Fleetwood Mac member Lindsey Buckingham titled Lindsey Buckingham Christine McVie on 9 June 2017.",
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| 283,796 | 61,648 | 340 | 123 | 0 | 0 | Christine McVie | British musician | [
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"plaintext": "Stephanie Lynn Nicks (born May 26, 1948) is an American singer, songwriter, and producer known for her work with the band Fleetwood Mac and as a solo artist.",
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"plaintext": "The 1975 album Fleetwood Mac, Rumours and Bella Donna have been included in the \"Greatest of All Time Billboard 200 Albums\" chart by Billboard. Furthermore, Rumours was rated the seventh-greatest album of all time in Rolling Stone's list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", as well as the fourth-greatest album by female acts.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks met her future musical and romantic partner, Lindsey Buckingham, during her senior year at Menlo-Atherton High School in Atherton, California. When she saw Buckingham playing \"California Dreamin'\" at Young Life club, she joined him in harmony. She recalled, \"I thought he was a darling.\" Buckingham was in a psychedelic rock band, Fritz, but two of its musicians were leaving for college. He asked Nicks in mid-1967 to replace the lead singer. Fritz later opened for Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin from 1968 until 1970. Nicks credits both acts as having inspired her stage intensity and performance.",
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"plaintext": "Both Nicks and Buckingham attended San José State University, where Nicks majored in speech communication and planned to become an English teacher. With her father's blessing, Nicks dropped out of college to pursue a musical career with Buckingham.",
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"plaintext": "After Fritz disbanded in 1972, Nicks and Buckingham continued to write as a duo, recording demo tapes at night in Daly City, California, on a one-inch, four-track Ampex tape machine Buckingham kept at the coffee-roasting plant belonging to his father. They secured a deal with Polydor Records, and the eponymous Buckingham Nicks was released in 1973. The album was not a commercial success and Polydor dropped the pair. With no money coming in from their album, and Buckingham contracting mononucleosis shortly thereafter, Nicks began working multiple jobs. She waited tables and cleaned producer Keith Olsen's house, where Nicks and Buckingham lived for a time before moving in with Richard Dashut. She was soon using cocaine. \"We were told that it was recreational and that it was not dangerous,\" Nicks told Chris Isaak in 2009.",
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"plaintext": "While living with Dashut, Buckingham landed a guitar role with the Everly Brothers 1972 tour. Nicks stayed behind working on songwriting herself. During this time, Nicks wrote \"Rhiannon\" after seeing the name in the novel Triad by Mary Leader. (Five years later, a fan sent her the Mabinogion novels of Evangeline Walton that featured the legendary character Rhiannon, and Nicks later bought the film rights to Walton's work in the hopes of bringing the epic to the screen.) She also wrote \"Landslide\", inspired by the scenery of Aspen and her slowly deteriorating relationship with Buckingham.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1974, Keith Olsen played the Buckingham Nicks track \"Frozen Love\" for drummer Mick Fleetwood, who had come to Sound City in California in search of a recording studio. Fleetwood remembered Buckingham's guitar work when guitarist Bob Welch departed to pursue a solo career. On December 31, 1974, Fleetwood called Buckingham, inviting him to join the band. Buckingham refused, insisting that Nicks and he were \"a package deal\" and he would not join without her. The group decided that incorporating the pair would improve Fleetwood Mac, making the British band into an Anglo-American one. The first rehearsals confirmed this feeling, with the harmonies of the newcomers adding a pop accessibility to the band's former style of blues-based rock.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975, Fleetwood Mac achieved worldwide success with the album Fleetwood Mac. Nicks' \"Rhiannon\" was voted one of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time by Rolling Stone. Her live performances of the song throughout the decade began to take on a theatrical intensity not present on the album. The song built to a climax in which Nicks' vocals were so impassioned that Mick Fleetwood declared, \"her 'Rhiannon' in those days was like an exorcism.\" \"Landslide\" became another hit from the album, with three million airplays.",
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"plaintext": "Becoming aware of her image as a performer, Nicks worked with clothing designer Margi Kent to develop a unique onstage look. Her costumes had a gypsy-bohemian style that featured flowing skirts, shawls, and platform boots.",
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"plaintext": "While Nicks and Buckingham achieved professional success with Fleetwood Mac, their personal relationship was eroding. Nicks ended the relationship. Fleetwood Mac began recording their follow-up album, Rumours, in early 1976 and continued until late in the year. Also, Nicks and Buckingham sang back-up on Warren Zevon's eponymous second album.",
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"plaintext": "Among Nicks' contributions to Rumours was \"Dreams\", which became the band's only Billboard Hot 100 number-one hit single. Nicks had also written and recorded the song \"Silver Springs\", but it was not included on the album because the early versions of the song ran too long, and the band didn't want too many slow songs on the album. Studio engineer and co-producer Ken Caillat said that Nicks was very unhappy to find that the band had decided against her song \"Silver Springs\", which he said was beautifully crafted, and carried some of the band's best guitar work. \"Silver Springs\", written about her tumultuous relationship with Buckingham, was released as a B-side of the \"Go Your Own Way\" single—Buckingham's equally critical song about Nicks. Copies of the single eventually became collectors' items among fans of Fleetwood Mac. \"Silver Springs\" was included on the four-disc Fleetwood Mac retrospective 25 Years – The Chain in 1992.",
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"plaintext": "Rumours, Fleetwood Mac's second album after the incorporation of Nicks and Buckingham, was the best-selling album of 1977 and had sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best selling albums of all time. The album remained at number one on the American albums chart for 31 weeks and reached number one in other countries. The album won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1978. It produced four U.S. Billboard Hot 100 top-ten singles, with Nicks's \"Dreams\" being the band's only Billboard Hot 100 number-one hit.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1977, after a New Zealand concert on the Rumours tour, Nicks and Fleetwood secretly began an affair. Fleetwood was married to Jenny Boyd. \"Never in a million years could you have told me that would happen,\" Nicks has stated. \"Everybody was angry because Mick was married to a wonderful girl and had two wonderful children. I was horrified. I loved these people. I loved his family. So it couldn't possibly work out. And it didn't. I just couldn't.\" Nicks ended the affair soon after it began. She has stated that had the affair progressed, it \"would have been the end of Fleetwood Mac\". By October 1978, Mick Fleetwood left Boyd for Nicks' friend, Sara Recor.",
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"plaintext": "After the success of the Rumours album and tour in 1977 to 1978, Fleetwood Mac began recording their third album with Nicks and Buckingham, Tusk, in the spring of 1978. By this time, Nicks had amassed a large backlog of songs that she had been unable to record with Fleetwood Mac because of the constraint of having to accommodate three songwriters on each album. Tusk was released on October 19, 1979. Mirage was recorded in late 1981 and early 1982.",
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"plaintext": "While working on Tusk, Nicks sang back-up on virtually every track of Not Shy, recorded by musician Walter Egan, a friend of both Nicks and Buckingham. \"Magnet and Steel\", inspired by Nicks, prominently featured her back-up vocals and became a hit single on the Billboard Hot 100 chart during the summer of 1978. Lindsey Buckingham also produced the album, playing guitar and providing backing vocals on some of the tracks. Nicks recorded the hit duets \"Whenever I Call You Friend\" with Kenny Loggins in 1978, and \"Gold\" with John Stewart in 1979. During 1981, Nicks made occasional guest appearances with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers on their Hard Promises tour.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks wrote and recorded demos for a solo project during Tusk sessions in 1979 and the Tusk world tour of 1979–80. Nicks, Danny Goldberg, and Paul Fishkin founded Modern Records to record and release Nicks' material.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks' first solo album, Bella Donna, was released on July 27, 1981, to critical and commercial acclaim, reaching number one on the Billboard 200 chart, with four singles making the Billboard Hot 100, and Rolling Stone deeming her \"the Reigning Queen of Rock and Roll\".",
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"plaintext": "The day that Bella Donna reached number one on the Billboard 200, Nicks was told that her friend Robin Anderson had leukemia. Anderson was pregnant at the time and given only three months to live. She gave birth to a son, appointing Nicks as the child's godmother. \"I never got to enjoy Bella Donna at all because my friend was dying. Something went out that day; something left.\" Following Robin's death in 1982, Nicks married Robin's widower, Kim Anderson, believing that Robin would want her to care for the baby. \"We were all in such insane grief, just completely deranged,\" she told the Telegraph in 2007. They divorced three months later.",
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"plaintext": "Bella Donna introduced Nicks' permanent back-up singers, Sharon Celani and Lori Perry (now Nicks after marrying Stevie Nicks' brother Christopher), who have contributed vocals to all of Nicks's solo albums since then. In November 1981, Nicks embarked on her White Winged Dove tour, which she had to cut short to record Mirage.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks released her second solo album, The Wild Heart, on June 10, 1983. The album went double platinum, reached number five on the Billboard 200 albums chart, and featured three hit singles. It also introduced songwriter and performer Sandy Stewart as co-writer and vocalist.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks performed at the second US Festival at Glen Helen Regional Park in San Bernardino, California, and later toured the U.S. from June 1983 to November 1983. Nicks appeared on Saturday Night Live in December 1983, performing \"Stand Back\" and \"Nightbird\".",
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"plaintext": "Following the tour for The Wild Heart, Nicks commenced work on her third solo album. Originally titled Mirror Mirror, Nicks recorded songs for the album during 1984. However, Nicks was unhappy with the album, and opted to record a new batch of songs in 1985. Rock a Little, as it was retitled, was released November 18, 1985, to commercial success, supported by three successful singles. Nicks toured for Rock a Little until October 1986, and performed with Bob Dylan and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers during their tour in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "The tour marked a turning point in Nicks' life. The January before the tour was to begin, a plastic surgeon warned her of severe health problems if she did not stop using cocaine. \"I said, 'What do you think about my nose?'\", she recalled on The Chris Isaak Hour in 2009. \"And he said, 'Well, I think the next time you do a hit of cocaine, you could drop dead.'\" At the end of the Australian tour, Nicks checked herself into the Betty Ford Center for 30 days to overcome her cocaine addiction. Recalling the strong influence of Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix on her music and life, she told a UK interviewer, \"I saw how they went down, and a part of me wanted to go down with them... but then another part of me thought, I would be very sad if some 25-year-old lady rock and roll singer ten years from now said, 'I wish Stevie Nicks would have thought about it a little more.' That's kind of what stopped me and made me really look at the world through clear eyes.\"",
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"plaintext": "Later that year, on the advice of friends concerned that she might relapse, she visited a psychiatrist who prescribed the sedative Klonopin to help her remain free from cocaine.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1985, Fleetwood Mac began work on Tango in the Night, but due to her promotional schedule for the Rock a Little album and subsequent tour, Nicks was mostly unavailable to work on the album with the band except for a few weeks following her stay at the Betty Ford Center in 1986 (which was the inspiration for the song \"Welcome to the Room...Sara\"). She sent the band demos of her songs to work on in her absence. The album was released in April 1987 and became the band's second-highest selling album ever, behind Rumours.",
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"plaintext": "Creative differences and unresolved personal issues within the band led Buckingham to quit the group right before their world tour. According to bassist John McVie, a \"physically ugly\" confrontation between Nicks and Buckingham ensued when Nicks angrily challenged Buckingham's decision to leave the band.",
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"plaintext": "The band embarked on the Shake the Cage tour in September 1987, with Buckingham replaced by Rick Vito and Billy Burnette. The tour was suspended during Nicks' bout with chronic fatigue syndrome and developing an addiction to Klonopin, though it resumed in 1988. Tango in the Night met with commercial success and was followed in 1988 by Fleetwood Mac's Greatest Hits album in November 1988.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 1988, Nicks began work on a fourth solo album with English record producer Rupert Hine. The Other Side of the Mirror was released on May 11, 1989, to commercial success. Nicks became romantically involved with Hine.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks toured the U.S. and Europe from August to November 1989, the only time she has toured Europe as a solo act. She later said she had \"no memory of this tour\" because of her increasing dependency on Klonopin, prescribed in ever increasing amounts by a psychiatrist between 1987 and 1994, in an attempt to keep Nicks from regressing to her former abuse of cocaine.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, Nicks set to work with Fleetwood Mac on Behind the Mask, released in 1990 to moderate commercial success in the U.S. In the UK, however, the album entered the chart at number one and was certified platinum. The band went on a world tour to promote the album, on the last night of which Buckingham and Nicks reunited on stage to perform \"Landslide\". After the tour concluded, Nicks left the group over a dispute with Mick Fleetwood, who would not allow her to release the 1977 track \"Silver Springs\" on her album The Best of Stevie Nicks, because of his plans to save it for release on a forthcoming Fleetwood Mac box set. Fleetwood knew that the song would be valuable as a selling point for the box set, since over the years, it had gained interest among the band's fans.",
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"plaintext": "On the 10th anniversary of her solo career debut, Nicks released Timespace: The Best of Stevie Nicks on September 3, 1991. The following year, Fleetwood Mac also released a four-disc box set, 25 Years – The Chain, which included \"Silver Springs\".",
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"plaintext": "During the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign, Bill Clinton used the Fleetwood Mac hit \"Don't Stop\" as his campaign theme song, and Nicks rejoined the classic Rumours line-up of the band (including Buckingham) to perform the song at Clinton's 1993 inaugural gala. No plans for an official reunion were made at that time. Nicks was criticized for her weight gain. Nicks, who is , had gained weight, peaking at 175lbs (79.4kg). \"Klonopin was worse than the cocaine,\" she has said. \"I lost those 8 years of my life. I didn't write, and I had gained so much weight.\"",
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"plaintext": "In late 1993, while Nicks held a baby shower at her house, she tripped over a box, passed out, and cut her forehead near a fireplace. \"I'm one of those people who doesn't injure themselves. I was horrified to see that blood. I hadn't had enough wine. I knew it was the Klonopin,\" she said. Realizing that she needed help, Nicks endured a painful 47-day detox in a hospital.",
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"plaintext": "Following her successful detox, Nicks released her fifth solo album, Street Angel, recorded during 1992 and 1993 using material written mostly in previous years. Released on May 23, 1994, Street Angel was poorly received, reaching number 45 on the Billboard Top 200. Nicks has since expressed major disappointment with the album, claiming that a lot of its production work took place during her second stint in rehab, meaning she had little or no say over the final product. Despite a three-month tour in support of the album, Nicks was crushed by the focus on her weight and the poor reception of the album. Disgusted by the criticism she received during the tour for being overweight, she vowed to never set foot on a stage again unless she slimmed down.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, Nicks reunited with Lindsey Buckingham and contributed the duet \"Twisted\" to the Twister movie soundtrack, while in 1996, the Sheryl Crow-penned \"Somebody Stand by Me\" featured on the Boys on the Side soundtrack, and Nicks also remade Tom Petty's \"Free Fallin'\" for Fox's TV hit Party of Five.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, Lindsey Buckingham, working on a planned solo album, enlisted the help of Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, which eventually led to a reunion of the entire band. A newly invigorated and slimmed-down Nicks joined Fleetwood Mac for The Dance, a highly successful 1997 tour that coincided with the 20th anniversary of the release of Rumours. Prior to the tour, Nicks started work with a voice coach, to lend her voice more control and protect it from the stress of lengthy touring schedules. She also went on a diet and started jogging to lose weight.",
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"plaintext": "The band's live CD The Dance was released to commercial and critical acclaim. The Dance earned the group several Grammy nominations, including a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for their live performance of \"Silver Springs\". In 1998, Nicks joined the group for its induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. That same year, Fleetwood Mac was awarded the Outstanding Contribution at the BRIT Awards.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks put work on a new solo album on hold when she was approached by Warner Music to release a solo career-spanning box set, to finish her contract with Atlantic Records in the U.S. After the culmination of the Fleetwood Mac reunion tour, Nicks settled down in Los Angeles and Phoenix with close friends and colleagues to devise a track list for this three-disc collection.",
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"plaintext": "The box set Enchanted was released to acclaim on April 28, 1998, with liner notes from Nicks, as well as exclusive rare photographs, and pages from her journals. Nicks supported the box set with a successful U.S. tour. In 1998, Nicks contributed to the Practical Magic soundtrack and performed in Don Henley's benefit concert for the Walden Woods Project.",
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"plaintext": "Released May 1, 2001, Trouble in Shangri-La restored Nicks' solo career to critical and commercial success. \"Planets of the Universe\" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, and Nicks was named VH1's \"Artist of the Month\" for May 2001. Nicks was named one of People magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People, was featured in a well-received Behind the Music episode, and performed an episode of the VH1 Storytellers Concert Program. Nicks made several television appearances in support of the album and performed at the 2001 Radio Music Awards.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks supported the album with a successful tour, although some shows were canceled or postponed because of her bout with acute bronchitis. Shows were also canceled because of the September 11 attacks in the U.S.",
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"plaintext": "Say You Will was released in April 2003 and met with commercial success but mixed reviews. Nicks joined the group to support the album with a world tour lasting until September 2004.",
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"plaintext": "She has subsequently stated in several interviews that she was not happy with the album or the successful world tour that followed, citing production disputes with Buckingham as a core factor, as well as the absence of fellow female band member Christine McVie. A documentary of the making of the album, Destiny Rules, was released on DVD in 2004 and chronicles the sometimes-turbulent relationships between band members, especially Buckingham and Nicks, during that time in the studio.",
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"plaintext": "After a few months' respite from the Say You Will tour, Nicks did a four-night stint in May 2005 at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, and then did 10 shows with Don Henley dubbed the Two Voices tour. During the summer of 2005, Nicks continued doing solo shows (Gold Dust tour) with pop singer Vanessa Carlton as the opening act, playing over 20 dates nationwide.",
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"plaintext": "On March 27, 2007, Reprise Records released Crystal Visions – The Very Best of Stevie Nicks in the U.S. The album debuted at number 21 on the Billboard 200 albums chart.",
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"plaintext": "The compilation includes her hit singles, a dance remix, and one new track, a live version of Led Zeppelin's \"Rock and Roll\". Two versions of this album were made, one with just the audio CD and a deluxe version which includes a DVD featuring all of Nicks' music videos with audio commentary from Nicks herself, as well as rare footage from the Bella Donna recording sessions.",
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"plaintext": "A tour with Chris Isaak, opening in Concord, California on May 17, 2007, supported the release.",
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"plaintext": "Reprise Records initially released two radio-only promos, the live version of \"Landslide\" with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra and \"Rock and Roll\". Both tracks failed to garner much airplay and made no impact on the charts. Reprise Records released \"Stand Back\" (issued with club mixes) on May 29, 2007. \"Stand Back\", which peaked at number five on the pop singles chart in 1983, reached number two on the Billboard Club chart. Nicks previously reached number one on this chart, with \"Planets of the Universe\" (from Trouble in Shangri-La) in 2001. The remix single of \"Stand Back\" debuted on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart on September 15, 2007, at number 10, peaking at number four the following week. It also debuted on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales chart at number three, later peaking at number one .",
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"plaintext": "On March 31, 2009, Nicks released the album, The Soundstage Sessions, via Reprise Records. The album debuted at number 47 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The first single from the album, \"Crash into Me\", was released as a digital download, along with \"Landslide\" (orchestra version) as a B-side, on March 17, 2009.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2008, Fleetwood Mac announced that the band would tour in 2009, beginning in March. As per the 2003–2004 tour, Christine McVie would not be featured in the line-up. The tour was branded as a 'greatest hits' show titled \"Unleashed\", although they played album tracks such as \"Storms\" and \"I Know I'm Not Wrong\".",
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"plaintext": "After completing the Unleashed tour with Fleetwood Mac, Nicks began work on her first solo album in a decade with David A. Stewart, a musician and record producer best known for being one half of the duo Eurythmics.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks performed in a series of shows in August 2010 (\"it's not really a tour\", she said). They did not contain any of her new music, because she did not want it to end up on YouTube. The Santa Barbara show benefited a young girl she had met through the Make-a-Wish Foundation in Los Angeles with rhabdomyosarcoma, a rare cancer.",
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"plaintext": "On January 13, 2011, Reprise announced Nicks's upcoming album In Your Dreams would be released on May 3, and the lead single, \"Secret Love\", would be released on February 8. Reprise provided a free download of the single to fans who ordered the album via certain websites. Nicks originally wrote \"Secret Love\" in 1976 and recorded a demo of it for Fleetwood Mac's 1977 album, Rumours. It did not make the final cut for the album. The demo version had been circulating among fans for many years prior to its inclusion on In Your Dreams. Nicks promoted the song with a video directed by Dave Stewart. Nicks' goddaughter Kelly appears in the video wearing a vintage dress that Nicks wore on stage in 1976. According to Nicks, Kelly portrays the young Nicks blending with the soul of Nicks' 62-year-old self. On the U.S. Billboard charts, \"Secret Love\" was a modest hit on the Adult Contemporary Singles chart, peaking at number 20, and at number 25 on the Triple-A Singles chart. Another song on the album, \"For What It's Worth\", features Nicks' niece in the video. The song reached number 25 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart in September 2011. A documentary film was made for the album, directed by Stewart. The documentary was critically acclaimed, and Nicks appeared at many film festivals to support the documentary.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks promoted the album with appearances on various television shows, including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, The X Factor, The Talk, Good Morning America, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Oprah Winfrey Show. and Dancing with the Stars.",
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"plaintext": "In Your Dreams was well received by music critics. Rolling Stone commented \"It's not just her first album in 10 years, it's her finest collection of songs since the Eighties\". The album debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, giving Nicks her fifth top-10 album on that chart, with 52,000 copies sold in the first week. Elsewhere, the album has made numerous top-50 debuts, including number 24 on the Australian ARIA chart, number 22 in Canada, and number 14 in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "The same day that Nicks' new album was released, Fox Network broadcast the Glee episode (Season 2, Episode 19) \"Rumours\" that featured six songs from Fleetwood Mac's 1977 album, including Nicks' song \"Dreams\" (the band's only number-one song on the U.S. charts). The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its most commercially successful album, and Rumours re-entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 11, the same week that In Your Dreams debuted at number six. Nicks was quoted by Billboard saying that her new album was \"my own little Rumours\".",
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"plaintext": "Nicks contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's \"Not Fade Away\" for the tribute album Buddy Holly, released in September 2011.",
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"plaintext": "On March 29, 2012, Nicks made a guest appearance as herself on the NBC sitcom Up All Night. The show featured an excerpt of the 1981 track \"Sleeping Angel\", as well as new duets with both Maya Rudolph and Christina Applegate of \"Whenever I Call You Friend\" and \"Edge of Seventeen\". Rudolph and Applegate have said they are fans of the singer.",
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"plaintext": "On December 14, 2012, it was announced that Nicks would be featured on an original track done in collaboration with Dave Grohl for his Sound City soundtrack, alongside other artists.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, Fleetwood Mac toured again as a four-piece band throughout North America and Europe. On April 30, the band released their first new studio material since 2003's Say You Will via digital download on iTunes with the four-track EP, \"Extended Play\" containing three new songs and one new song from the Buckingham Nicks sessions (\"Without You\").",
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"plaintext": "On December 3, 2013, Nicks released the In your Dreams documentary film on DVD. The DVD debuted at number seven on the Billboard Top Music Video sales chart and number 29 on the UK Music Video Top 40 chart.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Nicks appeared on the third season of television series American Horror Story, Coven, in a role she reprised in the eighth season, Apocalypse. She played a fictional version of herself, portraying a \"white witch\" with supernatural powers in three episodes. On the show, she performed the songs \"Rhiannon\", \"Has Anyone Ever Written Anything For You?\", \"Seven Wonders\", and \"Gypsy\".",
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"plaintext": "\"I said 'That's perfect,'\" she told Us magazine in response to the show's music request. \"Because that's exactly how I like to affect people. I want people to put my songs on because they are unhappy and need a boost to dance around their apartment a little and feel good. That's why I write. 'Of course, you can use my music. Take it!'\" In May 2014, Nicks was honored with a BMI Icon Award. In July 2014, it was announced that Nicks would join The Voice as the adviser for Adam Levine's team.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2014, Nicks released her eighth studio album, Songs from the Vault, which reached number seven on the Billboard 200. She also began a North American tour with Fleetwood Mac, now reunited with Christine McVie, the On with the Show tour. The tour began in September 2014 and concluded in November 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2015, Nicks reissued Crystal Visions – The Very Best of Stevie Nicks on \"crystal clear\" transparent double vinyl. The vinyl came with a vinyl messenger bag and a limited-edition lithograph.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout 2016 and 2017, Nicks toured with The Pretenders on the 24 Karat Gold Tour.",
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"plaintext": "On April 26, 2017, Pitchfork revealed that Nicks would be featured on a track from American singer Lana Del Rey's fifth studio album, Lust for Life, which was released on July 21, 2017. The song is titled \"Beautiful People Beautiful Problems\".",
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"plaintext": "On July 9, 2017, Nicks performed at the British Summer Time festival in Hyde Park in London, supporting Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. She later performed \"Stop Draggin' My Heart Around\" with Petty as part of the Heartbreakers' set, in what would turn out to be their final performance of the song together before Tom Petty's death in October 2017.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2018, Lindsey Buckingham was fired from Fleetwood Mac, following disagreements with Nicks and Mick Fleetwood. Nicks helped recruit his replacements, Mike Campbell of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and Neil Finn of Crowded House. This reworked lineup embarked on a world tour entitled An Evening with Fleetwood Mac in 2018–2019.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2019, Nicks was elected to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. She became the first woman to be inducted twice, once as a member of Fleetwood Mac and as a solo artist.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2020, Nicks released a live album and concert film, with recordings from the 24 Karat Gold Tour (2016–2017), directed by Joe Thomas. On October 9, 2020, Nicks released her first new music in six years. The official video accompanying the track \"Show Them the Way\" was directed by Cameron Crowe.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2020, music publishing company Primary Wave bought an 80% stake of Nicks song catalog. The Wall Street Journal valued the deal at US$100 million.",
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"plaintext": "On May 27, 2021, Stevie Nicks was one of the headliners of the 2021 Shaky Knees Music Festival in Atlanta, Georgia. In August 2021 Nicks cancelled her five planned 2021 solo appearances due to concern about catching COVID-19.",
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"plaintext": "Standing at , Nicks has stated she felt \"a little ridiculous\" standing next to Mick Fleetwood, who is . For this reason, she developed a penchant for platform boots. \"Even when platforms went completely out of style, I kept wearing them because I didn't want to go back to being in heels\", she told Allure in 1995. Over the years, Nicks has developed a style which she calls her \"uniform\". Her \"uniform\" is known as a witchy kind of look that goes with her songs and performances.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks has said that her vocal style and performance antics evolved from female singers like Grace Slick and Janis Joplin. She admitted inspiration when she saw Joplin perform live (and opened for her with her first band Fritz) shortly before Joplin's death. Nicks owns a strand of Joplin's stage beads. She also commented that she once saw a woman in her audience dressed in dripping chiffon with a Gibson Girl hairstyle and big boots, and Nicks knew she wanted something similar. She took the look and made it her own. Nicks possesses the vocal range of a contralto and her voice has been described as a \"gruff, feathery alto.\" Over the years, she has decorated her microphone stand with roses, ribbons, chiffon, crystal beads, scarves, and small stuffed toys.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks has started a charity foundation titled \"Stevie Nicks' Band of Soldiers\" which is used for the benefit of wounded military personnel.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2004, Nicks began visiting Army and Navy medical centers in Washington, D.C. While visiting wounded service men and women, she became determined to find an object she could leave with the soldiers that would raise their spirits, motivate, and give them something to look forward to each day. She eventually decided to purchase hundreds of iPod Nanos, load them with music, artists, and playlists which she would hand select, and autograph them:",
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"plaintext": "She now regularly delivers these tokens of her appreciation, bringing her closest friends, such as Mick Fleetwood, along to share the experience:",
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"plaintext": "Nicks' style has remained the same throughout her years in the spotlight and even \"at 60 she is still working the gossamer tunics and shawls that have influenced two generations of Stevie acolytes, and given her performances the feel of a Wiccan ritual\" writes New York Times reporter Ruth La Ferla.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks has been known for her multiple wardrobe changes during live performances, almost having a new outfit for each song she sang. Nicks prefers to wear black onstage. She began to wear it primarily because it was \"easy and slimming.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the late 70's, Nicks began receiving threatening mail accusing her of witchcraft. Nicks told the Los Angeles Times in 2013, \"In the beginning of my career, the whole idea that some wacky, creepy people were writing, 'You're a witch, you're a witch!' was so arresting. And there I am like, 'No, I'm not! I just wear black because it makes me look thinner, you idiots.'\" The witch rumors frightened Nicks so much that she gave up black for a period of time (approximately 1978 to 1982), instead opting to wear colors such as apricot and sea foam green. Nicks later stated that she felt ugly in the new colors, ultimately gave up, and went back to black in 1983. That same year, when asked what she thought about those who still believed the rumor, Nicks said, \"I don't like it all and I wish people would stop thinking about that, because I spent thousands of dollars on beautiful black clothes and had to stop wearing them for a long time, because a lot of people scared me.\"",
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"plaintext": "The cost to keep up her overall style, of hair, makeup, and wardrobe, was not cheap. Nicks filed tax-deductible expenses in 1991 costing \"$12,495 for makeup and hairstyling [and] $43,291 for professional clothing and maintenance\".",
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"plaintext": "Nicks sings about the store where her iconic style all started in the song \"Gypsy\" on Fleetwood Mac's 13th studio album Mirage, released in 1982. In the song, Nicks sings of a store called the Velvet Underground, a boutique in San Francisco, California, where famous rockers like Janis Joplin and Grace Slick were known to shop. It was at the Velvet Underground where Nicks' unique and easily recognizable style began.",
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"plaintext": "Many artists have cited Nicks as a source of influence and musical inspiration. These include Beyoncé and Destiny's Child, Courtney Love, Michelle Branch, Belinda Carlisle, The Chicks (formerly known as Dixie Chicks), Mary J. Blige, Sheryl Crow, Nadia Ali, Florence Welch, Taylor Swift, Vanessa Carlton, Delta Goodrem, and Lorde. Australian singer Darren Hayes cited Nicks as one his favorite musicians during his teenage years, while Eminem's mother Debbie Nelson mentioned in her book My Son Marshall, My Son Eminem that her son loved the song \"Rhiannon\".",
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"plaintext": "Nicks was romantically linked to Lindsey Buckingham from 1966 to 1976, briefly to Mick Fleetwood in 1977, to Eagles drummer/vocalist Don Henley during the late 1970s, and briefly to Eagles songwriter J.D. Souther. In 1979, Nicks had an abortion after becoming pregnant by Henley.",
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"plaintext": "Nicks became an ordained minister with the Universal Life Church and officiated at the wedding of Deer Tick singer John McCauley and singer-songwriter Vanessa Carlton on December 27, 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Writing in her journal in 2020, Nicks blasted the US response to COVID-19, comparing it to American Horror Story. \"Everyone gathering at the beaches, in the bars, block parties, et cetera—'let's get drunk and make out and, by the way, can I have the other half of your drink?'—we are heading for a crash; people are dying because people aren't wearing their masks.... Nobody is leading us. Nobody has a plan.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nicks has said that she consciously chose not to have children of her own, due to her demanding career and desire to follow her art wherever it should take her: \"My mission maybe wasn't to be a mom and a wife; maybe my particular mission was to write songs to make moms and wives feel better.\"",
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"plaintext": "Of her niece, godchildren, and extended family she says: \"I have lots of kids. It's much more fun to be the crazy auntie than it is to be the mom, anyway.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nicks has maintained a journal nearly every day since her tenure in Fleetwood Mac began. She has said, “I like to tell all my fairy goddaughters and my niece that when I'm gone they can sit on the floor and go through all these journals, and they can walk through my life, and they can smell the gardenia perfume on the pages. They can have it in their hands, who I was.\" Regarding a book based on her life, she has said, \"I wouldn't write a book unless I could really tell the truth, and say all the people are in it are represented right...If I'm gonna talk about all the people in my life, I need to be old enough and so do they, that nobody's gonna care... I would never write a book about the bad parts. I would mostly revel in the fantastic parts, of which there were so many.\"",
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"plaintext": "In October 2005, Nicks attended the Melbourne Cup Week in Australia, and one of the horse-racing stakes was named after her: The Stevie Nicks Plate. She used this opportunity to launch her promotion of an Australian/New Zealand extension to her Gold Dust tour in February and March 2006. Nicks toured in Australia and New Zealand with popular Australian performer John Farnham. She also appeared in concert with Tom Petty in June near Manassas, Virginia, and at the Bonnaroo Music Festival that same month.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, Nicks performed with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers for the first leg of their tour in the summer, and later in the year returned as a guest performer for a number of songs on the tour celebrating Petty's 30th anniversary since his debut album. Tom Petty's Homecoming Concert in Gainesville, FL, which contained performances with Stevie Nicks, was filmed for PBS Soundstage as well as DVD release for March 2007. Nicks was also the featured performer for Bette Midler's benefit function, Hulaween, in October 2006.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in May 2007, Nicks began touring with pop/rock artist Chris Isaak. The last Stevie Nicks/Chris Isaak show was June 17, 2007, at the Tweeter Center in Boston. Nicks continued the tour solo, with Vanessa Carlton opening on some dates. The tour finished at The Borgata in Atlantic City, New Jersey on August 24, 2007.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, Nicks embarked on the Soundstage Sessions tour in the U.S. A video recording of one concert date was released in 2009: Live in Chicago. Vanessa Carlton performed as a guest artist.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Fleetwood Mac embarked on a global hits tour. The Unleashed tour took place in arenas on multiple continents. The tour ended in December with two sell-out shows of 35,000 people at the New Plymouth TSB Bowl of Brooklands in New Zealand.",
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"plaintext": "Rod Stewart and Nicks co-headlined The Heart and Soul tour. Launched March 20, 2011, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, the tour united the two singers for a series of arena concerts throughout North America– with performances in New York, Toronto, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit, Tampa, Montreal, and more.",
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"plaintext": " Sharon Celani– backing vocals (1981–present)",
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"plaintext": "Mount St.Helens (known as Lawetlat'la to the indigenous Cowlitz people, and Loowit or Louwala-Clough to the Klickitat) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It lies northeast of Portland, Oregon and south of Seattle. Mount St.Helens takes its English name from that of the British diplomat Lord St Helens, a friend of explorer George Vancouver who surveyed the area in the late 18th century. The volcano is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire.",
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"plaintext": "The Mount St.Helens major eruption of May 18, 1980 remains the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in U.S. history. Fifty-seven people were killed; 200homes, 47bridges, of railways, and of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche, triggered by a magnitude5.1 earthquake, caused a lateral eruption that reduced the elevation of the mountain's summit from to , leaving a wide horseshoe-shaped crater. The debris avalanche was in volume. The 1980 eruption disrupted terrestrial ecosystems near the volcano. By contrast, aquatic ecosystems in the area greatly benefited from the amounts of ash, allowing life to multiply rapidly. Six years after the eruption, most lakes in the area had returned to their normal state.",
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"plaintext": "After its 1980 eruption, the volcano experienced continuous volcanic activity until 2008. Geologists predict that future eruptions will be more destructive, as the configuration of the lava domes require more pressure to erupt. However, Mount St. Helens is a popular hiking spot and it is climbed year-round. In 1982, the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument was established by President Ronald Reagan and the U.S. Congress.",
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"plaintext": "Mount St.Helens is west of Mount Adams, in the western part of the Cascade Range. Considered \"brother and sister\" mountains, the two volcanoes are approximately from Mount Rainier, the highest of the Cascade volcanoes. Mount Hood, the nearest major volcanic peak in Oregon, is southeast of Mount St.Helens.",
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"plaintext": "Mount St. Helens is geologically young compared with the other major Cascade volcanoes. It formed only within the past 40,000years, and the summit cone present before its 1980 eruption began rising about 2,200years ago. The volcano is considered the most active in the Cascades within the Holocene epoch, which encompasses roughly the last 10,000 years.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to the 1980 eruption, Mount St.Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington. It stood out prominently from surrounding hills because of the symmetry and extensive snow and ice cover of the pre-1980 summit cone, earning it the nickname, by some, \"Fuji-san of America\". The peak rose more than above its base, where the lower flanks merge with adjacent ridges. The mountain is across at its base, which is at an elevation of on the northeastern side and elsewhere. At the pre-eruption tree line, the width of the cone was .",
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"plaintext": "Streams that originate on the volcano enter three main river systems: The Toutle River on the north and northwest, the Kalama River on the west, and the Lewis River on the south and east. The streams are fed by abundant rain and snow. The average annual rainfall is , and the snowpack on the mountain's upper slopes can reach . The Lewis River is impounded by three dams for hydroelectric power generation. The southern and eastern sides of the volcano drain into an upstream impoundment, the Swift Reservoir, which is directly south of the volcano's peak.",
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"plaintext": "Although Mount St.Helens is in Skamania County, Washington, access routes to the mountain run through Cowlitz County to the west, and Lewis County to the north. State Route 504, locally known as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway, connects with Interstate 5 at Exit49, to the west of the mountain. That north–south highway skirts the low-lying cities of Castle Rock, Longview and Kelso along the Cowlitz River, and passes through the Vancouver, Washington–Portland, Oregon metropolitan area less than to the southwest. The community nearest the volcano is Cougar, Washington, in the Lewis River valley south-southwest of the peak. Gifford Pinchot National Forest surrounds Mount St.Helens.",
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"plaintext": "During the winter of 1980–1981, a new glacier appeared. Now officially named Crater Glacier, it was formerly known as the Tulutson Glacier. Shadowed by the crater walls and fed by heavy snowfall and repeated snow avalanches, it grew rapidly ( per year in thickness). By 2004, it covered about , and was divided by the dome into a western and eastern lobe. Typically, by late summer, the glacier looks dark from rockfall from the crater walls and ash from eruptions. As of 2006, the ice had an average thickness of and a maximum of , nearly as deep as the much older and larger Carbon Glacier of Mount Rainier. The ice is all post-1980, making the glacier very young geologically. However, the volume of the new glacier is about the same as all the pre-1980 glaciers combined.",
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"plaintext": "From 2004, volcanic activity pushed aside the glacier lobes and upward by the growth of new volcanic domes. The surface of the glacier, once mostly without crevasses, turned into a chaotic jumble of icefalls heavily criss-crossed with crevasses and seracs caused by movement of the crater floor. The new domes have almost separated the Crater Glacier into an eastern and western lobe. Despite the volcanic activity, the termini of the glacier have still advanced, with a slight advance on the western lobe and a more considerable advance on the more shaded eastern lobe. Due to the advance, two lobes of the glacier joined in late May2008 and thus the glacier completely surrounds the lava domes. In addition, since 2004, new glaciers have formed on the crater wall above Crater Glacier feeding rock and ice onto its surface below; there are two rock glaciers to the north of the eastern lobe of Crater Glacier.",
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"plaintext": "Mount St.Helens is part of the Cascades Volcanic Province, an arc-shaped band extending from southwestern British Columbia to Northern California, roughly parallel to the Pacific coastline. Beneath the Cascade Volcanic Province, a dense oceanic plate sinks beneath the North American Plate; a process known as subduction in geology. As the oceanic slab sinks deeper into the Earth's interior beneath the continental plate, high temperatures and pressures allow water molecules locked in the minerals of solid rock to escape. The water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed magma ascends upward through the crust along a path of least resistance, both by way of fractures and faults as well as by melting wall rocks. The addition of melted crust changes the geochemical composition. Some of the melt rises toward the Earth's surface to erupt, forming the Cascade Volcanic Arc above the subduction zone.",
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"plaintext": "The magma from the mantle has accumulated in two chambers below the volcano: one approximately below the surface, the other about . The lower chamber may be shared with Mount Adams and the Indian Heaven volcanic field.",
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"plaintext": "The early eruptive stages of Mount St.Helens are known as the \"Ape Canyon Stage\" (around 40,000–35,000years ago), the \"Cougar Stage\" (ca. 20,000–18,000years ago), and the \"Swift Creek Stage\" (roughly 13,000–8,000 years ago). The modern period, since about 2500BC, is called the \"Spirit Lake Stage\". Collectively, the pre–Spirit Lake stages are known as the \"ancestral stages\". The ancestral and modern stages differ primarily in the composition of the erupted lavas; ancestral lavas consisted of a characteristic mixture of dacite and andesite, while modern lava is very diverse (ranging from olivine basalt to andesite and dacite).",
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"plaintext": "St.Helens started its growth in the Pleistocene 37,600years ago, during the Ape Canyon stage, with dacite and andesite eruptions of hot pumice and ash. Thirty-six thousand years ago a large mudflow cascaded down the volcano; mudflows were significant forces in all of St.Helens' eruptive cycles. The Ape Canyon eruptive period ended around 35,000years ago and was followed by 17,000years of relative quiet. Parts of this ancestral cone were fragmented and transported by glaciers 14,000–18,000years ago during the last glacial period of the current ice age.",
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"plaintext": "The second eruptive period, the Cougar Stage, started 20,000years ago and lasted for 2,000years. Pyroclastic flows of hot pumice and ash along with dome growth occurred during this period. Another 5,000years of dormancy followed, only to be upset by the beginning of the Swift Creek eruptive period, typified by pyroclastic flows, dome growth and blanketing of the countryside with tephra. Swift Creek ended 8,000years ago.",
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"plaintext": "A dormancy of about 4,000years was broken around 2500BC with the start of the Smith Creek eruptive period, when eruptions of large amounts of ash and yellowish-brown pumice covered thousands of square miles. An eruption in 1900BC was the largest known eruption from St.Helens during the Holocene epoch, depositing the Yn tephra. This eruptive period lasted until about 1600BC and left deep deposits of material distant in what is now Mount Rainier National Park. Trace deposits have been found as far northeast as Banff National Park in Alberta, and as far southeast as eastern Oregon. All told there may have been up to of material ejected in this cycle. Some 400 years of dormancy followed.",
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"plaintext": "St.Helens came alive again around 1200BC — the Pine Creek eruptive period. This lasted until about 800BC and was characterized by smaller-volume eruptions. Numerous dense, nearly red hot pyroclastic flows sped down St.Helens' flanks and came to rest in nearby valleys. A large mudflow partly filled of the Lewis River valley sometime between 1000BC and 500BC.",
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"plaintext": "The next eruptive period, the Castle Creek period, began about 400BC, and is characterized by a change in the composition of St.Helens' lava, with the addition of olivine and basalt. The pre-1980 summit cone started to form during the Castle Creek period. Significant lava flows in addition to the previously much more common fragmented and pulverized lavas and rocks (tephra) distinguished this period. Large lava flows of andesite and basalt covered parts of the mountain, including one around the year 100BC that traveled all the way into the Lewis and Kalama river valleys. Others, such as Cave Basalt (known for its system of lava tubes), flowed up to from their vents. During the first century, mudflows moved down the Toutle and Kalama river valleys and may have reached the Columbia River. Another 400years of dormancy ensued.",
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"plaintext": "The Sugar Bowl eruptive period was short and markedly different from other periods in Mount St.Helens history. It produced the only unequivocal laterally directed blast known from Mount St.Helens before the 1980 eruptions. During Sugar Bowl time, the volcano first erupted quietly to produce a dome, then erupted violently at least twice producing a small volume of tephra, directed-blast deposits, pyroclastic flows, and lahars.",
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"plaintext": "Roughly 700years of dormancy were broken in about 1480, when large amounts of pale gray dacite pumice and ash started to erupt, beginning the Kalama period. The 1480 eruption was several times larger than that of May 18, 1980. In 1482, another large eruption rivaling the 1980 eruption in volume is known to have occurred. Ash and pumice piled northeast of the volcano to a thickness of ; away, the ash was deep. Large pyroclastic flows and mudflows subsequently rushed down St.Helens' west flanks and into the Kalama River drainage system.",
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"plaintext": "This 150-year period next saw the eruption of less silica-rich lava in the form of andesitic ash that formed at least eight alternating light- and dark-colored layers. Blocky andesite lava then flowed from St.Helens' summit crater down the volcano's southeast flank. Later, pyroclastic flows raced down over the andesite lava and into the Kalama River valley. It ended with the emplacement of a dacite dome several hundred feet (~200m) high at the volcano's summit, which filled and overtopped an explosion crater already at the summit. Large parts of the dome's sides broke away and mantled parts of the volcano's cone with talus. Lateral explosions excavated a notch in the southeast crater wall. St.Helens reached its greatest height and achieved its highly symmetrical form by the time the Kalama eruptive cycle ended, in about 1647. The volcano remained quiet for the next 150years.",
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"plaintext": "The 57-year eruptive period that started in 1800 was named after the Goat Rocks dome and is the first period for which both oral and written records exist. As with the Kalama period, the Goat Rocks period started with an explosion of dacite tephra, followed by an andesite lava flow, and culminated with the emplacement of a dacite dome. The 1800 eruption probably rivaled the 1980 eruption in size, although it did not result in massive destruction of the cone. The ash drifted northeast over central and eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and western Montana. There were at least a dozen reported small eruptions of ash from 1831 to 1857, including a fairly large one in 1842. (The 1831 eruption is likely what tinted the sun bluish-green in Southampton County, Virginia on the afternoon of August 13 — which Nat Turner interpreted as a final signal to launch the United States' largest slave rebellion.) The vent was apparently at or near Goat Rocks on the northeast flank. Goat Rocks dome was the site of the bulge in the 1980 eruption, and it was obliterated in the major eruption event on May 18, 1980 that destroyed the entire north face and top of the mountain.",
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"plaintext": "On March 20, 1980, Mount St.Helens experienced a magnitude4.2 earthquake, and on March 27, steam venting started. By the end of April, the north side of the mountain had started to bulge. ",
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"plaintext": "On May 18, a second earthquake, of magnitude 5.1, triggered a massive collapse of the north face of the mountain. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. The magma in St.Helens burst forth into a large-scale pyroclastic flow that flattened vegetation and buildings over an area of . More than 1.5million metric tons of sulfur dioxide were released into the atmosphere. On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a 5, and categorized as a Plinian eruption.",
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"plaintext": "The collapse of the northern flank of St.Helens mixed with ice, snow, and water to create lahars (volcanic mudflows). The lahars flowed many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz Rivers, destroying bridges and lumber camps. A total of of material was transported south into the Columbia River by the mudflows.",
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"plaintext": "For more than nine hours, a vigorous plume of ash erupted, eventually reaching 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27km) above sea level. The plume moved eastward at an average speed of with ash reaching Idaho by noon. Ashes from the eruption were found on top of cars and roofs the next morning as far away as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.",
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"plaintext": "By about 5:30p.m. on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, and less-severe outbursts continued through the night and for the next several days. The St.Helens May18 eruption released 24megatons of thermal energy and ejected more than of material. The removal of the north side of the mountain reduced St.Helens' height by about and left a crater to wide and deep, with its north end open in a huge breach. The eruption killed 57people, nearly 7,000big-game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and an estimated 12million fish from a hatchery. It destroyed or extensively damaged more than 200homes, of highway, and of railways.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1980 and 1986, activity continued at Mount St.Helens, with a new lava dome forming in the crater. Numerous small explosions and dome-building eruptions occurred. From December 7, 1989 to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990 to February 14, 1991, the mountain erupted, sometimes huge clouds of ash.",
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"plaintext": "Magma reached the surface of the volcano about October 11, 2004, resulting in the building of a new lava dome on the existing dome's south side. This new dome continued to grow throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several transient features were observed, such as a lava spine nicknamed the \"whaleback\", which comprised long shafts of solidified magma being extruded by the pressure of magma beneath. These features were fragile and broke down soon after they were formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, causing a rockfall that sent ash and dust several hundred meters into the air.",
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"plaintext": "Mount St.Helens showed significant activity on March 8, 2005, when a plume of steam and ash emerged — visible from Seattle. This relatively minor eruption was a release of pressure consistent with ongoing dome building. The release was accompanied by a magnitude2.5 earthquake.",
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"plaintext": "Another feature to emerge from the dome was called the \"fin\" or \"slab\". Approximately half the size of a football field, the large, cooled volcanic rock was being forced upward as quickly as per day. In mid-June 2006, the slab was crumbling in frequent rockfalls, although it was still being extruded. The height of the dome was , still below the height reached in July 2005 when the whaleback collapsed.",
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"plaintext": "On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude3.5 earthquake broke loose Spine7. The collapse and avalanche of the lava dome sent an ash plume over the western rim of the crater; the ash plume then rapidly dissipated.",
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"plaintext": "On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of condensing steam was observed, leading some media people to assume there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the USGS did not mention any significant ash plume. The volcano was in continuous eruption from October2004, but this eruption consisted in large part of a gradual extrusion of lava forming a dome in the crater.",
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"plaintext": "On January 16, 2008, steam began seeping from a fracture on top of the lava dome. Associated seismic activity was the most noteworthy since 2004. Scientists suspended activities in the crater and the mountain flanks, but the risk of a major eruption was deemed low. By the end of January, the eruption paused; no more lava was being extruded from the lava dome. On July 10, 2008, it was determined that the eruption had ended, after more than six months of no volcanic activity.",
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"plaintext": "Future eruptions of Mount St.Helens will likely be even larger than the 1980 eruption. The current configuration of lava domes in the crater means that much more pressure will be required for the next eruption, and hence the level of destruction will be higher. Significant ashfall may spread over , disrupting transportation. A large lahar flow is likely on branches of the Toutle River, possibly causing destruction in inhabited areas along the I-5 corridor.",
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"plaintext": "In its undisturbed state, the slopes of Mount St.Helens lie in the Western Cascades Montane Highlands ecoregion. This ecoregion has abundant precipitation; an average of of precipitation falls each year at Spirit Lake. This precipitation supported dense forest up to , with western hemlock, Douglas fir, and western redcedar. Above this, this forest was dominated by Pacific silver fir up to . Finally, below treeline, the forest consisted of mountain hemlock, Pacific silver fir and Alaska yellow cedar. Large mammals included Roosevelt elk, black-tailed deer, American black bear, and mountain lion.",
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"plaintext": "The Treeline at Mount St. Helens was unusually low, at about , the result of prior volcanic disturbance of the forest, as the treeline was thought to be moving up the slopes before the eruption. Alpine meadows were uncommon at Mount St. Helens. Mountain goats inhabited higher elevations of the peak, although their population was eliminated by the 1980 eruption.",
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"plaintext": "The eruption of Mount St.Helens has been subject to more ecological study than has any other eruption, because research into disturbance commenced immediately after the eruption and because the eruption did not sterilize the immediate area. More than half of the papers on ecological response to volcanic eruption originated from studies of Mount St.Helens.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps the most important ecological concept originating from the study of Mount St.Helens is the biological legacy. Biological legacies are the survivors of catastrophic disturbance; they can either be alive (e.g., plants that survive ashfall or pyroclastic flow), organic debris, or biotic patterns remaining from before the disturbance. These biological legacies highly influence the reestablishment of the post-disturbance ecology.",
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"plaintext": "Native American lore contains numerous stories to explain the eruptions of Mount St.Helens and other Cascade volcanoes. The best known of these is the Bridge of the Gods story told by the Klickitat people.",
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"plaintext": "In the story, the chief of all the gods and his two sons, Pahto (also called Klickitat) and Wy'east, traveled down the Columbia River from the Far North in search for a suitable area to settle.",
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"plaintext": "They came upon an area that is now called The Dalles and thought they had never seen a land so beautiful. The sons quarreled over the land, so to solve the dispute their father shot two arrows from his mighty bow – one to the north and the other to the south. Pahto followed the arrow to the north and settled there while Wy'east did the same for the arrow to the south. The chief of the gods then built the Bridge of the Gods, so his family could meet periodically.",
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"plaintext": "When the two sons of the chief of the gods fell in love with a beautiful maiden named Loowit, she could not choose between them. The two young chiefs fought over her, burying villages and forests in the process. The area was devastated and the earth shook so violently that the huge bridge fell into the river, creating the cascades of the Columbia River Gorge.",
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"plaintext": "For punishment, the chief of the gods struck down each of the lovers and transformed them into great mountains where they fell. Wy'east, with his head lifted in pride, became the volcano known today as Mount Hood. Pahto, with his head bent toward his fallen love, was turned into Mount Adams. The beautiful Loowit became Mount St.Helens, known to the Klickitats as Louwala-Clough, which means \"smoking or fire mountain\" in their language (the Sahaptin call the mountain Loowit).",
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"plaintext": "The mountain is also of sacred importance to the Cowlitz and Yakama tribes that also live in the area. They find the area above its tree line to be of exceptional spiritual significance, and the mountain (which they call \"Lawetlat'la\", roughly translated as \"the smoker\") features prominently in their creation story, and in some of their songs and rituals. In recognition of its cultural significance, over of the mountain (roughly bounded by the Loowit Trail) have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.",
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"plaintext": "Other area tribal names for the mountain include \"nšh´ák´\" (\"water coming out\") from the Upper Chehalis, and \"aka akn\" (\"snow mountain\"), a Kiksht term.",
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"plaintext": "Royal Navy Commander George Vancouver and the officers of HMS Discovery made the Europeans' first recorded sighting of Mount St.Helens on 19May 1792, while surveying the northern Pacific Ocean coast. Vancouver named the mountain for British diplomat Alleyne Fitzherbert, 1st Baron St Helens on 20October 1792, as it came into view when the Discovery passed into the mouth of the Columbia River.",
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"plaintext": "Years later, explorers, traders, and missionaries heard reports of an erupting volcano in the area. Geologists and historians determined much later that the eruption took place in 1800, marking the beginning of the 57year-long Goat Rocks Eruptive Period (see Geology). Alarmed by the \"dry snow,\" the Nespelem tribe of northeastern Washington supposedly danced and prayed rather than collecting food and suffered during that winter from starvation.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1805 and early 1806, members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition spotted Mount St.Helens from the Columbia River but did not report either an ongoing eruption or recent evidence of one. They did however report the presence of quicksand and clogged channel conditions at the mouth of the Sandy River near Portland, suggesting an eruption by Mount Hood sometime in the previous decades.",
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"plaintext": "In 1829, Hall J. Kelley led a campaign to rename the Cascade Range as the President's Range and also to rename each major Cascade mountain after a former President of the United States. In his scheme Mount St.Helens was to be renamed Mount Washington.",
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"plaintext": "The first authenticated non-Indigenous eyewitness report of a volcanic eruption was made in March1835 by Meredith Gairdner, while working for the Hudson's Bay Company stationed at Fort Vancouver. He sent an account to the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, which published his letter in January1836. James Dwight Dana of Yale University, while sailing with the United States Exploring Expedition, saw the quiescent peak from off the mouth of the Columbia River in 1841. Another member of the expedition later described \"cellular basaltic lavas\" at the mountain's base.",
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"plaintext": "In the late fall or early winter of 1842, nearby European settlers and missionaries witnessed the so-called Great Eruption. This small-volume outburst created large ash clouds, and mild explosions followed for 15 years. The eruptions of this period were likely phreatic (steam explosions). Josiah Parrish in Champoeg, Oregon witnessed Mount St.Helens in eruption on 22November 1842. Ash from this eruption may have reached The Dalles, Oregon, 48miles (80km) southeast of the volcano.",
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"plaintext": "In October1843, future California governor Peter H. Burnett recounted a very likely apocryphal story of an Indigenous man who badly burned his foot and leg in lava or hot ash while hunting for deer. The story went that the injured man sought treatment at Fort Vancouver, but the contemporary fort commissary steward, Napoleon McGilvery, disclaimed knowledge of the incident. British lieutenant Henry J. Warre sketched the eruption in 1845, and two years later Canadian painter Paul Kane created watercolors of the gently smoking mountain. Warre's work showed erupting material from a vent about a third of the way down from the summit on the mountain's west or northwest side (possibly at Goat Rocks), and one of Kane's field sketches shows smoke emanating from about the same location.",
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"plaintext": "On April 17, 1857, the Republican, a Steilacoom, Washington, newspaper, reported that \"Mount St.Helens, or some other mount to the southward, is seen ... to be in a state of eruption\". The lack of a significant ash layer associated with this event indicates that it was a small eruption. This was the first reported volcanic activity since 1854.",
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"plaintext": "Before the 1980 eruption, Spirit Lake offered year-round recreational activities. In the summer there was boating, swimming, and camping, while in the winter there was skiing.",
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"plaintext": "Fifty-seven people were killed during the eruption. Had the eruption occurred one day later, when loggers would have been at work, rather than on a Sunday, the death toll could have been much higher.",
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"plaintext": "Eighty-three-year-old Harry R. Truman, who had lived near the mountain for 54years, gained media attention when he decided not to evacuate before the impending eruption, despite repeated pleas by local authorities. His body was never found after the eruption.",
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"plaintext": "Another victim of the eruption was 30-year-old volcanologist David A. Johnston, who was stationed on the nearby Coldwater Ridge. Moments before his position was hit by the pyroclastic flow, Johnston radioed his last words: \"Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it!\" Johnston's body was never found.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said, \"Someone said this area looked like a moonscape. But the moon looks more like a golf course compared to what's up there.\" A film crew, led by Seattle filmmaker Otto Seiber, was dropped by helicopter on St.Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. Their compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred on May25, but the crew survived and was rescued two days later by National Guard helicopter pilots. Their film, The Eruption of Mount St.Helens, later became a popular documentary.",
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"plaintext": "The eruption had negative effects beyond the immediate area of the volcano. Ashfall caused approximately $100 million of damage to agriculture downwind in Eastern Washington.",
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"plaintext": "The eruption also had positive impacts on society. Apple and wheat production were higher in the 1980 growing season, possibly due to ash helping to retain moisture in the soil. The ash was also a source of income: it was the raw material for the artificial gemstone helenite, or for ceramic glazes, or sold as a tourist curio.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, President Ronald Reagan and the U.S. Congress established the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a area around the mountain and within the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.",
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"plaintext": "Following the 1980 eruption, the area was left to gradually return to its natural state. In 1987, the U.S. Forest Service reopened the mountain to climbing. It remained open until 2004 when renewed activity caused the closure of the area around the mountain (see Geological history section above for more details). The Monitor Ridge trail, which previously let up to 100 permitted hikers per day climb to the summit, ceased operation. On July 21, 2006, the mountain was again opened to climbers. In February2010, a climber died after falling from the rim into the crater.",
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"plaintext": "Mount St.Helens is a common climbing destination for both beginning and experienced mountaineers. The peak is climbed year-round, although it is more often climbed from late spring through early fall. All routes include sections of steep, rugged terrain. A permit system has been in place for climbers since 1987. A climbing permit is required year-round for anyone who will be above on the slopes of Mount St.Helens.",
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"plaintext": "The standard hiking/mountaineering route in the warmer months is the Monitor Ridge Route, which starts at the Climbers Bivouac. This is the most crowded route to the summit in the summer and gains about in approximately to reach the crater rim. Although strenuous, it is considered a non-technical climb that involves some scrambling. Most climbers complete the round trip in 7 to 12hours.",
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"plaintext": "The Worm Flows Route is considered the standard winter route on Mount St.Helens, as it is the most direct route to the summit. The route gains about in elevation over about from trailhead to summit but does not demand the technical climbing that some other Cascade peaks like Mount Rainier do. The route name refers to the rocky lava flows that surround the route. This route can be accessed via the Marble Mountain Sno-Park and the Swift Ski Trail.",
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"plaintext": "The mountain is now circled by the Loowit Trail at elevations of . The northern segment of the trail from the South Fork Toutle River on the west to Windy Pass on the east is a restricted zone where camping, biking, pets, fires, and off-trail excursions are all prohibited.",
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"plaintext": "On April 14, 2008, John Slemp, a snowmobiler from Damascus, Oregon, fell 1,500 feet into the crater after a snow cornice gave way beneath him on a trip to the volcano with his son. Despite his long fall, Slemp survived with minor injuries, and was able to walk after coming to a stop at the foot of the crater wall, where he was rescued by a mountain rescue helicopter.",
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"plaintext": "A visitor center run by the Washington State Parks is in Silver Lake, Washington, about west of Mount St. Helens. Exhibits include a large model of the volcano, a seismograph, a theater program, and an outdoor natural trail.",
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"plaintext": " List of volcanic eruptions by death toll",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "Bibliography",
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"plaintext": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " University of Washington Libraries: Digital Collections:",
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"plaintext": " The Royal Geography Society's Hidden Journeys project:",
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"Volcanoes_of_Skamania_County,_Washington",
"Mountains_of_Skamania_County,_Washington",
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| 4,675 | 64,950 | 393 | 217 | 0 | 0 | Mount St. Helens | volcano in Washington state | [
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36,651 | 1,095,974,367 | ESP | [
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| 218,265 | 3,707 | 2 | 59 | 0 | 0 | ESP | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,653 | 1,025,032,521 | Mobile_magazine_explosion | [
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"plaintext": "Liberia has 15 counties, each of which elects two senators to the Senate of Liberia.",
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"plaintext": "The English word county is used to translate the Chinese term ( or ). In Mainland China, governed by the People's Republic of China (PRC), counties and county-level divisions are the third level of regional/local government, coming under the provincial level and the prefectural level, and above the township level and village level.",
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"plaintext": "There are 1,464 so-named \"counties\" out of 2,862 county-level divisions in the PRC, and the number of counties has remained more or less constant since the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220). It remains one of the oldest titles of local-level government in China and significantly predates the establishment of provinces in the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). The county government was particularly important in imperial China because this was the lowest level at which the imperial government is functionally involved, while below it the local people are managed predominantly by the gentries. The head of a county government during imperial China was the magistrate, who was often a newly ascended jinshi.",
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"plaintext": "In older context, district was an older English translation of before the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). The English nomenclature county was adopted following the establishment of the ROC. In addition, provincial cities have the same level of authority as counties. Above county, there are special municipalities (in effect) and province (suspended due to economical and political reasons). There are currently 13 counties in the ROC-controlled territories.",
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"plaintext": "During most of the imperial era, there were no concepts like municipalities in China. All cities existed within counties, commanderies, prefectures, etc., and had no governments of their own. Large cities (must be imperial capitals or seats of prefectures) could be divided and administered by two or three counties. Such counties are called 倚郭縣 (, 'county leaning on the city walls') or (, 'county attached to the city walls'). The yamen or governmental houses of these counties exist in the same city. In other words, they share one county town. In this sense, a or is similar to a district of a city.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the city of Guangzhou (seat of the eponymous prefecture, also known as Canton in the Western world) was historically divided by Nanhai County () and Panyu County (). When the first modern city government in China was established in Guangzhou, the urban area was separated from these two counties, with the rural areas left in the remaining parts of them. However, the county governments remained in the city for years, before moving into the respective counties. Similar processes happened in many Chinese cities.",
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"plaintext": "Nowadays, most counties in mainland China, i.e. with \"Xian\" in their titles, are administered by prefecture-level cities and have mainly agricultural economies and rural populations.",
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"plaintext": "The ostans (provinces) of Iran are further subdivided into counties called (). County consists of a city centre, a few (), and many villages around them. There are usually a few cities (, ) and rural agglomerations (, ) in each county. Rural agglomerations are a collection of a number of villages. One of the cities of the county is appointed as the capital of the county.",
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"plaintext": "Each has a government office known as (), which coordinates different events and government offices. The , or the head of , is the governor of the .",
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"plaintext": "Fars Province has the highest number of , with 36, while Qom uniquely has one, being coextensive with its namesake county. Iran had 324 in 2005 and 443 in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "County is the common English translation for the character ( or ) that denotes the current second level political division in South Korea. In North Korea, the county is one type of municipal-level division.",
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"plaintext": "Denmark was divided into counties () from 1662 to 2006. On 1 January 2007 the counties were replaced by five Regions. At the same time, the number of municipalities was slashed to 98.",
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"plaintext": "The counties were first introduced in 1662, replacing the 49 fiefs () in Denmark–Norway with the same number of counties. This number does not include the subdivisions of the Duchy of Schleswig, which was only under partial Danish control. The number of counties in Denmark (excluding Norway) had dropped to around 20 by 1793. Following the reunification of South Jutland with Denmark in 1920, four counties replaced the Prussian . Aabenraa and Sønderborg County merged in 1932 and Skanderborg and Aarhus were separated in 1942. From 1942 to 1970, the number stayed at 22. The number was further decreased by the 1970 Danish municipal reform, leaving 14 counties plus two cities unconnected to the county structure; Copenhagen and Frederiksberg.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Bornholm County merged with the local five municipalities, forming the Bornholm Regional Municipality. The remaining 13 counties were abolished on 1 January 2007 where they were replaced by five new regions. In the same reform, the number of municipalities was slashed from 270 to 98 and all municipalities now belong to a region.",
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"plaintext": "A was a territory ruled by a count () in medieval France. In modern France, the rough equivalent of a county as used in many English-speaking countries is a department (). Ninety-six departments are in metropolitan France, and five are overseas departments, which are also classified as overseas regions. Departments are further subdivided into 334 arrondissements, but these have no autonomy; they are the basis of local organisation of police, fire departments and, sometimes, administration of elections.",
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"plaintext": "Each administrative district consists of an elected council and an executive, and whose duties are comparable to those of a county executive in the United States, supervising local government administration. Historically, counties in the Holy Roman Empire were called .",
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"plaintext": "The majority of German districts are \"rural districts\" (German: ), of which there are 294 . Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants (and smaller towns in some states) do not usually belong to a district, but take on district responsibilities themselves, similar to the concept of independent cities and there are 107 of them, bringing the total number of districts to 401.",
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"plaintext": "The administrative unit of Hungary is called (historically, they were also called ; in Latin), which can be translated with the word county. The 19 counties constitute the highest level of the administrative subdivisions of the country together with the capital city Budapest, although counties and the capital are grouped into seven statistical regions.",
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"plaintext": "Counties are subdivided to municipalities, the two types of which are towns and villages, each one having their own elected mayor and council. 23 of the towns have the rights of a county although they do not form independent territorial units equal to counties. Municipalities are grouped within counties into subregions (), which have statistical and organizational functions only.",
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"plaintext": "The was also the historic administrative unit in the Kingdom of Hungary, which included areas of present-day neighbouring countries of Hungary. Its Latin name () is the equivalent of the French . Actual political and administrative role of counties changed much through history. Originally they were subdivisions of the royal administration, but from the 13th century they became self-governments of the nobles and kept this character until the 19th century when in turn they became modern local governments.",
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"plaintext": "The island of Ireland was historically divided into 32 counties, of which 26 later formed the Republic of Ireland and 6 made up Northern Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "These counties are traditionally grouped into four provinces: Leinster (12 counties), Munster (6), Connacht (5) and Ulster (9). Historically, the counties of Meath and Westmeath and small parts of surrounding counties constituted the province of Mide, which was one of the \"Five Fifths\" of Ireland (in the Irish language the word for province, , means 'a fifth': from , 'five'); however, these have long since been absorbed into Leinster. In the Republic each county is administered by an elected \"county council\", and the old provincial divisions are merely traditional names with no political significance.",
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"plaintext": "The number and boundaries of administrative counties in the Republic of Ireland were reformed in the 1990s. For example, County Dublin was divided into three: Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin; the City of Dublin had existed for centuries before. The cities of Cork and Galway have been separated from the town and rural areas of their counties. The cities of Limerick and Waterford were merged with their respective counties in 2014. Thus, the Republic of Ireland now has 31 'county-level' authorities, although the borders of the original twenty-six counties are still officially in place.",
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"plaintext": "In Northern Ireland, the six county councils and the smaller town councils were abolished in 1973 and replaced by a single tier of local government. However, in the north as well as in the south, the traditional 32 counties and 4 provinces remain in common usage for many sporting, cultural and other purposes. County identity is heavily reinforced in the local culture by allegiances to county teams in hurling and Gaelic football. Each Gaelic Athletic Association county has its own flag/colours (and often a nickname), and county allegiances are taken quite seriously. See the counties of Ireland and the Gaelic Athletic Association.",
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"plaintext": "In Italy the word county is not used; the administrative sub-division of a region is called . Italian provinces are mainly named after their principal town and comprise several administrative subdivisions called ('communes'). There are currently 110 provinces in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "In the context of pre-modern Italy, the Italian word generally refers to the countryside surrounding, and controlled by, the city state. The provided natural resources and agricultural products to sustain the urban population. In contemporary usage, can refer to a metropolitan area, and in some cases large rural/suburban regions providing resources to distant cities.",
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"plaintext": " (plural ) is the Lithuanian word for county. Since 1994 Lithuania has 10 counties; before 1950 it had 20. The only purpose with the county is an office of a state governor who shall conduct law and order in the county.",
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"plaintext": "Norway has been divided into 11 counties (, ; singular: ) since 2020; they previously numbered 19 following a local government reform in 1972. Until that year Bergen was a separate county, but today it is a municipality within the county of Vestland. All counties form administrative entities called county municipalities ( or ; singular: ), further subdivided into municipalities ( or ; singular: ). One county, Oslo, is not divided into municipalities, rather it is equivalent to the municipality of Oslo.",
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"plaintext": "Each county has its own county council () whose representatives are elected every four years together with representatives to the municipal councils. The counties handle matters such as high schools and local roads, and until 1 January 2002 hospitals as well. This last responsibility was transferred to the state-run health authorities and health trusts, and there is a debate on the future of the county municipality as an administrative entity. Some people, and parties, such as the Conservative and Progress Party, call for the abolition of the county municipalities once and for all, while others, including the Labour Party, merely want to merge some of them into larger regions.",
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"plaintext": "The territorial administration of Poland since 1999 has been based on three levels of subdivision. The country is divided into voivodeships (provinces); these are further divided into powiats (counties or districts). The term powiat is often translated into English as county (or sometimes district). In historical contexts this may be confusing because the Polish term hrabstwo (a territorial unit administered/owned by a hrabia (count) is also literally translated as \"county\" and it was subordinated under powiat.",
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"plaintext": "The 380 county-level entities in Poland include 314 \"land counties\" (powiaty ziemskie) and the 66 \"city counties\" (miasta na prawach powiatu or powiaty grodzkie) . They are subdivisions of the 16 voivodeship, and are further subdivided into 2,477 gminas (also called commune or municipality).",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian word for county, , is not currently used for any Romanian administrative divisions. Romania is divided into a total of 41 counties (), which along with the municipality of Bucharest, constitute the official administrative divisions of Romania. They represent the country's NUTS-3 (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics – Level 3) statistical subdivisions within the European Union and each of them serves as the local level of government within its borders. Most counties are named after a major river, while some are named after notable cities within them, such as the county seat.",
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"plaintext": "The Swedish division into counties, , which literally means 'fief', was established in 1634, and was based on an earlier division into provinces; Sweden is divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities (kommuner). At the county level there is a county administrative board led by a governor appointed by the central government of Sweden, as well as an elected county council that handles a separate set of issues, notably hospitals and public transportation for the municipalities within its borders.",
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"plaintext": "Every county council corresponds to a county with a number of municipalities per county. County councils and municipalities have different roles and separate responsibilities relating to local government. Health care, public transport and certain cultural institutions are administered by county councils while general education, public water utilities, garbage disposal, elderly care and rescue services are administered by the municipalities. Gotland is a special case of being a county council with only one municipality and the functions of county council and municipality are performed by the same organisation.",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom is divided into a number of metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. There are also ceremonial counties which group small non-metropolitan counties into geographical areas broadly based on the historic counties of England. In 1974, the metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties replaced the system of administrative counties and county boroughs which was introduced in 1889. The counties generally belong to level 3 of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS 3).",
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"plaintext": "In 1965 and 1974–1975, major reorganisations of local government in England and Wales created several new administrative counties such as Hereford and Worcester (abolished again in 1998 and reverted, with some transfers of territory, to the two separate historic counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire) and also created several new metropolitan counties based on large urban areas as a single administrative unit. In Scotland, county-level local government was replaced by larger regions, which lasted until 1996. Modern local government in Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and a large part of England is trending towards smaller unitary authorities: a system similar to that proposed in the 1960s by the Redcliffe-Maud Report for most of Britain.",
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"plaintext": "The name \"county\" was introduced by the Normans, and was derived from a Norman term for an area administered by a Count (lord). These Norman \"counties\" were simply the Saxon shires, and kept their Saxon names. Several traditional counties, including Essex, Sussex and Kent, predate the unification of England by Alfred the Great, and were originally more or less independent kingdoms (although the most important Saxon Kingdom on the island of Britain, Alfred's own Wessex, no longer survives in any form).",
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"plaintext": "In England, in the Anglo-Saxon period, shires were established as areas used for the raising of taxes, and usually had a fortified town at their centre. This became known as the shire town or later the county town. In many cases, the shires were named after their shire town (for example Bedfordshire), but there are several exceptions, such as Cumberland, Norfolk and Suffolk. In several other cases, such as Buckinghamshire, the modern county town is different from the town after which the shire is named. (See Toponymical list of counties of the United Kingdom)",
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"plaintext": "Most non-metropolitan counties in England are run by county councils and are divided into non-metropolitan districts, each with its own council. Local authorities in the UK are usually responsible for education, emergency services, planning, transport, social services, and a number of other functions.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1974, the county boundaries of England changed little over time. In the medieval period, a number of important cities were granted the status of counties in their own right, such as London, Bristol and Coventry, and numerous small exclaves such as Islandshire were created. In 1844, most of these exclaves were transferred to their surrounding counties.",
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254,
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{
"plaintext": "In Northern Ireland, the six county councils, if not their counties, were abolished in 1973 and replaced by 26 local government districts. The traditional six counties remain in common everyday use for many cultural and other purposes.",
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"plaintext": "The thirteen historic counties of Wales were fixed by statute in 1539 (although counties such as Pembrokeshire date from 1138) and most of the shires of Scotland are of at least this age. The Welsh word for county is sir which is derived from the English 'shire'. The word is officially used to signify counties in Wales. In the Gaelic form, Scottish traditional county names are generally distinguished by the designation —literally \"sheriffdom\", e.g. (Argyllshire). This term corresponds to the jurisdiction of the sheriff in the Scottish legal system.",
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{
"plaintext": "In Ontario, Quebec and Nova Scotia, provinces that have a two-tier system of local government, the counties constitute the upper tier and local municipalities form the lower tier.",
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{
"plaintext": "Manitoba and Saskatchewan are divided into rural municipalities. The Northwest Territories and Nunavut are divided into regions; however, these regions only serve to streamline the delivery of territorial governmental services, and have no government of their own. Newfoundland and Labrador, and Yukon do not have any second-level administrative subdivision between the provincial/territorial government and their municipalities.",
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{
"plaintext": "The counties of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island are historical and have no governments of their own today. However, they remain used as census divisions by Statistics Canada, and by locals as geographic identifiers.",
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{
"plaintext": "The primary administrative division of Southern Ontario is its 22 counties, which are upper-tier local governments providing limited municipal services to rural and moderately dense areas—within them, there are a variety of lower-tier towns, cities, villages, etc. that provide most municipal services. This contrasts with Northern Ontario's 10 districts, which are geographic divisions but not local governments—although some towns, etc. are within them that are local governments, the low population densities and much larger area have significant impacts on how government is organized and operates. In both Northern and Southern Ontario, urban densities in cities are one of two other local structures: regional municipalities (restructured former counties which are also upper tiers) or single-tier municipalities.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Quebec's counties are more properly called \"Regional County Municipalities\" (). The province's former counties proper were supplanted in the early 1980s.",
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{
"plaintext": "A county in Alberta used to be a type of designation in a single-tier municipal system; but this was nominally changed to \"municipal district\" under the Municipal Government Act, when the County Act was repealed in the mid-1990s. However, at the time the new \"municipal districts\" were also permitted to retain the usage of county in their official names.",
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{
"plaintext": "As a result, in Alberta, the term county is synonymous with the term municipal district – it is not its own incorporated municipal status that is different from that of a municipal district. As such, Alberta Municipal Affairs provides municipal districts with the opportunity to change to a county in their official names, but some have chosen to hold out with the municipal district title. The vast majority of \"municipal districts\" in Alberta are named as counties.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "British Columbia has counties for the purposes of its justice system but otherwise they hold no governmental function. For the provision of all other governmental services, the province is divided into regional districts that form the upper tier, which are further subdivided into local municipalities that are partly autonomous, and unincorporated electoral areas that are governed directly by the regional districts.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The province of Manitoba was divided into counties; however, these counties were abolished in 1890.",
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18926,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes which are grouped together into 3 historic counties: Cornwall, Middlesex, and Surrey.",
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114,
120
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},
{
"plaintext": "Counties in U.S. states are administrative or political subdivision of the state in which their boundaries are drawn. In addition, the United States Census Bureau uses the term \"county equivalent\" to describe places that are comparable to counties, but called by different names. Today, 3,142 counties and county equivalents carve up the United States, ranging in number from 3 for Delaware to 254 for Texas.",
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135,
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[
382,
390
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[
402,
407
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Forty-eight of the 50 U.S. states use the term \"county\", while Alaska and Louisiana use the terms \"borough\" and \"parish\", respectively, for analogous jurisdictions. A consolidated city-county such as Philadelphia and San Francisco is formed when a city and county merge into one unified jurisdiction. Conversely, an independent city like Baltimore and St. Louis legally belongs to no county, i.e. no county even nominally exists in those places compared to a consolidated city-county where a county does legally exist in some form. The District of Columbia, outside the jurisdiction of any state, is viewed by the U.S. Census Bureau as a single county equivalent.",
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316,
332
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338,
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352,
361
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536,
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{
"plaintext": "The specific governmental powers of counties vary widely between the states. They are generally the intermediate tier of state government, between the statewide tier and the immediately local government tier (typically a city, town/borough or village/township). Some of the governmental functions that a county may offer include judiciary, county prisons, land registration, enforcement of building codes, and federally mandated services programs. Depending on the individual state, counties or their equivalents may be administratively subdivided into townships, boroughs or boros, or towns (in the New England states, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin). For independent cities and consolidated city-counties, those places report directly to the state.",
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[
600,
611
],
[
620,
628
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[
630,
642
],
[
648,
657
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "New York City is a special case where the city is made up of five boroughs, each of which is territorially coterminous with a county of New York State. In the context of city government, the boroughs are subdivisions of the city but are still called \"county\" where state function is involved, e.g., \"New York County Courthouse\".",
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},
{
"plaintext": "County governments in Rhode Island and Connecticut have been completely abolished but the entities remain for administrative and statistical purposes. Alaska's Unorganized Borough also has no county equivalent government, but the U.S. Census Bureau further divides it into statistical county equivalent subdivisions called census areas.",
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22,
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39,
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161,
180
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[
324,
336
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The areas of each county also vary widely between the states. For example, the territorially medium-sized state of Pennsylvania has 67 counties delineated in geographically convenient ways. By way of contrast, Massachusetts, with far less territory, has massively sized counties in comparison even to Pennsylvania's largest, yet each organizes their judicial and incarceration officials similarly.",
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223
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Most counties have a county seat: a city, town, or other named place where its administrative functions are centered. Some New England states use the term shire town to mean \"county seat\". A handful of counties like Harrison County, Mississippi have two or more county seats, usually located on opposite sides of the county, dating back from the days when travel was difficult.",
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21,
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123,
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155,
165
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[
216,
244
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "In the eastern states of Australia, counties are used in the administration of land titles. They do not generally correspond to a level of government, but are used in the identification of parcels of land.",
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49,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The local communities in Australia that share the same post code are usually referred to as suburbs or localities. Several neighboring suburbs are often serviced by the same local government known as a council, whose jurisdiction is officially known as the local government area (LGA). An LGA functions basically the same way as a county of other countries, although it is called instead as \"city\", \"municipality\", \"shire\", \"borough\", \"town\", \"district\" or simple \"councils\" depending on the state/territory and subregion. It performs municipal services and regulates permits for land uses, but lacks any legislative or law enforcement powers.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Oceania",
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202,
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217,
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[
257,
278
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[
492,
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[
512,
521
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[
535,
553
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[
568,
574
],
[
580,
588
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[
605,
616
],
[
620,
635
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "After New Zealand abolished its provinces in 1876, a system of counties similar to other countries' systems was instituted, lasting until 1989. They had chairmen, not mayors as boroughs and cities had; many legislative provisions (such as burial and land subdivision control) were different for the counties.",
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"section_name": "Oceania",
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32,
41
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177,
184
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[
239,
245
],
[
250,
266
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "During the second half of the 20th century, many counties received overflow population from nearby cities. The result was often a merger of the two into a district (e.g. Rotorua) or a change of name to either district (e.g. Waimairi) or city (e.g. Manukau City).",
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170,
177
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248,
260
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "The Local Government Act 1974 began the process of bringing urban, mixed, and rural councils into the same legislative framework. Substantial reorganisations under that Act resulted in the 1989 shake-up, which covered the country in (non-overlapping) cities and districts and abolished all the counties except for the Chatham Islands County, which survived under that name for a further 6 years but then became a \"Territory\" under the \"Chatham Islands Council\".",
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4,
29
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318,
333
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Provinces in Argentina are divided into departments (), except in the Buenos Aires Province, where they are called . The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires is divided into communes ().",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "South America",
"target_page_ids": [
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255932,
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121,
152
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]
}
]
| [
"Counties",
"Types_of_administrative_division"
]
| 28,575 | 16,586 | 1,766 | 295 | 0 | 0 | county | geographical and administrative region in some countries | [
"County"
]
|
36,660 | 1,107,467,620 | 1054 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1054 (MLIV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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11,
15
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23,
55
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[
101,
116
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 2 Sukjong, ruler of Goryeo (d. 1105)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27531,
4956626,
188435,
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1,
12
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14,
21
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[
32,
38
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[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Hariri of Basra, Abbasid poet and scholar (d. 1122)",
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3885852,
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1,
19
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29,
33
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50,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bohemond I of Antioch, Italo-Norman nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
157674,
28978421
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
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37,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " George II (Giorgi), king of Georgia (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1781301,
7466162
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
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29,
36
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},
{
"plaintext": " Judith of Lens, niece of William the Conqueror (or 1055)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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33917,
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1,
15
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26,
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56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Judith of Swabia, queen consort of Hungary (d. 1105)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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60741,
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
],
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36,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Langri Tangpa, Tibetan Buddhist master (d. 1123)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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21184117,
36045
],
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1,
14
],
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33,
39
],
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44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona (or 1053)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
242510,
36698
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
39
],
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44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tong Guan, Chinese general and adviser (d. 1126)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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36275
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
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44,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 20 Yaroslav the Wise, Russian grand prince (b. c.978)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11025,
42213,
750917,
49374
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1,
12
],
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14,
31
],
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41,
53
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[
60,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 8 Azelin (Azellinus), bishop of Hildesheim",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20053,
42719856,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
],
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10,
16
],
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40,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 19 Pope Leo IX, German pontiff of the Catholic Church (b. 1002)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2196,
67376,
606848,
35901
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
22
],
[
46,
61
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[
66,
70
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 19 Bernold (Bernulf), bishop of Utrecht",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16091,
10780747,
1864297
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
],
[
10,
17
],
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39,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 25 Fujiwara no Michimasa, Japanese nobleman (b. 992)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1519,
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36244
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1,
10
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12,
33
],
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57,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 31 Kunigunde of Altdorf, German noblewoman (b. c.1020)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1711,
35348884
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
10
],
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12,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 1 Fortún Sánchez, Navarrese nobleman (b. c.992)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27530,
32135441,
36244
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1,
12
],
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14,
28
],
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55,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 15 García Sánchez III, king of Pamplona (b. c.1012)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28145,
2579322,
693507,
36284
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1,
13
],
[
15,
33
],
[
43,
51
],
[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Hermann of Reichenau, German music theorist (b. 1013)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28202,
858810,
54783,
36285
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1,
13
],
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15,
35
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44,
58
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[
63,
67
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Sahl Zawzani, Persian statesman and chief secretary",
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36,667 | 1,099,105,149 | Counterfactual_definiteness | [
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"plaintext": "In quantum mechanics, counterfactual definiteness (CFD) is the ability to speak \"meaningfully\" of the definiteness of the results of measurements that have not been performed (i.e., the ability to assume the existence of objects, and properties of objects, even when they have not been measured). The term \"counterfactual definiteness\" is used in discussions of physics calculations, especially those related to the phenomenon called quantum entanglement and those related to the Bell inequalities. In such discussions \"meaningfully\" means the ability to treat these unmeasured results on an equal footing with measured results in statistical calculations. It is this (sometimes assumed but unstated) aspect of counterfactual definiteness that is of direct relevance to physics and mathematical models of physical systems and not philosophical concerns regarding the meaning of unmeasured results.",
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"plaintext": "\"Counterfactual\" may appear in physics discussions as a noun. What is meant in this context is \"a value that could have been measured but, for one reason or another, was not.\"",
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"plaintext": "The subject of counterfactual definiteness receives attention in the study of quantum mechanics because it is argued that, when challenged by the findings of quantum mechanics, classical physics must give up its claim to one of three assumptions: locality (no \"spooky action at a distance\"), counterfactual definiteness (or \"non-contextuality\"), and no-conspiracy (called also \"asymmetry of time\").",
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"plaintext": "If physics gives up the claim to locality, it brings into question our ordinary ideas about causality and suggests that events may transpire at faster-than-light speeds.",
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"plaintext": "If physics gives up the \"no conspiracy\" condition, it becomes possible for \"nature to force experimenters to measure what she wants, and when she wants, hiding whatever she does not like physicists to see.\"",
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"plaintext": "If physics rejects the possibility that, in all cases, there can be \"counterfactual definiteness,\" then it rejects some features that humans are very much accustomed to regarding as enduring features of the universe.",
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"plaintext": "\"The elements of reality the EPR paper is talking about are nothing but what the property interpretation calls properties existing independently of the measurements. In each run of the experiment, there exist some elements of reality, the system has particular properties < #ai > which unambiguously determine the measurement outcome < ai >, given that the corresponding measurement a is performed.\"",
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"plaintext": "Something else, something that may be called \"counterfactuality,\" permits inferring effects that have immediate and observable consequences in the macro world even though there is no empirical knowledge of them. One such example is the Elitzur-Vaidman bomb tester. These phenomena are not directly germane to the subject under consideration here.",
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"plaintext": "An interpretation of quantum mechanics can be said to involve the use of counterfactual definiteness if it includes in the mathematical modelling outcomes of measurements that are counterfactual; in particular, those that are excluded according to quantum mechanics by the fact that quantum mechanics does not contain a description of simultaneous measurement of conjugate pairs of properties.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the uncertainty principle states that one cannot simultaneously know, with arbitrarily high precision, both the position and momentum of a particle. Suppose one measures the position of a particle. This act destroys any information about its momentum. Is it then possible to talk about the outcome that one would have obtained if one had measured its momentum instead of its position? In terms of mathematical formalism, is such a counterfactual momentum measurement to be included, together with the factual position measurement, in the statistical population of possible outcomes describing the particle? If the position were found to be r0 then in an interpretation that permits counterfactual definiteness, the statistical population describing position and momentum would contain all pairs (r0,p) for every possible momentum value p, whereas an interpretation that rejects counterfactual values completely would only have the pair (r0,⊥) where ⊥ denotes an undefined value. To use a macroscopic analogy, an interpretation which rejects counterfactual definiteness views measuring the position as akin to asking where in a room a person is located, while measuring the momentum is akin to asking whether the person's lap is empty or has something on it. If the person's position has changed by making him or her stand rather than sit, then that person has no lap and neither the statement \"the person's lap is empty\" nor \"there is something on the person's lap\" is true. Any statistical calculation based on values where the person is standing at some place in the room and simultaneously has a lap as if sitting would be meaningless.",
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"plaintext": "The dependability of counterfactually definite values is a basic assumption, which, together with \"time asymmetry\" and \"local causality\" led to the Bell inequalities. Bell showed that the results of experiments intended to test the idea of hidden variables would be predicted to fall within certain limits based on all three of these assumptions, which are considered principles fundamental to classical physics, but that the results found within those limits would be inconsistent with the predictions of quantum mechanical theory. Experiments have shown that quantum mechanical results predictably exceed those classical limits. Calculating expectations based on Bell's work implies that for quantum physics the assumption of \"local realism\" must be abandoned. Bell's theorem proves that every type of quantum theory must necessarily violate locality or reject the possibility of extending the mathematical description with outcomes of measurements of measurements which were not actually made.",
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"plaintext": "Counterfactual definiteness is present in any interpretation of quantum mechanics that allows quantum mechanical measurement outcomes to be seen as deterministic functions of a system's state or of the state of the combined system and measurement apparatus. Cramer's (1986) transactional interpretation does not make that interpretation.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics rejects counterfactual definiteness as it does not ascribe any value at all to a measurement that was not performed. When measurements are performed, values result, but these are not considered to be revelations of pre-existing values. In the words of Asher Peres \"unperformed experiments have no results\".",
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"plaintext": "The many worlds interpretation rejects counterfactual definiteness in a different sense; instead of not assigning a value to measurements that were not performed, it ascribes many values. When measurements are performed each of these values gets realized as the resulting value in a different world of a branching reality. As Prof. Guy Blaylock of the University of Massachusetts Amherst puts it, \"The many-worlds interpretation is not only counterfactually indefinite, it is factually indefinite as well.\"",
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"plaintext": "The consistent histories approach rejects counterfactual definiteness in yet another manner; it ascribes single but hidden values to unperformed measurements and disallows combining values of incompatible measurements (counterfactual or factual) as such combinations do not produce results that would match any obtained purely from performed compatible measurements. When a measurement is performed the hidden value is nevertheless realized as the resulting value. Robert Griffiths likens these to \"slips of paper\" placed in \"opaque envelopes\". Thus Consistent Histories does not reject counterfactual results per se, it rejects them only when they are being combined with incompatible results. Whereas in the Copenhagen interpretation or the Many Worlds interpretation, the algebraic operations to derive Bell's inequality cannot proceed due to having no value or many values where a single value is required, in Consistent Histories, they can be performed but the resulting correlation coefficients can not be equated with those that would be obtained by actual measurements (which are instead given by the rules of quantum mechanical formalism). The derivation combines incompatible results only some of which could be factual for a given experiment and the rest counterfactual.",
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"plaintext": " Determinism",
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"plaintext": " Elitzur–Vaidman bomb-tester",
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"plaintext": " Interaction-free measurement",
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"plaintext": " Naive realism",
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"plaintext": " Quantum indeterminacy",
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"plaintext": " Renninger negative-result experiment",
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"plaintext": " Scientific realism",
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"plaintext": " Superdeterminism",
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"plaintext": " Wheeler's delayed choice experiment",
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"plaintext": " Counterfactual quantum computation",
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"plaintext": " Quantum nonlocality without counterfactual definiteness?",
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"plaintext": " On Bell and CFD by W. M. de Muynck, W. De Baere, and H. Martens",
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"plaintext": " CFD by Brian Skyrms",
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"plaintext": " CFD by Stapp (1988) and 1990",
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"plaintext": " Nil Communication: How to Send a Message without Sending Anything at All (Roebke. Sci.Am June 2017)",
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"plaintext": "By early 1971, with Christine McVie becoming an official member of the band, Fleetwood and the group boarded a plane to San Francisco. Spencer, fearful following the recent 1971 San Fernando earthquake, reluctantly boarded the plane. He left the hotel abruptly one afternoon and disappeared. He was found several days later to have joined Family International, then known as Children of God, a religious group. Once more, Fleetwood attempted to mediate; however, Spencer would not return. Bob Welch would become their next member. Their next album, Future Games, was released later that year. Bare Trees came a year later, in 1972. During the subsequent tours to promote the latter, Fleetwood once more adopted the role of mediator. Kirwan's self-destructive personality and problems with alcohol culminated in a refusal to go on stage before one concert; Fleetwood himself made the decision to fire the band member. Furthermore, there were early signs of strife in the marriage of John and Christine McVie. Fleetwood again stepped in to mediate between the two members, talking Christine out of a decision to leave the group. The band added guitarist Bob Weston and vocalist Dave Walker, formerly of Savoy Brown and the Idle Race. The resulting turmoil, however, negatively affected their next album, Penguin, released in 1973 to poor reviews. Walker was subsequently asked to leave the group, and the next album Mystery to Me was received more warmly.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1973, Fleetwood instructed Weston—who had engaged in an affair with Fleetwood's wife—to leave Fleetwood Mac. Meanwhile, manager Clifford Davis began to lead a separate group of musicians under the name 'Fleetwood Mac', and his increasing legal assault on the original group pushed Fleetwood and his fellow band members to consider managing themselves. Fleetwood took on more managerial responsibility and leadership over the group.",
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"plaintext": "In 1974, the band moved to Los Angeles, where they recorded the album Heroes Are Hard to Find. By November 1974, Bob Welch had left the band. Meanwhile, Fleetwood was planning a follow-up album to Heroes Are Hard to Find – Welch's last with the group – which had charted at #34 in the US. Fleetwood was shopping with his children when a chance encounter with an old friend led him to visit Sound City and producer Keith Olsen. While at the studio, Olsen played samples from an album entitled Buckingham Nicks. Fleetwood immediately \"was in awe\". On New Year's Eve, 1974, Fleetwood contacted Olsen to advise him that their planned project was on hiatus after Welch's departure, however, he then suggested that Nicks and Buckingham join Fleetwood Mac. The group ate together with Nicks and Fleetwood at a local restaurant before practising together for the first time in the new studio.",
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"plaintext": "The next year, the new line-up released Fleetwood Mac. The album proved to be a breakthrough for the band and became a huge hit, reaching No.1 in the US and selling over five million copies. Fleetwood and Olsen collaborated on a number of drumming innovations. \"It was all about 'plastic puke.' First off, for the kick drum I had Mick use a real skin, not a plastic head. All the bass drum sounds had snap and rack and warmth, but the snare drum on the whole album was a plastic puke.\" The album had reached No. 1 come November 1976, and at this time Fleetwood Mac became self-managing, with Fleetwood himself arguing that an external manager would be less apt at holding together such a group of dynamic personalities. He put forward an idea of promising to reimburse any losses suffered by promoters should they occur, in an attempt to raise the group's profile and earn more contracts and gigs. \"Self-management was the right decision,\" remembered freelance Rolling Stone writer John Grissim. \"Mick Fleetwood had great leadership skills... had a great deal of experience—nine years. They were business-like, they always delivered the product and had the right lawyers and accountants for the job. They didn't need what Van Morrison called 'pressure mongers,'...they just needed to get on and make a really good album.\" Ken Caillat, sound engineer on Rumours, concurred that Fleetwood \"had superb intuition and a flair for taking risks\".",
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"plaintext": "Like many musicians during the 1970s in Los Angeles, Fleetwood Mac began using copious amounts of cocaine. Fleetwood would go on to recollect in his autobiography that \"Until then, Fleetwood Mac hadn't had much experience with this Andean rocket fuel. Now we discovered that a toot now and then relieved the boredom of long hours in the studio with little nourishment.\" The personal relationships between the band members were becoming frayed. After six months of non-stop touring, the McVies divorced in August 1976, ending nearly eight years of marriage. The couple stopped talking to each other socially and discussed only musical matters. Buckingham and Nicks also fought often, a fact that was revealed to fans by Rolling Stone in April 1976. The duo's arguments stopped only when they worked on songs together. At the same time, Christine McVie and Nicks became closer. Fleetwood, meanwhile, began searching for a new recording location, and landed on the Record Plant of Sausalito, California. Grissim, working for Rolling Stone, frequently met with the group and took a particular liking to Fleetwood, whom he described as \"a real pro.\"",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood Mac convened at the Record Plant February 1976 with hired engineers Ken Caillat and Richard Dashut. Most band members complained about the studio and wanted to record at their homes, but Fleetwood did not allow any moves. Despite his talent at keeping the group together, the recording of Rumours was fraught with emotional turmoil due to the collapsing relationships within the line-up. Christine McVie and Nicks decided to live in two condominiums near the city's harbour, while the male contingent stayed at the studio's lodge in the adjacent hills. Chris Stone, one of the Record Plant's owners, when the band jammed, recalled that \"The band would come in at 7atnight, have a big feast, party till1or2 in the morning, and then when they were so whacked-out they couldn't do anything, they'd start recording\". Fleetwood often played his drum kit outside the studio's partition screen to better gauge Caillat's and Dashut's reactions to the music's groove. After the final mastering stage and hearing the songs back-to-back, the band members sensed they had recorded something \"pretty powerful\".",
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"plaintext": "Rumours was a huge commercial success and became Fleetwood Mac's second US number one record, It stayed at the top of the Billboard200 for 31non-consecutive weeks, while also reaching number one in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. The album was certified platinum in America and the UK within months of release after onemillion units and 300,000units were shipped respectively. The band and co-producers Caillat and Dashut, would go on to win the 1978 Grammy Award for Album of the Year. By March, the album had sold over 10million copies worldwide, including over eightmillion in the US alone.",
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"plaintext": "Tusk, Fleetwood Mac's 12th studio album, was released in 1979. The work represented a more experimental direction taken by Buckingham. Fleetwood, recently diagnosed as having diabetes after suffering recurring bouts of hypoglycaemia during several live shows, was again instrumental in maintaining the band's cohesion. He placated Buckingham over feelings of creative claustrophobia and discomfort playing alongside Nicks. On the issue of Buckingham taking creative control away from the other members of the group for the creation of Tusk, Fleetwood recounts that his three-day discussion with Buckingham culminated in him telling the latter that \"if it's good, then go ahead.\" Though the nature of the album strained relationships again within the band—particularly John McVie, a long-established blues musician who disliked the experimental nature of the album—Fleetwood himself rates the album as his favourite by Fleetwood Mac, and cites the freedom of creative expression allotted to each band member as integral to the survival of the group. The album sold four million copies worldwide, a return noticeably poorer than Rumours. Though Buckingham was blamed by the record labels, Fleetwood linked the album's relative failure to the RKO radio chain playing the album in its entirety prior to release, thus allowing mass home taping.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood has also led a number of side projects. 1981's The Visitor produced by Richard Dashut, featured heavy African stylistics and a rerecording of \"Rattlesnake Shake\" with Peter Green. The single \"You Weren't in Love\" (written by Australian pop-jazz musician Billy Field) was a big hit in Brazil, because of its use in a popular telenovela (soap opera).",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, Fleetwood formed Mick Fleetwood's Zoo and recorded I'm Not Me. The album featured a minor hit, \"I Want You Back\", and a cover version of the Beach Boys' \"Angel Come Home\". A later version of the group featured Bekka Bramlett on vocals and recorded 1991's Shaking the Cage. Fleetwood released Something Big in 2004 with the Mick Fleetwood Band, and his most recent album is Blue Again!, appearing in October 2008 with the Mick Fleetwood Blues Band touring to support it, interspersed with the Unleashed tour of Fleetwood Mac.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood has played drums on many of his bandmates' solo records, including Law and Order, where he played on the album's biggest hit, \"Trouble\". Other albums include French Kiss, Three Hearts, The Wild Heart, Christine McVie, Try Me, Under the Skin, Gift of Screws, and In Your Dreams. In 2007 he was featured on drums for the song \"God\" along with Jack's Mannequin in the Pop album The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur, a collection of covers of John Lennon songs.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood co-authored Fleetwood—My Life and Adventures with Fleetwood Mac with writer Stephen Davis. The book was published in 1990. In the book, he discussed his experiences with other musicians including Eric Clapton, members of the Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, as well as the affair with Stevie Nicks and his addiction to cocaine and his personal bankruptcy. Reception was mixed. Robert Waddell of the New York Times described the piece as \"a blithe, slapdash memoir.\" The Los Angeles Timess Steve Hochman noted that \"Fleetwood tells the story as if he was sitting in your living room, which is good for the intimacy of the tale, but bad for the rambling, sometimes redundant telling.\" Hochman did acknowledge that Fleetwood was \"one of rock's more colorful characters.\"",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood has a secondary career as a TV and film actor, usually in minor parts. His roles in this field have included a resistance leader in The Running Man and as a guest alien in the The Next Generation episode \"Manhunt\".",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood co-hosted the 1989 BRIT Awards, which contained numerous gaffes and flubbed lines. In the wake of this public mishap, the BRIT Awards were pre-recorded for the next 18 years until 2007; the awards are now again broadcast live to the British public.",
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"plaintext": "As of March 2021, Fleetwood had been a member of Fleetwood Mac for 53 years and was the only band member who had been in the band for its entire history.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood was a self-taught drummer from his early childhood, after moving from a lacklustre academic performance at school to a love of music encouraged by his family, who bought him his first drum kit. His first years were heavily influenced by Tony Meehan and the Everly Brothers, and during his formative years in London during the late 1960s, Green helped Fleetwood through bouts of \"rhythmic dyslexia\" during live performances when Fleetwood panicked and lost the beat. He often sang filled pauses along to songs to help keep the beat. Green also instilled in Fleetwood an ability to follow and predict the lead guitarist, enabling him to meet the guitar with the drum rhythm as well as allowing him to know a good guitarist when he saw one—which would in part lead him later in his career to select Lindsey Buckingham.",
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"plaintext": "Bob Brunning recalled from his early involvement with Fleetwood Mac that Fleetwood was \"very open to playing with different people as long as he didn't have to change his style. He was, and is, a completely straightforward drummer, and it works with a lot of different styles. I don't s'pose [sic] he's played a traditional drum solo in his life!\" Biographer Carroll highlights this ability as integral to the success of Fleetwood Mac, arguing that Fleetwood was not a virtuoso, but his disciplined and in-distractable manner of play allowed him to hold together a band of strong leading personalities without impinging upon their expression.",
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"plaintext": "Caillat, in contrast, cites Fleetwood as \"still one of the most amazing drummers I've ever met. He had his rack of tom drums arranged back to front. Most drummers place them from high to low (in pitch) from their left to right, but Mick chose to place his mid, high, low. I think perhaps this helped him develop his unique style. He hit his drums very hard, except for his kick drum. For some reason, when he played his high hat, it distracted him. He would keep perfect beat with his kick, but he played it so softly that we could hear his mouth noises through his kick mic.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, Fleetwood became infatuated with model Jenny Boyd, the sister of Pattie Boyd, who would be wife to both George Harrison and Eric Clapton. In June 1970, Fleetwood and Jenny Boyd were married. ",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-1970s, Fleetwood discovered that Boyd was having an affair with band member Weston. Fleetwood, after wrestling with the idea of leaving the band, was later critical of his own role in \"neglecting\" his family. Fleetwood and Boyd divorced in late 1975. Fleetwood travelled to Zambia to convalesce, with Christine McVie—who was also suffering marital problems—travelling with him for part of the journey.",
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"plaintext": "Boyd and Fleetwood began living together once more in 1976, and temporarily remarried to help their children emigrate to the United States. In November 1977, Fleetwood and Nicks began having an affair. The affair continued sporadically for the next two years until the pair mutually decided to end it. Fleetwood and Boyd's second marriage also ended in divorce. They had two daughters together.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1978, Fleetwood moved into a Bel Air home with Sara Recor, a mutual friend of Fleetwood and Nicks who was at the time married to another music producer. Fleetwood married Recor in 1988; the couple divorced in 1995.",
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"plaintext": "Fleetwood married Lynn Frankel in 1995. Fleetwood and Frankel had twin daughters, Ruby and Tessa, who were born in 2002. The couple divorced in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "At the age of 15, Fleetwood's parents bought him a Rogers drum kit, which helped him land his first gig as a drummer. During his tenure in Fleetwood Mac, he primarily used Ludwig Drums for live performances and Sonor Drums in the studio. He specifically sought Ludwig drums for their oversized bass drums and tom-toms. By the Tusk tour, Fleetwood dropped both drum kits from his arsenal in favour of Tama Drums. He attributed his pivot to Tama to Ludwig's supposed deterioration in quality and Sonor's inability to produce a bass drum suitable for Fleetwood's large frame. From the 1990s onwards, Fleetwood has been an endorser of Drum Workshop. His drum kit for the Say You Will Tour was made from wood dredged from the bottom of the Great Lakes. All of his drum shells and hardware are coated in 18 carat gold.",
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"plaintext": "There are 240 distinct solutions of the Soma cube puzzle, excluding rotations and reflections: these are easily generated by a simple recursive backtracking search computer program similar to that used for the eight queens puzzle. John Horton Conway and Michael Guy first identified all 240 possible solutions by hand in 1961. ",
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"plaintext": "The seven Soma pieces are six polycubes of order four, and one of order three:",
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"plaintext": "Piet Hein authorized a finely crafted rosewood version of the Soma cube manufactured by Theodor Skjøde Knudsen's company Skjøde Skjern (of Denmark). Beginning in about 1967, it was marketed in the U.S. for several years by the game manufacturer Parker Brothers. Plastic Soma cube sets were also commercially produced by Parker Brothers in several colors (blue, red, and orange) during the 1970s. The package for the Parker Brothers version claimed there were 1,105,920 possible solutions. This figure includes rotations and reflections of each solution as well as rotations of the individual pieces. The puzzle is currently sold as a logic game by Piet Hein Trading and by ThinkFun (formerly Binary Arts) under the name Block by Block.",
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"plaintext": "Solving the Soma cube has been used as a task to measure individuals' performance and effort in a series of psychology experiments. In these experiments, test subjects are asked to solve a soma cube as many times as possible within a set period of time. For example, In 1969, Edward Deci, a Carnegie Mellon University graduate assistant at the time, asked his research subjects to solve a soma cube under conditions with varying incentives in his dissertation work on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation establishing the social psychological theory of crowding out.",
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"plaintext": "In each of the 240 solutions to the cube puzzle, there is only one place that the \"T\" piece can be placed. Each solved cube can be rotated such that the \"T\" piece is on the bottom with its long edge along the front and the \"tongue\" of the \"T\" in the bottom center cube (this is the normalized position of the large cube). This can be proven as follows: If you consider all the possible ways that the \"T\" piece can be placed in the large cube (without regard to any of the other pieces), it will be seen that it will always fill either two corners of the large cube or zero corners. There is no way to orient the \"T\" piece such that it fills only one corner of the large cube. The \"L\" piece can be oriented such that it fills two corners, or one corner, or zero corners. Each of the other five pieces have no orientation that fills two corners; they can fill either one corner or zero corners. Therefore, if you exclude the \"T\" piece, the maximum number of corners that can be filled by the remaining six pieces is seven (one corner each for five pieces, plus two corners for the \"L\" piece). A cube has eight corners. But the \"T\" piece cannot be oriented to fill just that one remaining corner, and orienting it such that it fills zero corners will obviously not make a cube. Therefore, the \"T\" must always fill two corners, and there is only one orientation (discounting rotations and reflections) in which it does that. It also follows from this that in all solutions, five of the remaining six pieces will fill their maximum number of corners and one piece will fill one fewer than its maximum (this is called the deficient piece).",
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"plaintext": "In addition to constructing a cube, the SOMA manual provides assorted figures to construct with the seven pieces. The figure on the right shows solutions to some of the figures in the same colour scheme.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to Soma cube is the 3D pentomino puzzle, which can fill boxes of 2×3×10, 2×5×6 and 3×4×5 units.",
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"plaintext": "The Bedlam cube is a 4×4×4 sided cube puzzle consisting of twelve pentacubes and one tetracube. The Diabolical cube is a puzzle of six polycubes that can be assembled together to form a single 3×3×3 cube.",
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"plaintext": "Eye Level also makes use of the Thinking Cube (once students are in levels 30-32 of Basic Thinking Math or levels 29-32 of Critical Thinking Math), as one of its manipulatives, similar to the Soma cube.",
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"plaintext": " Tangram",
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"plaintext": " Tetromino",
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"plaintext": " Tromino",
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"plaintext": " Snake cube",
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"plaintext": " Soma Cube – from MathWorld",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Thorleif's SOMA page",
"section_idx": 8,
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},
{
"plaintext": " SOMA CUBE ANIMATION by TwoDoorsOpen and Friends",
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| [
"Mechanical_puzzle_cubes",
"Tiling_puzzles",
"Recreational_mathematics"
]
| 138,865 | 2,301 | 32 | 35 | 0 | 0 | Soma cube | mechanical puzzle | []
|
36,673 | 1,099,841,421 | Lhotshampa | [
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"plaintext": "The Lhotshampa or Lhotsampa (; ) people are a heterogeneous Bhutanese people of Nepalese descent. \"Lhotshampa\", which means \"southern borderlanders\" in Dzongkha, began to be used by the Bhutanese state in the second half of the twentieth century to refer to the population of Nepali origin in the south of the country. After being displaced as a result of the state-run ethnic cleansing and living in refugee camps in eastern parts of Nepal, starting in 2007, most of the Lhotshampas, or Bhutanese Refugees, were resettled to various countries, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, and other European countries. the number of Lhotshampa in Nepal is significantly lower than that in the United States and other countries where they have resettled. People of Nepalese origin started to settle in uninhabited areas of southern Bhutan in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The first small groups of Nepalese emigrated primarily from eastern Nepal under British auspices in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The beginning of Nepalese immigration largely coincided with Bhutan's political development: in 1885, Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck consolidated power after a period of civil unrest and cultivated closer ties with the British in India. In 1910, the government of Bhutan signed a treaty with the British in India, granting them control over Bhutan's foreign relations. The actual immigrants registered and settled through the agent from Kalimpong, Raja Ugen Dorji and (son) Raja Sonam Togbay Dorji started in the reigns of the second and third kings. Immigrants from Nepal and India continued to enter Bhutan with an increase from the 1960s when Bhutan's first modern five-year plan began, many arriving as construction workers.",
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"plaintext": "The government traditionally attempted to limit immigration and restrict residence and employment of Nepalese to the southern region. Liberalization measures in the 1970s and 1980s encouraged intermarriage and provided increasing opportunities for public service. The government allowed more internal migration by Nepalese seeking better education and business opportunities. However, the most divisive issue in Bhutan in the 1980s and early 1990s was the accommodation of the Nepalese Hindu minority.",
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"plaintext": "In 1988, the government census branded many ethnic Nepalis as illegal immigrants. Local Lhotshampa leaders responded with anti-government rallies demanding citizenship and attacks against government institutions.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, the Bhutanese government enacted reforms that directly impacted the Lhotshampa. First, it elevated the status of the national dress code of the Driglam namzha from recommended to mandatory. All citizens including the Lhotshampa were required to observe the dress code in public during business hours. This decree was resented by the Lhotshampa who complained about being forced to wear the clothing of the Ngalong majority. Second, the government removed Nepali as a language of instruction in schools in favor of Dzongkha, the national language. This alienated the Lhotshampa, many of whom knew no Dzongkha at all.",
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"plaintext": "Since the late 1980s, over 100,000 Lhotshampa have been forced out of Bhutan, accused by the government of being illegal aliens. Between 1988 and 1993, thousands of others left alleging ethnic and political repression. In 1990, violent ethnic unrest and anti-government protests in southern Bhutan pressed for greater democracy and respect for minority rights. That year, the Bhutan Peoples' Party, whose members are mostly Lhotshampa, began a campaign of violence against the Bhutanese government. In the wake of this unrest, thousands fled Bhutan. Many of them have either entered Nepal's seven refugee camps (on 20 January 2010, 85,544 refugees resided in the camps) or are working in India. According to U.S. State Department estimates in 2008, about 35% of the population of Bhutan is Lhotshampa.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, the Lhotshampa have been involved mostly in sedentary agriculture, although some have cleared forest cover and conducted tsheri and slash and burn agriculture. The Lhotshampa are generally classified as Hindus. However, this is an oversimplification as many groups that include Tamang and the Gurung are largely Buddhist; the Kiranti groups that include the Rai and Limbu are largely animist followers of Mundhum (these latter groups are mainly found in eastern Bhutan). Whether they are Hindu or Tibetan Buddhist, most of them abstain from beef, notably those belonging to the orthodox classes who are vegetarians. Their main festivals include Dashain and Tihar.",
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"plaintext": "Lhotshampas speak Nepali as their first language. Samchi, Chirang and Geylegphug are southern dzongkhags that have a large Lhotshampa community where most people speak Nepali. In southern Bhutan, Nepali used to be taught in the school and was spoken and written in these areas. However, this changed during the 1980s when there was racial conflict between Nepali in Bhutan and Bhutanese. Since then, Nepali is only taught in the home and has become a spoken language in Bhutan. Thus, some Nepali speakers from southern Bhutan cannot read or write in Nepali. Currently, Nepali is the first language for most southern Bhutanese and most people use it in their home. Also, Nepali is most commonly used in school outside of the classes.",
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"plaintext": "Nepali in Bhutan is different in the rural areas and Thimphu. Also, some Nepali words are used differently in Bhutan than Nepali in Nepal.",
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"plaintext": " Tek Nath Rizal, Bhutanese politician",
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"plaintext": " Dilliram Sharma Acharya, Bhutanese poet in Nepali language",
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"plaintext": " Biren Basnet, footballer",
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"plaintext": " Khare Basnet, footballer",
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"plaintext": " Dinesh Chhetri, footballer",
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"plaintext": " Hari Gurung, footballer",
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"plaintext": " Ethnic cleansing in Bhutan ",
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"plaintext": " Tek Nath Rizal",
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"plaintext": " Goldhap Refugee Camp",
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"plaintext": " Beldangi refugee camps",
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"plaintext": " Immigration in Bhutan",
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"plaintext": " Demographics of Bhutan",
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"plaintext": " Ethnic groups in Bhutan",
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"plaintext": " Bhutanese Refugees – A story of a forgotten people",
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},
{
"plaintext": " The Bhutanese refugees",
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},
{
"plaintext": " The Bhutanese Refugees – Human Rights Watch",
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},
{
"plaintext": " UNHCR briefing – Bhutanese Refugees",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " New wave from Bhutan settles in - Burlington (Vermont) Free Press",
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}
]
| [
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| 1,549,801 | 2,616 | 87 | 59 | 0 | 0 | Lhotshampa | Bhutanese people of Nepalese descent | []
|
36,674 | 1,104,143,169 | Glycerius | [
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"plaintext": "Glycerius () was Roman emperor of the West from 473 to 474. He served as comes domesticorum (commander of the palace guard) during the reign of Olybrius, until Olybrius died in November 472. After a four-month interregnum, Glycerius was proclaimed Western Emperor in March 473 by the magister militum (master of soldiers) and power behind the throne Gundobad. Very few of the events of his reign are known other than that during his reign an attempted invasion of Italy by the Visigoths was repelled, diverting them to Gaul. Glycerius also prevented an invasion by the Ostrogoths through gifts.",
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"plaintext": "Glycerius was not recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor Leo I, who instead nominated Julius Nepos as Emperor and sent him with an army to invade the Western Empire. Glycerius was without allies, because Gundobad had left to rule the Burgundians, and therefore was forced to abdicate on 24 June 474. He was appointed Bishop of Salona, which position he held until his death. He died some time after 474, possibly 480. He might have had a role in the assassination of Julius Nepos in 480.",
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"plaintext": "Glycerius was born in Dalmatia. He rose to the rank of comes domesticorum during the reign of Western Roman emperor Olybrius, who was a puppet emperor controlled first by the magister militum Ricimer, and then by Ricimer's nephew, the magister militum Gundobad. After the death of Olybrius on 2 November 472 and an interregnum of nearly four months, Gundobad proclaimed Glycerius as Western Roman emperor at Ravenna on either 3 or 5 March 473; the Fasti vindobonenses states that it was on the 5th, however the Paschale campanum asserts it was on the 3rd.",
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"plaintext": "Many events of Glycerius' reign are unknown. Under Glycerius, the invasions of both the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths were repelled, through a mixture of diplomatic and military acts. In 473, the Visigoth King Euric ordered an invasion of Italy, but his commander, Vincentius, was killed by the armies of the comites Alla and Sindila. After Vincentius was killed, Euric chose instead to invade Gaul, occupying both Arles and Marseilles. The Ostrogoth King Videmir proposed to invade Italy, but Glycerius was able to dissuade him through gifts, and diverted them from Italy to Gaul, where they were later attacked by surrounding groups. These actions to defend Rome may be the reason that Glycerius receives a generally favourable reception in Roman and Byzantine sources. Theophanes describes him only as a \"not despicable man\", but Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, describes him more thoroughly in his Vita St. Epiphanius: ",
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"plaintext": "Milan Kundera (, ; born 1 April 1929) is a Czech writer who went into exile in France in 1975, becoming a naturalised French citizen in 1981. Kundera's Czechoslovak citizenship was revoked in 1979; he received his Czech citizenship in 2019. He \"sees himself as a French writer and insists his work should be studied as French literature and classified as such in book stores\".",
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"plaintext": "Kundera's best-known work is The Unbearable Lightness of Being. Prior to the Velvet Revolution of 1989, the communist régime in Czechoslovakia banned his books. He leads a low-profile life and rarely speaks to the media. He was thought to be a contender for the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was also a nominee for other awards. ",
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"plaintext": "He was awarded the 1985 Jerusalem Prize, in 1987 the Austrian State Prize for European Literature, and the 2000 Herder Prize. In 2021 he received the Golden Order of Merit from the president of Slovenia, Borut Pahor.",
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"plaintext": "Kundera was born in 1929 at Purkyňova 6 (6 Purkyně Street) in Královo Pole, a quarter of Brno, Czechoslovakia, to a middle-class family. His father, Ludvík Kundera (1891–1971), was an important Czech musicologist and pianist who served as the head of the Janáček Music Academy in Brno from 1948 to 1961. His mother was Milada Kunderová (born Janošíková). ",
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"plaintext": "Milan learned to play the piano from his father and later studied musicology and musical composition. Musicological influences, references and notation can be found throughout his work. Kundera is a cousin of Czech writer and translator Ludvík Kundera. He belonged to the generation of young Czechs who had had little or no experience of the pre-war democratic Czechoslovak Republic. Their ideology was greatly influenced by the experiences of World War II and the German occupation. ",
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"plaintext": "Still in his teens, he joined the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia which seized power in 1948. He completed his secondary school studies in Brno at Gymnázium třída Kapitána Jaroše in 1948. He studied literature and aesthetics at the Faculty of Arts at Charles University in Prague. After two terms, he transferred to the Film Faculty of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague where he first attended lectures in film direction and script writing.",
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"plaintext": "In 1950, his studies were interrupted when he and writer Jan Trefulka were expelled from the Communist Party for \"anti-party activities.\" Trefulka described the incident in his novella Pršelo jim štěstí (Happiness Rained on Them, 1962). Kundera also used the expulsion as an inspiration for the main theme of his novel Žert (The Joke, 1967). After Kundera graduated in 1952, the Film Faculty appointed him a lecturer in world literature. In 1956 Kundera was readmitted to the Party but was expelled for the second time in 1970.",
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"plaintext": "Along with other reformist communist writers such as Pavel Kohout, he was peripherally involved in the 1968 Prague Spring. This brief period of reformist activities was crushed by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. Kundera remained committed to reforming Czechoslovak communism, and argued vehemently in print with fellow Czech writer Václav Havel, saying, essentially, that everyone should remain calm and that \"nobody is being locked up for his opinions yet,\" and \"the significance of the Prague Autumn may ultimately be greater than that of the Prague Spring.\" Finally, however, Kundera relinquished his reformist dreams and moved to France in 1975. He taught for a few years in the University of Rennes. He was stripped of Czechoslovak citizenship in 1979; he has been a French citizen since 1981.",
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"plaintext": "Although his early poetic works are staunchly pro-communist, his novels escape ideological classification. Kundera has repeatedly insisted that he is a novelist rather than a politically motivated writer. Political commentary has all but disappeared from his novels since the publication of The Unbearable Lightness of Being except in relation to broader philosophical themes. Kundera's style of fiction, interlaced with philosophical digression, is greatly inspired by the novels of Robert Musil and the philosophy of Nietzsche, and is also interpreted philosophically by authors such as Alain de Botton and Adam Thirlwell. ",
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"plaintext": "Kundera himself claims inspiration from Renaissance authors such as Giovanni Boccaccio, Rabelais, and perhaps most importantly, Miguel de Cervantes, to whose legacy he considers himself most committed. Other influences include Laurence Sterne, Henry Fielding, Denis Diderot, Robert Musil, Witold Gombrowicz, Hermann Broch, Franz Kafka, and Martin Heidegger. ",
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"plaintext": "Originally he wrote in Czech, but from 1993 on he has written his novels in French. Between 1985 and 1987, he undertook the revision of the French translations of his earlier works himself. His books have also been translated into many other languages.",
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"plaintext": "In his first novel, The Joke (1967), he satirizes the totalitarianism of the Communist era. His criticism of the Soviet invasion in 1968 led to his blacklisting in Czechoslovakia and the banning of his books.",
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"plaintext": "Kundera's second novel was first published in French as La vie est ailleurs in 1973 and in Czech as Život je jinde in 1979. Set in Czechoslovakia before, during, and after the Second World War, Life Is Elsewhere is a satirical portrait of the fictional poet Jaromil, a young and very naive idealist who becomes involved in political scandals.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975, Kundera moved to France where The Book of Laughter and Forgetting was published in 1979. An unusual mixture of novel, short story collection, and authorial musings which came to characterize his works in exile, the book dealt with how Czechs opposed the communist regime in various ways. Critics noted that the Czechoslovakia Kundera portrays \"is, thanks to the latest political redefinitions, no longer precisely there,\" which is the \"kind of disappearance and reappearance\" Kundera ironically explores in the book. A Czech version, Kniha smíchu a zapomnění, was published in April 1981 by 68 Publishers, Toronto.",
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"plaintext": "Kundera's most famous work, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, was published in 1984. The book chronicles the fragile nature of an individual's fate, theorizing that a single lifetime is insignificant in the scope of Nietzsche's concept of eternal return. In an infinite universe, everything is guaranteed to recur infinitely. In 1988, American director Philip Kaufman released a film adaptation.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, Immortality was published. The novel, his last in Czech, was more cosmopolitan than its predecessors, more explicitly philosophical and less political, as were his later writings.",
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"plaintext": "The 2014 novel focuses on the musings of four male friends living in Paris who discuss their relationships with women and the existential predicament confronting individuals in the world, among other things. The novel received generally negative reviews. Michiko Kakutani of the New York Times describes the book as being a \"knowing, pre-emptive joke about its own superficiality\". A review in the Economist stated that the book was \"sadly let down by a tone of breezy satire that can feel forced.\"",
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"plaintext": "Kundera often explicitly identifies his characters as figments of his imagination, using a first-person narrator who comments on the characters in otherwise third-person narratives. Kundera is more concerned with the words that shape or mold his characters than with their physical appearance. In his non-fiction work, The Art of the Novel, he says that the reader's imagination automatically completes the writer's vision so that, as a writer, he is free to focus on the essential aspects of his characters, not on their physical characteristics, which are not critical to understanding them. Indeed, for Kundera the essential may not even include the interior psychological world of his characters. Still, at times, a specific feature or trait may become the character's idiosyncratic focus, such as Zdena's ugly nose in \"Lost Letters\" from The Book of Laughter and Forgetting.",
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"plaintext": "François Ricard suggested that Kundera conceives his fiction with regard to the overall body of his work, rather than limiting his ideas to the scope of just one novel at a time, his themes and meta-themes traversing his entire œuvre. Each new book manifests the latest stage of his personal philosophy. Some of these meta-themes include exile, identity, life beyond the border (beyond love, beyond art, beyond seriousness), history as continual return, and the pleasure of a less \"important\" life. (François Ricard, 2003) ",
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"plaintext": "Many of Kundera's characters seem to develop as expositions of one of these themes at the expense of their full humanity. Specifics in regard to the characters tend to be rather vague. Often, more than one main character is used in a novel; Kundera may even completely discontinue a character, resuming the plot with somebody new. As he told Philip Roth in an interview in The Village Voice: \"Intimate life [is] understood as one's personal secret, as something valuable, inviolable, the basis of one's originality.\"",
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"plaintext": "Kundera's early novels explore the dual tragic and comic aspects of totalitarianism. He does not view his works, however, as political commentary. \"The condemnation of totalitarianism doesn't deserve a novel,\" he has said. According to the Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes, \"What he finds interesting is the similarity between totalitarianism and \"the immemorial and fascinating dream of a harmonious society where private life and public life form but one unity and all are united around one will and one faith.\" In exploring the dark humor of this topic, Kundera seems deeply influenced by Franz Kafka.",
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"plaintext": "Kundera considers himself a writer without a message. In Sixty-three Words, a chapter in The Art of the Novel, Kundera tells of a Scandinavian publisher who hesitated to publish The Farewell Party because of its apparent anti-abortion message. Not only was the publisher wrong about the existence of such a message, Kundera explains, but, \"I was delighted with the misunderstanding. I had succeeded as a novelist. I succeeded in maintaining the moral ambiguity of the situation. I had kept faith with the essence of the novel as an art: irony. And irony doesn't give a damn about messages!\"",
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"plaintext": "Kundera also ventures often into musical matters, analyzing Czech folk music for example; or quoting from Leoš Janáček and Bartók; or placing musical excerpts into the text, as in The Joke; or discussing Schoenberg and atonality.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Kundera signed a petition in support of Polish film director Roman Polanski, calling for his release after he was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and anally raping a 13-year-old girl.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 October 2008, the Czech weekly Respekt reported about an investigation carried out by the Czech Institute for Studies of Totalitarian Regimes, which alleged that Kundera had denounced a young Czech pilot, Miroslav Dvořáček, to the police in 1950. The accusation was based on a police station report which named \"Milan Kundera, student, born 1.4.1929\" as the informant in regard to Dvořáček's presence at a student dormitory. According to the police report, the ultimate source of the information about Dvořáček's defection from military service was Iva Militká.",
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"plaintext": "Dvořáček had allegedly fled Czechoslovakia after being ordered to join the infantry in the wake of a purge of the flight academy, and returned to Czechoslovakia as an agent of a spy agency organised by Czechoslovak exiles, an allegation not mentioned in the police report. Dvořáček returned secretly to the student dormitory of a friend's former sweetheart, Iva Militká. Militká was dating and later married a fellow student, Ivan Dlask, who knew Kundera. ",
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"plaintext": "The police report states that Militká told Dlask of Dvořáček's presence, and that Dlask told Kundera, who told the police. Although the Communist prosecutor sought the death penalty, Dvořáček was sentenced to 22 years in prison, fined 10,000 crowns, stripped of personal property, and deprived of civic rights. He ended up serving 14 years in a labor camp, some of it working in a uranium mine, before he was released.",
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"plaintext": "In response to Respekts report, Kundera denied turning Dvořáček in to the police, stating he did not know him at all, and could not even remember an individual named \"Militká\". On 14 October 2008, the Czech Security Forces Archive ruled out the possibility that the document could be a fake, but refused to arrive at any other definite conclusions. ",
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"plaintext": "Vojtech Ripka of the Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes said, \"There are two pieces of circumstantial evidence [the police report and its sub-file], but we, of course, cannot be one hundred percent sure. Unless we find all survivors, which is unfortunately impossible, it will not be complete.\" Ripka added that the signature on the police report matches the name of a man who worked in the corresponding National Security Corps section and that a police protocol is missing.",
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"plaintext": "Many critics in the Czech Republic condemned Kundera as a \"police informer,\" but many others sharply criticised Respekt for publishing a poorly researched piece. The short police report does not contain Kundera's signature. On the other hand, presenting the ID card was the automatic procedure in dealing with the police then. Kundera was the student representative of the dorm Dvořáček visited, and it cannot be ruled out that anyone could have reported him to the police using Kundera's name, although this is quite unlikely given that impersonating someone in a police state posed a significant risk. Contradictory statements by Kundera's fellow students were carried by the Czech newspapers in the wake of this \"scandal\". Historian Adam Hradílek, co-author of the Respekt article, was criticised for an undeclared conflict of interest since one of the individuals involved on the incident was a distant relative. Nonetheless, Respekt states on its website that its task is to \"impartially study the crimes of the former communist regime.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 3 November 2008, eleven internationally recognized writers came to Kundera's defence, including four Nobel laureates, Orhan Pamuk, Gabriel García Márquez, Nadine Gordimer and J. M. Coetzee, as well as Carlos Fuentes, Juan Goytisolo, Philip Roth, Salman Rushdie and Jorge Semprún.",
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"plaintext": " The Apologizer (2015)",
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"plaintext": " Člověk zahrada širá (Man: A Wide Garden) (1953)",
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"plaintext": " Poslední máj (The Last May) (1955) – celebration of Julius Fučík",
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"plaintext": " O sporech dědických (About the Disputes of Inheritance) (1955)",
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"plaintext": " Umění románu: Cesta Vladislava Vančury za velkou epikou (The Art of the Novel: Vladislav Vančura's Path to the Great Epic) (1960)",
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"plaintext": " Český úděl (The Czech Deal) (1968)",
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"plaintext": " Radikalizmus a expozice (Radicalism and Exhibitionism) (1969)",
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"plaintext": " The Stolen West or The Tragedy of Central Europe (Únos západu aneb Tragédie střední Evropy) (1983)",
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"plaintext": " The Art of the Novel (L'art du Roman) (1986)",
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"plaintext": " Testaments Betrayed: An Essay in Nine Parts (Les testaments trahis: essai) (1993)",
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"plaintext": " D'en bas tu humeras les roses – rare book in French, illustrated by Ernest Breleur (1993)",
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"plaintext": " The Curtain (Le Rideau) (2005)",
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"plaintext": " Majitelé klíčů (The Owner of the Keys) (1962)",
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"plaintext": " Dvě uši, dvě svatby (Two Ears, Two Weddings) (1968)",
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"plaintext": " Ptákovina (The Blunder) (1969)",
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"plaintext": " What is a novelist (2006)",
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"plaintext": " Die Weltliteratur (2007)",
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"plaintext": "Kundera appears in the third volume of Danganronpa Togami by Yuya Sato, where he (also known as \"K\") explains to the former Shinobu Togami about how Borges and the K2K System works.",
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"plaintext": " Leonidas Donskis. Yet Another Europe after 1984: Rethinking Milan Kundera and the Idea of Central Europe (Amsterdam Rodopi, 2012) 223 pp. . online review",
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"plaintext": " Charles Sabatos. \"Shifting Contexts: The Boundaries of Milan Kundera's Central Europe,\" in Contexts, Subtexts, and Pretexts: Literary Translation in Eastern Europe and Russia, ed. Brian James Baer (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2011), pp.19–31.",
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"plaintext": " Nicoletta Pireddu, \"European Ulyssiads: Claudio Magris, Milan Kundera, Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt,\" in \"Comparative Literature\", Special Issue \"Odyssey, Exile, Return\" Ed. by Michelle Zerba and Adelaide Russo, 67 (3), 2015: pp.67–86.",
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"plaintext": " Milan Kundera and the Czech Republic. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " \"Milan Kundera\" 9 November 2008 New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " Review. The Unbearable Lightness of Being 2 April 1984 New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " 'Reading with Kundera' By Russell Banks 4 March 2007 New York Times. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " Review of Slowness from The Review of European Studies. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " The Review of Contemporary Fiction, Summer 1989, 9.2. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " \"Two Messages\". Article by Václav Havel in Salon October 2008. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " \"Informing und Terror\" by Ivan Klíma, about the Kundera controversy Salon October 2008",
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"plaintext": " Leprosy by Jiří Stránský, about the Kundera controversy, Salon'' October 2008. Retrieved 2010-09-25",
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"plaintext": " Finding aid to Milan Kundera Manuscripts at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.",
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"plaintext": "Combinatorial chemistry had been invented by Furka Á (Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary) who described the principle of it, the combinatorial synthesis and a deconvolution procedure in a document that was notarized in 1982. The principle of the combinatorial method is: synthesize a multi-component compound mixture (combinatorial library) in a single stepwise procedure and screen it to find drug candidates or other kinds of useful compounds also in a single process. The most important innovation of the combinatorial method is to use mixtures in the synthesis and screening that ensures the high productivity of the process. Motivations that led to the invention had been published in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "Synthesis of molecules in a combinatorial fashion can quickly lead to large numbers of molecules. For example, a molecule with three points of diversity (R1, R2, and R3) can generate possible structures, where , , and are the numbers of different substituents utilized.",
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"plaintext": "The figure shows that in the two synthetic cycles 9 dipeptides are formed. In the third and fourth cycles, 27 tripeptides and 81 tetrapeptides would form, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The \"split-mix synthesis\" has several outstanding features:",
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"plaintext": " It is highly efficient. As the figure demonstrates the number of peptides formed in the synthetic process (3, 9, 27, 81) increases exponentially with the number of executed cycles. Using 20 amino acids in each synthetic cycle the number of formed peptides are: 400, 8,000, 160,000 and 3,200,000, respectively. This means that the number of peptides increases exponentially with the number of the executed cycles.",
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"plaintext": " All peptide sequences are formed in the process that can be deduced by a combination of the amino acids used in the cycles.",
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"plaintext": " Portioning of the support into equal samples assures formation of the components of the library in nearly equal molar quantities.",
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"plaintext": " Only a single peptide forms on each bead of the support. This is the consequence of using only one amino acid in the coupling steps. It is completely unknown, however, which is the peptide that occupies a selected bead.",
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"plaintext": " The split-mix method can be used for the synthesis of organic or any other kind of library that can be prepared from its building blocks in a stepwise process.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990 three groups described methods for preparing peptide libraries by biological methods and one year later Fodor et al. published a remarkable method for synthesis of peptide arrays on small glass slides.",
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"plaintext": "A \"parallel synthesis\" method was developed by Mario Geysen and his colleagues for preparation of peptide arrays. They synthesized 96 peptides on plastic rods (pins) coated at their ends with the solid support. The pins were immersed into the solution of reagents placed in the wells of a microtiter plate. The method is widely applied particularly by using automatic parallel synthesizers. Although the parallel method is much slower than the real combinatorial one, its advantage is that it is exactly known which peptide or other compound forms on each pin.",
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"plaintext": "Further procedures were developed to combine the advantages of both split-mix and parallel synthesis. In the method described by two groups the solid support was enclosed into permeable plastic capsules together with a radiofrequency tag that carried the code of the compound to be formed in the capsule. The procedure was carried out similar to the split-mix method. In the split step, however, the capsules were distributed among the reaction vessels according to the codes read from the radiofrequency tags of the capsules.",
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"plaintext": "A different method for the same purpose was developed by Furka et al. is named \"string synthesis\". In this method, the capsules carried no code. They are strung like the pearls in a necklace and placed into the reaction vessels in stringed form. The identity of the capsules, as well as their contents, are stored by their position occupied on the strings. After each coupling step, the capsules are redistributed among new strings according to definite rules.",
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"plaintext": "In the drug discovery process, the synthesis and biological evaluation of small molecules of interest have typically been a long and laborious process. Combinatorial chemistry has emerged in recent decades as an approach to quickly and efficiently synthesize large numbers of potential",
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"plaintext": "small molecule drug candidates. In a typical synthesis, only a single target molecule is produced at the end of a synthetic scheme, with each step in a synthesis producing only a single product. In a combinatorial synthesis, when using only single starting material, it is possible to synthesize a large library of molecules using identical reaction conditions that can then be screened for their biological activity. This pool of products is then split into three equal portions containing each of the three products, and then each of the three individual pools is then reacted with another unit of reagent B, C, or D, producing 9 unique compounds from the previous 3. This process is then repeated until the desired number of building blocks is added, generating many compounds. When synthesizing a library of compounds by a multi-step synthesis, efficient reaction methods must be employed, and if traditional purification methods are used after each reaction step, yields and efficiency will suffer.",
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"plaintext": "Solid-phase synthesis offers potential solutions to obviate the need for typical quenching and purification steps often used in synthetic chemistry. In general, a starting molecule is adhered to a solid support (typically an insoluble polymer), then additional reactions are performed, and the final product is purified and then cleaved from the solid support. Since the molecules of interest are attached to a solid support, it is possible to reduce the purification after each reaction to a single filtration/wash step, eliminating the need for tedious liquid-liquid extraction and solvent evaporation steps that most synthetic chemistry involves. Furthermore, by using heterogeneous reactants, excess reagents can be used to drive sluggish reactions to completion, which can further improve yields. Excess reagents can simply be washed away without the need for additional purification steps such as chromatography.",
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"plaintext": "Over the years, a variety of methods have been developed to refine the use of solid-phase organic synthesis in combinatorial chemistry, including efforts to increase the ease of synthesis and purification, as well as non-traditional methods to characterize intermediate products. Although",
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"plaintext": "the majority of the examples described here will employ heterogeneous reaction media in every reaction step, Booth and Hodges provide an early example of using solid-supported reagents only during the purification step of traditional solution-phase syntheses. In their view,",
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"plaintext": "solution-phase chemistry offers the advantages of avoiding attachment and cleavage reactions necessary to anchor and remove molecules to resins as well as eliminating the need to recreate solid-phase analogues of established solution-phase reactions.",
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"plaintext": "The single purification step at the end of a synthesis allows one or more impurities to be removed, assuming the chemical structure of the offending impurity is known. While the use of solid-supported reagents greatly simplifies the synthesis of compounds, many combinatorial syntheses require multiple steps, each of which still requires some form of purification. Armstrong, et al. describe a one-pot method for generating combinatorial libraries, called multiple-component condensations (MCCs). In this scheme, three or more reagents react such that each reagent is incorporated into the final product in a single step, eliminating the need for a multi-step synthesis that involves many purification steps. In MCCs, there is no deconvolution required to determine which compounds are biologically-active because each synthesis in an array has only a single product, thus the identity of the compound should be unequivocally known.",
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"plaintext": "In another array synthesis, Still generated a large library of oligopeptides by split synthesis. The drawback to making many thousands of compounds is that it is difficult to determine the structure of the formed compounds. Their solution is to use molecular tags, where a tiny amount (1 pmol/bead) of a dye is attached to the beads, and the identity of a certain bead can be determined by analyzing which tags are present on the bead. Despite how easy attaching tags makes identification of receptors, it would be quite impossible to individually screen each compound for its receptor binding ability, so a dye was attached to each receptor, such that only those receptors that bind to their substrate produce a color change.",
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"plaintext": "When many reactions need to be run in an array (such as the 96 reactions described in one of Armstrong's MCC arrays), some of the more tedious aspects of synthesis can be automated to improve efficiency. DeWitt and Czarnik detail a method called the \"DIVERSOMER method,\" in which many miniaturized versions of chemical reactions are all run simultaneously. This method uses a device that automates the resin loading and wash cycles, as well as the reaction cycle monitoring and purification, and demonstrate the feasibility of their method and apparatus by using it to synthesize a variety of molecule classes, such as hydantoins and benzodiazepines, running 40 individual reactions in most cases.",
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"plaintext": "Oftentimes, it is not possible to use expensive equipment, and Schwabacher, et al. describe a simple method of combining parallel synthesis of library members and evaluation of entire libraries of compounds. In their method, a thread that is partitioned into different regions is wrapped around a cylinder, where a different reagent is then coupled to each region which bears only a single species. The thread is then re-divided and wrapped around a cylinder of a different size, and this process is then repeated. The beauty of this method is that the identity of each product can be known simply by its location along the thread, and the corresponding biological activity is identified by Fourier transformation of fluorescence signals.",
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"plaintext": "In most of the syntheses described here, it is necessary to attach and remove the starting reagent to/from a solid support. This can lead to the generation of a hydroxyl group, which can potentially affect the biological activity of a target compound. Ellman uses solid phase supports in a multi-step synthesis scheme to obtain 192 individual 1,4-benzodiazepine derivatives, which are well-known therapeutic agents. To eliminate the possibility of potential hydroxyl group interference, a novel method using silyl-aryl chemistry is used to link the molecules to the solid support which cleaves from the support and leaves no trace of the linker.",
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"plaintext": "When anchoring a molecule to a solid support, intermediates cannot be isolated from one another without cleaving the molecule from the resin. Since many of the traditional characterization techniques used to track reaction progress and confirm product structure are solution-based,",
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"plaintext": "different techniques must be used. Gel-phase 13 C NMR spectroscopy, MALDI mass spectrometry, and IR spectroscopy have been used to confirm structure and monitor the progress of solid-phase reactions. Gordon et al., describe several case studies that utilize imines and peptidyl phosphonates to generate combinatorial libraries of small molecules. To generate the imine library, an amino acid tethered to a resin is reacted in the presence of an aldehyde. The authors demonstrate the use of fast 13 C gel phase NMR spectroscopy and magic angle spinning 1 H NMR spectroscopy to monitor the progress of reactions and showed that most imines could be formed in as little as 10 minutes at room temperature when trimethyl orthoformate was used as the solvent. The formed imines were then derivatized to generate 4-thiazolidinones, B-lactams, and pyrrolidines.",
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"plaintext": "The use of solid-phase supports greatly simplifies the synthesis of large combinatorial libraries of compounds. This is done by anchoring a starting material to a solid support and then running subsequent reactions until a sufficiently large library is built, after which the products are cleaved from the support. The use of solid-phase purification has also been demonstrated for use in solution-phase synthesis schemes in conjunction with standard liquid-liquid extraction purification techniques.",
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"plaintext": "Combinatorial libraries are special multi-component mixtures of small-molecule chemical compounds that are synthesized in a single stepwise process. They differ from collection of individual compounds as well as from series of compounds prepared by parallel synthesis.",
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"plaintext": "It is an important feature that mixtures are used in their synthesis. The use of mixtures ensures the very high efficiency of the process. Both reactants can be mixtures and in this case the procedure would be even more efficient. For practical reasons however, it is advisable to use the split-mix method in which one of two mixtures is replaced by single building blocks (BBs). The mixtures are so important that there are no combinatorial libraries without using mixture in the synthesis, and if a mixture is used in a process inevitably combinatorial library forms. The split-mix synthesis is usually realized using solid support but it is possible to apply it in solution, too. Since he structures the components are unknown deconvolution methods need to be used in screening.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most important features of combinatorial libraries is that the whole mixture can be screened in a single process. This makes these libraries very useful in pharmaceutical research.",
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"plaintext": "Partial libraries of full combinatorial libraries can also be synthesized. Some of them can be used in deconvolution",
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"plaintext": "If the synthesized molecules of a combinatorial library are cleaved from the solid support a soluble mixture forms. In such solution, millions of different compounds may be found. When this synthetic method was developed, it first seemed impossible to identify the molecules, and to find molecules with useful properties. Strategies for identification of the useful components had been developed, however, to solve the problem. All these strategies are based on synthesis and testing of partial libraries. ",
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"plaintext": "The earliest iterative strategy is described in the above mentioned document of Furka notarized in 1982 and. The method was later independently published by Erb et al. under the name „Recursive deconvolution”",
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"plaintext": "The method is made understandable by the figure. A 27 member peptide library is synthesized from three amino acids. After the first (A) and second (B) cycles samples were set aside before mixing them. The products of the third cycle (C) are cleaved down before mixing then are tested for activity. Suppose the group labeled by + sign is active. All members have the red amino acid at the last coupling position (CP). Consequently the active member also has the red amino acid at the last CP. Then the red amino acid is coupled to the three samples set aside after the second cycle (B) to get samples D. After cleaving, the three E samples are formed. If after testing the sample marked by + is the active one it shows that the blue amino acid occupies the second CP in the active component. Then to the three A samples first the blue then the red amino acid is coupled (F) then tested again after cleaving (G). If the + component proves to be active, the sequence of the active component is determined and shown in H.",
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"plaintext": "Positional scanning was introduced independently by Furka et al. and Pinilla et al. The method is based on the synthesis and testing of series of sublibraries. in which a certain sequence position is occupied by the same amino acid. The figure shows the nine sublibraries (B1-D3) of a full peptide trimer library (A) made from three amino acids. In sublibraries there is a position which is occupied by the same amino acid in all components. In the synthesis of a sublibrary the support is not divided and only one amino acid is coupled to the whole sample. As a result one position is really occupied by the same amino acid in all components. For example in the B2 sublibrary position 2 is occupied by the „yellow” amino acid in all the nine components. If in a screening test this sublibrary gives positive answer it means that position 2 in the active peptide is also occupied by the „yellow” amino acid. The amino acid sequence can be determined by testing all the nine (or sometime less) sublibraries. ",
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"plaintext": "In omission libraries a certain amino acid is missing from all peptides of the mixture. The figure shows the full library and the three omission libraries. At the top the omitted amino acids are shown. If the omission library gives a negative test the omitted amino acid is present in the active component.",
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"plaintext": "If the peptides are not cleaved from the solid support we deal with a mixture of beads, each bead containing a single peptide. Smith and his colleagues showed earlier that peptides could be tested in tethered form, too. This approach was also used in screening peptide libraries. The tethered peptide library was tested with a dissolved target protein. The beads to which the protein was attached were picked out, removed the protein from the bead then the tethered peptide was identified by sequencing. ",
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"plaintext": "A somewhat different approach was followed by Taylor and Morken. They used infrared thermography to identify catalysts in non-peptide tethered libraries. The method is based on the heat that is evolved in the beads that contain a catalyst when the tethered library immersed into a solution of a substrate. When the beads are examined through an infrared microscope the catalyst containing beads appear as bright spots and can be picked out.",
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"plaintext": "If we deal with a non-peptide organic libraries library it is not as simple to determine the identity of the content of a bead as in the case of a peptide one. In order to circumvent this difficulty methods had been developed to attach to the beads, in parallel with the synthesis of the library, molecules that encode the structure of the compound formed in the bead. ",
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"plaintext": "Ohlmeyer and his colleagues published a binary encoding method They used mixtures of 18 tagging molecules that after cleaving them from the beads could be identified by Electron Capture Gas Chromatography. Sarkar et al. described chiral oligomers of pentenoic amides (COPAs) that can be used to construct mass encoded OBOC libraries. ",
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"plaintext": "Kerr et al. introduced an innovative encoding method An orthogonally protected removable bifunctional linker was attached to the beads. One end of the linker was used to attach the non-natural building blocks of the library while to the other end encoding amino acid triplets were linked. The building blocks were non-natural amino acids and the series of their encoding amino acid triplets could be determined by Edman degradation. The important aspect of this kind of encoding was the possibility to cleave down from the beads the library members together with their attached encoding tags forming a soluble library. The same approach was used by Nikolajev et al. for encoding with peptides. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1992 by Brenner and Lerner introduced DNA sequences to encode the beads of the solid support that proved to be the most successful encoding method. Nielsen, Brenner and Janda also used the Kerr approach for implementing the DNA encoding",
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"plaintext": "In the latest period of time there were important advancements in DNA sequencing. The next generation techniques make it possible to sequence large number of samples in parallel that is very important in screening of DNA encoded libraries. There was another innovation that contributed to the success of DNA encoding. In 2000 Halpin and Harbury omitted the solid support in the split-mix synthesis of the DNA encoded combinatorial libraries and replaced it by the encoding DNA oligomers. In solid phase split and pool synthesis the number of components of libraries can't exceed the number of the beads of the support. By the novel approach of the authors, this restraint was entirely eliminated and made it possible to prepare new compounds in practically unlimited number. The Danish company Nuevolution for example synthesized a DNA encoded library containing 40 trillion! components",
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"plaintext": "The DNA encoded libraries are soluble that makes possible to apply the efficient affinity binding in screening. Some authors apply the DEL for acromim of DNA encoded combinatorial libraries others are using DECL. The latter seems better since in this name the combinatorial nature of these libraries is clearly expressed.",
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"plaintext": "Several types of DNA encoded combinatorial libraries had been introduced and described in the first decade of the present millennium. These libraries are very successfully applied in drug research.",
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"plaintext": " DNA templated synthesis of combinatorial libraries described in 2001 by Gartner et al.",
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"plaintext": " Dual pharmacophore DNA encoded combinatorial libraries invented in 2004 by Mlecco et al.",
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"plaintext": " Sequence encoded routing published by Harbury Halpin and Harbury in 2004.",
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"plaintext": " Single pharmacophore DNA encoded combinatorial libraries introduced in 2008 by Manocci et al.",
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"plaintext": " DNA encoded combinatorial libraries formed by using yoctoliter-scale reactor published by Hansen et al. in 2009",
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"plaintext": "Details are found about their synthesis and application in the page DNA-encoded chemical library.",
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"plaintext": "The DNA encoded soluble combinatorial libraries have drawbacks, too. First of all the advantage coming from the use of solid support is completely lost. In addition, the polyionic character of DNA encoding chains limits the utility of non-aqueous solvents in the synthesis. For this reason many laboratories choose to develop DNA compatible reactions for use in the synthesis of DECLs. Quite a few of available ones are already described",
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"plaintext": "Materials science has applied the techniques of combinatorial chemistry to the discovery of new materials. This work was pioneered by P.G. Schultz et al. in the mid-nineties in the context of luminescent materials obtained by co-deposition of elements on a silicon substrate. His work was preceded by J. J. Hanak in 1970 but the computer and robotics tools were not available for the method to spread at the time. Work has been continued by several academic groups as well as companies with large research and development programs (Symyx Technologies, GE, Dow Chemical etc.). The technique has been used extensively for catalysis, coatings, electronics, and many other fields. The application of appropriate informatics tools is critical to handle, administer, and store the vast volumes of data produced. New types of design of experiments methods have also been developed to efficiently address the large experimental spaces that can be tackled using combinatorial methods.",
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"plaintext": "Even though combinatorial chemistry has been an essential part of early drug discovery for more than two decades, so far only one de novo combinatorial chemistry-synthesized chemical has been approved for clinical use by FDA (sorafenib, a multikinase inhibitor indicated for advanced renal cancer). The analysis of the poor success rate of the approach has been suggested to connect with the rather limited chemical space covered by products of combinatorial chemistry. When comparing the properties of compounds in combinatorial chemistry libraries to those of approved drugs and natural products, Feher and Schmidt noted that combinatorial chemistry libraries suffer particularly from the lack of chirality, as well as structure rigidity, both of which are widely regarded as drug-like properties. Even though natural product drug discovery has not probably been the most fashionable trend in the pharmaceutical industry in recent times, a large proportion of new chemical entities still are nature-derived compounds, and thus, it has been suggested that effectiveness of combinatorial chemistry could be improved by enhancing the chemical diversity of screening libraries. As chirality and rigidity are the two most important features distinguishing approved drugs and natural products from compounds in combinatorial chemistry libraries, these are the two issues emphasized in so-called diversity oriented libraries, i.e. compound collections that aim at coverage of the chemical space, instead of just huge numbers of compounds.",
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"plaintext": "In the 8th edition of the International Patent Classification (IPC), which entered into force on January 1, 2006, a special subclass has been created for patent applications and patents related to inventions in the domain of combinatorial chemistry: \"C40B\".",
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36,681 | 1,106,977,121 | Brave_New_World | [
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"plaintext": "In 1999, the Modern Library ranked Brave New World at number 5 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, Robert McCrum, writing for The Observer, included Brave New World chronologically at number 53 in \"the top 100 greatest novels of all time\", and the novel was listed at number 87 on The Big Read survey by the BBC. Despite this, Brave New World has frequently been banned and challenged since its original publication. It has landed on the American Library Association list of top 100 banned and challenged books of the decade since the association began the list in 1990.",
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"plaintext": "The title Brave New World derives from Miranda's speech in William Shakespeare's The Tempest, Act V, Scene I:",
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"plaintext": " Shakespeare's use of the phrase is intended ironically, as the speaker is failing to recognise the evil nature of the island's visitors because of her innocence. Indeed, the next speaker replies to Miranda's innocent observation with the statement \"They are new to thee...\"",
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"plaintext": "Translations of the title often allude to similar expressions used in domestic works of literature: the French edition of the work is entitled Le Meilleur des mondes (The Best of All Worlds), an allusion to an expression used by the philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and satirised in Candide, Ou l'Optimisme by Voltaire (1759). The first Standard Chinese translation, done by novelist Lily Hsueh and Aaron Jen-wang Hsueh in 1974, is entitled \"美麗新世界\" (Pinyin: Měilì Xīn Shìjiè, literally \"Beautiful New World\").",
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"plaintext": "Huxley wrote Brave New World whilst living in Sanary-sur-Mer, France, in the four months from May to August 1931. By this time, Huxley had already established himself as a writer and social satirist. He was a contributor to Vanity Fair and Vogue magazines, and had published a collection of his poetry (The Burning Wheel, 1916) and four successful satirical novels: Crome Yellow (1921), Antic Hay (1923), Those Barren Leaves (1925), and Point Counter Point (1928). Brave New World was Huxley's fifth novel and first dystopian work.",
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"plaintext": "A passage in Crome Yellow contains a brief pre-figuring of Brave New World, showing that Huxley had such a future in mind already in 1921. Mr. Scogan, one of the earlier book's characters, describes an \"impersonal generation\" of the future that will \"take the place of Nature's hideous system. In vast state incubators, rows upon rows of gravid bottles will supply the world with the population it requires. The family system will disappear; society, sapped at its very base, will have to find new foundations; and Eros, beautifully and irresponsibly free, will flit like a gay butterfly from flower to flower through a sunlit world.\"",
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"plaintext": "Huxley said that Brave New World was inspired by the utopian novels of H. G. Wells, including A Modern Utopia (1905), and as a parody of Men Like Gods (1923). Wells's hopeful vision of the future's possibilities gave Huxley the idea to begin writing a parody of the novels, which became Brave New World. He wrote in a letter to Mrs. Arthur Goldsmith, an American acquaintance, that he had \"been having a little fun pulling the leg of H. G. Wells\", but then he \"got caught up in the excitement of [his] own ideas.\" Unlike the most popular optimistic utopian novels of the time, Huxley sought to provide a frightening vision of the future. Huxley referred to Brave New World as a \"negative utopia\", somewhat influenced by Wells's own The Sleeper Awakes (dealing with subjects like corporate tyranny and behavioural conditioning) and the works of D. H. Lawrence.",
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"plaintext": "For his part Wells published, two years after Brave New World, his own Utopian Shape of Things to Come. Seeking to refute the argument of Huxley's Mustafa Mond - that moronic underclasses were a necessary \"social gyroscope\" and that a society composed solely of intelligent, assertive \"Alphas\" would inevitably disintegrate in internecine struggle - Wells depicted a stable egalitarian society emerging after several generations of a reforming elite having complete control of education throughout the world. In the future depicted in Wells' book, posterity remembers Huxley as \"a reactionary writer\".",
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"plaintext": "The events of the Depression in the UK in 1931, with its mass unemployment and the abandonment of the gold currency standard, persuaded Huxley to assert that stability was the \"primal and ultimate need\" if civilisation was to survive the present crisis. The Brave New World character Mustapha Mond, Resident World Controller of Western Europe, is named after Sir Alfred Mond. Shortly before writing the novel, Huxley visited Mond's technologically advanced plant near Billingham, north east England, and it made a great impression on him.",
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"plaintext": "Huxley used the setting and characters in his science fiction novel to express widely felt anxieties, particularly the fear of losing individual identity in the fast-paced world of the future. An early trip to the United States gave Brave New World much of its character. Huxley was outraged by the culture of youth, commercial cheeriness, and sexual promiscuity, and the inward-looking nature of many Americans; he had also found the book My Life and Work by Henry Ford on the boat to America, and he saw the book's principles applied in everything he encountered after leaving San Francisco.",
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"plaintext": "The novel opens in the World State city of London in AF (After Ford) 632 (AD 2540 in the Gregorian calendar), where citizens are engineered through artificial wombs and childhood indoctrination programmes into predetermined classes (or castes) based on intelligence and labour. Lenina Crowne, a hatchery worker, is popular and sexually desirable, but Bernard Marx, a psychologist, is not. He is shorter in stature than the average member of his high caste, which gives him an inferiority complex. His work with sleep-learning allows him to understand, and disapprove of, his over society's methods of keeping its citizens peaceful, which includes their constant consumption of a soothing, happiness-producing drug called Soma. Courting disaster, Bernard is vocal and arrogant about his criticisms, and his boss contemplates exiling him to Iceland because of his nonconformity. His only friend is Helmholtz Watson, a gifted writer who finds it difficult to use his talents creatively in their pain-free society.",
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"plaintext": "Bernard takes a holiday with Lenina outside the World State to a Savage Reservation in New Mexico, in which the two observe natural-born people, disease, the ageing process, other languages, and religious lifestyles for the first time. The culture of the village folk resembles the contemporary Native American groups of the region, descendants of the Anasazi, including the Puebloan peoples of Hopi and Zuni. Bernard and Lenina witness a violent public ritual and then encounter Linda, a woman originally from the World State who is living on the reservation with her son John, now a young man. She, too, visited the reservation on a holiday many years ago, but became separated from her group and was left behind. She had meanwhile become pregnant by a fellow-holidaymaker (who is revealed to be Bernard's boss, the Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning). She did not try to return to the World State, because of her shame at her pregnancy. Despite spending his whole life in the reservation, John has never been accepted by the villagers, and his and Linda's lives have been hard and unpleasant. Linda has taught John to read, although from the only book in her possession—a scientific manual and another book John found: the complete works of Shakespeare. Ostracised by the villagers, John is able to articulate his feelings only in terms of Shakespearean drama, quoting often from The Tempest, King Lear, Othello, Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet. Linda now wants to return to London, and John, too, wants to see this \"brave new world\". Bernard sees an opportunity to thwart plans to exile him, and gets permission to take Linda and John back. On their return to London, John meets the Director and calls him his \"father\", a vulgarity which causes a roar of laughter. The humiliated Director resigns in shame before he can follow through with exiling Bernard.",
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"plaintext": "Bernard, as \"custodian\" of the \"savage\" John who is now treated as a celebrity, is fawned on by the highest members of society and revels in attention he once scorned. Bernard's popularity is fleeting, though, and he becomes envious that John only really bonds with the literary-minded Helmholtz. Considered hideous and friendless, Linda spends all her time using soma, while John refuses to attend social events organised by Bernard, appalled by what he perceives to be an empty society. Lenina and John are physically attracted to each other, but John's view of courtship and romance, based on Shakespeare's writings, is utterly incompatible with Lenina's freewheeling attitude to sex. She tries to seduce him, but he attacks her, before suddenly being informed that his mother is on her deathbed. He rushes to Linda's bedside, causing a scandal, as this is not the \"correct\" attitude to death. Some children who enter the ward for \"death-conditioning\" come across as disrespectful to John until he attacks one physically. He then tries to break up a distribution of soma to a lower-caste group, telling them that he is freeing them. Helmholtz and Bernard rush in to stop the ensuing riot, which the police quell by spraying soma vapor into the crowd.",
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"plaintext": "Bernard, Helmholtz, and John are all brought before Mustapha Mond, the \"Resident World Controller for Western Europe\", who tells Bernard and Helmholtz that they are to be exiled to islands for antisocial activity. Bernard pleads for a second chance, but Helmholtz welcomes the opportunity to be a true individual, and chooses the Falkland Islands as his destination, believing that their bad weather will inspire his writing. Mond tells Helmholtz that exile is actually a reward. The islands are full of the most interesting people in the world, individuals who did not fit into the social model of the World State. Mond outlines for John the events that led to the present society and his arguments for a caste system and social control. John rejects Mond's arguments, and Mond sums up John's views by claiming that John demands \"the right to be unhappy\". John asks if he may go to the islands as well, but Mond refuses, saying he wishes to see what happens to John next.",
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"plaintext": "Jaded with his new life, John moves to an abandoned hilltop lighthouse, near the village of Puttenham, where he intends to adopt a solitary ascetic lifestyle in order to purify himself of civilization, practising self-flagellation. This draws reporters and eventually hundreds of amazed sightseers, hoping to witness his bizarre behaviour.",
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"plaintext": "For a while it seems that John might be left alone, after the public's attention is drawn to other diversions, but a documentary maker has secretly filmed John's self-flagellation from a distance, and when released the documentary causes an international sensation. Helicopters arrive with more journalists. Crowds of people descend on John's retreat, demanding that he perform his whipping ritual for them. From one helicopter a young woman emerges who is implied to be Lenina.John, at the sight of a woman he both adores and loathes, whips at her in a fury and then turns the whip on himself, exciting the crowd, whose wild behaviour transforms into a soma-fuelled orgy.The next morning John awakes on the ground and is consumed by remorse over his participation in the night's events.",
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"plaintext": "That evening, a swarm of helicopters appears on the horizon, the story of last night's orgy having been in all the papers. The first onlookers and reporters to arrive find that John is dead. John, although madly in love with Lenina, was not able to bear her promiscuity, and, being constantly disturbed by visitors, he had hanged himself.",
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"plaintext": "Bernard Marx, a sleep-learning specialist at the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. Although Bernard is an Alpha-Plus (the upper class of the society), he is a misfit. He is unusually short for an Alpha; an alleged accident with alcohol in Bernard's blood-surrogate before his decanting has left him slightly stunted. Bernard's independence of mind stems more from his inferiority complex and depressive nature than from any depth of philosophical conviction. Unlike his fellow utopians, Bernard is often angry, resentful, and jealous. At times, he is also cowardly and hypocritical. His conditioning is clearly incomplete. He doesn't enjoy communal sports, solidarity services, or promiscuous sex. He doesn't even get much joy out of soma. Bernard is in love with Lenina but he doesn't like her sleeping with other men, even though \"everyone belongs to everyone else\". Bernard's triumphant return to utopian civilisation with John the Savage from the Reservation precipitates the downfall of the Director, who had been planning to exile him. Bernard's triumph is short-lived; he is ultimately banished to an island for his non-conformist behaviour.",
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"plaintext": "John, the illicit son of the Director and Linda, born and reared on the Savage Reservation (\"Malpais\") after Linda was unwittingly left behind by her errant lover. John (\"the Savage\" or \"Mr. Savage\", as he is often called) is an outsider both on the Reservation—where the natives still practice marriage, natural birth, family life and religion—and the ostensibly civilised World State, based on principles of stability and happiness. He has read nothing but the complete works of William Shakespeare, which he quotes extensively, and, for the most part, aptly, though his allusion to the \"Brave New World\" (Miranda's words in The Tempest) takes on a darker and bitterly ironic resonance as the novel unfolds. John is intensely moral according to a code that he has been taught by Shakespeare and life in Malpais but is also naïve: his views are as imported into his own consciousness as are the hypnopedic messages of World State citizens. The admonishments of the men of Malpais taught him to regard his mother as a whore; but he cannot grasp that these were the same men who continually sought her out despite their supposedly sacred pledges of monogamy. Because he is unwanted in Malpais, he accepts the invitation to travel back to London and is initially astonished by the comforts of the World State. He remains committed to values that exist only in his poetry. He first spurns Lenina for failing to live up to his Shakespearean ideal and then the entire utopian society: he asserts that its technological wonders and consumerism are poor substitutes for individual freedom, human dignity and personal integrity. After his mother's death, he becomes deeply distressed with grief, surprising onlookers in the hospital. He then withdraws himself from society and attempts to purify himself of \"sin\" (desire), but is unable to do so. He finds himself gathering a lot of trouble for both his body and mind. He soon does not realize what is real or what is fake, what he does and what he does not do. Soon everything he thinks about or feels just becomes blurred and unrecognizable. Finally he hangs himself in despair.",
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"plaintext": "Helmholtz Watson, a handsome and successful Alpha-Plus lecturer at the College of Emotional Engineering and a friend of Bernard. He feels unfulfilled writing endless propaganda doggerel, and the stifling conformism and philistinism of the World State make him restive. Helmholtz is ultimately exiled to the Falkland Islands—a cold asylum for disaffected Alpha-Plus non-conformists—after reading a heretical poem to his students on the virtues of solitude and helping John destroy some Deltas' rations of soma following Linda's death. Unlike Bernard, he takes his exile in his stride and comes to view it as an opportunity for inspiration in his writing.",
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"plaintext": "Lenina Crowne, a young, beautiful fetus technician at the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. Lenina Crowne is a Beta who enjoys being a Beta. She is a vaccination worker with beliefs and values that are in line with a citizen of the World State. She is part of the 30% of the female population that are not freemartins (sterile women). Lenina is promiscuous and popular but somewhat quirky in her society: she had a four-month relation with Henry Foster, choosing not to have sex with anyone but him for a period of time. She is basically happy and well-conditioned, using soma to suppress unwelcome emotions, as is expected. Lenina has a date with Bernard, to whom she feels ambivalently attracted, and she goes to the Reservation with him. On returning to civilisation, she tries and fails to seduce John the Savage. John loves and desires Lenina but he is repelled by her forwardness and the prospect of pre-marital sex, rejecting her as an \"impudent strumpet\". Lenina visits John at the lighthouse but he attacks her with a whip, unwittingly inciting onlookers to do the same. Her exact fate is left unspecified.",
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"plaintext": "Mustapha Mond, Resident World Controller of Western Europe, \"His Fordship\" Mustapha Mond presides over one of the ten zones of the World State, the global government set up after the cataclysmic Nine Years' War and great Economic Collapse. Sophisticated and good-natured, Mond is an urbane and hyperintelligent advocate of the World State and its ethos of \"Community, Identity, Stability\". Among the novel's characters, he is uniquely aware of the precise nature of the society he oversees and what it has given up to accomplish its gains. Mond argues that art, literature, and scientific freedom must be sacrificed to secure the ultimate utilitarian goal of maximising societal happiness. He defends the caste system, behavioural conditioning, and the lack of personal freedom in the World State: these, he says, are a price worth paying for achieving social stability, the highest social virtue because it leads to lasting happiness.",
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"plaintext": "Fanny Crowne, Lenina Crowne's friend (they have the same last name because only ten thousand last names are in use in a World State comprising two billion people). Fanny voices the conventional values of her caste and society, particularly the importance of promiscuity: she advises Lenina that she should have more than one man in her life because it is unseemly to concentrate on just one. Fanny then warns Lenina away from a new lover whom she considers undeserving, yet she is ultimately supportive of the young woman's attraction to the savage John.",
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"plaintext": "Henry Foster, one of Lenina's many lovers, he is a perfectly conventional Alpha male, casually discussing Lenina's body with his coworkers. His success with Lenina, and his casual attitude about it, infuriate the jealous Bernard. Henry ultimately proves himself every bit the ideal World State citizen, finding no courage to defend Lenina from John's assaults despite having maintained an uncommonly longstanding sexual relationship with her.",
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"plaintext": "Benito Hoover, another of Lenina's lovers. She remembers that he is particularly hairy when he takes his clothes off.",
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"plaintext": "The Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning (DHC), also known as Thomas \"Tomakin\" Grahambell, he is the administrator of the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre, where he is a threatening figure who intends to exile Bernard to Iceland. His plans take an unexpected turn when Bernard returns from the Reservation with Linda (see below) and John, a child they both realize is actually his. This fact, scandalous and obscene in the World State, not because it was extramarital (which all sexual acts are), but because it was procreative, leads the Director to resign his post in shame.",
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"plaintext": ", John's mother, decanted as a Beta-Minus in the World State, originally worked in the DHC's Fertilizing Room, and subsequently lost during a storm while visiting the New Mexico Savage Reservation with the Director many years before the events of the novel. Despite following her usual precautions, Linda became pregnant with the Director's son during their time together and was therefore unable to return to the World State by the time that she found her way to Malpais. Having been conditioned to the promiscuous social norms of the World State, Linda finds herself at once popular with every man in the pueblo (because she is open to all sexual advances) and also reviled for the same reason, seen as a whore by the wives of the men who visit her and by the men themselves (who come to her nonetheless). Her only comforts there are mescal brought by Popé as well as peyotl. Linda is desperate to return to the World State and to soma, wanting nothing more from her remaining life than comfort until death.",
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"plaintext": "The Arch-Community-Songster, the secular equivalent of the Archbishop of Canterbury in the World State society. He takes personal offense when John refuses to attend Bernard's party.",
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"plaintext": "The Director of Crematoria and Phosphorus Reclamation, one of the many disappointed, important figures to attend Bernard's party.",
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"plaintext": "The Warden, an Alpha-Minus, the talkative chief administrator for the New Mexico Savage Reservation. He is blond, short, broad-shouldered, and has a booming voice.",
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"plaintext": "Darwin Bonaparte, a \"big game photographer\" (i.e. filmmaker) who films John flogging himself. Darwin Bonaparte became known for two works: \"feely of the gorillas' wedding\", and \"Sperm Whale's Love-life\". He had already made a name for himself but still seeks more. He renews his fame by filming the savage, John, in his newest release \"The Savage of Surrey\". His name alludes to Charles Darwin and Napoleon Bonaparte.",
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"plaintext": "Dr. Shaw, Bernard Marx's physician who consequently becomes the physician of both Linda and John. He prescribes a lethal dose of soma to Linda, which will stop her respiratory system from functioning in a span of one to two months, at her own behest but not without protest from John. Ultimately, they all agree that it is for the best, since denying her this request would cause more trouble for Society and Linda herself.",
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"plaintext": "Dr. Gaffney, Provost of Eton, an Upper School for high-caste individuals. He shows Bernard and John around the classrooms, and the Hypnopaedic Control Room (used for behavioural conditioning through sleep learning). John asks if the students read Shakespeare but the Provost says the library contains only reference books because solitary activities, such as reading, are discouraged.",
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"plaintext": "Miss Keate, Head Mistress of Eton Upper School. Bernard fancies her, and arranges an assignation with her.",
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"plaintext": " Freemartins, women who have been deliberately made sterile by exposure to male hormones during fetal development but still physically normal except for \"the slightest tendency to grow beards.\" In the book, government policy requires freemartins to form 70% of the female population.",
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"plaintext": "Popé, a native of Malpais. Although he reinforces the behaviour that causes hatred for Linda in Malpais by sleeping with her and bringing her mescal, he still holds the traditional beliefs of his tribe. In his early years John attempted to kill him, but Popé brushed off his attempt and sent him fleeing. He gave Linda a copy of the Complete Works of Shakespeare. (Historically, Popé or Po'pay was a Tewa religious leader who led the Pueblo Revolt in 1680 against Spanish colonial rule.)",
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"plaintext": "Mitsima, an elder tribal shaman who also teaches John survival skills such as rudimentary ceramics (specifically coil pots, which were traditional to Native American tribes) and bow-making.",
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"plaintext": "Kiakimé, a native girl whom John fell for, but is instead eventually wed to another boy from Malpais.",
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"plaintext": "Kothlu, a native boy with whom Kiakimé is wed.",
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"plaintext": "These are non-fictional and factual characters who lived before the events in this book, but are of note in the novel:",
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"plaintext": "Henry Ford, who has become a messianic figure to the World State. \"Our Ford\" is used in place of \"Our Lord\", as a credit to popularising the use of the assembly line.",
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"plaintext": "Sigmund Freud, \"Our Freud\" is sometimes said in place of \"Our Ford\" because Freud's psychoanalytic method depends implicitly upon the rules of classical conditioning, and because Freud popularised the idea that sexual activity is essential to human happiness. (It is also strongly implied that citizens of the World State believe Freud and Ford to be the same person.)",
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"plaintext": "H. G. Wells, \"Dr. Wells\", British writer and utopian socialist, whose book Men Like Gods was a motivation for Brave New World. \"All's well that ends Wells\", wrote Huxley in his letters, criticising Wells for anthropological assumptions Huxley found unrealistic.",
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"plaintext": "Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, whose conditioning techniques are used to train infants.",
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"plaintext": "William Shakespeare, whose banned works are quoted throughout the novel by John, \"the Savage\". The plays quoted include Macbeth, The Tempest, Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, King Lear, Troilus and Cressida, Measure for Measure and Othello. Mustapha Mond also knows them because as a World Controller he has access to a selection of books from throughout history, including the Bible.",
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"plaintext": "Thomas Robert Malthus, 19th century British economist, believed the people of the Earth would eventually be threatened by their inability to raise enough food to feed the population. In the novel, the eponymous character devises the contraceptive techniques (Malthusian belt) that are practiced by women of the World State. ",
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"plaintext": "Reuben Rabinovitch, the Polish-Jew character on whom the effects of sleep-learning, hypnopædia, are first observed.",
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"plaintext": "John Henry Newman, 19th century Catholic theologian and educator, believed university education the critical element in advancing post-industrial Western civilization. Mustapha Mond and The Savage discuss a passage from one of Newman's books.",
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"plaintext": "Alfred Mond, British industrialist, financier and politician. He is the namesake of Mustapha Mond.",
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"plaintext": "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and first President of Republic of Turkey. Naming Mond after Atatürk links up with their characteristics; he reigned during the time Brave New World was written and revolutionised the 'old' Ottoman state into a new nation.",
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"plaintext": "The limited number of names that the World State assigned to its bottle-grown citizens can be traced to political and cultural figures who contributed to the bureaucratic, economic, and technological systems of Huxley's age, and presumably those systems in Brave New World.",
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"plaintext": " Soma: Huxley took the name for the drug used by the state to control the population after the Vedic ritual drink Soma, inspired by his interest in Indian mysticism.",
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"plaintext": " Malthusian belt: A contraceptive device worn by women. When Huxley was writing Brave New World, organizations such as the Malthusian League had spread throughout Europe, advocating contraception. Although the controversial economic theory of Malthusianism was derived from an essay by Thomas Malthus about the economic effects of population growth, Malthus himself was an advocate of abstinence rather than contraception.",
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"plaintext": "Upon publication, Rebecca West praised Brave New World as \"The most accomplished novel Huxley has yet written\", Joseph Needham lauded it as \"Mr. Huxley's remarkable book\", and Bertrand Russell also praised it, stating, \"Mr. Aldous Huxley has shown his usual masterly skill in Brave New World.\"",
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"plaintext": "However, Brave New World also received negative responses from other contemporary critics, although his work was later embraced.",
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"plaintext": "In an article in the 4 May 1935 issue of the Illustrated London News, G. K. Chesterton explained that Huxley was revolting against the \"Age of Utopias\". Much of the discourse on man's future before 1914 was based on the thesis that humanity would solve all economic and social issues. In the decade following the war the discourse shifted to an examination of the causes of the catastrophe. The works of H. G. Wells and George Bernard Shaw on the promises of socialism and a World State were then viewed as the ideas of naive optimists. Chesterton wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, in 1944 economist Ludwig von Mises described Brave New World as a satire of utopian predictions of socialism: \"Aldous Huxley was even courageous enough to make socialism's dreamed paradise the target of his sardonic irony.\"",
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"plaintext": "The World State is built upon the principles of Henry Ford's assembly line: mass production, homogeneity, predictability, and consumption of disposable consumer goods. While the World State lacks any supernatural-based religions, Ford himself is revered as the creator of their society but not as a deity, and characters celebrate Ford Day and swear oaths by his name (e.g., \"By Ford!\"). In this sense, some fragments of traditional religion are present, such as Christian crosses, which had their tops cut off to be changed to a \"T\", representing the Ford Model T. In England, there is an Arch-Community-Songster of Canterbury, obviously continuing the Archbishop of Canterbury, and in America The Christian Science Monitor continues publication as The Fordian Science Monitor. The World State calendar numbers years in the \"AF\" era—\"Anno Ford\"—with the calendar beginning in AD 1908, the year in which Ford's first Model T rolled off his assembly line. The novel's Gregorian calendar year is AD 2540, but it is referred to in the book as AF 632.",
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"plaintext": "From birth, members of every class are indoctrinated by recorded voices repeating slogans while they sleep (called \"hypnopædia\" in the book) to believe their own class is superior, but that the other classes perform needed functions. Any residual unhappiness is resolved by an antidepressant and hallucinogenic drug called soma.",
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"plaintext": "The biological techniques used to control the populace in Brave New World do not include genetic engineering; Huxley wrote the book before the structure of DNA was known. However, Gregor Mendel's work with inheritance patterns in peas had been rediscovered in 1900 and the eugenics movement, based on artificial selection, was well established. Huxley's family included a number of prominent biologists including Thomas Huxley, half-brother and Nobel Laureate Andrew Huxley, and his brother Julian Huxley who was a biologist and involved in the eugenics movement. Nonetheless, Huxley emphasises conditioning over breeding (nurture versus nature); human embryos and fetuses are conditioned through a carefully designed regimen of chemical (such as exposure to hormones and toxins), thermal (exposure to intense heat or cold, as one's future career would dictate), and other environmental stimuli, although there is an element of selective breeding as well.",
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"plaintext": "In a letter to George Orwell about Nineteen Eighty-Four, Huxley wrote \"Whether in actual fact the policy of the boot-on-the-face can go on indefinitely seems doubtful. My own belief is that the ruling oligarchy will find less arduous and wasteful ways of governing and of satisfying its lust for power, and these ways will resemble those which I described in Brave New World.\" He went on to write \"Within the next generation I believe that the world's rulers will discover that infant conditioning and narco-hypnosis are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging and kicking them into obedience.\"",
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"plaintext": "Social critic Neil Postman contrasted the worlds of Nineteen Eighty-Four and Brave New World in the foreword of his 1985 book Amusing Ourselves to Death. He writes:",
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"plaintext": "Journalist Christopher Hitchens, who himself published several articles on Huxley and a book on Orwell, noted the difference between the two texts in the introduction to his 1999 article \"Why Americans Are Not Taught History\":",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, Huxley wrote in the foreword of the new edition of Brave New World:",
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"plaintext": "Brave New World Revisited (Harper & Brothers, US, 1958; Chatto & Windus, UK, 1959), written by Huxley almost thirty years after Brave New World, is a non-fiction work in which Huxley considered whether the world had moved toward or away from his vision of the future from the 1930s. He believed when he wrote the original novel that it was a reasonable guess as to where the world might go in the future. In Brave New World Revisited, he concluded that the world was becoming like Brave New World much faster than he originally thought.",
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"plaintext": "Huxley analysed the causes of this, such as overpopulation, as well as all the means by which populations can be controlled. He was particularly interested in the effects of drugs and subliminal suggestion. Brave New World Revisited is different in tone because of Huxley's evolving thought, as well as his conversion to Hindu Vedanta in the interim between the two books.",
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"plaintext": "The last chapter of the book aims to propose action which could be taken to prevent a democracy from turning into the totalitarian world described in Brave New World. In Huxley's last novel, Island, he again expounds similar ideas to describe a utopian nation, which is generally viewed as a counterpart to Brave New World.",
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"plaintext": "According to American Library Association, Brave New World has frequently been banned and challenged in the United States due to insensitivity, offensive language, nudity, racism, conflict with a religious viewpoint, and being sexually explicit. It landed on the list of the top ten most challenged books in 2010 (3) and 2011 (7). The book also secured a spot on the association's list of the top one hundred challenged books for 1990-1999 (54), 2000-2009 (36), and 2010-2019 (26).",
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"plaintext": "The following include specific instances of when the book has been censored, banned, or challenged:",
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"plaintext": "In 1932, the book was banned in Ireland for its language, and for supposedly being anti-family and anti-religion.",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, a Maryland English teacher alleged that he was fired for assigning Brave New World to students. The teacher sued for violation of First Amendment rights but lost both his case and the appeal.",
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"plaintext": "The book was banned in India in 1967, with Huxley accused of being a \"pornographer\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, it was removed from classrooms in Miller, Missouri among other challenges.",
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"plaintext": "The English writer Rose Macaulay published What Not: A Prophetic Comedy in 1918. What Not depicts a dystopian future where people are ranked by intelligence, the government mandates mind training for all citizens, and procreation is regulated by the state. Macaulay and Huxley shared the same literary circles and he attended her weekly literary salons. ",
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"plaintext": "George Orwell believed that Brave New World must have been partly derived from the 1921 novel We by Russian author Yevgeny Zamyatin. However, in a 1962 letter to Christopher Collins, Huxley says that he wrote Brave New World long before he had heard of We. According to We translator Natasha Randall, Orwell believed that Huxley was lying. ",
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"plaintext": "Kurt Vonnegut said that in writing Player Piano (1952), he \"cheerfully ripped off the plot of Brave New World, whose plot had been cheerfully ripped off from Yevgeny Zamyatin's We\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, Polish author Antoni Smuszkiewicz, in his analysis of Polish science-fiction Zaczarowana gra (\"The Magic Game\"), presented accusations of plagiarism against Huxley. Smuszkiewicz showed similarities between Brave New World and two science fiction novels written earlier by Polish author Mieczysław Smolarski, namely Miasto światłości (\"The City of Light\", 1924) and Podróż poślubna pana Hamiltona (\"Mr Hamilton's Honeymoon Trip\", 1928). Smuszkiewicz wrote in his open letter to Huxley: \"This work of a great author, both in the general depiction of the world as well as countless details, is so similar to two of my novels that in my opinion there is no possibility of accidental analogy.\"",
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"plaintext": "Kate Lohnes, writing for Encyclopædia Britannica, notes similarities between Brave New World and other novels of the era could be seen as expressing \"common fears surrounding the rapid advancement of technology and of the shared feelings of many tech-skeptics during the early 20th century\". Other dystopian novels followed Huxley's work, including Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949).",
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"plaintext": " Brave New World (opened 4 September 2015) in co-production by Royal & Derngate, Northampton and Touring Consortium Theatre Company which toured the UK. The adaptation was by Dawn King, composed by These New Puritans and directed by James Dacre.",
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"plaintext": " Brave New World (radio broadcast) CBS Radio Workshop (27 January and 3 February 1956): music composed and conducted by Bernard Herrmann. Adapted for radio by William Froug. Introduced by William Conrad and narrated by Aldous Huxley. Featuring the voices of Joseph Kearns, Bill Idelson, Gloria Henry, Charlotte Lawrence, Byron Kane, Sam Edwards, Jack Kruschen, Vic Perrin, Lurene Tuttle, Herb Butterfield, Paul Hebert, Doris Singleton.",
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"plaintext": " Brave New World (radio broadcast) BBC Radio4 (22, 29 May 2016)",
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"Obscenity_controversies_in_literature",
"Science_fiction_novels_adapted_into_films",
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| 191,949 | 107,771 | 419 | 237 | 0 | 0 | Brave New World | novel by Aldous Huxley | []
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36,682 | 1,096,885,404 | Linear_predictive_coding | [
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"plaintext": "30 years later Dr Richard Wiggins Talks Speak & Spell development",
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| 1,826,438 | 2,623 | 102 | 90 | 0 | 0 | Linear predictive coding | speech analysis and encoding technique | [
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|
36,684 | 1,107,093,391 | David_(Michelangelo) | [
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"plaintext": "David is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture, created in marble between 1501 and 1504 by the Italian artist Michelangelo. David is a marble statue of the Biblical figure David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence.",
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"plaintext": "David was originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, but was instead placed in a public square, outside the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of civic government in Florence, in the Piazza della Signoria, where it was unveiled on 8 September 1504. The statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the nature of the figure it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defence of civil liberties embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a warning glare, were fixated towards Rome where the Medici family lived.",
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"plaintext": "The history of the statue begins before Michelangelo's work on it from 1501 to 1504. Prior to Michelangelo's involvement, the Overseers of the Office of Works of Florence Cathedral, consisting mostly of members of the influential woolen cloth guild, the Arte della Lana, had plans to commission a series of twelve large Old Testament sculptures for the buttresses of the cathedral. In 1410, Donatello made the first of the statues, a figure of Joshua in terracotta. A figure of Hercules, also in terracotta, was commissioned from the Florentine sculptor Agostino di Duccio in 1463 and was made perhaps under Donatello's direction. Eager to continue their project, in 1464, the Operai contracted Agostino to create a sculpture of David.",
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"plaintext": "A block of marble was provided from a quarry in Carrara, a town in the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany. Agostino only got as far as beginning to shape the legs, feet, torso, roughing out some drapery, and probably gouging a hole between the legs. His association with the project ceased, for reasons unknown, with the death of Donatello in 1466, and ten years later Antonio Rossellino was commissioned to take up where Agostino had left off.",
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"plaintext": "Rossellino's contract was terminated soon thereafter, and the block of marble remained neglected for 26 years, all the while exposed to the elements in the yard of the cathedral workshop. This was of great concern to the Opera authorities, as such a large piece of marble was not only costly, but represented a large amount of labour and difficulty in its transportation to Florence.",
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"plaintext": "In 1500, an inventory of the cathedral workshops described the piece as \"a certain figure of marble called David, badly blocked out and supine.\" A year later, documents showed that the Operai were determined to find an artist who could take this large piece of marble and turn it into a finished work of art. They ordered the block of stone, which they called 'the Giant', \"raised on its feet\" so that a master experienced in this kind of work might examine it and express an opinion. Though Leonardo da Vinci and others were consulted, it was Michelangelo, at 26 years of age, who convinced the Operai that he deserved the commission. On 16 August 1501, Michelangelo was given the official contract to undertake this challenging new task. He began carving the statue early in the morning on 13 September, a month after he was awarded the contract. He would work on the massive statue for more than two years.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 January 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, Florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the more than six-ton statue to the roof of the cathedral. They convened a committee of 30 Florentine citizens that included many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for David. While nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites.",
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"plaintext": "One group, led by Giuliano da Sangallo and supported by Leonardo and Piero di Cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the Loggia dei Lanzi on Piazza della Signoria; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the Palazzo della Signoria, the city's town hall (now known as Palazzo Vecchio). Another opinion, supported by Botticelli, was that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1504, David was installed next to the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio, replacing Donatello's bronze sculpture of Judith and Holofernes, which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. It took four days to move the statue the half mile from Michelangelo's workshop into the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer, the sling and tree-stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin-garland.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-1800s, small cracks were noticed on the left leg on David, which can possibly be attributed to an uneven sinking of the ground under the massive statue.",
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"plaintext": "In 1873, the statue of David was removed from the piazza, to protect it from damage, and displayed in the Accademia Gallery, Florence, where it attracted many visitors. A replica was placed in the Piazza della Signoria in 1910.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, Piero Cannata, an artist whom the police described as deranged, attacked the statue with a hammer he had concealed beneath his jacket. He later said that a 16th-century Venetian painter's model ordered him to do so. Cannata was restrained as he was in the process of damaging the toes of the left foot.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 November 2010, a fiberglass replica of David was installed on the roofline of Florence Cathedral, for one day only. Photographs of the installation reveal the statue the way the Operai who commissioned the work originally expected it to be seen.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, a dispute over the ownership of David arose when, based on a legal review of historical documents, the municipality of Florence claimed ownership of the statue in opposition to the Italian Culture Ministry, which disputes the municipal claim.",
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"plaintext": "The pose of Michelangelo's David is unlike that of earlier Renaissance depictions of David. The bronze statues by Donatello and Verrocchio represented the hero standing victorious over the head of Goliath, and the painter Andrea del Castagno had shown the boy in mid-swing, even as Goliath's head rested between his feet, but no earlier Florentine artist had omitted the giant altogether. According to most scholars, David is depicted before his battle with Goliath. Instead of being shown victorious over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready for battle after he has made the decision to fight Goliath, but, before the battle has actually taken place. His brow is drawn, his neck tense, and the veins bulge out of his lowered right hand. His left hand holds a sling that is draped over his shoulder and down to his right hand, which holds the handle of the sling. The nudity reflects the story of David as stated in the Bible, I Samuel 17:38-39: \"And Saul armed David with his armour, and he put an helmet of brass upon his head; also he armed him with a coat of mail. And David girded his sword upon his armour, and he assayed to go; for he had not proved it. And David said unto Saul, I cannot go with these; for I have not proved them. And David put them off him.\"",
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"plaintext": "The twist of his body effectively conveys to the viewer the feeling that he is about to move; an impression heightened with contrapposto. The statue is a Renaissance interpretation of a common ancient Greek theme of the standing heroic male nude. In the High Renaissance, contrapposto poses were thought of as a distinctive feature of antique sculpture, initially materialised in the Doryphoros of Polykleitos (c. 440 BC). This is typified in David, as the figure stands with one leg holding its full weight and the other leg forward. This classic pose causes both hips and shoulders to rest at opposing angles, giving a slight s-curve to the entire torso. The contrapposto is emphasized by the turn of the head to the left, and by the contrasting positions of the arms.",
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"plaintext": "Michelangelo's David has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture; a symbol of strength and youthful beauty.",
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"plaintext": "The colossal size of the statue alone impressed Michelangelo's contemporaries. Vasari described it as \"certainly a miracle that of Michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead,\" and then listed all of the largest and most grand of the ancient statues that he had ever seen, concluding that Michelangelo's work surpassed \"all ancient and modern statues, whether Greek or Latin, that have ever existed.\"",
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"plaintext": "The proportions of the David are atypical of Michelangelo's work; the figure has an unusually large head and hands (particularly apparent in the right hand). The small size of the genitals, though, is in line with his other works and with Renaissance conventions in general, perhaps referencing the ancient Greek ideal of pre-pubescent male nudity. These enlargements may be due to the fact that the statue was originally intended to be placed on the cathedral roofline, where the important parts of the sculpture may have been accentuated in order to be visible from below. The statue is unusually slender (front to back) in comparison to its height, which may be a result of the work done on the block before Michelangelo began carving it.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible that the David was conceived as a political statue before Michelangelo began to work on it. Certainly, David the giant-killer had long been seen as a political figure in Florence, and images of the Biblical hero already carried political implications there. Donatello's bronze David, made for the Medici family, perhaps 1440, had been appropriated by the Signoria in 1494, when the Medici were exiled from Florence, and the statue was installed in the courtyard of the Palazzo della Signoria, where it stood for the Republican government of the city. By placing Michelangelo's statue in the same general location, the Florentine authorities ensured that David would be seen as a political parallel as well as an artistic response to that earlier work. These political overtones led to the statue being attacked twice in its early days. Protesters pelted it with stones the year it debuted, and, in 1527, an anti-Medici riot resulted in its left arm being broken into three pieces.",
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"plaintext": "Commentators have noted the presence of foreskin on David penis, which is at odds with the Judaic practice of circumcision, but is consistent with the conventions of Renaissance art.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, David was entombed in brick to protect it from damage from airborne bombs.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, the foot of the statue was damaged by a man with a hammer. The samples obtained from that incident allowed scientists to determine that the marble used was obtained from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, the central of three small valleys in Carrara. The marble in question contains many microscopic holes that cause it to deteriorate faster than other marbles. Because of the marble's degradation, from 2003 to 2004 the statue was given its first major cleaning since 1843. Some experts opposed the use of water to clean the statue, fearing further deterioration. Under the direction of Franca Falleti, senior restorers Monica Eichmann and Cinzia Parnigoni undertook the job of restoring the statue.",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, plans were proposed to insulate the statue from the vibration of tourists' footsteps at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia, to prevent damage to the marble.",
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"plaintext": "David has stood on display at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia since 1873. In addition to the full-sized replica occupying the spot of the original in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, a bronze version overlooks Florence from the Piazzale Michelangelo. The plaster cast of David at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response to Queen Victoria's shock upon first viewing the statue's nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks.",
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"plaintext": "David has often been reproduced, in plaster and imitation marble fibreglass, signifying an attempt to lend an atmosphere of culture even in some unlikely settings such as beach resorts, gambling casinos and model railroads.",
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"plaintext": " List of works by Michelangelo",
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"plaintext": " List of tallest statues",
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"plaintext": " Coonin, A. Victor, From Marble to Flesh: The Biography of Michelangelo’s David, Florence: The Florentine Press, 2014. .",
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"plaintext": " Hall, James, Michelangelo and the Reinvention of the Human Body New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.",
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"plaintext": " Hartt, Frederick, Michelangelo: the complete sculpture, New York: Abrams Books,1982.",
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"plaintext": " Hibbard, Howard. Michelangelo, New York: Harper & Row, 1974.",
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"plaintext": " Hirst Michael, “Michelangelo In Florence: David In 1503 and Hercules In 1506,” The Burlington Magazine, 142 (2000): 487–492.",
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"plaintext": " Levine, Saul, \"The Location of Michelangelo's David: The Meeting of January 25, 1504\", The Art Bulletin, 56 (1974): 31–49.",
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"plaintext": " Pope-Hennessy, John, Italian High Renaissance and Baroque Sculpture. London: Phaidon, 1996.",
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"plaintext": " Seymour, Charles, Jr. Michelangelo's David: a search for identity (Mellon Studies in the Humanities), Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1967.",
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"plaintext": " Vasari, Giorgio, The Lives of the Artists (Penguin Books), “Life of Michelangelo”, pp.325–442.",
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"plaintext": " 10 Facts That You Don't Know About Michelangelo's David",
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"plaintext": " Michelangelo Buonarroti: David, Art and the Bible",
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"plaintext": " The Digital Michelangelo Project, Stanford University",
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"plaintext": " Models of wax and clay used by Michelangelo in making his sculpture and paintings",
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"plaintext": " The Museums of Florence – The David of Michelangelo",
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36,685 | 1,103,912,879 | Emperor_Go-Ichijō | [
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"plaintext": "This 11th century sovereign was named after Emperor Ichijō and go- (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he is sometimes called the \"Later Emperor Ichijō\", or, in some older sources, may be identified as \" Emperor Ichijō, the second.\"",
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"plaintext": " 1012 (Chōwa 1, 8th month): Prince Atsuhira marries a daughter of sesshō and later kampaku Fujiwara no Michinaga.",
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"plaintext": " March 10, 1016 (Chōwa 5, 29th day of the 1st month): In the 5th year of Emperor Sanjō's reign (三条天皇五年), he abdicated; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by a cousin. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Go-Ichijō is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).",
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"plaintext": "During the initial years of Go-Ichijō's reign, Fujiwara no Michinaga actually ruled from his position as sesshō (regent).",
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"plaintext": " June 5, 1017 (Kannin 1, 9th day of the 5th month): The former-Emperor Sanjō died at the age of 41.",
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"plaintext": " 1017 (Kannin 1, 8th month): Prince Atsuakira, the eldest son of Emperor Sanjo, had been named Crown Prince. But after he is struck by a skin disease and intense pressure from Michinaga; he withdrew from this role and his younger brother, Prince Atsunaga, was named Crown Prince in his place.",
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"plaintext": " 1017 (Kannin 1, 9th month): Michinaga made a pilgrimage to the Iwashimizu Shrine accompanied by many courtiers. The travelers divided themselves amongst 15 boats for a floating trip down the Yotogawa River. One of the vessels overturned, and more than 30 people lost their lives.",
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"plaintext": " 1017 (Kannin 1, 12th month): Michinaga was elevated to the office of Daijō-Diajin.",
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"plaintext": " May 15, 1036 (Chōgen 9, 17th day of the 4th month): Emperor Go-Ichijō died at the age of 27.",
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"plaintext": "The actual site of Go-Ichijō's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.",
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"plaintext": "The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Go-Ichijō's mausoleum. It is formally named Bodaijuin no misasagi.",
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"plaintext": " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.",
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"plaintext": "In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Go-Ichijō's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included:",
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"plaintext": " Sesshō, Fujiwara Michinaga, 966–1027.",
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"plaintext": " Sesshō, Fujiwara Yorimichi, 992–1074.",
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"plaintext": " Kampaku, Fujiwara Yorimichi.",
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"plaintext": " Daijō-daijin, Fujiwara Michinaga.",
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"plaintext": " Daijō-daijin, Kan'in Kinsue, 956–1029.",
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"plaintext": " Sadaijin, Fujiwara Michinaga.",
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{
"plaintext": " Sadaijin, Fujiwara Akimitsu, 944–1021.",
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"plaintext": " Sadaijin, Fujiwara Yorimichi.",
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{
"plaintext": " Udaijin, Fujiwara Sanesuke, 957–1046.",
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"plaintext": " Nadaijin, Fujiwara Norimichi, 997–1075.",
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"plaintext": " Dainagon",
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},
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"plaintext": "The years of Go-Ichijō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.",
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"plaintext": " Chōwa (1012–1017)",
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"plaintext": " Kannin (1017–1021)",
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{
"plaintext": " Jian (1021–1024)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Manju (1024–1028)",
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"plaintext": " Chōgen (1028–1037)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Go-Ichijō had one Empress and two Imperial daughters.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Empress (Chūgū): Fujiwara no Ishi (藤原威子; 999–1036), Fujiwara no Michinaga’s third daughter",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " First Daughter: Imperial Princess Akiko/Shōshi (章子内親王) later Nijō-In (二条院), Empress (chūgū) to Emperor Go-Reizei",
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},
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"plaintext": " Second Daughter: Imperial Princess Kaoruko/Keishi (馨子内親王; 1029–1093) later Saien-no Kogo (西院皇后), Empress (chūgū) to Emperor Go-Sanjō",
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"plaintext": " Emperor of Japan",
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},
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"plaintext": " List of Emperors of Japan",
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"plaintext": " Imperial cult",
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"plaintext": " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323",
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"section_name": "References",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887",
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"plaintext": " Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691",
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"plaintext": " Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842",
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| 19,328 | 215 | 12 | 44 | 0 | 0 | 1036 | year | []
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36,688 | 1,092,885,547 | Emperor_Go-Suzaku | [
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"plaintext": "This 11th-century sovereign was named after the 10th-century Emperor Suzaku and go- (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he is sometimes called the \"Later Emperor Suzaku\". The Japanese word \"go\" has also been translated to mean the \"second one;\" and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as \"Suzaku, the second\" or as \"Suzaku II.\"",
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"plaintext": "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Atsunaga-shinnō (敦良親王).",
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"plaintext": "His father was Emperor Ichijō. His mother was Fujiwara no Akiko/Shōshi (藤原彰子), the daughter of Fujiwara no Michinaga (藤原道長). He was the younger brother and heir to Emperor Go-Ichijō.",
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"plaintext": " May 15, 1036 (Chōgen 9, 17th day of the 4th month) : In the 9th year of Emperor Go-Ichijō's reign (後一条天皇九年), he died; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by his son.",
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"plaintext": " 1036 (Chōgen 9, 7th month): Emperor Go-Suzaku is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).",
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"plaintext": " February 5, 1045 (Kantoku 2, 16th day of the 1st month): Emperor Go-Suzaku abdicated.",
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"plaintext": " February 7, 1045 (Kantoku 2, 18th day of the 1st month): The former-Emperor Go-Suzaku ordained as a Buddhist monk and died the same day at the age of 37. His reign has lasted nine years—five in the nengō Chōryaku, four in Chōkyu, and 2 in Kantoku.",
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"plaintext": "The actual site of Go-Suzaku's grave is unknown. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) at Kyoto.",
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"plaintext": "The specific mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Go-Suzaku is today named Shu-zan.",
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"plaintext": "The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Go-Suzaku died.",
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"plaintext": "These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers (misasagi) which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.",
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"plaintext": "The final resting place of Emperor Go-Suzaku's consort, Teishi Nai-shinnō (1013–1094), is here as well.",
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"plaintext": " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.",
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"plaintext": " Sadaijin, Fujiwara Yorimichi, 992–1074.",
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"plaintext": " Udaijin, Fujiwara Sanesuke, 957–1046.",
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"plaintext": " Nadaijin, Fujiwara Norimichi, 997–1075.",
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"plaintext": " Dainagon",
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"plaintext": "The years of Go-Suzaku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.",
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"plaintext": " Chōgen (1028–1037)",
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"plaintext": " Chōryaku (1037–1040)",
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"plaintext": " Chōkyū (1040–1044)",
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"plaintext": " Kantoku (1044–1046)",
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"plaintext": "Empress (kōgō): Imperial Princess Teishi (禎子内親王; 1013–1094) later Yōmeimon’in (陽明門院), Emperor Sanjō‘s 3rd daughter",
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"plaintext": " First Daughter: Imperial Princess Nagako/Ryōshi (良子内親王, 1029–1077) – Saiō at Ise Shrine 1036–1045 (Ippon-Jusangū, 一品准三宮)",
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"plaintext": " Second daughter: Imperial Princess Yoshiko/Kenshi (娟子内親王, 1032–1103) – Saiin at Kamo Shrine 1036–1045, later married Minamoto Toshifusa",
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"plaintext": " Second Son: Imperial Prince Takahito (尊仁親王) later Emperor Go-Sanjo",
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"plaintext": "Empress (chūgū): Fujiwara no Genshi (藤原嫄子; 1016–1039), Imperial Prince Atsuyasu's daughter and Fujiwara no Yorimichi‘s adopted daughter",
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"plaintext": " Third Daughter: Imperial Princess Sukeko/Yūshi (祐子内親王; 1038–1105) – (Sanpon-Jusangū, 三品准三宮)",
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"plaintext": " Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Miwako/Baishi (禖子内親王; 1039–1096) (Rokujō Saiin, 六条斎院) – Saiin at Kamo Shrine 1046–1058",
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"plaintext": "Crown Princess (died before Emperor's accession): Fujiwara no Yoshiko (藤原嬉子; 1007-1025), Fujiwara no Michinaga‘s 6th daughter ",
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"plaintext": " First Son: Imperial Prince Chikahito (親仁親王) later Emperor Go-Reizei",
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"plaintext": "Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Nariko/Seishi (藤原生子; 1014–1068), Fujiwara no Norimichi‘s eldest daughter",
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"plaintext": "Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Nobuko/Enshi (藤原延子; 1016–1095), Fujiwara no Yorimune‘s 2nd daughter",
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"plaintext": " Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess Masako/Seishi (正子内親王; 1045–1114) (Oshinokōji-Saiin, 押小路斎院) – Saiin at Kamo Shrine 1058–1069",
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"plaintext": " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; ",
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"plaintext": " Moscher, Gouverneur. (1978). Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide. ; ",
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},
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"plaintext": " Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. ",
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"plaintext": " Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. ",
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"plaintext": " Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; ",
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"Japanese_emperors",
"1009_births",
"1045_deaths",
"11th-century_Japanese_monarchs",
"Heian_period_Buddhist_clergy",
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| 349,296 | 877 | 57 | 56 | 0 | 0 | Go-Suzaku | Emperor of Japan | [
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|
36,689 | 1,106,619,016 | 1045 | [
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"plaintext": "This 11th century sovereign was named after the 10th century Emperor Reizei and go- (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he is sometimes called the \"Later Emperor Reizei\". The Japanese word \"go\" has also been translated to mean the \"second one;\" and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as \"Reizei, the second,\" or as \"Reizei II.\"",
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"plaintext": "Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (imina) was Chikahito-shinnō (親仁親王). He was the eldest son of Emperor Go-Suzaku. His mother was Fujiwara no Kishi (藤原嬉子), formerly Naishi-no kami, daughter of Fujiwara no Michinaga. Go-Reizei had three Empresses and no Imperial sons or daughters.",
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"plaintext": "When Emperor Go-Suzaku abdicated on February 5, 1045, his eldest son received the succession (‘‘senso’’) on the same day. Emperor Go-Reizei formally acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’) shortly after, and the era name was changed the following year to mark the beginning of his reign. His father Go-Suzaku died at the age of 37 on February 7, 1045 of unknown causes The one major event in Go-Reizei's life occurred in the year 1051, when Abe no Sadatō and Munetō instigated a rebellion that became known as the Zenkunen War (1051–1062). In response, Minamoto no Yoriyoshi is appointed governor of Mutsu and he is named chinjufu shōgun. He is given these titles and powers so that he will be able to restore peace in the north. Yoriyoshi would have been the first to receive this specific shogunal title, although his grandfather (Minamoto no Tsunemoto) had been seitō fuku-shōgun (assistant commander for pacification of the east). Go-Reizei later died on May 22, 1068 at the age of 44 leaving no direct heirs to the throne. He was succeeded by his father's second son Takahito-shinnō aka Emperor Go-Sanjō.",
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"plaintext": "The actual site of Go-Reizei's grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (misasagi) though at Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Go-Reizei's mausoleum. It is formally named Enkyo-ji no misasagi. Go-Reizei is buried amongst the \"Seven Imperial Tombs\" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Go-Reizei is today named Shu-zan. The emperor's burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Go-Reizei died. These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers (misasagi) which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.",
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"plaintext": " is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.",
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"plaintext": " Sadaijin",
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"plaintext": " Udaijin, Fujiwara Sanesuke, 957–1046.",
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"plaintext": " Udaijin, Fujiwara Yorimune, 993–1065.",
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"plaintext": " Udaijin, Fujiwara Morozane, 1042–1101.",
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"plaintext": " Nadaijin, Minamoto Morofusa, 1009–1077.",
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"plaintext": " Dainagon",
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"plaintext": "The years of Go-Reizei's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.",
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"plaintext": " Kantoku (1044–1046)",
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"plaintext": " Eishō (1046–1053)",
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"plaintext": " Tengi (1053–1058)",
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"plaintext": " Kōhei (1058–1065)",
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"plaintext": " Jiryaku (1065–1069)",
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"plaintext": "Empress (chūgū): Imperial Princess Shōshi (章子内親王, 1027–1105) later Nijō-in (二条院), Emperor Go-Ichijo’s daughter.",
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"plaintext": "Empress (kōgō): Fujiwara no Hiroko (藤原寛子; 1036–1127) later Shijō no Miya (四条宮), Fujiwara no Yorimichi‘s daughter",
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"plaintext": "Empress (kōgō): Fujiwara no Kanshi (藤原歓子; 1021–1102) later Ono-no-Kōtaigō (小野皇太后), Fujiwara no Norimichi‘s daughter",
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"plaintext": " Son (1049)",
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"plaintext": "Consort: Sugawara family's daughter",
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"plaintext": " son: Takashina Tameyuki (高階為行; 1059-1107）",
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"plaintext": " Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323",
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"section_name": "References",
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"plaintext": " Moscher, Gouverneur. (1978). Kyoto: A Contemplative Guide. ; OCLC 4589403",
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"plaintext": " Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887",
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"plaintext": " Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran''; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691",
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"plaintext": " Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842",
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| 356,060 | 918 | 34 | 56 | 0 | 0 | Go-Reizei | 70th emperor of Japan | []
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36,693 | 1,100,083,533 | 1025 | [
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},
{
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1348309
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Elisaveta Yaroslavna of Kiev, Norwegian queen",
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1,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gerald of Sauve-Majeure, French abbot (d. 1095)",
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1,
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33,
38
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gertrude of Poland, Grand Princess of Kiev (d. 1108)",
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39,
43
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48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " John Italus, Byzantine philosopher (d. 1090)",
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40,
44
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},
{
"plaintext": " John of Lodi, Italian hermit and bishop (d. 1106)",
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29
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45,
49
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]
},
{
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11845170,
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1,
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37,
41
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nong Zhigao, Vietnamese chieftain of Nong",
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16973335,
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1,
12
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38,
42
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ruben I, Armenian prince (approximate date)",
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1992401
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[
1,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rudolf of Rheinfelden, duke of Swabia (d. 1080)",
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1626386,
3196657,
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[
1,
22
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[
32,
38
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[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Simon I, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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6336786,
28978421
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[
1,
8
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[
17,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tora Torbergsdatter, Norwegian Viking queen",
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24559026,
32610
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[
1,
20
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[
32,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William VIII, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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544548
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[
1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 25 Fujiwara no Seishi, Japanese empress consort (b. 972)",
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2733,
33812073,
36245
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1,
9
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11,
29
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[
60,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May Musharrif al-Dawla, Buyid emir of Iraq (b. 1003)",
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7515928,
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6,
24
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[
40,
44
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[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 17 Bolesław I the Brave, king of Poland (b. 967)",
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35898
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1,
8
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[
10,
30
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[
40,
46
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[
51,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 10 Burchard of Worms, German bishop and writer",
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2315,
2916588
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 11 Kanshi, Japanese princess consort",
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2192
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " c. August 30 Fujiwara no Kishi, Japanese crown princess, posthumously named empress, mother of Emperor Go-Reizei (b. 1007)",
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35906
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[
119,
123
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 Hugh Magnus, king of France (b. 1007)",
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35906
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1,
13
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15,
26
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[
36,
42
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[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 29 Louis I, count of Chiny and Verdun",
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4577631
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
22
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[
33,
38
],
[
43,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Koshikibu no Naishi, Japanese waka poet and lady-in-waiting (b. c.999)",
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34999845
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[
1,
20
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[
31,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matilda, countess palatine of Lotharingia (b. 979)",
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183853,
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[
1,
8
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[
31,
42
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[
47,
50
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]
},
{
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46426,
49145
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
22
],
[
46,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 22 Wang Qinruo, Chinese chancellor",
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8728,
36996936,
2452013
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
25
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[
35,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December Eustathius of Constantinople, Byzantine patriarch",
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30577184
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[
11,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad, Muslim theologian (b. 935)",
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6214734,
35897
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[
1,
22
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[
56,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mhic Mac Comhaltan Ua Cleirigh, Irish king",
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26705099
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[
1,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sabur ibn Ardashir, Persian statesman (b. 942)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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42953224,
52463
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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[
43,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Watanabe no Tsuna, Japanese samurai (b. 953)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2452275,
28288,
49143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
29,
36
],
[
41,
44
]
]
}
]
| [
"1025"
]
| 19,267 | 322 | 21 | 79 | 0 | 0 | 1025 | year | []
|
36,695 | 1,100,083,580 | 1034 | [
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11,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Joscelin I de Courtenay, French nobleman (House of Courtenay) ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Khön Könchok Gyalpo, founder of Sakya Monastery (d. 1102)",
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57
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},
{
"plaintext": " February 21 Hawise of Normandy, French duchess and regent ",
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29157037,
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
32
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[
53,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 21 Ezzo (or Ehrenfried), German count palatine",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20329,
308485
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1,
9
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[
11,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 11 Romanos III (Argyros), Byzantine emperor (b. 968)",
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74199,
36436
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
22
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[
56,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 31 Deokjong, ruler of Goryeo (Korea) (b. 1016)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22437,
4961496,
188435,
16749,
36035
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1,
11
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[
13,
21
],
[
32,
38
],
[
40,
45
],
[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 9 Oldřich (or Odalric), duke of Bohemia ",
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847376,
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
20
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[
43,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 19 Theodoric II, margrave of Lower Lusatia",
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21574,
16234927,
11603057
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
26
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[
40,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 25 Malcolm II, king of Alba (Scotland)",
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21580,
148037,
3637768,
23248387
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
24
],
[
34,
38
],
[
40,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 8 Æthelric (or Brihtmær), English bishop",
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8194,
13056416
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adémar de Chabannes, French monk and historian",
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335669,
419369
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[
1,
20
],
[
29,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ali ibn Hasan (Ali-Tegin), Karakhanid ruler (khagan)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
43028500,
533383
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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[
46,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amlaíb mac Sitriuc, Norse-Gaelic king of Dublin",
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"target_page_ids": [
21957984,
1450475
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[
1,
19
],
[
42,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bernard Roger, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4709970,
28978421
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
23,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Manuchihr I, Persian ruler (shah) of Shirvan",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
35746007,
64648,
877182
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
29,
33
],
[
38,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matilda of Franconia, daughter of Conrad II",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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36672724,
44399
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[
1,
21
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[
35,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mieszko II (St. Lambert), king of Poland",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20596,
45367947
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
35,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qian Weiyan, Chinese politician and poet",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
54476411,
256577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
37,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Salim ibn Mustafad, Mirdasid rebel leader",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52086892
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel ben Hofni, Jewish rabbi and writer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
7970311,
51273
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
26,
31
]
]
}
]
| [
"1034"
]
| 19,324 | 274 | 16 | 53 | 0 | 0 | 1034 | year | []
|
36,696 | 1,100,083,554 | 1073 | [
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25657,
311439,
15651
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[
11,
18
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[
26,
57
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[
103,
118
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},
{
"plaintext": " Agnes of Waiblingen, daughter of Henry IV (or 1072)",
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27485413,
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1,
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34,
42
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47,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alfonso I (the Battler), king of Aragon (approximate date)",
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1679,
586776
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
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34,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Tighnari, Moorish botanist and physician (d. 1118)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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29411120,
4183,
36270
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1,
12
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[
22,
30
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[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anastatius IV, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1154)",
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23834,
606848,
34923
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[
1,
14
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[
28,
43
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " David IV (the Builder), king of Georgia (d. 1125)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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420853,
7466162,
36274
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[
1,
9
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[
33,
40
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leopold III (the Good), margrave of Austria (d. 1136)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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11421146,
40075
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[
1,
12
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[
37,
44
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[
49,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Magnus III (Barefoot), king of Norway (d. 1103)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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47392864,
38432
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[
1,
11
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[
32,
38
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[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Meng, empress of the Song Dynasty (d. 1131)",
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56978,
40071
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1,
5
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22,
34
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[
39,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippa, French noblewoman (approximate date)",
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8084427
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[
1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shaykh Tabarsi, Persian Shia scholar (d. 1153)",
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7865528,
26961,
36391
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[
1,
15
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[
25,
29
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[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thomas of Marle, lord of Coucy (d. 1130)",
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16936176,
202317,
35543
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[
1,
16
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[
26,
31
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[
36,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zbigniew, duke of Poland (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1578078,
45367947
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
19,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lady Six Monkey, queen regnant of the Mixtec city State of Huachino (d. 1100)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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70872000,
36300
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[
1,
16
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[
73,
77
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 21 Alexander II, pope of the Catholic Church",
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2483,
23792
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
23
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},
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"plaintext": " June 15 Go-Sanjō, emperor of Japan (b. 1032)",
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15936,
202158,
15573,
40032
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
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[
10,
18
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[
31,
36
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[
41,
45
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8
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[
10,
23
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[
42,
47
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]
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1,
12
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14,
30
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[
50,
54
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},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Qushayri, Persian Sufi scholar and theologian (or 1072)",
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1,
12
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[
22,
26
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},
{
"plaintext": " Anthony of Kiev, Russian monk and saint (b. 983)",
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2269436,
419369,
36783
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[
1,
16
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[
26,
30
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[
45,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Badis ibn Habus, Berber king of the Taifa of Granada",
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44624832,
15088597
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[
1,
16
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[
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53
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{
"plaintext": " Barisone I of Torres, Sardinian ruler (judge) of Arborea",
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607827,
6754795
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[
1,
21
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[
40,
45
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[
50,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, king of Gwynedd (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
2672899,
438748
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[
1,
18
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[
28,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Damian, cardinal-bishop of Ostia (or 1072)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
37133429,
6467056
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
34,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhou Dunyi, Chinese philosopher and cosmologist (b. 1017)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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23276,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
21,
32
],
[
53,
57
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]
}
]
| [
"1073"
]
| 19,437 | 210 | 16 | 66 | 0 | 0 | 1073 | year | []
|
36,697 | 910,430,055 | Shirakawa | [
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa (surname)",
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{
"plaintext": " Emperor Shirakawa, an eleventh-century emperor of Japan",
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328356
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13655681
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17
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{
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[
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23
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa, Gifu (village), a World Heritage site in Gifu Prefecture, Japan",
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[
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26
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa, a neighborhood of Koto, Tokyo",
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335956
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[
30,
41
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa, Miyagi, a town in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan",
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"section_name": "Places",
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328296
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[
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa, Saitama, a town in Saitama Prefecture, Japan",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Places",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa River, a river in Kyoto",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Places",
"target_page_ids": [
30274356
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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{
"plaintext": " Shirakawa River (Kumamoto), a river in Kumamoto",
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"section_name": "Places",
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[
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27
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| []
| 255,636 | 59 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 0 | Shirakawa | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,698 | 1,107,466,248 | 1053 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1053 (MLIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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{
"plaintext": " Berenguer Ramon II, count of Barcelona (approximate date)",
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[
1,
19
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[
30,
39
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{
"plaintext": " Guibert of Nogent, French historian and theologian (d. 1124)",
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1,
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56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh of Châteauneuf, bishop of Grenoble (d. 1132)",
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[
1,
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45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Iorwerth ap Bleddyn, prince of Powys (d. 1111)",
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maria of Alania, Byzantine empress (d. 1118)",
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1,
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40,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramon Berenguer II, count of Barcelona (or 1054)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Solomon (or Salomon), king of Hungary (d. 1087) ",
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"section_name": "Births",
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1,
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31,
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toba Sōjō, Japanese artist-monk (d. 1140)",
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41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vladimir II, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1125)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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{
"plaintext": " March 25 Procopius of Sázava, Czech hermit",
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 15 Godwin of Wessex, English nobleman ",
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[
1,
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[
11,
27
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[
37,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 25 Enguerrand II, count of Ponthieu",
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"target_page_ids": [
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3007798,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 7 Lazaros, Byzantine monk and stylite",
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1,
11
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13,
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[
41,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu'l-Fath an-Nasir ad-Dailami, imam of Yemen",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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350939
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1,
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46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chananel ben Chushiel, Tunisian Jewish rabbi (b. 990)",
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40,
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50,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cormac O'Ruadrach, Irish priest and archdeacon",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
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],
[
26,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Yong, Chinese poet of the Song Dynasty (b. 987)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1,
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31,
43
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[
48,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Murchadh Ua Beolláin, Irish priest and archdeacon",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rhys ap Rhydderch, co-ruler of Morgannwg",
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1,
18
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[
32,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wulfsige (or Wulsy), bishop of Lichfield",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
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[
32,
41
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]
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| [
"1053"
]
| 19,368 | 272 | 18 | 58 | 0 | 0 | 1053 | year | []
|
36,699 | 1,100,083,507 | 1086 | [
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"plaintext": " April 24 Ramiro II (the Monk), king of Aragon (d. 1157)",
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"plaintext": " August 11 Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1125)",
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48
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 20 Bolesław III, duke of Poland (d. 1138)",
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1,
10
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12,
24
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34,
40
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45,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Shahrastani, Persian scholar and historian (d. 1153)",
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1,
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51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Þorlákur Runólfsson, Icelandic bishop (d. 1133)",
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10820249,
40073
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1,
20
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43,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Vicelinus, bishop of Oldenburg in Holstein (d. 1154)",
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1,
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22,
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48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Jun, Chinese general and official (d. 1154)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 15 Richilde, countess and regent of Flanders",
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1,
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11,
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[
44,
52
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"plaintext": " March 18 Anselm of Lucca, Italian bishop (b. 1036)",
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1,
9
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[
11,
26
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[
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51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 21 Wang Anshi, Chinese chancellor (b. 1021)",
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1,
7
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19
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[
29,
39
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[
44,
48
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 10 Canute IV (the Holy), king of Denmark",
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"target_page_ids": [
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10,
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40,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 14 Toirdelbach Ua Briain, Irish king (b. 1009)",
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1,
8
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10,
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 17 García Ramírez, Aragonese bishop",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
8
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10,
24
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{
"plaintext": " August 8 Conrad I, count of Luxembourg (b. 1040)",
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1,
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11,
19
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[
30,
40
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[
45,
49
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{
"plaintext": " September 25 William VIII, duke of Aquitaine",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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544548,
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
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[
15,
27
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[
37,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 11 Sima Guang, Chinese politician (b. 1019)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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54770,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
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[
13,
23
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[
48,
52
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 23 Rodrigo Muñoz, Galician nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
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13,
26
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[
37,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 25 Judith of Bohemia, duchess of Poland",
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"target_page_ids": [
8270,
8010065
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gregory Pakourianos, Byzantine politician and general ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hui Zong, Chinese emperor (Western Xia) (b. 1060)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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58495,
36292
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1,
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[
28,
39
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[
45,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mael Ísu Ua Brolcháin, Irish monk and writer",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad ibn Ammar, Moorish poet (b. 1031)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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22926,
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
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29,
33
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[
38,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odo I (or Eudes), French nobleman (b. 1040)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
55476264
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": " Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, ruler of the Rum Sultanate",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
757712,
580296
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
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[
38,
51
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| [
"1086"
]
| 19,460 | 253 | 26 | 67 | 0 | 0 | 1086 | year | []
|
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"plaintext": " was a form of government in Japan during the Heian period. In this bifurcated system, an emperor abdicated, but retained power and influence. Those retired emperors who withdrew to live in monasteries (in) continued to act in ways intended to counterbalance the influence of Fujiwara regents and the warrior class. Simultaneously, the titular emperor, the former emperor's chosen successor, fulfilled all the ceremonial roles and formal duties of the monarchy.",
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"plaintext": "Retired emperors were called Daijō Tennō or Jōkō. A retired emperor who entered a Buddhist monastic community became a Cloistered Emperor (Japanese 太上法皇 Daijō Hōō).",
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"plaintext": "There were retired emperors, including cloistered emperors, both before and after the Heian period, but the notion of cloistered rule as a system usually refers to the practice put in place by Emperor Shirakawa in 1086 and followed by his successors until the rise of the Kamakura shogunate in 1192.",
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"plaintext": "The ritsuryō code allowed retired emperors to exert some limited powers, and there are early examples such as Empress Jitō, Emperor Shōmu and Emperor Uda in the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries respectively.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the 10th century, the Hokke family of the Fujiwara clan held political power in Japan through the office of the Imperial Regent, and the emperor increasingly became little more than a figurehead. In 1068, Emperor Go-Sanjō became the first emperor in almost 200 years who was not related either by marriage or blood, or both, to the Hokke family. He exerted personal power while the Hokke family was dealing with internal conflicts between Fujiwara no Yorimichi and his brother Fujiwara no Norimichi, and was in a position to issue several laws and regulations, most notably the Enkyū Shōen Regulation Decree, thus weakening the regency. In 1072, however, he fell ill and abdicated in favor of Emperor Shirakawa. He died the following year. Although he did not have time to exert power after his abdication, Sanjō had weakened the regency and paved the way for the practice of cloistered rule.",
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"plaintext": "In 1086, Emperor Shirakawa in his turn abdicated in favor of his son, Emperor Horikawa, who was four years old at the time. Shirakawa's objective appeared to be the protection of his son from his younger brother (Horikawa's uncle), who presented a serious threat of becoming a pretender to the throne, but after his retirement Shirakawa exerted his personal power to set the cloistered rule system in motion.",
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"plaintext": "Separate imperial courts (In no Chō (院庁) evolved around the retired emperors, and their will was put into effect through offices known as Inzen (院宣) and In no Chō Kudashi Bumi (院庁下文). Cloistered emperors also had their own troops, the Hokumen no Bushi (北面の武士). The creation of these military units led eventually to the rise to power of the Taira clan, who used their membership of these units to gather political and economic power to themselves.",
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"plaintext": "The end of the Heian period was marked by a rapid succession of cloistered emperors, to the point that there were several retired emperors living at the same time. The Hōgen Rebellion, following the death of the Emperor Toba, was an example of direct opposition between an emperor and an emperor emeritus. Finally, the end of the reign of Emperor Go-Shirakawa was marked by the Genpei War and the rise of Minamoto no Yoritomo as the first Kamakura shōgun.",
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"plaintext": "The succession of power in the Insei system was complex.",
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"plaintext": "The establishment of the Kamakura shogunate is taken to mark the beginning of the Kamakura period, but the Insei system was not immediately abandoned. Though the shogunate took over the police force and ruled eastern Japan, the authority of the emperors and retired emperors remained considerable. However, when Go-Toba, a grandson of Go-Shirakawa, sought to overthrow the Kamakura shogunate, his forces were defeated in the Jōkyū War, and the shogunate then took steps to reduce the power (and the finances) of the retired emperors. Even after the Jōkyū War, the cloistered rule system continued to exist, at least formally, for another 200 years. There were movements to take authority back into the hands of the imperial court, such as the Kenmu Restoration attempted by Emperor Go-Daigo, but in general a retired emperor presided as the head of the Kyoto court, with the approval of the shogunate.",
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"plaintext": "There were also a few examples of retired emperors supervising their successors much later, during the Edo period. The last person to use the title Daijō Hōō was Emperor Reigen, in 1686.",
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"plaintext": "Retired Emperor (disambiguation)",
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"plaintext": "Cloistered Emperor",
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"plaintext": "Daijō Tennō",
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"plaintext": " Hurst, G. Cameron. (1976). \" Insei: Abdicated sovereigns in the Politics of late-Heian Japan 1086–1185.' New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 1584089",
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"plaintext": " Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128",
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"plaintext": " Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887",
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"plaintext": " ____________. (1956). Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794-1869. Kyoto: The Ponsonby Memorial Society. ",
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36,703 | 1,104,209,894 | Hex_(board_game) | [
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"plaintext": "Hex is a two player abstract strategy board game in which players attempt to connect opposite sides of a rhombus-shaped board made of hexagonal cells. Hex was invented by mathematician and poet Piet Hein in 1942 and later rediscovered and popularized by John Nash.",
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"plaintext": "It is traditionally played on an 11×11 rhombus board, although 13×13 and 19×19 boards are also popular. The board is composed of hexagons called cells or hexes. Each player is assigned a pair of opposite sides of the board, which they must try to connect by alternately placing a stone of their color onto any empty hex. Once placed, the stones are never moved or removed. A player wins when they successfully connect their sides together through a chain of adjacent stones. Draws are impossible in Hex due to the topology of the game board.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the simplicity of its rules, the game has deep strategy and sharp tactics. It also has profound mathematical underpinnings. The game was first published under the name Polygon in the Danish newspaper Politiken on December 26, 1942. It was later marketed as a board game in Denmark under the name Con-tac-tix, and Parker Brothers marketed a version of it in 1952 called Hex; they are no longer in production. Hex can also be played with paper and pencil on hexagonally ruled graph paper.",
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"plaintext": "Hex is a finite, 2-player perfect information game, and an abstract strategy game that belongs to the general category of connection games. It can be classified as a Maker-Breaker game, a particular type of positional game. Since the game can never end in a draw, Hex is also a determined game.",
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"plaintext": "Hex is a special case of the \"node\" version of the Shannon switching game. Hex can be played as a board game or as a paper-and-pencil game.",
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"plaintext": "Hex is played on a rhombic grid of hexagons, typically of size 11x11, although other sizes are also possible. ",
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"plaintext": "Each player has an allocated color, conventionally Red and Blue or Black and White. Each player is also assigned two opposite board edges. The hexagons on each of the four corners belong to both adjacent board edges.",
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"plaintext": "The players take turns placing a stone of their color on a single cell on the board. The most common convention is for Red or Black to go first. Once placed, stones are not moved, replaced, or removed from the board. Each player's goal is to form a connected path of their own stones linking their two board edges. The player who complete such a connection wins the game.",
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"plaintext": "To compensate for the first player's advantage, the swap rule is normally used. This rule allows the second player to choose whether to switch positions with the first player after the first player makes the first move.",
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"plaintext": "When it is clear to both players who will win the game, it is customary, but not required, for the losing player to resign. In practice, most games of Hex end with one of the players resigning.",
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"plaintext": "The game was invented by the Danish mathematician Piet Hein, who introduced it in 1942 at the Niels Bohr Institute. Although Hein later renamed it to Con-tac-tix, it became known in Denmark under the name Polygon due to an article by Hein in the 26 December 1942 edition of the Danish newspaper Politiken, the first published description of the game, in which he used that name.",
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"plaintext": "The game was rediscovered in 1948 or 1949 by the mathematician John Nash at Princeton University. According to Martin Gardner, who featured Hex in his July 1957 Mathematical Games column, Nash's fellow players called the game either Nash or John, with the latter name referring to the fact that the game could be played on hexagonal bathroom tiles. Nash insisted that he discovered the game independently of Hein, but there is some doubt about this, as it is known that there were Danish people, including Aage Bohr, who played Hex at Princeton in the 1940s, so that Nash may have subconsciously picked up the idea. Hein wrote to Gardner in 1957 expressing doubt that Nash discovered Hex independently. Gardner was unable to independently verify or refute Nash's claim. Gardner privately wrote to Hein: \"I discussed it with the editor, and we decided that the charitable thing to do was to give Nash the benefit of the doubt. ... The fact that you invented the game before anyone else is undisputed. Any number of people can come along later and say that they thought of the same thing at some later date, but this means little and nobody really cares.\" In a later letter to Hein, Gardner added: \"Just between you and me, and off the record, I think you hit the nail on the head when you referred to a 'flash of a suggestion' which came to Mr. Nash from a Danish source, and which he later forgot about. It seems the most likely explanation.\"",
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"plaintext": "Initially in 1942, Hein distributed the game, which was then called Polygon, in the form of 50-sheet game pads. Each sheet contained an empty 11x11 empty board that could be played on with pencils or pens. In 1952, Parker Brothers marketed a version of the game under the name \"Hex\", and the name stuck. Parker Brothers also sold a version under the \"Con-tac-tix\" name in 1968. Hex was also issued as one of the games in the 1974 3M Paper Games Series; the game contained a 50-sheet pad of ruled Hex grids. Hex is currently published by Nestorgames in a 11x11 size and a 14x14 size.",
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"plaintext": "About 1950,Claude Shannon and E. F. Moore constructed an analog Hex playing machine, which was essentially a resistance network with resistors for edges and light bulbs for vertices. The move to be made corresponded to a certain specified saddle point in the network. The machine played a reasonably good game of Hex. Later, researchers attempting to solve the game and develop Hex-playing computer algorithms emulated Shannon's network to create strong computer players.",
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"plaintext": "It was known to Hein in 1942 that Hex cannot end in a draw; in fact, one of his design criteria for the game was that \"exactly one of the two players can connect their two sides.\"",
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"plaintext": "It was also known to Hein that the first player has a theoretical winning strategy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952 John Nash wrote up an existence proof that on symmetrical boards, the first player has a winning strategy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964, the mathematician Alfred Lehman showed that Hex cannot be represented as a binary matroid, so a determinate winning strategy like that for the Shannon switching game on a regular rectangular grid was unavailable. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1981, the Stefan Reisch showed that Hex is PSPACE-complete.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, the first explicit winning strategy (a reduction-type strategy) on a 7×7 board was described.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2000s, by using brute force search computer algorithms, Hex boards up to size 9×9 (as of 2016) have been completely solved.",
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"plaintext": "Until 2019, humans remained better than computers at least on big boards such as 19x19, but on Oct 30, 2019 the program Mootwo won against the human player with the best Elo rank on LittleGolem, also winner of various tournaments (the game is available here). This program was based on Polygames (an open-source project, initially developed by Facebook Artificial Intelligence Research and several universities) using a mix of:",
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"plaintext": " zero-learning as in AlphaZero",
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"plaintext": " boardsize invariance thanks to fully convolutional neural networks (as in U-Net) and pooling",
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"plaintext": " and growing architectures (the program can learn on a small board, and then extrapolate on a big board, as opposed to justified popular claims about earlier artificial intelligence methods such as the original AlphaGo).",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1980s Dolphin Microware published Hexmaster, an implementation for Atari 8-bit computers. Various paradigms resulting from research into the game have been used to create digital computer Hex playing programs starting about 2000. The first implementations used evaluation functions that emulated Shannon and Moore's electrical circuit model embedded in an alpha-beta search framework with hand-crafted knowledge-based patterns. Starting about 2006, Monte Carlo tree search methods borrowed from successful computer implementations of Go were introduced and soon dominated the field. Later, hand crafted patterns were supplemented by machine learning methods for pattern discovery. These programs are now competitive against skilled human players. Elo based ratings have been assigned to the various programs and can be used to measure technical progress as well as assess playing strength against Elo-rated humans. Current research is often published in either the quarterly ICGA Journal or the annual Advances in Computer Games series (van den Herik et al. eds.).",
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"plaintext": "Although it is known that the first player (without the swap rule) has a theoretical winning strategy, it is not known what that strategy is, except for very small boards. However, there are a large number of useful tactical and strategic concepts available to Hex players. ",
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"plaintext": "A set of stones of one color is said to be virtually connected if the stones' owner can guarantee to connect them, no matter what the opponent does. The simplest example of a virtual connection is a bridge, shown in diagram 1. Although the bridge's two red stones are not adjacent, Red can guarantee to connect them: if Blue plays in one of the bridge's empty cells, then Red can play in the other. Note that the virtual connection requires not just the two red stones, but also the two empty cells of the bridge. The cells (empty or otherwise) that are part of the virtual connection are called the carrier of the virtual connection. ",
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"plaintext": "A template is a pattern of stones and empty cells that is virtually connected and minimal (i.e., removing any stone or empty cell from the carrier would break the virtual connection). Templates can be characterized as interior templates (guaranteeing a connection between two or more stones) and edge templates (guaranteeing a connection between one or more stones and a board edge of the same color). Some examples of interior templates and edge templates are shown in diagrams 1 and 2, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "It is not difficult to prove that Hex cannot end in a draw, i.e., no matter how the board is filled with stones, there will always be one and only one player who has connected their edges. This fact was known to Piet Hein in 1942, who mentioned it as one of his design criteria for Hex in the original Politiken article.",
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"plaintext": "Hein also stated this fact as \"a barrier for your opponent is a",
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"plaintext": "connection for you\". John Nash wrote up a proof of this fact around 1949, but apparently didn't publish the proof. Its first exposition appears in an in-house technical report in 1952, in which Nash states that \"connection and blocking the opponent are equivalent acts.\" A more rigorous proof was published by John R. Pierce in his 1961 book Symbols, Signals, and Noise. In 1979, David Gale published a proof which also showed that it can be used to prove the two-dimensional Brouwer fixed-point theorem, and that the determinacy of higher-dimensional variants proves the fixed-point theorem in general. ",
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"plaintext": "A proof of the no-draw property of Hex can be sketched as follows: consider the connected component of one of the red edges. This component either includes the opposite red edge, in which case Red has a connection, or else it doesn't, in which case the blue stones along the boundary of the connected component form a winning path for Blue. The concept of a connected component is well-defined because in a hexagonal grid, two cells can only meet in an edge or not at all; it is not possible for cells to overlap in a single point. ",
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"plaintext": "In Hex without the swap rule on any board of size nxn, the first player has a theoretical winning strategy. This fact was mentioned by Hein in his notes for a lecture he gave in 1943: \"in contrast to most other games, it can be proved that the first player in theory always can win, that is, if she could see to the end of all possible lines of play.\". ",
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"plaintext": "All known proofs of this fact are non-constructive, i.e., the proof gives no indication of what the actual winning strategy is. Here is a condensed version of a proof that is attributed to John Nash c. 1949. The proof works for a number of games including Hex, and has come to be called the strategy-stealing argument.",
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"plaintext": " Since it is impossible for the game to end in a draw (see above), either the first or second player must win.",
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"plaintext": " As Hex is a perfect information game, there must be a winning strategy for either the first or second player.",
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"plaintext": " Let us assume that the second player has a winning strategy.",
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"plaintext": " The first player can now adopt the following strategy. They make an arbitrary move. Thereafter they play the winning second player strategy assumed above. If in playing this strategy, they are required to play on the cell where an arbitrary move was made, they make another arbitrary move. In this way they play the winning strategy with one extra piece always on the board.",
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"plaintext": " This extra piece cannot interfere with the first player's imitation of the winning strategy, for an extra piece is always an asset and never a handicap. Therefore, the first player can win.",
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"plaintext": " Because we have now contradicted our assumption that there is a winning strategy for the second player, we conclude that there is no winning strategy for the second player.",
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"plaintext": " Consequently, there must be a winning strategy for the first player.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, Shimon Even and Robert Tarjan proved that determining whether a position in a game of generalized Hex played on arbitrary graphs is a winning position is PSPACE-complete.",
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"plaintext": "A strengthening of this result was proved by Reisch by reducing the quantified Boolean formula problem in conjunctive normal form to Hex. In computational complexity theory, it is widely conjectured that PSPACE-complete problems cannot be solved with efficient (polynomial time) algorithms. This result limits the efficiency of the best possible algorithms when considering arbitrary positions on boards of unbounded size, but it doesn't rule out the possibility of a simple winning strategy for the initial position (on boards of unbounded size), or a simple winning strategy for all positions on a board of a particular size.",
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"plaintext": "In 11×11 Hex, there are approximately 2.4×1056 possible legal positions; this compares to 4.6×1046 legal positions in chess.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Jing Yang, Simon Liao and Mirek Pawlak found an explicit winning strategy for the first player on Hex boards of size 7×7 using a decomposition method with a set of reusable local patterns. They extended the method to weakly solve the center pair of topologically congruent openings on 8×8 boards in 2002 and the center opening on 9×9 boards in 2003. In 2009, Philip Henderson, Broderick Arneson and Ryan B. Hayward completed the analysis of the 8×8 board with a computer search, solving all the possible openings. In 2013, Jakub Pawlewicz and Ryan B. Hayward solved all openings for 9×9 boards, and one (the most-central) opening move on the 10×10 board.",
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"plaintext": "For every N≤10, a winning first move in N×N Hex is the most-central one, suggesting the conjecture that this is true for every N≥1.",
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"plaintext": "Other connection games with similar objectives but different structures include Shannon switching game and TwixT. Both of these bear some degree of similarity to the ancient Asian game of Go.",
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"plaintext": "The game may be played on a rectangular grid like a chess, checker or go board, by considering that spaces (intersections in the case of go) are connected in one diagonal direction but not the other. The game may be played with paper and pencil on a rectangular array of dots or graph paper in the same way by using two different colored pencils.",
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"plaintext": "Popular dimensions other than the standard 11x11 are 13×13 and 19×19 as a result of the game's relationship to the older game of Go. According to the book A Beautiful Mind, John Nash (one of the game's inventors) advocated 14×14 as the optimal size.",
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"plaintext": "The misère variant of Hex. Each player tries to force their opponent to make a chain. Rex is slower than Hex since, on any empty board with equal dimensions, the losing play can delay a loss until the entire board is full. On boards with unequal dimensions, the player whose sides are further apart can win regardless of who plays first. On boards with equal dimensions, the first player can win on a board with an even number of cells per side, and the second player can win on a board with an odd number. On boards with an even number, one of the first player's winning moves is always to place a stone in the acute corner.",
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"plaintext": "Hex had an incarnation as the question board from the television game show Blockbusters. In order to play a \"move\", contestants had to answer a question correctly. The board had 5 alternating columns of 4 hexagons; the solo player could connect top-to-bottom in 4 moves, while the team of two could connect left-to-right in 5 moves.",
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"plaintext": "The game of Y is Hex played on a triangular grid of hexagons; the object is for either player to connect all three sides of the triangle. Y is a generalization of Hex to the extent that any position on a Hex board can be represented as an equivalent position on a larger Y board.",
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"plaintext": "Havannah is game based on Hex. It differs from Hex in that it is played on a hexagonal grid of hexagons and a win is achieved by forming one of three patterns.",
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"plaintext": "Projex is a variation of Hex played on a real projective plane, where the players have the goal of creating a noncontractible loop. Like in Hex, there are no ties, and there is no position in which both players have a winning connection.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2016, there were tournaments reported from Brazil, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, UK and the US. One of the largest Hex competitions is organized by the International Committee of Mathematical Games in Paris, France, which is annually held since 2013. Hex is also part of the Computer Olympiad.",
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"plaintext": " Chinese Checkers, played on a hexagonal board",
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"plaintext": " Mathematical games",
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"plaintext": " GIPF project, a set of 6 games played on hexvalent grids",
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"plaintext": "Tak",
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"plaintext": "Hex Strategy: Making the Right Connections , Browne C.(2000), A.K. Peters Ltd. Natick, MA. (trade paperback, 363pgs)",
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"plaintext": "HEX: The Full Story, Hayward R. with Toft B.(2019), CRC Press Boca Raton, FL. (paperback)",
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"plaintext": " Hex: A Strategy Guide free Net book by Matthew Seymour",
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"plaintext": " 500 Hex Puzzles Interactive tactical puzzles by Matthew Seymour",
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"plaintext": " A Beginner's Guide to Hex Hex strategy for beginners by Matthew Seymour and Eric Silverman",
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"plaintext": " Thesis on Hex history, classification and complexity",
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"plaintext": " HexWiki, a wiki dedicated to Hex",
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"plaintext": " University of Alberta Computer Hex Research Group",
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"plaintext": " Theory page gathering theoretical work on Hex (moved - top level pages at Hex archive; downloadable material no longer available)",
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"plaintext": " Game of Hex at MathWorld with links to related mathematical papers",
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"plaintext": " Printable Hex boards on A4 or A3 paper, for use with standard Go stones",
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"plaintext": "3.x (1988) HP 9000 Series 600/800 only. Note: 2.x/3.x (for Series 600/800) were developed in parallel with 5.x/6.x (for Series 200/300/400), so, for example, 3.x was really contemporary with 6.x. The two lines were united at HP-UX 7.x.",
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"plaintext": "6.x (1988) Support for HP 9000 Series 300 only. Introduced sockets from 4.3BSD. This version (together with 3.x) also introduced the above-discussed context dependent files (CDF), which were removed in release 10 because of their security risks. The 6.2 release added X11, superseding HP Windows/9000 and X10. 6.5 allowed Starbase programs to run alongside X11 programs.",
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"plaintext": "7.x (1990) Support for HP 9000 Series 300/400, 600/700 (in 7.03) /800 HP systems. Provided OSF/Motif. Final version to include the HP Windows/9000 windowing system.",
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"plaintext": "8.x (January 1991) Support for HP 9000 Series 300/400 600/700/800 systems. Shared libraries introduced. ",
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"plaintext": "9.x (July 1992) 9.00, 9.02, 9.04 (Series 600/800), 9.01, 9.03, 9.05, 9.07 (Series 300/400/700), 9.08, 9.09, 9.09+ (Series 700 only), 9.10 (Series 300/400 only). These provided support for the HP 9000 Series 300, 700 and 800 systems. Introduced System Administration Manager (SAM). The Logical Volume Manager (LVM) was presented in 9.00 for the Series 800. Adopted the Visual User Environment desktop. ",
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"plaintext": "10.0 (1995) This major release saw a convergence of the operating system between the HP 9000 Series 700 (workstation) and Series 800 (server) systems, dropping support for previous lines. There was also a significant change in the layout in the system files and directories, based on the AT&T UNIX System V Release 4 standard. Applications were removed from /usr and moved under /opt; startup configuration files were placed under /etc/rc.config.d; users were moved to /home from /users. Software for HP-UX was now packaged, shipped, installed, and removed via the Software Distributor (SD) tools. LVM was also made available for Series 700.",
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"plaintext": "10.10 (1996) Introduced the Common Desktop Environment. UNIX95 compliance. ",
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"plaintext": "10.20 (1996) This release included support for 64-bit PA-RISC 2.0 processors. Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) were introduced for use within CDE. The root file system could be configured to use the Veritas File System (VxFS). For legacy as well as technical reasons, the file system used for the boot kernel remained Hi Performance FileSystem (HFS, a variant of UFS) until version 11.23. 10.20 also supported 32-bit user and group identifiers. The prior limit was 60,000, or 16-bit. This and earlier releases of HP-UX are now effectively obsolete, and support by HP ended on June 30, 2003.",
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"plaintext": "10.24 This is a Virtual Vault release of HP-UX, providing enhanced security features. Virtual Vault is a compartmentalised operating system in which each file is assigned a compartment and processes only have access to files in the appropriate compartment and unlike most other UNIX systems the superuser (or root) does not have complete access to the system without following correct procedures.",
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"plaintext": "10.30 (1997) This was primarily a developer release with various incremental enhancements. It provided the first support for kernel threads, with a 1:1 thread model (each user thread is bound to one kernel thread).",
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"plaintext": "11.00 (1997) The first HP-UX release to also support 64-bit addressing. It could still run 32-bit applications on a 64-bit system. It supported symmetric multiprocessing, Fibre Channel, and NFS PV3. It also included tools and documentation to convert 32-bit code to 64-bit.",
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"plaintext": "11.04 Virtual Vault release.",
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"plaintext": "11.10 This was a limited release to support the HP 9000 V2500 SCA (Scalable Computing Architecture) and V2600 SCA servers. It also added JFS 3.3, AutoFS, a new ftpd, and support for up to 128 CPUs. It was not available separately.",
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"plaintext": "11.11 (2000) 11i v1 This release of HP-UX introduced the concept of Operating Environments. It was released in December 2000. These are bundled groups of layered applications intended for use with a general category of usage. The available types were the Mission Critical, Enterprise, Internet, Technical Computing, and Minimal Technical OEs. (The last two were intended for HP 9000 workstations.) The main enhancements with this release were support for hard partitions, Gigabit Ethernet, NFS over TCP/IP, loadable kernel modules, dynamic kernel tunable parameters, kernel event Notifications, and protected stacks.",
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"plaintext": "11.20 (2001) 11i v1.5 This release of HP-UX was the first to support the new line of Itanium-based (IA-64) systems. It was not intended for mission critical computing environments and did not support HP's ServiceGuard cluster software. It provided support for running PA-RISC compiled applications on Itanium systems, and for Veritas Volume Manager 3.1.",
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"plaintext": "11.22 (2002) 11i v1.6 An incremental release of the Itanium version of HP-UX. This version achieved 64-way scalability, m:n threads, added more dynamic kernel tunable parameters, and supported HP's Logical Volume Manager on Itanium. It was built from the 11i v1 source code stream.",
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"plaintext": "11.23 (2003) 11i v2 The original release of this version was in September 2003 to support the Itanium-based systems. In September 2004 the OS was updated to provide support for both Itanium and PA-RISC systems. Besides running on Itanium systems, this release includes support for ccNUMA, web-based kernel and device configuration, IPv6, and stronger random number generation.",
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"plaintext": "11.31 (2007) 11i v3 This release supports both PA-RISC and Itanium. It was released on February 15, 2007. Major new features include native multipathing support, a unified file cache, NFSv4, Veritas ClusterFS, multi-volume VxFS, and integrated virtualization. Hyperthreading is supported on Itanium systems with Montecito and Tukwila processors. HP-UX 11i v3 conforms to The Open Group's UNIX 03 standard. Updates for 11i v3 have been released every 6 months, with the latest revision being B.11.31.1805, released in May 2018. HP has moved to a cadence of one major HP-UX operating system update per year.",
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"plaintext": "HP bundles HP-UX 11i with programs in packages they call Operating Environments (OEs).",
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"plaintext": "The following lists the currently available HP-UX 11i v3 OEs:",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v3 Base OE (BOE) Includes the full HP-UX 11i operating system plus file system and partitioning software and applications for Web serving, system management and security. BOE includes all the software formerly in FOE & TCOE (see below), plus software formerly sold stand-alone (e.g. Auto Port Aggregator).",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v3 Virtualization Server OE (VSE-OE) Includes everything in BOE plus GlancePlus performance analysis and software mirroring, and all Virtual Server Environment software which includes virtual partitions, virtual machines, workload management, capacity advisor and applications. VSE-OE includes all the software formerly in EOE (see below), plus additional virtualization software.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v3 High Availability OE (HA-OE) Includes everything in BOE plus HP Serviceguard clustering software for system failover and tools to manage clusters, as well as GlancePlus performance analysis and software mirroring applications.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v3 Data Center OE (DC-OE) Includes everything in one package, combining the HP-UX 11i operating system with virtualization. Everything in the HA-OE and VSE-OE is in the DC-OE. Solutions for wide-area disaster recovery and the compiler bundle are sold separately.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v2 (11.23) HP dropped support for v2 in December 2010. Currently available HP-UX 11i v2 OEs include:",
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},
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v2 Foundation OE (FOE) Designed for Web servers, content servers and front-end servers, this OE includes applications such as HP-UX Web Server Suite, Java, and Mozilla Application Suite. This OE is bundled as HP-UX 11i FOE.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v2 Enterprise OE (EOE) Designed for database application servers and logic servers, this OE contains the HP-UX 11i v2 Foundation OE bundles and additional applications such as GlancePlus Pak to enable an enterprise-level server. This OE is bundled as HP-UX 11i EOE.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v2 Mission Critical OE (MCOE) Designed for the large, powerful back-end application servers and database servers that access customer files and handle transaction processing, this OE contains the Enterprise OE bundles, plus applications such as MC/ServiceGuard and Workload Manager to enable a mission-critical server. This OE is bundled as HP-UX 11i MCOE.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v2 Minimal Technical OE (MTOE) Designed for workstations running HP-UX 11i v2, this OE includes the Mozilla Application Suite, Perl, VxVM, and Judy applications, plus the OpenGL Graphics Developer's Kit. This OE is bundled as HP-UX 11i MTOE.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v2 Technical Computing OE (TCOE) Designed for both compute-intensive workstation and server applications, this OE contains the MTOE bundles plus extensive graphics applications, MPI and Math Libraries. This OE is bundled as HP-UX 11i-TCOE.",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX 11i v1 (11.11) According to HP's roadmap, was sold through December 2009, with continued support for v1 at least until December 2015.",
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"plaintext": " HP Roman-8 (character set)",
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"plaintext": " Scott W. Y. Wang and Jeff B. Lindberg \"HP-UX: Implementation of UNIX on the HP 9000 Series 500 Computer Systems\", Hewlett-Packard Journal (volume 35 number 3, March 1984)",
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"plaintext": " Frank McConnell, More about the HP 9000'', gaby.de",
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},
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"plaintext": " Hewlett-Packard Company, \"HP-UX Reference, Vol. 1, HP-UX Release 6.5, December 1988\", HP Part number 09000-90009",
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"plaintext": "HP-UX Home",
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| 847,593 | 4,957 | 334 | 106 | 0 | 0 | HP-UX | operating system | []
|
36,709 | 1,052,925,719 | Lamberghini | [
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"plaintext": "Lamberghini may refer to:",
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"plaintext": "\"Lamberghini\" (song), a 2018 song by The Doorbeen featuring Ragini Tandan",
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"plaintext": "Lamborghini, an Italian sports car brand",
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| 109,336,754 | 20 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | Lamberghini | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,712 | 1,055,316,513 | Phonetic_algorithm | [
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"plaintext": "A phonetic algorithm is an algorithm for indexing of words by their pronunciation. Most phonetic algorithms were developed for English and are not useful for indexing words in other languages. Because English spelling varies significantly depending on multiple factors, such as the word's origin and usage over time and borrowings from other languages, phonetic algorithms necessarily take into account numerous rules and exceptions.",
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"plaintext": " Soundex, which was developed to encode surnames for use in censuses. Soundex codes are four-character strings composed of a single letter followed by three numbers.",
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"plaintext": " Daitch–Mokotoff Soundex, which is a refinement of Soundex designed to better match surnames of Slavic and Germanic origin. Daitch–Mokotoff Soundex codes are strings composed of six numeric digits.",
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"plaintext": " Cologne phonetics: This is similar to Soundex, but more suitable for German words.",
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"plaintext": " Metaphone and Double Metaphone which are suitable for use with most English words, not just names. Metaphone algorithms are the basis for many popular spell checkers.",
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"plaintext": " New York State Identification and Intelligence System (NYSIIS), which maps similar phonemes to the same letter. The result is a string that can be pronounced by the reader without decoding.",
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"plaintext": " Match Rating Approach developed by Western Airlines in 1977 - this algorithm has an encoding and range comparison technique.",
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"plaintext": " Caverphone, created to assist in data matching between late 19th century and early 20th century electoral rolls, optimized for accents present in parts of New Zealand.",
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"plaintext": " Spell checkers can often contain phonetic algorithms. The Metaphone algorithm, for example, can take an incorrectly spelled word and create a code. The code is then looked up in directory for words with the same or similar Metaphone. Words that have the same or similar Metaphone become possible alternative spellings.",
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"plaintext": " Search functionality will often use phonetic algorithms to find results that don't match exactly the term(s) used in the search. Searching for names can be difficult as there are often multiple alternative spellings for names. An example is the name Claire. It has two alternatives, Clare/Clair, which are both pronounced the same. Searching for one spelling wouldn't show results for the two others. Using Soundex all three variations produce the same Soundex code, C460. By searching names based on the Soundex code all three variations will be returned.",
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"plaintext": " Approximate string matching",
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"plaintext": " Hamming distance",
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"plaintext": " Levenshtein distance",
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"plaintext": " Damerau–Levenshtein distance",
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"plaintext": " Algorithm for converting words to phonemes and back.",
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"plaintext": " StringMetric project a Scala library of phonetic algorithms.",
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"plaintext": " clj-fuzzy project a Clojure library of phonetic algorithms.",
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"plaintext": " SoundexBR library of phonetic algorithm implemented in R.",
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{
"plaintext": " Talisman a JavaScript library collecting various phonetic algorithms that one can try online.",
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| 1,934,189 | 624 | 16 | 28 | 0 | 0 | phonetic algorithm | algorithm for indexing of words by their pronunciation | [
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|
36,713 | 1,098,343,634 | Metaphone | [
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"plaintext": "Metaphone is a phonetic algorithm, published by Lawrence Philips in 1990, for indexing words by their English pronunciation. It fundamentally improves on the Soundex algorithm by using information about variations and inconsistencies in English spelling and pronunciation to produce a more accurate encoding, which does a better job of matching words and names which sound similar. As with Soundex, similar-sounding words should share the same keys. Metaphone is available as a built-in operator in a number of systems.",
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"plaintext": "Philips later produced a new version of the algorithm, which he named Double Metaphone. Contrary to the original algorithm whose application is limited to English only, this version takes into account spelling peculiarities of a number of other languages. In 2009 Philips released a third version, called Metaphone 3, which achieves an accuracy of approximately 99% for English words, non-English words familiar to Americans, and first names and family names commonly found in the United States, having been developed according to modern engineering standards against a test harness of prepared correct encodings.",
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"plaintext": "Original Metaphone codes use the 16 consonant symbols 0BFHJKLMNPRSTWXY. The '0' represents \"th\" (as an ASCII approximation of Θ), 'X' represents \"sh\" or \"ch\", and the others represent their usual English pronunciations. The vowels AEIOU are also used, but only at the beginning of the code. This table summarizes most of the rules in the original implementation:",
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"plaintext": " Drop duplicate adjacent letters, except for C.",
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"plaintext": " If the word begins with 'KN', 'GN', 'PN', 'AE', 'WR', drop the first letter.",
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"plaintext": " Drop 'B' if after 'M' at the end of the word.",
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"plaintext": " 'C' transforms to 'X' if followed by 'IA' or 'H' (unless in latter case, it is part of '-SCH-', in which case it transforms to 'K'). 'C' transforms to 'S' if followed by 'I', 'E', or 'Y'. Otherwise, 'C' transforms to 'K'.",
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"plaintext": " 'D' transforms to 'J' if followed by 'GE', 'GY', or 'GI'. Otherwise, 'D' transforms to 'T'.",
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"plaintext": " Drop 'G' if followed by 'H' and 'H' is not at the end or before a vowel. Drop 'G' if followed by 'N' or 'NED' and is at the end.",
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"plaintext": " 'G' transforms to 'J' if before 'I', 'E', or 'Y', and it is not in 'GG'. Otherwise, 'G' transforms to 'K'.",
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"plaintext": " Drop 'H' if after vowel and not before a vowel.",
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"plaintext": " 'CK' transforms to 'K'.",
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"plaintext": " 'PH' transforms to 'F'.",
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"plaintext": " 'Q' transforms to 'K'.",
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"plaintext": " 'S' transforms to 'X' if followed by 'H', 'IO', or 'IA'.",
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"plaintext": " 'T' transforms to 'X' if followed by 'IA' or 'IO'. 'TH' transforms to '0'. Drop 'T' if followed by 'CH'.",
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"plaintext": " 'V' transforms to 'F'.",
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"plaintext": " 'WH' transforms to 'W' if at the beginning. Drop 'W' if not followed by a vowel.",
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"plaintext": " 'X' transforms to 'S' if at the beginning. Otherwise, 'X' transforms to 'KS'.",
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"plaintext": " Drop 'Y' if not followed by a vowel.",
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"plaintext": " Drop all vowels unless it is the beginning.",
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"plaintext": "This table does not constitute a complete description of the original Metaphone algorithm, and the algorithm cannot be coded correctly from it. Original Metaphone contained many errors and was superseded by Double Metaphone, and in turn Double Metaphone and original Metaphone were superseded by Metaphone 3, which corrects thousands of miscodings that will be produced by the first two versions.",
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"plaintext": "To implement Metaphone without purchasing a (source code) copy of Metaphone 3, the reference implementation of Double Metaphone can be used. Alternatively, version 2.1.3 of Metaphone 3, an earlier 2009 version without a number of encoding corrections made in the current version, version 2.5.4, has been made available under the terms of the BSD License via the OpenRefine project.",
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"plaintext": "The Double Metaphone phonetic encoding algorithm is the second generation of this algorithm. Its implementation was described in the June 2000 issue of C/C++ Users Journal. It makes a number of fundamental design improvements over the original Metaphone algorithm.",
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"plaintext": "It is called \"Double\" because it can return both a primary and a secondary code for a string; this accounts for some ambiguous cases as well as for multiple variants of surnames with common ancestry. For example, encoding the name \"Smith\" yields a primary code of SM0 and a secondary code of XMT, while the name \"Schmidt\" yields a primary code of XMT and a secondary code of SMT—both have XMT in common.",
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"plaintext": "Double Metaphone tries to account for myriad irregularities in English of Slavic, Germanic, Celtic, Greek, French, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, and other origins. Thus it uses a much more complex ruleset for coding than its predecessor; for example, it tests for approximately 100 different contexts of the use of the letter C alone.",
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"plaintext": "A professional version was released in October 2009, developed by the same author, Lawrence Philips. It is a commercial product sold as source code. Metaphone 3 further improves phonetic encoding of words in the English language, non-English words familiar to Americans, and first names and family names commonly found in the United States. It improves encoding for proper names in particular to a considerable extent. The author claims that in general it improves accuracy for all words from the approximately 89% of Double Metaphone to 98%. Developers can also now set switches in code to cause the algorithm to encode Metaphone keys 1) taking non-initial vowels into account, as well as 2) encoding voiced and unvoiced consonants differently. This allows the result set to be more closely focused if the developer finds that the search results include too many words that don't resemble the search term closely enough. Metaphone 3 is sold as C++, Java, C#, PHP, Perl, and PL/SQL source, Ruby and Python wrappers accessing a Java jar, and also Metaphone 3 for Spanish and German pronunciation available as Java and C# source. The latest revision of the Metaphone 3 algorithm is v2.5.4, released March 2015. The Metaphone3 Java source code for an earlier version, 2.1.3, lacking a large number of encoding corrections made in the current version, version 2.5.4, was included as part of the OpenRefine project and is publicly viewable.",
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"plaintext": "There are some misconceptions about the Metaphone algorithms that should be addressed. The following statements are true:",
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"plaintext": " All of them are designed to address regular, \"dictionary\" words, not just names, and ",
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"plaintext": " Metaphone algorithms do not produce phonetic representations of the input words and names; rather, the output is an intentionally approximate phonetic representation, according to this standard: ",
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"plaintext": " words that start with a vowel sound will have an 'A', representing any vowel, as the first character of the encoding (in Double Metaphone and Metaphone 3 - original Metaphone just preserves the actual vowel), ",
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"plaintext": " vowels after an initial vowel sound will be disregarded and not encoded, and ",
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"plaintext": " voiced/unvoiced consonant pairs will be mapped to the same encoding. (Examples of voiced/unvoiced consonant pairs are D/T, B/P, Z/S, G/K, etc.).",
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"plaintext": "This approximate encoding is necessary to account for the way English speakers vary their pronunciations and misspell or otherwise vary words and names they are trying to spell. Vowels, of course, are notoriously highly variable. British speakers often complain that Americans seem to pronounce 'T's the same as 'D'. Consider, also, that all English speakers often pronounce 'Z' where 'S' is spelled, almost always when a noun ending in a voiced consonant or a liquid is pluralized, for example \"seasons\", \"beams\", \"examples\", etc. Not encoding vowels after an initial vowel sound will help to group words where a vowel and a consonant may be transposed in the misspelling or alternative pronunciation.",
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"plaintext": "Metaphone is useful for English variants and other languages, having been preferred to Soundex in several Indo-European languages. On the other hand, rough phonetic encoding causes language dependency or, in a language variant, average language-speaker dependency mainly for non-English variants.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps the first example of stable adaptation of non-English metaphone was Brazilian Portuguese: it originated in ~2008 as a database solution in Várzea Paulista municipality of Brazil, and it evolved to the current metaphone-ptbr algorithm.",
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"plaintext": " Caverphone",
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"plaintext": " New York State Identification and Intelligence System",
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"plaintext": " Match Rating Approach",
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"plaintext": " Approximate string matching",
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"plaintext": " The Double Metaphone Search Algorithm, By Lawrence Phillips, June 1, 2000, Dr Dobb's, Original article",
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"plaintext": " Brazilian Portuguese in C Metaphone for Brazilian Portuguese, in C with PHP and PostgreSQL port.",
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"plaintext": " Brazilian Portuguese in Java Metaphone for Brazilian Portuguese, in Java.",
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"plaintext": " Double Metaphone algorithm for Bangla",
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"plaintext": " Double Metaphone algorithm for Amharic",
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"plaintext": " Russian Metaphone in Ruby.",
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"plaintext": " Metaphone 3 for Spanish and German",
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"plaintext": " Double Metaphone and Metaphone in JavaScript",
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"plaintext": "DV AVI is a type of AVI file where the video has been compressed to conform with DV standards. There are two types of DV-AVI files:",
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"plaintext": " Type 1: The multiplexed Audio-Video is kept in its original multiplexing and saved together into the Video section of the AVI file",
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"plaintext": " Does not waste much space (audio is saved uncompressed, but even uncompressed audio is tiny compared to the video part of DV), but Windows applications based on the VfW API do not support it.",
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"plaintext": " Type 2: Like type 1, but audio is also saved as an additional audio stream into the file.",
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"plaintext": " Supported by VfW applications, at the price of a small increase in file size.",
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"plaintext": "Type 1 is actually the newer of the two types. Microsoft made the \"type\" designations, and decided to name their older VfW-compatible version \"Type 2\", which only furthered confusion about the two types. In the late 1990s through early 2000s, most professional-level DV software, including non-linear editing programs, only supported Type 1. One notable exception was Adobe Premiere, which only supported Type 2. High-end FireWire controllers usually captured to Type 1 only, while \"consumer\" level controllers usually captured to Type 2 only. Software is and was available for converting Type 1 AVIs to Type 2, and vice versa, but this is a time-consuming process.",
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"plaintext": " Comparison of container formats",
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"plaintext": "Dave Wilson's comprehensive list of FourCC codes",
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"plaintext": "AVI file Structure",
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| 209,054 | 5,726 | 262 | 47 | 0 | 0 | Audio Video Interleave | file format | [
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36,716 | 1,100,483,074 | Buran_programme | [
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"plaintext": "The Buran program (, , \"Snowstorm\", \"Blizzard\"), also known as the \"VKK Space Orbiter programme\" (), was a Soviet and later Russian reusable spacecraft project that began in 1974 at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute in Moscow and was formally suspended in 1993. In addition to being the designation for the whole Soviet/Russian reusable spacecraft project, Buran was also the name given to Orbiter K1, which completed one uncrewed spaceflight in 1988 and was the only Soviet reusable spacecraft to be launched into space. The Buran-class orbiters used the expendable Energia rocket as a launch vehicle. Unlike the Space Shuttle, Buran had a capability of flying uncrewed missions, as well as performing fully automated landings.",
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"plaintext": "The Buran programme was started by the Soviet Union as a response to the United States Space Shuttle programme. The project was the largest and the most expensive in the history of Soviet space exploration. Development work included sending BOR-5 test vehicles on multiple sub-orbital test flights, and atmospheric flights of the OK-GLI aerodynamic prototype. Buran completed one uncrewed orbital spaceflight in 1988, after which it was recovered successfully. Although the Buran class was similar in appearance to NASA's Space Shuttle orbiter, and could similarly operate as a re-entry spaceplane, its internal and functional design was distinct. For example, the main engines during launch were on the Energia rocket and were not taken into orbit by the spacecraft. Smaller rocket engines on the craft's body provided propulsion in orbit and de-orbital burns, similar to the Space Shuttle's OMS pods.",
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"plaintext": "The Buran orbital vehicle programme was developed in response to the U.S. Space Shuttle programme, which in the 1980s raised considerable concerns among the Soviet military and especially Defense Minister Dmitry Ustinov. An authoritative chronicler of the Soviet and later Russian space programmes, the academic Boris Chertok, recounts how the programme came into being. According to Chertok, after the U.S. developed its Space Shuttle programme, the Soviet military became suspicious that it could be used for military purposes, due to its enormous payload, several times that of previous U.S. launch vehicles. The Soviet government asked the TsNIIMash (, a major player in defence analysis) for an expert opinion. Lieutenant General Yuri Mozzhorin recalled that by \"approximately 1965\", when the Soviet Union had the 'long arm' (ICBMs), the Soviets did not expect war \"and thought it would not happen.\" As institute director, Mozzhorin, recalled that for a long time the institute could not envisage a civilian payload large enough to require a vehicle of that capacity.",
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"plaintext": "Officially, the Buran orbital vehicle was designed for the delivery to orbit and return to Earth of spacecraft, cosmonauts, and supplies. Both Chertok and Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy (General Designer and General Director of NPO Molniya) suggest that from the beginning, the programme was military in nature; however, the exact military capabilities, or intended capabilities, of the Buran programme remain classified. Commenting on the discontinuation of the programme in his interview to New Scientist, Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kotov confirms their accounts:",
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"plaintext": "Like its American counterpart, the Buran orbital vehicle, when in transit from its landing sites back to the launch complex, was transported on the back of a large jet aeroplane – the Antonov An-225 Mriya transport aircraft, which was designed in part for this task and was the largest aircraft in the world to fly multiple times. Before the Mriya was ready (after the Buran had flown), the Myasishchev VM-T Atlant, a variant on the Soviet Myasishchev M-4 Molot (Hammer) bomber (NATO code: Bison), fulfilled the same role.",
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"plaintext": "The Soviet reusable spacecraft programme has its roots in the late 1950s, at the very beginning of the space age. The idea of Soviet reusable space flight is very old, though it was neither continuous nor consistently organized. Before Buran, no project of the programme reached operational status.",
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"plaintext": "The idea saw its first iteration in the Burya high-altitude jet aircraft, which reached the prototype stage. Several test flights were made before it was cancelled by order of the Central Committee. The Burya had the goal of delivering a nuclear payload, presumably to the United States, and then returning to base. The cancellation was based on a final decision to develop ICBMs. The next iteration of the idea was Zvezda from the early 1960s, which also reached a prototype stage. Decades later, another project with the same name was used as a service module for the International Space Station. After Zvezda, there was a hiatus in reusable projects until Buran.",
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"plaintext": "The development of the Buran began in the early 1970s as a response to the U.S. Space Shuttle programme. Soviet officials were concerned about a perceived military threat posed by the U.S. Space Shuttle. In their opinion, the Shuttle's 30-ton payload-to-orbit capacity and, more significantly, its 15-ton payload return capacity, were a clear indication that one of its main objectives would be to place massive experimental laser weapons into orbit that could destroy enemy missiles from a distance of several thousands of kilometres. Their reasoning was that such weapons could only be effectively tested in actual space conditions and that to cut their development time and save costs it would be necessary to regularly bring them back to Earth for modifications and fine-tuning. Soviet officials were also concerned that the U.S. Space Shuttle could make a sudden dive into the atmosphere to drop nuclear bombs on Moscow.",
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"plaintext": "In 1974, Valentin Glushko's design bureau, OKB-1 (later NPO Energiya), proposed a new family of heavy-lift rockets called RLA (). The RLA concept included the use of kerosene and liquid hydrogen as fuel, and liquid oxygen as oxidizer (both new technologies in the Soviet space programme), with the shuttle orbiter being one possible payload. By 1975, NPO Energiya had come up with two competing designs for the orbiter vehicle: the MTKVP (), a 34 meter-long lifting body spaceplane launched on top of a stack of kerosene-fueled strap on boosters; and the OS-120 (), a close copy of the US Space Shuttle composed of a delta-winged spaceplane equipped with three liquid hydrogen engines, strapped to a detachable external tank and four liquid fuel boosters (NPO Energiya even considered the use of solid propellant rocket boosters, further imitating the US Shuttle's configuration). A compromise between these two proposals was achieved by NPO Energiya in January 1976 with the OK-92 (), a delta-winged orbiter equipped with two Soloviev D-30 turbofan jet engines for autonomous atmospheric flight, launched to space from a rocket stack made of a core stage with three cryogenic engines, and four kerosene-fueled boosters, each with four engines. By 1978, the OK-92 design was further refined, with its final configuration completed in June 1979.",
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"plaintext": "Soviet engineers were initially reluctant to design a spacecraft that looked superficially identical to the Shuttle. Although it has been commented that wind tunnel testing showed that NASA's design was already ideal, the shape requirements were mandated by its potential military capabilities to transport large payloads to low Earth orbit, themselves a counterpart to the Pentagon's initially projected missions for the Shuttle. Even though the Molniya Scientific Production Association proposed its Spiral programme design (halted 13 years earlier), it was rejected as being altogether dissimilar from the American shuttle design. While NPO Molniya conducted development under the lead of Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy, the Soviet Union's Military-Industrial Commission, or VPK, was tasked with collecting all data it could on the U.S. Space Shuttle. Under the auspices of the KGB, the VPK was able to amass documentation on the American shuttle's airframe designs, design analysis software, materials, flight computer systems and propulsion systems. The KGB targeted many university research project documents and databases, including Caltech, MIT, Princeton, Stanford and others. The thoroughness of the acquisition of data was made much easier as the U.S. shuttle development was unclassified.",
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"plaintext": "The construction of the shuttles began in 1980, and by 1984 the first full-scale Buran was rolled out. The first suborbital test flight of a scale-model (BOR-5) took place as early as July 1983. As the project progressed, five additional scale-model flights were performed. A test vehicle was constructed with four jet engines mounted at the rear; this vehicle is usually referred to as OK-GLI, or as the \"Buran aerodynamic analogue\". The jets were used to take off from a normal landing strip, and once it reached a designated point, the engines were cut and OK-GLI glided back to land. This provided invaluable information about the handling characteristics of the Buran design, and significantly differed from the carrier plane/air drop method used by the United States and the test craft. Twenty-four test flights of OK-GLI were performed by the Gromov Flight Research Institute test pilots and researchers after which the shuttle was \"worn out\". The developers considered using a couple of Mil Mi-26 helicopters to \"bundle\" lift the Buran, but test flights with a mock-up showed how risky and impractical that was. The VM-T ferried components and the Antonov An-225 Mriya (the heaviest airplane ever) was designed and used to ferry the shuttle.",
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"plaintext": "The flight and ground-testing software also required research. In 1983 the Buran developers estimated that the software development would require several thousand programmers if done with their existing methodology (in assembly language), and they appealed to Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics for assistance. It was decided to develop a new high-level \"problem-oriented\" programming language. Researchers at Keldysh developed two languages: PROL2 (used for real-time programming of onboard systems) and DIPOL (used for the ground-based test systems), as well as the development and debugging environment SAPO PROLOGUE. There was also an operating system known as Prolog Manager. Work on these languages continued beyond the end of the Buran programme, with PROL2 being extended into SIPROL, and eventually all three languages developed into DRAKON which is still in use in the Russian space industry. A declassified May 1990 CIA report citing open-source intelligence material states that the software for the Buran spacecraft was written in \"the French-developed programming language known as Prolog\", possibly due to confusion with the name PROLOGUE.",
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"plaintext": "Until the end of the Soviet Union in 1991, seven cosmonauts were allocated to the Buran programme and trained on the OK-GLI (\"Buran aerodynamic analogue\") test vehicle. All had experience as test pilots. They were: Ivan Ivanovich Bachurin, Alexei Sergeyevich Borodai, Anatoli Semyonovich Levchenko, Aleksandr Vladimirovich Shchukin, Rimantas Antanas Stankevičius, Igor Petrovich Volk, and Viktor Vasiliyevich Zabolotsky.",
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"plaintext": "A rule, set in place for cosmonauts because of the failed Soyuz 25 of 1977, insisted that all Soviet space missions contain at least one crew member who has been to space before. In 1982, it was decided that all Buran commanders and their back-ups would occupy the third seat on a Soyuz mission, prior to their Buran spaceflight. Several people had been selected to potentially be in the first Buran crew. By 1985, it was decided that at least one of the two crew members would be a test pilot trained at the Gromov Flight Research Institute (known as \"LII\"), and potential crew lists were drawn up. Only two potential Buran crew members reached space: Igor Volk, who flew in Soyuz T-12 to the space station Salyut 7, and Anatoli Levchenko who visited Mir, launching with Soyuz TM-4 and landing with Soyuz TM-3. Both of these spaceflights lasted about a week.",
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"plaintext": "Levchenko died of a brain tumour the year after his orbital flight, Bachurin left the cosmonaut corps because of medical reasons, Shchukin was assigned to the back-up crew of Soyuz TM-4 and later died in a plane crash, Stankevičius was also killed in a plane crash, while Borodai and Zabolotsky remained unassigned to a Soyuz flight until the Buran programme ended.",
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"plaintext": "Maintenance, launches and landings of the Buran-class orbiters were to take place at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh SSR. Several facilities at Baikonur were adapted or newly built for these purposes:",
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"plaintext": " Site 110 – Used for the launch of the Buran-class orbiters. Like the assembly and processing hall at Site 112, the launch complex was originally constructed for the Soviet lunar landing programme and later converted for the Energia-Buran programme.",
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"plaintext": " Site 112 – Used for orbiter maintenance and to mate the orbiters to their Energia launchers (thus fulfilling a role similar to the VAB at KSC). The main hangar at the site, called MIK RN or MIK 112, was originally built for the assembly of the N1 moon rocket. After cancellation of the N-1 programme in 1974, the facilities at Site 112 were converted for the Energia-Buran programme. It was here that Orbiter K1 was stored after the end of the Buran programme and was destroyed when the hangar roof collapsed in 2002.",
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"plaintext": " Site 251 – Used as Buran orbiter landing facility, also known as Yubileyniy Airfield (and fulfilling a role similar to the SLF at KSC). It features one runway, called 06/24, which is long and wide, paved with \"Grade 600\" high quality reinforced concrete. At the edge of the runway was a special mating-demating device, designed to lift an orbiter off its Antonov An-225 Mriya carrier aircraft and load it on a transporter, which would carry the orbiter to the processing building at Site 254. A purpose-built orbiter landing control facility, housed in a large multi-storey office building, was located near the runway. Yubileyniy Airfield was also used to receive heavy transport planes carrying elements of the Energia-Buran system. After the end of the Buran programme, Site 251 was abandoned but later reopened as a commercial cargo airport. Besides serving Baikonur, Kazakh authorities also use it for passenger and charter flights from Russia.",
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"plaintext": " Site 254 – Built to service the Buran-class orbiters between flights (thus fulfilling a role similar to the OPF at KSC). Constructed in the 1980s as a special four-bay building, it also featured a large processing area flanked by several floors of test rooms. After cancellation of the Buran programme it was adapted for pre-launch operations of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "Following a series of atmospheric test flights using the jet-powered OK-GLI prototype, the first operational spacecraft (Orbiter K1) flew one test mission on 15 November 1988 at 03:00:02 UTC. The spacecraft was launched uncrewed from and landed at Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh S.S.R. and flew two orbits, travelling in 3 hours and 25 minutes (0.14 flight days). Buran never flew again; the programme was cancelled shortly after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2002, the collapse of the hangar in which it was stored destroyed the Buran K1 orbiter.",
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"plaintext": "An aerodynamic testbed, OK-GLI, was constructed in 1984 to test the in-flight properties of the Buran design. Unlike the American prototype , OK-GLI had four AL-31 turbofan engines fitted, meaning it was able to fly under its own power.",
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"plaintext": "The only orbital launch of the Buran 1.01 was at 03:00UTC on 15 November 1988 from pad 110/37 in Baikonur. The uncrewed craft was lifted into orbit by the specially designed Energia booster rocket. The life support system was not installed and no software was installed on the CRT displays. The shuttle orbited the Earth twice in 206 minutes of flight. On its return, it performed an automated landing on the shuttle runway at Baikonur Cosmodrome.",
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"plaintext": "The planned flights for the shuttles in 1989, before the downsizing of the project and eventual cancellation, were:",
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"plaintext": " 1991 — Ptichka 1.02 uncrewed first flight, duration 1–2 days.",
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"plaintext": " 1992 — Ptichka 1.02 uncrewed second flight, duration 7–8 days. Orbital manoeuvres and space station approach test.",
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"plaintext": " 1993 — Buran 1.01 uncrewed second flight, duration 15–20 days.",
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"plaintext": " 1994 — Orbiter 2.01 first crewed space test flight, duration of 24 hours. Craft equipped with life-support system and with two ejection seats. Crew would consist of two cosmonauts with Igor Volk as commander, and Aleksandr Ivanchenko as flight engineer.",
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"plaintext": " 1994-1995 - Second, third, fourth and fifth crewed orbital test flights.",
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"plaintext": "The planned uncrewed second flight of Ptichka was changed in 1991 to the following:",
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"plaintext": " December 1991 — Ptichka 1.02 uncrewed second flight, with a duration of 7–8 days. Orbital manoeuvrers and space station approach test: ",
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"plaintext": " automatic docking with Mir's Kristall module",
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"plaintext": " crew transfer from Mir to the shuttle, with testing of some of its systems in the course of twenty-four hours, including the remote manipulator",
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"plaintext": " undocking and autonomous flight in orbit",
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"plaintext": " docking of the crewed Soyuz TM-101 with Ptichka",
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"plaintext": " crew transfer from the Soyuz to the shuttle and onboard work in the course of twenty-four hours",
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"plaintext": " automatic undocking and landing",
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"plaintext": "After the first flight of a Buran shuttle, the project was suspended due to lack of funds and the political situation in the Soviet Union. The two subsequent orbiters, which were due in 1990 (Orbiter 1.02) and 1992 (Orbiter 2.01) were never completed. The project was officially terminated on 30 June 1993, by President Boris Yeltsin. At the time of its cancellation, 20 billion roubles had been spent on the Buran programme.",
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"plaintext": "The programme was designed to boost national pride, carry out research, and meet technological objectives similar to those of the U.S. Space Shuttle programme, including resupply of the Mir space station, which was launched in 1986 and remained in service until 2001. When Mir was finally visited by a spaceplane, the visitor was a Space Shuttle orbiter, not a Buran-class orbiter.",
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"plaintext": "The Buran SO, a docking module that was to be used for rendezvous with the Mir space station, was refitted for use with the U.S. Space Shuttles during the Shuttle–Mir missions.",
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"plaintext": "The cost of a Buran launch carrying a 20 ton payload was estimated at 270 million roubles, vs 5.5 million roubles on the Proton rocket.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 May 2002, a hangar roof at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan collapsed because of a structural failure due to poor maintenance. The collapse killed eight workers and destroyed one of the Buran-class orbiters (Buran 1.01), which flew the test flight in 1988, as well as a mock-up of an Energia booster rocket. It was not clear to outsiders at the time which Buran-class orbiter was destroyed, and the BBC reported that it was just \"a model\" of the orbiter. It occurred at the MIK RN/MIK 112 building at Site 112 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, 14 years after the only Buran flight. Work on the roof had begun for a maintenance project, whose equipment is thought to have contributed to the collapse. Also, before the day of collapse, there had been several days of heavy rain.",
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"plaintext": "Over time, several scientists looked into trying to revive the Buran programme, especially after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.",
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"plaintext": "The 2003 grounding of the U.S. Space Shuttles caused many to wonder whether the Energia launcher or Buran shuttle could be brought back into service. By then, however, all of the equipment for both (including the vehicles themselves) had fallen into disrepair or been repurposed after falling into disuse with the collapse of the Soviet Union.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010 the director of Moscow's Central Machine Building Institute said the Buran programme would be reviewed in the hope of restarting a similar crewed spacecraft design, with rocket test launches as soon as 2015. Russia also continues work on the PPTS but has abandoned the Kliper programme, due to differences in vision with its European partners.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the 2011 retirement of the American Space Shuttle and the need for STS-type craft in the meantime to complete the International Space Station, some American and Russian scientists had been mulling over plans to possibly revive the already-existing Buran shuttles in the Buran programme rather than spend money on an entirely new craft and wait for it to be fully developed but the plans did not come to fruition.",
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"plaintext": "On the 25th anniversary of the Buran flight in November 2013, Oleg Ostapenko, the new head of Roscosmos, the Russian Federal Space Agency, proposed that a new heavy-lift launch vehicle be built for the Russian space programme. The rocket would be intended to place a payload of in a baseline low Earth orbit and is projected to be based on the Angara launch vehicle technology.",
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"plaintext": "Because Buran debut followed that of , and because there were striking visual similarities between the two shuttle systems—a state of affairs which recalled the similarity between the Tupolev Tu-144 and Concorde supersonic airliners—many speculated that Cold War espionage played a role in the development of the Soviet shuttle. Despite remarkable external similarities, many key differences existed, which suggests that, had espionage been a factor in Buran development, it would likely have been in the form of external photography or early airframe designs. NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher stated that Buran was based on a rejected NASA design. See the section above.",
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"plaintext": " Unlike Space Shuttle's boosters, each of Energia's four boosters had their own guidance, navigation, and control system. Known as Zenit-2, they were used as launch vehicles on their own to deliver smaller payloads than those requiring the complete Energia-Buran system.",
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"plaintext": " Energia could be configured with four, two or no boosters for payloads other than Buran, and in full configuration was able to put up to 100 metric tons into orbit. The Space Shuttle orbiter was integral to its launch system and was the system's only payload.",
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"plaintext": " Energia's four boosters used liquid propellant (kerosene/oxygen). The Space Shuttle's two boosters used solid propellant.",
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"plaintext": " The liquid fueled booster rockets were not constructed in segments vulnerable to leakage through O-rings, which caused the destruction of .",
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"plaintext": " The Energia rocket was not covered in foam, the shedding of which from the large fuel tank led to the destruction of . However, this enabled the risk of shedding ice chunks from the rocket instead.",
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"plaintext": " Energia's four boosters were designed to be recovered after each flight, though they were not recovered during Energia's two operational flights. The Space Shuttle's boosters were recovered and reused.",
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"plaintext": "Buran equivalent of the Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System used GOX/LOX/Kerosene propellant, with lower toxicity and higher performance (a specific impulse of using a turbopump system) than the Shuttle's pressure-fed monomethylhydrazine/dinitrogen tetroxide OMS engines.",
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"plaintext": "Buran was designed to be capable of both piloted and fully autonomous flight, including landing. The Space Shuttle was later retrofitted with automated landing capability, first flown 18 years after the Buran on STS-121, but the system was intended to be used only in contingencies.",
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"plaintext": " The nose landing gear was located much farther back on the fuselage rather than just under the mid-deck as with the NASA Space Shuttle.",
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"plaintext": "Buran could lift 30 metric tons into orbit in its standard configuration, comparable to the early Space Shuttle's original 27.8 metric tons",
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"plaintext": "Buran was intended to carry a crew of up to ten, the Shuttle carried up to eight in regular operation and would have carried more only in a contingency.",
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"plaintext": "Buran has a different carbon-carbon heat tile layout in its underside, in which all gaps between heat tiles are parallel or perpendicular to the direction of airflow through the orbiter.",
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"plaintext": " MAKS (spacecraft) - Soviet air-launched spaceplane concept",
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| [
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| 1,010,251 | 12,641 | 114 | 181 | 0 | 0 | Buran programme | Soviet reusable spaceplane programme | [
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"plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria was originally two kingdoms divided approximately around the River Tees: Bernicia was to the north of the river and Deira to the south. It is possible that both regions originated as native Celtic British kingdoms which the Germanic settlers later conquered, although there is very little information about the infrastructure and culture of the British kingdoms themselves. Much of the evidence for them comes from regional names that are British rather than Anglo-Saxon in origin. The names Deira and Bernicia are likely British in origin, for example, indicating that some British place names retained currency after the Anglo-Saxon migrations to Northumbria. There is also some archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in the Cheviot Hills, a hill fort at Yeavering called Yeavering Bell contains evidence that it was an important centre for first the British and later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-Roman, dating back to the Iron Age at around the first century. In addition to signs of Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of British settlement. Moreover, Brian Hope-Taylor has traced the origins of the name Yeavering, which looks deceptively English, back to the British gafr from Bede's mention of a township called Gefrin in the same area. Yeavering continued to be an important political centre after the Anglo-Saxons began settling in the north, as King Edwin had a royal palace at Yeavering.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, English place-names dominate the Northumbrian landscape, suggesting the prevalence of an Anglo-Saxon elite culture by the time that Bede – Anglo-Saxon England's most prominent historian – was writing in the eighth century. According to Bede, the Angles predominated the Germanic immigrants that settled north of the Humber and gained political prominence during this time period. While the British natives may have partially assimilated into the Northumbrian political structure, relatively contemporary textual sources such as Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People depict relations between Northumbrians and the British as fraught.",
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"plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxon countries of Bernicia and Deira were often in conflict before their eventual semi-permanent unification in 654. Political power in Deira was concentrated in the East Riding of Yorkshire, which included York, the North York Moors, and the Vale of York. The political heartlands of Bernicia were the areas around Bamburgh and Lindisfarne, Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, and in Cumbria, west of the Pennines in the area around Carlisle. The name that these two countries eventually united under, Northumbria, may have been coined by Bede and made popular through his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.",
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"plaintext": "Information on the early royal genealogies for Bernicia and Deira comes from Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People and Welsh chronicler Nennius’ Historia Brittonum. According to Nennius, the Bernician royal line begins with Ida, son of Eoppa. Ida reigned for twelve years (beginning in 547) and was able to annex Bamburgh to Bernicia. In Nennius' genealogy of Deira, a king named Soemil was the first to separate Bernicia and Deira, which could mean that he wrested the kingdom of Deira from the native British. The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king to make an appearance in Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum is Ælle, the father of the first Christian Northumbrian king Edwin.",
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"plaintext": "A king of Bernicia, Ida's grandson Æthelfrith, was the first ruler to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin to the court of King Rædwald of the East Angles in order to claim both kingdoms, but Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer Northumbria with Rædwald's aid. Edwin, who ruled from approximately 616 to 633, was one of the last kings of the Deiran line to reign over all of Northumbria; it was Oswald of Bernicia (c. 634–642) who finally succeeded in making the merger more permanent. Oswald's brother Oswiu eventually succeeded him to the Northumbrian throne despite initial attempts on Deira's part to pull away again. Although the Bernician line ultimately became the royal line of Northumbria, a series of Derian sub-kings continued after Oswald, including Oswine (a relation of Edwin murdered by Oswiu in 651), Œthelwald (killed in battle 655), and Aldfrith (son of Oswiu, who disappeared after 664). Although both Œthelwald and Aldfrith were Oswiu's relations who may have received their sub-king status from him, both used Deira separatist sentiments to try to snatch independent rule of Deira. Ultimately, neither were successful and Oswiu's son Ecgfrith succeeded him to maintain the integrated Northumbrian line.",
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"plaintext": "While violent conflicts between Bernicia and Deira played a significant part in determining which line ultimately gained supremacy in Northumbria, marriage alliances also helped bind these two territories together. Æthelfrith married Edwin's sister Acha, although this marriage did little to prevent future squabbles between the brothers-in-law and their descendants. The second intermarriage was more successful, with Oswiu marrying Edwin's daughter and his own cousin Eanflæd to produce Ecgfrith, the beginning of the Northumbrian line. However, Oswiu had another relationship with an Irish woman named Fina which produced the problematic Aldfrith. In his Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert, Bede declares that Aldfrith, known as Fland among the Irish, was illegitimate and therefore unfit to rule.",
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"plaintext": "The Viking invasions of the ninth century and the establishment of the Danelaw once again divided Northumbria. Although primarily recorded in the southern provinces of England, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles (particularly the D and E recensions) provide some information on Northumbria's conflicts with Vikings in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. According to these chronicles, Viking raids began to affect Northumbria when a band attacked Lindisfarne in 793. After this initial catastrophic blow, Viking raids in Northumbria were either sporadic for much of the early ninth century or evidence of them was lost. However, in 865 the so-called Great Heathen Army landed in East Anglia and began a sustained campaign of conquest. The Great Army fought in Northumbria in 866–867, striking York twice in less than one year. After the initial attack the Norse left to go north, leaving Kings Ælle and Osberht to recapture the city. The E recension of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests that Northumbria was particularly vulnerable at this time because the Northumbrians were once again fighting among themselves, deposing Osberht in favor of Ælle. In the second raid the Vikings killed the Northumbrian kings Ælle and Osberht while recapturing the city.",
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"plaintext": "After King Alfred reestablished his control of southern England the Norse invaders settled into what came to be known as the Danelaw in the Midlands, East Anglia, and the southern part of Northumbria. In Northumbria, the Norse established the Kingdom of York whose boundaries were roughly the River Tees and the Humber, giving it approximately the same dimensions as Deira. Although this kingdom fell to Hiberno-Norse colonizers in the 920s and was in constant conflict with the West-Saxon expansionists from the south, it survived until 954 when the last Scandinavian king Eric, who is usually identified as Eric Bloodaxe, was driven out and eventually killed.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, the Great Army was not as successful in conquering territory north of the River Tees. There were raids that extended into that area, but no sources mention lasting Norse occupation and there are very few Scandinavian place names to indicate significant Norse settlement in northern regions of Northumbria. The political landscape of the area north of the Tees during the Viking conquest of Northumbria consisted of the Community of St. Cuthbert and the remnants of the English Northumbrian elites. While the religious Community of St. Cuthbert \"wandered\" for a hundred years after Halfdan Ragnarsson attacked their original home Lindisfarne in 875, The History of St. Cuthbert indicates that they settled temporarily at Chester-le-Street between the years 875–883 on land granted to them by the Viking King of York, Guthred. According to the twelfth-century account Historia Regum, Guthred granted them this land in exchange for their raising him up as king. The land extended from the Tees to the Tyne and anyone who fled there from either the north or the south would receive sanctuary for thirty-seven days, indicating that the Community of St. Cuthbert had some juridical autonomy. Based on their positioning and this right of sanctuary, this community may have acted as a buffer between the Norse in southern Northumbria and the Anglo-Saxons who continued to hold the north.",
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"plaintext": "North of the Tyne, Northumbrians maintained partial political control in Bamburgh. The rule of kings continued in that area with Ecgberht I acting as regent around 867 and the kings Ricsige and Ecgberht II immediately following him. According to twelfth-century historian Symeon of Durham, Ecgberht I was a client-king for the Norse. The Northumbrians revolted against him in 872, deposing him in favor of Ricsige. Although the A and E recensions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle report that Halfdan was able to take control of Deira and take a raiding party north of the River Tyne to impose his rule on Bernicia in 874, after Halfdan's death (c. 877) the Norse had difficulty holding on to territory in northern Bernicia. Ricsige and his successor Ecgberht were able to maintain an English presence in Northumbria. After the reign of Ecgberht II, Eadwulf \"King of the North Saxons\" (r. 890–912) succeeded him for control of Bamburgh, but after Eadwulf rulership of this area switched over to earls who may have also been related to the last of the royal Northumbrian house.",
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"plaintext": "Æthelfrith was the first Anglo-Saxon leader to hold the thrones of both Deira and Bernicia, and so he ruled over all the people north of the Humber. His rule was notable for his numerous victories over the Britons and the Gaels.",
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"plaintext": "Edwin, like Æthelfrith, was king of both Deira and Bernicia and ruled them from 616 to 633. Under his reign the Isle of Man and the lands of Gwynedd in Northern Wales were incorporated into Northumbria. Edwin married Æthelburh, a Christian Princess from Kent in 625. He converted to Christianity two years later after a period of heavy consideration and after consulting numerous advisors. Edwin fell in battle in 633 against Cadwallon of Gwynedd and the pagan Penda of Mercia. He was venerated as a saint and martyr after his death.",
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"plaintext": "Oswald was a King of Bernicia, who regained the kingdom of Deira after defeating Cadwallon in 634. Oswald then ruled Northumbria until his death in 642. A devout Christian, Oswald worked tirelessly to spread the religion in his traditionally pagan lands. It was during his reign that the monastery at Lindisfarne was created. Oswald fell in the Battle of Maserfield against Penda of Mercia in 642 but his influence endured because, like Edwin, Oswald was venerated as a saint after his death.",
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"plaintext": "Oswiu was the brother of Oswald and succeeded him after the latter's defeat in Maserfield. Oswiu succeeded where Edwin and Oswald failed as, in 655, he slew Penda during the Battle of the Winwaed, making him the first Northumbrian King to also control the kingdom of Mercia. During his reign, he presided over the Synod of Whitby, an attempt to reconcile religious differences between Roman and Celtic Christianity, in which he eventually backed Rome. Oswiu died from illness in 670 and divided Deira and Bernicia between two of his sons.",
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"plaintext": "Halfdan Ragnarsson was a Viking leader of the Great Heathen Army which invaded England in 865. He allegedly wanted revenge against Northumbria for the death of his father, who was supposedly killed by Ælla of Northumbria. While he himself only ruled Northumbria directly for about a year in 876, he placed Ecgberht on the throne as a client-king, who ruled from 867 to 872. Halfdan was killed in Ireland in 877 whilst trying to regain control over Dublin, a land he had ruled since 875. There were no further Viking kings in Northumbria until Guthfrith took over in 883.",
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"plaintext": "Æthelstan ruled as King of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927 and King of the English from 927 to 939. The shift in his title reflects that in 927, Æthelstan conquered the Viking Kingdom of York, previously part of the Northumbrian Kingdom. His reign was quite prosperous and saw great strides in many fields such as law and economics, but was also characterized by frequent clashes with the Scots and the Vikings. Æthelstan died in 939, which led to the Vikings' retaking of York. Æthelstan is widely considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings for his efforts to consolidate the English kingdom and the prosperity his reign brought.",
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"plaintext": "In the early twentieth century, historians identified Eric of York with the Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe, but more recent scholarship has challenged this association. He held two short terms as King of Northumbria, from 947 to 948 and 952 to 954. Historical documentation on his reign is scarce, but it seems Eric pushed out the joint English-Viking rulers of Northumbria in 947, who then regained the land in 948 or 949. Eric took back the throne in 952, only to be deposed again in 954. Eric of York was the last Danish king of Northumbria; after his death in 954, Eadred of Wessex stripped the kingdom of its independent status and made the land part of England.",
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"plaintext": "Eadred of Wessex was the half-brother of Æthelstan and Eadmund of Wessex, all of whom were fathered by Edward the Elder. He was nominally the ruler of Northumbria from 946, as he succeeded Eadmund, but had to deal with the threat of independent Viking kingdoms under Amlaíb Cuarán and Eric Bloodaxe. He permanently absorbed Northumbria into the English Kingdom in 954 after the death of Eric.",
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"plaintext": "Between the years of 737 AD and 806 AD, Northumbria had ten kings, all of whom were murdered, deposed, or exiled or became monks. Between Oswiu, the first king of Northumbria in 654, and Eric Bloodaxe, the last king of Northumbria in 954, there were forty-five kings, meaning that the average length of reign during the entire history of Northumbria is only six and a half years. Of the twenty-five kings before the Danish rule of Northumbria, only four died of natural causes. Of those that did not abdicate for a holy life, the rest were either deposed, exiled, or murdered. Kings during the Danish rule of Northumbria (see Danelaw) were often either kings of a larger North Sea or Danish empire, or were installed rulers.",
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"plaintext": "Succession in Northumbria was hereditary, which left princes whose fathers died before they could come of age particularly susceptible to assassination and usurpation. A noteworthy example of this phenomenon is Osred, whose father Aldfrith died in 705, leaving the young boy to rule. He survived one assassination attempt early in his rule, but fell victim to another assassin at the age of nineteen. During his reign he was adopted by Wilfrid, a powerful bishop. Ecclesiastical influence in the royal court was not an unusual phenomenon in Northumbria, and usually was most visible during the rule of a young or inexperienced king. Similarly, ealdorman, or royal advisors, had periods of increased or decreased power in Northumbria, depending on who was ruling at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Warfare in Northumbria before the Danish period largely consisted of rivalries with the Picts to the north. The Northumbrians were successful against the Picts until the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685, which halted their expansion north and established a border between the two kingdoms. Warfare during the Danish period was dominated by warfare between the Northumbrians and other English Kingdoms.",
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"plaintext": "After the English of Wessex absorbed the Danish-ruled territories in the southern part of the former kingdom, Scots invasions reduced the rump Northumbria to an earldom stretching from the Tees to the Tweed. The surviving Earldom of Northumbria was then disputed between the emerging kingdoms of England and Scotland, to be split roughly in half along the River Tweed.",
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"plaintext": "Under Roman rule, some Britons north of the Humber practised Christianity. In fact, York had a bishop as early as the fourth century. After the Romans left Britain in the early fifth century, Christianity did not disappear, but it existed alongside Celtic paganism, and possibly many other cults. Anglo-Saxons brought their own Germanic pagan beliefs and practices when they settled there. At Yeavering, in Bernicia, excavations have uncovered evidence of a pagan shrine, animal sacrifice, and ritual burials.",
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"plaintext": "The first King of Northumbria to convert to Christianity was King Edwin. He was baptized by Paulinus in 627. Shortly thereafter, many of his people followed his conversion to the new religion, only to return to paganism when Edwin was killed in 633. Paulinus was Bishop of York, but only for a year.",
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"plaintext": "The lasting conversion of Northumbria took place under the guidance of the Irish cleric Aidan. He converted King Oswald of Northumbria in 635, and then worked to convert the people of Northumbria. King Oswald moved the bishopric from York to Lindisfarne.",
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"plaintext": "The monastery at Lindisfarne was founded by Aidan in 635, and based on the practices of the Columban monastery in Iona, Scotland. The location of the bishopric shifted to Lindisfarne, and it became the centre for religion in Northumbria. The bishopric would not leave Lindisfarne and shift back to its original location at York until 664. Throughout the eighth century, Lindisfarne was associated with important figures. Aidan, the founder, Wilfrid, a student, and Cuthbert, a member of the order and a hermit, all became bishops and later Saints. Aidan assisted Heiu to found her double monastery at Hartlepool. She too came to be venerated as a saint.",
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"plaintext": "The Christianity culture of Northumbria was influenced by the continent as well as Ireland. In particular, Wilfrid travelled to Rome and abandoned the traditions of the Celtic church in favour of Roman practices. When he returned to England, he became abbot of a new monastery at Ripon in 660. Wilfrid advocated acceptance of the authority of Rome at the Synod of Whitby. The two-halves of the double monastery Monkwearmouth–Jarrow were founded by the nobleman Benedict Biscop in 673 and 681. Biscop became the first abbot of the monastery, and travelled to Rome six times to buy books for the library. His successor, Abbot Ceolfrith, continued to add to the library until by one estimate the library at Monkwearmouth–Jarrow had over two hundred volumes. One who benefited from this library was Bede.",
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"plaintext": "In the early seventh century in York, Paulinus founded a school and a minster, but not a monastery. The School at York Minster is one of the oldest in England. By the late eighth century, the school had a noteworthy library, estimated at one hundred volumes. Alcuin was a student and teacher at York before he left for the court of Charlemagne in 782.",
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"plaintext": "In 664, King Oswiu called the Synod of Whitby to determine whether to follow Roman or Irish customs. Since Northumbria was converted to Christianity by the Celtic clergy, the Celtic tradition for determining the date of Easter and Irish tonsure were supported by many, particularly by the Abbey of Lindisfarne. Roman Christianity was also represented in Northumbria, by Wilfrid, Abbot of Ripon. By the year 620, both sides were associating the other's Easter observance with the Pelagian Heresy. The King decided at Whitby that Roman practice would be adopted throughout Northumbria, thereby bringing Northumbria in line with Southern England and Western Europe. Members of the clergy who refused to conform, including the Celtic Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne, returned to Iona. The episcopal seat of Northumbria transferred from Lindisfarne to York, which later became an archbishopric in 735.",
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"plaintext": "The Viking attack on Lindisfarne in 793 was the first of many raids on monasteries of Northumbria. The Lindisfarne Gospels survived, but monastic culture in Northumbria went into a period of decline in the early ninth century. Repeated Viking assaults on religious centres were one reason for the decrease in production of manuscripts and communal monastic culture.",
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"plaintext": "After 867, Northumbria came under control of the Scandinavian forces, and there was an influx of Scandinavian immigrants. Their religion was pagan and had a rich mythology. Within the Kingdom of York, once the raids and war were over, there is no evidence that the presence of Scandinavian settlers interrupted Christian practice. It appears that they gradually adopted Christianity and blended their Scandinavian culture with their new religion. This can be seen in carved stone monuments and ring-headed crosses, such as the Gosforth Cross. During the ninth and tenth centuries, there was an increase in the number of parish churches, often including stone sculptures incorporating Scandinavian designs.",
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"plaintext": "The Christian culture of Northumbria, fuelled by influences from the continent and Ireland, promoted a broad range of literary and artistic works.",
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"plaintext": "The Irish monks who converted Northumbria to Christianity, and established monasteries such as Lindisfarne, brought a style of artistic and literary production. Eadfrith of Lindisfarne produced the Lindisfarne Gospels in an Insular style.",
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"plaintext": "The Irish monks brought with them an ancient Celtic decorative tradition of curvilinear forms of spirals, scrolls, and doubles curves. This style was integrated with the abstract ornamentation of the native pagan Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition, characterized by its bright colouring and zoomorphic interlace patterns.",
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"plaintext": "Insular art, rich in symbolism and meaning, is characterized by its concern for geometric design rather than naturalistic representation, love of flat areas of colour, and use of complicated interlace patterns. All of these elements appear in the Lindisfarne Gospels (early eighth century). The Insular style was eventually imported to the European continent, exercising great influence on the art of the Carolingian empire.",
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"plaintext": "Usage of the Insular style was not limited to manuscript production and metalwork. It can be seen in and sculpture, such as the Ruthwell Cross and Bewcastle Cross. The devastating Viking raid on Lindisfarne in 793 marked the beginning of a century of Viking invasions that severely limited the production and survival of Anglo-Saxon material culture. It heralded the end of Northumbria's position as a centre of influence, although in the years immediately following visually rich works like the Easby Cross were still being produced.",
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"plaintext": "The Venerable Bede (673–735) is the most famous author of the Anglo-Saxon Period, and a native of Northumbria. His (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) has become both a template for later historians and a crucial historical account in its own right, and much of it focuses on Northumbria. He's also famous for his theological works, and verse and prose accounts of holy lives. After the Synod of Whitby, the role of the European continent gained importance in Northumbrian culture. During the end of the eighth century, the scriptorium at Monkwearmouth–Jarrow was producing manuscripts of his works for high demand on the Continent.",
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"plaintext": "Northumbria was also home to several Anglo-Saxon Christian poets. Cædmon lived at the double monastery of Streonæshalch (Whitby Abbey) during the abbacy (657–680) of St. Hilda (614–680). According to Bede, he \"was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven.\" His sole surviving work is Cædmon's Hymn. Cynewulf, prolific author of The Fates of the Apostles, Juliana, Elene, and Christ II, is believed to have been either Northumbrian or Mercian.",
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"plaintext": "From around 800, there had been waves of Danish raids on the coastlines of the British Isles. These raids terrorized the populace, but exposure to Danish society brought new opportunities for wealth and trade. In 865, instead of raiding, the Danes landed a large army in East Anglia, and had conquered a territory known as the Danelaw, including Northumbria, by 867. At first, the Scandinavian minority, while politically powerful, remained culturally distinct from the English populace. For example, only a few Scandinavian words, mostly military and technical, became part of Old English. By the early 900s, however, Scandinavian-style names for both people and places became increasingly popular, as did Scandinavian ornamentation on works of art, featuring aspects of Norse mythology, and figures of animals and warriors. Nevertheless, sporadic references to \"Danes\" in charters, chronicles, and laws indicate that during the lifetime of the Kingdom of Northumbria, most inhabitants of northeast England did not consider themselves Danish, and were not perceived as such by other Anglo-Saxons.",
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"plaintext": "The synthesis of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian and Christian and Pagan visual motifs within the Danelaw can be illustrated by an examination of stone sculpture. However, the tradition of mixing pagan and Christian motifs is not unique to the Danelaw, and examples of such synthesis can be seen in previous examples, such as the Franks Casket. The Franks Casket, believed to have been produced in Northumbria, includes depictions of Germanic legends and stories of the founding Roman and the Roman Church and is dated to the early eighth century. The Gosforth Cross, dated to the early tenth century, stands at 4.4 meters and is richly decorated with carvings of mythical beasts, Norse gods, and Christian symbolism. Stone sculpture was not a practice of native Scandinavian culture, and the proliferation of stone monuments within the Danelaw shows the influence that the English had on Viking settlers. On one side of the Gosforth Cross is a depiction of the Crucifixion; whilst on the other are scenes from Ragnarok. The melding of these distinctive religious cultures can further be seen in the depiction of Mary Magdalene as a valkyrie, with a trailing dress and long pigtail. Although one can read the iconography as the triumph of Christianity over paganism, it is possible that in the process of gradual conversion the Vikings might have initially accepted the Christian god as an addition to the broad pantheon of Pagan gods. The inclusion of pagan traditions in visual culture reflects the creation of a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian culture. Consequently, this indicates that conversion not only required a change in belief, but also necessitated its assimilation, integration, and modification into existing cultural structures.",
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"plaintext": "Northumbria's economy centred around agriculture, with livestock and land being popular units of value in local trade. By the mid 800s, the Open field system was likely the pre-eminent mode of farming. Like much of eastern England, Northumbria exported grain, silver, hides, and slaves. Imports from Frankia included oil, luxury goods, and clerical supplies in the 700s. Especially after 793, raids, gifts, and trade with Scandinavians resulted in substantial economic ties across the North Sea.",
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"plaintext": "When coinage (as opposed to bartering) regained popularity in the late 600s, Northumbrian coins featured kings' names, indicating royal control of currency. Royal currency was unique in Britain for a long time. King Aldfrith (685–705) minted Northumbria's earliest silver coins, likely in York. Later royal coinage bears the name of King Eadberht (738–758), as well as his brother, archbishop Ecgbert of York. These coins were primarily small silver sceattas, more suitable to small, everyday transactions than larger gold Frankish or Roman coins. During the reign of King Eanred the silver content of the coins declined until they were produced in copper alloy, these coins are commonly known as stycas, but the term is an antiquarian invention. Stycas remains in use throughout the kingdom until at least the 860s and possibly later. Larger bullion values can be seen in the silver ingots found in the Bedale Hoard, along with sword fittings and necklaces in gold and silver.",
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"plaintext": "In the time of Bede, there were five languages in Britain: English, British, Irish, Pictish, and Latin. Northumbrian was one of four distinct dialects of Old English, along with Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish. Analysis of written texts, brooches, runes and other available sources shows that Northumbrian vowel pronunciation differed from West Saxon. ",
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"plaintext": "Although loans borrowed from the Celtic Languages, such as the Common Brittonic language of the Britons, and the Old Irish of the Irish missionaries, into Old English were few, some place-names such as Deira and Bernicia derive their names from Celtic tribal origins.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the five languages present in Bede's day, Old Norse was added during the ninth century. This was due to the settlements of the Norse in the north and east of England, an area that became the Danelaw. This language had a strong influence on the dialect of Northumbria. These settlers gave the region many place-names from their language as well as contributing to the vocabulary, syntax, and grammar of Old English. Similarities in basic vocabulary between Old English and Old Norse may have led to dropping of their different inflectional endings. The number of borrowed words is conservatively estimated to be around nine-hundred in standard English but rises to the thousands in some dialects.",
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"plaintext": " (Parallel Latin text and English translation with English notes.)",
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"plaintext": " Lowlands-L, An e-mail discussion list for those who share an interest in the languages & cultures of the Lowlands",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " Lowlands-L in Nothumbrian",
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},
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"plaintext": " Northumbrian Language Society",
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"plaintext": " Northumbrian Small Pipes Encyclopedia",
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"plaintext": " Northumbrian Traditional Music",
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"plaintext": " Visit Northumberland – The Official Visitor Site for Northumberland",
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"Lothian",
"North_East_England",
"Northumberland",
"Regions_of_England",
"History_of_the_Scottish_Borders",
"954_disestablishments",
"653_establishments",
"States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_950s",
"Anglo-Saxon_kingdoms",
"Former_kingdoms",
"States_and_territories_established_in_the_650s",
"Former_countries_in_Europe",
"Former_monarchies_of_Europe"
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| 107,299 | 29,476 | 1,307 | 247 | 0 | 0 | Kingdom of Northumbria | kingdom of the Angles (653–954) | [
"Norþanhymbra",
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|
36,720 | 1,024,584,433 | 250s | [
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"plaintext": "The 250s (pronounced two-fifties or two-hundred and fifties) was a decade that ran from January 1, 250, to December 31, 259.",
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| [
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| 217,851 | 148 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 250s | decade | []
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36,721 | 1,097,110,418 | 260s | [
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| 219,336 | 164 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 260s | decade | []
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36,722 | 1,032,654,534 | 280s | [
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| [
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| 220,774 | 147 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 280s | decade | []
|
36,728 | 1,105,622,016 | San_Juan_Islands | [
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"plaintext": "Archaeologists use the term \"Gulf of Georgia Culture Area\" to refer to the San Juan and Gulf Islands, the whole of which shows many archaeological commonalities. The San Juan Islands were part of the traditional area of various peoples of the Coast Salish ethnolinguistic group. Linguistically, Coast Salish groups in the area consist of the Nooksack and Northern Straits (which includes the Lummi, Klallam, Saanich, Samish and Songhees dialects). Exploration by Europeans brought smallpox to the area by the 1770s.",
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"plaintext": "The name \"San Juan\" was given to the islands by the Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza, who charted the islands in 1791, naming them Isla y Archiepelago de San Juan. The expedition sailed under the authority of the Viceroy of Mexico, Juan Vicente de Güemes Padilla Horcasitas y Aguayo, 2nd Count of Revillagigedo and Eliza named several places for him, including the San Juan Islands, Orcas Island (short for \"Horcasitas\") and Guemes Island. San Juan Island's first European discoverer was one of the officers under Eliza's command, Gonzalo López de Haro, for whom Haro Strait is named. The Spanish had found the islands a year earlier during the exploring voyage of Manuel Quimper on the Princesa Real, but it was not clear to them that they were islands. José María Narváez, one of Eliza's pilots, also helped explore the San Juans in 1791, and went on to become the first European to explore the Strait of Georgia.",
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"plaintext": "In 1792 the British Vancouver Expedition under George Vancouver explored the area. At the same time a Spanish expedition under Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores was also exploring. Shortly after leaving the San Juans the British and Spanish ships met and cooperated in exploring areas to the north.",
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"plaintext": "In 1841 the United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes further explored the region.",
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"plaintext": "Vancouver's expedition occurred within a year of Eliza's, and Vancouver encountered other Spanish ships and traded information. Thus Vancouver knew of the names given by Eliza's expedition and tended to keep them, although he renamed some features, like the Strait of Georgia. Wilkes, sailing in 1841, had some British charts, but may not have been aware of the Spanish names and charts. He liberally gave new names to nearly every coastal feature not already named on the charts he had. The names that Wilkes gave tended to be patriotically American (heroes of the War of 1812 for example), or to honor members of his crew.",
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"plaintext": "In 1847, due to the confusion of multiple names on different charts, the British Admiralty reorganized the official charts of the region. The project, led by Henry Kellett, applied only to British territory, which at the time included the San Juan Islands, but not Puget Sound. Kellett systematically kept the British and Spanish names and removed nearly all of Wilkes' names. In some cases Kellett moved Spanish names around to replace names given by Wilkes. Thus, in Puget Sound, the names given by Wilkes are common and Spanish names rare, while the reverse is true for the San Juan and Gulf Islands, although the Spanish did not explore Puget Sound as thoroughly as the British and Americans, resulting in fewer Spanish names at the outset. Wilkes had given the name Navy Archipelago to the San Juan Islands, and named individual islands for distinguished officers of the U.S. Navy, such as Rodgers Island for San Juan Island, and Hull Island for Orcas Island. Some of his names survived the editing of Kellett, such as Chauncey, Shaw, Decatur, Jones, Blakely, Perry, Sinclair, Lawrence, Gordon, and Percival, all named after American naval officers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1843, the Hudson's Bay Company established Fort Camosun at nearby Vancouver Island. The 1846 Oregon Treaty established the 49th parallel as the boundary between Canada and the U.S. west to the middle of the Strait of Georgia, and then by the main channel south to the Strait of Juan de Fuca and from there westwards to the open ocean. While both sides agreed that all of Vancouver Island would remain British, the treaty did not specify which channel the boundary should follow between the Strait of Georgia and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, resulting in a boundary dispute. This dispute, though simmering immediately in the wake of the treaty, escalated in the 1850s. In 1852 the Territory of Oregon created Island County, defined to include the San Juan Islands (or \"Haro Archipelago\"). In 1853 Island County became part of the newly created Washington Territory. Washington Territory's legislature created Whatcom County out of parts of Island County in March 1854, including the San Juan Islands. The islands were finally split off Whatcom County into present day San Juan County on October 31, 1873.",
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"plaintext": "In 1855, Washington Territory levied a property tax on properties of the Hudson's Bay Company on San Juan Island, which the HBC refused to pay. Washington Territory then advertised and sold the properties to satisfy the unpaid taxes. This led to talks between the governors of Washington Territory and the Colony of Vancouver Island. It soon became clear that the US claimed Haro Strait as the international border, while Britain claimed Rosario Strait, with both sides laying claim to the San Juan Islands. The escalating dispute led to the Pig War in 1859 and the resulting San Juan Dispute, which was a protracted diplomatic confrontation. Effectively a stalemate, with no clear legal arguments, it continued until the boundary issue was eventually placed in the hands of Emperor Wilhelm I of Germany for arbitration in 1871. The border, through Haro Strait, was finally established in 1872.",
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"plaintext": "The surrounding bodies of water, including Puget Sound and the Straits of Georgia and Juan de Fuca, were recognized collectively as the Salish Sea, by the United States in 2009 and by Canada in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "The islands were heavily logged in the nineteenth century, but now have an extensive second-growth coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), red alder (Alnus rubra) and bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum) forest. There are small stands of old-growth Douglas fir and western redcedar (Thuja plicata), mostly within long standing privately held property. In the highlands one also finds grand fir (Abies grandis), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and other subalpine trees.",
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"plaintext": "The San Juan Islands host the greatest concentration of bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in the contiguous United States. Great blue herons (Ardea herodias), black oystercatchers (Haematopus bachman), and numerous shorebirds are found along the shore and in winter, the islands are home to trumpeter swans (Cygnus buccinator), Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and other waterfowl. Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), northern harriers (Circus cyaneus), barred owls (Strix varia) and other birds of prey are found. In addition diving birds such as rhinoceros auklets (Cerorhinca monocerata), pigeon guillemots (Cepphus columba) and endangered marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus) frequent the surrounding seas. Western bluebirds (Sialia mexicana), which were eliminated from the islands 50 years ago because of competition for nesting sites by non-native European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), were recently restored to San Juan Island thanks to the efforts of volunteers and conservation organizations.",
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"plaintext": "The islands are famous for their resident pods of orcas (Orcinus orca). There are three resident pods that eat salmon, but also some transient orcas that come to take harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Other marine mammals include river otters (Lontra canadensis), Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), common minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), Dall's porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) and other cetaceans.",
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"plaintext": "Columbia black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) are the largest mammals on the San Juan Islands, which are unusual in their historic absence of large carnivores, except for wolves (Canis lupus) which were extirpated in the 1860s. Dr. Caleb B. R. Kennerly, surgeon and naturalist, collected a wolf specimen on Lopez Island, which is now in the National Museum of Natural History, probably during the Northwest Boundary Survey from 1857 to 1861. Also, there is a specimen of elk in the Slater Museum of Natural History at the University of Puget Sound that was collected on Orcas Island, and old-timers report finding elk antlers on both Lopez and Orcas Islands.",
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"plaintext": "Before 1850, most of the freshwater on the islands was held in beaver (Castor canadensis) ponds, although the aquatic mammal was extirpated by Hudson's Bay Company fur stations at Fort Langley and San Juan Island. Remnants of beaver dams number in the hundreds across the archipelago. Gnawed stumps and beaver sign are now seen on Orcas and other islands, and recolonization by this keystone species is likely to lead to increased abundance and diversity of birds, amphibians, reptiles and plants. In spring 2011 a pair of beaver appeared at Killebrew Lake on Orcas Island, but were killed to avoid flooding a phone company switch box buried under Dolphin Bay Road. These beaver likely swam from the mainland and could have recolonized the islands.",
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"plaintext": "Northern sea otter (Enhydra lutis kenyoni) remains are documented on Sucia Island in the San Juan Islands archipelago. In 1790, Spanish explorer Manuel Quimper traded copper sheets for sea otter pelts at Discovery Bay, for live sea otters captured north of the bay in the \"interior\" of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Although historical records of sea otter in the San Juan Islands are sparse, there is a sea otter specimen collected in 1897 in the \"Strait of Fuca\" in the National Museum of Natural History. When the sea otter finally received federal protection in 1911, Washington's sea otter had been hunted to extinction, and although a small remnant population still existed in British Columbia, it soon died out. Fifty-nine sea otters were re-introduced to the Washington coast from Amchitka Island, Alaska, in the summers of 1969 and 1970, and these have expanded by 8% per year, mainly along the outer west and northwest coast of the Olympic Peninsula. Professional marine mammal biologists verified a single sea otter observed near Cattle Point, San Juan Island, in October 1996. Although the historical numbers of sea otter in the San Juan Islands is not known, the habitat for them may have once been ideal.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1890s non-native European rabbits, an exotic invasive species, began to infest the islands as the result of the release of domestic rabbits on Smith Island. Rabbits from the San Juan Islands were used later for several introductions of European rabbits into other, usually Midwestern, states. The rabbits are pursued by Eurasian red fox (Vulpes vulpes), another non-native species introduced intermittently through the twentieth century.",
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"plaintext": "On the islands is the San Juan Islands National Monument with 75 sections.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines the San Juan Islands as the archipelago north of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, west of Rosario Strait, east of Haro Strait, and south of Boundary Pass. To the north lie the open waters of the Strait of Georgia. All these waters are within the Salish Sea. The USGS definition of the San Juan archipelago coincides with San Juan County. Islands not in San Juan County are not part of the San Juan Islands, according to the USGS.",
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"plaintext": "In the present, the San Juan Islands are an important tourist destination, with sea kayaking and orca whale-watching (by boat or air tours) being two of the primary attractions. San Juan Island's Lime Kiln Point State Park is a prime whale-watching site, with knowledgeable interpreters often on site.",
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"plaintext": "Politically, the San Juan Islands comprise, by definition, San Juan County, Washington.",
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"plaintext": "At mean high tide, the archipelago comprises over 400 islands and rocks, 128 of which are named, and over of shoreline.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of the San Juan Islands are quite hilly, with some flat areas and valleys in between, often quite fertile. The tallest peak is Mount Constitution, on Orcas Island, at an elevation of . The coastlines are a mix of sandy and rocky beaches, shallow inlets and deep harbors, placid coves and reef-studded bays. Gnarled, ochre-colored madrona trees (Arbutus) grace much of the shorelines, while evergreen fir and pine forests cover large inland areas.",
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"plaintext": "The San Juan Islands get substantially less rainfall than Seattle, about to the south, due to their location in the rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains to the southwest. Summertime high temperatures are around , while average wintertime lows are in the high 30s and low 40s Fahrenheit (around 5 degrees Celsius). Snow is infrequent in winter, except for the higher elevations, but the islands are subject to high winds at times; those from the northeast sometimes bring brief periods of freezing.",
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"plaintext": "Media based in and/or concerning the islands includes the Journal of the San Juan Islands and the Islands' Sounder.",
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"plaintext": "There are no bridges to the San Juan Islands; therefore, all travel from the mainland is either by water or by air.",
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"plaintext": "Four ferry systems serve some of the San Juan Islands.",
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"plaintext": "Washington State Ferries serves Lopez Island, Shaw Island, Orcas Island, and San Juan Island from terminals in Anacortes, Washington, and Sidney, British Columbia.",
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"plaintext": "Puget Sound Express provides passenger-only service from Port Townsend, on the northeast corner of the Olympic Peninsula, to Friday Harbor on San Juan Island.",
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"plaintext": "Clipper Navigation's Victoria Clipper provides seasonal ferry service to Friday Harbor from Vancouver Island and Seattle.",
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"plaintext": "Passenger-only ferries serve more islands. Passenger-only ferry service is usually seasonal and offered by private business.",
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"plaintext": "San Juan Cruises offers charter service to Eliza Island, Sinclair Island, Blakely Island, Orcas Island, Lopez Island and daily seasonal service to San Juan Island from the Bellingham Cruise Terminal in Bellingham, Washington.",
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"plaintext": "North Shore Charters provides high-speed water taxi service to all of the main San Juan Islands.",
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"plaintext": "Victoria Clipper offers overnight packages between Seattle and Friday Harbor, San Juan Island.",
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"plaintext": "Air service to the San Juan Islands is provided by the following:",
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"plaintext": " Kenmore Air (to and from Roche Harbor, Orcas Island, Seattle/Boeing Field, Seattle/Lake Union)",
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"plaintext": " San Juan Airlines (to and from Anacortes, Bellingham, Eastsound (Orcas Island), Lopez Island, Blakely, Decatur). They merged with Northwest Sky Ferry, an inter-island carrier serving Bellingham, Anacortes, Friday and Roche Harbors (San Juan Island), Eastsound (Orcas Island) and Lopez, Waldron, Shaw, Stuart, Blakely, Center, Crane, Decatur and Eliza Islands, as well as Seattle.",
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"plaintext": "Friday Harbor Seaplanes (to and from Renton Municipal Airport/Lake Washington, Friday Harbor and Roche Harbor)",
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"plaintext": "The San Juan Islands are surrounded by major shipping channels. Haro Strait, along with Boundary Pass, is the westernmost and most heavily used channel connecting the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. It is the main route connecting the Port of Vancouver and other ports around the Strait of Georgia with the Pacific Ocean. Haro Strait joins Boundary Pass at Turn Point on Stuart Island, where a major navigation beacon, Turn Point Light, is located. Strong, dangerous rip tides occur near Turn Point, as well as near the northern end of Boundary Pass, between Patos Island Light on Patos Island and East Point on Saturna Island.",
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"plaintext": "Rosario Strait is also a major shipping channel. More than 500 oil tankers pass through the strait each year, to and from the Cherry Point Refinery and refineries near Anacortes. The strait is in constant use by vessels bound for Cherry Point, Bellingham, Anacortes, and the San Juan Islands. Vessels bound for British Columbia or Alaska also frequently use it in preference to the passages farther west, when greater advantage can be taken of the tidal currents.",
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"plaintext": "This list includes only those islands that are part of San Juan County as defined by the USGS, bounded by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Haro Strait, Rosario Strait, Boundary Pass, and the Strait of Georgia. 2016 populations estimates for inhabited islands are in parentheses, though some have major seasonal changes. Islands protected as state parks are marked with an asterisk. Additional small rocks are listed at San Juan Islands National Monument.",
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"plaintext": "Aleck Rocks",
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"plaintext": "Alegria Island (aka Little Double Island)",
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"plaintext": "Armitage Island",
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"plaintext": "Bare Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Barnes Island",
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"plaintext": "Barren Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Battleship Island",
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17
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{
"plaintext": "Bell Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Big Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Bird Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Bird Rocks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Black Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Blakely Island (42)",
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{
"plaintext": "Blind Island (Lopez)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Blind Island *",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Boulder Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Brown Island (21)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Buck Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cactus Islands",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Canoe Island",
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12
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},
{
"plaintext": "Castle Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Cayou Island (aka Rum Island)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cemetery Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Center Island (20)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Charles Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Clark Island *",
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{
"plaintext": "Cliff Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cluster Islands",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Colville Island",
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15
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},
{
"plaintext": "Coon Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Crab Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Crane Island (10)",
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12
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},
{
"plaintext": "Deadman Island",
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14
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},
{
"plaintext": "Decatur Island (89)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Dinner Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Doe Island *",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Double Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Ewing Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fawn Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Flattop Island",
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14
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},
{
"plaintext": "Flower Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fortress Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Freeman Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Frost Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Geese Islets",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Giffin Rocks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Goose Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Gossip Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Gull Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Guss Island",
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11
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},
{
"plaintext": "Hall Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Harnden Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Henry Island (27)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Iceberg Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Iowa Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "James Island *",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Johns Island (5)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Jones Island *",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Justice Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Little Patos Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Little Sister Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Little Sucia Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Lone Tree Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Long Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Lopez Island (2,466)",
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"plaintext": "Low Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Matia Island *",
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},
{
"plaintext": "McConnell Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mummy Rocks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Nob Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "North Finger Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "North Peapod Island",
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{
"plaintext": "O'Neal Island",
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},
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"plaintext": "Oak Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Obstruction Island (14)",
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18
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},
{
"plaintext": "Orcas Island (5,395)",
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"plaintext": "Patos Island *",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Peapod Rocks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pearl Island (11)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Picnic Island (aka Sheep Island)",
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{
"plaintext": "Pointer Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pole Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Posey Island *",
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{
"plaintext": "Ram Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Reads Bay Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Reef Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Reef Point Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Richardson Rock",
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{
"plaintext": "Rim Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Ripple Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Saddlebag Island *",
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},
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"plaintext": "San Juan Island (7,810)",
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{
"plaintext": "Satellite Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Secar Rock",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Sentinel Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Shag Rock",
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},
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12
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},
{
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},
{
"plaintext": "South Finger Island",
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{
"plaintext": "South Peapod Island",
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{
"plaintext": "Spieden Island",
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14
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},
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"plaintext": "Stuart Island (11) *",
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"plaintext": "Sucia Island (4) *",
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{
"plaintext": "Swirl Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Sisters",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Tift Rocks",
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{
"plaintext": "Trump Island",
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"plaintext": "Turn Island *",
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"plaintext": "Twin Rocks",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Vendovi Island",
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"plaintext": "Victim Island",
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"plaintext": "Waldron Island (109)",
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"plaintext": "Wasp Islands",
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"plaintext": "Whale Rocks",
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{
"plaintext": "White Rocks",
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{
"plaintext": "Willow Island",
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"plaintext": "Yellow Island",
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},
{
"plaintext": "List of islands of Washington (state)",
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},
{
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36,729 | 1,089,416,963 | SCUMM | [
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"plaintext": "Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion (SCUMM) is a video game engine developed at Lucasfilm Games, later renamed LucasArts, to ease development on their graphic adventure game Maniac Mansion (1987). It was subsequently used as the engine for later LucasArts adventure games.",
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"plaintext": "The original version was coded by Ron Gilbert (with some initial help by Chip Morningstar aka. UnXman) in 1987, with later versions enhanced by Aric Wilmunder (a.k.a., the SCUMM Lord) and various others. This is a token language that provided groundbreaking coding techniques. Tokens like P.R.I.N.E. were the first to be utilized.",
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"plaintext": "The nature of SCUMM emerged from the background of most of the early programmers at LucasArts, including Wilmunder, who have been programmers for mainframe computers. At the time, personal computers (PC) did not have large enough abilities or speed to edit and compile programs, so often the LucasArts coders would write code as cleanly as possible on a mainframe system to remove all errors so that, while compiling on a PC would be slow, it would be less error-prone. This concept informed the idea of a scripting language that would be cross-platform.",
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"plaintext": "SCUMM was developed to be a tool that converted human-readable commands into byte-sized tokens that then would be read by an executable interpreter program that presented the game to the player. For example, the SCUMM command would be tokenized to a 4-byte command. They did not want to have specific details about a game hard-coded into the script, so the tokenizer would be able to recognize actors by their name from the script instead of by internal numbers. The only exception was to display a character's dialog in a different text color for Maniac Mansion in which they had to include the number, but this was subsequently revised by the time Zak McKracken was released. The scripts included the ability to multitask, such as having background actors enact behavior while waiting for foreground actions to complete. The combined tools enabled for rapid prototyping of a game. Scripters could work with preliminary character and background art drawn by the artists to hone their scripts while providing feedback to the artists.",
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"plaintext": "The SCUMM program was responsible for tokenizing the scripts and gathering all other assets (such as art and sound) as a package. The reusable interpreter was called SPUTM, the SCUMM Presentation Utility (TM) which was renamed on shipment of the game to the name of the game's executable. SPUTM would interpret the scripts, load assets from disc, and handle the other user interactions with the game. SPUTM was not actually trademarked, but according to Wilmunder, they wanted \"to name it after another bodily fluid\". SCUMM was subsequently reused in many later LucasArts adventure games being both updated and rewritten several times. According to Wilmunder, the version of SCUMM for Maniac Mansion had about 80% of the commands that would end up being used in the later versions of the engine, with most key commands requiring no modification. Other tools and engines were developed alongside SCUMM to aid in development, and named for other body fluids. SPIT was used to manage text fonts on different parts of the screen. FLEM was used to define a specific room, track objects within it, and specify clipping planes for character animation. MMUCAS was used with FLEM to compile a room and its objects into one file that would enable the scripters to make rapid changes without having to recompile the room's description. BYLE and subsequently CYST were used for character animations and scaling, the latter used for the more complex art in LucasArts' later games.",
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"plaintext": "The notable exception to this general paradigm is Loom (1990), which does not use the standard verb–object interface, but replaces most actions with a selection of spells played on an instrument.",
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"plaintext": "\"What blockchain does is shift some of the trust in people and institutions to trust in technology. You need to trust the cryptography, the protocols, the software, the computers and the network. And you need to trust them absolutely, because they’re often single points of failure.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"I’ve never seen a legitimate use case for blockchain. I’ve never seen any system where blockchain provides security in a way that is impossible to provide in any other way.\"",
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"plaintext": "He goes on to say that cryptocurrencies are useless and are only used by speculators looking for quick riches.",
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"plaintext": "To Schneier, peer review and expert analysis are important for the security of cryptographic systems. Mathematical cryptography is usually not the weakest link in a security chain; effective security requires that cryptography be combined with other things.",
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"plaintext": "The term Schneier's law was coined by Cory Doctorow in a 2004 speech. The law is phrased as:",
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"plaintext": "He attributes this to Bruce Schneier, who wrote in 1998: \"Anyone, from the most clueless amateur to the best cryptographer, can create an algorithm that he himself can't break. It's not even hard. What is hard is creating an algorithm that no one else can break, even after years of analysis.\"",
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"plaintext": "Similar sentiments had been expressed by others before. In The Codebreakers, David Kahn states: \"Few false ideas have more firmly gripped the minds of so many intelligent men than the one that, if they just tried, they could invent a cipher that no one could break\", and in \"A Few Words On Secret Writing\", in July 1841, Edgar Allan Poe had stated: \"Few persons can be made to believe that it is not quite an easy thing to invent a method of secret writing which shall baffle investigation. Yet it may be roundly asserted that human ingenuity cannot concoct a cipher which human ingenuity cannot resolve.\"",
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"plaintext": "Schneier is critical of digital rights management (DRM) and has said that it allows a vendor to increase lock-in. Proper implementation of control-based security for the user via trusted computing is very difficult, and security is not the same thing as control.",
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"plaintext": "Schneier is a proponent of full disclosure, i.e. making security issues public.",
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"plaintext": "Schneier has said that homeland security money should be spent on intelligence, investigation, and emergency response. Defending against the broad threat of terrorism is generally better than focusing on specific potential terrorist plots. According to Schneier, analysis of intelligence data is difficult but is one of the better ways to deal with global terrorism. Human intelligence has advantages over automated and computerized analysis, and increasing the amount of intelligence data that is gathered does not help to improve the analysis process. Agencies that were designed around fighting the Cold War may have a culture that inhibits the sharing of information; the practice of sharing information is more important and less of a security threat in itself when dealing with more decentralized and poorly funded adversaries such as al Qaeda.",
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"plaintext": "Regarding PETN—the explosive that has become terrorists' weapon of choice—Schneier has written that only swabs and dogs can detect it. He also believes that changes to airport security since 11 September 2001 have done more harm than good and he defeated Kip Hawley, former head of the Transportation Security Administration, in an Economist online debate by 87% to 13% regarding the issue. He is widely credited with coining the term \"security theater\" to describe some such changes.",
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"plaintext": "As a Fellow of Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University, Schneier is exploring the intersection of security, technology, and people, with an emphasis on power.",
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"plaintext": "\"Movie-plot threat\" is a term Schneier coined that refers to very specific and dramatic terrorist attack scenarios, reminiscent of the behavior of terrorists in movies, rather than what terrorists actually do in the real world. Security measures created to protect against movie plot threats do not provide a higher level of real security, because such preparation only pays off if terrorists choose that one particular avenue of attack, which may not even be feasible. Real-world terrorists would also be likely to notice the highly specific security measures, and simply attack in some other way. The specificity of movie plot threats gives them power in the public imagination, however, so even extremely unrealistic security theater countermeasures may receive strong support from the public and legislators. Among many other examples of movie plot threats, Schneier described banning baby carriers from subways, for fear that they may contain explosives. Starting in April 2006, Schneier has had an annual contest to create the most fantastic movie-plot threat. In 2015, during the 8th and the last one, he mentioned that the contest may have run its course.",
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"plaintext": "Schneier has criticized security approaches that try to prevent any malicious incursion, instead arguing that designing systems to fail well is more important. The designer of a system should not underestimate the capabilities of an attacker, as technology may make it possible in the future to do things that are not possible at the present. Under Kerckhoffs's Principle, the need for one or more parts of a cryptographic system to remain secret increases the fragility of the system; whether details about a system should be obscured depends upon the availability of persons who can make use of the information for beneficial uses versus the potential for attackers to misuse the information.",
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"plaintext": "Schneier has been involved in the creation of many cryptographic algorithms.",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Applied Cryptography, John Wiley & Sons, 1994. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Protect Your Macintosh, Peachpit Press, 1994. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. E-Mail Security, John Wiley & Sons, 1995. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Applied Cryptography, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1996. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce; Kelsey, John; Whiting, Doug; Wagner, David; Hall, Chris; Ferguson, Niels. The Twofish Encryption Algorithm, John Wiley & Sons, 1996. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce; Banisar, David. The Electronic Privacy Papers, John Wiley & Sons, 1997. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Secrets and Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World, John Wiley & Sons, 2000. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Thinking Sensibly About Security in an Uncertain World, Copernicus Books, 2003. ",
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"plaintext": " Ferguson, Niels; Schneier, Bruce. Practical Cryptography, John Wiley & Sons, 2003. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Schneier on Security, John Wiley & Sons, 2008. ",
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"plaintext": " Ferguson, Niels; Schneier, Bruce; Kohno, Tadayoshi. Cryptography Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Liars and Outliers: Enabling the Trust that Society Needs to Thrive, John Wiley & Sons, 2012. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Carry On: Sound Advice from Schneier on Security, John Wiley & Sons, 2013. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World, W. W. Norton & Company, 2015. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-connected World, W. W. Norton & Company, 2018. ",
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"plaintext": " Schneier, Bruce. We Have Root: Even More Advice from Schneier on Security, John Wiley & Sons, 2019. ",
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"plaintext": "Schneier is a board member of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.",
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"plaintext": " Snake oil (cryptography)",
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"plaintext": " Bruce Schneier at Google, 19 June 2013. Schneier discusses various aspects of Internet computing and global geo-politics including trust, power relations, control, cooperative systems, ethics, laws, and security technologies. (55 minutes)",
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"plaintext": "Columbia Business School (CBS) is the business school of Columbia University, a private research university in New York City. Established in 1916, Columbia Business School is one of six Ivy League business schools and is one of the oldest business schools in the world. Although it originally offered undergraduate degrees, it stopped doing so in the middle of the twentieth century and now only offers graduate degrees and professional programs.",
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"plaintext": "The school was founded in 1916 with 11 full-time faculty members and an inaugural class of 61 students, including 8 women. Banking executive Emerson McMillin provided initial funding in 1916, while A. Barton Hepburn, then president of Chase National Bank, provided funding for the school's endowment in 1919. The school expanded rapidly, enrolling 420 students by 1920, and in 1924 added a PhD program to the existing BS and MS degree programs.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952, CBS admitted its last class of undergraduates. The school currently offers executive education programs that culminate in a Certificate in Business Excellence (CIBE) and full alumni status, and several degree programs for the MBA and PhD degrees. In addition to the full-time MBA, the school offers four Executive MBA programs: the NY-EMBA Friday/Saturday program, the EMBA-Global program (launched in 2001 in conjunction with the London Business School), the EMBA-Americas program launched in 2012, and the EMBA-Global Asia program (launched in 2009 in conjunction with the London Business School and the University of Hong Kong Business School). Students in jointly run programs earn an MBA degree from each of the cooperating institutions.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2010, Columbia Business School announced that alumnus Henry Kravis, the billionaire co-founder of private-equity firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR & Co.), pledged $100million to fund an expansion of Columbia Business School, the largest gift in its history. The donation went toward construction of the business school's new site on Columbia's Manhattanville campus. In December 2012, Ronald Perelman also donated $100million to the construction of the second business school building. In September 2021, David Geffen pledged $75 million to support the new campus' construction. The buildings are designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro, and are named Henry R. Kravis Hall and David Geffen Hall, respectively. Columbia Business School officially moved to Manhattanville in January, 2022.",
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"plaintext": "The Columbia MBA Program is one of the most competitive in the world with an admission rate of 13.6% for the 2021 entering class. The student body is highly accomplished and diverse. Students in the class that entered in 2009 come from 61 countries and speak more than 50 languages.",
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"plaintext": "The revised core curriculum, launched in the fall of 2008, represents about 40% of the degree requirement. It consists of 2 full courses and 12 half-term courses including Corporate Finance, Financial Accounting, Managerial Statistics, Managerial Economics, Leadership, Operations Management, and Marketing Strategy. While the first year of the program is usually devoted to completing the requirements of the core curriculum, the second year provides students with the opportunity to choose from the more than 130 elective courses available at the School and supplement them with more than 4,000 graduate-level classes from the University's other graduate and professional schools. Among the most popular electives at Columbia Business School are the Economics of Strategic Behavior, Financial Statement Analysis and Earnings Quality, Launching New Ventures, Modern Political Economy, and the Seminar in Value Investing.",
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"plaintext": "Columbia Business School has a firm grade non-disclosure policy, stating that students refrain from disclosing specific class grades, GPAs, or transcripts until they accept full-time, post graduation positions. Students enter Columbia's MBA program in two tracks. The traditional fall term is approximately 550 students, while the January term \"J-Term\" is approximately 200 students. Students entering in the fall are divided into eight clusters of approximately 65 students that take all first year core classes together. J-Term students are broken into three clusters. The J-Term is aimed at students who want an accelerated 18-month program who usually plan to return to their previous job, are company sponsored, and will not pursue a summer internship because they take classes during the summer.",
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"plaintext": "Dual degrees offered with the following schools include:",
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"plaintext": "The Columbia Business School Follies is a student club that works throughout each semester to put together a production in which students write, choreograph, and perform comedy skits. It achieved notoriety in 2006 for \"Every Breath Bernanke Takes\", its video parody of the Police song \"Every Breath You Take\". It purports to be from Glenn Hubbard, Dean of the Business School, in response to Hubbard's being a runner-up to the Fed Chairmanship assumed by Ben Bernanke.",
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"plaintext": "Columbia offers various executive MBA programs.",
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"plaintext": "The Executive MBA (EMBA) Friday/Saturday Program is a 20-month graduate program designed for individuals that are looking to enhance their education without interrupting their careers. The EMBA program is taught on campus at Columbia University by full-time faculty. The first year of classes consists of the same core curriculum as the Full-Time MBA program. Executive education is the focus of the second year. This Friday/Saturday program is targeted at individuals with approximately 10 years of work experience.",
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"plaintext": "The Executive MBA (EMBA) Saturday Program is a 24-month graduate degree program designed for individuals that are looking to enhance their education, but cannot take any time away from work. This program is the same as the Friday/Saturday program, with the exception that classes only meet on Saturdays over a longer period of time.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the New York-based EMBA Program, Columbia offers three partner programs to meet the differing needs and geographical distribution of prospective students. Because students in the partner EMBA programs must satisfy the separate requirements of each school, they earn an MBA degree from each participating university. Likewise, they become alumni of each university and business school and may avail themselves of all programs and privileges afforded to alumni.",
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"plaintext": "The EMBA-Global Americas & Europe program is a 20-month program administered in partnership with the London Business School. The program enrolls approximately 70 students from around the world per year. Courses are taught by the full-time faculty of both schools. During the first year, the core curriculum classes alternate monthly between the campuses of Columbia University and the London Business School. The core curriculum is similar to that offered in the regular EMBA programs offered separately by each school, but with a more transnational-business emphasis. Second year classes may be selected from the portfolio of EMBA classes offered at either or both partner schools.",
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"plaintext": "The EMBA-Global Asia, run jointly with the London Business School and the University of Hong Kong. This 20-month program follows a curriculum similar to the EMBA-Global program. Classes are held in Hong Kong, London, New York, and Shanghai.",
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"plaintext": " No. 2 worldwide, Financial Times, 2010 Executive MBA Rankings, Global-EMBA program",
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"plaintext": " No. 3 US Program, No. 13 worldwide. Financial Times, 2010 Executive MBA Rankings, Berkeley-Columbia program",
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"plaintext": " No. 4 US Program, No. 15 worldwide. Financial Times, 2010 Executive MBA Rankings, NY-EMBA program",
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"plaintext": " No. 5 US News and World Report 2010 Rankings",
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"plaintext": " No. 4 BusinessWeek Executive MBA Rankings, NY-EMBA program",
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"plaintext": " No. 9 Wall Street Journal Executive MBA Rankings, 2010, NY-EMBA program",
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"plaintext": "Columbia Business School offers three separate Master of Science degrees in Accounting and Fundamental Analysis, Financial Economics and Marketing. Admission to the programs is extremely competitive: in 2021, there were 837 applicants to the Financial Economics program and only 20 students were accepted.",
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"plaintext": "The degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is offered by the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and is administered by the Business School. Admission is highly competitive with 894 applicants in 2010 for positions in an entering class of 18 students (2%). In 2021, the Finance division received over 500 applications and admitted 3 students (Acceptance rate of 0.6%) A PhD in Management or Business is a common precursor to an academic career in business schools.",
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"plaintext": "Columbia Business School employs 136 full-time faculty members, including Joseph Stiglitz, the 2001 Nobel laureate in economics who also teaches at the university's School of International and Public Affairs; and Bernd Schmitt, the Robert D. Calkins Professor of International Business. The current Dean is the former Presidential Council of Economic Advisors Chairman Glenn Hubbard. Hedge fund gurus Joel Greenblatt and Ken Shubin Stein are currently adjunct professors. Bruce Greenwald teaches Value Investing and Economics of Strategic Behavior electives. Adam Dell, brother of Dell Inc. CEO Michael Dell, is a venture capitalist who teaches Business Innovation and Technology. Jonathan Knee teaches Media, Mergers, and Acquisitions and is the author of a book titled \"The Accidental Investment Banker\". Frederic Mishkin, member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, returned to teach at CBS starting fall 2008. Rita Gunther McGrath is a well known member of the strategy faculty and the author of four books on the subject, most recently The End of Competitive Advantage: How to Keep Your Strategy Moving as Fast As Your Business (2013, Harvard Business Review Publishing) Steve Blank created the Lean Launchpad class that he teaches a scientific method for teaching entrepreneurship that combines experiential learning with the three building blocks of a successful Lean Startup.",
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"plaintext": " Robert Kasten Jr., MBA 1966, U.S. Senator from Wisconsin 1981 to 1993.",
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"plaintext": " Charles E. Exley Jr., MBA 1954, Former chairman and CEO of NCR Corporation",
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"plaintext": " Cherie Nursalim, MBA 1990, Indonesian businesswoman, Vice Chairman of Giti Group",
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"plaintext": " Christopher O'Neill, MBA 2005, British-American businessman and husband of Princess Madeleine of Sweden",
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"plaintext": " Claude Arpels, MBA 1998, director of Van Cleef & Arpels",
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"plaintext": " Cyrus Massoumi, MBA 2003, founder of Zocdoc",
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"plaintext": " César Alierta, MBA 1970, CEO of Telefónica",
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"plaintext": " Daniele Bodini, MBA 1972, Italian real estate businessman, Ambassador of San Marino to the United Nations",
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"plaintext": " David C. Schmittlein, PhD 1980, Dean of MIT (Sloan)",
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"plaintext": " David LeFevre Dodd, MS 1921, PhD 1930, Father of value investing",
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"plaintext": " David Philbrick Conner, MBA 1976, CEO of Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation",
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"plaintext": " David S. Rose, MBA 1983, American entrepreneur, founder of New York Angels",
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"plaintext": " David Sainsbury, MBA 1971, Former Chairman of Sainsbury's",
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"plaintext": " David E. Simon, MBA 1985, Chairman and CEO of Simon Property Group",
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"plaintext": " Diana Taylor, MBA 1980, 42nd Superintendent of the New York State Banking Department; domestic partner of former mayor Michael Bloomberg",
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"plaintext": " Donna Rosato, MBA 2000, journalist, reporter for Money Magazine",
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"plaintext": " Douglas Hsu, MBA 1968, billionaire chairman of Far Eastern Group ",
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"plaintext": " Édouard Carmignac, MBA 1972, French investment banker and fund manager ",
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"plaintext": " Eduardo Verano De la Rosa, MBA 1978, Colombian Governor of Atlántico",
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"plaintext": " Emilio Lozoya, MBA 1972, Secretary of Energy of Mexico; father of Pemex CEO Emilio Lozoya Austin",
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"plaintext": " Ernest Higa, MBA 1976, Japanese-American entrepreneur",
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"plaintext": " Erskine Bowles, MBA 1969, Former White House Chief of Staff; President of the University of North Carolina system",
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"plaintext": " Eugene Lang, MS 1940, Chairman of the Eugene M. Lang Foundation",
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"plaintext": " Frank Lautenberg, BS 1949, U.S. Senator from New Jersey",
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"plaintext": " Gen Fukunaga, MBA 1989, Founder and CEO of Funimation Entertainment",
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"plaintext": " Gerri Willis, MBA, news journalist for Fox Business Network",
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"plaintext": " Hanzade Doğan Boyner, MBA 1999, vice-chairwoman of Doğan Holding and daughter of Turkish billionaire Aydın Doğan",
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"plaintext": " Howard L. Clark Jr., MBA 1968, Chairman and CEO of Shearson Lehman Brothers",
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[
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[
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64
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[
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{
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{
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{
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{
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12
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3534631,
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66
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{
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51
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{
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14
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47
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{
"plaintext": " Jordan Roth, MBA 2010, president and majority owner of Jujamcyn Theaters",
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73
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{
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{
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16
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59
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{
"plaintext": " Joshua Mitts, PhD 2018, Columbia Law School professor known for research into activist short-selling",
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{
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73
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{
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58
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{
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10
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{
"plaintext": " Keiko Sofia Fujimori, MBA 2008, Peruvian politician.",
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21
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13
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46,
56
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{
"plaintext": " Kenneth Ouriel, MBA 2009, Former CEO of Shaikh Khalifa Medical City in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; vascular surgeon",
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24440830,
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15
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[
41,
68
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[
72,
81
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[
83,
103
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[
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{
"plaintext": " Kevin Burke, MBA, Chairman and CEO of Consolidated Edison",
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[
1,
12
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[
39,
58
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{
"plaintext": " Koos Bekker, MBA 1984, Chairman of South Africa-based multinational mass media company Naspers",
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"section_name": "People",
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40709403
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leon G. Cooperman, MBA 1967, Founder, Chairman, and CEO of Omega Advisors",
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"section_name": "People",
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29989682
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[
1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leonard Lauder, MBA 1955, Chairman emeritus of the Estée Lauder Companies; son of Estée Lauder",
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"section_name": "People",
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1324580,
536709,
619138
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[
1,
15
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[
52,
74
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[
83,
95
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lewis A. Sanders, MBA 1995, former chairman and CEO of AllianceBernstein",
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"section_name": "People",
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16809964,
2226475
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[
1,
17
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[
56,
73
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lewis Frankfort, MBA 1969, Chairman and CEO of Coach",
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"section_name": "People",
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29995625,
55533835
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[
1,
16
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[
48,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " Li Lu, MBA 1996, Chinese-American investment banker, fund manager, and investor; one of the student leaders of the Tiananmen Square student protests of 1989",
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"section_name": "People",
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290033,
44534
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[
1,
6
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[
116,
157
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lionel Pincus, MBA 1956, Founder and Chairman of Warburg Pincus",
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"section_name": "People",
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23581008,
1304191
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[
1,
14
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50,
64
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{
"plaintext": " Lorne Abony, MBA 2003, owner of the Austin Aces; former CEO of Mood Media",
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"section_name": "People",
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20750599,
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[
1,
12
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[
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48
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[
64,
74
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Louis Bacon, MBA 1981, Chairman of Moore Capital Management",
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"section_name": "People",
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6376495,
26676283
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[
1,
12
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[
36,
60
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},
{
"plaintext": " Louis Rossetto, MBA 1973, Founder and Editor-in-Chief of Wired Magazine",
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"section_name": "People",
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360694,
65411
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[
1,
15
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[
58,
72
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lynn Tilton, MBA 1987, businesswoman; Collateralized loan obligation creator, owner, and manager; owner of Patriarch Partners, largest woman-owned business in the United States ",
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"section_name": "People",
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25023443,
18168380
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[
1,
12
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[
39,
69
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mark T. Cox IV, MBA 1971, former United States alternate executive director to the World Bank ",
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"section_name": "People",
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69965525,
45358446
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[
1,
15
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[
84,
94
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mario Gabelli, MBA 1967, Chairman and CEO of GAMCO",
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"section_name": "People",
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5335178
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mark Gallogly, MBA 1986, Founder of Centerbridge Partners",
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"section_name": "People",
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23910132,
28519455
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[
1,
14
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[
37,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mark Mays, MBA 1989, President and CEO of Clear Channel Communications",
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"section_name": "People",
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3280342,
180740
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[
1,
10
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[
43,
71
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mark Reckless, MBA 1999, UK Independence Party politician; Member of parliament for Rochester and Strood",
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"section_name": "People",
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27271705,
217536,
3750509
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[
1,
14
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[
26,
47
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[
85,
105
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Martin Kihn, MBA 2001, writer and digital marketer",
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"section_name": "People",
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27551707
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Martín Varsavsky, MBA 1985, Argentine/Spanish serial entrepreneur, founder of Jazztel, Ya.com and Fon",
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"section_name": "People",
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16727903,
9522640,
1921109
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[
1,
17
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[
79,
86
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[
99,
102
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matt Pincus, MBA 2002, founder and CEO of Songs Music Publishing, son of Lionel Pincus",
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68584245,
41083308,
23581008
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[
1,
12
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[
43,
65
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[
74,
87
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mauricio García Araujo, MBA, president of the Central Bank of Venezuela from 1987 ",
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[
1,
23
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[
47,
72
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{
"plaintext": " Max C. Chapman, MBA, Former President and CEO of Kidder, Peabody & Co.",
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30966647,
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[
1,
15
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[
50,
71
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{
"plaintext": " Mel Immergut, MBA, former chairman of international law firm Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy",
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"section_name": "People",
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52915829,
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[
1,
13
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[
62,
93
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{
"plaintext": " Meyer Feldberg, MBA 1965, former president of the Illinois Institute of Technology and dean of Columbia Business School",
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"section_name": "People",
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36545122,
73299
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[
1,
15
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[
51,
83
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{
"plaintext": " Michael A. Peel, MBA 1983, Former VP of Human Resources at Yale University and Fellow of The National Academy of Human Resources.",
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"section_name": "People",
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56236063,
34273
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[
1,
16
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[
60,
75
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},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Bellavia, MBA 1999, CEO of Animax Entertainment",
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"section_name": "People",
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3016625,
2277807
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[
1,
17
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[
36,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Goodkin, MBA 1968, Quantitative finance entrepreneur, founder of Arbitrage Management Company and Numerix",
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"section_name": "People",
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35025594
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Gould, MBA 1968, Chairman and CEO of Bloomingdale's",
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"section_name": "People",
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4479654,
843787
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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[
46,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mike Fries, MBA, CEO, Vice-Chairman of Liberty Global",
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"section_name": "People",
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57591948,
1543140
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[
1,
11
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[
40,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mike Jeffries, MBA 1968, CEO of Abercrombie and Fitch",
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"section_name": "People",
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8154152,
17255339
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[
1,
14
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[
33,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mitch Albom, MBA 1983, American best-selling author, journalist, screenwriter, Tuesdays with Morrie, The Five People You Meet in Heaven",
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"section_name": "People",
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433440,
920695,
1196343
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[
1,
12
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[
80,
100
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[
102,
136
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " N. Robert Hammer, MBA, Chairman and CEO of CommVault Systems",
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"section_name": "People",
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30149636
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nancy McKinstry, MB 1984, CEO and Chairman of the Executive Board of Wolters Kluwer",
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"section_name": "People",
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8031033,
1520374
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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[
70,
84
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Noor Pahlavi, MBA 2020, model, socialite and princess to the former throne of Iran",
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"section_name": "People",
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613947
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[
1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Patrick Stokes, MBA 1966, Former chairman and CEO of Anheuser-Busch",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
8596667,
310845
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
54,
68
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul B. Kazarian, MBA 1981, Founder, Chairman, and CEO of Japonica Partners",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
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[
59,
76
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul Calello, MBA 1987, Chairman and CEO of Credit Suisse's investment banking division ",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
29634167,
842695
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
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[
45,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul Montrone, PhD 1996, Chairman and CEO of Fisher Scientific",
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"section_name": "People",
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30190167,
1828854
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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[
46,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Penny Chenery, MBA, American sportswoman who bred and raced Secretariat, 1973 winner of the Triple Crown",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
6750923,
62400,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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[
61,
72
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[
93,
105
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Percy Uris, BS 1920, American real estate developer and namesake of Uris Hall, the business school building of Columbia",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
42286070
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1,
11
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},
{
"plaintext": " Peter A. Cohen, MBA 1969, Chairman and CEO of Shearson Lehman Brothers",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
28014943,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
47,
71
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},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Woo, MBA 1972, Chairman of Hong Kong Trade and Development Council, Wheelock & Co, and The Wharf Holdings Limited",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
1588929,
16662110,
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[
1,
10
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[
75,
88
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[
94,
120
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]
},
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"plaintext": "Bristol () is a city, ceremonial county and unitary authority in England. Situated on the River Avon, it is bordered by the ceremonial counties of Gloucestershire to the north and Somerset to the south. Bristol is the most populous city in South West England.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol was founded by 1000; by about 1020, it was a trading centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name. By 1067 Brycgstow was a well-fortified burh, and that year the townsmen beat back a raiding party from Ireland led by three of Harold Godwinson's sons. Under Norman rule, the town had one of the strongest castles in southern England. Bristol was the place of exile for Diarmait Mac Murchada, the Irish king of Leinster, after being overthrown. The Bristol merchants subsequently played a prominent role in funding Richard Strongbow de Clare and the Norman invasion of Ireland.",
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"plaintext": "The port developed in the 11th century around the confluence of the Rivers Frome and Avon, adjacent to Bristol Bridge just outside the town walls. By the 12th century, there was an important Jewish community in Bristol which survived through to the late 13th century when all Jews were expelled from England. The stone bridge built in 1247 was replaced by the current bridge during the 1760s. The town incorporated neighbouring suburbs and became a county in 1373, the first town in England to be given this status. During this period, Bristol became a shipbuilding and manufacturing centre. By the 14th century Bristol, York and Norwich were England's largest medieval towns after London. One-third to one-half of the population died in the Black Death of 1348–49, which checked population growth, and its population remained between 10,000 and 12,000 for most of the 15th and 16th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "During the 15th century Bristol was the second most important port in the country, trading with Ireland, Iceland and Gascony. It was the starting point for many voyages, including Robert Sturmy's (1457–58) unsuccessful attempt to break the Italian monopoly of Eastern Mediterranean trade. New exploration voyages were launched by Venetian John Cabot, who in 1497 made landfall in North America. A 1499 voyage, led by merchant William Weston of Bristol, was the first expedition commanded by an Englishman to North America. During the first decade of the 16th century Bristol's merchants undertook a series of exploration voyages to North America and even founded a commercial organisation, 'The Company Adventurers to the New Found Land', to assist their endeavours. However, they seem to have lost interest in North America after 1509, having incurred great expenses and made little profit.",
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"plaintext": "During the 16th century, Bristol merchants concentrated on developing trade with Spain and its American colonies. This included the smuggling of prohibited goods, such as food and guns, to Iberia during the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). Bristol's illicit trade grew enormously after 1558, becoming integral to its economy.",
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"plaintext": "The original Diocese of Bristol was founded in 1542, when the former Abbey of St. Augustine (founded by Robert Fitzharding four hundred years earlier) became Bristol Cathedral. Bristol also gained city status that year. During the English Civil War in the 1640s the city was occupied by Royalists, who built the Royal Fort House on the site of an earlier Parliamentarian stronghold.",
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"plaintext": "Fishermen from Bristol, who had fished the Grand Banks of Newfoundland since the 16th century, began settling Newfoundland permanently in larger numbers during the 17th century, establishing colonies at Bristol's Hope and Cuper's Cove. Growth of the city and trade came with the rise of England's American colonies in the 17th century. Bristol's location on the west side of Great Britain gave its ships an advantage in sailing to and from the New World, and the city's merchants made the most of it, with the city becoming one of the two leading outports in all of England by the middle of the 18th century. Bristol was a major supplier of slaves to South Carolina before 1750.",
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"plaintext": "The 18th century saw an expansion of Bristol's population (45,000 in 1750) and its role in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for slavery to the Americas. Bristol and later Liverpool became centres of the Triangular Trade. Manufactured goods were shipped to West Africa and exchanged for Africans; the enslaved captives were transported across the Atlantic to the Americas in the Middle Passage under brutal conditions. Plantation goods such as sugar, tobacco, rum, rice, cotton and a few slaves (sold to the aristocracy as house servants) returned across the Atlantic to England. Some household slaves were baptised in the hope this would lead them to be freed. The Somersett Case of 1772 clarified that slavery was illegal in England. At the height of the Bristol slave trade from 1700 to 1807, more than 2,000 slave ships carried a conservatively estimated 500,000 people from Africa to slavery in the Americas.",
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"plaintext": "In 1739 John Wesley founded the first Methodist chapel, the New Room, in Bristol. Wesley, along with his brother Charles Wesley and George Whitefield, preached to large congregations in Bristol and the neighbouring village of Kingswood, often in the open air.",
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"plaintext": "Wesley published a pamphlet on slavery, titled Thoughts Upon Slavery, in 1774 and the Society of Friends began lobbying against slavery in Bristol in 1783. The city's scions remained nonetheless strongly anti-abolitionist. Thomas Clarkson came to Bristol to study the slave trade and gained access to the Society of Merchant Venturers records. One of his contacts was the owner of the Seven Stars public house, who boarded sailors Clarkson sought to meet. Through these sailors he was able to observe how slaver captains and first mates \"plied and stupefied seamen with drink\" to sign them up. Other informants included ship surgeons and seamen seeking redress. When William Wilberforce began his parliamentary abolition campaign on 12 May 1788, he recalled the history of the Irish slave trade from Bristol, which he provocatively claimed continued into the reign of Henry VII. Hannah More, originally from Bristol, and a good friend of both Wilberforce and Clarkson, published \"Slavery, A Poem\" in 1788, just as Wilberforce began his parliamentary campaign. His major speech on 2 April 1792 likewise described the Bristol slave trade specifically, and led to the arrest, trial and subsequent acquittal of a local slaver captain named Kimber.",
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"plaintext": "The city was associated with Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London Paddington, two pioneering Bristol-built oceangoing steamships ( and ), and the Clifton Suspension Bridge. The new railway replaced the Kennet and Avon Canal, which had fully opened in 1810 as the main route for the transport of goods between Bristol and London. Competition from Liverpool (beginning around 1760), disruptions of maritime commerce due to war with France (1793) and the abolition of the slave trade (1807) contributed to Bristol's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of Northern England and the West Midlands. The tidal Avon Gorge, which had secured the port during the Middle Ages, had become a liability. An 1804–09 plan to improve the city's port with a floating harbour designed by William Jessop was a costly error, requiring high harbour fees.",
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"plaintext": "During the 19th century, Samuel Plimsoll, known as \"the sailor's friend,\" campaigned to make the seas safer; shocked by overloaded vessels, he successfully fought for a compulsory load line on ships.",
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"plaintext": "By 1867, ships were getting larger and the meanders in the river Avon prevented boats over from reaching the harbour, resulting in falling trade. The port facilities were migrating downstream to Avonmouth and new industrial complexes were founded there. Some of the traditional industries including copper and brass manufacture went into decline, but the import and processing of tobacco flourished with the expansion of the W.D. & H.O. Wills business.",
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"plaintext": "Supported by new industry and growing commerce, Bristol's population (66,000 in 1801), quintupled during the 19th century, resulting in the creation of new suburbs such as Clifton and Cotham. These provide architectural examples from the Georgian to the Regency style, with many fine terraces and villas facing the road, and at right angles to it. In the early 19th century, the romantic medieval gothic style appeared, partially as a reaction against the symmetry of Palladianism, and can be seen in buildings such as the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery, the Royal West of England Academy, and The Victoria Rooms. Riots broke out in 1793 and 1831; the first over the renewal of tolls on Bristol Bridge, and the second against the rejection of the second Reform Bill by the House of Lords. The population by 1841 had reached 140,158.",
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"plaintext": "The Diocese of Bristol had undergone several boundary changes by 1897 when it was \"reconstituted\" into the configuration which has lasted into the 21st century.",
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"plaintext": "From a population of about 330,000 in 1901, Bristol grew steadily during the 20th century, peaking at 428,089 in 1971. Its Avonmouth docklands were enlarged during the early 1900s by the Royal Edward Dock. Another new dock, the Royal Portbury Dock, opened across the river from Avonmouth during the 1970s. As air travel grew in the first half of the century, aircraft manufacturers built factories. The unsuccessful Bristol International Exhibition was held on Ashton Meadows in the Bower Ashton area in 1914. After the premature closure of the exhibition the site was used, until 1919, as barracks for the Gloucestershire Regiment during World War I.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol was heavily damaged by Luftwaffe raids during World War II; about 1,300 people living or working in the city were killed and nearly 100,000 buildings were damaged, at least 3,000 beyond repair. The original central shopping area, near the bridge and castle, is now a park containing two bombed churches and fragments of the castle. A third bomb-damaged church nearby, St Nicholas was restored and after a period as a museum has now re-opened as a church. It houses a 1756 William Hogarth triptych painted for the high altar of St Mary Redcliffe. The church also has statues of King Edward I (moved from Arno's Court Triumphal Arch) and King Edward III (taken from Lawfords' Gate in the city walls when they were demolished about 1760), and 13th-century statues of Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester (builder of Bristol Castle) and Geoffrey de Montbray (who built the city's walls) from Bristol's Newgate.",
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"plaintext": "The rebuilding of Bristol city centre was characterised by 1960s and 1970s skyscrapers, mid-century modern architecture and road building. Beginning in the 1980s some main roads were closed, the Georgian-era Queen Square and Portland Square were restored, the Broadmead shopping area regenerated, and one of the city centre's tallest mid-century towers was demolished. Bristol's road infrastructure changed dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s with the development of the M4 and M5 motorways, which meet at the Almondsbury Interchange just north of the city and link Bristol with London (M4 eastbound), Swansea (M4 westbound across the Severn Estuary), Exeter (M5 southbound) and Birmingham (M5 northbound). Bristol was bombed twice by the IRA, in 1974 and again in 1978.",
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"plaintext": "The 20th-century relocation of the docks to Avonmouth Docks and Royal Portbury Dock, downstream from the city centre, has allowed the redevelopment of the old dock area (the Floating Harbour). Although the docks' existence was once in jeopardy (since the area was seen as a derelict industrial site), the inaugural 1996 International Festival of the Sea held in and around the docks affirmed the area as a leisure asset of the city.",
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"plaintext": "From 2018, there were lively discussions about a new explicative plaque under a commemorative statue of one of the city's major benefactors in the 17th and 18th centuries. The plaque was meant to replace an original which made no reference to Edward Colston's past with the Royal Africa Company and the Bristol Slave Trade. On 7 June 2020 a statue of Colston was pulled down from its plinth by protestors and pushed into Bristol Harbour. The statue was recovered on 11 June and has become a museum exhibit.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol City council consists of 70 councillors representing 35 wards, with between one and three per ward serving four-year terms. Councillors are elected in thirds, with elections held in three years out of every four-year period. Thus, since wards do not have both councillors up for election at the same time, two-thirds of the wards participate in each election. Although the council was long dominated by the Labour Party, the Liberal Democrats have grown strong in the city and (as the largest party) took minority control of the council after the 2005 United Kingdom general election. In 2007, Labour and the Conservatives united to defeat the Liberal Democrat administration; Labour ruled the council as a minority administration, with Helen Holland as council leader.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2009, the Labour group resigned and the Liberal Democrats re-entered office with a minority administration. In the June 2009 council elections the Liberal Democrats gained four seats and, for the first time, overall control of the city council. In 2010 they increased their representation to 38 seats, giving them a majority of 6. In 2011, they lost their majority; leading to a hung council. In the 2013 local elections, in which a third of the city's wards were up for election, Labour gained 7seats and the Green Party doubled their seats from 2to 4. The Liberal Democrats lost 10 seats.",
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"plaintext": "These trends were continued into the next election in May 2014, in which Labour gained three seats to take their total to 31, the Green Party won two more seats, the Conservative party gained one seat, and UKIP won their first-ever seat on the council. The Liberal Democrats lost a further seven seats.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 May 2012, Bristol held a referendum on the question of a directly elected mayor replacing one elected by the council. There were 41,032 votes in favour of a directly elected mayor and 35,880 votes against, with a 24% turnout. An election for the new post was held on 15 November 2012, and Independent candidate George Ferguson became Mayor of Bristol. In May 2022 the city voted to abolish the position in a referendum, replacing it with a committee system. Marvin Rees, mayor in 2022, will hold the post until 2024.",
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"plaintext": "The Lord Mayor of Bristol, not to be confused with the Mayor of Bristol, is a figurehead elected each May by the city council. Councillor Faruk Choudhury was selected by his fellow councillors for the position in 2013. At 38, he was the youngest person to serve as Lord Mayor of Bristol and the first Muslim elected to the office. The current Lord Mayor is Councillor Paula O'Rourke.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol constituencies in the House of Commons also included parts of other local authority areas until the 2010 general election, when their boundaries were aligned with the county boundary. The city is divided into Bristol West, East, South and North West. At the 2017 general election, Labour won all four of the Bristol constituencies, gaining the Bristol North West seat, seven years after losing it to the Conservatives.",
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"plaintext": "The city has a tradition of political activism. Edmund Burke, MP for the Bristol constituency for six years beginning in 1774, insisted that he was a Member of Parliament first and a representative of his constituents' interests second. Women's-rights advocate Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence (1867–1954) was born in Bristol, and the left-winger Tony Benn served as MP for Bristol South East in 1950–1960 and again from 1963 to 1983. In 1963 the Bristol Bus Boycott, following the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to hire black drivers and conductors, drove the passage of the UK's 1965 Race Relations Act. The 1980 St. Pauls riot protested against racism and police harassment and showed mounting dissatisfaction with the socioeconomic circumstances of the city's Afro-Caribbean residents. Local support of fair trade was recognised in 2005, when Bristol became a fairtrade zone.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol is both a city and a county, since King Edward III granted it a county charter in 1373. The county was expanded in 1835 to include suburbs such as Clifton, and it was named a county borough in 1889 when that designation was introduced.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 April 1974, Bristol became a local government district of the county of Avon. On 1 April 1996, Avon was abolished and Bristol became a unitary authority.",
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"plaintext": "The former Avon area, called Greater Bristol by the Government Office of the South West (now abolished) and others, refers to the city and the three neighbouring local authoritiesBath and North East Somerset, North Somerset and South Gloucestershire previously in Avon.",
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"plaintext": "The North Fringe of Bristol, a developed area between the Bristol city boundary and the M4, M5 and M32 motorways (now in South Gloucestershire) was so named as part of a 1987 plan prepared by the Northavon District Council of Avon county.",
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"plaintext": "The West of England Combined Authority was created on 9 February 2017. Covering Bristol and the rest of the old Avon county with the exception of North Somerset, the new combined authority has responsibility for regional planning, roads, and local transport, and to a lesser extent, education and business investment. The authority's first mayor, Tim Bowles, was elected in May 2017. One of the first actions of the new authority was the announcement of a new train station to be built at Portway.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol's boundaries can be defined in several ways, including those of the city itself, the developed area, or Greater Bristol.",
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"plaintext": "The city council boundary is the narrowest definition of the city itself. However, it unusually includes a large, roughly rectangular section of the western Severn Estuary ending at (but not including) the islands of Flat Holm (in Cardiff, Wales) and Steep Holm. This \"seaward extension\" can be traced back to the original boundary of the County of Bristol laid out in the charter granted to the city by Edward III in 1373.",
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"plaintext": "The Office for National Statistics (ONS) has defined a Bristol Urban Area, which includes developed areas adjoining Bristol but outside the city-council boundary, such as Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Stoke Gifford, Winterbourne, Almondsbury, Easton in Gordano, Whitchurch village, Filton, Patchway and Bradley Stoke, but excludes undeveloped areas within that boundary.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol lies within a limestone area running from the Mendip Hills in the south to the Cotswolds in the northeast. The rivers Avon and Frome cut through the limestone to the underlying clay, creating Bristol's characteristically hilly landscape. The Avon flows from Bath in the east, through flood plains and areas which were marshes before the city's growth. To the west the Avon cuts through the limestone to form the Avon Gorge, formed largely by glacial meltwater after the last ice age.",
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"plaintext": "The gorge, which helped protect Bristol Harbour, has been quarried for stone to build the city, and its surrounding land has been protected from development as The Downs and Leigh Woods. The Avon estuary and the gorge form the county boundary with North Somerset, and the river flows into the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth. A smaller gorge, cut by the Hazel Brook which flows into the River Trym, crosses the Blaise Castle estate in northern Bristol.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol is sometimes described, by its inhabitants, as being built on seven hills. From 18th century guidebooks, these 7 hills were known as simply Bristol (the Old Town), Castle Hill, College Green, Kingsdown, St Michaels Hill, Brandon Hill and Redcliffe Hill. Other local hills include Red Lion Hill, Barton Hill, Lawrence Hill, Black Boy Hill, Constitution Hill, Staple Hill, Windmill Hill, Malborough Hill, Nine Tree Hill, Talbot, Brook Hill and Granby Hill.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol is west of London, south-southwest of Birmingham and east of the Welsh capital Cardiff. Areas adjoining the city fall within a loosely defined area known as Greater Bristol. Bath is located south east of the city centre, Weston-super-Mare is to the south west, and the Welsh city of Newport is to the north west.",
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"plaintext": "The climate is oceanic (Köppen: Cfb), milder than most places in England and United Kingdom. Located in southern England, Bristol is one of the warmest cities in the UK with a mean annual temperature of approximately . It is among the sunniest, with 1,541–1,885hours of sunshine per year. Although the city is partially sheltered by the Mendip Hills, it is exposed to the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel. Annual rainfall increases from north to south, with totals north of the Avon in the range and south of the river. Rain is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with autumn and winter the wetter seasons. The Atlantic Ocean influences Bristol's weather, keeping its average temperature above freezing throughout the year, but winter frosts are frequent and snow occasionally falls from early November to late April. Summers are warm and drier, with variable sunshine, rain and clouds, and spring weather is unsettled.",
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"plaintext": "The weather stations nearest Bristol for which long-term climate data are available are Long Ashton (about south west of the city centre) and Bristol Weather Station, in the city centre. Data collection at these locations ended in 2002 and 2001, respectively, and Filton Airfield is currently the nearest weather station to the city. Temperatures at Long Ashton from 1959 to 2002 ranged from in July 1976 to in January 1982. Monthly high temperatures since 2002 at Filton exceeding those recorded at Long Ashton include in April 2003, in July 2006 and in October 2011. The lowest recent temperature at Filton was in December 2010. Although large cities in general experience an urban heat island effect, with warmer temperatures than their surrounding rural areas, this phenomenon is minimal in Bristol.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol was ranked as Britain's most sustainable city (based on its environmental performance, quality of life, future-proofing and approaches to climate change, recycling and biodiversity), topping environmental charity Forum for the Future's 2008 Sustainable Cities Index. Local initiatives include Sustrans (creators of the National Cycle Network, founded as Cyclebag in 1977) and Resourcesaver, a non-profit business established in 1988 by Avon Friends of the Earth. In 2014 The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live. The city received the 2015 European Green Capital Award, becoming the first UK city to receive this award.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019 Bristol City Council voted in favour of banning all privately owned diesel cars from the city centre. Since then, the plans have been revised in favour of a clean air zone whereby older and more polluting vehicles will be charged to drive through the city centre. The Clean Air Zone is currently due to come into effect in Summer 2022.",
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"plaintext": "The city has green belt mainly along its southern fringes, taking in small areas within the Ashton Court Estate, South Bristol crematorium and cemetery, High Ridge common and Whitchurch, with a further area around Frenchay Farm. The belt extends outside the city boundaries into surrounding counties and districts, for several miles in places, to afford a protection from urban sprawl to surrounding villages and towns.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, the Office for National Statistics estimated the Bristol unitary authority's population at 442,474, making it the 43rd-largest ceremonial county in England. The ONS, using Census 2001 data, estimated the city's population at 441,556.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2011 census, 84% of the population was White (77.9% White British, 0.9% White Irish, 0.1% Gypsy or Irish Travellers and 5.1% Other White); 3.6% mixed-race (1.7% white-and-black Caribbean, 0.4% white-and-black African, 0.8% white and Asian and 0.7% other mixed); 5.5% Asian (1.6% Pakistani, 1.5% Indian, 0.9% Chinese, 0.5% Bangladeshi, and 1% other Asian); 6% Black (2.8% African, 1.6% Caribbean, 1.6% Other Black), 0.3% Arab and 0.6% with other heritage. Bristol is unusual among major British towns and cities in its larger black than Asian population. These statistics apply to the Bristol Unitary Authority area, excluding areas of the urban area (2006 estimated population 587,400) in South Gloucestershire, Bath and North East Somerset (BANES) and North Somerset—such as Kingswood, Mangotsfield, Filton and Warmley. 56.2% of the 209,995 Bristol residents who are employed commute to work using either a car, van, motorbike or taxi, 2.2% commute by rail and 9.8% by bus, while 19.6% walk.",
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"plaintext": "The Runnymede Trust found in 2017 that Bristol \"ranked 7th out of the 348 districts of England & Wales (1=worst) on the Index of Multiple Inequality.\" In terms of employment, the report found that \"ethnic minorities are disadvantaged compared to white British people nationally, but this is to a greater extent in Bristol, particularly for black groups.\" Black people in Bristol experience the 3rd highest level of educational inequality in England and Wales.",
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"plaintext": "The population of Bristol's contiguous urban area was put at 551,066 by the ONS based on Census 2001 data. In 2006 the ONS estimated Bristol's urban-area population at 587,400, making it England's sixth-most populous city and tenth-most populous urban area.",
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"plaintext": "At it has the seventh-highest population density of any English district. According to data from 2019, the urban area has the 11th-largest population in the UK with a population of 670,000.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007 the European Spatial Planning Observation Network (ESPON) defined Bristol's functional urban area as including Weston-super-Mare, Bath and Clevedon with a total population of 1.04million, the twelfth largest of the UK.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol has a long history of trade, originally exporting wool cloth and importing fish, wine, grain and dairy products; later imports were tobacco, tropical fruits and plantation goods. Major imports are motor vehicles, grain, timber, produce and petroleum products. Since the 13th century, the rivers have been modified for docks; during the 1240s, the Frome was diverted into a deep, man-made channel (known as Saint Augustine's Reach) which flowed into the River Avon.",
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"plaintext": "Ships occasionally departed Bristol for Iceland as early as 1420, and speculation exists that sailors (fishermen who landed on the Canadian coast to salt/ smoke their catch) from Bristol made landfall in the Americas before Christopher Columbus or John Cabot. Beginning in the early 1480s, the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers sponsored exploration of the North Atlantic in search of trading opportunities. In 1552, Edward VI granted a royal charter to the Merchant Venturers to manage the port. Among explorers to depart from the port after Cabot were Martin Frobisher, Thomas James, after whom James Bay, on southern coast of Hudson Bay is named, and Martin Pring, who discovered Cape Cod and the southern New England coast in 1603.",
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"plaintext": "By 1670 the city had 6,000tons of shipping (of which half was imported tobacco), and by the late 17th and early 18th centuries shipping played a significant role in the slave trade. During the 18th century, Bristol was Britain's second-busiest port; business was conducted in the trading area around The Exchange in Corn Street over bronze tables known as Nails. Although the Nails are cited as originating the phrase \"cash on the nail\" (immediate payment), the phrase was probably in use before their installation.",
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"plaintext": "The city's economy also relies on the aerospace, defence, media, information technology, financial services and tourism industries. The Ministry of Defence (MoD)'s Procurement Executive, later known as the Defence Procurement Agency and Defence Equipment and Support, moved to its headquarters to Abbey Wood, Filton, in 1995. This organisation, with a staff of 12,000 to 13,000, procures and supports MoD equipment. One of the UK's most popular tourist destinations, Bristol was selected in 2009 as one of the world's top-ten cities by international travel publishers Dorling Kindersley in their Eyewitness guides for young adults.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol is one of the eight-largest regional English cities that make up the Core Cities Group, and is ranked as a Gamma level global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the fourth-highest-ranked English city. In 2017 Bristol's gross domestic product was £88.448billion. Its per capita GDP was £46,000 ($65,106, €57,794), which was some 65% above the national average, the third-highest of any English city (after London and Nottingham) and the sixth-highest of any city in the United Kingdom (behind London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Belfast and Nottingham). According to the 2011 census, Bristol's unemployment rate (claiming Jobseeker's Allowance) was three per cent, compared with two per cent for South West England and the national average of four per cent.",
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"plaintext": "Although Bristol's economy no longer relies upon its port, which was moved to docks at Avonmouth during the 1870s and to the Royal Portbury Dock in 1977 as ship size increased, it is the largest importer of cars to the UK. Until 1991, the port was publicly owned; it is leased, with £330million invested and its annual tonnage increasing from 3.9million long tons (4million tonnes) to 11.8million (12million). Tobacco importing and cigarette manufacturing have ceased, but the importation of wine and spirits continues.",
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"plaintext": "The financial services sector employs 59,000 in the city, and 50 micro-electronics and silicon design companies employ about 5,000. In 1983 Hewlett-Packard opened its national research laboratory in Bristol. In 2014 the city was ranked seventh in the \"top 10 UK destinations\" by TripAdvisor.",
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"plaintext": "During the 20th century, Bristol's manufacturing activities expanded to include aircraft production at Filton by the Bristol Aeroplane Company and aircraft-engine manufacturing by Bristol Aero Engines (later Rolls-Royce) at Patchway. Bristol Aeroplane was known for their World War I Bristol Fighter and World War II Blenheim and Beaufighter planes. During the 1950s they were a major English manufacturer of civilian aircraft, known for the Freighter, Britannia and Brabazon. The company diversified into automobile manufacturing during the 1940s, producing hand-built, luxury Bristol Cars at their factory in Filton, and the Bristol Cars company was spun off in 1960. The city also gave its name to Bristol buses, which were manufactured in the city from 1908 to 1983: by Bristol Tramways until 1955, and from 1955 to 1983 by Bristol Commercial Vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Filton played a key role in the Anglo-French Concorde supersonic airliner project during the 1960s. The British Concorde prototype made its maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, five weeks after the French test flight. In 2003 British Airways and Air France decided to discontinue Concorde flights, retiring the aircraft to locations (primarily museums) worldwide. On 26 November 2003 Concorde 216 made the final Concorde flight, returning to Bristol Filton Airport as the centrepiece of a proposed air museum which is planned to include the existing Bristol Aero collection (including a Bristol Britannia).",
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"plaintext": "The aerospace industry remains a major sector of the local economy. Major aerospace companies in Bristol include BAE Systems, a merger of Marconi Electronic Systems and BAe (the latter a merger of BAC, Hawker Siddeley and Scottish Aviation). Airbus and Rolls-Royce are also based at Filton, and aerospace engineering is an area of research at the University of the West of England. Another aviation company in the city is Cameron Balloons, who manufacture hot air balloons; each August the city hosts the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, one of Europe's largest hot-air balloon festivals.",
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"plaintext": "The Bristol Old Vic, founded in 1946 as an offshoot of The Old Vic in London, occupies the 1766 Theatre Royal (607 seats) on King Street; the 150-seat New Vic (a studio-type theatre), and a foyer and bar in the adjacent Coopers' Hall (built in 1743). The Theatre Royal, a grade I listed building, is the oldest continuously operating theatre in England. The Bristol Old Vic Theatre School (which originated in King Street) is a separate company, and the Bristol Hippodrome is a 1,951-seat theatre for national touring productions. Other smaller theatres include the Tobacco Factory, QEH, the Redgrave Theatre at Clifton College and the Alma Tavern. Bristol's theatre scene features several companies as well as the Old Vic, including Show of Strength, Shakespeare at the Tobacco Factory and Travelling Light. Theatre Bristol is a partnership between the city council, Arts Council England and local residents to develop the city's theatre industry. Several organisations support Bristol theatre; the Residence (an artist-led community) provides office, social and rehearsal space for theatre and performance companies, and Equity has a branch in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol has 51 Grade I, 500 Grade II* and over 3,800 Grade II listed buildings in a variety of architectural styles, from medieval to modern. During the mid-19th century Bristol Byzantine, a style unique to the city, was developed, and several examples have survived. Buildings from most architectural periods of the United Kingdom can be seen in the city. Surviving elements of the fortifications and castle date to the medieval period, and the Church of St James dates back to the 12th century.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest Grade I listed buildings in Bristol are religious. St James' Priory was founded in 1129 as a Benedictine priory by Earl Robert of Gloucester, the illegitimate son of Henry I. The second-oldest is Bristol Cathedral and its associated Great Gatehouse. Founded in 1140, the church became the seat of the bishop and cathedral of the new Diocese of Bristol in 1542. Most of the medieval stonework, particularly the Elder Lady Chapel, is made from limestone taken from quarries around Dundry and Felton with Bath stone being used in other areas. Amongst the other churches included in the list is the 12th-century St Mary Redcliffe which is the tallest building in Bristol. The church was described by Queen Elizabeth I as \"the fairest, goodliest, and most famous parish church in England.\"",
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"plaintext": "Secular buildings include The Red Lodge, built in 1580 for John Yonge as a lodge for a larger house that once stood on the site of the present Bristol Beacon (previously known as Colston Hall). It was subsequently added to in Georgian times and restored in the early 20th century. St Bartholomew's Hospital is a 12th-century town house which was incorporated into a monastery hospital founded in 1240 by Sir John la Warr, 2nd Baron De La Warr (), and became Bristol Grammar School from 1532 to 1767, and then Queen Elizabeth's Hospital 1767–1847. The round piers predate the hospital, and may come from an aisled hall, the earliest remains of domestic architecture in the city, which was then adapted to form the hospital chapel. Three 17th-century town houses which were attached to the hospital were incorporated into model workers' flats in 1865, and converted to offices in 1978. St Nicholas's Almshouses were built in 1652 to provide care for the poor. Several public houses were also built in this period, including the Llandoger Trow on King Street and the Hatchet Inn.",
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"plaintext": "Manor houses include Goldney Hall, where the highly decorated Grotto dates from 1739. Commercial buildings such as the Exchange and Old Post Office from the 1740s are also included in the list. Residential buildings include the Georgian Portland Square and the complex of small cottages around a green at Blaise Hamlet, which was built around 1811 for retired employees of Quaker banker and philanthropist John Scandrett Harford, who owned Blaise Castle House. The 18th-century Kings Weston House, in northern Bristol, was designed by John Vanbrugh and is the only Vanbrugh building in any UK city outside London. Almshouses and pubs from the same period intermingle with modern development. Several Georgian squares were designed for the middle class as prosperity increased during the 18th century. During World War II, the city centre was heavily bombed during the Bristol Blitz. The central shopping area near Wine Street and Castle Street was particularly hard-hit, and the Dutch House and St Peter's Hospital were destroyed. Nevertheless, in 1961 John Betjeman called Bristol \"the most beautiful, interesting and distinguished city in England\".",
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"plaintext": "The city is also home to Bristol Bears, formed in 1888 as Bristol Football Club by the merger of the Carlton club with rival Redland Park. Westbury Park declined the merger and folded, with many of its players joining what was then Bristol Rugby. Bristol Rugby has often competed at the highest level of the sport since its formation in 1888. The club played at the Memorial Ground, which it shared with Bristol Rovers from 1996. Although Bristol Rugby owned the stadium when the football club arrived, a decline in the rugby club's fortunes led to a transfer of ownership to Bristol Rovers. In 2014 Bristol Rugby moved to their new home, Ashton Gate Stadium (home to Bristol Rovers' rivals Bristol City), for the 2014–15 season. They changed their name from Bristol Rugby to Bristol Bears to coincide with their return to Premiership Rugby in 2018–19.",
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"plaintext": "A dialect of English (West Country English), known as Bristolian, is spoken by longtime residents, who are known as Bristolians. Bristol natives have a rhotic accent, in which the post-vocalic r in car and card is pronounced (unlike in Received Pronunciation). The unique feature of this accent is the 'Bristol (or terminal) l', in which l is appended to words ending in a or o. Whether this is a broad l or a w is a subject of debate, with area pronounced 'areal' or 'areaw'. The ending of Bristol is another example of the Bristol l. Bristolians pronounce -a and -o at the end of a word as -aw (cinemaw). To non-natives, the pronunciation suggests an l after the vowel.",
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"plaintext": "Until recently Bristolese was characterised by retention of the second-person singular, as in the doggerel \"Cassn't see what bist looking at? Cassn't see as well as couldst, casst? And if couldst, 'ouldn't, 'ouldst?\" The West Saxon bist is used for the English art, and children were admonished with \"Thee and thou, the Welshman's cow\". In Bristolian, as in French and German, the second-person singular was not used when speaking to a superior (except by the egalitarian Quakers). The pronoun thee is also used in the subject position (\"What bist thee doing?\"), and I or he in the object position (\"Give he to I.\"). Linguist Stanley Ellis, who found that many dialect words in the Filton area were linked to aerospace work, described Bristolian as \"a cranky, crazy, crab-apple tree of language and with the sharpest, juiciest flavour that I've heard for a long time\".",
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"plaintext": "In the 2011 United Kingdom census, 46.8% of Bristol's population identified as Christian and 37.4% said they were not religious; the English averages were 59.4% and 24.7%, respectively. Islam is observed by 5.1% of the population, Buddhism by 0.6%, Hinduism by 0.6%, Sikhism by 0.5%, Judaism by 0.2% and other religions 0.7%; 8.1% did not identify with a religion.",
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"plaintext": "Among the notable Christian churches are the Anglican Bristol Cathedral and St Mary Redcliffe and the Roman Catholic Clifton Cathedral. Nonconformist chapels include Buckingham Baptist Chapel and John Wesley's New Room in Broadmead. After St James' Presbyterian Church was bombed on 24 November 1940, it was never again used as a church; although its bell tower remains, its nave was converted into offices. The city has eleven mosques, several Buddhist meditation centres, a Hindu temple, Reform and Orthodox-Jewish synagogues and four Sikh temples.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol has been awarded Purple Flag status on many of its districts, which shows that it meets or surpasses the standards of excellence in managing the evening and night-time economy.",
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"plaintext": "DJ Mag's top 100 club list ranked Motion as the 19th-best club in the world in 2016. This is up 5 spots from 2015. Motion is host to some of the world's top DJs, and leading producers.Motion is a complex made up of different rooms, outdoor space and a terrace that looks over the river Avon.In 2011 Motion was transformed from a skate park, into the rave spot it is today. In:Motion is an annual series which takes place each autumn and delivers 12 weeks of music and dancing. The club, on Avon Street, behind Temple Meads train station, does not limit itself to playing one genre of music.Party-goers can hear everything from disco, house, techno, grime, drum and bass or hip hop, depending on the night. In 2020 and 2021, Motion adapted many of its indoor events into outdoor events. Some of these included Bingo Lingdo. Other famous clubs in the city include Lakota and Thekla.",
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"plaintext": "The Attic Bar is a venue located in Stokes Croft. Equipped with a sound system and stage which are used every weekend for gigs of every genre, the bar and the connected Full Moon Pub were rated by The Guardian, a British daily paper, as one of the top ten clubs in the UK. Located by Bristol's harbourside, The Apple is a cider bar which opened in 2004, in a converted Dutch barge, offering a range of 40 different ciders. In 2014, the Great British Pub Awards ranked The Apple as the best cider bar in the UK. Bristol is also home to the pie chain Pieminster started in the Stokes Croft area of the city.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol is home to the regional headquarters of BBC West and the BBC Natural History Unit based at Broadcasting House, which produces television, radio and online content with a natural history or wildlife theme. These include nature documentaries, including The Blue Planet and Planet Earth. The city has a long association with David Attenborough's authored documentaries, including Life on Earth. It was made public in 2021 that the BBC was moving the production of many of its programmes from Broadcasting House to Bridgewater House in Finzels Reach in Bristol City Centre.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol has two daily newspapers, the Western Daily Press and the Bristol Post, (both owned by Reach plc); and a Bristol edition of the free Metro newspaper (owned by DMGT). The Bristol Cable specialises in investigative journalism with a quarterly print edition and website.",
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"plaintext": "Aardman Animations is an Oscar-winning animation studio founded and still based in Bristol. They created famous characters such as Wallace and Gromit and Morph. Its films include Chicken Run (2000), Early Man (2018), shorts such as Creature Comforts and Adam and TV series like Shaun the Sheep and Timmy Time.",
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"plaintext": "The city has several radio stations, including BBC Radio Bristol. Bristol's television productions include Points West for BBC West, Endemol productions such as Deal or No Deal, The Crystal Maze, and ITV News West Country for ITV West Country. The hospital drama Casualty, formerly filmed in Bristol, moved to Cardiff in 2012. In October 2018, Channel 4 announced that Bristol would be home to one of its 'Creative Hubs', as part of their move to produce more content outside of London.",
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"plaintext": "Publishers in the city have included 18th-century Bristolian Joseph Cottle, who helped introduce Romanticism by publishing the works of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. During the 19th century, J.W. Arrowsmith published the Victorian comedies Three Men in a Boat (by Jerome K. Jerome) and The Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith. The contemporary Redcliffe Press has published over 200 books covering all aspects of the city. Bristol is home to YouTube video developers and stylists The Yogscast, with founders Simon Lane and Lewis Brindley moving their operations from Reading to Bristol in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol has two major institutions of higher education: the University of Bristol, a redbrick chartered in 1909, and the University of the West of England, opened as Bristol Polytechnic in 1969, which became a university in 1992. The University of Law also has a campus in the city. Bristol has two further education institutions (City of Bristol College and South Gloucestershire and Stroud College) and two theological colleges: Trinity College, and Bristol Baptist College. The city has 129 infant, junior and primary schools,",
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"plaintext": "17 secondary schools, and three learning centres. After a section of north London, Bristol has England's second-highest number of independent school places. Independent schools in the city include Clifton College, Clifton High School, Badminton School, Bristol Grammar School, Queen Elizabeth's Hospital (the only all-boys school) and the Redmaids' School (founded in 1634 by John Whitson, which claims to be England's oldest girls' school).",
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"plaintext": "In 2005 Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown named Bristol one of six English 'science cities',",
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"plaintext": "and a £300million science park was planned at Emersons Green. Research is conducted at the two universities, the Bristol Royal Infirmary and Southmead Hospital, and science outreach is practised at We The Curious, the Bristol Zoo, the Bristol Festival of Nature and the CREATE Centre.",
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"plaintext": "The city has produced a number of scientists, including 19th-century chemist Humphry Davy (who worked in Hotwells). Physicist Paul Dirac (from Bishopston) received the 1933 Nobel Prize for his contributions to quantum mechanics. Cecil Frank Powell was the Melvill Wills Professor of Physics at the University of Bristol when he received the 1950 Nobel Prize for, among other discoveries, his photographic method of studying nuclear processes. Colin Pillinger was the planetary scientist behind the Beagle 2 project, and neuropsychologist Richard Gregory founded the Exploratory (a hands-on science centre which was the predecessor of At-Bristol/We The Curious).",
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"plaintext": "Initiatives such as the Flying Start Challenge encourage an interest in science and engineering in Bristol secondary-school pupils; links with aerospace companies impart technical information and advance student understanding of design.",
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"plaintext": "The Bloodhound SSC project to break the land speed record is based at the Bloodhound Technology Centre on the city's harbourside.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol has two principal railway stations. Bristol Temple Meads (near the city centre) has Great Western Railway services which include high-speed trains to London Paddington and local, regional and CrossCountry trains. Bristol Parkway, north of the city centre, has high-speed Great Western Railway services to Swansea, Cardiff Central and London Paddington and CrossCountry services to Birmingham and east of Northern England. A limited service to London Waterloo, via Clapham Junction, from Temple Meads is operated by South Western Railway and there are scheduled coach links to most major UK cities.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol's principal surviving suburban railway is the Severn Beach Line to Avonmouth and Severn Beach. Although Portishead Railway's passenger service was a casualty of the Beeching cuts, freight service to the Royal Portbury Dock was restored from 2000 to 2002 with a Strategic Rail Authority rail-freight grant. The MetroWest scheme, formerly known as The Greater Bristol Metro, proposes to increase the city's rail capacity including the restoration of a further of track on the line to Portishead (a dormitory town with one connecting road), is due to open in 2023. A further commuter rail line from Bristol Temple Meads to Henbury, on an existing freight line, is due to open in 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The M4 motorway connects the city on an east–west axis from London to West Wales, and the M5 is a north–south west axis from Birmingham to Exeter. The M49 motorway is a shortcut between the M5 in the south and the M4 Severn Crossing in the west, and the M32 is a spur from the M4 to the city centre. The Portway connects the M5 to the city centre, and was the most expensive road in Britain when opened in 1926.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2019, Bristol is working on plans for a Clean Air Zone to reduce pollution, which could involve charging the most polluting vehicles to enter the city centre.",
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"plaintext": "Several road-construction plans, including re-routing and improving the South Bristol Ring Road, are supported by the city council.",
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"plaintext": "Private car use is high in the city, leading to traffic congestion costing an estimated £350million per year.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol allows motorcycles to use most of the city's bus lanes and provides secure, free parking for them.",
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"plaintext": "Public transport in the city consists primarily of a First West of England bus network. Other providers are Abus, Stagecoach West, Stagecoach South West and until it's sale to Stagecoach West, Wessex Bus. Bristol's bus service has been criticised as unreliable and expensive, and in 2005 FirstGroup was fined for delays and safety violations.",
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"plaintext": "Although the city council has included a light rail system in its local transport plan since 2000, it has not yet funded the project; Bristol was offered European Union funding for the system, but the Department for Transport did not provide the required additional funding. As of 2019, a four-line mass transit network with potential underground sections is proposed to link Bristol city centre with Bristol Airport via South Bristol, the North Fringe, East Bristol and Bath.",
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"plaintext": "A new bus rapid transit system (BRT) called MetroBus, is currently under construction across Bristol, as of 2018, to provide a faster and more reliable service than buses, improve transport infrastructure and reduce congestion. The MetroBus rapid transit scheme will run on both bus lanes and segregated guided busways on three routes; North Fringe to Hengrove (route m1), Ashton Vale to Bristol Temple Meads (route m2), and Emersons Green to The Centre (route m3). MetroBus services started in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Three park and ride sites serve Bristol.",
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"plaintext": "The city centre has water transport operated by Bristol Ferry Boats, Bristol Packet Boat Trips and Number Seven Boat Trips, providing leisure and commuter service in the harbour.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol was designated as England's first \"cycling city\" in 2008 and one of England's 12 \"Cycling demonstration\" areas. It is home to Sustrans, the sustainable transport charity. The Bristol and Bath Railway Path links it to Bath, and was the first part of the National Cycle Network. The city also has urban cycle routes and links with National Cycle Network routes to The rest of the Country. Cycling trips increased by 21% from 2001 to 2005.",
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"plaintext": "The runway, terminal and other facilities at Bristol Airport (BRS), Lulsgate, have been upgraded since 2001. In 2019 it was ranked the eighth busiest airport in the United Kingdom, handling nearly 8.9million passengers, an over 3% increase compared with 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Bristol was among the first cities to adopt town twinning after World War II. Twin towns include:",
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"plaintext": " Bordeaux, France (since 1947)",
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36,743 | 1,095,430,819 | Atalanta | [
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"plaintext": "There are two versions of the huntress Atalanta: one from Arcadia, whose parents were Iasus and Clymene and who is primarily known from the tales of the Calydonian boar hunt and the Argonauts; and the other from Boeotia, who is the daughter of King Schoeneus and is primarily noted for her skill in the footrace. In both versions, Atalanta was a local figure allied to the goddess Artemis; in such oral traditions, minor characters were often assigned different names, resulting in minor regional variations.",
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"plaintext": "At birth, Atalanta was taken to Mount Parthenion to be exposed because her father had desired a son. A she-bear—one of the symbols of Artemis—whose cubs had been recently killed by hunters came upon Atalanta and nursed her until those same hunters discovered her and raised her themselves in the mountains. Atalanta then grew up to be a swift-footed virgin who eschewed men and devoted herself to the huntress Artemis.",
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"plaintext": "Atalanta is only occasionally mentioned in the legend of the Argonauts; however, her participation is noted in Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, which says that during the search for the Golden Fleece, Atalanta, who was invited and invoked the protection of Artemis, sailed with the Argonauts as the only woman among them. In Diodorus Siculus's account, Atalanta is not only noted to have sailed with the Argonauts but to have fought alongside them at the battle in Colchis, where she, Jason, Laertes, and the sons of Thesipae were wounded and later healed by Medea. In the account of Apollonius of Rhodes, Jason prevents Atalanta from joining not because she lacks skill but because as a woman she has the potential to cause strife between men on the ship. ",
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"plaintext": "In an annual celebration, King Oeneus of Calydon had forgotten to honour Artemis with a sacrifice in his rites to the gods. In anger, she sent the Calydonian boar, a monstrous wild boar that ravaged the land, cattle, and people, and prevented the crops from being sown. Atalanta was called upon to join Meleager, Theseus, Pollux, Telamon, Peleus, and all those who were part of the Argonaut expedition on the hunt for the boar. Many of the men were angry that a woman was joining them, but Meleager, though having a family of his own, convinced them otherwise as he desired to father a child with Atalanta after hearing of her expertise in archery and beauty while hunting.",
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"plaintext": "According to Ovid, before her adventures, Atalanta had consulted an oracle who prophesied that marriage would be her undoing. As a result, she chose to live in the wilderness. After the Calydonian boar hunt, Atalanta was discovered by her father, who accepted her as his daughter and began to arrange a marriage for her. To prevent this, she agreed to marry only if a suitor could outrun her in a footrace, which swift-footed Atalanta knew was impossible. If the suitor was unsuccessful, he would be killed. Her father agreed to the terms, and many suitors died in the attempt until Hippomenes, who fell in love with Atalanta at first sight. Hippomenes knew he could not best Atalanta even with the advantage of a head start, so, he prayed to the goddess Aphrodite for assistance. Aphrodite, who felt spurned because Atalanta was a devotee of Artemis and rejected love, gave Hippomenes three irresistible golden apples. As the race began, Atalanta, wearing armour and carrying weapons, quickly passed Hippomenes, but she was diverted off the path as he tossed an apple for her to retrieve; each time Atalanta caught up with Hippomenes, he would toss another apple, ultimately winning the race and Atalanta herself.",
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"plaintext": "After the footrace, Hippomenes had forgotten to thank Aphrodite for her aid, and while the couple were out hunting the goddess afflicted them with sexual passion so that they had sex in a sanctuary belonging to either Zeus or Rhea. They were turned into lions for their sacrilege by either Artemis (angered by Atalanta losing her virginity), the goddess Cybele, or Zeus himself. The belief at the time was that lions could not mate with their own species, only with leopards; therefore Atalanta and Hippomenes would never be able to have “intercourse of love”. ",
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"plaintext": "This view has been criticized, however. In her book The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World, Adrienne Mayor argues there is no evidence to support the notion that the Ancient Greeks believed male and female lions could not engage in sexual intercourse. Rather, Mayor contends the transformation of Atalanta and her lover into lions occurred at a moment of emotional and sexual bliss, which can be interpreted as divine sympathy for a couple who defied traditional Greek gender roles, and thus turning them into lions enabled the lovers to hunt and mate together for all eternity outside of Greek society, which would not have accepted their relationship. ",
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"plaintext": "The Italian football club Atalanta took its name from the heroine. In addition, the club's crest depicts the face of the heroine.",
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"plaintext": " Apollodorus, The Library. English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes.",
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"plaintext": " Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus, translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies, no. 34. ",
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"plaintext": " Pausanias. Description of Greece. English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.",
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"plaintext": " Philostratus Elder, Philostratus Younger, Callistratus. Translation by Fairbanks, A. Loeb Classical Library Vol 256. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.",
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"plaintext": " Bolen, Jean Shinoda. Artemis: The Indomitable Spirit in Everywoman, Conari Press, 2014.",
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"plaintext": " Atalanta—World History Encyclopedia",
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"plaintext": " Classical sculpture head of either Hygieia or Atalanta, a replica from the Louvre.",
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"Metamorphoses_in_Greek_mythology"
]
| 190,323 | 16,340 | 174 | 55 | 0 | 0 | Atalanta | Greek mythological character, the only female Argonaut | []
|
36,744 | 1,106,211,962 | Iris | [
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29
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7
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| 1,471,499 | 3,986 | 7 | 143 | 0 | 0 | Iris | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,745 | 1,107,823,739 | Hestia | [
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"plaintext": "In Ancient Greek religion and mythology, Hestia (; , \"hearth\" or \"fireside\") is the virgin goddess of the hearth, the right ordering of domesticity, the family, the home, and the state. In myth, she is the firstborn child of the Titans Cronus and Rhea.",
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"plaintext": "Greek custom required that as the goddess of sacrificial fire, Hestia should receive the first offering at every sacrifice in the household. In the public domain, the hearth of the prytaneum functioned as her official sanctuary. Whenever a new colony was established, a flame from Hestia's public hearth in the mother city would be carried to the new settlement. The goddess Vesta is her Roman equivalent.",
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"plaintext": "Hestia's name means \"hearth, fireplace, altar\", This stems from the PIE root *wes, \"burn\" (ultimately from \"dwell, pass the night, stay\"). It thus refers to the oikos: domestic life, home, household, house, or family. Burkert states that an \"early form of the temple is the hearth house; the early temples at Dreros and Prinias on Crete are of this type as indeed is the temple of Apollo at Delphi which always had its inner hestia\". The Mycenaean great hall (megaron), like Homer's hall of Odysseus at Ithaca, had a central hearth. Likewise, the hearth of the later Greek prytaneum was the community and government's ritual and secular focus. Hestia's naming thus makes her a personification of the hearth and its fire, a symbol of society and family, also denoting authority and kingship.",
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"plaintext": "The worship of Hestia was centered around the hearth, both domestic and civic. The hearth was essential for warmth, food preparation, and the completion of sacrificial offerings to deities. At feasts, Hestia was offered the first and last libations of wine. Pausanias writes that the Eleans sacrifice first to Hestia and then to other gods. Xenophon in Cyropaedia wrote that Cyrus the Great sacrificed first to Hestia, then to sovereign Zeus, and then to any other god that the magi suggested.",
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"plaintext": "The accidental or negligent extinction of a domestic hearth-fire represented a failure of domestic and religious care for the family; failure to maintain Hestia's public fire in her temple or shrine was a breach of duty to the broad community. A hearth fire might be deliberately, ritually extinguished at need; but its lighting should be accompanied by rituals of completion, purification, and renewal, comparable with the rituals and connotations of an eternal flame and of sanctuary lamps. At the level of the polis, the hearths of Greek colonies and their mother cities were allied and sanctified through Hestia's cult. Athenaeus, in the Deipnosophistae, writes that in Naucratis the people dined in the Prytaneion on the birthday of Hestia Prytanitis.",
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"plaintext": "Responsibility for Hestia's domestic cult usually fell to the leading woman of the household, although sometimes to a man. Hestia's rites at the hearths of public buildings were usually led by holders of civil office; Dionysius of Halicarnassus testifies that the prytaneum of a Greek state or community was sacred to Hestia, who was served by the most powerful state officials. However, evidence of her dedicant priesthood is extremely rare. Most stems from the early Roman Imperial era, when Sparta offers several examples of women with the priestly title \"Hestia\"; Chalcis offers one, a daughter of the local elite. Existing civic cults to Hestia probably served as stock for the grafting of Greek ruler-cult to the Roman emperor, the Imperial family, and Rome itself. In Athens, a small seating section at the Theatre of Dionysus was reserved for priesthoods of \"Hestia on the Acropolis, Livia, and Julia\", and of \"Hestia Romain\" (\"Roman Hestia\", thus \"The Roman Hearth\" or Vesta). At Delos, a priest served \"Hestia the Athenian Demos\" (the people or state) \"and Roma\". An eminent citizen of Carian Stratoniceia described himself as a priest of Hestia and several other deities, as well as holding several civic offices. Hestia's political and civic functions are further evidenced by her very numerous privately funded dedications at civic sites, and the administrative rather than religious titles used by the lay-officials involved in her civic cults.",
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"plaintext": "Every private and public hearth was regarded as a sanctuary of the goddess, and a portion of the sacrifices, to whatever divinity they were offered, belonged to her. Aeschines, On the Embassy,",
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"plaintext": "Very few free-standing temples were dedicated to Hestia. Pausanias mentions one in Ermioni and one in Sparta, the latter having an altar but no image. Xenophon's Hellenica mentions fighting around and within Olympia's temple of Hestia, a building separate from the city's council hall and adjoining theatre: A temple to Hestia was in Andros.",
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"plaintext": "Prospective founders of city-states and colonies sought approval and guidance not only of their \"mother city\" (represented by Hestia) but of Apollo, through one or another of his various oracles. He acted as consulting archegetes (founder) at Delphi. Among his various functions, he was patron god of colonies, architecture, constitutions and city planning. Additional patron deities might also be persuaded to support the new setttlement, but without Hestia, her sacred hearth, an agora and prytaneum there could be no polis.",
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"plaintext": "Homeric Hymn 24, To Hestia, is an invocation of five lines, alluding to her role as an attendant to Apollo:",
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"plaintext": "Homeric Hymn 29, To Hestia invokes Hestia and Hermes:",
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"plaintext": "Bacchylides Ode 14b, For Aristoteles of Larisa:",
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"plaintext": "In one military oath found at Acharnai, from the Sanctuary of Ares and Athena Areia, dated 350-325 BC, Hestia is called, among many others, to bear witness.",
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"plaintext": "The Hestia tapestry is a Byzantine tapestry, made in Egypt during the 6th century AD. It is a late and very rare representation of the goddess, whom it identifies in Greek as Hestia Polyolbos; ( \"Hestia full of Blessings\"). Its history and symbolism are discussed in Friedlander (1945).",
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"plaintext": "Hestia is a goddess of the first Olympian generation. She is the eldest daughter of the Titans Rhea and Cronus, and sister to Demeter, Hades, Hera, Poseidon, and Zeus. Immediately after their birth, Cronus swallowed all his children (Hestia was the first who was swallowed) except the last and youngest, Zeus. Instead, Zeus forced Cronus to disgorge his siblings and led them in a war against their father and the other Titans. As \"first to be devoured . . . and the last to be yielded up again\", Hestia is thus both the eldest and youngest daughter; this mythic inversion is found in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (700 BC).",
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"plaintext": "Zeus assigned Hestia a duty to feed and maintain the fires of the Olympian hearth with the fatty, combustible portions of animal sacrifices to the gods. Wherever food was cooked, or an offering was burnt, she thus had her share of honor; also, in all the temples of the gods, she has a share of honor. \"Among all mortals she was chief of the goddesses\".",
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"plaintext": "The gods Poseidon and Apollo both (her brother and nephew respectively) fell in love with Hestia and vied for her hand in marriage. But Hestia would have neither of them, and went to Zeus instead, and swore a great oath, that she would remain a virgin for all time and never marry. In the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, Aphrodite is described as having \"no power\" over Hestia.",
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"plaintext": "At Athens, \"in Plato's time,\" notes Kenneth Dorter \"there was a discrepancy in the list of the twelve chief gods, as to whether Hestia or Dionysus was included with the other eleven. The altar to them at the agora, for example, included Hestia, but the east frieze of the Parthenon had Dionysus instead.\" However, the hearth was imovable, and \"there is no story of Hestia's \"ever having been removed from her fixed abode\". Burkert remarks that \"Since the hearth is immovable Hestia is unable to take part even in the procession of the gods, let alone the other antics of the Olympians\".",
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"plaintext": "Her mythographic status as firstborn of Rhea and Cronus seems to justify the tradition in which a small offering is made to Hestia before any sacrifice (\"Hestia comes first\"), though this was not universal among the Greeks. In Odyssey14, 432–436, the loyal swineherd Eumaeus begins the feast for his master Odysseus by plucking tufts from a boar's head and throwing them into the fire with a prayer addressed to all the powers, then carved the meat into seven equal portions: \"one he set aside, lifting up a prayer to the forest nymphs and Hermes, Maia's son.\"",
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"plaintext": "Hestia is identified with the hearth as a physical object, and the abstractions of community and domesticity, in contrast to the fire of the forge employed in blacksmithing and metalworking, the province of the god Hephaestus. Portrayals of her are rare and seldom secure. In classical Greek art, she is occasionally depicted as a woman simply and modestly cloaked in a head veil. At times, she is shown with a staff in hand or by a large fire. She sits on a plain wooden throne with a white woolen cushion and, Robert Graves declares, \"did not trouble to choose an emblem for herself\". Her associated sacrificial animal was a domestic pig.",
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"plaintext": "Her Roman equivalent is Vesta; Vesta has similar functions as a divine personification of Rome's \"public\", domestic, and colonial hearths, binding Romans together within a form of extended family. The similarity of names between Hestia and Vesta is, however, misleading: \"The relationship hestia-histie-Vesta cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European linguistics; borrowings from a third language must also be involved,\" according to Walter Burkert.",
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"plaintext": "Herodotus equates Hestia with the high ranking Scythian deity Tabiti. Procopius equates her with the Zoroastrian holy fire (atar) of the Sasanians in Adhur Gushnasp.",
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"plaintext": " 46 Hestia, asteroid named after the goddess",
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"plaintext": " Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.",
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"plaintext": " Evelyn-White, Hugh, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.",
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"plaintext": " Friedlander, Paul. (1945). Documents of Dying Paganism. University of California Press.",
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"plaintext": " Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).",
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"plaintext": " Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.",
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"plaintext": " Kajava, Mika. \"Hestia Hearth, Goddess, and Cult\", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 102 (2004): 1–20. .",
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"plaintext": " Ovid, Ovid's Fasti: With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer, London: W. Heinemann LTD; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. Internet Archive.",
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"plaintext": " West, M. L., Indo-European Poetry and Myth, Oxford University Press, 2007. . Google Books.",
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"Domestic_and_hearth_deities",
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"Mount_Olympus",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2015 article, commissioned by the Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs and Development—also known as the Group of 24 (G-24)—multilateral development banks (MDBs)—such as the IBRD—\"represent one of the most successful types of international organization created in the post-World War II era.\" By October 2015, although the WBG—with its lending arms—was the only \"global institution, there were more than twenty operational 20 MDBs in the world. In 2016, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and BRICs New Development Bank began operations. Like other multilateral development banks, (MDBs), the IBRD has a preferred credit treatment (PCT), through which borrowers grant the MDBs a \"privileged position to be first in line for repayment, should a country face financial restrictions.\"",
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"plaintext": "The bank also generates income from the return on its equity and the small margins on the loans. As the IBRD does not seek profit, it transfers part of its excess income to the IDA ($259 million in fiscal 2019).",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, the IBRD loaned about US$26 billion, which represented just a \"fraction of the $72 billion the IMF approved as a credit line to a single nation, Mexico.\" In the early 2010s, the total of \"capital investments in emerging markets from all sources have topped $1 trillion annually\". According to the Institute of International Finance, in 2011, the \"combined net investment of the World Bank and other international development banks and agencies\" was about $20 billion in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2019 The Economist article, the IBRD is \"more controversial\" than the International Development Association (IDA) lending arm. With its AAA credit rating, the IBRD can \"borrow money cheaply on the international financial markets\". Middle-income countries, like Brazil and China, that currently borrow from the IBRD, could \"borrow in abundance from foreign investors\" on their own.",
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"plaintext": "The IBRD provides financial services as well as strategic coordination and information services to its borrowing member countries. The Bank only finances sovereign governments directly, or projects backed by sovereign governments. The World Bank Treasury is the division of the IBRD that manages the Bank's debt portfolio of over $100 billion and financial derivatives transactions of $20 billion.",
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"plaintext": "The Bank offers flexible loans with maturities as long as 30 years and custom-tailored repayment scheduling. The IBRD also offers loans in local currencies. Through a joint effort between the IBRD and the International Finance Corporation, the Bank offers financing to subnational entities either with or without sovereign guarantees. For borrowers needing quick financing for an unexpected change, the IBRD operates a Deferred Drawdown Option which serves as a line of credit with features similar to the Bank's flexible loan program. Among the World Bank Group's credit enhancement and guarantee products, the IBRD offers policy-based guarantees to cover countries' sovereign default risk, partial credit guarantees to cover the credit risk of a sovereign government or subnational entity, and partial risk guarantees to private projects to cover a government's failure to meet its contractual obligations. The IBRD's Enclave Partial Risk Guarantee covers private projects in member countries of the IDA against sovereign governments' failures to fulfil contractual obligations. The Bank provides an array of financial risk management products including foreign exchange swaps, currency conversions, interest rate swaps, interest rate caps and floors, and commodity swaps. To help borrowers protect against catastrophes and other special risks, the bank offers a Catastrophe Deferred Drawdown Option to provide financing after a natural disaster or declared state of emergency. It also issues catastrophe bonds which transfer catastrophic risks from borrowers to investors. The IBRD reported $23.2 billion in lending commitments for 100 projects in fiscal year 2019. The top 10 borrowers were India, Indonesia, Jordan, Egypt, Argentina, China, Morocco, Turkey, Ukraine and Colombia. The most supported sector was Public Administration.",
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| 191,384 | 9,091 | 607 | 69 | 0 | 0 | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development | international financial institutions, sells loans to middle-income developing countries, part of the World Bank Group | [
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"plaintext": "The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries. It is the largest and best-known development bank in the world and an observer at the United Nations Development Group. The bank is headquartered in Washington, D.C. in the United States. It provided around $98.83 billion in loans and assistance to \"developing\" and transition countries in the 2021 fiscal year. The bank's stated mission is to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity. Total lending as of 2015 for the last 10 years through Development Policy Financing was approximately $117 billion. Its five organizations are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The first two are sometimes collectively referred to as the World Bank.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank's (the IBRD's and IDA's) activities focus on developing countries, in fields such as human development (e.g. education, health), agriculture and rural development (e.g. irrigation and rural services), environmental protection (e.g. pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure (e.g. roads, urban regeneration, and electricity), large industrial construction projects, and governance (e.g. anti-corruption, legal institutions development). The IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries. Loans or grants for specific projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the country's economy as a whole. For example, a loan to improve coastal environmental management may be linked to the development of new environmental institutions at national and local levels and the implementation of new regulations to limit pollution.",
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"plaintext": "The WBG came into formal existence on 27 December 1946 following international ratification of the Bretton Woods agreements, which emerged from the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference (1–22 July 1944). It also provided the foundation of the Osiander Committee in 1951, responsible for the preparation and evaluation of the World Development Report. Commencing operations on 25 June 1946, it approved its first loan on 9 May 1947 (USD 250M to France for postwar reconstruction, in real terms the largest loan the Bank has issued to date).",
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"plaintext": "All of the 188 UN members and Kosovo that are WBG members participate at a minimum in the IBRD. As of May 2016, all of them also participate in some of the other four organizations (IDA, IFC, MIGA, and ICSID).",
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"plaintext": "Only in the IBRD: None",
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"plaintext": "The IBRD and one other organization: San Marino, Nauru, Tuvalu, Brunei",
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"plaintext": "The IBRD and two other organizations: Antigua and Barbuda, Suriname, Venezuela, Namibia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati",
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"plaintext": "The IBRD and three other organizations: India, Mexico, Belize, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay, Ecuador, Dominica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Angola, South Africa, Seychelles, Libya, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Bahrain, Qatar, Iran, Malta, Bulgaria, Poland, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Palau, Tonga, Vanuatu, Maldives, Bhutan, Myanmar",
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"plaintext": "All five WBG organizations: the rest of the 138 WBG members",
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"plaintext": "Non-members are Andorra, Cuba, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Palestine, the Holy See (Vatican City), and North Korea.",
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"plaintext": "The Republic of China joined the World Bank on December 27, 1945. After the Chinese Civil War, the government fled to Taiwan and continued its membership in the WBG until April 16, 1980 when the People's Republic of China replaced the ROC. Since then, it uses the name \"Taiwan, China\".",
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"plaintext": "Excluded from the list are the following de facto states: Abkhazia, Artsakh, the Donetsk People's Republic, the Luhansk People's Republic, Northern Cyprus, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, Somaliland, South Ossetia, and Transnistria.",
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"plaintext": "Together with four affiliated agencies created between 1957 and 1988, the IBRD is part of the World Bank Group. The Group's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. It is an international organization owned by member governments; although it makes profits, they are used to support continued efforts in poverty reduction.",
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"plaintext": "Technically the World Bank is part of the United Nations system, but its governance structure is different: each institution in the World Bank Group is owned by its member governments, which subscribe to its basic share capital, with votes proportional to shareholding. Membership gives certain voting rights that are the same for all countries but there are also additional votes that depend on financial contributions to the organization. The President of the World Bank is nominated by the President of the United States and elected by the Bank's Board of Governors. As of 15 November 2009 the United States held 16.4% of total votes, Japan 7.9%, Germany 4.5%, the United Kingdom 4.3%, and France 4.3%. As changes to the Bank's Charter require an 85% supermajority, the U.S. can block any major change in the Bank's governing structure. Because the U.S. exerts formal and informal influence over the Bank as a result of its vote share, control over the Presidency, and the Bank's headquarters location in Washington, D.C., friends and allies of the U.S. receive more projects with more lenient terms.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank Group consists of",
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"plaintext": " the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), established in 1944, which provides debt financing based on sovereign guarantees;",
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"plaintext": " the International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956, which provides various forms of financing without sovereign guarantees, primarily to the private sector;",
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"plaintext": " the International Development Association (IDA), established in 1960, which provides concessional financing (interest-free loans or grants), usually with sovereign guarantees;",
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"plaintext": " the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), established in 1965, which works with governments to reduce investment risk;",
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"plaintext": " the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), established in 1988, which provides insurance against certain types of risk, including political risk, primarily to the private sector.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"World Bank\" generally refers to just the IBRD and IDA, whereas the term \"World Bank Group\" or \"WBG\" is used to refer to all five institutions collectively.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank Institute is the capacity development branch of the World Bank, providing learning and other capacity-building programs to member countries.",
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"plaintext": "The IBRD has 189 member governments, and the other institutions have between 153 and 184. The institutions of the World Bank Group are all run by a board of governors meeting once a year. Each member country appoints a governor, generally its Minister of Finance. Daily, the World Bank Group is run by a board of 25 executive directors to whom the governours have delegated certain powers. Each director represents either one country (for the largest countries), or a group of countries. Executive directors are appointed by their respective governments or the constituencies.",
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"plaintext": "The agencies of the World Bank are each governed by their Articles of Agreement that serves as the legal and institutional foundation for all their work.",
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"plaintext": "The activities of the IFC and MIGA include investment in the private sector and providing insurance, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, the Bank President has been a U.S. citizen nominated by the President of the United States, the bank's largest shareholder. The nominee is subject to confirmation by the executive directors, to serve a five-year, renewable term.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 April 2019, David Malpass was selected as the 13th World Bank Group President; his term began on 9 April 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The managing director of The World Bank is responsible for organizational strategy; budget and strategic planning; information technology; shared services; Corporate Procurement; General Services and Corporate Security; the Sanctions System; and the Conflict Resolution and Internal Justice System. The present MD, Shaolin Yang, assumed the office after Sri Mulyani resigned to become finance minister of Indonesia.",
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"plaintext": "After longstanding criticisms from civil society of the Bank's involvement in the oil, gas, and mining sectors, the World Bank in July 2001 launched an independent review called the Extractive Industries Review (EIR—not to be confused with Environmental Impact Report). The review was headed by an \"Eminent Person\", Dr. Emil Salim (former Environment Minister of Indonesia). Salim held consultations with a wide range of stakeholders in 2002 and 2003. The EIR recommendations were published in January 2004 in a final report, \"Striking a Better Balance\". The report concluded that fossil fuel and mining projects do not alleviate poverty, and recommended that World Bank involvement with these sectors be phased out by 2008 to be replaced by investment in renewable energy and clean energy. The World Bank published its Management Response to the EIR in September 2004 after extensive discussions with the board of directors. The Management Response did not accept many of the EIR report's conclusions, but the EIR served to alter the World Bank's policies on oil, gas, and mining in important ways, as the World Bank documented in a recent follow-up report. One area of particular controversy concerned the rights of indigenous peoples. Critics point out that the Management Response weakened a key recommendation that indigenous peoples and affected communities should have to provide 'consent for projects to proceed; instead, there would be 'consultation'. Following the EIR process, the World Bank issued a revised Policy on Indigenous Peoples.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank has long been criticized by a range of non-governmental organizations and academics, notably including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, who is equally critical of the International Monetary Fund, the US Treasury Department, and the US and other developed country trade negotiators. Critics argue that the so-called free market reform policies—which the Bank advocates in many cases—in practice are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly (\"shock therapy\"), in the wrong sequence, or in very weak, uncompetitive economies. World Bank loan agreements can also force procurements of goods and services at uncompetitive, non-free-market, prices. Other critical writers such as John Perkins, label the international financial institutions as 'illegal and illegitimate and a cog of coercive American diplomacy in carrying out financial terrorism.",
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"plaintext": "Several intellectuals in developing countries have argued that the World Bank is deeply implicated in contemporary modes of donor and NGO-driven imperialism and that its intellectual contribution functions, primarily, to seek to blame the poor for their condition.",
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"plaintext": "Defenders of the World Bank contend that no country is forced to borrow its money. The Bank provides both loans and grants. Even the loans are concessional since they are given to countries that have no access to international capital markets. Furthermore, the loans, both to poor and middle-income countries, are below market-value interest rates. The World Bank argues that it can help development more through loans than grants because money repaid on the loans can then be lent for other projects.",
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"plaintext": "Criticism was also expressed towards the IFC and MIGA and their way of evaluating the social and environmental impact of their projects. Critics state that even though IFC and MIGA have more of these standards than the World Bank, they mostly rely on private-sector clients to monitor their implementation and miss an independent monitoring institution in this context. This is why an extensive review of the institutions' implementation strategy of social and environmental standards is demanded.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank was the subject of a scandal with its then-President Paul Wolfowitz and his aide, Shaha Riza, in 2007.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank's Integrity Vice Presidency (INT) is charged with the investigation of internal fraud and corruption, including complaint intake, investigation, and investigation reports.",
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"plaintext": "The Lakers compiled a 60–22record in the regular season and reached the 1980 NBA Finals, in which they faced the Philadelphia 76ers, who were led by forward Julius Erving. The Lakers took a 3–2lead in the series, but Abdul-Jabbar, who averaged 33points a game in the series, sprained his ankle in Game 5 and could not play in Game 6. Coach Paul Westhead, who had replaced McKinney early in the season after he had a near-fatal bicycle accident, decided to start Johnson at center in Game 6; Johnson recorded 42points, 15rebounds, 7assists, and 3 steals in a 123–107 win, while playing guard, forward, and center at different times during the game. Johnson became the only rookie to win the NBA Finals MVP award, and his clutch performance is still regarded as one of the finest in NBA history. He also became one of four players to win NCAA and NBA championships in consecutive years.",
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"plaintext": "Early in the 1980–81 season, Johnson was sidelined after he suffered torn cartilage in his left knee. He missed 45games, and said that his rehabilitation was the \"most down\" he had ever felt. Johnson returned before the start of the 1981 playoffs, but the Lakers' then-assistant and future head coach Pat Riley later said Johnson's much-anticipated return made the Lakers a \"divided team\". The 54-win Lakers faced the 40–42 Houston Rockets in the first round of playoffs, where Houston upset the Lakers 2–1 after Johnson airballed a last-second shot in Game 3.",
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"plaintext": "In 1981, after the 1980–81 season, Johnson signed a 25-year, $25million contract with the Lakers (), which was the highest-paying contract in sports history up to that point. Early in the 1981–82 season, Johnson had a heated dispute with Westhead, who Johnson said made the Lakers \"slow\" and \"predictable\". After Johnson demanded to be traded, Lakers owner Jerry Buss fired Westhead and replaced him with Riley. Although Johnson denied responsibility for Westhead's firing, he was booed across the league, even by Laker fans. Buss was also unhappy with the Lakers' offense and had intended on firing Westhead days before the Westhead–Johnson altercation, but assistant GM Jerry West and GM Bill Sharman had convinced Buss to delay his decision. Despite his off-court troubles, Johnson averaged 18.6points, 9.6rebounds, 9.5assists, and a league-high 2.7steals per game, and was voted a member of the All-NBA Second Team. He also joined Wilt Chamberlain and Oscar Robertson as the only NBA players to tally at least 700points, 700rebounds, and 700assists in the same season. The Lakers advanced through the 1982 playoffs and faced Philadelphia for the second time in three years in the 1982 NBA Finals. After a triple-double from Johnson in Game 6, the Lakers defeated the Sixers 4–2, as Johnson won his second NBA Finals MVP award. During the championship series against the Sixers, Johnson averaged 16.2points on .533shooting, 10.8rebounds, 8.0assists, and 2.5steals per game. Johnson later said that his third season was when the Lakers first became a great team, and he credited their success to Riley.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1982–83 NBA season, Johnson's first of nine consecutive double-double seasons, he averaged 16.8points, 10.5assists, and 8.6rebounds per game, and earned his first All-NBA First Team nomination. The Lakers again reached the Finals, and for a third time faced the Sixers, who featured center Moses Malone as well as Erving. With Johnson's teammates Nixon, James Worthy, and Bob McAdoo all hobbled by injuries, the Lakers were swept by the Sixers, and Malone was crowned the Finals MVP. In a losing effort against Philadelphia, Johnson averaged 19.0points on .403shooting, 12.5assists, and 7.8rebounds per game.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to Johnson's fifth season, West—who had become the Lakers general manager—traded Nixon to free Johnson from sharing the ball-handling responsibilities. Johnson averaged another double-double season, with 17.6points, 13.1assists, and 7.3rebounds per game. The Lakers reached the Finals for the third year in a row, where Johnson's Lakers and Bird's Celtics met for the first time in the postseason. The Lakers won the first game, and led by two points in Game 2 with 18seconds to go, but after a layup by Gerald Henderson, Johnson failed to get a shot off before the final buzzer sounded, and the Lakers lost 124–121 in overtime. In Game 3, Johnson responded with 21assists in a 137–104 win, but he made several crucial errors late in the contest during Game 4. In the final minute of the game, Johnson had the ball stolen by Celtics center Robert Parish, and then missed two free throws that could have won the game. The Celtics won Game 4 in overtime, and the teams split the next two games. In the decisive Game 7 in Boston, as the Lakers trailed by three points in the final minute, opposing point guard Dennis Johnson stole the ball from Johnson, a play that effectively ended the series. Friends Isiah Thomas and Mark Aguirre consoled him that night, talking until the morning in his Boston hotel room amidst fan celebrations on the street. During the Finals, Johnson averaged 18.0points on .560shooting, 13.6assists, and 7.7rebounds per game. Johnson later described the series as \"the one championship we should have had but didn't get\".",
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"plaintext": "In the 1984–85 regular season, Johnson averaged 18.3points, 12.6assists, and 6.2rebounds per game, and led the Lakers into the 1985 NBA Finals, where they faced the Celtics again. The series started poorly for the Lakers when they allowed an NBA Finals record 148points to the Celtics in a 34-point loss in Game 1. However, Abdul-Jabbar, who was now 38years old, scored 30points and grabbed 17rebounds in Game 2, and his 36points in a Game 5 win were instrumental in establishing a 3–2 lead for Los Angeles. After the Lakers defeated the Celtics in six games, Abdul-Jabbar and Johnson, who averaged 18.3points on .494shooting, 14.0assists, and 6.8rebounds per game in the championship series, said the Finals win was the highlight of their careers.",
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"plaintext": "Before the 1987–88 NBA season, Lakers coach Pat Riley publicly promised that they would defend the NBA title, even though no team had won consecutive titles since the Celtics did so in the 1969 NBA Finals. Johnson had another productive season with averages of 19.6points, 11.9assists, and 6.2rebounds per game despite missing 10 games with a groin injury. In the 1988 playoffs, the Lakers swept the San Antonio Spurs in 3 games, then survived two 4–3series against the Utah Jazz and the Dallas Mavericks to reach the Finals and face Thomas and the Detroit Pistons, who with players such as Bill Laimbeer, John Salley, Vinnie Johnson and Dennis Rodman were known as the \"Bad Boys\" for their physical style of play. Johnson and Thomas greeted each other with a kiss on the cheek before the opening tip of Game 1, which they called a display of brotherly love. After the teams split the first six games, Lakers forward and Finals MVP James Worthy had his first career triple-double of 36points, 16rebounds, and 10assists, and led his team to a 108–105win. Despite not being named MVP, Johnson had a strong championship series, averaging 21.1points on .550shooting, 13.0assists, and 5.7rebounds per game. It was the fifth and final NBA championship of his career.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1988–89 NBA season, Johnson's 22.5points, 12.8assists, and 7.9rebounds per game earned him his second MVP award, and the Lakers reached the 1989 NBA Finals, in which they again faced the Pistons. However, after Johnson went down with a hamstring injury in Game 2, the Lakers were no match for the Pistons, who swept them 4–0.",
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"plaintext": "Playing without Abdul-Jabbar for the first time, Johnson won his third MVP award after a strong 1989–90 NBA season in which he averaged 22.3points, 11.5assists, and 6.6rebounds per game. However, the Lakers bowed out to the Phoenix Suns in the Western Conference semifinals, which was the Lakers' earliest playoffs elimination in nine years. Mike Dunleavy became the Lakers' head coach in 1990–91, when Johnson had grown to be the league's third-oldest point guard. He had become more powerful and stronger than in his earlier years, but was also slower and less nimble. Under Dunleavy, the offense used more half-court sets, and the team had a renewed emphasis on defense. Johnson performed well during the season, with averages of 19.4points, 12.5assists, and 7.0rebounds per game, and the Lakers reached the 1991 NBA Finals. There they faced the Chicago Bulls, led by shooting guard Michael Jordan, a five-time scoring champion regarded as the finest player of his era. Although the series was portrayed as a matchup between Johnson and Jordan, Bulls forward Scottie Pippen defended effectively against Johnson. Despite two triple-doubles from Johnson during the series, Finals MVP Jordan led his team to a 4–1win. In the last championship series of his career, Johnson averaged 18.6points on .431shooting, 12.4assists, and 8.0rebounds per game.",
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"plaintext": "After a physical before the 1991–92 NBA season, Johnson discovered that he had tested positive for HIV. In a press conference held on November 7, 1991, Johnson made a public announcement that he would retire immediately. He stated that his wife Cookie and their unborn child did not have HIV, and that he would dedicate his life to \"battle this deadly disease\".",
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"plaintext": "Johnson initially said that he did not know how he contracted the disease, but later acknowledged that it was through having numerous sexual partners during his playing career. He admitted to having \"harems of women\" and talked openly about his sexual activities because \"he was convinced that heterosexuals needed to know that they, too, were at risk\". At the time, only a small percentage of HIV-positive American men had contracted it from heterosexual sex, and it was initially rumored that Johnson was gay or bisexual, although he denied both. Johnson later accused Isiah Thomas of spreading the rumors, a claim Thomas denied.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson's HIV announcement became a major news story in the United States, and in 2004 was named as ESPN's seventh-most memorable moment of the previous 25 years. Many articles praised Johnson as a hero, and the then-U.S. President George H. W. Bush said, \"For me, Magic is a hero, a hero for anyone who loves sports.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite his retirement, Johnson was voted by fans as a starter for the 1992 NBA All-Star Game at Orlando Arena, although his former teammates Byron Scott and A. C. Green said that Johnson should not play, and several NBA players, including Utah Jazz forward Karl Malone, argued that they would be at risk of contamination if Johnson suffered an open wound while on court. Johnson led the West to a 153–113win and was crowned All-Star MVP after recording 25points, 9assists, and 5rebounds. The game ended after he made a last-minute three-pointer, and players from both teams ran onto the court to congratulate Johnson.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson was chosen to compete in the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics for the U.S. national team, dubbed the \"Dream Team\" because of the NBA stars on the roster. The Dream Team, which along with Johnson included fellow Hall of Famers such as Bird, Michael Jordan, and Charles Barkley, was considered unbeatable. After qualifying for the Olympics with a gold medal at the 1992 Tournament of the Americas, the Dream Team dominated in Olympic competition, winning the gold medal with an 8–0 record, beating their opponents by an average of 43.8 points per game. Johnson averaged 8.0 points per game during the Olympics, and his 5.5 assists per game was second on the team. Johnson played infrequently because of knee problems, but he received standing ovations from the crowd, and used the opportunity to inspire HIV-positive people.",
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"plaintext": "Before the 1992–93 NBA season, Johnson announced his intention to stage an NBA comeback. After practicing and playing in several pre-season games, he retired again before the start of the regular season, citing controversy over his return sparked by opposition from several active players. In an August 2011 interview, Johnson said that in retrospect he wished that he had never retired after being diagnosed with HIV, saying, \"If I knew what I know now, I wouldn't have retired.\" Johnson said that despite the physical, highly competitive practices and scrimmages leading up to the 1992 Olympics, some of those same teammates still expressed concerns about his return to the NBA. He said that he retired because he \"didn't want to hurt the game.\"",
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"plaintext": "During his retirement, Johnson has written a book on safe sex, run several businesses, worked for NBC as a commentator, and toured Asia, Australia and New Zealand with a basketball team of former college and NBA players. In 1985, Johnson created \"A Midsummer Night's Magic\", a yearly charity event which included a celebrity basketball game and a black tie dinner. The proceeds went to the United Negro College Fund, and Johnson held this event for twenty years, ending in 2005. \"A Midsummer Night's Magic\" eventually came under the umbrella of the Magic Johnson Foundation, which he founded in 1991. The 1992 event, which was the first one held after Johnson's appearance in the 1992 Olympics, raised over $1.3 million for UNCF. Magic Johnson joined Shaquille O'Neal and celebrity coach Spike Lee to lead the blue team to a 147–132 victory over the white team, which was coached by Arsenio Hall.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson returned to the NBA as coach of the Lakers near the end of the 1993–94 NBA season, replacing Randy Pfund, and Bill Bertka, who served as an interim coach for two games. Johnson, who took the job at the urging of owner Jerry Buss, admitted \"I've always had the desire (to coach) in the back of my mind.\" He insisted that his health was not an issue, while downplaying questions about returning as a player, saying, \"I'm retired. Let's leave it at that.\" Amid speculation from general manager Jerry West that he may only coach until the end of the season, Johnson took over a team that had a 28–38 record, and won his first game as head coach, a 110–101 victory over the Milwaukee Bucks. He was coaching a team that had five of his former teammates on the roster: Vlade Divac, Elden Campbell, Tony Smith, Kurt Rambis, James Worthy, and Michael Cooper, who was brought in as an assistant coach. Johnson, who still had a guaranteed player contract that would pay him $14.6 million during the 1994–95 NBA season, signed a separate contract to coach the team that had no compensation. The Lakers played well initially, winning five of their first six games under Johnson, but after losing the next five games, Johnson announced that he was resigning as coach after the season. The Lakers finished the season on a ten-game losing streak, and Johnson's final record as a head coach was 5–11. Stating that it was never his dream to coach, he chose instead to purchase a 5% share of the team in June 1994.",
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"plaintext": "At the age of 36, Johnson attempted another comeback as a player when he re-joined the Lakers during the 1995–96 NBA season. During his retirement, Johnson began intense workouts to help his fight against HIV, raising his bench press from 135 to 300 pounds, and increasing his weight to 255 pounds. He officially returned to the team on January 29, 1996, and played his first game the following day against the Golden State Warriors. Coming off the bench, Johnson had 19 points, 8 rebounds, and 10 assists to help the Lakers to a 128–118 victory. On February 14, Johnson recorded the final triple-double of his career, when he scored 15 points, along with 10 rebounds and 13 assists in a victory against the Atlanta Hawks. Playing power forward, he averaged 14.6points, 6.9assists, and 5.7rebounds per game in 32games, and finished tied for 12th place with Charles Barkley in voting for the MVP Award. The Lakers had a record of 22–10 in the games Johnson played, and he considered his final comeback \"a success.\" While Johnson played well in 1996, there were struggles both on and off the court. Cedric Ceballos, upset over a reduction in his playing time after Johnson's arrival, left the team for several days. He missed two games and was stripped of his title as team captain. Nick Van Exel received a seven-game suspension for bumping referee Ron Garretson during a game on April 9. Johnson was publicly critical of Van Exel, saying his actions were \"inexcusable.\" Johnson was himself suspended five days later, when he bumped referee Scott Foster, missing three games. He also missed several games due to a calf injury. Despite these difficulties, the Lakers finished with a record of 53–29 and fourth seed in the NBA Playoffs. Although they were facing the defending NBA champion Houston Rockets, the Lakers had home court advantage in the five-game series. The Lakers played poorly in a Game 1 loss, prompting Johnson to express frustration with his role in coach Del Harris' offense. Johnson led the way to a Game 2 victory with 26 points, but averaged only 7.5 points per game for the remainder of the series, which the Rockets won three games to one.",
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"plaintext": "After the Lakers lost to the Houston Rockets in the first round of the playoffs, Johnson initially expressed a desire to return to the team for the 1996–97 NBA season, but he also talked about joining another team as a free agent, hoping to see more playing time at point guard instead of power forward. A few days later, Johnson changed his mind and retired permanently, saying, \"I am going out on my terms, something I couldn't say when I aborted a comeback in 1992.\"",
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"plaintext": "Determined to play competitive basketball despite being out of the NBA, Johnson formed the Magic Johnson All-Stars, a barnstorming team composed of former NBA and college players. In 1994, Johnson joined with former pros Mark Aguirre, Reggie Theus, John Long, Earl Cureton, Jim Farmer, and Lester Conner, as his team played games in Australia, Israel, South America, Europe, New Zealand, and Japan. They also toured the United States, playing five games against teams from the CBA. In the final game of the CBA series, Johnson had 30 points, 17 rebounds, and 13 assists, leading the All-Stars to a 126–121 victory over the Oklahoma City Cavalry. By the time he returned to the Lakers in 1996, the Magic Johnson All-Stars had amassed a record of 55–0, and Johnson was earning as much as $365,000 per game. Johnson played with the team frequently over the next several years, with possibly the most memorable game occurring in November 2001. At the age of 42, Johnson played with the All-Stars against his alma mater, Michigan State. Although he played in a celebrity game to honor coach Jud Heathcoate in 1995, this was Johnson's first meaningful game played in his hometown of Lansing in 22 years. Playing in front of a sold-out arena, Johnson had a triple-double and played the entire game, but his all-star team lost to the Spartans by two points. Johnson's half-court shot at the buzzer would have won the game, but it fell short. On November 1, 2002, Johnson returned to play a second exhibition game against Michigan State. Playing with the Canberra Cannons of Australia's National Basketball League instead of his usual group of players, Johnson's team defeated the Spartans 104–85, as he scored 12 points, with 10 assists and 10 rebounds.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, Johnson joined the Swedish squad M7 Borås (now known as 'Borås Basket'), and was undefeated in five games with the team. Johnson also became a co-owner of the club; however, the project failed after one season and the club was forced into reconstruction. He later joined the Danish team The Great Danes.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson and Bird were first linked as rivals after Johnson's Michigan State squad defeated Bird's Indiana State team in the 1979 NCAA finals. The rivalry continued in the NBA, and reached its climax when Boston and Los Angeles met in three out of four NBA Finals from 1984 to 1987, with the Lakers winning two out of three Finals. Johnson asserted that for him, the 82-game regular season was composed of 80 normal games, and two Lakers–Celtics games. Similarly, Bird admitted that Johnson's daily box score was the first thing he checked in the morning.",
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"plaintext": "Several journalists hypothesized that the Johnson–Bird rivalry was so appealing because it represented many other contrasts, such as the clash between the Lakers and Celtics, between Hollywood flashiness (\"Showtime\") and Boston/Indiana blue collar grit (\"Celtic Pride\"), and between blacks and whites. The rivalry was also significant because it drew national attention to the faltering NBA. Prior to Johnson and Bird's arrival, the NBA had gone through a decade of declining interest and low TV ratings. With the two future Hall of Famers, the league won a whole generation of new fans, drawing both traditionalist adherents of Bird's dirt court Indiana game and those appreciative of Johnson's public park flair. According to sports journalist Larry Schwartz of ESPN, Johnson and Bird saved the NBA from bankruptcy.",
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"plaintext": "Despite their on-court rivalry, Johnson and Bird became close friends during the filming of a 1984 Converse shoe advertisement that depicted them as enemies. Johnson appeared at Bird's retirement ceremony in 1992, and described Bird as a \"friend forever\"; during Johnson's Hall of Fame ceremony, Bird formally inducted his old rival.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, Johnson and Bird collaborated with journalist Jackie MacMullan on a non-fiction book titled When the Game Was Ours. The book detailed their on-court rivalry and friendship with one another. The following year, HBO developed a documentary about their rivalry titled A Courtship of Rivals, which was directed by Ezra Edelman.",
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"plaintext": "In 905NBA games, Johnson tallied 17,707points, 6,559rebounds, and 10,141assists, translating to career averages of 19.5points, 7.2rebounds, and 11.2assists per game, the highest assists per game average in NBA history. Johnson shares the single-game playoff record for assists (24), holds the Finals record for assists in a game (21), and has the most playoff assists (2,346). He is the only player to average 12 assists in an NBA Finals series, achieving it six times. He holds the All-Star Game single-game record for assists (22), and the All-Star Game record for career assists (127).",
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"plaintext": "Johnson introduced a fast-paced style of basketball called \"Showtime\", described as a mix of \"no-look passes off the fastbreak, pin-point alley-oops from halfcourt, spinning feeds and overhand bullets under the basket through triple teams.\" Fellow Lakers guard Michael Cooper said, \"There have been times when [Johnson] has thrown passes and I wasn't sure where he was going. Then one of our guys catches the ball and scores, and I run back up the floor convinced that he must've thrown it through somebody.\" Johnson could dominate a game without scoring, running the offense and distributing the ball with flair. In the 1982 NBA Finals, he was named the Finals MVP averaging just 16.2 points, the lowest average of any Finals MVP award recipient in the three-point shot era.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson was exceptional because he played point guard despite being 6ft 9in (2.06m), a size reserved normally for frontcourt players. His career 138triple-double games places him third all-time behind Oscar Robertson and Russell Westbrook. Johnson is the only player in NBA Finals history to have triple-doubles in multiple series-clinching games.",
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"plaintext": "For his feats, Johnson was voted as one of the 50 Greatest Players of All Time by the NBA in 1996, and selected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inducted him in 2002. ESPN's SportsCentury ranked Johnson No. 17 in their \"50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century\" In 2006, ESPN.com rated Johnson the greatest point guard of all time, stating, \"It could be argued that he's the one player in NBA history who was better than Michael Jordan.\" Bleacher Report also listed Johnson first in its all-time NBA point guard rankings. Several of his achievements in individual games have also been named among the top moments in the NBA. At the 2019 NBA Awards, Johnson received the NBA Lifetime Achievement Award (shared with Bird). In 2022, the NBA began awarding MVPs for the conference finals; the Western Conference Finals MVP trophy is named in Johnson's honor, while the Eastern Conference trophy is named after Bird.",
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"plaintext": "On February 21, 2017, Johnson replaced Jim Buss as the president of basketball operations for the Los Angeles Lakers. Under Johnson, the Lakers sought to acquire multiple star players and cleared existing players, including future All-Star D'Angelo Russell, off of their roster in an attempt to free up room under the league's salary cap. The franchise reached an agreement with free agent LeBron James on a four-year contract in 2018, but efforts to trade for Anthony Davis during the 2018–19 season proved unsuccessful. The Lakers did not reach the playoffs during Johnson's executive tenure. In an impromptu news conference on April 9, 2019, Johnson resigned from the Lakers, citing his desire to return to his role as an NBA ambassador.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson first fathered a son in 1981, when Andre Johnson was born to Melissa Mitchell. Although Andre was raised by his mother, he visited Johnson each summer, and later worked for Magic Johnson Enterprises as a marketing director. In 1991, Johnson married Earlitha \"Cookie\" Kelly in a small wedding in Lansing which included guests Thomas, Aguirre, and Herb Williams. Johnson and Cookie have one son, Earvin III (\"EJ\"), who is openly gay and a star on the reality show Rich Kids of Beverly Hills. The couple adopted a daughter, Elisa, in 1995. Johnson resides in Beverly Hills and has a vacation home in Dana Point, California.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson is a Christian and has said his faith is \"the most important thing\" in his life.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, Magic Johnson and current and former NBA players such as LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, and Bill Russell, as well as Maya Moore from the WNBA, played a basketball game with President Barack Obama as an exhibition for a group of military troops who had been injured in action. The game was played at a gym inside Fort McNair, and reporters covering the president were not allowed to enter. The basketball game was part of festivities organized to celebrate Obama's 49th birthday.",
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"plaintext": "Magic Johnson had an extremely close relationship with Lakers owner Jerry Buss, whom he saw as a mentor and a father figure. Calling Buss his \"second father\" and \"one of [his] best friends\", Johnson spent five hours visiting Buss at the hospital just a few months before his death from cancer. Speaking to media just hours after Buss had died, Johnson was emotional, saying, \"Without Dr. Jerry Buss, there is no Magic.\" Buss acquired the team from Jack Kent Cooke in 1979, shortly before he drafted Johnson with the #1 pick in the 1979 NBA draft. Buss took a special interest in Johnson, introducing him to important Los Angeles business contacts and showing him how the Lakers organization was run, before eventually selling Johnson a stake in the team in 1994. Johnson credits Buss with giving him the business knowledge that enabled him to become part owner of the Los Angeles Dodgers.",
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"plaintext": "Buss supported Johnson as he revealed his diagnosis of HIV in 1991, and he never hesitated to keep Johnson close to the organization, bringing him in as part-owner, and even as a coach.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson had never seriously considered coaching, but he agreed to take the head coaching position with the Lakers in 1994 at Buss' request. In 1992, Buss had given Johnson a contract that paid him $14 million a year, as payback for all the years he was not the league's highest-paid player. Although Johnson's retirement prior to the 1992–93 NBA season voided this contract, Buss insisted that he still be paid. It was this arrangement that allowed Johnson to coach the team without receiving any additional salary. After Johnson ended his coaching stint, Buss sold him a 4% stake in the Lakers for $10 million, and Johnson served as a team executive.",
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"plaintext": "In 1997, his production company Magic Johnson Entertainment signed a deal with Fox. In 1998, Johnson hosted a late night talk show on the Fox network called The Magic Hour, but the show was canceled after two months because of low ratings. Shortly after the cancellation of his talk show, Magic Johnson started a record label. The label, initially called Magic 32 Records, was renamed Magic Johnson Music when Johnson signed a joint venture with MCA in 2000. Magic Johnson Music signed R&B artist Avant as its first act. Johnson also co-promoted Janet Jackson's Velvet Rope Tour through his company Magicworks. He has also worked as a motivational speaker, and was an NBA commentator for Turner Network Television for seven years, before becoming a studio analyst for ESPN's NBA Countdown in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson runs Magic Johnson Enterprises, a conglomerate company that has a net worth of $700million; its subsidiaries include Magic Johnson Productions, a promotional company; Magic Johnson Theaters, a nationwide chain of movie theaters; and Magic Johnson Entertainment, a film studio. In addition to these business ventures, Johnson has also created the Magic Card, a pre-paid MasterCard aimed at helping low-income people save money and participate in electronic commerce. In 2006, Johnson created a contract food service with Sodexo USA called Sodexo-Magic. In 2004, Johnson and his partner Ken Lombard, sold Magic Johnson Theaters to Loews Cineplex Entertainment in 2004. The first Magic Johnson Theater located in the Baldwin Hills Crenshaw Plaza, closed in 2010 and re-opened in 2011 as Rave Cinema 15. In 2012, Johnson launched a cable TV network called Aspire, featuring programming targeted at black audiences, similar to networks such as Black Entertainment Television (BET) and TV One.",
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"plaintext": "Johnson began thinking of life after basketball while still playing with the Lakers. He wondered why so many athletes had failed at business, and sought advice. During his seventh season in the NBA, he had a meeting with Michael Ovitz, CEO of Creative Artists Agency. Ovitz encouraged him to start reading business magazines and to use every connection available to him. Johnson learned everything he could about business, often meeting with corporate executives during road trips. Johnson's first foray into business, a high-end sporting goods store named Magic 32, failed after only one year, costing him $200,000. The experience taught him to listen to his customers and find out what products they wanted. Johnson has become a leading voice on how to invest in urban communities, creating redevelopment opportunities in underserved areas, most notably through his movie theaters and his partnership with Starbucks. He went to Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz with the idea that he could successfully open the coffee shops in urban areas. After showing Schultz the tremendous buying power of minorities, Johnson was able to purchase 125 Starbucks stores, which reported higher than average per capita sales. The partnership, called Urban Coffee Opportunities, placed Starbucks in locations such as Detroit, Washington, D.C., Harlem, and the Crenshaw District of Los Angeles. Johnson sold his remaining interest in the stores back to the company in 2010, ending a successful twelve-year partnership. He has also made investments in urban real estate through the Canyon-Johnson and Yucaipa-Johnson funds. Another major project is with insurance services company Aon Corp. In 2005–2007, Johnson was part of a syndicate that bought the Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower, then the tallest building in Brooklyn, for $71 million and converted the 512-foot high landmark structure from an office building into luxury condominiums.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, Johnson and Earl Graves Sr. obtained a large interest in the Washington, D.C. PepsiCo bottling operation, making it the company's largest minority-owned facility in the U.S. Johnson became a minority owner of the Lakers in 1994, having reportedly paid more than $10million for part ownership. He also held the title of team vice president. Johnson sold his ownership stake in the Lakers in October 2010 to Patrick Soon-Shiong, a Los Angeles surgeon and professor at UCLA, but continued as an unpaid vice president for the team. In February 2017, Johnson returned to the Lakers as an advisor to Jeanie Buss.",
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"plaintext": "In the wake of the Donald Sterling controversy, limited media reports indicated that Johnson had expressed an interest in purchasing the Los Angeles Clippers franchise.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, Johnson completed his planned acquisition for a \"majority, controlling interest\" in EquiTrust Life Insurance Company, which manages $14.5 billion in annuities, life insurance and other financial products.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2012, Johnson joined with Guggenheim Partners and Stan Kasten in a bid for ownership of the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball team. In March 2012, Johnson's ownership group was announced as the winner of the proceedings to buy the Dodgers. The Johnson-led group, which also includes movie executive Peter Guber, paid $2billion for the Dodgers, the largest amount paid for a professional sports team. While Johnson is considered the leader of the ownership group, the controlling owner is Mark Walter, chief executive officer for Guggenheim Partners. Peter Guber, who is the co-owner of the Golden State Warriors, owns a small stake in the Dodgers along with Johnson. The Dodgers won the 2020 World Series, giving Johnson a Major League Baseball title to his credit. Johnson and Guber were also partners in the Dayton Dragons, a Class-A minor league baseball team in Dayton, Ohio, that sold out more than 1,000 consecutive games, a record for professional sports. Johnson and Guber sold their stake in the Dragons in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "| 16 || 16 || 41.1 || .518 || .250 || .802 || 10.5 || 9.4 || 3.1 || 0.4 || 18.3",
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{
"plaintext": "| 3 || 3 || 42.3 || .388 || .000 || .650 || 13.7 || 7.0 || 2.7 || 1.0 || 17.0",
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{
"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"|1982",
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{
"plaintext": "| 14 || 14 || 40.1 || .529 || .000 || .828 || 11.3 || 9.3 || 2.9 || 0.2 || 17.4",
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{
"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1983",
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{
"plaintext": "| 15 || 15 || 42.9 || .485 || .000 || .840 || 8.5 || 12.8 || 2.3 || 0.8 || 17.9",
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{
"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1984",
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{
"plaintext": "| 21 || 21 || 39.9 || .551 || .000 || .800 || 6.6 || 13.5 || 2.0 || 1.0 || 18.2",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"|1985",
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{
"plaintext": "| 19 || 19 || 36.2 || .513 || .143 || .847 || 7.1 || 15.2 || 1.7 || 0.2 || 17.5",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1986",
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{
"plaintext": "| 14 || 14 || 38.6 || .537 || .000 || .766 || 7.1 || 15.1 || 1.9 || 0.1 || 21.6",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"|1987",
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{
"plaintext": "| 18 || 18 || 37.0 || .539 || .200 || .831 || 7.7 || 12.2 || 1.7 || 0.4 || 21.8",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;\"|1988",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|L.A. Lakers",
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{
"plaintext": "| 24 || 24 || 40.2 || .514 || .500 || .852 || 5.4 || 12.6 || 1.4 || 0.2 || 19.9",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1989",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|L.A. Lakers",
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{
"plaintext": "| 14 || 14 || 37.0 || .489 || .286 || .907 || 5.9 || 11.8 || 1.9 || 0.2 || 18.4",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1990",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|L.A. Lakers",
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{
"plaintext": "| 9 || 9 || 41.8 || .490 || .200 || .886 || 6.3 || 12.8 || 1.2 || 0.1 || 25.2",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1991",
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"plaintext": "| 19 || 19 || 43.3 || .440 || .296 || .882 || 8.1 || 12.6 || 1.2 || 0.0 || 21.8",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "| style=\"text-align:left;\"|1996",
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{
"plaintext": "| 4 || 0 || 33.8 || .385 || .333 || .848 || 8.5 || 6.5 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 15.3",
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"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": "| 190 || 186 || 39.7 || .506 || .241 || .838 || 7.7 || style=\"background:#E0CEF2;\"|12.3 || 1.9 || 0.3 || 19.5",
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"plaintext": "It was established in 1956, as the private-sector arm of the World Bank Group, to advance economic development by investing in for-profit and commercial projects for poverty reduction and promoting development. The IFC's stated aim is to create opportunities for people to escape poverty and achieve better living standards by mobilizing financial resources for private enterprise, promoting accessible and competitive markets, supporting businesses and other private-sector entities, and creating jobs and delivering necessary services to those who are poverty stricken or otherwise vulnerable.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC is owned and governed by its member countries but has its own executive leadership and staff that conduct its normal business operations. It is a corporation whose shareholders are member governments that provide paid-in capital and have the right to vote on its matters. Originally, it was more financially integrated with the World Bank Group, but later, the IFC was established separately and eventually became authorized to operate as a financially autonomous entity and make independent investment decisions.",
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"plaintext": "It offers an array of debt and equity financing services and helps companies face their risk exposures while refraining from participating in a management capacity. The corporation also offers advice to companies on making decisions, evaluating their impact on the environment and society, and being responsible. It advises governments on building infrastructure and partnerships to further support private sector development.",
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"plaintext": "The corporation is assessed by an independent evaluator each year. In 2011, its evaluation report recognized that its investments performed well and reduced poverty, but recommended that the corporation define poverty and expected outcomes more explicitly to better-understand its effectiveness and approach poverty reduction more strategically. The corporation's total investments in 2011 amounted to $18.66 billion. It committed $820 million to advisory services for 642 projects in 2011, and held $24.5 billion worth of liquid assets. The IFC is in good financial standing and received the highest ratings from two independent credit rating agencies in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "IFC comes under frequent criticism from NGOs that it is not able to track its money because of its use of financial intermediaries. For example, a report by Oxfam International and other NGOs in 2015, \"The Suffering of Others,\" found the IFC was not performing enough due diligence and managing risk in many of its investments in third-party lenders.",
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"plaintext": "Other criticism focuses on IFC working excessively with large companies or wealthy individuals already able to finance their investments without help from public institutions such as IFC, and such investments do not have an adequate positive development impact. An example often cited by NGOs and critical journalists is IFC granting financing to a Saudi prince for a five-star hotel in Ghana.",
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"plaintext": "The World Bank and International Monetary Fund were designed by delegates at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944. The World Bank, then consisting of only the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, became operational in 1946. Robert L. Garner joined the World Bank in 1947 as a senior executive and expressed his view that private business could play an important role in international development. In 1950, Garner and his colleagues proposed establishing a new institution for the purpose of making private investments in the less developed countries served by the World Bank. The U.S. government encouraged the idea of an international corporation working in tandem with the World Bank to invest in private enterprises without accepting guarantees from governments, without managing those enterprises, and by collaborating with third party investors. When describing the IFC in 1955, World Bank President Eugene R. Black said that the IFC would only invest in private firms, rather than make loans to governments, and it would not manage the projects in which it invests.",
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"plaintext": "The concept was nonetheless controversial in the US, where some business interests were uncomfortable with the public ownership of private firms. Nonetheless, in 1956, the International Finance Corporation became operational under the leadership of Garner. It initially had 12 staff members and $100 million (equivalent to $million in ) in capital. The corporation made its inaugural investment in 1957 by making a $2 million (equivalent to $million in ) loan to a Brazil-based affiliate of Siemens & Halske (now Siemens AG).",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, IFC bought 18% stake in the Indian Financial firm, Angel Broking. In December 2015, IFC supported Greek banks with 150 million euros by buying shares in four of them: Alpha Bank (60 million), Eurobank (50 million), Piraeus Bank (20 million) and National Bank of Greece (20 million).",
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"plaintext": "The IFC is governed by its Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country (most often the country's finance minister or treasury secretary). Each member typically appoints one governor and also one alternate. Although corporate authority rests with the Board of Governors, the governors delegate most of their corporate powers and their authority over daily matters such as lending and business operations to the board of directors. The IFC's Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors who meet regularly and work at the IFC's headquarters, and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group. The executive directors collectively represent all 185 member countries. When the IFC's Board of Directors votes on matters brought before it, each executive director's vote is weighted according to the total share capital of the member countries represented by that director.",
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"plaintext": "IFC is now managed by a new leader - Makhtar Diop who is the managing director and EVP at IFC since March 1, 2021. Prior to his appointment, he was the World Bank's vice president for Infrastructure, where he led the Bank's global efforts to build sustainable infrastructure in developing and emerging economies.",
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"plaintext": "IFC's Chief Executive Officer oversees its overall direction and daily operations. Philippe Le Houérou is chief executive officer of IFC. Since his appointment by World Bank Group President Jim Yong Kim in March 2016, Mr. Le Houérou has led the organization's new strategy to create markets in less developed countries and redefine development finance by promoting initiatives and reforms that unlock billions of dollars in additional private sector investment.",
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"plaintext": "Although the IFC coordinates its activities in many areas with the other World Bank Group institutions, it generally operates independently as it is a separate entity with legal and financial autonomy, established by its own Articles of Agreement. The corporation operates with a staff of over 3,400 employees, of which half are stationed in field offices across its member nations.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC's investment services consist of loans, equity, trade finance, syndicated loans, structured and securitized finance, client risk management services, treasury services, and liquidity management. In its fiscal year 2010, the IFC invested $12.7 billion in 528 projects across 103 countries. Of that total investment commitment, approximately 39% ($4.9 billion) was invested into 255 projects across 58 member nations of the World Bank's International Development Association (IDA).",
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"plaintext": "The IFC makes loans to businesses and private projects generally with maturities of seven to twelve years. It determines a suitable repayment schedule and grace period for each loan individually to meet borrowers' currency and cash flow requirements. The IFC may provide longer-term loans or extend grace periods if a project is deemed to warrant it. Leasing companies and financial intermediaries may also receive loans from the IFC.",
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"plaintext": "Though loans have traditionally been denominated in hard currencies, the IFC has endeavored to structure loan products in local currencies. Its disbursement portfolio included loans denominated in 25 local currencies in 2010, and 45 local currencies in 2011, funded largely through swap markets. Local financial markets development is one of IFC's strategic focus areas. In line with its AAA rating, it has strict concentration, liquidity, asset-liability and other policies. The IFC committed to approximately $5.7 billion in new loans in 2010, and $5 billion in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Although the IFC's shareholders initially only allowed it to make loans, the IFC was authorized in 1961 to make equity investments, the first of which was made in 1962 by taking a stake in FEMSA, a former manufacturer of auto parts in Spain that is now part of Bosch Spain. The IFC invests in businesses' equity either directly or via private-equity funds, generally from five up to twenty percent of a company's total equity. IFC's private-equity portfolio currently stands at roughly $3.0 billion committed to about 180 funds. The portfolio is widely distributed across all regions including Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Middle East, and recently has invested in Small Enterprise Assistance Funds' (SEAF) Caucasus Growth Fund, Aureos Capital's Kula Fund II (Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Pacific Islands) and Leopard Capital’s Haiti Fund. Other equity investments made by the IFC include preferred equity, convertible loans, and participation loans. The IFC prefers to invest for the long-term, usually for a period of eight to fifteen years, before exiting through the sale of shares on a domestic stock exchange, usually as part of an initial public offering. When the IFC invests in a company, it does not assume an active role in management of the company.",
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"plaintext": "Through its Global Trade Finance Program, the IFC guarantees trade payment obligations of more than 200 approved banks in over 80 countries to mitigate risk for international transactions. The Global Trade Finance Program provides guarantees to cover payment risks for emerging market banks regarding promissory notes, bills of exchange, letters of credit, bid and performance bonds, supplier credit for capital goods imports, and advance payments. The IFC issued $3.46 billion in more than 2,800 guarantees in 2010, of which over 51% targeted IDA member nations. In its fiscal year 2011, the IFC issued $4.6 billion in more than 3,100 guarantees. In 2009, the IFC launched a separate program for crisis response, known as its Global Trade Liquidity Program, which provides liquidity for international trade among less developed countries. Since its establishment in 2009, the Global Trade Liquidity Program assisted with over $15 billion in trade in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC operates a Syndicated Loan Program in an effort to mobilize capital for development goals. The program was created in 1957 and has channeled approximately $38 billion from over 550 financial institutions toward development projects in over 100 different emerging markets. The IFC syndicated a total of $4.7 billion in loans in 2011, twice that of its $2 billion worth of syndications in 2010. Due to banks retrenching from lending across borders in emerging markets, in 2009 the IFC started to syndicate parallel loans to the international financial institutions and other participants.",
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"plaintext": "To service clients without ready access to low-cost financing, the IFC relies on structured or securitized financial products such as partial credit guarantees, portfolio risk transfers, and Islamic finance. The IFC committed $797 million in the form of structured and securitized financing in 2010. For companies that face difficulty in obtaining financing due to a perception of high credit risk, the IFC securitizes assets with predictable cash flows, such as mortgages, credit cards, loans, corporate debt instruments, and revenue streams, in an effort to enhance those companies' credit.",
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"plaintext": "Financial derivative products are made available to the IFC's clients strictly for hedging interest rate risk, exchange rate risk, and commodity risk exposure. It serves as an intermediary between emerging market businesses and international derivatives market makers to increase access to risk management instruments.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC fulfills a treasury role by borrowing international capital to fund lending activities. It is usually one of the first institutions to issue bonds or to do swaps in emerging markets denominated in those markets' local currencies. The IFC's new international borrowings amounted to $8.8 billion in 2010 and $9.8 billion in 2011. The IFC Treasury actively engages in liquidity management in an effort to maximize returns and assure that funding for its investments is readily available while managing risks to the IFC.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to its investment activities the IFC provides a range of advisory services to support corporate decisionmaking regarding business, environment, social impact, and sustainability. The IFC's corporate advice targets governance, managerial capacity, scalability, and corporate responsibility. It prioritizes the encouragement of reforms that improve the trade friendliness and ease of doing business in an effort to advise countries on fostering a suitable investment climate. It also offers advice to governments on infrastructure development and public-private partnerships. The IFC attempts to guide businesses toward more sustainable practices particularly with regards to having good governance, supporting women in business, and proactively combating climate change. The International Finance Corporation has stated that cities in emerging markets can attract more than $29 trillion in climate-related sectors by 2030.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC established IFC Asset Management Company LLC (IFC AMC) in 2009 as a wholly owned subsidiary to manage all capital funds to be invested in emerging markets. The AMC manages capital mobilized by the IFC as well as by third parties such as sovereign or pension funds, and other development financing organizations. Despite being owned by the IFC, the AMC has investment decision autonomy and is charged with a fiduciary responsibility to the four individual funds under its management. It also aims to mobilize additional capital for IFC investments as it can make certain types of investments which the IFC cannot. , the AMC managed the IFC Capitalization Fund (Equity) Fund, L.P., the IFC Capitalization (Subordinated Debt) Fund, L.P., the IFC African, Latin American, and Caribbean Fund, L.P., and the Africa Capitalization Fund, Ltd. The IFC Capitalization (Equity) Fund holds $1.3 billion in equity, while the IFC Capitalization (Subordinated Debt) Fund is valued at $1.7 billion. The IFC African, Latin American, and Caribbean Fund (referred to as the IFC ALAC Fund) was created in 2010 and is worth $1 billion. , the ALAC Fund has invested a total of $349.1 million into twelve businesses. The Africa Capitalization Fund was set up in 2011 to invest in commercial banks in both Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa and its commitments totaled $181.8 million in March 2012. , Marcos Brujis serves as CEO of the AMC.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC prepares consolidated financial statements in accordance with United States GAAP which are audited by KPMG. It reported income before grants to IDA members of $2.18 billion in fiscal year 2011, up from $1.95 billion in fiscal 2010 and $299 million in fiscal 2009. The increase in income before grants is ascribed to higher earnings from the IFC's investments and also from higher service fees. The IFC reported a partial offset from lower liquid asset trading income, higher administrative costs, and higher advisory service expenses. The IFC made $600 million in grants to IDA countries in fiscal 2011, up from $200 million in fiscal 2010 and $450 million in fiscal 2009. The IFC reported a net income of $1.58 billion in fiscal year 2011. In previous years, the IFC had reported a net loss of $151 million in fiscal 2009 and $1.75 billion in fiscal 2010. The IFC's total capital amounted to $20.3 billion in 2011, of which $2.4 billion was paid-in capital from member countries, $16.4 billion was retained earnings, and $1.5 billion was accumulated other comprehensive income. The IFC held $68.49 billion in total assets in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC's return on average assets (GAAP basis) decreased from 3.1% in 2010 to 2.4% in 2011. Its return on average capital (GAAP basis) decreased from 10.1% in 2010 to 8.2% in 2011. The IFC's cash and liquid investments accounted for 83% of its estimated net cash requirements for fiscal years 2012 through 2014. Its external funding liquidity level grew from 190% in 2010 to 266% in 2011. It has a 2.6:1 debt-to-equity ratio and holds 6.6% in reserves against losses on loans to its disbursement portfolio. The IFC's deployable strategic capital decreased from 14% in 2010 to 10% in 2011 as a share of its total resources available, which grew from $16.8 billion in 2010 to $17.9 billion in 2011.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, the IFC reported total funding commitments (consisting of loans, equity, guarantees, and client risk management) of $12.18 billion, slightly lower than its $12.66 billion in commitments in 2010. Its core mobilization, which consists of participation and parallel loans, structured finance, its Asset Management Company funds, and other initiatives, grew from $5.38 billion in 2010 to $6.47 billion in 2011. The IFC's total investment program was reported at a value of $18.66 billion for fiscal year 2011. Its advisory services portfolio included 642 projects valued at $820 million in 2011, compared to 736 projects at $859 million in 2010. The IFC held $24.5 billion in liquid assets in 2011, up from $21 billion in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC received credit ratings of AAA from Standard & Poor's in December 2012 and Aaa from Moody's Investors Service in November 2012. S&P rated the IFC as having a strong financial standing with adequate capital and liquidity, cautious management policies, a high level of geographic diversification, and anticipated treatment as a preferred creditor given its membership in the World Bank Group. It noted that the IFC faces a weakness relative to other multilateral institutions of having higher risks due to its mandated emphasis on private sector investing and its income heavily affected by equity markets.",
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"plaintext": "IFC Sustainability Framework articulates IFC's commitment to sustainable development and is part of its approach to risk management. IFC's Environmental and social policies, guidelines, and tools are widely adopted as market standards and embedded in operational policies by corporations, investors, financial intermediaries, stock exchanges, regulators, and countries. In particular, the EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are normally acceptable to the World Bank Group, and that are generally considered to be achievable in new facilities at reasonable costs by existing technology.",
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"plaintext": "The IFC has created a mass-market certification system for fast growing emerging markets called EDGE (\"Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies\"). IFC and the World Green Building Council have partnered to accelerate green building growth in less developed counties. The target is to scale up green buildings over a seven-year period until 20% of the property market is saturated. Certification occurs when the EDGE standard is met, which requires 20% less energy, water, and materials than conventional homes.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1940s and 1950s, low-income developing countries began to realize that they could no longer afford to borrow capital and needed more-favorable lending terms than offered by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). At the onset of his inaugural term in 1949, then-President of the United States Harry S. Truman assembled an advisory group to suggest ways to accomplish his Point Four Program, of which a significant component was an effort to strengthen developing countries, especially those nearest to the Eastern Bloc, to dissuade them from aligning with other communist states. The advisory group recommended an international mechanism that would function somewhere in between providing strictly-loaned and strictly-granted funds. The UN and United States government published reports expressing support for the creation of a multilateral, concessional lending program for the poorest developing countries. However, the United States was largely unresponsive and ultimately distracted by its involvement in the Korean War and unconvinced that development needed greater financial stimulation.",
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"plaintext": "Developing countries grew increasingly frustrated with not being able to afford IBRD lending and perceived the Marshall Plan as a comparatively generous gift to European nations. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, developing countries began calling for the United Nations (UN) to create a development agency that would offer technical support and concessional financing, with a particular desire that the agency adhere to other UN bodies' convention of each country having one vote as opposed to a weighted vote. However, the United States ultimately opposed proposals of that nature. As the United States grew more concerned over the growth of the Cold War, it made a concession in 1954 at the behest of its Department of State by backing the conception of the International Finance Corporation (IFC). Despite the launch of the IFC in 1956, developing countries persisted in demanding the creation of a new concessional financing mechanism and the idea gained traction within the IBRD. Then-President of the IBRD Eugene R. Black, Sr. began circulating the notion of an International Development Association, as opposed to an idea of a concessional named the Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development (SUNFED) governed by the United Nations. Paul Hoffman, the Marshall Plan's former Administrator, proposed the idea of a soft-loan facility within the World Bank, where the US would have a preponderant voice in the allocation of such loans. Democratic Senator Mike Monroney of Oklahoma supported this idea. As Chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on International Finance, Monroney proposed a resolution recommending a study of the potential establishment of an International Development Association to be affiliated with the IBRD. Monroney's proposal was more preferred received within the United States than the SUNFED. The resolution passed the senate in 1958, and then-U.S. Treasury Secretary Robert B. Anderson encouraged other countries to conduct similar studies. In 1959, the World Bank's Board of Governors approved a U.S.-born resolution calling for the drafting of the articles of agreement. SUNFED later became the Special Fund and merged with the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance to form the United Nations Development Programme.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of January 1960, fifteen countries signed the articles of agreement which established the International Development Association. The association launched in September of that same year with an initial budget of $913 million ($7.1 billion in 2012 dollars). Over the next eight months following its launch, the IDA grew to 51 member states and loaned $101 million ($784.2 million in 2012 dollars) to four developing countries.",
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"plaintext": "The IDA is governed by the World Bank's Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country (most often the country's finance minister or treasury secretary). The Board of Governors delegates most of its authority over daily matters such as lending and operations to the Board of Directors. The Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group. The executive directors collectively represent all 187 member states of the World Bank, although decisions regarding IDA matters concern only the IDA's 172 member states. The president oversees the IDA's overall direction and daily operations. , David Malpass serves as the President of the World Bank Group. The association and IBRD operate with a staff of approximately 10,000 employees.",
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"plaintext": "The IDA is evaluated by the Bank's Independent Evaluation Group. In 2009, the group identified weaknesses in the set of controls used to protect against fraud and corruption in projects supported by IDA lending. In 2011, the group recommended the Bank provide recognition and incentives to staff and management for implementing activities which implement the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness principles of harmonization and alignment, promote greater use of sector-wide approaches to coordination, and explain the reasons why when a country's financial management system is not used so that the client country may address those shortcomings. It also recommended that the Bank collaborate with development partners to strengthen country-level leadership of development assistance coordination by offering greater financial and technical support. Development economists, such as William Easterly, have conducted research which ranked the IDA as featuring the most transparency and best practices among donors of development aid.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers from the Center for Global Development expect that the IDA's collection of eligible borrowing countries will decrease by half by the year 2025 (marking the 65th anniversary of the association's establishment) due to graduations and that remaining borrowers will consist primarily of African countries and will face substantial population declines. These changes will imply a need for the association to carefully examine its financial models and business operations to determine an appropriate strategy going forward. The center recommended that the World Bank leadership begin discussing the long-term future of the IDA.",
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"plaintext": "The IDA has 173 member countries which pay contributions every three years as replenishments of its capital. On December 12, 2008, Samoa joined UNIDO as its 173rd member. The IDA lends to 75 borrowing countries, over half of which (39) are in Africa. Membership in the IDA is available only to countries who are members of the World Bank, particularly the IBRD. Throughout its lifetime, 44 borrowing countries have graduated from the association, although 9 of these countries have relapsed as borrowers after not sustaining their graduate status.",
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"plaintext": "To be eligible for support from the IDA, countries are assessed by their poverty and their lack of creditworthiness for commercial and IBRD borrowing. The association assesses countries based on their per capita income, lack of access to private capital markets, and policy performance in implementing pro-growth and anti-poverty economic or social reforms. , to borrow from the IDA's concessional lending programs, a country's gross national income (GNI) per capita must not exceed $1,145.",
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"plaintext": " (2008)",
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"plaintext": " (2014)",
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"plaintext": " (1974)",
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"plaintext": " (1961)",
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"plaintext": " (1999)",
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"plaintext": " (1962)",
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"plaintext": " (1999) - graduated in FY 81, relapsed in FY 91, graduated again in FY 99",
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"plaintext": " (2008) - graduated in FY 80, relapsed in FY 98, 99, graduated in FY 08",
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"plaintext": " (2002)",
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"plaintext": " (1993) - graduated in FY 79, relapsed in FY 91, graduated in FY 93",
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"plaintext": " (2007)",
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"plaintext": "The following countries have relapsed to their eligibility for IDA lending and have not yet re-graduated or have instead become partially eligible (also referred to as a blend country).",
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"plaintext": " (1994)",
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"plaintext": " (1992)",
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"plaintext": " (1991)",
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"plaintext": " (1989)",
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"plaintext": " (2003, partially eligible)",
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"plaintext": " (2017)",
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"plaintext": "The IDA is a unique part of the World Bank as it requires continuous replenishment of its resources. Member countries replenish its funds through contributions in addition to supplementary funds provided by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Finance Corporation (IFC). Whereas the IBRD acquires most of its funds by raising capital on international financial markets, the IDA heavily depends on contributions from its member states. The IDA received 2 billion in special drawing rights ($3 billion USD) from the IBRD and IFC. Approximately half of the IDA's resources come from the 45 donating member countries. In its early years, the IDA received most of its replenishments from the United Kingdom and United States but, because they were not always reliable sources of funding, other developed nations began to step in and fill the economic gaps not met by these two countries. Every three years, member nations that provide funds to the IDA gather together to replenish the IDA's resources. These funds come primarily from well-developed countries including the United States, Japan, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom with 58% from the US, 22% from France, and 8% from the UK. As of 2016, there have been 18 IDA replenishment rounds. Fifty one member countries participated in the IDA's 16th replenishment of US$49.3 billion. The IDA's loans and grants are usually not paid in full to the borrower at the outset, but rather disbursed incrementally as needed by the project. Most of the donor countries such as the United States commit letters of credit to the IDA which bear no interest and are not able to be transferred or revoked, and which are exchanged for cash as needed for project disbursal. Other countries pay their contributions in full on the date of commitment to the IDA so that it may cover its operating expenses. Donors receive no return of funds and repayments from borrowers are again loaned to future projects such that donors won't need to commit those funds again in the future.",
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"plaintext": "Although the IDA's funds are now regularly replenished, this does not happen without some financial and political challenges for the donating countries. When donor countries convene to negotiate the replenishments, there is often intense discussion about redefining the association's goals and objectives or even about reforming the IDA. Due to delays in the United States Congress impeding the approval of IDA funding, the association's members implemented a set of policy triggers outlining the commitment threshold necessary for replenishment to take effect. The threshold imposed a requirement that an aggregate share of 85% in voting stock is necessary for executing a replenishment. The threshold was implemented with the aim to compel the United States to participate in replenishment rounds. Though countries intended for the triggers to hold the United States to its commitments, the threshold ultimately provided the United States a de facto veto power over replenishment and capital increase negotiations due to its ability to bring replenishment negotiations to an impasse by threatening to withhold support. The U.S. has used this influence to further its long-term foreign policy objectives and short-term political and economic goals by imposing conditionality on replenishment negotiations.",
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"plaintext": "The replenishment rounds are typically agreed every three years . The eighteenth was finalised in December 2016, the nineteenth was being discussed in October 2019.",
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"plaintext": "Because African countries face some of the most severe poverty and underdevelopment, and because 39 of those countries are the IDA's poorest member states, the association allocates approximately half of the IDA's resources toward financing projects in those countries. As a result of its efforts to improve the region, the IDA has helped bring electricity to an additional 66 million Africans since 1997, helped build or restore 240,000 kilometers of paved roads, and helped enroll an additional 15 million African children in school since 2002. The IDA was approved in May 2012 to provide US$50 million worth of credit to the Women Entrepreneur Development Project as part of an effort to help women in Ethiopia participate in business as skilled employees or leaders. Although the positive outcomes of the IDA's efforts in Africa had been historically slow, the large allocation of funding to African countries led to positive outcomes particularly within agriculture and infrastructure development efforts.",
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"plaintext": "In 1949, early in the Cold War, alleging Communist domination of the WFTU's central institutions, a large number of non-communist national trade union federations (including the U.S. AFL–CIO, the British TUC, the French FO, the Italian CISL and the Spanish UGT) seceded and created the rival ICFTU at a conference in London attended by representatives of nearly 48 million members in 53 countries.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1950s the ICFTU actively recruited new members from the developing regions of first Asia and subsequently Africa. Following the collapse of Communist party government in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, the Federation's membership has risen steeply from 87 million in 1988 and 100 million in 1992, as trade union federations from former Soviet bloc countries joined the ICFTU.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975 former CIA agent Philip Agee revealed in his book \" CIA Diary\" that the ICFTU was a \"Labor center set up and controlled by the CIA to oppose the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU).\"",
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"plaintext": "The ICFTU had four regional organisations. APRO covered Asia and the Pacific, AFRO in Africa, and ORIT for the Americas. Until 1969, the ERO covered Europe, but it became increasingly marginal and was dissolved. The ICFTU later maintained close links with the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), which included all ICFTU European affiliates). It also worked closely with many Global Union Federations, which link together national unions from a particular trade or industry at international level.",
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"plaintext": "Central to the ICFTU's work was the struggle to defend workers' rights. The ICFTU lobbied for the ratification of the so-called \"core labour standards\"—eight key conventions of the International Labour Organization concerning freedom of association, the abolition of child labour and forced labour and the elimination of discrimination in the workplace.",
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"plaintext": "The ICFTU has staff which are devoted entirely to the monitoring and defence of workers rights, and they issue—almost on a daily basis—alerts and calls to action. The ICFTU published its \"Annual Survey of Violations of Trade Union Rights\" every June, the publication of which was usually accompanied by extensive press coverage of the violations of trade union rights around the world. The report often focused on the numbers of people killed for being members of unions.",
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"plaintext": "In its constitution, the organisation pledged itself to \"champion the cause of human freedom, promote equality of opportunity for all people, seek to eliminate everywhere in the world any form of discrimination or subjugation based on race, religion, sex or origin, oppose and combat totalitarianism and aggression in any form\".",
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"plaintext": "That constitution listed no fewer than seventeen aims of the organisation and it has been argued that the ICFTU from its very beginning set itself goals that would be impossible to achieve—particularly with a small staff and budget. For example, the organisation's constitution required it \"to carry out a programme of trade union and workers’ education\" as well as to give \"assistance to those suffering from the consequences of natural and industrial disasters\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2004 Australian union leader Sharan Burrow was elected as the first female president of the ICFTU.",
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"plaintext": "ICFTU published an annual report which documents violations by governments, industries, and military and police forces against both workers and related trade unions.",
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"plaintext": "Released on 7 June 2006 the report reprised the year 2005. The press release from ICFTU OnLine reports,",
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"plaintext": "\"115 trade unionists were murdered for defending workers’ rights in 2005, while more than 1,600 were subjected to violent assaults and some 9,000 arrested ... Nearly 10,000 workers were sacked for their trade union involvement, and almost 1,700 detained.\"",
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"plaintext": "The report is divided into five regional sections, with detailed reports by country.",
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"plaintext": "ICFTU wrote that, \"One of the most striking features of the violations that took place in Africa is the failure of governments to respect the rights of their own employees, both through the restrictions in law on organising, collective bargaining and strike action, and repression in practice.\" The report continues on to detail violations such as the lack of the right to organise unions in the public service in Lesotho; the police use of stun guns, rubber bullets and tear gas at workers' strikes and protests in South Africa; and the death of a Djibouti drivers' union member during a demonstration by striking minibus and lorry drivers.",
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"plaintext": "The report of violence in the Americas details a total of 80 deaths, more than half of the number reported worldwide. 70 of those deaths were in Colombia, while an additional 260 Colombian workers received death threats. In Ecuador 44 workers at the San Jose plantation were fired for forming a union. In Canada a collective agreement was imposed by law on members of the BCTF.",
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"plaintext": "ICFTU singled out Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, South Korea and the Philippines as having \"particularly\" violent episodes. In Bangladesh three trade unionists were killed when police intervened in a Sinha Textile Mill protest. In South Korea, Kim Tae-hwan from the Federation of Korean Trade Unions was run over and killed while on the picket line.",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines, Diosdado Fortuna, leader of the Food and Drug Industry Union, was shot dead by two unidentified gunmen, Victoria Ramonte of the Andres Soriano College Employees' Union was stabbed to death, and Ricardo Ramos, President of the Sugar Workers' Union was shot and killed.",
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"plaintext": "The report on Europe begins by noting \"Strong resistance to the creation of independent trade unions was a common trait across Central and Eastern Europe, both by employers and the State.\" Examples include an organised government attempt to coerce workers to leave independent trade unions in Moldova. Belarus is highlighted as wanting to return to Soviet-era trade union centres, with the ensuing close ties to the government.",
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"plaintext": "The death of one trade unionist in Russia is reported. Although there are no details concerning the exact circumstances, he had previously received threats, and his house had been set on fire.",
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"plaintext": "In Iraq, during the first two months of 2005 Hadi Salih, international secretary of the Iraqi Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU) was brutally tortured and killed. Talib Khadim and Saady Edan, both also from the IFTU were attacked and kidnapped. Two attempts were made on the life of the president of the IFTU's Kirkuk branch. Ali Hassan Abd of the Oil and Gas Workers' Union was shot and killed in front of his children, and Ahmed Adris Abas of the Transport and Communications Union, was shot dead.",
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"plaintext": "The report also details the difficulties faced by migrant workers in many countries, such as Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar and Saudi Arabia, where they are a major portion of the labour force, but have few rights.",
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"plaintext": "Qatar is singled out as a source of good news, with the country adopting a new labour code which, although still below international standards, allowed for the establishment of free trade unions.",
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"plaintext": "1949: Jacobus Hendrik Oldenbroek",
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"plaintext": " International Trade Union Confederation",
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"plaintext": " Robert Anthony Waters and Geert van Goethem, eds. American Labor's Global Ambassadors: The International History of the AFL-CIO During the Cold War (Palgrave Macmillan; 2014)",
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"plaintext": " Guide to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions records. 5010. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library.",
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"plaintext": " Guide to International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. Council for Organising Campaign in France. Reports and minutes, 1952-1953. 5028. Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Cornell University Library.",
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| 1,138,589 | 635 | 259 | 77 | 0 | 0 | International Confederation of Free Trade Unions | international trade union | [
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36,762 | 1,096,973,380 | Ilona_Staller | [
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"plaintext": "Ilona Staller (born 26 November 1951), widely known by her stage name Cicciolina (\"little chubby one\"), is a Hungarian-Italian former porn star, politician, and singer.",
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"plaintext": "Ilona was born in Budapest, Hungary. Her father, László Staller, left the family when she was young. She was raised by her mother, who was a midwife, and her stepfather, who was an official in the Hungarian Ministry of the Interior.",
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"plaintext": "In 1964, she began working as a model for the Hungarian news agency, M.T.I. In her memoirs and in a 1999 TV interview, she claimed that she had provided the Hungarian authorities with information on American diplomats staying at a Budapest luxury hotel where she worked as a maid in the 1960s. By the age of 25, and during her hotel work, she met an older Italian national named Salvatore Martini whom she later married in 1968.",
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"plaintext": "Naturalized by marriage and settled in Italy, Staller met pornographer Riccardo Schicchi in the early 1970s, and, beginning in 1973, achieved fame with a radio show called Voulez-vous coucher avec moi? on Radio Luna. For that program she adopted the name Cicciolina. She referred to her male fanbase, and later the male members of the Italian parliament, as , translating loosely as \"little tubby boys\". Although she appeared in several films from 1970, she made her debut under her own name in 1975 with La liceale (also known as The Teasers) by playing with Gloria Guida as her lesbian classmate.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, on the RAI show C'era due Volte, her breasts were the first to be bared live on Italian TV. Staller appeared in her first hardcore pornographic film, Telefono rosso (\"Red Telephone\") in 1983. She produced the film together with Schicchi's company Diva Futura. Her memoirs were published as Confessioni erotiche di Cicciolina (\"Erotic confessions of Cicciolina\") by Olympia Press of Milan in 1987. That same year she appeared in , titled The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empress in the United States, co-starring John Holmes. The film was later to create a furor when it was revealed that Holmes had tested positive for HIV prior to appearing in it. Staller has appeared nude in Playboys editions in several countries. Her first Playboy appearance was in Argentina in March 1988. Other appearances for the magazine were in the U.S. (September 1990), Hungary (June 2005), Serbia (July 2005) and Mexico (September 2005).",
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"plaintext": "In 1987, invited by a local magazine, she visited the Portuguese Parliament and posed topless before being stopped by the authorities, to general giggles, leading to the suspending of the session and originating official complaints from members of CDS. Only Natália Correia was seen talking to the Italian member of parliament. ",
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"plaintext": "In September 2011, it was revealed that Staller was eligible for and would be receiving a yearly pension of 39,000 euros from the Italian state as a result of her five years in the country's parliament. Reacting to the controversy raised by the news, the former porn star, who started receiving the pension in November 2011, when she turned 60, stated: \"I earned it and I'm proud of it.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, Staller founded the Democracy, Nature and Love Party (DNA). Its objectives included the legalization of same-sex marriage, the reopening of former brothels (\"closed houses\"), a guaranteed minimum wage for young people, improvements to the judiciary, and the elimination of the privileges of the rich political \"caste\".",
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"plaintext": "She was also a candidate, on a proposal by blogger Luca Bagatin, in administrative elections in Rome on 26 and 27 May 2013, on the list 'Republicans and Liberals'.",
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"plaintext": "Staller has recorded several songs, mostly from live performances, with explicit lyrics being sung to a children's melody. Her most famous song is \"\", a song entirely dedicated to il cazzo, which means \"the dick\" in Italian. Because of its extensive use of profanity, the song could not be released in Italy, but became a hit in other countries, especially in France. The song gained considerable popularity in the internet era, when many Italian speakers were able to hear it for the first time.",
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"plaintext": "Several unreleased songs were recorded during her RCA period and the Diva Futura agency period. Some of these unreleased songs were subsequently used during her TV shows, live performances or as soundtracks in her porn movies.",
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"plaintext": "She was the muse of American artist Jeff Koons, who persuaded her to collaborate on a series of sculptures and photographs of them having sex in many positions, settings and costumes, which were exhibited under the title Made in Heaven and made waves at the 1990 Venice Biennale. Staller married Koons in 1991. In 1992 they had a son, Ludwig, but separated the following year, partly because Staller refused to stop making porn. Their marriage ended in 1994. In violation of a US court order, Staller left the US for Italy, taking their then-two-year-old son, Ludwig. In 2008, Staller filed suit against Koons for failing to pay child support.",
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"plaintext": "Staller is an accomplished chess player, having learned from her father while growing up in Hungary. In July 2021 it was announced she would demonstrate her ability in an exhibition match, taking on four top players simultaneously.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, an erotic comics series, La Cicciolina, was made by Giovanni Romanini and Lucio Filippucci, based on the actress.",
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"plaintext": "Italian metal band Bulldozer released the track \"Ilonia the Very Best\" on their 1987 album IX in dedication to her. Later in 2005, Japanese metal band Abigail released the compliation \"Abigail Loves Ilona, as She Is the Very Best\" featuring a photograph of Ilonia as the allbum art, and includes several Bulldozer covers.",
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"plaintext": "British band Pop Will Eat Itself released a song called \"Touched by the Hand of Cicciolina\" as an unofficial World Cup single in July 1990. The song reached number 28 on the UK Singles Chart. Also, an industrial 1990s band, Machines of Loving Grace, paid tribute to Cicciolina on their first, self-titled album and named a song after her as part of a campaign to get her to present the FIFA World Cup trophy at the 1990 tournament.",
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"plaintext": "Brazilian musician Fausto Fawcett also wrote a song in tribute to Cicciolina, titled \"Cicciolina (O Cio Eterno)\", featured on his 1989 album Império dos Sentidos.",
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"plaintext": "Chilean punk band Los Peores de Chile released a song titled \"Chicholina\" in 1994, which had heavy TV and radio airplay, receiving critical acclaim by the national music press at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Finnish singer Erika Vikman released a song titled \"Cicciolina\" on 26 January 2020. It was selected as one of six entries that competed to represent Finland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2020. The song finished in second place in the national selection.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2020 Spanish television series Veneno, Cicciolina, played by Miriam Giovanelli, was portrayed attending to a party in Gran Canaria in 1996, where she met Spanish personality La Veneno.",
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"plaintext": " 1979 Ilona Staller (RCA PL 31442) published at least in Italy and Colombia. (The Colombian record has titles in Spanish.) A music tape also exists.",
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"plaintext": " Track list: I Was Made for Dancin' / Pane Marmellata e Me / Labbra / Benihana / Lascia l'ultimo ballo per me / Cavallina Cavallo (by Ennio Morricone) / It's all up to you / Professor of Percussions / Più su sempre più su",
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"plaintext": " 1987 Muscolo Rosso (Boy Records) published in Spain only.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Track list: Russians / Inno (Come un angelo) / Satisfaction / Telefono rosso (Avec toi) / Black Sado / Goccioline (Bambole) / Perversion / Animal Rock / Nirvana / Muscolo rosso / Muscolo rosso (reprise)",
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"plaintext": " 1988 Sonhos Eróticos printed in Brazil only. (All Disc 00.101.009, also music tape 00.107.009.) Reprint of the English long playing Erotic dreams plus two Cicciolina songs \"Muscolo rosso\" and \"Avec toi\". The other songs are performed by Erotic Dreams Band. Some of Cicciolina's speeches are used in \"La prima volta\" song. Cover is dedicated to Cicciolina.",
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{
"plaintext": " Track list: Muscolo rosso / Emmanuelle / Bilitis / Le réve / La prima volta / I feel love / Je t'aime... moi non plus / Histoire d'O / Les Femmes / Black Emmanuelle / Love to love you bay / Avec toi",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 1994 Sonhos Eróticos (Brazil only, All Disc RQ 032) Reprint of 1988 LP with a new layout of the cover, with background from brown to pink and violet.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 2000 Ilona Staller (CD, in United Kingdom only, Sequel Records/Caste Music NEMCD398); reprint on CD of the 1979 LP, plus the two extended tracks of the red vinyl mix.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 2000 Ilona Staller (LP, in United Kingdom only, Sequel Record/Castle Music NEMLP398); white label promotional test pressings, less than 5, were made for a proposed but ultimately cancelled vinyl release of the CD reissue.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 1976 \"Voulez vous coucher avec moi?\" (Italy only, with neither serial number nor cover; on the vinyl it is written \"Nuovo Playore 1° Radio Rete 4 D.R.\" only); from the same-named radio programme on Radio Luna station by Riccardo Schicchi where the nickname Cicciolina was born.",
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"plaintext": " 1979 \"I Was Made for Dancin'\" / \"Più su sempre su su\" (Italy only, RCA PB 6323)",
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"plaintext": " 1979 \"Cavallina Cavallo\" / \"Più su sempre più su\" (Japan only, RCA SS 3205)",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": " 1980 \"Buone Vacanze\" / \"Ti amo uomo\" (Italy only, RCA BB 6449)",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "In popular culture",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " 1981 \"Ska Skatenati\" / \"Disco Smack\" (Italy only, LUPUS LUN 4917)",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": " 1987 \"Muscolo rosso\" / \"Avec toi\" (SFC 17117–7) symbol of the Italian Radical Party on the cover. The record was published in France and limited in other European countries.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 1987 \"Muscolo rosso\" / \"Russians\" (Spain only, BOY-028-PRO) promo for journalist; no cover.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 1979 \"I Was Made for Dancin'\" (extended version) / \"Save the Last Dance for Me\" (English original version of \"Lascia l'ultimo ballo per me\") (Italy only, RCA PD 6327, red vinyl mix without cover, promo for DJs).",
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"plaintext": " 1987 \"Muscolo Rosso\" / \"Russians\" (Spain only, BOY-028) versions are not extended, the same as 7\".",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " 1989 \"San Francisco Dance\" / \"Living in my Paradise\" / \"My Sexy Shop\" (Acv 5472) Picture disk; limited edition; published in Europe, together with her colleague Moana Pozzi's release.",
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"plaintext": " 1979 Dedicato al Mar Egeo, LP soundtrack by Ennio Morricone published in Japan only; though she does not sing, she is portrayed naked on the inlay and back-cover. She recorded two songs from that album (\"Cavallina a cavallo\" and \"Mar Egeo\") later in the year. The LP exists in two versions, one with Japanese titles, the other with Italian titles. Also, a CD version exists.",
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"plaintext": " 1979 Aquarium sounds, LP of an Italian TV programme; she sings on the track \"Elena Tip\".",
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"plaintext": " Graphic novel about her life (in French)",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Bibliography",
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},
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"plaintext": " Large-format Italian, German, English and French language album",
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"plaintext": " Features a chapter on Cicciolina (in Danish)",
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| 49,941 | 15,653 | 78 | 69 | 0 | 0 | Ilona Staller | Hungarian-born Italian pornographic actress, singer and politician | [
"Cicciolina",
"Elena Anna Staller",
"La Cicciolina"
]
|
36,768 | 1,107,245,029 | Pope_Gregory_I | [
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory I (; – 12 March 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was Bishop of Rome from 3 September 590 to his death. He is known for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregorian Mission, to convert the then largely pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Gregory is also well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. The epithet Saint Gregory the Dialogist has been attached to him in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues. English translations of Eastern texts sometimes list him as Gregory \"Dialogos\", or the Anglo-Latinate equivalent \"Dialogus\".",
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"plaintext": "A Roman senator's son and himself the prefect of Rome at 30, Gregory lived in a monastery he established on his family estate before becoming a papal ambassador and then pope. Although he was the first pope from a monastic background, his prior political experiences may have helped him to be a talented administrator. During his papacy, his administration greatly surpassed that of the emperors in improving the welfare of the people of Rome, and he challenged the theological views of Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople before the emperor Tiberius II. Gregory regained papal authority in Spain and France and sent missionaries to England, including Augustine of Canterbury and Paulinus of York. The realignment of barbarian allegiance to Rome from their Arian Christian alliances shaped medieval Europe. Gregory saw Franks, Lombards, and Visigoths align with Rome in religion. He also combated the Donatist heresy, popular particularly in North Africa at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the Middle Ages, he was known as \"the Father of Christian Worship\" because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day. His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, still in use in the Byzantine Rite, were so significant that he is generally recognized as its de facto author.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory is one of the Latin Fathers and a Doctor of the Church. He is considered a saint in the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, various Lutheran denominations, and other Protestant denominations. Immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim. The Protestant reformer John Calvin admired Gregory greatly and declared in his Institutes that Gregory was the last good Pope. He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers.",
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"plaintext": "Like most young men of his position in Roman society, Gregory was well educated, learning grammar, rhetoric, the sciences, literature, and law; he excelled in all these fields. Gregory of Tours reported that \"in grammar, dialectic and rhetoric ... he was second to none....\" He wrote correct Latin but did not read or write Greek. He knew Latin authors, natural science, history, mathematics and music and had such a \"fluency with imperial law\" that he may have trained in it \"as a preparation for a career in public life\". Indeed, he became a government official, advancing quickly in rank to become, like his father, Prefect of Rome, the highest civil office in the city, when only thirty-three years old.",
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"plaintext": "The monks of the Monastery of St. Andrew, established by Gregory at the ancestral home on the Caelian, had a portrait of him made after his death, which John the Deacon also saw in the 9th century. He reports the picture of a man who was \"rather bald\" and had a \"tawny\" beard like his father's and a face that was intermediate in shape between his mother's and father's. The hair that he had on the sides was long and carefully curled. His nose was \"thin and straight\" and \"slightly aquiline\". \"His forehead was high.\" He had thick, \"subdivided\" lips and a chin \"of a comely prominence\" and \"beautiful hands\".",
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"plaintext": "In the modern era, Gregory is often depicted as a man at the border, poised between the Roman and Germanic worlds, between East and West, and above all, perhaps, between the ancient and medieval epochs.",
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"plaintext": "On his father's death, Gregory converted his family villa into a monastery dedicated to Andrew the Apostle (after his death it was rededicated as San Gregorio Magno al Celio). In his life of contemplation, Gregory concluded that \"in that silence of the heart, while we keep watch within through contemplation, we are as if asleep to all things that are without.\".",
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"plaintext": "Gregory had a deep respect for the monastic life and particularly the vow of poverty. Thus, when it came to light that a monk lying on his death bed had stolen three gold pieces, Gregory, as a remedial punishment, forced the monk to die alone, then threw his body and coins on a manure heap to rot with a condemnation, \"Take your money with you to perdition.\" Gregory believed that punishment of sins can begin, even in this life before death. However, in time, after the monk's death, Gregory had 30 Masses offered for the man to assist his soul before the final judgment. He viewed being a monk as the 'ardent quest for the vision of our Creator.' His three paternal aunts were nuns renowned for their sanctity. However, after the eldest two, Trasilla and Emiliana, died after seeing a vision of their ancestor Pope Felix III, the youngest soon abandoned the religious life and married the steward of her estate. Gregory's response to this family scandal was that \"many are called but few are chosen.\" Gregory's mother, Silvia, is herself a saint.",
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"plaintext": "Eventually, Pope Pelagius II ordained Gregory a deacon and solicited his help in trying to heal the schism of the Three Chapters in northern Italy. However, this schism was not healed until well after Gregory was gone.",
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"plaintext": "In 579, Pelagius II chose Gregory as his apocrisiarius (ambassador to the imperial court in Constantinople), a post Gregory would hold until 586. Gregory was part of the Roman delegation (both lay and clerical) that arrived in Constantinople in 578 to ask the emperor for military aid against the Lombards. With the Byzantine military focused on the East, these entreaties proved unsuccessful; in 584, Pelagius II wrote to Gregory as apocrisiarius, detailing the hardships that Rome was experiencing under the Lombards and asking him to ask Emperor Maurice to send a relief force. Maurice, however, had long ago determined to limit his efforts against the Lombards to intrigue and diplomacy, pitting the Franks against them. It soon became obvious to Gregory that the Byzantine emperors were unlikely to send such a force, given their more immediate difficulties with the Persians in the East and the Avars and Slavs to the North.",
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"plaintext": "According to Ekonomou, \"if Gregory's principal task was to plead Rome's cause before the emperor, there seems to have been little left for him to do once imperial policy toward Italy became evident. Papal representatives who pressed their claims with excessive vigor could quickly become a nuisance and find themselves excluded from the imperial presence altogether\". Gregory had already drawn an imperial rebuke for his lengthy canonical writings on the subject of the legitimacy of John III Scholasticus, who had occupied the Patriarchate of Constantinople for twelve years prior to the return of Eutychius (who had been driven out by Justinian). Gregory turned to cultivating connections with the Byzantine elite of the city, where he became extremely popular with the city's upper class, \"especially aristocratic women\". Ekonomou surmises that \"while Gregory may have become spiritual father to a large and important segment of Constantinople's aristocracy, this relationship did not significantly advance the interests of Rome before the emperor\". Although the writings of John the Deacon claim that Gregory \"labored diligently for the relief of Italy\", there is no evidence that his tenure accomplished much towards any of the objectives of Pelagius II.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory's theological disputes with Patriarch Eutychius would leave a \"bitter taste for the theological speculation of the East\" with Gregory that continued to influence him well into his own papacy. According to Western sources, Gregory's very public debate with Eutychius culminated in an exchange before Tiberius II where Gregory cited a biblical passage in support of the view that Christ was corporeal and palpable after his Resurrection; allegedly as a result of this exchange, Tiberius II ordered Eutychius's writings burned. Ekonomou views this argument, though exaggerated in Western sources, as Gregory's \"one achievement of an otherwise fruitless apokrisiariat\". In reality, Gregory was forced to rely on Scripture because he could not read the untranslated Greek authoritative works.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory left Constantinople for Rome in 585, returning to his monastery on the Caelian Hill. Gregory was elected by acclamation to succeed Pelagius II in 590, when the latter died of the plague spreading through the city. Gregory was approved by an Imperial iussio from Constantinople the following September (as was the norm during the Byzantine Papacy).",
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"plaintext": "In Constantinople, Gregory took issue with the aged Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople, who had recently published a treatise, now lost, on the General Resurrection. Eutychius maintained that the resurrected body \"will be more subtle than air, and no longer palpable\". Gregory opposed with the palpability of the risen Christ in Luke 24:39. As the dispute could not be settled, the Byzantine emperor, Tiberius II Constantine, undertook to arbitrate. He decided in favor of palpability and ordered Eutychius' book to be burned. Shortly after both Gregory and Eutychius became ill; Gregory recovered, but Eutychius died on 5 April 582, at age 70. On his deathbed Eutychius recanted impalpability and Gregory dropped the matter.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was more inclined to remain retired into the monastic lifestyle of contemplation. In texts of all genres, especially those produced in his first year as pope, Gregory bemoaned the burden of office and mourned the loss of the undisturbed life of",
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"plaintext": "prayer he had once enjoyed as a monk.",
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"plaintext": "When he became pope in 590, among his first acts was writing a series of letters disavowing any ambition to the throne of Peter and praising the contemplative life of the monks. At that time, for various reasons, the Holy See had not exerted effective leadership in the West since the pontificate of Gelasius I. The episcopacy in Gaul was drawn from the great territorial families, and identified with them: the parochial horizon of Gregory's contemporary, Gregory of Tours, may be considered typical; in Visigothic Spain the bishops had little contact with Rome; in Italy the territories which had de facto fallen under the administration of the papacy were beset by the violent Lombard dukes and the rivalry of the Byzantines in the Exarchate of Ravenna and in the south.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory had strong convictions on missions: \"Almighty God places good men in authority that He may impart through them the gifts of His mercy to their subjects. And this we find to be the case with the British over whom you have been appointed to rule, that through the blessings bestowed on you the blessings of heaven might be bestowed on your people also.\" He is credited with re-energizing the Church's missionary work among the non-Christian peoples of northern Europe. He is most famous for sending a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, under Augustine of Canterbury, prior of Saint Andrew's, where he had perhaps succeeded Gregory, to evangelize the pagan Anglo-Saxons of England. It seems that the pope had never forgotten the English slaves whom he had once seen in the Roman Forum. The mission was successful, and it was from England that missionaries later set out for the Netherlands and Germany. The preaching of non-heretical Christian faith and the",
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"plaintext": "elimination of all deviations from it was a key element in Gregory's worldview, and it constituted one of the major continuing policies of his pontificate. Pope Gregory the Great urged his followers on the value of bathing as a bodily need.",
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"plaintext": "It is said he was declared a saint immediately after his death by \"popular acclamation\".",
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"plaintext": "In his official documents, Gregory was the first to make extensive use of the term \"Servant of the Servants of God\" (servus servorum Dei) as a papal title, thus initiating a practice that was to be followed by most subsequent popes.",
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"plaintext": "The Church had a practice from early times of passing on a large portion of the donations it received from its members as alms. As pope, Gregory did his utmost to encourage that high standard among church personnel. Gregory is known for his extensive administrative system of charitable relief of the poor at Rome. The poor were predominantly refugees from the incursions of the Lombards. The philosophy under which he devised this system is that the wealth belonged to the poor and the church was only its steward. He received lavish donations from the wealthy families of Rome, who, following his own example, were eager, by doing so, to expiate their sins. He gave alms equally as lavishly both individually and en masse. He wrote in letters: \"I have frequently charged you ... to act as my representative ... to relieve the poor in their distress ....\" and \"... I hold the office of steward to the property of the poor ....\"",
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"plaintext": "In Gregory's time, the Church in Rome received donations of many different kinds: consumables such as food and clothing; investment property: real estate and works of art; and capital goods, or revenue-generating property, such as the Sicilian latifundia, or agricultural estates. The Church already had a system for circulating the consumables to the poor: associated with each of the main city churches was a diaconium or office of the deacon. He was given a building from which the poor could apply for assistance at any time.",
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"plaintext": "The circumstances in which Gregory became pope in 590 were of ruination. The Lombards held the greater part of Italy. Their depredations had brought the economy to a standstill. They camped nearly at the gates of Rome. The city itself was crowded with refugees from all walks of life, who lived in the streets and had few of the necessities of life. The seat of government was far from Rome in Constantinople and appeared unable to undertake the relief of Italy. The pope had sent emissaries, including Gregory, asking for assistance, to no avail.",
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"plaintext": "In 590, Gregory could wait for Constantinople no longer. He organized the resources of the church into an administration for general relief. In doing so he evidenced a talent for and intuitive understanding of the principles of accounting, which was not to be invented for centuries. The church already had basic accounting documents: every expense was recorded in journals called regesta, \"lists\" of amounts, recipients and circumstances. Revenue was recorded in polyptici, \"books\". Many of these polyptici were ledgers recording the operating expenses of the church and the assets, the patrimonia. A central papal administration, the notarii, under a chief, the primicerius notariorum, kept the ledgers and issued brevia patrimonii, or lists of property for which each rector was responsible.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory began by aggressively requiring his churchmen to seek out and relieve needy persons and reprimanded them if they did not. In a letter to a subordinate in Sicily he wrote: \"I asked you most of all to take care of the poor. And if you knew of people in poverty, you should have pointed them out ... I desire that you give the woman, Pateria, forty solidi for the children's shoes and forty bushels of grain ....\" Soon he was replacing administrators who would not cooperate with those who would and at the same time adding more in a build-up to a great plan that he had in mind. He understood that expenses must be matched by income. To pay for his increased expenses he liquidated the investment property and paid the expenses in cash according to a budget recorded in the polyptici. The churchmen were paid four times a year and also personally given a golden coin for their trouble.",
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"plaintext": "Money, however, was no substitute for food in a city that was on the brink of famine. Even the wealthy were going hungry in their villas. The church now owned between of revenue-generating farmland divided into large sections called patrimonia. It produced goods of all kinds, which were sold, but Gregory intervened and had the goods shipped to Rome for distribution in the diaconia. He gave orders to step up production, set quotas and put an administrative structure in place to carry it out. At the bottom was the rusticus who produced the goods. Some rustici were or owned slaves. He turned over part of his produce to a conductor from whom he leased the land. The latter reported to an actionarius, the latter to a defensor and the latter to a rector. Grain, wine, cheese, meat, fish and oil began to arrive at Rome in large quantities, where it was given away for nothing as alms.",
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"plaintext": "Distributions to qualified persons were monthly. However, a certain proportion of the population lived in the streets or were too ill or infirm to pick up their monthly food supply. To them Gregory sent out a small army of charitable persons, mainly monks, every morning with prepared food. It is said that he would not dine until the indigent were fed. When he did dine he shared the family table, which he had saved (and which still exists), with 12 indigent guests. To the needy living in wealthy homes he sent meals he had cooked with his own hands as gifts to spare them the indignity of receiving charity. Hearing of the death of an indigent in a back room he was depressed for days, entertaining for a time the conceit that he had failed in his duty and was a murderer.",
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"plaintext": "These and other good deeds and charitable frame of mind completely won the hearts and minds of the Roman people. They now looked to the papacy for government, ignoring the state at Constantinople. The office of urban prefect went without candidates. From the time of Gregory the Great to the rise of Italian nationalism the papacy was the most influential presence in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "John the Deacon wrote that Pope Gregory I made a general revision of the liturgy of the Pre-Tridentine Mass, \"removing many things, changing a few, adding some\". In his own letters, Gregory remarks that he moved the Pater Noster (Our Father) to immediately after the Roman Canon and immediately before the Fraction. This position is still maintained today in the Roman Liturgy. The pre-Gregorian position is evident in the Ambrosian Rite. Gregory added material to the Hanc Igitur of the Roman Canon and established the nine Kyries (a vestigial remnant of the litany which was originally at that place) at the beginning of Mass. He also reduced the role of deacons in the Roman Liturgy.",
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"plaintext": "Sacramentaries directly influenced by Gregorian reforms are referred to as Sacrementaria Gregoriana. Roman and other Western liturgies since this era have a number of prayers that change to reflect the feast or liturgical season; these variations are visible in the collects and prefaces as well as in the Roman Canon itself.",
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"plaintext": "In the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches, Gregory is credited as the primary influence in constructing the more penitential Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, a fully separate form of the Divine Liturgy in the Byzantine Rite adapted to the needs of the season of Great Lent. Its Roman Rite equivalent is the Mass of the Presanctified used only on Good Friday. The Syriac Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts continues to be used in the Malankara Rite, a variant of the West Syrian Rite historically practiced in the Malankara Church of India, and now practiced by the several churches that descended from it and at some occasions in the Assyrian Church of the East.",
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"plaintext": "The mainstream form of Western plainchant, standardized in the late 9th century, was attributed to Pope Gregory I and so took the name of Gregorian chant. The earliest such attribution is in John the Deacon's 873 biography of Gregory, almost three centuries after the pope's death, and the chant that bears his name \"is the result of the fusion of Roman and Frankish elements which took place in the Franco-German empire under Pepin, Charlemagne and their successors\".",
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"plaintext": "Gregory is commonly credited with founding the medieval papacy and so many attribute the beginning of medieval spirituality to him.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory is the only pope between the fifth and the eleventh centuries whose correspondence and writings have survived enough to form a comprehensive corpus. Some of his writings are:",
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"plaintext": "Commentary on Job, frequently known in English-language histories by its Latin title, Magna Moralia, or as Moralia on Job. This is one of the longest patristic works. It was possibly finished as early as 591. It is based on talks Gregory gave on the Book of Job to his 'brethren' who accompanied him to Constantinople. The work as we have it is the result of Gregory's revision and completion of it soon after his accession to the papal office.",
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"plaintext": " Pastoral Care (Liber regulae pastoralis), in which he contrasted the role of bishops as pastors of their flock with their position as nobles of the church: the definitive statement of the nature of the episcopal office. This was probably begun before his election as pope and finished in 591.",
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"plaintext": " Dialogues, a collection of four books of miracles, signs, wonders, and healings done by the holy men, mostly monastic, of sixth-century Italy, with the second book entirely devoted to a popular life of Saint Benedict",
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"plaintext": " Sermons, including:",
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"plaintext": " The sermons include the 22 Homilae in Hiezechielem (Homilies on Ezekiel), dealing with Ezekiel 1.1–4.3 in Book One, and Ezekiel 40 in Book 2. These were preached during 592–3, the years that the Lombards besieged Rome, and contain some of Gregory's most profound mystical teachings. They were revised eight years later.",
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"plaintext": " The Homilae xl in Evangelia (Forty Homilies on the Gospels) for the liturgical year, delivered during 591 and 592, which were seemingly finished by 593. A papyrus fragment from this codex survives in the British Museum, London, UK.",
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"plaintext": " Expositio in Canticis Canticorum. Only 2 of these sermons on the Song of Songs survive, discussing the text up to Song 1.9.",
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"plaintext": " In Librum primum regum expositio (Commentary on 1 Kings), which scholars now think that this is a work by 12th c. monk, Peter of Cava, who used no longer extant Gregorian material.",
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"plaintext": "Copies of some 854 letters have survived. During Gregory's time, copies of papal letters were made by scribes into a Registrum (Register), which was then kept in the scrinium. It is known that in the 9th century, when John the Deacon composed his Life of Gregory, the Registrum of Gregory's letters was formed of 14 papyrus rolls (though it is difficult to estimate how many letters this may have represented). Though these original rolls are now lost, the 854 letters have survived in copies made at various later times, the largest single batch of 686 letters being made by order of Adrian I (772–95). The majority of the copies, dating from the 10th to the 15th century, are stored in the Vatican Library.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory wrote over 850 letters in the last 13 years of his life (590–604) that give us an accurate picture of his work. A truly autobiographical presentation is nearly impossible for Gregory. The development of his mind and personality remains purely speculative in nature.",
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"plaintext": "Opinions of the writings of Gregory vary. \"His character strikes us as an ambiguous and enigmatic one,\" the Jewish Canadian-American popularist Cantor observed. \"On the one hand he was an able and determined administrator, a skilled and clever diplomat, a leader of the greatest sophistication and vision; but on the other hand, he appears in his writings as a superstitious and credulous monk, hostile to learning, crudely limited as a theologian, and excessively devoted to saints, miracles, and relics\".",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was among those who identified Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany, whom John 12:1-8 recounts as having anointed Jesus with precious ointment, an event that some interpret as being the same as the anointing of Jesus performed by a woman that Luke (alone among the synoptic Gospels) recounts as sinful. Preaching on the passage in the Gospel of Luke, Gregory remarked: \"This woman, whom Luke calls a sinner and John calls Mary, I think is the Mary from whom Mark reports that seven demons were cast out.\" Modern Biblical scholars distinguish these as three separate figures/persons, but within the general populace (and even some seminaries), they are still believed to refer to the same person.",
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"plaintext": "In art Gregory is usually shown in full pontifical robes with the tiara and double cross, despite his actual habit of dress. Earlier depictions are more likely to show a monastic tonsure and plainer dress. Orthodox icons traditionally show St. Gregory vested as a bishop holding a Gospel Book and blessing with his right hand. It is recorded that he permitted his depiction with a square halo, then used for the living. A dove is his attribute, from the well-known story attributed to his friend Peter the Deacon, who tells that when the pope was dictating his homilies on Ezechiel a curtain was drawn between his secretary and himself. As, however, the pope remained silent for long periods at a time, the servant made a hole in the curtain and, looking through, beheld a dove seated upon Gregory's head with its beak between his lips. When the dove withdrew its beak the pope spoke and the secretary took down his words; but when he became silent the servant again applied his eye to the hole and saw the dove had replaced its beak between his lips.",
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"plaintext": "Ribera's oil painting of Saint Gregory the Great (c.1614) is from the Giustiniani collection. The painting is conserved in the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome. The face of Gregory is a caricature of the features described by John the Deacon: total baldness, outthrust chin, beak-like nose, whereas John had described partial baldness, a mildly protruding chin, slightly aquiline nose and strikingly good looks. In this picture also Gregory has his monastic back on the world, which the real Gregory, despite his reclusive intent, was seldom allowed to have.",
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"plaintext": "This scene is shown as a version of the traditional Evangelist portrait (where the Evangelists' symbols are also sometimes shown dictating) from the tenth century onwards. An early example is the dedication miniature from an eleventh-century manuscript of Gregory's Moralia in Job. The miniature shows the scribe, Bebo of Seeon Abbey, presenting the manuscript to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry II. In the upper left the author is seen writing the text under divine inspiration. Usually the dove is shown whispering in Gregory's ear for a clearer composition.",
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"plaintext": "The late medieval subject of the Mass of St Gregory shows a version of a 7th-century story that was elaborated in later hagiography. Gregory is shown saying Mass when Christ as the Man of Sorrows appears on the altar. The subject was most common in the 15th and 16th centuries, and reflected growing emphasis on the Real Presence, and after the Protestant Reformation was an assertion of the doctrine against Protestant theology.",
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"plaintext": " Non Angli, sed angeli, si forent Christiani.– \"They are not Angles, but angels, if they were Christian\". Aphorism, summarizing words reported to have been spoken by Gregory when he first encountered pale-skinned English boys at a slave market, sparking his dispatch of St. Augustine of Canterbury to England to convert the English, according to Bede. He said: \"Well named, for they have angelic faces and ought to be co-heirs with the angels in heaven.\" Discovering that their province was Deira, he went on to add that they would be rescued de ira, \"from the wrath\", and that their king was named Aella, Alleluia, he said.",
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"plaintext": " Locusta, literally, \"locust\". However, the word sounds very much like \"loco sta\", meaning, \"Stay in place!\" Gregory himself wanted to go to England as a missionary and started out for there. On the fourth day of the journey, as they stopped for lunch, a locust landed on the edge of the Bible which Gregory was reading. He exclaimed, locusta! (locust). Reflecting on it, he understood it as a sign from Heaven whereby God wanted him to loco sta, that is, remain in his own place. Within the hour an emissary of the Pope arrived to recall him.",
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"plaintext": " \"I beg that you will not take the present amiss. For anything, however trifling, which is offered from the prosperity of St. Peter should be regarded as a great blessing, seeing that he will have power both to bestow on you greater things, and to hold out to you eternal benefits with Almighty God.\"",
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"plaintext": " Pro cuius amore in eius eloquio nec mihi parco – \"For the love of whom (God) I do not spare myself from His Word.\" The sense is that since the creator of the human race and redeemer of him unworthy gave him the power of the tongue so that he could witness, what kind of a witness would he be if he did not use it but preferred to speak infirmly?",
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"plaintext": " \"For the place of heretics is very pride itself...for the place of the wicked is pride just as conversely humility is the place of the good.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"Whoever calls himself universal bishop, or desires this title, is, by his pride, the precursor to the Antichrist.\"",
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"plaintext": " Non enim pro locis res, sed pro bonis rebus loca amanda sunt – \"Things are not to be loved for the sake of a place, but places are to be loved for the sake of their good things.\" When Augustine asked whether to use Roman or Gallican customs in the mass in England, Gregory said, in paraphrase, that it was not the place that imparted goodness but good things that graced the place, and it was more important to be pleasing to the Almighty. They should pick out what was \"pia\", \"religiosa\" and \"recta\" from any church whatever and set that down before the English minds as practice.",
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"plaintext": " \"For the rule of justice and reason suggests that one who desires his own orders to be observed by his successors should undoubtedly keep the will and ordinances of his predecessor.\" In his letters, Gregory often emphasized the importance of giving proper deference to last wills and testaments, and of respecting property rights.",
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"plaintext": " \"Compassion should be shown first to the faithful and afterwards to the enemies of the church.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"At length being anxious to avoid all these inconveniences, I sought the haven of the monastery... For as the vessel that is negligently moored, is very often (when the storm waxes violent) tossed by the water out of its shelter on the safest shore, so under the cloak of the Ecclesiastical office, I found myself plunged on a sudden in a sea of secular matters, and because I had not held fast the tranquillity of the monastery when in possession, I learnt by losing it, how closely it should have been held.\" In Moralia, sive Expositio in Job (\"Commentary on Job,\" also known as Magna Moralia), Gregory describes to the Bishop Leander the circumstances under which he became a monk.",
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"plaintext": " \"Illiterate men can contemplate in the lines of a picture what they cannot learn by means of the written word.\"",
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"plaintext": "Age quod agis (Do what you are doing). Through the centuries, this would become a repeated maxim of Catholic mystics and spiritual directors encouraging one to keep focus on what one is doing in trying to serve the Lord.",
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"plaintext": "\"Repentance is weeping for what one has done and not doing what one weeps for.\"",
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"plaintext": "The relics of Saint Gregory are enshrined in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "In Britain, appreciation for Gregory remained strong even after his death, with him being called Gregorius noster (\"our Gregory\") by the British. It was in Britain, at a monastery in Whitby, that the first full-length life of Gregory was written, c. 713, by a monk or, possibly, a nun. Appreciation of Gregory in Rome and Italy itself, however, did not come until later. The first vita of Gregory written in Italy was not produced until Johannes Hymonides (aka John the Deacon) in the 9th century.",
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"plaintext": "The namesake church of San Gregorio al Celio (largely rebuilt from the original edifices during the 17th and 18th centuries) remembers his work. One of the three oratories annexed, the oratory of Saint Silvia, is said to lie over the tomb of Gregory's mother.",
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"plaintext": "In England, Gregory, along with Augustine of Canterbury, is revered as the apostle of the land and the source of the nation's conversion.",
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"plaintext": "Italian composer Ottorino Respighi composed a piece named St. Gregory the Great (San Gregorio Magno) that features as the fourth and final part of his Church Windows (Vetrate di Chiesa) works, written in 1925.",
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"plaintext": "The current General Roman Calendar, revised in 1969 as instructed by the Second Vatican Council, celebrates Saint Gregory the Great on 3 September. Before that, it assigned his feast day to 12 March, the day of his death in 604. Following the imposition of Pope John XXIII's Code of Rubrics in 1961, celebration of Saint Gregory's feast day was made practically impossible, as John XXIII's reforms forbade the full observance of most feasts during Lent, during which 12 March invariably falls. For this reason, Saint Gregory's feast day was moved to 3 September, the day of his episcopal consecration in 590, as part of the liturgical reforms of Pope Paul VI.",
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"plaintext": "The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite continue to commemorate Saint Gregory on 12 March which is during Great Lent, the only time when the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, which names Saint Gregory as its author, is used.",
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"plaintext": "Other churches also honour Gregory the Great:",
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"plaintext": " the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod remember him with a commemoration on 3 September,",
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"plaintext": " the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America remember him with a commemoration on 12 September,",
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"plaintext": " the Episcopal Church of the United States honors him on 12 March ",
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"plaintext": " the Anglican Church of Canada remember him with a Memorial on 3 September.",
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"plaintext": " Gregory the Great is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 3 September.",
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"plaintext": "A traditional procession is held in Żejtun, Malta, in honour of Saint Gregory (San Girgor) on Easter Wednesday, which most often falls in April, the range of possible dates being 25 March to 28 April.",
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"plaintext": "The feast day of Saint Gregory also serves as a commemorative day for the former pupils of Downside School, called Old Gregorians. Traditionally, OG ties are worn by all of the society's members on this day.",
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"plaintext": "Homiliae in Hiezechihelem prophetam, ed Marcus Adriaen, CCSL 142, (Turnhout: Brepols, 1971)",
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"plaintext": "Dialogorum libri quattuor seu De miraculis patrum italicorum: Grégoire le Grand, Dialogues, ed. Adalbert de Vogüé, 3 vols., Sources crétiennes 251, 260, 265 (Paris, 1978–1980) — also available via the Brepols Library of Latin Texts online database at Library of Latin Texts - online (LLT-O)",
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"plaintext": "The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great, trans. Edmund G. Gardner (London & Boston, 1911).",
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"plaintext": "Pastoral Care, trans. Henry Davis, ACW 11 (Newman Press, 1950).",
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"plaintext": "The Book of Pastoral Rule, trans. with intro and notes by George E. Demacopoulos (Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2007).",
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"plaintext": "Reading the Gospels with Gregory the Great: Homilies on the Gospels, 21–26, trans. Santha Bhattacharji (Petersham, MA, 2001) [translations of the 6 Homilies covering Easter Day to the Sunday after Easter].",
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"plaintext": "The Letters of Gregory the Great, trans. with intro and notes by John RC Martyn, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2004). [3 volume translation of the Registrum epistularum].",
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"plaintext": "Gregory the Great: On the Song of Songs, CS244 (Collegeville, MN, 2012).",
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"plaintext": "Documents of Pope Gregory I",
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"plaintext": "Libellus responsionum",
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"plaintext": "List of Catholic saints",
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"plaintext": "List of popes",
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{
"plaintext": ". Studia Anselmiana, volume 135.",
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"plaintext": " Index of 70 downloadable .pdf files containing the texts of Gregory I.",
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{
"plaintext": " Found on the website: Lectionary Central.",
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"plaintext": " Digitized by the Staatsbibliothek Bamberg.",
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"plaintext": " Photographic images of a manuscript copied about 850–875 AD.",
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"plaintext": " Orthodox icon and synaxarion.",
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"plaintext": " Noch ein Höhlengleichnis. Zu einem metaphorischen Argument bei Gregor dem Großen by Meinolf Schumacher (in German).",
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36,769 | 1,084,368,046 | Anita_Harding | [
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36,770 | 1,029,998,939 | Tony_Buzan | [
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36,771 | 1,084,998,154 | Battle_of_the_Chesapeake | [
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"plaintext": "Sailing more directly than de Grasse, Hood's fleet arrived off the entrance to the Chesapeake on 25 August. Finding no French ships there, he then sailed for New York. Meanwhile, his colleague and commander of the New York fleet, Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Graves, had spent several weeks trying to intercept a convoy organized by John Laurens to bring much-needed supplies and hard currency from France to Boston. When Hood arrived at New York, he found that Graves was in port (having failed to intercept the convoy), but had only five ships of the line that were ready for battle.",
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"plaintext": "De Grasse had notified his counterpart in Newport, Barras, of his intentions and his planned arrival date. Barras sailed from Newport on 27 August with 8 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 transports carrying French armaments and siege equipment. He deliberately sailed via a circuitous route in order to minimize the possibility of a battle with the British, should they sail from New York in pursuit. Washington and Rochambeau, in the meantime, had crossed the Hudson on 24 August, leaving some troops behind as a ruse to delay any potential move on the part of General Clinton to mobilize assistance for Cornwallis.",
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"plaintext": "News of Barras' departure led the British to realize that the Chesapeake was the probable target of the French fleets. By 31 August, Graves had moved his five ships of the line out of New York harbor to meet with Hood's force. Taking command of the combined fleet, now 19 ships, Graves sailed south, and arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake on 5 September. His progress was slow; the poor condition of some of the West Indies ships (contrary to claims by Admiral Hood that his fleet was fit for a month of service) necessitated repairs en route. Graves was also concerned about some ships in his own fleet; Europe in particular had difficulty manoeuvring.",
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"plaintext": "French and British patrol frigates each spotted the other's fleet around 9:30 am; both at first underestimated the size of the other fleet, leading each commander to believe the other fleet was the smaller fleet of Admiral de Barras. When the true size of the fleets became apparent, Graves assumed that de Grasse and Barras had already joined forces, and prepared for battle; he directed his line toward the bay's mouth, assisted by winds from the north-northeast.",
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"plaintext": "De Grasse had detached a few of his ships to blockade the York and James Rivers farther up the bay, and many of the ships at anchor were missing officers, men, and boats when the British fleet was sighted. He faced the difficult proposition of organizing a line of battle while sailing against an incoming tide, with winds and land features that would require him to do so on a tack opposite that of the British fleet. At 11:30 am, 24 ships of the French fleet cut their anchor lines and began sailing out of the bay with the noon tide, leaving behind the shore contingents and ships' boats. Some ships were so seriously undermanned, missing as many as 200 men, that not all of their guns could be manned. De Grasse had ordered the ships to form into a line as they exited the bay, in order of speed and without regard to its normal sailing order. Admiral Louis de Bougainville's Auguste was one of the first ships out. With a squadron of three other ships Bougainville ended up well ahead of the rest of the French line; by 3:45 pm the gap was large enough that the British could have cut his squadron off from the rest of the French fleet.",
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"plaintext": "By 1:00 pm, the two fleets were roughly facing each other, but sailing on opposite tacks. In order to engage, and to avoid some shoals (known as the Middle Ground) near the mouth of the bay, Graves around 2:00 pm ordered his whole fleet to wear, a manoeuvre that reversed his line of battle, but enabled it to line up with the French fleet as its ships exited the bay. This placed the squadron of Hood, his most aggressive commander, at the rear of the line, and that of Admiral Francis Samuel Drake in the vanguard.",
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"plaintext": "At this point, both fleets were sailing generally east, away from the bay, with winds from the north-northeast. The two lines were approaching at an angle so that the leading ships of the vans of both lines were within range of each other, while the ships at the rear were too far apart to engage. The French had a firing advantage, since the wind conditions meant they could open their lower gun ports, while the British had to leave theirs closed to avoid water washing onto the lower decks. The French fleet, which was in a better state of repair than the British fleet, outnumbered the British in the number of ships and total guns, and had heavier guns capable of throwing more weight. In the British fleet, and , two ships of the West Indies squadron that were among the most heavily engaged, were in quite poor condition. Graves at this point did not press the potential advantage of the separated French van; as the French centre and rear closed the distance with the British line, they also closed the distance with their own van. One British observer wrote, \"To the astonishment of the whole fleet, the French center were permitted without molestation to bear down to support their van.\"",
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"plaintext": "The need for the two lines to actually reach parallel lines so they might fully engage led Graves to give conflicting signals that were interpreted critically differently by Admiral Hood, directing the rear squadron, than Graves intended. None of the options for closing the angle between the lines presented a favourable option to the British commander: any manoeuvre to bring ships closer would limit their firing ability to their bow guns, and potentially expose their decks to raking or enfilading fire from the enemy ships. Graves hoisted two signals: one for \"line ahead\", under which the ships would slowly close the gap and then straighten the line when parallel to the enemy, and one for \"close action\", which normally indicated that ships should turn to directly approach the enemy line, turning when the appropriate distance was reached. This combination of signals resulted in the piecemeal arrival of his ships into the range of battle. Admiral Hood interpreted the instruction to maintain line of battle to take precedence over the signal for close action, and as a consequence his squadron did not close rapidly and never became significantly engaged in the action.",
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"plaintext": "It was about 4:00 pm, over 6 hours since the two fleets had first sighted each other, when the British—who had the weather gage, and therefore the initiative—opened their attack. The battle began with opening fire against the Marseillois, its counterpart near the head of the line. The action very quickly became general, with the van and center of each line fully engaged. The French, in a practice they were known for, tended to aim at British masts and rigging, with the intent of crippling their opponent's mobility. The effects of this tactic were apparent in the engagement: and HMS Intrepid, at the head of the British line, became virtually impossible to manage, and eventually fell out of the line. The rest of Admiral Drake's squadron also suffered heavy damage, but the casualties were not as severe as those taken on the first two ships. The angle of approach of the British line also played a role in the damage they sustained; ships in their van were exposed to raking fire when only their bow guns could be brought to bear on the French.",
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"plaintext": "The French van also took a beating, although it was less severe. Captain de Boades of the Réfléchi was killed in the opening broadside of Admiral Drake's Princessa, and the four ships of the French van were, according to a French observer, \"engaged with seven or eight vessels at close quarters.\" The Diadème, according to a French officer \"was utterly unable to keep up the battle, having only four thirty-six-pounders and nine eighteen-pounders fit for use\" and was badly shot up; she was rescued by the timely intervention of the Saint-Esprit.",
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"plaintext": "The Princessa and Bougainville's Auguste at one point were close enough that the French admiral considered a boarding action; Drake managed to pull away, but this gave Bougainville the chance to target the Terrible. Her foremast, already in bad shape before the battle, was struck by several French cannonballs, and her pumps, already overtaxed in an attempt to keep her afloat, were badly damaged by shots \"between wind and water\".",
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"plaintext": "Around 5:00 pm the wind began to shift, to British disadvantage. De Grasse gave signals for the van to move further ahead so that more of the French fleet might engage, but Bougainville, fully engaged with the British van at musket range, did not want to risk \"severe handling had the French presented the stern.\" When he did finally begin pulling away, British leaders interpreted it as a retreat: \"the French van suffered most, because it was obliged to bear away.\" Rather than follow, the British hung back, continuing to fire at long range; this prompted one French officer to write that the British \"only engaged from far off and simply in order to be able to say that they had fought.\" Sunset brought an end to the firefight, with both fleets continuing on a roughly southeast tack, away from the bay.",
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"plaintext": "The center of both lines was engaged, but the level of damage and casualties suffered was noticeably less. Ships in the rear squadrons were almost entirely uninvolved; Admiral Hood reported that three of his ships fired a few shots. The ongoing conflicting signals left by Graves, and discrepancies between his and Hood's records of what signals had been given and when, led to immediate recriminations, written debate, and an eventual formal inquiry.",
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"plaintext": "That evening, Graves did a damage assessment. He noted that \"the French had not the appearance of near so much damage as we had sustained\", and that five of his fleet were either leaking or virtually crippled in their mobility. De Grasse wrote that \"we perceived by the sailing of the English that they had suffered greatly.\" Nonetheless, Graves maintained a windward position through the night, so that he would have the choice of battle in the morning. Ongoing repairs made it clear to Graves that he would be unable to attack the next day. On the night of 6 September he held council with Hood and Drake. During this meeting Hood and Graves supposedly exchanged words concerning the conflicting signals, and Hood proposed turning the fleet around to make for the Chesapeake. Graves rejected the plan, and the fleets continued to drift eastward, away from Cornwallis. On 8 and 9 September the French fleet at times gained the advantage of the wind, and briefly threatened the British with renewed action. French scouts spied Barras' fleet on 9 September, and de Grasse turned his fleet back toward the Chesapeake Bay that night. Arriving on 12 September, he found that Barras had arrived two days earlier. Graves ordered the Terrible to be scuttled on 11 September due to her leaky condition, and was notified on 13 September that the French fleet was back in the Chesapeake; he still did not learn that de Grasse's line had not included the fleet of Barras, because the frigate captain making the report had not counted the ships. In a council held that day, the British admirals decided against attacking the French, due to \"the truly lamentable state we have brought ourself.\" Graves then turned his battered fleet toward New York, arriving off Sandy Hook on 20 September.",
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"plaintext": "The British fleet's arrival in New York set off a flurry of panic amongst the Loyalist population. The news of the defeat was also not received well in London. King George III wrote (well before learning of Cornwallis's surrender) that \"after the knowledge of the defeat of our fleet [...] I nearly think the empire ruined.\"",
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"plaintext": "The French success left them firmly in control of the Chesapeake Bay, completing the encirclement of Cornwallis. In addition to capturing a number of smaller British vessels, de Grasse and Barras assigned their smaller vessels to assist in the transport of Washington's and Rochambeau's forces from Head of Elk to Yorktown.",
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"plaintext": "It was not until 23 September that Graves and Clinton learned that the French fleet in the Chesapeake numbered 36 ships. This news came from a dispatch sneaked out by Cornwallis on 17 September, accompanied by a plea for help: \"If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must be prepared to hear the worst.\" After effecting repairs in New York, Admiral Graves sailed from New York on 19 October with 25 ships of the line and transports carrying 7,000 troops to relieve Cornwallis. It was two days after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. General Washington acknowledged to de Grasse the importance of his role in the victory: \"You will have observed that, whatever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the casting vote in the present contest.\" The eventual surrender of Cornwallis led to peace two years later and British recognition of a new, independent United States of America.",
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"plaintext": "Admiral de Grasse returned with his fleet to the West Indies. In a major engagement that ended Franco-Spanish plans for the capture of Jamaica in 1782, he was defeated and taken prisoner by Rodney in the Battle of the Saintes. His flagship Ville de Paris was lost at sea in a storm while being conducted back to England as part of a fleet commanded by Admiral Graves. Graves, despite the controversy over his conduct in this battle, continued to serve, rising to full admiral and receiving an Irish peerage.",
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"plaintext": "Many aspects of the battle have been the subject of both contemporary and historical debate, beginning right after the battle. On 6 September, Admiral Graves issued a memorandum justifying his use of the conflicting signals, indicating that \"[when] the signal for the line of battle ahead is out at the same time with the signal for battle, it is not to be understood that the latter signal shall be rendered ineffectual by a too strict adherence to the former.\" Hood, in commentary written on the reverse of his copy, observed that this eliminated any possibility of engaging an enemy who was disordered, since it would require the British line to also be disordered. Instead, he maintained, \"the British fleet should be as compact as possible, in order to take the critical moment of an advantage opening ...\" Others criticise Hood because he \"did not wholeheartedly aid his chief\", and that a lesser officer \"would have been court-martialled for not doing his utmost to engage the enemy.\"",
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"plaintext": "One contemporary writer critical of the scuttling of the Terrible wrote that \"she made no more water than she did before [the battle]\", and, more acidly, \"If an able officer had been at the head of the fleet, the Terrible would not have been destroyed.\" Admiral Rodney was critical of Graves' tactics, writing, \"by contracting his own line he might have brought his nineteen against the enemy's fourteen or fifteen, [...] disabled them before they could have received succor, [... and] gained a complete victory.\" Defending his own behaviour in not sending his full fleet to North America, he also wrote that \"[i]f the admiral in America had met Sir Samuel Hood near the Chesapeake\", that Cornwallis's surrender might have been prevented.",
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"plaintext": "United States Navy historian Frank Chadwick believed that de Grasse could have thwarted the British fleet simply by staying put; his fleet's size would have been sufficient to impede any attempt by Graves to force a passage through his position. Historian Harold Larrabee points out that this would have exposed Clinton in New York to blockade by the French if Graves had successfully entered the bay; if Graves did not do so, Barras (carrying the siege equipment) would have been outnumbered by Graves if de Grasse did not sail out in support.",
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"plaintext": "According to scientist/historian Eric Jay Dolin, the dreaded hurricane season of 1780 in the Caribbean (a year earlier) may have also played a crucial role in the outcome of the 1781 naval battle. The Great Hurricane of 1780 in October was perhaps the deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record. An estimated 22,000 people died throughout the Lesser Antilles with the loss of countless ships from many nations. The Royal Navy's loss of 15 warships with 9 severely damaged crucially affected the balance of the American Revolutionary War, especially during Battle of Chesapeake Bay. An outnumbered British Navy losing to the French proved decisive in Washington's Siege of Yorktown, forcing Cornwallis to surrender and effectively securing independence for the United States of America.",
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"plaintext": "At the Cape Henry Memorial located at Joint Expeditionary Base Fort Story in Virginia Beach, Virginia, there is a monument commemorating the contribution of de Grasse and his sailors to the cause of American independence. The memorial and monument are part of the Colonial National Historical Park and are maintained by the National Park Service.",
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"plaintext": "Sources consulted (including de Grasse's memoir, and works either dedicated to the battle or containing otherwise detailed orders of battle, like Larrabee (1964) and Morrissey (1997)) do not list per-ship casualties for the French fleet. Larrabee reports the French to have suffered 209 casualties; Bougainville recorded 10 killed and 58 wounded aboard Auguste alone.",
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"plaintext": "The exact order in which the French lined up as they exited the bay is also uncertain. Larrabee notes that many observers wrote up different sequences when the line was finally formed, and that Bougainville recorded several different configurations.",
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"plaintext": "The 74-gun Glorieux and Vaillant, as well the other frigates, remained at the mouth of the various rivers that they were guarding.",
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"plaintext": " American Revolutionary War § British defeat in America. Places ' Battle of the Chesapeake ' in overall sequence and strategic context.",
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| 1,419,459 | 4,899 | 245 | 79 | 1 | 0 | Battle of the Chesapeake | Naval battle of the American Revolutionary War | [
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"plaintext": " Olympian Shea talk raises eyebrows",
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"plaintext": " U.S. Olympic Committee profile",
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| 390,400 | 226 | 16 | 31 | 0 | 0 | Jimmy Shea | US skeleton racer | [
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"plaintext": "The Burrows–Wheeler transform (BWT, also called block-sorting compression) rearranges a character string into runs of similar characters. This is useful for compression, since it tends to be easy to compress a string that has runs of repeated characters by techniques such as move-to-front transform and run-length encoding. More importantly, the transformation is reversible, without needing to store any additional data except the position of the first original character. The BWT is thus a \"free\" method of improving the efficiency of text compression algorithms, costing only some extra computation. The Burrows–Wheeler transform is an algorithm used to prepare data for use with data compression techniques such as bzip2. It was invented by Michael Burrows and David Wheeler in 1994 while Burrows was working at DEC Systems Research Center in Palo Alto, California. It is based on a previously unpublished transformation discovered by Wheeler in 1983. The algorithm can be implemented efficiently using a suffix array thus reaching linear time complexity.",
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"plaintext": ", which together make 13 out of the 44 characters.",
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"plaintext": "The transform is done by sorting all the circular shifts of a text in lexicographic order and by extracting the last column and the index of the original string in the set of sorted permutations of .",
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"plaintext": "Given an input string (step 1 in the table below), rotate it N times (step 2), where is the length of the string considering also the symbol representing the start of the string and the red character representing the 'EOF' pointer; these rotations, or circular shifts, are then sorted lexicographically (step 3). The output of the encoding phase is the last column after step 3, and the index (0-based) of the row containing the original string , in this case .",
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"plaintext": "The following pseudocode gives a simple (though inefficient) way to calculate the BWT and its inverse. It assumes that the input string contains a special character 'EOF' which is the last character and occurs nowhere else in the text.",
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"plaintext": " function BWT (string s)",
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"plaintext": " create a table, where the rows are all possible rotations of s",
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"plaintext": " sort rows alphabetically",
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"plaintext": " return (last column of the table)",
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"plaintext": " function inverseBWT (string s)",
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"plaintext": " create empty table",
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"plaintext": " repeat length(s) times",
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"plaintext": " // first insert creates first column",
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"plaintext": " insert s as a column of table before first column of the table",
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"plaintext": " sort rows of the table alphabetically",
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"plaintext": "To understand why this creates more-easily-compressible data, consider transforming a long English text frequently containing the word \"the\". Sorting the rotations of this text will group rotations starting with \"he \" together, and the last character of that rotation (which is also the character before the \"he \") will usually be \"t\", so the result of the transform would contain a number of \"t\" characters along with the perhaps less-common exceptions (such as if it contains \"ache \") mixed in. So it can be seen that the success of this transform depends upon one value having a high probability of occurring before a sequence, so that in general it needs fairly long samples (a few kilobytes at least) of appropriate data (such as text).",
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"plaintext": "The remarkable thing about the BWT is not that it generates a more easily encoded output—an ordinary sort would do that—but that it does this reversibly, allowing the original document to be re-generated from the last column data.",
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"plaintext": "The inverse can be understood this way. Take the final table in the BWT algorithm, and erase all but the last column. Given only this information, you can easily reconstruct the first column. The last column tells you all the characters in the text, so just sort these characters alphabetically to get the first column. Then, the last and first columns (of each row) together give you all pairs of successive characters in the document, where pairs are taken cyclically so that the last and first character form a pair. Sorting the list of pairs gives the first and second columns. Continuing in this manner, you can reconstruct the entire list. Then, the row with the \"end of file\" character at the end is the original text. Reversing the example above is done like this:",
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"plaintext": "A number of optimizations can make these algorithms run more efficiently without changing the output. There is no need to represent the table in either the encoder or decoder. In the encoder, each row of the table can be represented by a single pointer into the strings, and the sort performed using the indices. In the decoder, there is also no need to store the table, and in fact no sort is needed at all. In time proportional to the alphabet size and string length, the decoded string may be generated one character at a time from right to left. A \"character\" in the algorithm can be a byte, or a bit, or any other convenient size.",
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"plaintext": "One may also make the observation that mathematically, the encoded string can be computed as a simple modification of the suffix array, and suffix arrays can be computed with linear time and memory. The BWT can be defined with regards to the suffix array SA of text T as (1-based indexing):",
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"plaintext": "There is no need to have an actual 'EOF' character. Instead, a pointer can be used that remembers where in a string the 'EOF' would be if it existed. In this approach, the output of the BWT must include both the transformed string, and the final value of the pointer. The inverse transform then shrinks it back down to the original size: it is given a string and a pointer, and returns just a string.",
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"plaintext": "A complete description of the algorithms can be found in Burrows and Wheeler's paper, or in a number of online sources. The algorithms vary somewhat by whether EOF is used, and in which direction the sorting was done. In fact, the original formulation did not use an EOF marker.",
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"plaintext": "Since any rotation of the input string will lead to the same transformed string, the BWT cannot be inverted without adding an EOF marker to the end of the input or doing something equivalent, making it possible to distinguish the input string from all its rotations. Increasing the size of the alphabet (by appending the EOF character) makes later compression steps awkward.",
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"plaintext": "There is a bijective version of the transform, by which the transformed string uniquely identifies the original, and the two have the same length and contain exactly the same characters, just in a different order.",
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"plaintext": "The bijective transform is computed by factoring the input into a non-increasing sequence of Lyndon words; such a factorization exists and is unique by the Chen–Fox–Lyndon theorem, and may be found in linear time. The algorithm sorts the rotations of all the words; as in the Burrows–Wheeler transform, this produces a sorted sequence of n strings. The transformed string is then obtained by picking the final character of each string in this sorted list. The one important caveat here is that strings of different lengths are not ordered in the usual way; the two strings are repeated forever, and the infinite repeats are sorted. For example, \"ORO\" precedes \"OR\" because \"OROORO...\" precedes \"OROROR...\".",
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"plaintext": "For example, the text \"^BANANA\" is transformed into \"ANNBAA^\" through these steps (the red character indicates the EOF pointer) in the original string. The EOF character is unneeded in the bijective transform, so it is dropped during the transform and re-added to its proper place in the file.",
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"plaintext": "Up until the last step, the process is identical to the inverse Burrows–Wheeler process, but here it will not necessarily give rotations of a single sequence; it instead gives rotations of Lyndon words (which will start to repeat as the process is continued). Here, we can see (repetitions of) four distinct Lyndon words: (A), (AN) (twice), (B), and (^). (NANA... doesn't represent a distinct word, as it is a cycle of ANAN....)",
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"plaintext": "At this point, these words are sorted into reverse order: (^), (B), (AN), (AN), (A). These are then concatenated to get",
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"plaintext": "The Burrows–Wheeler transform can indeed be viewed as a special case of this bijective transform; instead of the traditional introduction of a new letter from outside our alphabet to denote the end of the string, we can introduce a new letter that compares as preceding all existing letters that is put at the beginning of the string. The whole string is now a Lyndon word, and running it through the bijective process will therefore result in a transformed result that, when inverted, gives back the Lyndon word, with no need for reassembling at the end.",
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"plaintext": "Relatedly, the transformed text will only differ from the result of BWT by one character per Lyndon word; for example, if the input is decomposed into six Lyndon words, the output will only differ in six characters.",
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"plaintext": "For example, applying the bijective transform gives:",
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"plaintext": "The bijective transform includes eight runs of identical",
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"plaintext": "In total, 18 characters are used in these runs.",
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"plaintext": "When a text is edited, its Burrows–Wheeler transform will change. Salson et al. propose an algorithm that deduces the Burrows–Wheeler transform of an edited text from that of the original text, doing a limited number of local reorderings in the original Burrows–Wheeler transform, which can be faster than constructing the Burrows–Wheeler transform of the edited text directly.",
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"plaintext": "This Python implementation sacrifices speed for simplicity: the program is short, but takes more than the linear time that would be desired in a practical implementation. It essentially does what the pseudocode section does.",
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"plaintext": "Using the STX/ETX control codes to mark the start and end of the text, and using to construct the th rotation of , the forward transform takes the last character of each of the sorted rows:",
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"plaintext": "The inverse transform repeatedly inserts as the left column of the table and sorts the table. After the whole table is built, it returns the row that ends with ETX, minus the STX and ETX.",
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"plaintext": "Following implementation notes from Manzini, it is equivalent to use a simple null character suffix instead. The sorting should be done in colexicographic order (string read right-to-left), i.e. in Python. (The above control codes actually fail to satisfy EOF being the last character; the two codes are actually the first. The rotation holds nevertheless.)",
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"plaintext": "As a lossless compression algorithm the Burrows–Wheeler Transform offers the important quality that its encoding is reversible and hence the original data may be recovered from the resulting compression. The lossless quality of Burrows Algorithm has provided for different algorithms with different purposes in mind. To name a few, Burrows Wheeler Transform is used in algorithms for sequence alignment, image compression, data compression, etc. The following is a compilation of some uses given to the Burrows–Wheeler Transform.",
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"plaintext": "The advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques at the end of the 2000s decade has led to another application of the Burrows–Wheeler transformation. In NGS, DNA is fragmented into small pieces, of which the first few bases are sequenced, yielding several millions of \"reads\", each 30 to 500 base pairs (\"DNA characters\") long. In many experiments, e.g., in ChIP-Seq, the task is now to align these reads to a reference genome, i.e., to the known, nearly complete sequence of the organism in question (which may be up to several billion base pairs long). A number of alignment programs, specialized for this task, were published, which initially relied on hashing (e.g., Eland, SOAP, or Maq). In an effort to reduce the memory requirement for sequence alignment, several alignment programs were developed (Bowtie, BWA, and SOAP2) that use the Burrows–Wheeler transform.",
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"plaintext": "The Burrows–Wheeler Transformation has proved to be fundamental for image compression applications. For example, Showed a compression pipeline based on the application of the Burrows–Wheeler Transformation followed by Inversion, Run-Length, and Arithmetic encoders. The pipeline developed in this case is known as Burrows–Wheeler Transform with an Inversion Encoder (BWIC). The results shown by BWIC are shown to outperform the compression performance of well-known and widely used algorithms like Lossless_JPEG and JPEG_2000. BWIC is shown to outperform Lossless_JPEG and JPEG_2000 in terms of final compression size of radiography medical images on the order of 5.1% and 4.1% respectively. The improvements are achieved by combining BWIC and a pre-BWIC scan of the image in a vertical snake order fashion. More recently, additional works like that of have shown the implementation of the Burrows–Wheeler Transform in conjunction with the known Move-to-front transform(MTF) achieve near lossless compression of images. ",
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"plaintext": "Cox et al. presented a genomic compression scheme that uses BWT as the algorithm applied during the first stage of compression of several genomic datasets including the human genomic information. Their work proposed that BWT compression could be enhanced by including a second stage compression mechanism called same-as-previous encoding (\"SAP\"), which makes use of the fact that suffixes of two or more prefix letters could be equal. With the compression mechanism BWT-SAP, Cox et al. showed that in the genomic database ERA015743, 135.5 GB in size, the compression scheme BWT-SAP compresses the ERA015743 dataset by around 94%, to 8.2 GB.",
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"plaintext": "BWT has also been proved to be useful on sequence prediction which is a common area of study in machine learning and Natural Language Processing. In particular, Ktistakis et al. proposed a sequence prediction scheme called SuBSeq that exploits the lossless compression of data of the Burrows–Wheeler Transform. SuBSeq exploits BWT by extracting the FM-index and then performing a series of operations called backwardSearch, forwardSearch, neighbourExpansion, and getConsequents in order to search for predictions given a suffix. The predictions are then classified based on a weight and put into an array from which the element with the highest weight is given as the prediction from the SuBSeq algorithm. SuBSeq has been show to outperform state of the art algorithms for sequence prediction both in terms of training time and accuracy.",
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"plaintext": " Article by Mark Nelson on the BWT",
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"plaintext": " A Bijective String-Sorting Transform, by Gil and Scott",
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"plaintext": " Yuta's openbwt-v1.5.zip contains source code for various BWT routines including BWTS for bijective version",
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"plaintext": " On Bijective Variants of the Burrows–Wheeler Transform, by Kufleitner",
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"plaintext": " Blog post and project page for an open-source compression program and library based on the Burrows–Wheeler algorithm",
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"plaintext": " MIT open courseware lecture on BWT (Foundations of Computational and Systems Biology)",
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"plaintext": " League Table Sort (LTS) or The Weighting algorithm to BWT by Abderrahim Hechachena ",
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| 2,806 | 3,024 | 49 | 51 | 0 | 0 | Burrows–Wheeler transform | algorithm used in data compression techniques | [
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|
36,778 | 1,098,469,212 | Matthias_the_Apostle | [
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"plaintext": "Matthias (Koine Greek: Μαθθίας, Maththías , from Hebrew מַתִּתְיָהוּ Mattiṯyāhū; ; died c. AD 80) was, according to the Acts of the Apostles (written c. AD 63), chosen by the apostles to replace Judas Iscariot following the latter's betrayal of Jesus and his subsequent death. His calling as an apostle is unique, in that his appointment was not made personally by Jesus, who had already ascended into heaven, and it was also made before the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the early Church.",
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"plaintext": "There is no mention of a Matthias among the lists of disciples or followers of Jesus in the three synoptic gospels, but according to Acts, he had been with Jesus from his baptism by John until his Ascension. In the days following, Peter proposed that the assembled disciples, who numbered about 120, nominate two men to replace Judas. They chose Joseph called Barsabas (whose surname was Justus) and Matthias. Then they prayed, \"Thou, Lord, which knowest the hearts of all [men], shew whether of these two thou hast chosen, That he may take part of this ministry and apostleship, from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his own place.\" Then they cast lots, and the lot fell to Matthias; so he was numbered with the eleven apostles.",
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"plaintext": "No further information about Matthias is to be found in the canonical New Testament. Even his name is variable: the Syriac version of Eusebius calls him throughout not Matthias but \"Tolmai\", not to be confused with Bartholomew (which means Son of Tolmai), who was one of the twelve original Apostles; Clement of Alexandria refers once to Zacchaeus in a way which could be read as suggesting that some identified him with Matthias; the Clementine Recognitions identify him with Barnabas; Adolf Bernhard Christoph Hilgenfeld thinks he is the same as Nathanael in the Gospel of John.",
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"plaintext": "The tradition of the Greeks says that St. Matthias planted the faith about Cappadocia and on the coasts of the Caspian Sea, residing chiefly near the port Issus.",
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"plaintext": "According to Nicephorus (Historia eccl., 2, 40), Matthias first preached the Gospel in Judaea, then in Aethiopia (by the region of Colchis, now in modern-day Georgia) and was crucified. An extant Coptic Acts of Andrew and Matthias, places his activity similarly in \"the city of the cannibals\" in Aethiopia. A marker placed in the ruins of the Roman fortress at Gonio (Apsaros) in the modern Georgian region of Adjara claims that Matthias is buried at that site.",
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"plaintext": "The Synopsis of Dorotheus contains this tradition: \"Matthias preached the Gospel to barbarians and meat-eaters in the interior of Ethiopia, where the sea harbor of Hyssus is, at the mouth of the river Phasis. He died at Sebastopolis, and was buried there, near the Temple of the Sun.\"",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, another tradition maintains that Matthias was stoned at Jerusalem by the local populace, and then beheaded (cf. Tillemont, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclesiastique des six premiers siècles, I, 406–7). According to Hippolytus of Rome, Matthias died of old age in Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": "Not that they became apostles through being chosen for some distinguished peculiarity of nature, since also Judas was chosen along with them. But they were capable of becoming apostles on being chosen by Him who foresees even ultimate issues. Matthias, accordingly, who was not chosen along with them, on showing himself worthy of becoming an apostle, is substituted for Judas.",
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"plaintext": "Surviving fragments of the lost Gospels of Matthias attribute it to Matthias, but Early Church Fathers attributed it to heretical writings in the 2nd century.",
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"plaintext": "The feast of Saint Matthias was included in the Roman Calendar in the 11th century and celebrated on the sixth day to the Calends of March (24 February usually, but 25 February in leap years). In the revision of the General Roman Calendar in 1969, his feast was transferred to 14 May, so as not to celebrate it in Lent but instead in Eastertide close to the Solemnity of the Ascension, the event after which the Acts of the Apostles recounts that Matthias was selected to be ranked with the Twelve Apostles.",
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"plaintext": "The Eastern Rites of the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrate his feast on 9 August. Yet the Western Rite parishes of the Orthodox Church continues the old Roman Rite of 24 and 25 February in leap years.",
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"plaintext": "The Church of England's Book of Common Prayer, as well as other older common prayer books in the Anglican Communion, celebrates Matthias on 24 February. According to the newer Common Worship liturgy, Matthias is remembered in the Church of England with a Festival on 14 May, although he may be celebrated on 24 February, if desired. In the Episcopal Church as well as some in the Lutheran Church, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church–Canada, his feast remains on 24 February. In Evangelical Lutheran Worship, used by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America as well as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, the feast date for Matthias is on 14 May.",
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"plaintext": "It is claimed that St Matthias the Apostle's remains were brought to Italy through Empress Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine I (the Great); part of these relics would be interred in the Abbey of Santa Giustina, Padua, and the remaining in the Abbey of St. Matthias, Trier, Germany. According to Greek sources, the remains of the apostle are buried in the castle of Gonio-Apsaros, Georgia.",
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"plaintext": " Acta Andreae et Matthiae apud Anthropophagos",
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| 44,020 | 6,092 | 162 | 76 | 0 | 0 | Matthias | Apostle died circa 80 AD | [
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36,781 | 1,105,275,401 | GEGL | [
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"plaintext": "GEGL also has a notion of meta operations, where one operation can be constructed from other operations (e.g. unsharp mask is a combination of add, multiply, subtract and gaussian blur ops).",
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"plaintext": "Some of GEGL's operations are available in OpenCL-based hardware-accelerated version. A 3rd party effort, called GEGL-OpenCL, of converting more operations to OpenCL was started by Stream HPC in 2016. The project was stagnant starting May 2017, but was revived in the summer of 2019.",
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| 1,194,120 | 330 | 7 | 17 | 0 | 0 | GEGL | image processing programming library | [
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36,782 | 1,105,192,876 | Benford's_law | [
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"plaintext": "Benford's law, also known as the Newcomb–Benford law, the law of anomalous numbers, or the first-digit law, is an observation that in many real-life sets of numerical data, the leading digit is likely to be small. In sets that obey the law, the number appears as the leading significant digit about 30 % of the time, while appears as the leading significant digit less than 5 % of the time. If the digits were distributed uniformly, they would each occur about 11.1 % of the time. Benford's law also makes predictions about the distribution of second digits, third digits, digit combinations, and so on. ",
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"plaintext": "The graph to the right shows Benford's law for base 10, one of infinitely many cases of a generalized law regarding numbers expressed in arbitrary (integer) bases, which rules out the possibility that the phenomenon might be an artifact of the base 10 number system. Further generalizations published in 1995 included analogous statements for both the nth leading digit as well as the joint distribution of the leading n digits, the latter of which leads to a corollary wherein the significant digits are shown to be a statistically dependent quantity.",
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"plaintext": "The law is named after physicist Frank Benford, who stated it in 1938 in a paper titled \"The Law of Anomalous Numbers\", although it had been previously stated by Simon Newcomb in 1881.",
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"plaintext": "The leading digits in such a set thus have the following distribution:",
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"plaintext": "The quantity is proportional to the space between and on a logarithmic scale. Therefore, this is the distribution expected if the logarithms of the numbers (but not the numbers themselves) are uniformly and randomly distributed.",
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"plaintext": "For example, a number , constrained to lie between 1 and 10, starts with the digit 1 if , and starts with the digit 9 if . Therefore, starts with the digit 1 if , or starts with 9 if . The interval is much wider than the interval (0.30 and 0.05 respectively); therefore if log is uniformly and randomly distributed, it is much more likely to fall into the wider interval than the narrower interval, i.e. more likely to start with 1 than with 9; the probabilities are proportional to the interval widths, giving the equation above (as well as the generalization to other bases besides decimal).",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law is sometimes stated in a stronger form, asserting that the fractional part of the logarithm of data is typically close to uniformly distributed between 0 and 1; from this, the main claim about the distribution of first digits can be derived.",
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"plaintext": "An extension of Benford's law predicts the distribution of first digits in other bases besides decimal; in fact, any base . The general form is:",
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"plaintext": "For (the binary and unary) number systems, Benford's law is true but trivial: All binary and unary numbers (except for 0 or the empty set) start with the digit 1. (On the other hand, the Generalization to digits beyond the first is not trivial, even for binary numbers.)",
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"plaintext": "Examining a list of the heights of the 58 tallest structures in the world by category shows that 1 is by far the most common leading digit, irrespective of the unit of measurement (cf. \"scale invariance\", below):",
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"plaintext": "Another example is the leading digit of . The sequence of the first 96 leading digits (1, 2, 4, 8, 1, 3, 6, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 1, 3, 6, 1... ) exhibits closer adherence to Benford’s law than is expected for random sequences of the same length, because it is derived from a geometric sequence.",
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"plaintext": "The discovery of Benford's law goes back to 1881, when the Canadian-American astronomer Simon Newcomb noticed that in logarithm tables the earlier pages (that started with 1) were much more worn than the other pages. Newcomb's published result is the first known instance of this observation and includes a distribution on the second digit, as well. Newcomb proposed a law that the probability of a single number N being the first digit of a number was equal to log(N+1)−log(N).",
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"plaintext": "The phenomenon was again noted in 1938 by the physicist Frank Benford, who tested it on data from 20 different domains and was credited for it. His data set included the surface areas of 335 rivers, the sizes of 3259 US populations, 104 physical constants, 1800 molecular weights, 5000 entries from a mathematical handbook, 308 numbers contained in an issue of Reader's Digest, the street addresses of the first 342 persons listed in American Men of Science and 418 death rates. The total number of observations used in the paper was 20,229. This discovery was later named after Benford (making it an example of Stigler's law).",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Ted Hill proved the result about mixed distributions mentioned Multiple probability distributions.",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law tends to apply most accurately to data that span several orders of magnitude. As a rule of thumb, the more orders of magnitude that the data evenly covers, the more accurately Benford's law applies. For instance, one can expect that Benford's law would apply to a list of numbers representing the populations of UK settlements. But if a \"settlement\" is defined as a village with population between 300 and 999, then Benford's law will not apply.",
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"plaintext": "Consider the probability distributions shown below, referenced to a log scale. In each case, the total area in red is the relative probability that the first digit is 1, and the total area in blue is the relative probability that the first digit is8. For the first distribution, the size of the areas of red and blue are approximately proportional to the widths of each red and blue bar. Therefore, the numbers drawn from this distribution will approximately follow Benford's law. On the other hand, for the second distribution, the ratio of the areas of red and blue is very different from the ratio of the widths of each red and blue bar. Rather, the relative areas of red and blue are determined more by the heights of the bars than the widths. Accordingly, the first digits in this distribution do not satisfy Benford's law at all.",
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"plaintext": "Thus, real-world distributions that span several orders of magnitude rather uniformly (e.g., stock-market prices and populations of villages, towns, and cities) are likely to satisfy Benford's law very accurately. On the other hand, a distribution mostly or entirely within one order of magnitude (e.g., IQ scores or heights of human adults) is unlikely to satisfy Benford's law very accurately, if at all. However, the difference between applicable and inapplicable regimes is not a sharp cut-off: as the distribution gets narrower, the deviations from Benford's law increase gradually.",
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"plaintext": "(This discussion is not a full explanation of Benford's law, because it has not explained why data sets are so often encountered that, when plotted as a probability distribution of the logarithm of the variable, are relatively uniform over several orders of magnitude.)",
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"plaintext": "In 1970 Wolfgang Krieger proved what is now called the Krieger Generator Theorem. The Krieger Generator Theorem might be viewed as a justification for the assumption in the Kafri ball-and-box model that, in a given base with a fixed number of digits 0, 1, ... n, ..., , digit n is equivalent to a Kafri box containing n non-interacting balls. A number of other scientists and statisticians have suggested entropy-related explanations for Benford's law.",
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"plaintext": "Many real-world examples of Benford's law arise from multiplicative fluctuations. For example, if a stock price starts at $100, and then each day it gets multiplied by a randomly chosen factor between 0.99 and 1.01, then over an extended period the probability distribution of its price satisfies Benford's law with higher and higher accuracy.",
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"plaintext": "The reason is that the logarithm of the stock price is undergoing a random walk, so over time its probability distribution will get more and more broad and smooth (see Overview). (More technically, the central limit theorem says that multiplying more and more random variables will create a log-normal distribution with larger and larger variance, so eventually it covers many orders of magnitude almost uniformly.) To be sure of approximate agreement with Benford's law, the distribution has to be approximately invariant when scaled up by any factor up to 10; a lognormally distributed data set with wide dispersion would have this approximate property.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike multiplicative fluctuations, additive fluctuations do not lead to Benford's law: They lead instead to normal probability distributions (again by the central limit theorem), which do not satisfy Benford's law. For example, the \"number of heartbeats that I experience on a given day\" can be written as the sum of many random variables (e.g. the sum of heartbeats per minute over all the minutes of the day), so this quantity is unlikely to follow Benford's law. By contrast, that hypothetical stock price described above can be written as the product of many random variables (i.e. the price change factor for each day), so is likely to follow Benford's law quite well.",
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"plaintext": "Anton Formann provided an alternative explanation by directing attention to the interrelation between the distribution of the significant digits and the distribution of the observed variable. He showed in a simulation study that long right-tailed distributions of a random variable are compatible with the Newcomb–Benford law, and that for distributions of the ratio of two random variables the fit generally improves. For numbers drawn from certain distributions (IQ scores, human heights) the Benford's law fails to hold because these variates obey a normal distribution which is known not to satisfy Benford's law, since normal distributions can't span several orders of magnitude and the mantissae of their logarithms will not be (even approximately) uniformly distributed. However, if one \"mixes\" numbers from those distributions, for example by taking numbers from newspaper articles, Benford's law reappears. This can also be proven mathematically: if one repeatedly \"randomly\" chooses a probability distribution (from an uncorrelated set) and then randomly chooses a number according to that distribution, the resulting list of numbers will obey Benford's law. A similar probabilistic explanation for the appearance of Benford's law in everyday-life numbers has been advanced by showing that it arises naturally when one considers mixtures of uniform distributions.",
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"plaintext": "In a list of lengths, the distribution of first digits of numbers in the list may be generally similar regardless of whether all the lengths are expressed in metres, yards, feet, inches, etc. The same applies to monetary units.",
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"plaintext": "This is not always the case. For example, the height of adult humans almost always starts with a 1 or 2 when measured in metres and almost always starts with 4, 5, 6, or 7 when measured in feet. But in a list of lengths spread evenly over many orders of magnitude—for example, a list of 1000 lengths mentioned in scientific papers that includes the measurements of molecules, bacteria, plants, and galaxies—it is reasonable to expect the distribution of first digits to be the same no matter whether the lengths are written in metres or in feet, .",
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"plaintext": "When the distribution of the first digits of a data set is scale invariant (independent of the units that the data are expressed in), it is always given by Benford's law.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the first (non-zero) digit on the aforementioned list of lengths should have the same distribution whether the unit of measurement is feet or yards. But there are three feet in a yard, so the probability that the first digit of a length in yards is 1 must be the same as the probability that the first digit of a length in feet is 3, 4, or5; similarly, the probability that the first digit of a length in yards is 2 must be the same as the probability that the first digit of a length in feet is 6, 7, or8. Applying this to all possible measurement scales gives the logarithmic distribution of Benford's law.",
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"plaintext": "Benford's Law for first digits is base invariant for number systems. There are conditions and proofs of sum invariance, inverse invariance, and addition and subtraction invariance.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, Hal Varian suggested that the law could be used to detect possible fraud in lists of socio-economic data submitted in support of public planning decisions. Based on the plausible assumption that people who fabricate figures tend to distribute their digits fairly uniformly, a simple comparison of first-digit frequency distribution from the data with the expected distribution according to Benford's law ought to show up any anomalous results.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, evidence based on Benford's law has been admitted in criminal cases at the federal, state, and local levels.",
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"plaintext": "Walter Mebane, a political scientist and statistician at the University of Michigan, was the first to apply the second-digit Benford's law-test (2BL-test) in election forensics. Such analysis is considered a simple, though not foolproof, method of identifying irregularities in election results. Scientific consensus to support the applicability of Benford's law to elections has not been reached in the literature. A 2011 study by the political scientists Joseph Deckert, Mikhail Myagkov, and Peter C. Ordeshook argued that Benford's law is problematic and misleading as a statistical indicator of election fraud. Their method was criticized by Mebane in a response, though he agreed that there are many caveats to the application of Benford's law to election data.",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law has been used as evidence of fraud in the 2009 Iranian elections. An analysis by Mebane found that the second digits in vote counts for President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the winner of the election, tended to differ significantly from the expectations of Benford's law, and that the ballot boxes with very few invalid ballots had a greater influence on the results, suggesting widespread ballot stuffing. Another study used bootstrap simulations to find that the candidate Mehdi Karroubi received almost twice as many vote counts beginning with the digit 7 as would be expected according to Benford's law, while an analysis from Columbia University concluded that the probability that a fair election would produce both too few non-adjacent digits and the suspicious deviations in last-digit frequencies as found in the 2009 Iranian presidential election is less than 0.5 percent. Benford's law has also been applied for forensic auditing and fraud detection on data from the 2003 California gubernatorial election, the 2000 and 2004 United States presidential elections, and the 2009 German federal election; the Benford's Law Test was found to be \"worth taking seriously as a statistical test for fraud,\" although \"is not sensitive to distortions we know significantly affected many votes.\"",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law has also been misapplied to claim election fraud. When applying the law to Joe Biden's election returns for Chicago, Milwaukee, and other localities in the 2020 United States presidential election, the distribution of the first digit did not follow Benford's law. The misapplication was a result of looking at data that was tightly bound in range, which violates the assumption inherent in Benford's law that the range of the data be large. According to Mebane, \"It is widely understood that the first digits of precinct vote counts are not useful for trying to diagnose election frauds.\"",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, the macroeconomic data the Greek government reported to the European Union before entering the eurozone was shown to be probably fraudulent using Benford's law, albeit years after the country joined.",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law as a benchmark for the investigation of price digits has been successfully introduced into the context of pricing research. The importance of this benchmark for detecting irregularities in prices was first demonstrated in a Europe-wide study which investigated consumer price digits before and after the euro introduction for price adjustments. The introduction of the euro in 2002, with its various exchange rates, distorted existing nominal price patterns while at the same time retaining real prices. While the first digits of nominal prices distributed according to Benford's law, the study showed a clear deviation from this benchmark for the second and third digits in nominal market prices with a clear trend towards psychological pricing after the nominal shock of the euro introduction.",
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"plaintext": "The number of open reading frames and their relationship to genome size differs between eukaryotes and prokaryotes with the former showing a log-linear relationship and the latter a linear relationship. Benford's law has been used to test this observation with an excellent fit to the data in both cases.",
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"plaintext": "A test of regression coefficients in published papers showed agreement with Benford's law. As a comparison group subjects were asked to fabricate statistical estimates. The fabricated results conformed to Benford's law on first digits, but failed to obey Benford's law on second digits.",
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"plaintext": "Although the chi-squared test has been used to test for compliance with Benford's law it has low statistical power when used with small samples.",
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"plaintext": "The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and the Kuiper test are more powerful when the sample size is small, particularly when Stephens's corrective factor is used. These tests may be overly conservative when applied to discrete distributions. Values for the Benford test have been generated by Morrow. The critical values of the test statistics are shown below:",
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"plaintext": "These critical values provide the minimum test statistic values required to reject the hypothesis of compliance with Benford's law at the given significance levels.",
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"plaintext": "Two alternative tests specific to this law have been published: first, the max (m) statistic is given by",
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"plaintext": "the initial factor is not appearing in the original formula by Leemis, but was later introduced by Morrow.",
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"plaintext": "Secondly, the distance (d) statistic is given by",
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"plaintext": "where FSD is the first significant digit and is the sample size. Morrow has determined the critical values for both these statistics, which are shown below:",
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"plaintext": "Morrow has also shown that for any random variable X (with a continuous pdf) divided by its standard deviation (σ), a value A can be found such that the probability of the distribution of the first significant digit of the random variable ()A will differ from Benford's law by less than ε > 0. The value of A depends on the value of ε and the distribution of the random variable.",
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"plaintext": "A method of accounting fraud detection based on bootstrapping and regression has been proposed.",
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"plaintext": "If the goal is to conclude agreement with the Benford's law rather than disagreement, then the goodness-of-fit tests mentioned above are inappropriate. In this case the specific tests for equivalence should be applied. An empirical distribution is called equivalent to the Benford's law if a distance (for example total variation distance or the usual Euclidean distance) between the probability mass functions is sufficiently small. This method of testing with application to Benford's law is described in Ostrovski (2017).",
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"plaintext": "Some well-known infinite integer sequences satisfy Benford's law exactly (in the asymptotic limit as more and more terms of the sequence are included). Among these are the Fibonacci numbers, the factorials, the powers of2, and the powers of almost any other number.",
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"plaintext": "Likewise, some continuous processes satisfy Benford's law exactly (in the asymptotic limit as the process continues through time). One is an exponential growth or decay process: If a quantity is exponentially increasing or decreasing in time, then the percentage of time that it has each first digit satisfies Benford's law asymptotically (i.e. increasing accuracy as the process continues through time).",
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"plaintext": "The square roots and reciprocals of successive natural numbers do not obey this law. Prime numbers in a finite range follow a Generalized Benford’s law, that approaches uniformity as the size of the range approaches infinity. Lists of local telephone numbers violate Benford's law. Benford's law is violated by the populations of all places with a population of at least 2500 individuals from five US states according to the 1960 and 1970 censuses, where only 19 % began with digit 1 but 20 % began with digit 2, because truncation at 2500 introduces statistical bias. The terminal digits in pathology reports violate Benford's law due to rounding.",
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"plaintext": "Distributions that do not span several orders of magnitude will not follow Benford's law. Examples include height, weight, and IQ scores.",
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"plaintext": "A number of criteria, applicable particularly to accounting data, have been suggested where Benford's law can be expected to apply.",
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"plaintext": "Distributions that can be expected to obey Benford's law",
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"plaintext": " When the mean is greater than the median and the skew is positive",
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"plaintext": " Numbers that result from mathematical combination of numbers: e.g. quantity × price",
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"plaintext": " Transaction level data: e.g. disbursements, sales",
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"plaintext": "Distributions that would not be expected to obey Benford's law",
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"plaintext": " Where numbers are assigned sequentially: e.g. check numbers, invoice numbers",
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"plaintext": " Where numbers are influenced by human thought: e.g. prices set by psychological thresholds ($9.99)",
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"plaintext": " Accounts with a large number of firm-specific numbers: e.g. accounts set up to record $100 refunds",
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"plaintext": " Accounts with a built-in minimum or maximum",
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"plaintext": " Distributions that do not span an order of magnitude of numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Mathematically, Benford’s law applies if the distribution being tested fits the \"Benford’s Law Compliance Theorem\". The derivation says that Benford's law is followed if the Fourier transform of the logarithm of the probability density function is zero for all integer values. Most notably, this is satisfied if the Fourier transform is zero (or negligible) for n≥1. This is satisfied if the distribution is wide (since wide distribution implies a small Fourier transform). Smith summarizes thus (p.716): ",
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"plaintext": "“Benford's law is followed by distributions that are wide compared with unit distance along the logarithmic scale. Likewise, the law is not followed by distributions that are narrow compared with unit distance…. “If the distribution is wide compared with unit distance on the log axis, it means that the spread in the set of numbers being examined is much greater than ten.”",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law was empirically tested against the numbers (up to the 10th digit) generated by a number of important distributions, including the uniform distribution, the exponential distribution, the normal distribution, and others.",
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"plaintext": "Neither the normal distribution nor the ratio distribution of two normal distributions (the Cauchy distribution) obey Benford's law. Although the half-normal distribution does not obey Benford's law, the ratio distribution of two half-normal distributions does. Neither the right-truncated normal distribution nor the ratio distribution of two right-truncated normal distributions are well described by Benford's law. This is not surprising as this distribution is weighted towards larger numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Benford's law also describes the exponential distribution and the ratio distribution of two exponential distributions well. The fit of chi-squared distribution depends on the degrees of freedom (df) with good agreement with df = 1 and decreasing agreement as the df increases. The F-distribution is fitted well for low degrees of freedom. With increasing dfs the fit decreases but much more slowly than the chi-squared distribution. The fit of the log-normal distribution depends on the mean and the variance of the distribution. The variance has a much greater effect on the fit than does the mean. Larger values of both parameters result in better agreement with the law. The ratio of two log normal distributions is a log normal so this distribution was not examined.",
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"plaintext": "Other distributions that have been examined include the Muth distribution, Gompertz distribution, Weibull distribution, gamma distribution, log-logistic distribution and the exponential power distribution all of which show reasonable agreement with the law. The Gumbel distribution – a density increases with increasing value of the random variable – does not show agreement with this law.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible to extend the law to digits beyond the first. In particular, for any given number of digits, the probability of encountering a number starting with the string of digits n of that length – discarding leading zeros – is given by:",
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"plaintext": "For example, the probability that a number starts with the digits 3,1,4 is , as in the figure on the right. Numbers satisfying this include 3.14159..., 314285.7... and 0.00314465....",
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"plaintext": "This result can be used to find the probability that a particular digit occurs at a given position within a number. For instance, the probability that a \"2\" is encountered as the second digit is",
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"plaintext": "And the probability that d (d=0,1,...,9) is encountered as the n-th (n>1) digit is",
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"plaintext": "The distribution of the n-th digit, as n increases, rapidly approaches a uniform distribution with 10 % for each of the ten digits, as shown below. Four digits is often enough to assume a uniform distribution of 10 % as '0' appears 10.0176 % of the time in the fourth digit while '9' appears 9.9824 % of the time.",
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"plaintext": "Average and moments of random variables for the digits 1 to 9 following this law have been calculated:",
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"plaintext": " variance 6.057",
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"plaintext": " kurtosis −0.548",
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"plaintext": "For the two-digit distribution according to Benford's law these values are also known:",
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"plaintext": " mean 38.590",
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"plaintext": "The Baltic Sea froze over twice, in 1303 and 1306–1307, and years followed of \"unseasonable cold, storms and rains, and a rise in the level of the Caspian Sea.” The Little Ice Age brought colder winters to parts of Europe and North America. Farms and villages in the Swiss Alps were destroyed by encroaching glaciers during the mid-17th century. Canals and rivers in Great Britain and the Netherlands were frequently frozen deeply enough to support ice skating and winter festivals. The first River Thames frost fair was in 1608 and the last in 1814. Changes to the bridges and the addition of the Thames Embankment have affected the river's flow and depth and greatly diminish the possibility of further freezes.",
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"plaintext": "In 1658, a Swedish army marched across the Great Belt to Denmark to attack Copenhagen. The winter of 1794–1795 was particularly harsh: the French invasion army under Pichegru marched on the frozen rivers of the Netherlands, and the Dutch fleet was locked in the ice in Den Helder harbour.",
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"plaintext": "Sea ice surrounding Iceland extended for miles in every direction and closed harbors to shipping. The population of Iceland fell by half, but that may have been caused by skeletal fluorosis after the eruption of Laki in 1783. Iceland also suffered failures of cereal crops and people moved away from a grain-based diet. The Norse colonies in Greenland had starved and vanished by the early 15th century because of crop failures and the inability for livestock to be maintained throughout increasingly harsh winters. Greenland was largely cut off by ice from 1410 to the 1720s.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1995 book, the early climatologist Hubert Lamb said that in many years, \"snowfall was much heavier than recorded before or since, and the snow lay on the ground for many months longer than it does today.\" In Lisbon, Portugal, snowstorms were much more frequent than today, and one winter in the 17th century produced eight snowstorms. Many springs and summers were cold and wet but with great variability between years and groups of years. That was particularly evident during the \"Grindelwald Fluctuation\" (1560–1630); the rapid cooling phase was associated with more erratic weather, including increased storminess, unseasonal snowstorms, and droughts. Crop practices throughout Europe had to be altered to adapt to the shortened and less reliable growing season, and there were many years of scarcity and famine. One was the Great Famine of 1315–1317, but that may have been before the Little Ice Age. According to Elizabeth Ewan and Janay Nugent, \"Famines in France 1693–94, Norway 1695–96 and Sweden 1696–97 claimed roughly 10 percent of the population of each country. In Estonia and Finland in 1696–97, losses have been estimated at a fifth and a third of the national populations, respectively.\" Viticulture disappeared from some northern regions, and storms caused serious flooding and loss of life. Some of them resulted in the permanent loss of large areas of land from the Danish, German, and Dutch coasts.",
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"plaintext": "The violinmaker Antonio Stradivari produced his instruments during the Little Ice Age. The colder climate may have caused the wood that was used in his violins to be denser than in warmer periods and to contribute to the tone of his instruments. According to the science historian James Burke, the period inspired such novelties in everyday life as the widespread use of buttons and button-holes, as well as knitting of custom-made undergarments for the better covering and insulating of the body. Chimneys were invented to replace open fires in the centre of communal halls to allow houses with multiple rooms to have the separation of masters from servants.",
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"plaintext": "The Little Ice Age, by the anthropologist Brian Fagan of the University of California at Santa Barbara, describes the plight of European peasants from 1300 to 1850: famines, hypothermia, bread riots and the rise of despotic leaders brutalizing an increasingly-dispirited peasantry. In the late 17th century, agriculture had dropped off dramatically: \"Alpine villagers lived on bread made from ground nutshells mixed with barley and oat flour.\" Historian Wolfgang Behringer has linked intensive witch-hunting episodes in Europe to agricultural failures during the Little Ice Age.",
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"plaintext": "The Frigid Golden Age, by the environmental historian Dagomar Degroot of Georgetown University, points out that some societies thrived, but others faltered during the Little Ice Age. In particular, the Little Ice Age transformed environments around the Dutch Republic and made them easier to exploit in commerce and conflict. The Dutch were resilient, even adaptive, in the face of weather that devastated neighboring countries. Merchants exploited harvest failures, military commanders took advantage of shifting wind patterns, and inventors developed technologies that helped them profit from the cold. The 17th-century Dutch Golden Age therefore owed much to its people's flexibility in coping with the changing climate.",
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"plaintext": "Historians have argued that cultural responses to the consequences of the Little Ice Age in Europe consisted of violent scapegoating. The prolonged cold, dry periods brought drought upon many European communities and resulted in poor crop growth, poor livestock survival, and increased activity of pathogens and disease vectors. Disease tends to intensify under the same conditions that unemployment and economic difficulties arise: prolonged cold, dry seasons. Disease and unemployment are outcomes that enhance each other and generate a lethal positive feedback loop. Although the communities had some contingency plans, such as better crop mixes, emergency grain stocks, and international food trade, they did not always prove effective. Communities often lashed out via violent crimes, including robbery and murder. Also, accusations of sexual offenses increased, such as adultery, bestiality, and rape. Europeans sought explanations for the famine, disease, and social unrest that they were experiencing, and they blamed the innocent. Evidence from several studies indicate that increases in violent actions against marginalized groups, which were held responsible for the Little Ice Age, overlap with the years of particularly cold, dry weather.",
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"plaintext": "One example of the violent scapegoating occurring during the Little Ice Age was the resurgence of witchcraft trials, as argued by Oster (2004) and Behringer (1999). They argue that the resurgence was brought by the climatic decline. Prior to the Little Ice Age, \"witchcraft\" was considered an insignificant crime, and victims were rarely accused. But beginning in the 1380s, just as the Little Ice Age began, European populations began to link magic and weather-making. The first systematic witch hunts began in the 1430s, and by the 1480s, it was widely believed that witches should be held accountable for poor weather. Witches were blamed for direct and indirect consequences of the Little Ice Age: livestock epidemics, cows that gave too little milk, late frosts, and unknown diseases. In general, the number of witchcraft trials rose as the temperature dropped, and trials decreased when temperature increased. The peaks of witchcraft persecutions overlap with the hunger crises that occurred in 1570 and 1580, the latter lasting a decade. The trials targeted primarily poor women, many of them widows. Not everybody agreed that witches should be persecuted for weather-making, but such arguments focused primarily not upon whether witches existed but upon whether witches had the capability to control the weather. The Catholic Church in the Early Middle Ages argued that witches could not control the weather because they were mortals, not God, but by the mid-13th century, most people agreed with the idea that witches could control natural forces.",
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"plaintext": "Historians have argued that Jewish populations were also blamed for climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age. The Western European states experienced waves of anti-Semitism, directed against the main religious minority in their otherwise Christian societies. There was no direct link made between Jews and the weather; they were blamed only for indirect consequences such as disease. Outbreaks of the plague were often blamed on Jews. In Western European cities during the 1300s, Jewish populations were murdered to stop the spread of the plague. Rumors spread that Jews were either poisoning wells themselves, or telling lepers to poison the wells. To escape persecution, some Jews converted to Christianity, while others migrated to the Ottoman Empire, Italy or the Holy Roman Empire, where they experienced greater toleration.",
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"plaintext": "Some populations blamed the cold periods and the resulting famine and disease during the Little Ice Age on a general divine displeasure. Particular groups took the brunt of the burden in attempts to cure it. In Germany, regulations were imposed upon activities such as gambling and drinking, which disproportionately affected the lower class and women were forbidden from showing their knees. Other regulations affected the wider population, such as prohibiting dancing, sexual activities and moderating food and drink intake. In Ireland, Catholics blamed the Reformation for the bad weather. The Annals of Loch Cé, in its entry for 1588, describes a midsummer snowstorm as \"a wild apple was not larger than each stone of it\" and blames it on the presence of a \"wicked, heretical, bishop in Oilfinn\", the Protestant Bishop of Elphin, John Lynch.",
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"plaintext": "William James Burroughs analyses the depiction of winter in paintings, as does Hans Neuberger. Burroughs asserts that it occurred almost entirely from 1565 to 1665 and was associated with the climatic decline from 1550 onwards. Burroughs claims that there had been almost no depictions of winter in art, and he \"hypothesizes that the unusually harsh winter of 1565 inspired great artists to depict highly original images and that the decline in such paintings was a combination of the 'theme' having been fully explored and mild winters interrupting the flow of painting.\" Wintry scenes, which entail technical difficulties in painting, have been regularly and well handled since at least the early 15th century by artists in illuminated manuscript cycles that show the Labours of the Months, typically placed on the calendar pages of books of hours. January and February are typically shown as snowy, as in February in the famous cycle in the , painted in 1412–1416 and illustrated below. Since landscape painting had not yet developed as an independent genre in art, the absence of other winter scenes is not remarkable. On the other hand, snowy winter landscapes, particularly stormy seascapes, became artistic genres in the Dutch Golden Age painting during the coldest and stormiest decades of the Little Ice Age. Most modern scholars believe them to be full of symbolic messages and metaphors, which would have been clear to contemporary customers.",
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"plaintext": "All of the famous winter landscape paintings by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, such as The Hunters in the Snow and the Massacre of the Innocents, are thought to have been painted around 1565. His son Pieter Brueghel the Younger (1564–1638) also painted many snowy landscapes, but according to Burroughs, he \"slavishly copied his father's designs. The derivative nature of so much of this work makes it difficult to draw any definite conclusions about the influence of the winters between 1570 and 1600....\". In addition, Breughel painted Hunters in the Snow in Antwerp, so the mountains in the picture probably mean it was based on drawings or memories from crossing of the Alps during his trip to Rome in 1551-1552. It is one of 5 known surviving paintings, probably from a series of 6 or 12, known as “the Twelve Months”, that Breughel was commissioned to paint by a wealthy patron in Antwerp, Niclaes Jonghelinck (Hunters in the Snow being for January): none of the other four that survive show a snow-covered landscape and both The Hay Harvest (July) and The Harvesters (August) depict warm summer days. Even The Return of the Herd (thought to be the painting for November) and The Gloomy Day (known to be for February) show landscapes free of snow.",
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"plaintext": "Burroughs says that snowy subjects return to Dutch Golden Age painting with works by Hendrick Avercamp from 1609 onwards. There is a hiatus between 1627 and 1640, which is before the main period of such subjects from the 1640s to the 1660s. That relates well with climate records for the later period. The subjects are less popular after about 1660, but that does not match any recorded reduction in severity of winters and may reflect only changes in taste or fashion. In the later period between the 1780s and 1810s, snowy subjects again became popular. Neuberger analysed 12,000 paintings, held in American and European museums and dated between 1400 and 1967, for cloudiness and darkness. His 1970 publication shows an increase in such depictions that corresponds to the Little Ice Age, which peaks between 1600 and 1649.",
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"plaintext": "Paintings and contemporary records in Scotland demonstrate that curling and ice skating were popular outdoor winter sports, with curling dating back to the 16th century and becoming widely popular in the mid-19th century. An outdoor curling pond constructed in Gourock in the 1860s remained in use for almost a century, but increasing use of indoor facilities, problems of vandalism, and milder winters led to the pond being abandoned in 1963.",
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"plaintext": "The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century in Europe was a period of inclement weather, crop failure, economic hardship, extreme intergroup violence, and high mortality linked to the Little Ice Age. Episodes of social instability track the cooling with a time lapse of up to 15 years, and many developed into armed conflicts, such as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). The war started as a war of succession to the Bohemian throne. Animosity between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire (now Germany) added fuel to the fire. It soon escalated to a huge conflict that involved all of the major European powers and devastated much of Germany. When the war ended, some regions of the Holy Roman Empire had seen their population drop by as much as 70%. However, as global temperatures started to rise, the ecological stress faced by Europeans also began to fade. Mortality rates dropped, and the level of violence fell. This helped lead to the Enlightenment, which witnessed the emergence of innovations in technology (which enabled industrialization), medicine (which improved hygiene), and social welfare (such as the world's first welfare programs in Germany) and made life even more comfortable.",
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"plaintext": "Early European explorers and settlers of North America reported exceptionally severe winters. For example, according to Lamb, Samuel Champlain reported bearing ice along the shores of Lake Superior in June 1608. Both Europeans and indigenous peoples suffered excess mortality in Maine during the winter of 1607–08, and extreme frost was meanwhile reported in the Jamestown, Virginia, settlement. Native Americans formed leagues in response to food shortages. The journal of Pierre de Troyes, Chevalier de Troyes, who led an expedition to James Bay in 1686, recorded that the bay was still littered with so much floating ice that he could hide behind it in his canoe on 1 July. In the winter of 1780, New York Harbor froze, which allowed people to walk from Manhattan Island to Staten Island.",
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"plaintext": "The extent of mountain glaciers had been mapped by the late 19th century. In the north and the south temperate zones, Equilibrium Line Altitude (the boundaries separating zones of net accumulation from those of net ablation) were about lower than they were in 1975. In Glacier National Park, the last episode of glacier advance came in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. In 1879, the famed naturalist John Muir found that Glacier Bay ice had retreated . In Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, large temperature excursions were possibly related to changes in the strength of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation.",
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"plaintext": "Because the Little Ice Age took place during the European colonization of the Americas, it discouraged many early colonizers, who had expected the climate of North America to be similar to the climate of Europe at similar latitudes. In fact, North America, at least in what would become Canada and the northern United States, had hotter summers and colder winters than in Europe. That effect was aggravated by the Little Ice Age, and unpreparedness led to the collapse of many early European settlements in North America.",
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"plaintext": "Historians agree that when colonists settled at Jamestown, it was one of the coldest time periods in the last 1000 years. Drought was also a huge problem in North America during the Little Ice Age, and the settlers arrived in Roanoke during the largest drought of the past 800 years. Tree ring studies by the University of Arkansas discovered that many colonists arrived at the beginning of a seven-year drought. The droughts also decreased the Native American populations and led to conflict because of food scarcity. English colonists at Roanoke forced Native Americans of Ossomocomuck to share their depleted supplies with them. That led to warfare between the two groups, and Native American cities were destroyed. That cycle would repeat itself many times at Jamestown. The combination of fighting and cold weather also led to the spread of diseases. The colder weather helped the parasites brought by Europeans in mosquitoes to develop faster. That in turn led to many malaria deaths among Native Americans.",
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"plaintext": "In 1642, Thomas Gorges wrote that between 1637 and 1645, colonists in Maine (then part of Massachusetts) experienced horrendous weather conditions. In June 1637, temperatures were so hot that numerous European settlers died; travelers were forced to travel at night to stay cool. Gorges also wrote that the winter of 1641–42 was “piercingly Intolerable” and that no Englishman or Native American had ever seen anything like it. He also stated that the Massachusetts Bay had frozen as far as one could see and that horse carriages now roamed where ships used to be. He stated that the summers of 1638 and 1639 were very short, cold, and wet, which compounded food scarcity for a few years. To make matters worse, creatures like caterpillars and pigeons fed on crops and devastated harvests. Every year about which Gorges wrote featured unusual weather patterns, including high precipitation, drought, and extreme cold or heat.",
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"plaintext": "Many inhabitants of North America had their own theories about the extreme weather. The colonist Ferdinando Gorges blamed the cold weather on cold ocean winds. Humphrey Gilbert tried to explain Newfoundland's extremely cold and foggy weather by saying that the Earth drew cold vapors from the ocean and drew them west. Many others had their own theories for North America being so much colder than Europe; their observations and hypotheses offer insight on the Little Ice Age's effects in North America.",
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"plaintext": "An analysis of several climate proxies undertaken in Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, which was linked by its authors to Maya and Aztec chronicles relating periods of cold and drought, supports the existence of the Little Ice Age in the region.",
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"plaintext": "Another study conducted in several sites in Mesoamerica like Los Tuxtlas and Lake Pompal in Veracruz, Mexico show a decrease in human activity in the area during the Little Ice Age. That was proven by studying charcoal fragments and the amount of maize pollen taken from sedimentary samples by using a nonrotatory piston corer. The samples also showed volcanic activity which caused forest regeneration between 650 and 800. The instances of volcanic activity near Lake Pompal indicate varying temperatures, not a continuous coldness, during the Little Ice Age in Mesoamerica.",
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"plaintext": "In the North Atlantic, sediments accumulated since the end of the last ice age, which occurred nearly 12,000 years ago, show regular increases in the amount of coarse sediment grains deposited from icebergs melting in the now-open ocean, indicating a series of 1–2°C (2–4°F) cooling events that recur every 1,500 years or so. The most recent cooling event was the Little Ice Age. The same cooling events are detected in sediments accumulating off Africa, but the cooling events appear to be larger: 3–8°C (6–14°F).",
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"plaintext": "Although the original designation of a Little Ice Age referred to the reduced temperature of Europe and North America, there is some evidence of extended periods of cooling outside those regions although it is not clear whether they are related or independent events. Mann states:",
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"plaintext": "While there is evidence that many other regions outside Europe exhibited periods of cooler conditions, expanded glaciation, and significantly altered climate conditions, the timing and nature of these variations are highly variable from region to region, and the notion of the Little Ice Age as a globally synchronous cold period has all but been dismissed.",
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"plaintext": "In China, warm-weather crops such as oranges were abandoned in Jiangxi Province, where they had been grown for centuries. Also, the two periods of most frequent typhoon strikes in Guangdong coincide with two of the coldest and driest periods in northern and central China (1660–1680, 1850–1880). Scholars have argued that one of the reasons for the fall of the Ming dynasty may have been the droughts and famines that were caused by the Little Ice Age.",
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"plaintext": "There are debates on the start date and the time periods of Little Ice Age's effects. Most scholars agree on categorizing the Little Ice Age period into three distinct cold periods: in 1458–1552, 1600–1720, and 1840–1880. According to data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the eastern monsoon area of China was the earliest to experience the effects of the Little Ice Age, from 1560 to 1709. In the western region of China surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, the effects of the Little Ice Age lagged behind the eastern region, with significant cold periods from 1620 to 1749.",
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"plaintext": "The temperature changes was unprecedented for the farming communities in China. According to Dr. Coching Chu's 1972 study, the Little Ice Age from the end of the Ming dynasty to the start of the Qing dynasty (1650–1700) was one of the coldest periods in recorded Chinese history. Many major droughts during the summer months were recorded, and significant freezing events occurred during the winter months. That greatly worsened the food supply during the Ming dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "This period of Little Ice Age would correspond to the period's major historical events. The Jurchen people lived in Northern China and formed a tributary state to the Ming dynasty and its Wanli Emperor. From 1573 to 1620, Manchuria experienced famine caused by extreme snowfall, which depleted agriculture production and decimated the livestock population. Scholars have argued that it had been caused by the temperature drops during Little Ice Age. Despite the lack of food production, the Wanli Emperor ordered the Jurchens to pay the same amount of tribute each year. That led to anger and sowed seeds to the rebellion against the Ming dynasty. In 1616, Jurchens established the Later Jin dynasty. Led by Hong Taiji and Nurhaci, the Later Jin dynasty moved South and achieved decisive victories in battles against the Ming dynasty's military such as during the 1618 Battle of Fushun.",
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"plaintext": "After the earlier defeats and the death of the Wanli Emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor took over China and continued the war effort. From 1632 to 1641, the Little Ice Age began to cause drastic climate changes in the Ming dynasty's territories. For example, rainfall in the Huabei region dropped by 11% to 47% from the historical average. Meanwhile, the Shaanbei region, along the Yellow River experienced six major floods, which ruined cities such as Yan’an. The climate factored heavily in weakening the government's control over China and accelerated the fall of the Ming dynasty. In 1644, Li Zicheng led the Later Jin's forces into Beijing, overthrew the Ming dynasty, and established the Qing dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "During the early years of the Qing dynasty, the Little Ice Age continued to have a significant impact on Chinese society. During the rule of the Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722), most Qing territories were still much colder than the historical average. However, the Kangxi Emperor pushed reforms and managed to increase the socio-economic recovery from the natural disasters. He benefited partly from the peacefulness of the early Qing dynasty. That essentially marked the end of the Little Ice Age in China and led to a more prosperous era of Chinese history that is known as the High Qing era.",
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"plaintext": "In the Himalayas, the general assumption is that the cooling events were synchronous with those in Europe during the Little Ice Age because of the characteristics of moraines. However, applications of Quaternary dating methods such as surface exposure dating have showed that glacial maxima occurred between 1300 and 1600, slightly earlier than the recorded coldest period in Northern Hemisphere. Many large Himalayan glacial debris fields have remained close to their limits since the Little Ice Age. The Himalayas also experienced an increase in snowfall at higher altitudes, which results in a southward shift in the Indian summer monsoon and an increase in precipitation. Overall, the increase in winter precipitation may have caused some glacial movements. Since the end of the Little Ice Age, there has been a almost continuous retreat of glaciers to present.",
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"plaintext": "In Pakistan, the province of Balochistan became colder, and its native Baloch people started a mass migration and began to settle along the Indus River in Sindh and Punjab Provinces.",
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"plaintext": "The Little Ice Age has been clearly shown to have influenced the African climate from the 14th to the 19th centuries. Despite variances throughout the continent, a general trend of declining temperatures in Africa led to an average cooling of 1°C.",
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"plaintext": "In Ethiopia and North Africa, permanent snow was reported on mountain peaks at levels at which it does not occur today. Timbuktu, an important city on the trans-Saharan caravan route, was flooded at least 13 times by the Niger River, but there are no records of similar flooding before or since that time.",
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"plaintext": "Several paleoclimatic studies of Southern Africa have suggested significant changes in relative changes in climate and environmental conditions. In Southern Africa, sediment cores retrieved from Lake Malawi show colder conditions between 1570 and 1820, which \"further support, and extend, the global expanse of the Little Ice Age.\" A novel 3,000-year temperature reconstruction method, based on the rate of stalagmite growth in a cold cave in South Africa, further suggests a cold period from 1500 to 1800 \"characterizing the South African Little Ice age.\" The δ18O stalagmite record temperature reconstruction over a 350-year period (1690–1740) suggests that South Africa may have been the coldest region in Africa and have cooled by as much as 1.4°C in summer. Also, the solar magnetic and Niño-Southern Oscillation cycles may have been key drivers of climate variability in the subtropical region. Periglacial features in the eastern Lesotho Highlands might have been reactivated by the Little Ice Age. Another archaeological reconstruction of South Africa reveals the rise of the Great Zimbabwe people because of ecological advantages from the increased rainfall over other competitor societies, such as the Mupungubwe people.",
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"plaintext": "Other than temperature variability, data from equatorial East Africa suggest impacts to the hydrologic cycle in the late 1700s. Historical data reconstructions from ten major African lakes indicate that an episode of “drought and desiccation” occurred throughout East Africa. The period showed drastic reductions in the depths of lakes, which were transformed into desiccated puddles. It is very likely that locals could cross Lake Chad, among others, and that bouts of “intense droughts were ubiquitous.” That indicates local societies were probably launched into long migrations and warfare with neighboring tribes since agriculture was made virtually useless by the dry soil.",
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"plaintext": "Kreutz et al. (1997) compared results from studies of West Antarctic ice cores with the Greenland Ice Sheet Project Two GISP2; they suggested a synchronous global cooling. An ocean sediment core from the eastern Bransfield Basin in the Antarctic Peninsula shows centennial events, which the authors link to the Little Ice Age and to the Medieval Warm Period. The authors note that \"other unexplained climatic events comparable in duration and amplitude to the LIA and MWP events also appear.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Siple Dome (SD) had a climate event with an onset time that is coincident with that of the Little Ice Age in the North Atlantic, based on a correlation with the GISP2 record. The Little Ice Age is the most dramatic climate event in the SD Holocene glaciochemical record. The Siple Dome ice core also contained its highest rate of melt layers (up to 8%) between 1550 and 1700, most likely because of warm summers. Law Dome ice cores show lower levels of CO2 mixing ratios from 1550 to 1800, which Etheridge and Steele believe to be \"probably as a result of colder global climate.\"",
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"plaintext": "Sediment cores in Bransfield Basin, Antarctic Peninsula, have neoglacial indicators by diatom and sea-ice taxa variations during the Little Ice Age. Stable isotope records from the Mount Erebus Saddle ice core site suggests that the Ross Sea region experienced average temperatures 1.6 ± 1.4°C cooler during the Little Ice Age than the last 150 years.",
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"plaintext": "Its location in the Southern Hemisphere made Australia not experience a regional cooling like that of Europe or North America. Instead, the Australian Little Ice Age was characterized by humid, rainy climates, which were followed by drying and aridification in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "As studied by Tibby et al. (2018), lake records from Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland suggest that conditions in the east and the south-east of Australia were wet and unusually cool from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. That corresponds with the “peak” of the global Little Ice Age from 1594 to 1722. For example, the Swallow Lagoon rainfall record indicates that from c. 1500–1850, there was significant and consistent rainfall, which sometimes exceeded 300mm. The rainfalls significantly reduced after around 1890. Similarly, the hydrological records of Lake Surprise's salinity levels reveal high humidity levels around from 1440 to 1880, and an increase in salinity from 1860 to 1880 points to a negative change to the once-humid climate. The mid-19th century marked a notable change to eastern Australia's rainfall and humidity patterns.",
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"plaintext": "Tibby et al. (2018) note that in eastern Australia, the paleoclimatic changes of the Little Ice Age in the late 1800s coincided with the agricultural changes resulting from European colonization. After the 1788 establishment of British colonies in the Australia, which were concentrated primarily in the eastern regions and cities like Sydney and later Melbourne and Brisbane, the British introduced new agricultural practices like pastoralism. Such practices required widespread deforestation and clearance of vegetation. Pastoralism and the clearing of land are captured in works of art such as the 1833 painting by the prominent landscape artist John Glover Patterdale Landscape with Cattle. ",
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"plaintext": "Over the next century, the deforestation led to a loss of biodiversity, wind and water-based soil erosion, and soil salinity. Furthermore, as argued by Gordan et al. (2003), such land and vegetation clearance in Australia resulted in a 10% reduction in the transport of water vapor to the atmosphere. That occurred in Western Australia as well, where 19th-century land clearing resulted in reduced rainfall over the region. By 1850 to 1890, those human agricultural practices, which were concentrated in eastern Australia, had most likely amplified the drying and aridification that marked the end of the Little Ice Age.",
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"plaintext": "In the north, evidence suggests fairly dry conditions, but coral cores from the Great Barrier Reef show rainfall similar to today but with less variability. A study that analyzed isotopes in Great Barrier Reef corals suggested that increased water vapor transport from the southern tropical oceans to the poles contributed to the Little Ice Age. Borehole reconstructions from Australia suggest that over the last 500 years, the 17th century was the coldest on the continent. The borehole temperature reconstruction method further indicates that the warming of Australia over the past five centuries is only around half that of the warming experienced by the Northern Hemisphere, which further proves that Australia did not reach the same depths of cooling as the continents in the north.",
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"plaintext": "On the west coast of the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the Franz Josef Glacier advanced rapidly during the Little Ice Age and reached its maximum extent in the early 18th century. That was one of the few cases of a glacier thrusting into a rainforest. Evidence suggests, corroborated by tree ring proxy data, that the glacier contributed to a temperature anomaly over the course of the Little Ice Age in New Zealand. Based on dating of a yellow-green lichen of the Rhizocarpon subgenus, the Mueller Glacier, on the eastern flank of the Southern Alps within Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park, is considered to have been at its maximum extent between 1725 and 1730.",
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"plaintext": "Sea-level data for the Pacific Islands suggest that sea level in the region fell, possibly in two stages, between 1270 and 1475. That was associated with a 1.5°C fall in temperature, as determined from oxygen-isotope analysis, and an observed increase in the frequency of El Niño. Tropical Pacific coral records indicate the most frequent and intense El Niño-Southern Oscillation activity was in the mid-17th century. Foraminiferald 18 O records indicate that the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool was warm and saline between 1000 and 1400, with temperatures approximating current conditions, but that it cooled from 1400 onwards and reached its lowest temperatures in 1700. That is consistent with the transition from the mid-Holocene warming to the Little Ice Age. The nearby Southwestern Pacific, however, experienced warmer-than-average conditions over the course of the Little Ice Age, which is thought to be from the increased trade winds, which increased the evaporation and the salinity in the region. The dramatic temperature differences between the higher latitudes and the equator are thought to have resulted in drier conditions in the subtropics. Independent multiproxy analyses of Raraku Lake (sedimentology, mineralology, organic and inorganic geochemistry, etc.) indicate that Easter Island was subject to two phases of arid climate that led to drought. The first occurred between 500 and 1200, and the second occurring during the Little Ice Age from 1570 to 1720. In between both arid phases, the island enjoyed a humid period from 1200 to 1570. That coincided with the peak of the Rapa Nui civilization.",
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"plaintext": "Tree-ring data from Patagonia show cold episodes from 1270 and 1380 and from 1520 to 1670, during the events in the Northern Hemisphere. Eight sediment cores taken from Puyehue Lake have been interpreted as showing a humid period from 1470 to 1700, which the authors describe as a regional marker of the onset of the Little Ice Age. A 2009 paper details cooler and wetter conditions in southeastern South America between 1550 and 1800 by citing evidence obtained via several proxies and models. 18O records from three Andean ice cores show a cool period from 1600 to 1800.",
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"plaintext": "Although it is only anecdotal evidence, the Antonio de Vea expedition entered San Rafael Lagoon in 1675 through Río Témpanos (Spanish for \"Ice Floe River\"). The Spanish mentioned no ice floe but stated that the San Rafael Glacier did not reach far into the lagoon. In 1766, another expedition noticed that the glacier reached the lagoon and calved into large icebergs. Hans Steffen visited the area in 1898 and noticed that the glacier penetrated far into the lagoon. Such historical records indicate a general cooling in the area between 1675 and 1898: \"The recognition of the LIA in northern Patagonia, through the use of documentary sources, provides important, independent evidence for the occurrence of this phenomenon in the region.\" As of 2001, the borders of the glacier had significantly retreated from those of 1675.",
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"plaintext": "It has been suggested that all glaciers of Gran Campo Nevado next to the Strait of Magellan reached their largest extent of the whole Holocene epoch during the Little Ice Age.",
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"plaintext": "The Central England Temperature (CET) is the longest instrumental temperature record in existence anywhere in the world, and extends back continuously from the present day to 1659. Hence it starts in the middle of the Little Ice Age (LIA), however the LIA interval is defined. CET holds some very important implications for our understanding of the LIA. The CET data show that during the LIA there was an increased occurrence of exceptionally cold winters and these years coincided with years when frost fairs were held on the Thames and when exceptionally low temperatures were reported elsewhere in Europe. It also agrees well with paleoclimate estimates in average trends. However, winters were not unremittingly cold during the LIA in the CET record. For example, the coldest winter (defined by the average temperature for December, January and February) in the whole CET data series is 1684 (the year of one of the most famous frost fairs) yet the fifth warmest winter in the whole CET data series to date occurred just two years later, in 1686. Furthermore, summer temperatures are not greatly depressed during the LIA and when they are these lower temperatures correlate highly with volcanic eruptions. Hence the CET data strongly argue that the LIA, at least in Europe, should be regarded as a period of enhanced occurrence of exceptionally cold winters and hence lower average temperatures and not as an interval of unremitting cold.",
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"plaintext": "Scientists have tentatively identified seven possible causes of the Little Ice Age: orbital cycles, decreased solar activity, increased volcanic activity, altered ocean current flows, fluctuations in the human population in different parts of the world causing reforestation or deforestation, and the inherent variability of global climate.",
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"plaintext": "Orbital forcing from cycles in the earth's orbit around the sun has for the past 2,000 years caused a long-term northern hemisphere cooling trend, which continued through the Middle Ages and the Little Ice Age. The rate of Arctic cooling is roughly 0.02°C per century. That trend could be extrapolated to continue into the future and possibly lead to a full ice age, but the 20th-century instrumental temperature record shows a sudden reversal of that trend, with a rise in global temperatures attributed to greenhouse gas emissions.",
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"plaintext": "Solar activity includes any disturbances on the Sun such as sunspots and solar flares associated with the variable magnetic field of the solar surface and solar atmosphere (corona). Because Alfvén's theorem applies, the coronal magnetic field is dragged out into the heliosphere by the solar wind. Irregularities in this heliospheric magnetic field shield Earth from galactic cosmic rays by scattering them, which allows scientists to track solar activity in the past by analyzing both the carbon-14 or beryllium-10 isotopes generated by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere and which are deposited in terrestrial reservoirs such as tree rings and ice sheets. In the intervals 1400–1550 (the Spörer Minimum) and 1645–1715 (the Maunder Minimum) there were very low recorded levels of solar activity and they are both within, or at least overlapped with, the LIA for most definitions. However, solar activity deduced from cosmogenic isotopes was as high between the Spörer Minimum and the Maunder Minimum as it was in about 1940, yet this interval is also within the LIA. Hence any relationship between solar activity and the LIA is far from a simple one.",
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"plaintext": "A study by Dmitri Mauquoy et al. confirmed that at the beginning of the Spörer Minimum, the carbon-14 production rate rose rapidly. These authors argued this rise coincided with a sharp drop in temperatures deduced from European peat bogs. This temperature drop is also seen in mean northern hemisphere temperatures deduced from a wide variety of paleoclimate indicators but the timing of the onset of the Spörer Minimum is actually some 50 years earlier. A 50-year response lag is possible but is not consistent with subsequent variations in inferred solar activity and average northern hemisphere temperature. For example the peak in solar activity between the Spörer Minimum and the Maunder Minimum is 50 years after the only peak in average northern hemisphere temperature that it could be associated with.",
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"plaintext": "A study by Judith Lean in 1999 also pointed to a relationship between the sun and the Little Ice Age. Her research found that there was a 0.13% total solar irradiance (TSI) increase () over 1650–1790 which could have raised the temperature of the earth by 0.3°C. The calculated correlation coefficients of the global temperature response to their reconstruction of the solar forcing over three different periods, they found an average coefficient of 0.79 (i.e. 62% of the variation could be explained by the TSI) which indicates a possible relationship between the two components. Lean's team also formulated an equation in which the temperature change is 0.16°C increase in temperature for every 0.1% increase in total solar irradiance. However, the main problem with quantifying the longer-term trends in TSI lies in the stability of the absolute radiometry measurements made from space, which has improved since the pioneering work of Judith Lean discussed above, but still remains a problem. Analysis comparing trends in modern observations of TSI and cosmic ray fluxes shows that the uncertainties mean that it is possible that TSI was actually higher in the Maunder Minimum than present-day levels, but uncertainties are high with best esimates of the difference between the modern-day TSI and the Maunder-Minimum TSI in the range ± but with a uncertainty range of ± ",
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"plaintext": "In summary, at the centre of the LIA, during the Spörer Minimum and the Maunder Minimum, sunspots were minimal in number and cosmogenic isotope deposition (carbon-14 and Beryllium-10) was increased in these minima as a result. However, detailed studies from multiple paleoclimate indicators show that the lower northern hemisphere temperatures in the Little Ice Age began before the start of the Maunder Minimum]] but after the start of the Spörer Minimum and persisted until after the Maunder Minimum (and even after the much weaker Dalton Minimum) had ceased. The return to more active solar conditions between these two grand solar minima had no obvious effect on either global or northern hemisphere temperatures. The Central England Temperature provide evidence that low solar activity may have contributed to the LIA through the increased occurrence of extremely cold winters, at least in Europe, but colder summers are more correlated with volcanic activity. Numerical climate modelling indicates that volcanic activity was the greater driver of the overall lower temperatures in the little ice age, as seen in a variety of paleoclimate proxies.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2012 paper, Miller et al. link the Little Ice Age to an \"unusual 50-year-long episode with four large sulfur-rich explosive eruptions, each with global sulfate loading >60 Tg\" and notes that \"large changes in solar irradiance are not required.\"",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the Little Ice Age, the world experienced heightened volcanic activity. When a volcano erupts, its ash reaches high into the atmosphere and can spread to cover the whole earth. The ash cloud blocks out some of the incoming solar radiation, which leads to worldwide cooling for up to two years after an eruption. Also emitted by eruptions is sulfur in the form of sulfur dioxide. When sulfur dioxide reaches the stratosphere, the gas turns into sulfuric acid particles, which reflect the sun's rays. That further reduces the amount of radiation reaching the Earth's surface.",
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"plaintext": "A recent study found that an especially massive tropical volcanic eruption in 1257, possibly of the now-extinct Mount Samalas near Mount Rinjani, both in Lombok, Indonesia, followed by three smaller eruptions in 1268, 1275, and 1284, did not allow the climate to recover. That may have caused the initial cooling, and the 1452/1453 mystery eruption triggered a second pulse of cooling. The cold summers can be maintained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks long after volcanic aerosols are removed.",
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"plaintext": "Other volcanoes that erupted during the era and may have contributed to the cooling include Billy Mitchell (c.1580), Huaynaputina (1600), Mount Parker (1641), Long Island (Papua New Guinea) (ca.1660), and Laki (1783). The 1815 eruption of Tambora, also in Indonesia, blanketed the atmosphere with ash, and the following year came to be known as the Year Without a Summer, when frost and snow were reported in June and July in both New England and Northern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Another possibility is that there was a slowing of thermohaline circulation. The circulation could have been interrupted by the introduction of a large amount of fresh water into the North Atlantic and might have been caused by a period of warming before the Little Ice Age that is known as the Medieval Warm Period. There is some concern that a shutdown of thermohaline circulation could happen again as a result of the present warming period.",
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"plaintext": "Some researchers have proposed that human influences on climate began earlier than is normally supposed (see Early anthropocene for more details) and that major population declines in Eurasia and the Americas reduced that impact and led to a cooling trend.",
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"plaintext": "The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the European population. In total, the plague may have reduced the world population from an estimated 475 million to 350–375 million in the 14th century. It took 200 years for the world population to recover to its previous level. William Ruddiman proposed that those large population reductions in Europe, East Asia, and the Middle East caused a decrease in agricultural activity. Ruddiman suggests that reforestation took place as a result, causing additional carbon dioxide uptake from the atmosphere, leading to the cooling noted during the Little Ice Age. He further hypothesized that a reduced population in the Americas after European contact started in the 16th century could have had a similar effect. In a similar vein, Koch and others in 1990 suggested that as European conquest and disease brought by Europeans killed as many as 90% of Indigenous Americans, around 50 million hectares of land may have returned to a wilderness state, causing increased carbon dioxide uptake. Other researchers have supported depopulation in the Americas as a factor and have asserted that humans cleared considerable amounts of forest to support agriculture there before the arrival of Europeans brought on a population collapse. Richard Nevle, Robert Dull and colleagues further suggested not only that anthropogenic forest clearance played a role in reducing the amount of carbon sequestered in Neotropical forests but also that human-set fires played a central role in reducing biomass in Amazonian and Central American forests before the arrival of the Europeans and the concomitant spread of diseases during the Columbian exchange. Dull and Nevle calculated that reforestation in the tropical biomes of the Americas alone from 1500 to 1650 accounted for net carbon sequestration of 2–5 Pg. Brierley conjectured that the European arrival in the Americas caused mass deaths from epidemic disease, which caused much abandonment of farmland. That caused much forest to return, which sequestered more CO2. A study of sediment cores and soil samples further suggests that CO2 uptake via reforestation in the Americas could have contributed to the Little Ice Age. The depopulation is linked to a drop in CO2 levels observed at Law Dome, Antarctica. A 2011 study by the Carnegie Institution's Department of Global Ecology asserts that the Mongol invasions and conquests, which lasted almost two centuries, contributed to global cooling by depopulating vast regions and replacing cultivated land by carbon-absorbing forest.",
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"plaintext": "It is suggested that during the Little Ice Age, increased deforestation had enough effect on the Earth's albedo (reflectiveness) to cause regional and global temperature decreases. Changes in albedo were caused by widespread deforestation at high latitudes, which exposed more snow cover and thus increased reflectiveness of the Earth's surface, as land was cleared for agricultural use. The theory implies that over the course of the Little Ice Age, enough land was cleared to make deforestation a possible cause of climate change.",
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"plaintext": "It has been proposed that the Land Use Intensification theory could explain this effect. The theory was originally proposed by Ester Boserup and suggests that agriculture advances only as the population demands it. Furthermore, there is evidence of rapid population and agricultural expansion, which could warrant some of the changes observed in the climate during this period.",
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"plaintext": "This theory is still under speculation for multiple reasons: primarily, the difficulty of recreating climate simulations outside of a narrow set of land in those regions; so that one cannot rely on data to explain sweeping changes or to account for the wide variety of other sources of climate change globally. As an extension of the first reason, climate models including this time period have shown increases and decreases in temperature globally. That is, climate models have shown deforestation as neither a singular cause for climate change nor a reliable cause for the global temperature decrease.",
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"plaintext": "Spontaneous fluctuations in global climate might explain the past variability. It is very difficult to know what the true level of variability from internal causes might be given the existence of other forces, as noted above, whose magnitude may not be known. One approach to evaluating internal variability is the use of long integrations of coupled ocean-atmosphere global climate models. They have the advantage that the external forcing is known to be zero, but the disadvantage is that they may not fully reflect reality. The variations may result from chaos-driven changes in the oceans, the atmosphere, or interactions between the two. Two studies have concluded that the demonstrated inherent variability was not great enough to account for the Little Ice Age. The severe winters of 1770 to 1772 in Europe, however, have been attributed to an anomaly in the North Atlantic oscillation.",
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"plaintext": " Waldinger, Maria (2022). \"The Economic Effects of Long-Term Climate Change: Evidence from the Little Ice Age\". Journal of Political Economy.",
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"plaintext": " Abrupt Climate Change Information from the Ocean & Climate Change Institute, links to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution articles",
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"plaintext": " (discussion of Woods Hole research)",
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"plaintext": " Dansgaard cycles and the Little Ice Age (LIA) (It is not easy to see a LIA in the graphs.)",
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"plaintext": " Was El Niño unaffected by the Little Ice Age? (2002)",
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"plaintext": " Evidence for the Little Ice Age in Spain, c. 2003",
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"plaintext": "The Little Ice Age in Europe, updated 2009",
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"plaintext": " undated review article",
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"plaintext": " What's wrong with the sun? (Nothing) (2008)",
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"plaintext": " HistoricalClimatology.com, links, resources, and feature articles on the Little Ice Age and its present-day relevance.",
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"plaintext": " Climate History Network, association of historical climatologists and climate historians, many of whom study the Little Ice Age and its social consequences.",
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"Holocene",
"1930s_neologisms",
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| 190,530 | 35,666 | 517 | 298 | 0 | 0 | Little Ice Age | period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period, usually defined as between the 16th to the 19th centuries | []
|
36,787 | 1,107,801,277 | Budapest | [
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"plaintext": "Budapest (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Hungary. It is the ninth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits and the second-largest city on Danube river; the city has an estimated population of 1,752,286 over a land area of about . Budapest, which is both a city and county, forms the centre of the Budapest metropolitan area, which has an area of and a population of 3,303,786, comprising 33% of the population of Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "The history of Budapest began when an early Celtic settlement transformed into the Roman town of Aquincum, the capital of Lower Pannonia. The Hungarians arrived in the territory in the late 9th century, but the area was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–42. Re-established Buda became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century. The Battle of Mohács, in 1526, was followed by nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule. After the reconquest of Buda in 1686, the region entered a new age of prosperity, with Pest-Buda becoming a global city after the unification of Buda, Óbuda and Pest on 17 November 1873, with the name 'Budapest' given to the new capital. Budapest also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a great power that dissolved in 1918, following World War I. The city was the focal point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Battle of Budapest in 1945, as well as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is a Beta + global city with strengths in commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education and entertainment. Hungary's financial centre, it is the second richest capital and city in the region after Bucharest. Budapest is the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College and the first foreign office of the China Investment Promotion Agency. Over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, the Corvinus University, Semmelweis University, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest and the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Opened in 1896, the city's subway system, the Budapest Metro, serves 1.27million, while the Budapest Tram Network serves 1.08million passengers daily.",
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"plaintext": "The central area of Budapest along the Danube River is classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and has several notable monuments of classical architecture, including the Hungarian Parliament and the Buda Castle. The city also has around 80 geothermal springs, the largest thermal water cave system, second largest synagogue, and third largest Parliament building in the world. Budapest attracts around 12 million international tourists per year, making it a highly popular destination in Europe. It also topped the Best European Destinations 2020 list by Big7Media. Budapest also ranks as the third-best European city in a similar poll conducted by Which?.",
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"plaintext": "The previously separate towns of Buda, Óbuda, and Pest were officially unified in 1873 and given the new name Budapest. Before this, the towns together had sometimes been referred to colloquially as \"Pest-Buda\". Pest is used pars pro toto for the entire city in contemporary colloquial Hungarian.",
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"plaintext": "All varieties of English pronounce the -s- as in the English word pest. The -u in Buda- is pronounced either /u/ like food (as in ) or /ju/ like cue (as in ). In Hungarian, the -s- is pronounced /ʃ/ as in wash; in IPA: .",
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"plaintext": "The origins of the names \"Buda\" and \"Pest\" are obscure. Buda was",
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"plaintext": " probably the name of the first constable of the fortress built on the Castle Hill in the 11th century",
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"plaintext": " or a derivative of Bod or Bud, a personal name of Turkic origin, meaning 'twig'.",
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"plaintext": " or a Slavic personal name, Buda, the short form of Budimír, Budivoj.",
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"plaintext": "Linguistically, however, a German origin through the Slavic derivative вода (voda, water) is not possible, and there is no certainty that a Turkic word really comes from the word buta ~ buda 'branch, twig'.",
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"plaintext": "According to a legend recorded in chronicles from the Middle Ages, \"Buda\" comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of Hunnic ruler Attila.",
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"plaintext": "There are several theories about Pest. One states that the name derives from Roman times, since there was a local fortress (Contra-Aquincum) called by Ptolemy \"Pession\" (\"Πέσσιον\", iii.7.§2). Another has it that Pest originates in the Slavic word for cave, пещера, or peštera. A third cites пещ, or pešt, referencing a cave where fires burned or a limekiln.",
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"plaintext": "The first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1AD. It was later occupied by the Romans. The Roman settlement – Aquincum – became the main city of Pannonia Inferior in 106AD. At first it was a military settlement, and gradually the city rose around it, making it the focal point of the city's commercial life. Today this area corresponds to the Óbuda district within Budapest. The Romans constructed roads, amphitheaters, baths and houses with heated floors in this fortified military camp. The Roman city of Aquincum is the best-conserved of the Roman sites in Hungary. The archaeological site was turned into a museum with indoor and open-air sections.",
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"plaintext": "The Magyar tribes led by Árpád, forced out of their original homeland north of Bulgaria by Tsar Simeon after the Battle of Southern Buh, settled in the territory at the end of the 9th century displacing the founding Bulgarian settlers of the towns of Buda and Pest, and a century later officially founded the Kingdom of Hungary. Research places the probable residence of the Árpáds as an early place of central power near what became Budapest. The Tatar invasion in the 13th century quickly proved it is difficult to defend a plain. King Béla IV of Hungary, therefore, ordered the construction of reinforced stone walls around the towns and set his own royal palace on the top of the protecting hills of Buda. In 1361 it became the capital of Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "The cultural role of Buda was particularly significant during the reign of King Matthias Corvinus. The Italian Renaissance had a great influence on the city. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles and philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second in size only to the Vatican Library. After the foundation of the first Hungarian university in Pécs in 1367 (University of Pécs), the second one was established in Óbuda in 1395 (University of Óbuda). The first Hungarian book was printed in Buda in 1473. Buda had about 5,000 inhabitants around 1500.",
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"plaintext": "The Ottomans conquered Buda in 1526, as well in 1529, and finally occupied it in 1541. The Turkish Rule lasted for more than 150 years. The Ottoman Turks constructed many prominent bathing facilities within the city. Some of the baths that the Turks erected during their rule are still in use 500 years later (Rudas Baths and Király Baths). By 1547 the number of Christians was down to about a thousand, and by 1647 it had fallen to only about seventy. The unoccupied western part of the country became part of the Habsburg monarchy as Royal Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "In 1686, two years after the unsuccessful siege of Buda, a renewed campaign was started to enter Buda. This time, the Holy League's army was twice as large, containing over 74,000 men, including German, Croat, Dutch, Hungarian, English, Spanish, Czech, Italian, French, Burgundian, Danish and Swedish soldiers, along with other Europeans as volunteers, artillerymen, and officers. The Christian forces seized Buda, and in the next few years, all of the former Hungarian lands, except areas near Temesvár (Timișoara), were taken from the Turks. In the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, these territorial changes were officially recognized to show the end of the rule of the Turks, and in 1718 the entire Kingdom of Hungary was removed from Ottoman rule.",
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"plaintext": "The 19th century was dominated by the Hungarian struggle for independence and modernisation. The national insurrection against the Habsburgs began in the Hungarian capital in 1848 and was defeated one and a half years later, with the help of the Russian Empire. 1867 was the year of Reconciliation that brought about the birth of Austria-Hungary. This made Budapest the twin capital of a dual monarchy. It was this compromise which opened the second great phase of development in the history of Budapest, lasting until World War I. In 1849 the Chain Bridge linking Buda with Pest was opened as the first permanent bridge across the Danube and in 1873 Buda and Pest were officially merged with the third part, Óbuda (Old Buda), thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into the country's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub. Ethnic Hungarians overtook Germans in the second half of the 19th century due to mass migration from the overpopulated rural Transdanubia and Great Hungarian Plain. Between 1851 and 1910 the proportion of Hungarians increased from 35.6% to 85.9%, Hungarian became the dominant language, and German was crowded out. The proportion of Jews peaked in 1900 with 23.6%. Due to the prosperity and the large Jewish community of the city at the start of the 20th century, Budapest was often called the \"Jewish Mecca\" or \"Judapest\". Budapest also became an important center for the Aromanian diaspora during the 19th century. In 1918, Austria-Hungary lost the war and collapsed; Hungary declared itself an independent republic (Republic of Hungary). In 1920 the Treaty of Trianon partitioned the country, and as a result, Hungary lost over two-thirds of its territory, and about two-thirds of its inhabitants, including 3.3million out of 15 million ethnic Hungarians.",
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"plaintext": "In 1944, a year before the end of World War II, Budapest was partly destroyed by British and American air raids (first attack 4 April 1944).",
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"plaintext": "From 24 December 1944 to 13 February 1945, the city was besieged during the Battle of Budapest. Budapest sustained major damage caused by the attacking Soviet and Romanian troops and the defending German and Hungarian troops. More than 38,000 civilians died during the conflict. All bridges were destroyed by the Germans. The stone lions that have decorated the Chain Bridge since 1852 survived the devastation of the war.",
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"plaintext": "Between 20% and 40% of Greater Budapest's 250,000 Jewish inhabitants died through Nazi and Arrow Cross Party, during the German occupation of Hungary, from 1944 to early 1945. ",
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"plaintext": "Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz rescued tens of thousands of Jews by issuing Swiss protection papers and designating numerous buildings, including the now famous Glass House (Üvegház) at Vadász Street 29, to be Swiss protected territory. About 3,000 Hungarian Jews found refuge at the Glass House and in a neighboring building. Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg saved the lives of tens of thousands of Jews in Budapest by giving them Swedish protection papers and taking them under his consular protection. Wallenberg was abducted by the Russians on 17 January 1945 and never regained freedom. Giorgio Perlasca, an Italian citizen, saved thousands of Hungarian Jews posing as a Spanish diplomat. Some other diplomats also abandoned diplomatic protocol and rescued Jews. There are two monuments for Wallenberg, one for Carl Lutz and one for Giorgio Perlasca in Budapest.",
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"plaintext": "Following the capture of Hungary from Nazi Germany by the Red Army, Soviet military occupation ensued, which ended only in 1991. The Soviets exerted significant influence on Hungarian political affairs. In 1949, Hungary was declared a communist People's Republic (People's Republic of Hungary). The new Communist government considered the buildings like the Buda Castle symbols of the former regime, and during the 1950s the palace was gutted and all the interiors were destroyed (also see Stalin era).",
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"plaintext": "On 23 October 1956 citizens held a large peaceful demonstration in Budapest demanding democratic reform. The demonstrators went to the Budapest radio station and demanded to publish their demands. The regime ordered troops to shoot into the crowd. Hungarian soldiers gave rifles to the demonstrators who were now able to capture the building. This initiated the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. The demonstrators demanded to appoint Imre Nagy to be Prime Minister of Hungary. To their surprise, the central committee of the \"Hungarian Working People's Party\" did so that same evening. This uprising was an anti-Soviet revolt that lasted from 23 October until 11 November. After Nagy had declared that Hungary was to leave the Warsaw Pact and become neutral, Soviet tanks and troops entered the country to crush the revolt. Fighting continued until mid November, leaving more than 3000 dead. A monument was erected at the fiftieth anniversary of the revolt in 2006, at the edge of the City Park. Its shape is a wedge with a 56 angle degree made in rusted iron that gradually becomes shiny, ending in an intersection to symbolize Hungarian forces that temporarily eradicated the Communist leadership.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1960s to the late 1980s Hungary was often satirically referred to as \"the happiest barrack\" within the Eastern bloc, and much of the wartime damage to the city was finally repaired. Work on Erzsébet Bridge, the last to be rebuilt, was finished in 1964. In the early 1970s, Budapest Metro's east–west M2 line was first opened, followed by the M3 line in 1976. In 1987, Buda Castle and the banks of the Danube were included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. Andrássy Avenue (including the Millennium Underground Railway, Hősök tere, and Városliget) was added to the UNESCO list in 2002. In the 1980s, the city's population reached 2.1million. In recent times a significant decrease in population occurred mainly due to a massive movement to the neighbouring agglomeration in Pest county, i.e., suburbanisation.",
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"plaintext": "In the last decades of the 20th century the political changes of 1989–90 (Fall of the Iron Curtain) concealed changes in civil society and along the streets of Budapest. The monuments of the dictatorship were removed from public places, into Memento Park. In the first 20 years of the new democracy, the development of the city was managed by its mayor, Gábor Demszky.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest, strategically placed at the centre of the Carpathian Basin, lies on an ancient route linking the hills of Transdanubia with the Great Plain. By road it is south-east of Vienna, south of Warsaw, south-west of Moscow, north of Athens, north-east of Milan, and south-east of Prague.",
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"plaintext": "The area of Budapest lies in Central Hungary, surrounded by settlements of the agglomeration in Pest county. The capital extends in the north–south, east–west direction respectively. The Danube enters the city from the north; later it encircles two islands, Óbuda Island and Margaret Island. The third island Csepel Island is the largest of the Budapest Danube islands, however only its northernmost tip is within city limits. The river that separates the two parts of the city is wide at its narrowest point in Budapest. Pest lies on the flat terrain of the Great Plain while Buda is rather hilly.",
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"plaintext": "The wide Danube was always fordable at this point because of a small number of islands in the middle of the river. The city has marked topographical contrasts: Buda is built on the higher river terraces and hills of the western side, while the considerably larger Pest spreads out on a flat and featureless sand plain on the river's opposite bank. Pest's terrain rises with a slight eastward gradient, so the easternmost parts of the city lie at the same altitude as Buda's smallest hills, notably Gellért Hill and Castle Hill.",
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"plaintext": "The Buda hills consist mainly of limestone and dolomite, the water created speleothems, the most famous ones being the Pálvölgyi cave (total length ) and the Szemlőhegyi cave (total length ). The hills were formed in the Triassic Period. The highest point of the hills and of Budapest is János Hill, at above sea level. The lowest point is the line of the Danube which is above sea level. Budapest is also rich in green areas. Of the occupied by the city, is green area, park and forest. The forests of Buda hills are environmentally protected.",
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"plaintext": "The city's importance in terms of traffic is very central, because many major European roads and European railway lines lead to Budapest. The Danube was and is still an important water-way and this region in the centre of the Carpathian Basin lies at the cross-roads of trade routes.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is one of only three capital cities in the world which has thermal springs (the others being Reykjavík in Iceland and Sofia in Bulgaria). Some 125 springs produce of thermal water a day, with temperatures ranging up to 58 Celsius. Some of these waters have been claimed to have medicinal effects due to their high mineral contents.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in Köppen climate classification), thus being the northernmost major city in the world with such a climate, with relatively cold winters (near of a humid continental climate when the 0°C isotherm is used) and warm summers (near of an oceanic climate) according to the 1971–2000 climatological norm. Winter (November until early March) can be cold and the city receives little sunshine. Snowfall is fairly frequent in most years, and nighttime temperatures of are not uncommon between mid-December and mid-February. The spring months (March and April) see variable conditions, with a rapid increase in the average temperature. The weather in late March and in April is often very agreeable during the day and fresh at night. Budapest's long summer – lasting from May until mid-September – is warm or very warm. Sudden heavy showers also occur, particularly in May and June. The autumn in Budapest (mid-September until late October) is characterised by little rain and long sunny days with moderate temperatures. Temperatures often turn abruptly colder in late October or early November.",
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"plaintext": "Mean annual precipitation in Budapest is around . On average, there are 84 days with precipitation and 1988 hours of sunshine (of a possible 4383) each year. From March to October, average sunshine totals are roughly equal to those seen in northern Italy (Venice).",
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"plaintext": "The city lies on the boundary between Zone 6 and Zone 7 in terms of the hardiness zone.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles and from distinct time periods, from the ancient times as Roman City of Aquincum in Óbuda (District III), which dates to around 89 AD, to the most modern Palace of Arts, the contemporary arts museum and concert hall.",
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"plaintext": "Most buildings in Budapest are relatively low: in the early 2010s there were around 100 buildings higher than . The number of high-rise buildings is kept low by building legislation, which is aimed at preserving the historic cityscape and to meet the requirements of the World Heritage Site. Strong rules apply to the planning, authorisation and construction of high-rise buildings and consequently much of the inner city does not have any. Some planners would like see an easing of the rules for the construction of skyscrapers, and the possibility of building skyscrapers outside the city's historic core has been raised.",
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"plaintext": "In the chronological order of architectural styles Budapest is represented on the entire timeline, starting with the Roman City of Aquincum representing ancient architecture.",
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"plaintext": "The next determinative style is the Gothic architecture in Budapest. The few remaining Gothic buildings can be found in the Castle District. Buildings of note are no. 18, 20 and 22 on Országház Street, which date back to the 14th century and No. 31 Úri Street, which has a Gothic façade that dates back to the 15th century. Other buildings with Gothic features are the Inner City Parish Church, built in the 12th century, and the Mary Magdalene Church, completed in the 15th century. The most characteristic Gothic-style buildings are actually Neo-Gothic, like the most well-known Budapest landmarks, the Hungarian Parliament Building and the Matthias Church, where much of the original material was used (originally built in Romanesque style in 1015).",
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"plaintext": "The next chapter in the history of human architecture is Renaissance architecture. One of the earliest places to be influenced by the Renaissance style of architecture was Hungary, and Budapest in particular. The style appeared following the marriage of King Matthias Corvinus and Beatrice of Naples in 1476. Many Italian artists, craftsmen and masons came to Buda with the new queen. Today, many of the original renaissance buildings disappeared during the varied history of Buda, but Budapest is still rich in renaissance and neo-renaissance buildings, like the famous Hungarian State Opera House, St. Stephen's Basilica and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.",
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"plaintext": "During the Turkish occupation (1541–1686), Islamic culture flourished in Budapest; multiple mosques and baths were built in the city. These were great examples of Ottoman architecture, which was influenced by Muslims from around the world including Turkish, Iranian, Arabian and to a larger extent, Byzantine architecture as well as Islamic traditions. After the Holy League conquered Budapest, they replaced most of the mosques with churches and minarets were turned into bell towers and cathedral spires. At one point the distinct sloping central square in Budapest became a bustling Oriental bazaar, which was filled with \"the chatter of camel caravans on their way to Yemen and India\". Budapest is in fact one of the few places in the world with functioning original Turkish bathhouses dating back to the 16th century, like Rudas Baths or Király Baths. Budapest is home to the northernmost place where the tomb of influential Islamic Turkish Sufi Dervish, Gül Baba is found. Various cultures converged in Hungary seemed to coalesce well with each other, as if all these different cultures and architecture styles are digested into Hungary's own way of cultural blend. A precedent to show the city's self-conscious is the top section of the city's main square, named as Szechenyi. When Turks came to the city, they built mosques here which was aggressively replaced with Gothic church of St. Bertalan. The rationale of reusing the base of the former Islamic building mosque and reconstruction into Gothic Church but Islamic style architecture over it is typically Islamic are still visible. An official term for the rationale is spolia. The mosque was called the djami of Pasha Gazi Kassim, and djami means mosque in Arabic. After Turks and Muslims were expelled and massacred from Budapest, the site was reoccupied by Christians and reformed into a church, the Inner City Parish Church (Budapest). The minaret and Turkish entranceway were removed. The shape of the architecture is its only hint of exotic past—\"two surviving prayer niches facing Mecca and an ecumenical symbol atop its cupola: a cross rising above the Turkish crescent moon\".",
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"plaintext": "After 1686, the Baroque architecture designated the dominant style of art in catholic countries from the 17th century to the 18th century. There are many Baroque-style buildings in Budapest and one of the finest examples of preserved Baroque-style architecture is the Church of St. Anna in Batthyhány square. An interesting part of Budapest is the less touristy Óbuda, the main square of which also has some beautiful preserved historic buildings with Baroque façades. The Castle District is another place to visit where the best-known landmark Buda Royal Palace and many other buildings were built in the Baroque style.",
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"plaintext": "The Classical architecture and Neoclassical architecture are the next in the timeline. Budapest had not one but two architects that were masters of the Classicist style. Mihály Pollack (1773–1855) and József Hild (1789–1867), built many beautiful Classicist-style buildings in the city. Some of the best examples are the Hungarian National Museum, the Lutheran Church of Budavár (both designed by Pollack) and the seat of the Hungarian president, the Sándor Palace. The most iconic and widely known Classicist-style attraction in Budapest is the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. Budapest's two most beautiful Romantic architecture buildings are the Great Synagogue in Dohány Street and the Vigadó Concert Hall on the Danube Promenade, both designed by architect Frigyes Feszl (1821–1884). Another noteworthy structure is the Budapest Western Railway Station, which was designed by August de Serres and built by the Eiffel Company of Paris in 1877.",
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"plaintext": "Art Nouveau came into fashion in Budapest by the exhibitions which were held in and around 1896 and organised in connection with the Hungarian Millennium celebrations. Art Nouveau in Hungary (Szecesszió in Hungarian) is a blend of several architectural styles, with a focus on Hungary's specialities. One of the leading Art Nouveau architects, Ödön Lechner (1845–1914), was inspired by Indian and Syrian architecture as well as traditional Hungarian decorative designs. One of his most beautiful buildings in Budapest is the Museum of Applied Arts. Another examples for Art Nouveau in Budapest is the Gresham Palace in front of the Chain Bridge, the Hotel Gellért, the Franz Liszt Academy of Music or Budapest Zoo and Botanical Garden.",
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"plaintext": "The second half of the 20th century also saw, under the communist regime, the construction of blocks of flats (panelház), as in other Eastern European countries. In the 21st century, Budapest faces new challenges in its architecture. The pressure towards the high-rise buildings is unequivocal among today's world cities, but preserving Budapest's unique cityscape and its very diverse architecture, along with green areas, is force Budapest to balance between them. The Contemporary architecture has wide margin in the city. Public spaces attract heavy investment by business and government also, so that the city has gained entirely new (or renovated and redesigned) squares, parks and monuments, for example the city central Kossuth Lajos square, Deák Ferenc square and Liberty Square. Numerous landmarks are created in the last decade in Budapest, like the National Theatre, Palace of Arts, Rákóczi Bridge, Megyeri Bridge, Budapest Airport Sky Court among others, and millions of square meters of new office buildings and apartments. But there are still large opportunities in real estate development in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Most of today's Budapest is the result of a late-nineteenth-century renovation, but the wide boulevards laid out then only bordered and bisected much older quarters of activity created by centuries of Budapest's city evolution.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units of former boroughs.",
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"plaintext": "Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries.",
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"plaintext": "Originally Budapest had 10 districts after coming into existence upon the unification of the three cities in 1873. Since 1950, Greater Budapest has been divided into 22 boroughs (and 23 since 1994). At that time there were changes both in the order of districts and in their sizes. The city now consists of 23 districts, 6 in Buda, 16 in Pest and 1 on Csepel Island between them.",
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"plaintext": "The city centre itself in a broader sense comprises the District V, VI, VII, VIII, IX and XIII on the Pest side, and the I, II, XI and XII on the Buda side of the city.",
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"plaintext": "District I is a small area in central Buda, including the historic Buda Castle. District II is in Buda again, in the northwest, and District III stretches along in the northernmost part of Buda. To reach District IV, one must cross the Danube to find it in Pest (the eastern side), also at north. With District V, another circle begins, it is located in the absolute centre of Pest. Districts VI, VII, VIII and IX are the neighbouring areas to the east, going southwards, one after the other.",
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"plaintext": "District X is another, more external circle also in Pest, while one must jump to the Buda side again to find Districts XI and XII, going northwards. No more districts remaining in Buda in this circle, we must turn our steps to Pest again to find Districts XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX and XX (mostly external city parts), almost regularly in a semicircle, going southwards again.",
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"plaintext": "District XXI is the extension of the above route over a branch of the Danube, the northern tip of a long island south from Budapest. District XXII is still on the same route in southwest Buda, and finally District XXIII is again in southernmost Pest, irregular only because it was part of District XX until 1994.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is the most populous city in Hungary and one of the largest cities in the European Union, with a growing number of inhabitants, estimated at 1,763,913 in 2019, whereby inward migration exceeds outward migration. These trends are also seen throughout the Budapest metropolitan area, which is home to 3.3million people. This amounts to about 34% of Hungary's population.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, the city had a population density of 3,314 people per square kilometre (8,580/sq mi), rendering it the most densely populated of all municipalities in Hungary. The population density of Elisabethtown-District VII is 30,989/km2 (80,260/sq mi), which is the highest population density figure in Hungary and one of the highest in the world, for comparison the density in Manhattan is 25,846/km2.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is the fourth most \"dynamically growing city\" by population in Europe, and the Euromonitor predicts a population increase of almost 10% between 2005 and 2030. The European Observation Network for Territorial Development and Cohesion says Budapest's population will increase by 10% to 30% only due to migration by 2050. A constant inflow of migrants in recent years has fuelled population growth in Budapest. Productivity gains and the relatively large economically active share of the population explain why household incomes have increased in Budapest to a greater extent than in other parts of Hungary. Higher incomes in Budapest are reflected in the lower share of expenditure the city's inhabitants allocate to necessity spending such as food and non-alcoholic drinks.",
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"plaintext": "At the 2016 microcensus, there were 1,764,263 people with 907,944 dwellings living in Budapest. Some 1.6million persons from the metropolitan area may be within Budapest's boundaries during work hours, and during special events. This fluctuation of people is caused by hundreds of thousands of suburban residents who travel to the city for work, education, health care, and special events.",
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"plaintext": "By ethnicity there were 1,697,039 (96.2%) Hungarians, 34,909 (2%) Germans, 16,592 (0.9%) Romani, 9,117 (0.5%) Romanians and 5,488 (0.3%) Slovaks. In Hungary people can declare multiple ethnic identities, hence the sum may exceed 100%. The share of ethnic Hungarians in Budapest (96.2%) is slightly lower than the national average (98.3%) due to the international migration.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2011 census, 1,712,153 people (99.0%) speak Hungarian, of whom 1,692,815 people (97.9%) speak it as a first language, while 19,338 people (1.1%) speak it as a second language. Other spoken (foreign) languages were: English (536,855 speakers, 31.0%), German (266,249 speakers, 15.4%), French (56,208 speakers, 3.3%) and Russian (54,613 speakers, 3.2%).",
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"plaintext": "According to the same census, 1,600,585 people (92.6%) were born in Hungary, 126,036 people (7.3%) outside Hungary while the birthplace of 2,419 people (0.1%) was unknown.",
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"plaintext": "Although only 1.7% of the population of Hungary in 2009 were foreigners, 43% of them lived in Budapest, making them 4.4% of the city's population (up from 2% in 2001). Nearly two-thirds of foreigners living in Hungary were under 40 years old. The primary motivation for this age group living in Hungary was employment.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is home to one of the most populous Christian communities in Central Europe, numbering 698,521 people (40.4%) in 2011. According to the 2011 census, there were 501,117 (29.0%) Roman Catholics, 146,756 (8.5%) Calvinists, 30,293 (1.8%) Lutherans, 16,192 (0.9%) Greek Catholics, 7,925 (0.5%) Jews and 3,710 (0.2%) Orthodox in Budapest. 395,964 people (22.9%) were irreligious while 585,475 people (33.9%) did not declare their religion. The city is also home to one of the largest Jewish communities in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is a significant economic hub, classified as an Beta + world city in the study by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network and it is the second fastest-developing urban economy in Europe as GDP per capita in the city increased by 2.4 per cent and employment by 4.7 per cent compared to the previous year in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "On national level, Budapest is the primate city of Hungary regarding business and economy, accounting for 39% of the national income, the city has a gross metropolitan product more than $100billion in 2015, making it one of the largest regional economy in the European Union.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Eurostat GDP per capita in purchasing power parity is 147% of the EU average in Budapest, which means €37,632 ($42,770) per capita.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is also among the Top100 GDP performing cities in the world, measured by PricewaterhouseCoopers.",
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"plaintext": "The city was named as the 52nd most important business centre in the world in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, ahead of Beijing, São Paulo or Shenzhen and ranking 3rd (out of 65 cities) on MasterCard Emerging Markets Index.",
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"plaintext": "The city is 48th on the UBS The most expensive and richest cities in the world list, standing before cities such as Prague, Shanghai, Kuala Lumpur or Buenos Aires.",
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"plaintext": "In a global city competitiveness ranking by EIU, Budapest stands before Tel Aviv, Lisbon, Moscow and Johannesburg among others.",
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"plaintext": "The city is a major centre for banking and finance, real estate, retailing, trade, transportation, tourism, new media as well as traditional media, advertising, legal services, accountancy, insurance, fashion and the arts in Hungary and regionally. Budapest is home not only to almost all national institutions and government agencies, but also to many domestic and international companies, in 2014 there are 395.804 companies registered in the city. Most of these entities are headquartered in the Budapest's Central Business District, in the District V and District XIII. The retail market of the city (and the country) is also concentrated in the downtown, among others through the two largest shopping centres in Central and Eastern Europe, the 186,000 sqm WestEnd City Center and the 180,000 sqm Arena Plaza.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest has notable innovation capabilities as a technology and start-up hub. Many start-ups are headquartered and begin their business in the city, some of the best known examples are Prezi, LogMeIn or NNG. Budapest is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities' Top 100 index. A good indicator of the city's potential for innovation and research also, is that the European Institute of Innovation and Technology chose Budapest for its headquarters, along with the UN, which Regional Representation for Central Europe office is in the city, responsible for UN operations in seven countries.",
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"plaintext": "Moreover, the global aspect of the city's research activity is shown through the establishment of the European Chinese Research Institute in the city. Other important sectors include also, as natural science research, information technology and medical research, non-profit institutions, and universities. The leading business schools and universities in Budapest, the Budapest Business School, the CEU Business School and Corvinus University of Budapest offers a whole range of courses in economics, finance and management in English, French, German and Hungarian. The unemployment rate is far the lowest in Budapest within Hungary, it was 2.7%, besides the many thousands of employed foreign citizens.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is among the 25 most visited cities in the world, the city welcoming more than 4.4million international visitors each year, therefore the traditional and the congress tourism industry also deserve a mention, it contributes greatly to the city's economy. The capital being home to many convention centres and thousands of restaurants, bars, coffee houses and party places, besides the full assortment of hotels. In restaurants offerings can be found of the highest quality Michelin-starred restaurants, like Onyx, Costes, Tanti or Borkonyha. The city ranked as the most liveable city in Central and Eastern Europe on EIU's quality of life index in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Also support the financial industry of Budapest, the firms of international banks and financial service providers, such as Citigroup, Morgan Stanley, GE Capital, Deutsche Bank, Sberbank, ING Group, Allianz, KBC Group, UniCredit and MSCI among others. Another particularly strong industry in the capital city is biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry, these are also traditionally strong in Budapest, through domestic companies, as Egis, Gedeon Richter, Chinoin and through international biotechnology corporations, like Pfizer, Teva, Novartis, Sanofi, who are also has R&D and production division here. Further high-tech industries, such as software development, engineering notable as well, the Nokia, Ericsson, Bosch, Microsoft, IBM employs thousands of engineers in research and development in the city. Game design also highly represented through headquarters of domestic Digital Reality, Black Hole and studio of Crytek or Gameloft. Beyond the above, there are regional headquarters of global firms, such as Alcoa, General Motors, General Electric, ExxonMobil, BP, BT, Flextronics, Panasonic, Huawei, Knorr-Bremse, Liberty Global, Tata Consultancy, Aegon, WizzAir, TriGránit, MVM Group, Graphisoft, there is a base for Nissan CEE, Volvo, Saab, Ford, including but not limited to.",
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"plaintext": "Hungary's highest courts are located in Budapest. The Curia (supreme court of Hungary), the highest court in the judicial order, which reviews criminal and civil cases, is located in the District V, Leopoldtown. Under the authority of its president it has three departments: criminal, civil and administrative-labour law departments. Each department has various chambers. The Curia guarantees the uniform application of law. The decisions of the Curia on uniform jurisdiction are binding for other courts.",
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"plaintext": "The second most important judicial authority, the National Judicial Council, is also housed in the District V, with the tasks of controlling the financial management of the judicial administration and the courts and giving an opinion on the practice of the president of the National Office for the Judiciary and the Curia deciding about the applications of judges and court leaders, among others.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitutional Court of Hungary is one of the highest level actors independent of the politics in the country. The Constitutional Court serves as the main body for the protection of the Constitution, its tasks being the review of the constitutionality of statutes. The Constitutional Court performs its tasks independently. With its own budget and its judges being elected by Parliament it does not constitute a part of the ordinary judicial system. The constitutional court passes on the constitutionality of laws, and there is no right of appeal on these decisions.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest hosts the main and regional headquarters of many international organizations as well, including United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, European Institute of Innovation and Technology, European Police Academy, International Centre for Democratic Transition, Institute of International Education, International Labour Organization, International Organization for Migration, International Red Cross, Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe, Danube Commission and even others. The city is also home to more than 100 embassies and representative bodies as an international political actor.",
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"plaintext": "Environmental issues have a high priority among Budapest's politics. Institutions such as the Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe, located in Budapest, are very important assets.",
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"plaintext": "To decrease the use of cars and greenhouse gas emissions, the city has worked to improve public transportation, and nowadays the city has one of the highest mass transit usage in Europe. Budapest has one of the best public transport systems in Europe with an efficient network of buses, trolleys, trams and subway. Budapest has an above-average proportion of people commuting on public transport or walking and cycling for European cities.",
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"plaintext": "Riding on bike paths is one of the best ways to see Budapest – there are about of bicycle paths in the city, fitting into the EuroVelo system.",
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"plaintext": "Crime in Budapest is investigated by different bodies. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime notes in their 2011 Global Study on Homicide that, according to criminal justice sources, the homicide rate in Hungary, calculated based on UN population estimates, was 1.4 in 2009, compared to Canada's rate of 1.8 that same year.",
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"plaintext": "The homicide rate in Budapest is below the EU capital cities' average according to WHO also. However, organised crime is associated with the city, the Institute of Defence in a UN study named Budapest as one of the \"global epicentres\" of illegal pornography, money laundering and contraband tobacco, and also a negotiation center for international crime group leaders.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest has been a metropolitan municipality with a mayor-council form of government since its consolidation in 1873, but Budapest also holds a special status as a county-level government, and also special within that, as holds a capital-city territory status. In Budapest, the central government is responsible for the urban planning, statutory planning, public transport, housing, waste management, municipal taxes, correctional institutions, libraries, public safety, recreational facilities, among others. The Mayor is responsible for all city services, police and fire protection, enforcement of all city and state laws within the city, and administration of public property and most public agencies. Besides, each of Budapest' twenty-three districts has its own town hall and a directly elected council and the directly elected mayor of district.",
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"plaintext": "The Mayor of Budapest is Gergely Karácsony who was elected on 13 October 2019. The mayor and members of General Assembly are elected to five-year terms.",
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"plaintext": "The Budapest General Assembly is a unicameral body consisting of 33 members, which consist of the 23 mayors of the districts, 9 from the electoral lists of political parties, plus Mayor of Budapest (the Mayor is elected directly). Each term for the mayor and assembly members lasts five years. Submitting the budget of Budapest is the responsibility of the Mayor and the deputy-mayor in charge of finance. The latest, 2014 budget was approved with 18 supporting votes from ruling Fidesz and 14 votes against by the opposition lawmakers.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is widely known for its well-kept pre-war cityscape, with a great variety of streets and landmarks in classical architecture.",
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"plaintext": "The most well-known sight of the capital is the neo-Gothic Parliament, the biggest building in Hungary with its length, also holding (since 2001) the Hungarian Crown Jewels.",
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"plaintext": "Saint Stephen's Basilica is the most important religious building of the city, where the Holy Right Hand of Hungary's first king, Saint Stephen is on display as well.",
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"plaintext": "The Hungarian cuisine and café culture can be seen and tasted in a lot of places, like Gerbeaud Café, the Százéves, Biarritz, Fortuna, Alabárdos, Arany Szarvas, Kárpátia and the world-famous restaurants and beer bars.",
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"plaintext": "There are Roman remains at the Aquincum Museum, and historic furniture at the Nagytétény Castle Museum, just 2 out of 223 museums in Budapest. Another historical museum is the House of Terror, hosted in the building that was the venue of the Nazi Headquarters. The Castle Hill, the River Danube embankments and the whole of Andrássy út have been officially recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.",
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"plaintext": "Castle Hill and the Castle District; there are three churches here, six museums, and a host of interesting buildings, streets and squares. The former Royal Palace is one of the symbols of Hungary – and has been the scene of battles and wars ever since the 13th century. Nowadays it houses two museums and the National Széchenyi Library. The nearby Sándor Palace contains the offices and official residence of the President of Hungary. The seven-hundred-year-old Matthias Church is one of the jewels of Budapest, it is in neo-Gothic style, decorated with coloured shingles and elegant pinnacles. Next to it is an equestrian statue of the first king of Hungary, King Saint Stephen, and behind that is the Fisherman's Bastion, built in 1905 by the architect Frigyes Schulek, the Fishermen's Bastions owes its name to the namesake corporation that during the Middle Ages was responsible of the defence of this part of ramparts, from where opens out a panoramic view of the whole city. Statues of the Turul, the mythical guardian bird of Hungary, can be found in both the Castle District and the Twelfth District.",
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"plaintext": "In Pest, arguably the most important sight is Andrássy út. This Avenue is an elegant long tree-lined street that covers the distance from Deák Ferenc tér to the Heroes Square. This Avenue overlooks many important sites. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. As far as Kodály körönd and Oktogon both sides are lined with large shops and flats built close together. Between there and Heroes' Square the houses are detached and altogether grander. Under the whole runs continental Europe's oldest Underground railway, most of whose stations retain their original appearance. Heroes' Square is dominated by the Millenary Monument, with the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in front. To the sides are the Museum of Fine Arts and the Kunsthalle Budapest, and behind City Park opens out, with Vajdahunyad Castle. One of the jewels of Andrássy út is the Hungarian State Opera House. Statue Park, a theme park with striking statues of the Communist era, is located just outside the main city and is accessible by public transport.",
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"plaintext": "The Dohány Street Synagogue is the largest synagogue in Europe, and the second largest active synagogue in the world. The synagogue is located in the Jewish district taking up several blocks in central Budapest bordered by Király utca, Wesselényi utca, Grand Boulevard and Bajcsy Zsilinszky road. It was built in moorish revival style in 1859 and has a seating capacity of 3,000. Adjacent to it is a sculpture reproducing a weeping willow tree in steel to commemorate the Hungarian victims of the Holocaust.",
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"plaintext": "The city is also home to the largest medicinal bath in Europe (Széchenyi Medicinal Bath) and the third largest Parliament building in the world, once the largest in the world. Other attractions are the bridges of the capital. Seven bridges provide crossings over the Danube, and from north to south are: the Árpád Bridge (built in 1950 at the north of Margaret Island); the Margaret Bridge (built in 1901, destroyed during the war by an explosion and then rebuilt in 1948); the Chain Bridge (built in 1849, destroyed during World War II and then rebuilt in 1949); the Elisabeth Bridge (completed in 1903 and dedicated to the murdered Queen Elisabeth, it was destroyed by the Germans during the war and replaced with a new bridge in 1964); the Liberty Bridge (opened in 1896 and rebuilt in 1989 in Art Nouveau style); the Petőfi Bridge (completed in 1937, destroyed during the war and rebuilt in 1952); the Rákóczi Bridge (completed in 1995). Most remarkable for their beauty are the Margaret Bridge, the Chain Bridge and the Liberty Bridge. The world's largest panorama photograph was created in (and of) Budapest in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Tourists visiting Budapest can receive free maps and information from the nonprofit Budapest Festival and Tourism Center at its info-points. The info centers also offer the Budapest Card which allows free public transit and discounts for several museums, restaurants and other places of interest. Cards are available for 24-, 48- or 72-hour durations. The city is also well known for its ruin bars both day and night.",
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"plaintext": "In Budapest there are many smaller and larger squares, the most significant of which are Heroes' Square, Kossuth Square, Liberty Square, St. Stephen's Square, Ferenc Deák Square, Vörösmarty Square, Erzsébet Square, St. George's Square and Széchenyi István Square. The Heroes' Square at the end of Andrássy Avenue is the largest and most influential square in the capital, with the Millennium Monument in the center, and the Museum of Fine Arts and The Hall of Art. Kossuth Square is a symbolic place of the Hungarian statehood, the Hungarian Parliament Building, the Palace of Justice and the Ministry of Agriculture. The Liberty Square is located in the Belváros-Lipótváros District (Inner City District), as one of Budapest's most beautiful squares. There are buildings such as the Hungarian National Bank, the embassy of the United States, the Stock Exchange Palace, as well as numerous statues and monuments such as the Soviet War Memorial, the Statue of Ronald Reagan or the controversial Monument to the victims of the German occupation. In the St. Stephen's Square is the St. Stephen's Basilica, the square is connected by a walking street, the Zrínyi Street, to the Széchenyi István Square at the foot of The Chain Bridge. The Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Gresham Palace and the Ministry of Interior are also located here. Deák Ferenc Square is a central square of the capital, a major transport hub, where three Budapest subways meet. Here is the oldest and best known Evangelical Church of Budapest, the Deák Ferenc Square Lutheran Church. Vörösmarty Square is located in Belváros-Lipótváros District (Inner City District) behind the Vigadó of Pest as one of the endpoints of Váci Street. The Confectionery Gerbeaud is here, and the annual Christmas Fair is held in the Square, as well as is the centre of the Holiday Book Week.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest has many municipal parks and most have playgrounds for children and seasonal activities like skating in the winter and boating in the summer. Access from the city center is quick and easy with the Millennium Underground. Budapest has a complex park system, with various lands operated by the Budapest City Gardening Ltd.",
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"plaintext": "The wealth of greenspace afforded by Budapest's parks is further augmented by a network of open spaces containing forest, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie not far from the inner city, including the Budapest Zoo and Botanical Garden (established in 1866) in the City Park.",
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"plaintext": "The most notable and popular parks in Budapest are the City Park which was established in 1751 (302 acres) along with Andrássy Avenue, the Margaret Island in the Danube (), the People's Park, the Római Part, and the Kopaszi Dam.",
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"plaintext": "The Buda Hills also offer a variety of outdoor activities and views. A place frequented by locals is Normafa, offering activities for all seasons. With a modest ski run, it is also used by skiers and snow boarders – if there is enough snowfall in winter.",
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"plaintext": "A number of islands can be found on the Danube in Budapest:",
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"plaintext": " Margaret Island ( ) is a long island and in area. The island mostly consists of a park and is a popular recreational area for tourists and locals alike. The island lies between Margaret Bridge (south) and Árpád Bridge (north). Dance clubs, swimming pools, an aqua park, athletic and fitness centres, bicycle and running tracks can be found around the Island. During the day the island is occupied by people doing sports, or just resting. In the summer (generally on the weekends) mostly young people go to the island at night to party on its terraces, or to recreate with a bottle of alcohol on a bench or on the grass (this form of entertainment is sometimes referred to as bench-partying).",
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"plaintext": " Csepel Island ( ) is the largest island of the River Danube in Hungary. It is long; its width is and its area comprises . However, only the northern tip of the island is inside the city limits.",
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"plaintext": " Hajógyári Island ( ), also known as Óbuda Island (), is a man-made island located in the third district. This island hosts many activities such as: wake-boarding, jet-skiing during the day, and dance clubs during the night. This is the island where the famous Sziget Festival takes place, hosting hundreds of performances per year. Around 400,000 visitors attended the last festival. Many building projects are taking place to make this island into one of the biggest entertainment centres of Europe. The plan is to build apartment buildings, hotels, casinos and a marina.",
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"plaintext": " () is an island in the channel of the Danube that separates Csepel Island from the east bank of the river.",
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"plaintext": "The islands of , , and also formerly existed within the city, but have been joined to the mainland.",
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"plaintext": "The () is a reef in the Danube close to the shore under the Gellért Hill. It is only exposed during drought periods when the river level is very low.",
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"plaintext": "Just outside the city boundary to the north lies the large Szentendre Island () and the much smaller Lupa Island ().",
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"plaintext": "One of the reasons the Romans first colonised the area immediately to the west of the River Danube and established their regional capital at Aquincum (now part of Óbuda, in northern Budapest) is so that they could use and enjoy the thermal springs. There are still ruins visible today of the enormous baths that were built during that period. The new baths that were constructed during the Turkish period (1541–1686) served both bathing and medicinal purposes, and some of these are still in use to this day.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest gained its reputation as a city of spas in the 1920s, following the first realisation of the economic potential of the thermal waters in drawing in visitors. Indeed, in 1934 Budapest was officially ranked as a \"City of Spas\". Today, the baths are mostly frequented by the older generation, as, with the exception of the \"Magic Bath\" and \"Cinetrip\" water discos, young people tend to prefer the lidos which are open in the summer.",
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"plaintext": "Construction of the Király Baths started in 1565, and most of the present-day building dates from the Turkish period, including most notably the fine cupola-topped pool.",
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"plaintext": "The Rudas Baths are centrally placed – in the narrow strip of land between Gellért Hill and the River Danube – and also an outstanding example of architecture dating from the Turkish period. The central feature is an octagonal pool over which light shines from a diameter cupola, supported by eight pillars.",
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"plaintext": "The Gellért Baths and Hotel were built in 1918, although there had once been Turkish baths on the site, and in the Middle Ages a hospital. In 1927, the Baths were extended to include the wave pool, and the effervescent bath was added in 1934. The well-preserved Art Nouveau interior includes colourful mosaics, marble columns, stained glass windows and statues.",
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"plaintext": "The Lukács Baths are also in Buda and are also Turkish in origin, although they were only revived at the end of the 19th century. This was also when the spa and treatment centre were founded. There is still something of an atmosphere of fin-de-siècle about the place, and all around the inner courtyard there are marble tablets recalling the thanks of patrons who were cured there. Since the 1950s it has been regarded as a centre for intellectuals and artists.",
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"plaintext": "The Széchenyi Baths are one of the largest bathing complexes in all Europe, and the only \"old\" medicinal baths to be found in the Pest side of the city. The indoor medicinal baths date from 1913 and the outdoor pools from 1927. There is an atmosphere of grandeur about the whole place with the bright, largest pools resembling aspects associated with Roman baths, the smaller bath tubs reminding one of the bathing culture of the Greeks, and the saunas and diving pools borrowed from traditions emanating in northern Europe. The three outdoor pools (one of which is a fun pool) are open all year, including winter. Indoors there are over ten separate pools, and a whole host of medical treatments is also available. The Szécheny Baths are built in modern Renaissance style.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is served by Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport (BUD) (named after Franz Liszt, the notable Hungarian composer), one of the busiest airports in Central and Eastern Europe, located east-southeast of the centre of Budapest, in the District XVIII. The airport offers international connections among all major European cities, and also to North America, Africa, Asia and the Middle East.",
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"plaintext": "As Hungary's busiest airport, it handles nearly all of the country's air passenger traffic. Budapest Liszt Ferenc handled around 250 scheduled flights daily in 2013, and an ever-rising number of charters. London, Brussels, Frankfurt, Munich, Paris, and Amsterdam are the busiest international connections respectively, while Toronto, Montreal, Dubai, Doha and Alicante are the most unusual in the region.",
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"plaintext": "Today the airport serves as a base for Ryanair, Wizz Air, Budapest Aircraft Service, CityLine Hungary, Farnair Hungary and Travel Service Hungary among others. The airport is accessible via public transportation from the city centre by the Metro line 3 and then the airport bus No. 200E.",
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"plaintext": "As part of a strategic development plan, €561million have been spent on expanding and modernising the airport infrastructure until December 2012. Most of these improvements are already completed, the postponed ones are the new cargo area and new piers for terminal 2A and 2B, but these development are on standby also, and will start immediately, when the airport traffic will reach the appropriate level.",
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"plaintext": "SkyCourt, the newest, state-of-the-art building between the 2A and 2B terminals with 5 levels. Passenger safety checks were moved here along with new baggage classifiers and the new Malév and SkyTeam business lounges, as well as the first MasterCard lounge in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Public transit in Budapest is provided by the Centre for Budapest Transport (BKK, Budapesti Közlekedési Központ), one of the largest transportation authorities in Europe. BKK operates 4 metro lines (including the historic Line 1, the oldest underground railway in continental Europe), 5 suburban railway lines, 33 tram lines, 15 trolleybus lines, 264 bus lines (including 40 night routes), 4 boat services, and BuBi, a smart bicycle sharing network. On an average weekday, BKK lines transports 3.9million riders; in 2011, it handled a total of 1.4billion passengers. In 2014, the 65% of the passenger traffic in Budapest was by public transport and 35% by car. The aim is 80%–20% by 2030 in accordance with the strategy of BKK.",
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"plaintext": "The development of complex intelligent transportation system in the city is advancing; the application of smart traffic lights is widespread, they are GPS and computer controlled and give priority to the GPS connected public transport vehicles automatically, as well as the traffic is measured and analyzed on the roads and car drivers informed about the expected travel time and traffic by intelligent displays (EasyWay project). Public transport users are immediately notified of any changes in public transport online, on smartphones and on PIDS displays, as well car drivers can keep track of changes in traffic and road management in real-time online and on smartphones through the BKK Info. As well all vehicles can be followed online and on smartphones in real-time throughout the city with the Futár PIDS system, while the continuous introducing of integrated e-ticket system will help the measurement of passenger numbers on each line and the intelligent control of service frequency.",
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"plaintext": "The development of Futár, the citywide real-time passenger information system and real-time route planner is finished already and now all of the public transport vehicle is connected via satellite system. The real-time information of trams, buses and trolleybuses are available for both the operators in the control room and for all the passengers in all stops on smartphone and on city street displays.",
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"plaintext": "The implementation of latest generation automated fare collection and e-ticket system with NFC compatibility and reusable contactless smart cards for making electronic payments in online and offline systems in Budapest is started in 2014, the project is implemented and operated by the operator of Hong Kong Octopus card jointly with one of the leading European companies of e-ticket and automated fare collection, Scheidt & Bachmann. The deployment of 300 new digital contactless ticket vending machine will be finished by the end of 2014 in harmonization with the e-ticket system.",
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"plaintext": "The tram lines no. 4 and 6 are the busiest city tram lines in the world, with one of the world's longest trams (54-metre long Siemens Combino) running at 2–3-minute intervals at peak time and 4–5 minutes off-peak. Day services are usually from 4am until between 11pm and 0:30am. Hungarian State Railways operates an extensive network of commuter rail services, their importance in the suburban commuter passenger traffic is significant, but in travel within the city is limited.",
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"plaintext": "The organiser of public transport in Budapest is the municipal corporation Centre for Budapest Transport (Budapesti Közlekedési Központ – BKK), that is responsible for planning and organising network and services, planning and developing tariff concepts, attending to public service procurer duties, managing public service contracts, operating controlling and monitoring systems, setting and monitoring service level agreements related to public transport, attending to customer service duties, selling and monitoring tickets and passes, attending to integrated passenger information duties, unified Budapest-centric traffic control within public transport, attending to duties related to river navigation, plus the management of Budapest roads, operating taxi stations, unified control of bicycle traffic development in the capital, preparing parking strategy and developing an operational concept, preparation of road traffic management, developing an optimal traffic management system, organising and co-ordinating road reconstruction and more, in short, everything which is related to transport in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is the most important Hungarian road terminus, all of the major highways and railways end within the city limits. The road system in the city is designed in a similar manner to that of Paris, with several ring roads, and avenues radiating out from the center. Ring road M0 around Budapest is nearly completed, with only one section missing on the west side due to local disputes. The ring road is in length, and once finished it will be of highway in length.",
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"plaintext": "The city is a vital traffic hub because all major European roads and European railway lines lead to Budapest. The Danube was and is still today an important water-way and this region in the centre of the Carpathian Basin lies at the cross-roads of trade routes.",
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"plaintext": "Hungarian main line railways are operated by Hungarian State Railways. There are three main railway station in Budapest, Keleti (Eastern), Nyugati (Western) and Déli (Southern), operating both domestic and international rail services. Budapest is one of the main stops of the on its Central and Eastern European route. There is also a suburban rail service in and around Budapest, three lines of which are operated under the name HÉV.",
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"plaintext": "The river Danube flows through Budapest on its way from (Germany) to the Black Sea. The river is easily navigable and so Budapest historically has a major commercial port at Csepel District and at New Pest District also. The Pest side is also a famous port place with international shipping ports for cargo and for passenger ships. In the summer months, a scheduled hydrofoil service operates on the Danube connecting the city to Vienna.",
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"plaintext": "BKK (through the operator BKV) also provides public transport with boat service within the borders of the city. Two routes, marked D11 and D12, connect the two banks with Margaret Island and Óbuda Island, from Rómaifürdő (Buda side, north to Óbuda Island) or Árpád Bridge (Pest side) to Rákóczi Bridge, with a total of 18 stops, while route D2 circulates in the downtown. Line D14 is a ferry service, connecting Királyerdő on the Csepel Island with Molnár Island on the Pest side, south to the city centre. In addition, several companies provides sightseeing boat trips and also an amphibious vehicle (bus and boat) operates constantly.",
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"plaintext": "Water quality in Budapest harbours improved dramatically in the recent years, treatment facilities processed 100% of generated sewage in 2010. Budapesters regularly kayak, canoe, jet-ski and sail on the Danube, which has continuously become a major recreational site for the city.",
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"plaintext": "Special vehicles in Budapest, besides metros, include suburban rails, trams and boats. There are a couple of less common vehicles in Budapest, like the trolleybus on several lines in Pest, the Castle Hill Funicular between the Chain Bridge and Buda Castle, the cyclecar for rent in Margaret Island, the chairlift, the Budapest Cog-wheel Railway and children's railway. The latter three vehicles run among Buda hills.",
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"plaintext": "The culture of Budapest is reflected by Budapest's size and variety. Most Hungarian cultural movements first emerged in the city. Budapest is an important center for music, film, theatre, dance and visual art. Artists have been drawn into the city by opportunity, as the city government funds the arts with adequate financial resources.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is the headquarters of the Hungarian LGBT community.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest was named \"City of Design\" in December 2015 and has been a member of UNESCO Creative Cities Network since then.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is packed with museums and galleries. The city glories in 223 museums and galleries, which presents several memories, next to the Hungarian ones as well those of universal and European culture and science. Here are the greatest examples among them: the Hungarian National Museum, the Hungarian National Gallery, the Museum of Fine Arts (where can see the pictures of Hungarian painters, like Victor Vasarely, Mihály Munkácsy and a great collection about Italian art, Dutch art, Spanish art and British art from before the 19th century and French art, British art, German art, Austrian art after the 19th century), the House of Terror, the Budapest Historical Museum, the Aquincum Museum, the Memento Park, Museum of Applied Arts and the contemporary arts exhibition Palace of Arts Budapest. In Budapest there are 837 monuments, which represent the most of the European artistic style. The classical and unique Hungarian Art Nouveau buildings are prominent.",
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"plaintext": "A lot of libraries have unique collections in Budapest, such as the National Széchényi Library, which keeps historical relics from the age before the printing of books. The Metropolitan Szabó Ervin Library plays an important role in the general education of the capital's population. Other libraries: The Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Eötvös University Library, the Parliamentary Library, Library of the Hungarian Central Statistical Office and the National Library of Foreign Literature.",
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"plaintext": "In Budapest there are forty theatres, seven concert halls and an opera house. Outdoor festivals, concerts and lectures enrich the cultural offer of summer, which are often held in historical buildings. The largest theatre facilities are the Budapest Operetta and Musical Theatre, the József Attila Theatre, the Katona József Theatre, the Madách Theatre, the Hungarian State Opera House, the National Theatre, the Vigadó Concert Hall, Radnóti Miklós Theatre, the Comedy Theatre and the Palace of Arts, known as MUPA. The Budapest Opera Ball is an annual Hungarian society event taking place in the building of the Budapest Opera (Operaház) on the last Saturday of the carnival season, usually late February.",
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"plaintext": "There are 11 casinos in Hungary (11 is the maximum number of casinos allowed by law), and 5 of them are located in the capital. All 5 of these casinos are owned by LVC Diamond Játékkaszinó Üzemeltető Kft, the gambling company of late Vajna András (better known as Andy Vajna). The biggest casino in Budapest and in all of Hungary is the Las Vegas Casino Corvin sétány.",
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"plaintext": "Several annual festivals take place in Budapest. The Sziget Festival is one of the largest outdoor music festival in Europe. The Budapest Spring Festival includes concerts at several venues across the city. The Café Budapest Contemporary Arts Festival (formerly the Budapest Autumn Festival) brings free music, dance, art, and other cultural events to the streets of the city. The Budapest Wine Festival and Budapest Pálinka Festival, occurring each May, are gastronomy festivals focusing on culinary pleasures. The Budapest Pride (or Budapest Pride Film and Cultural Festival) occurs annually across the city, and usually involves a parade on the Andrássy Avenue. Other festivals include the Budapest Fringe Festival, which brings more than 500 artists in about 50 shows to produce a wide range of works in alternative theatre, dance, music and comedy outside the mainstream. The LOW Festival is a multidisciplinary contemporary cultural festival held in Hungary in the cities Budapest and Pécs from February until March; the name of the festival alludes to the Low Countries, the region encompassing the Netherlands and Flanders. The Budapest Jewish Summer Festival, in late August, is one of the largest in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "There are many symphony orchestras in Budapest, with the Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra being the preeminent one. It was founded in 1853 by Ferenc Erkel and still presents regular concerts in the Hungarian State Opera House and National Theatre. Budapest also has one of the more active jazz scenes in Central Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The dance tradition of the Carpathian Basin is a unique area of the European dance culture, which is also a special transition between the Balkans and Western Europe regions. The city is home to several authentic Hungarian folk dance ensembles which range from small ensembles to professional troupes. Budapest is one of the few cities in the world with a high school for learning folk dance.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is home to a fashion week twice a year, where the city's fashion designers and houses present their collections and provide a meeting place for the fashion industry representatives. Budapest Fashion Week additionally a place for designers from other countries may present their collections in Budapest. Hungarian models, like Barbara Palvin, Enikő Mihalik, Diána Mészáros, Viktória Vámosi usually appearing at these events along international participants.",
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"plaintext": "Fashion brands like Zara, H&M, Mango, ESPRIT, Douglas AG, Lacoste, Nike and other retail fashion brands are common across the city's shopping malls and on the streets.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is the media centre of Hungary, and the location of the main headquarters of Hungarian Television and other local and national TV and radio stations, such as M1, M2, Duna TV, Duna World, RTL Klub, TV2 (Hungary), Euronews, Comedy Central, MTV Hungary, VIVA Hungary, Viasat 3, Cool TV, and Pro4, and politics and news channels such as Hír TV, ATV, and Echo TV. Documentary channels include Discovery Channel, Discovery Science, Discovery World, National Geographic Channel, Nat Geo Wild, Spektrum, and BBC Entertainment. This is less than a quarter of the channels broadcast from Budapest; for the whole picture see Television in Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "In the modern age, Budapest developed its own peculiar cuisine, based on products of the nearby region, such as lamb, pork and vegetables special to the region. Modern Hungarian cuisine is a synthesis of ancient Asiatic components mixed with French, Germanic, Italian, and Slavic elements. The food of Hungary can be considered a melting pot of the continent, with a culinary base formed from its own, original Magyar cuisine. Considerable numbers of Saxons, Armenians, Italians, Jews and Serbs settled in the Hungarian basin and in Transylvania, also contributing with different new dishes. Elements of ancient Turkish cuisine were adopted during the Ottoman era, in the form of sweets (for example different nougats, like white nougat called törökméz), quince (birsalma), Turkish delight, Turkish coffee or rice dishes like pilaf, meat and vegetable dishes like the eggplant, used in eggplant salads and appetizers, stuffed peppers and stuffed cabbage called töltött káposzta. Hungarian cuisine was influenced by Austrian cuisine under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, dishes and methods of food preparation have often been borrowed from Austrian cuisine, and vice versa.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest restaurants reflect diversity, with menus carrying traditional regional cuisine, fusions of various culinary influences, or innovating in the leading edge of new techniques. Budapest' food shops also have a solid reputation for supplying quality specialised culinary products and supplies, reputations that are often built up over generations. These include many shops, such as Café Gerbeaud, one of the greatest and most traditional coffeehouses in Europe, or the Gundel restaurant and gastro shop in the City Park.",
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"plaintext": "Foodies can also find the highest quality foods served in several Michelin-starred restaurants, like Onyx, Costes, Borkonyha or Tanti.",
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"plaintext": "The 1906 novel The Paul Street Boys, the 1937 novel Journey by Moonlight, the 1957 book The Bridge at Andau, the 1975 novel Fateless, the 1977 novel The End of a Family Story, the 1986 book Between the Woods and the Water, the 1992 novel Under the Frog, the 1987 novel The Door, the 2002 novel Prague, the 2003 book Budapeste, the 2004 novel Ballad of the Whisky Robber, the 2005 novels Parallel Stories and The Historian, the 2012 novel Budapest Noir are set, amongst others, partly or entirely in Budapest. Some of the better known feature films set in Budapest are Kontroll, The District!, Gloomy Sunday, Sunshine, An American Rhapsody, As You Desire Me, The Good Fairy, Hanna's War, The Journey, Ladies in Love, Music Box, The Shop Around the Corner, Zoo in Budapest, Underworld, Impossible – Ghost Protocol and Spy. The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014) is a Wes Anderson film. It was filmed in Germany, and set in the fictional Republic of Zubrowka, which is in the alpine mountains of Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous Olympic, World, and European Championship winners and medalists reside in the city, which follows from Hungary's 8th place among all the nations of the world in the All-time Olympic Games medal table.",
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"plaintext": "Hungarians have always been avid sports people: during the history of the Summer Olympic Games, Hungarians have brought home 476 medals, of which 167 are gold. The top events in which Hungarians have excelled are fencing, swimming, water polo, canoeing, wrestling and track & field sports. Beside classic sports, recreational modern sports such as bowling, pool billiard, darts, go-carting, wakeboarding and squash are very popular in Budapest, and extreme sports are also gaining ground. Furthermore, the Budapest Marathon and Budapest Half Marathon also attract many people every year. The city's largest football stadium is named after Ferenc Puskás, recognised as the top scorer of the 20th century and for whom FIFA's Puskás Award (Ballon d'Or) was named.",
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"plaintext": "One of Budapest's most popular sport is football and it has many Hungarian League football club, including in the top level Nemzeti Bajnokság I league, like Ferencvárosi TC , MTK Budapest FC , Újpest FC , Budapest Honvéd FC , Vasas SC , Csepel SC , Budapesti TC .",
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"plaintext": "The Hungarian Grand Prix in Formula One has been held at the Hungaroring just outside the city, a circuit which has FIA Grade 1 license. Since 1986, the race has been a round of the FIA Formula One World Championship. At the 2013 Hungarian Grand Prix, it was confirmed that Hungary will continue to host a Formula 1 race until 2021. The track was completely resurfaced for the first time in early 2016, and it was announced the Grand Prix's deal was extended for a further 5 years, until 2026.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is home to two four-star UEFA stadiums: Puskás Aréna, Groupama Aréna, and two three-star UEFA stadiums: Hidegkuti Nándor Stadion and Bozsik Aréna.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest is home to over 35 higher education institutions, many of which are universities. Under the Bologna Process, many offered qualifications are recognised in countries across Europe. Medicine, dentistry, pharmaceuticals, veterinary programs, and engineering are among the most popular fields for foreigners to undertake in Budapest. Most universities in Budapest offer courses in English, as well as in other languages like German, French, and Dutch, aimed specifically at foreigners. Many students from other European countries spend one or two semesters in Budapest through the Erasmus Programme.",
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"plaintext": "Budapest has quite a few sister cities and many partner cities around the world.",
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"plaintext": "The Mayor of Budapest says the aim of improving sister city relationships is to allow and encourage a mutual exchange of information and experiences, as well as co-operation, in the areas of city management, education, culture, tourism, media and communication, trade and business development.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the city's districts are also twinned to small cities or districts of other big cities; for details see the article List of districts and towns in Budapest.",
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| [
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"Budapest_metropolitan_area",
"Tourism_in_Hungary",
"1873_establishments_in_Hungary",
"Capitals_in_Europe",
"County_seats_in_Hungary",
"Landmarks_in_Hungary",
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"Populated_places_established_in_1873",
"Populated_places_on_the_Danube",
"Spa_towns_in_Hungary"
]
| 1,781 | 136,188 | 13,869 | 805 | 0 | 0 | Budapest | capital and largest city of Hungary | [
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"Buda-Pest",
"Budapešť",
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"Ofen",
"Budín",
"Budim",
"Budon",
"Pest",
"Pešť",
"Pešta",
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"Budapest, Hungary"
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|
36,790 | 1,071,911,983 | Artery | [
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"plaintext": "Arteries form part of the circulatory system. They carry blood that is oxygenated after it has been pumped from the heart. Coronary arteries also aid the heart in pumping blood by sending oxygenated blood to the heart, allowing the muscles to function. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues, except for pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation (usually veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart but the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood as well). There are two types of unique arteries. The pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the lungs, where it receives oxygen. It is unique because the blood in it is not \"oxygenated\", as it has not yet passed through the lungs. The other unique artery is the umbilical artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from a fetus to its mother.",
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"plaintext": "Arteries have a blood pressure higher than other parts of the circulatory system. The pressure in arteries varies during the cardiac cycle. It is highest when the heart contracts and lowest when heart relaxes. The variation in pressure produces a pulse, which can be felt in different areas of the body, such as the radial pulse. Arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on overall blood pressure. They are the primary \"adjustable nozzles\" in the blood system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The combination of heart output (cardiac output) and systemic vascular resistance, which refers to the collective resistance of all of the body's arterioles, are the principal determinants of arterial blood pressure at any given moment.",
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"plaintext": "Systemic arteries are the arteries (including the peripheral arteries), of the systemic circulation, which is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Systemic arteries can be subdivided into two types—muscular and elastic—according to the relative compositions of elastic and muscle tissue in their tunica media as well as their size and the makeup of the internal and external elastic lamina. The larger arteries (>10 mm diameter) are generally elastic and the smaller ones (0.1–10mm) tend to be muscular. Systemic arteries deliver blood to the arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where nutrients and gases are exchanged.",
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"plaintext": "After traveling from the aorta, blood travels through peripheral arteries into smaller arteries called arterioles, and eventually to capillaries. Arterioles help in regulating blood pressure by the variable contraction of the smooth muscle of their walls, and deliver blood to the capillaries.",
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"plaintext": "The capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels and are part of the microcirculation. The microvessels have a width of a single cell in diameter to aid in the fast and easy diffusion of gases, sugars and nutrients to surrounding tissues. Capillaries have no smooth muscle surrounding them and have a diameter less than that of red blood cells; a red blood cell is typically 7 micrometers outside diameter, capillaries typically 5 micrometers inside diameter. The red blood cells must distort in order to pass through the capillaries.",
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"plaintext": "Systemic arterial pressures are generated by the forceful contractions of the heart's left ventricle. High blood pressure is a factor in causing arterial damage. Healthy resting arterial pressures are relatively low, mean systemic pressures typically being under above surrounding atmospheric pressure (about at sea level). To withstand and adapt to the pressures within, arteries are surrounded by varying thicknesses of smooth muscle which have extensive elastic and inelastic connective tissues. The pulse pressure, being the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure, is determined primarily by the amount of blood ejected by each heart beat, stroke volume, versus the volume and elasticity of the major arteries.",
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"plaintext": "A blood squirt also known as an arterial gush is the effect when an artery is cut due to the higher arterial pressures. Blood is spurted out at a rapid, intermittent rate, that coincides with the heartbeat. The amount of blood loss can be copious, can occur very rapidly, and be life-threatening.",
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"plaintext": "Over time, factors such as elevated arterial blood sugar (particularly as seen in diabetes mellitus), lipoprotein, cholesterol, high blood pressure, stress and smoking, are all implicated in damaging both the endothelium and walls of the arteries, resulting in atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a disease marked by the hardening of arteries. This is caused by an atheroma or plaque in the artery wall and is a build-up of cell debris, that contain lipids, (cholesterol and fatty acids), calcium and a variable amount of fibrous connective tissue.",
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"plaintext": "Accidental intraarterial injection either iatrogenically or through recreational drug use can cause symptoms such as intense pain, paresthesia and necrosis. It usually causes permanent damage to the limb; often amputation is necessary.",
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"plaintext": "Among the Ancient Greeks, the arteries were considered to be \"air holders\" that were responsible for the transport of air to the tissues and were connected to the trachea. This was as a result of finding the arteries of cadavers devoid of blood.",
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"plaintext": "William Harvey described and popularized the modern concept of the circulatory system and the roles of arteries and veins in the 17th century.",
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"plaintext": "Alexis Carrel at the beginning of the 20th century first described the technique for vascular suturing and anastomosis and successfully performed many organ transplantations in animals; he thus actually opened the way to modern vascular surgery that was previously limited to vessels’ permanent ligation.",
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"plaintext": "Theodor Kocher reported that atherosclerosis often developed in patients who had undergone a thyroidectomy and suggested that hypothyroidism favors atherosclerosis, which was, in 1900s autopsies, seen more frequently in iodine-deficient Austrians compared to Icelanders, who are not deficient in iodine. Turner reported the effectiveness of iodide and dried extracts of thyroid in the prevention of atherosclerosis in laboratory rabbits.",
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"plaintext": "Todd Harry Rundgren (born June 22, 1948) is an American multi-instrumentalist, singer, songwriter, multimedia artist, sound engineer and record producer who has performed a diverse range of styles as a solo artist and as a member of the band Utopia. He is known for his sophisticated and often unorthodox music, his occasionally lavish stage shows, and his later experiments with interactive entertainment. He also produced music videos and was an early adopter and promoter of various computer technologies, such as using the Internet as a means of music distribution in the late 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "In 1968, after recording four demo discs, the Nazz were signed by Atlantic Records subsidiary Screen Gems Columbia (SGC). They were flown to Los Angeles to produce their first album at ID Sound studio. Rundgren had no prior production experience and remembered that the producer, Bill Traut, \"just whipped through the mixes in a day or two ... So I got it into my head, 'Well, he's gone now, so why don't we just mix it again, more like the way we want it?' Our engineer didn't mind if we went and just started diddling around on the board ... It was pretty much trial and error.\" He took an experimental approach to the recordings, employing techniques such as varispeed and flanging, and despite having no formal training, scored music charts for string and horn arrangements. Engineer James Lowe, who Rundgren recruited for his involvement with arranger Van Dyke Parks, believed that Rundgren had become the de facto leader of Nazz, and that a producer's credit was wrongfully withheld from him.",
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"plaintext": "After departing Nazz, the 21-year-old Rundgren briefly considered working as a computer programmer, and then decided that his calling was as a producer. He moved to New York in the summer of 1969 and involved himself with the clubs of Greenwich Village, particularly Steve Paul's Scene, and met a number of Manhattan musicians and fashion designers. Michael Friedman, formerly the assistant of Nazz manager John Kurland, offered Rundgren a job as staff engineer and producer under Albert Grossman, which Rundgren accepted. Grossman, known for his management of folk rock acts, had just founded Ampex Records, a joint business venture with the tape company of the same name, and built Bearsville Studios, near Woodstock. Bearsville soon became its own record imprint. Grossman promised to Rundgren that he would become the \"highest-paid producer in the world\", which later came true.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren said he was initially relegated to \"various old folk artists that they had who needed an upgrade: people like Ian & Sylvia, James Cotton, and other artists in Albert's stable.\" Shortly after producing the eponymous 1969 album by Great Speckled Bird, he was promoted as Bearsville's house engineer. Accompanied by Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm of the Band, he traveled to Canada to record Jesse Winchester's eponymous 1970 debut album. Immediately afterward, he said, \"the Band asked me to engineer their Stage Fright sessions. I think Jesse Winchester was a kind of run-through for that, because I was pretty quick to get the sounds and they liked that.\" Released in August 1970, Stage Fright reached number 5 on the Billboard 200, the highest chart showing the Band had to that point. Rundgren was dubbed Bearsville's \"boy wonder\".",
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"plaintext": "His work for the Band was followed by a second album for Winchester (which was then shelved for two years) and the album Taking Care of Business by the James Cotton Blues Band (1970). This project resulted in Rundgren meeting Cotton's keyboard player Mark \"Moogy\" Klingman, who in turn introduced Rundgren to keyboard player Ralph Schuckett, both of whom worked extensively with Rundgren over the next few years. Rundgren was to produce Janis Joplin's third and ultimately final album, Pearl (1971), but plans fell through, as the two artists could not get along with each other.",
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"plaintext": "Following a period where he thought he would never return to being a performing artist, Rundgren approached Grossman with the idea of what would become his debut solo record, Runt. Although his general attitude for any project was to \"make the record [I] wanted to make and then hope the label can find a way to promote it\", Rundgren ensured that any loss to Grossman would be minimal: \"I didn't get an actual advance for Runt. I just asked for a recording budget to pay the studio costs. ... I had no idea how much money I even had in the bank. If I needed cash, I would show up at the accountants and they would just give me hundreds or thousands of dollars.\"",
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"plaintext": "Released in mid 1970, Runt was not originally credited to Rundgren due to his anxieties about starting a full-fledged solo career, and instead bore the moniker \"Runt\". The album featured a bright sound and songs inspired by Laura Nyro. It was recorded with the 17-year-old bassist Tony Fox Sales and his 14-year-old brother Hunt Sales on drums. Nazz engineer James Lowe returned for the sessions and recalled that Rundgren seemed \"more able to really lead a group. If you go back and listen to it, it's very sophisticated material, especially for a guy so young.\" Lead single \"We Gotta Get You a Woman\" reached number 20 on the Billboard charts. As he prepared a follow-up LP, he produced Halfnelson, the debut album by the band that would become Sparks. Members Ron and Russell Mael later credited Rundgren with launching Sparks' career.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren's industry reputation grew substantially as a result of his success with Runt, and for the first time in his life, he began using recreational drugs. Initially this was limited to marijuana. He said that the drug gave him \"a whole different sensibility about time and space and order\" that influenced the writing for his second album, Runt. The Ballad of Todd Rundgren. The material was mostly piano ballads and still largely based on Nyro's template, but a more conscious effort by Rundgren was made to refine his music and choice of subject matter, and to distinguish himself from his influences. Released June 1971, The Ballad of Todd Rundgren bore two singles, \"Be Nice to Me\" and \"A Long Time, a Long Way To Go\", neither of which repeated the success of \"We Gotta Get You a Woman\". While initial reviews of Ballad were mixed, it came to be regarded as one of the greatest singer-songwriter albums of the era.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1971, Rundgren was recruited to finish Badfinger's third album Straight Up, a project George Harrison had abandoned to organize the Concert for Bangladesh, in London. The album was a hit and its two singles were similarly successful, although Rundgren was not credited for the first (\"Day After Day\") and thus did not receive production royalties for that single. Rundgren said that the song \"didn't sound much like what [Harrison had] done\" and speculated that the credit to Harrison \"may or may not have been something purposeful, just some by-product of a general Beatle hubris.\" The Straight Up sessions lasted two weeks in September, after which Rundgren returned to Los Angeles to work on his third solo album, originally planned as a single LP.",
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"plaintext": "As with Ballad, much of the newer material was written or conceived under the influence of marijuana. However, by this time, he had also begun experimenting with Ritalin. He recalled, \"my songwriting process had become almost too second-nature. I was writing songs formulaically, almost without thinking, knocking [them out], reflexively, in about 20 minutes.\" The use of Ritalin also helped him focus on the process as he worked up to 12 hours a day to beat the three-week deadline. To keep up the pace, he installed an eight-track recorder, mixer, and synthesizers into his living room so that he could continue recording after leaving the studio. For the first time in his career, Rundgren recorded every part by himself, including bass, drums, and vocals. About \"an album and a half\" was completed this way. He then decided to stretch the project into a double LP and quickly recorded the last few tracks with musicians, live in the studio.",
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"plaintext": "Something/Anything?, the first album officially issued under the name \"Todd Rundgren\", was released in February 1972, shortly after Bearsville had signed a long-term distribution deal with Warner Bros. Records. The album included many songs that would become his best-known. Included among straightforward pop songs are extended jams and studio banter, such as the spoken-word track \"Intro\", in which he teaches the listener about recording flaws for an egg hunt-type game he calls \"Sounds of the Studio\". Magazine ads depicted a smiling Rundgren daring the reader to \"ignore me\". The album peaked at number 29 on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold in three years. Lead single \"I Saw the Light\" peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100. \"Hello It's Me\", which followed late in 1973, reached number 5.",
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"plaintext": "According to music critic Colin Larkin, Something/Anything? has since been \"rightly regarded as one of the landmark releases of the early 70s\". \"Couldn't I Just Tell You\" was influential to artists in the power pop genre. Music journalist Paul Lester called the recording a \"masterclass in compression\" and said that Rundgren \"staked his claim to powerpop immortality [and] set the whole ball rolling\". Musician Scott Miller's 2010 book What Happened? calls the song \"likely the greatest power pop recording ever made,\" with lyrics \"somehow both desperate and lighthearted at the same time,\" and a guitar solo having \"truly amazing dexterity and inflection.\" In 2003, Something/Anything? was ranked number 173 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\".",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent albums, beginning with A Wizard, a True Star and the spin-off group Utopia, saw a dramatic shift away from straightforward three-minute pop. After the success of Something/Anything?, Rundgren felt uncomfortable that he was being increasingly tagged as \"the male Carole King\". \"With all due respect to Carole King,\" he said, \"It wasn't what I was hoping to create as a musical legacy for myself.\" Now relocated back to New York and experimenting with a host of psychedelic drugs, he began to think that the writing on Something/Anything? was largely formulaic and borne from laziness, and sought to create a \"more eclectic and more experimental\" follow-up album. His music tastes also started to lean toward the progressive rock of Frank Zappa, Yes, and the Mahavishnu Orchestra. In 2017, while giving a commencement speech at the Berklee College of Music, he described the record as:",
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"plaintext": "The sound and structure of Wizard was heavily informed by Rundgren's hallucinogenic experiences. It was envisioned as a hallucinogenic-inspired \"flight plan\" with all the tracks seguing seamlessly into each other, starting with a \"chaotic\" mood and ending with a medley of his favorite soul songs. He said: \"With drugs I could suddenly abstract my thought processes in a certain way, and I wanted to see if I could put them on a record. A lot of people recognized it as the dynamics of a psychedelic trip—it was almost like painting with your head.\" Rundgren and Moogy Klingman established a professional recording studio, Secret Sound, to accommodate the Wizard sessions. The studio was designed to Rundgren's specifications and was created so that he could freely indulge in sound experimentation without having to worry about hourly studio costs, although he maintained that the album still felt \"kind of rushed through because the studio wasn't finished.\" Some of the other influences on the album included musical theater, jazz, and funk.",
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"plaintext": "A Wizard, a True Star was released in March 1973. At Rundgren's behest, no singles were issued from the album, as he wanted the tracks to be heard in the context of the LP. Its release coincided with the success of the \"Hello It's Me\" single, which gave Rundgren a reputation as a ballad singer, in marked contrast to the content on Wizard. Although critical reception to the album was mixed, Wizard became highly influential to musicians in the ensuing decades. In 2003, music journalist Barney Hoskyns called the record \"the greatest album of all time ... a dizzying, intoxicating rollercoaster ride of emotions and genre mutations [that] still sounds more bravely futuristic than any ostensibly cutting-edge electro-pop being made in the 21st Century.\" In 2018, Pitchforks Sam Sodsky wrote that the \"fingerprints\" of Wizard remained \"evident on bedroom auteurs to this day\".",
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"plaintext": "In the weeks following the album's release, Rundgren produced Grand Funk Railroad's We're an American Band and the New York Dolls' self-titled debut album, which were among the most significant LPs of the year. The former album reached number two on the US charts, while the latter became a seminal forerunner of punk rock, although Rundgren never became known as a \"punk producer\". Rundgren also prepared a technologically ambitious stage show with a band later to be known as Utopia Mark I, consisting of Tony Sales, Hunt Sales, keyboardist Dave Mason, and synthesizer specialist Jean-Yves \"M Frog\" Labat. The tour began in April and was cancelled after only a couple weeks on the road.",
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"plaintext": "Once Rundgren was finished with his production duties, he began formulating plans for an improved configuration of Utopia, but first returned to Secret Sound to record the more synthesizer-heavy double album Todd, which was more material drawing on his hallucinogenic experiences. This time, he had also formed a fascination with religion and spirituality, reading books by authors such as Madame Blavatsky, Rudolf Steiner, and Jiddu Krishnamurti. Originally scheduled for release in December 1973, Todd was delayed to the next February due to a vinyl shortage caused by the 1973 oil crisis.",
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"plaintext": "During the making of Todd, Rundgren took note of the \"fusion jazz sensibility\" between session musicians Kevin Ellman (drums) and John Siegler (bass). Rundgren chose them, along with Klingman and keyboardist Ralph Shuckett, to be the new configuration of Utopia. This line-up performed their first show at Central Park on August 25, 1973, sharing the bill with the Brecker Brothers and Hall & Oates. Utopia played more shows throughout November and December, performing material from Something/Anything? and Wizard after a solo opening set by Rundgren on piano playing along to a pre-recorded track. On December 7, Rundgren appeared by himself on The Midnight Special performing \"Hello It's Me\" while dressed in jarringly flamboyant glam attire to the chagrin of some of his bandmates and Bearsville executive Paul Fishkin, who recalled that Rundgren looked \"like a fucking drag queen\".",
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"plaintext": "Utopia embarked on their first successful tour between March and April 1974, after which Rundgren produced Hello People's The Handsome Devils and Hall & Oates' War Babies. The band's debut record came in the form of the LP titled Todd Rundgren's Utopia (November 1974). It marked Rundgren's first full-fledged venture into the progressive rock genre. Utopia released several more albums between 1975 and 1985. Although they gradually rebranded toward a rock-pop sound, Todd Rundgren's Utopia remained their highest album chart showing at number 34. Keyboardist Roger Powell recalled that Bearsville wished Utopia would have \"just gone away\", however, \"Todd's contract called for a certain number of albums over a certain number of years, so he decided that every other album would be a solo album and the next one a Utopia album.\" ",
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"plaintext": "A Wizard, a True Star included \"Rock N Roll Pussy\", a song aimed at former Beatle John Lennon. In 1974, Rundgren and Lennon were embroiled in a minor feud over comments Rundgren made in the February edition of Melody Maker magazine. In the article, he accused Lennon of striking a waitress at the Troubadour in Hollywood and called him a \"fucking idiot\" proselytizing revolution and \"acting like an ass\". In September, the magazine published Lennon's response, in which he denied the charges and referred to the musician as \"Turd Runtgreen\": \"I have never claimed to be a revolutionary. But I am allowed to sing about anything I want! Right?\" Later, Rundgren said, \"John and I realized we were being used and I got a phone call from him one day and we just said: 'Let's drop this now.'\"",
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"plaintext": "Initiation (1975) showed more experimentation with synthesisers, and displayed the musical influence of the avant-garde jazz fusion of contemporary acts such as the Mahavishnu Orchestra and Frank Zappa. Once again the original LP issue saw Rundgren pushing the medium to its physical limits, with the side-long suite \"A Treatise on Cosmic Fire\" clocking in at over 35minutes.",
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"plaintext": "Released in May 1976, Faithful saw Rundgren celebrating his tenth year as a professional musician. The album featured one side of original songs and one side of covers of significant songs from 1966, including the Yardbirds' \"Happenings Ten Years Time Ago\", the Beach Boys' \"Good Vibrations\", and two Lennon-penned Beatles songs. The arrangements of the covers were intended to sound as close to the originals as possible, and Rundgren's original songs were written as a reflection of his 1960s influences. He cited the song \"The Verb 'To Love'\" as the point in which he made the conscious decision to stop writing superficial love songs and \"seek out all other kinds of subject matter to write about.\" Despite the lack of sales and promotion for Faithful, lead single \"Good Vibrations\" received regular airplay on American radio.",
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"plaintext": "Following the completion of Faithful, Rundgren spent two months on an eastern spiritual retreat, visiting Iran, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bali, Thailand, Japan, and Hawaii. He also opened Utopia Sound Studios in Lake Hill, New York, just outside of Woodstock, and bought a home nearby, as well as an adjoining property to be taken over as accommodation for artists who used the studio. The Lake Hill complex on Mink Hollow Road remained Rundgren's base for the next six years. In the interim until his next solo effort, he recorded three albums with Utopia. The first, Disco Jets, was a tongue-in-cheek collection of instrumental disco tracks left unreleased until 2001. Ra (February 1977) was a concept album based on Egyptian mythology, which prefaced a lavish tour involving an extravagant stage set with a giant pyramid and Sphynx head. Oops! Wrong Planet (September 1977), recorded immediately after the tour, signaled the start of a more pop-oriented direction for the group.",
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"plaintext": "By late 1977, Rundgren was in the midst of separating from then-girlfriend Bebe Buell and their infant daughter Liv Tyler. Rundgren recalled leaving his home in New York City and sequestering himself at Mink Hollow, \"after I discovered that I didn't want to cohabit any longer with Bebe, in any sense of the word ... A fortunate by-product of being so out of everything all the time and always being the odd man out ... is that you have plenty of time for self-examination.\" He intended the songs on his next solo album to be performed on piano with minimal arrangements, apart from the bass, drums and voices. In that sense, he stated that the songwriting process appeared to be \"fairly conventional\".",
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"plaintext": "Hermit of Mink Hollow was released in May 1978. Popularly viewed as his most immediately accessible work since Something/Anything?, it received more public attention and radio airplay than most of Rundgren's efforts since A Wizard, a True Star and was heralded as a \"return to form\" after the string of prog records with Utopia. In the US, the LP peaked at number 36, while single \"Can We Still Be Friends\" reached number 29. The song became Rundgren's most-covered, with versions by Robert Palmer, Rod Stewart, Colin Blunstone, and Mandy Moore. To promote the work, Rundgren undertook an American tour playing at smaller venues including The Bottom Line in New York and The Roxy in Los Angeles. These shows resulted in the double live album Back to the Bars, which featured a mixture of material from his solo work and Utopia, performed with backing musicians including Utopia, Spencer Davis, Daryl Hall and John Oates and Stevie Nicks.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, Utopia recorded a Beatles parody album in the form of Deface the Music. It included \"Everybody Else Is Wrong\", another song perceived to have been aimed at Lennon. Later that year, Lennon was killed by Mark David Chapman, an obsessive Rundgren fan who was incensed by Lennon's remarks on religion. When he was apprehended, Chapman was wearing a promotional T-shirt for Hermit of Mink Hollow and had left a copy of Runt. The Ballad of Todd Rundgren in his hotel room. Rundgren was not aware of the connections until \"way after the fact\". When asked about the Melody Maker feud, Chapman stated he was not aware of the musicians' interactions in the press until years after they occurred.",
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"plaintext": "1981 saw the album-long concept work Healing. His music video for the song \"Time Heals\" was among the first videos aired on MTV, and a video he produced for RCA, accompanied by Gustav Holst's The Planets, was used as a demo for their videodisc players. His experience with computer graphics dates back to 1981, when he developed one of the first computer paint programs, dubbed the Utopia Graphics System; it ran on an Apple II with Apple's digitizer tablet. He is also the co-developer of the computer screensaver system Flowfazer.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren returned to recording under his own name for With a Twist... (1997), an album of bossa-nova covers of his older material. His PatroNet work, which trickled out to subscribers over more than a year, was released in 2000 as One Long Year. In 2004, Rundgren released Liars, a concept album about \"paucity of truth\", that features a mixture of his older and newer sounds.",
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"plaintext": "In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, Rundgren created the score for the film A Face to a Name, directed by Douglas Sloan. The film depicted numerous photographs of missing New Yorkers that were displayed on Bellevue Hospital's 'wall of prayers' following the attacks. The film was part of a special screening at the Woodstock Film Festival in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2006, the new lineup played a few private shows for industry professionals, played live on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and made other media appearances before commencing a 2006 summer tour with the re-formed Blondie. Rundgren referred to the project as \"an opportunity ... for me to pay my bills, play to a larger audience, work with musicians I know and like, and ideally have some fun for a year.\" ",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Rundgren released White Knight, which features collaborations with Trent Reznor, Robyn, Daryl Hall, Joe Walsh and Donald Fagen.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2018, Cleopatra Press published his self-penned memoir, The Individualist: Digressions, Dreams, and Dissertations. The book contains 181 chapters, each one page long, and each consisting of three paragraphs. He said that \"I realized that I have to do this or somebody else will do it. I’m getting to the point where I could at some point not be able to do it myself, and then someone else would do it and I wouldn’t be happy with the result.\" Its coverage ends at Rundgren's 50th birthday in 1998, which was the same time he began writing the book. Since then, he said, \"my life has been a lot more boring ... I'm not doing as much record production as I used to, so interesting tales that go along with those projects don’t exist anymore.\" On October 21, 2019, he stopped by the Library of Congress and signed a braille copy—which was produced for him by a fan and National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled patron who is blind.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren toured in late 2019 with Micky Dolenz, Jason Scheff, Christopher Cross and Joey Molland of Badfinger in celebration of the Beatles' White Album on the \"It Was Fifty Years Ago Today – A Tribute to the Beatles’ White Album\".",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren collaborated with Weezer frontman Rivers Cuomo in 2020, releasing the single \"Down With The Ship\". In December, he released his English translation of the 1978 song \"Flappie\", originally by Dutch comedian Youp van 't Hek. That April, he reunited with Sparks 50 years after producing their debut album, releasing a single \"Your Fandango\".",
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"plaintext": "Writing for AllMusic, music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine recognizes Rundgren thusly:",
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"plaintext": "As a solo artist from 1972 to 1978, Rundgren scored four US Top 40 singles on the Billboard Hot 100, including one Top 10 hit with \"Hello, It's Me\", and three US Top 40 albums on the Billboard 200. He is one of the first acts to be prominent both as an artist and as a producer. and he was also influential in the fields of power pop, lo-fi, overdubbing, and experimental music. Rundgren performed in an eclectic variety of styles, so much so that his singles often contrasted with other tracks from the LPs from which they derived, which curtailed his mass appeal. Of his early incorporation of digital technology, he said \"I wasn't the first to start recording digitally, because it was so expensive. But once the technology came down to where I could afford it, then I went digital.\" Rundgren said that adapting his sound to meet commercial expectations was also never an issue for him since he already made \"so much money from production\", a rare luxury for an artist.",
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"plaintext": "Comparisons are sometimes drawn between Rundgren and producer/artists Brian Wilson and Brian Eno. Biographer Paul Myers attributes the recording studio to be Rundgren's \"ultimate instrument\". Rundgren acknowledged that, in the case of his own records, he does not think \"as a producer\", but uses the studio to \"assist in creating a performance\". His recording processes continued in the same tradition as multitrack recording innovator Les Paul as well as the studio experiments of the Beatles and the Beach Boys.",
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"plaintext": "According to biographer Myers, Rundgren himself came to inspire \"a generation of self-contained geniuses like Prince ... Ironically, some of his innovations would come to liberate the recording artist in such a way as to lessen the perceived value, or need, for a record producer at all.\" Rundgren's influence is also cited to Hall & Oates, Björk and Daft Punk. Slate writer Marc Weingarten identified A Cappella as the precedent for Björk's \"all vocals, all the time\" experiment Medúlla (2004) and said that, overall, \"The two [artists] share more common ground than their fans might think.\"",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren's production work for other artists were largely one-off affairs. Exceptions were Grand Funk Railroad, the New York Dolls, the Tubes, Hello People, and the Pursuit of Happiness. He described his typical function as being a \"'songcraft' agitator\". In cases where the act's songs were unfinished, he would complete them and decline a writer's credit. Some of his collaborators frequently characterize him as a \"genius\", but also \"sarcastic\" and \"aloof\". His most notorious production was for XTC's 1986 album Skylarking, known for the creative tensions and disagreements that arose during its sessions. The album is sometimes regarded as both the pinnacle of Rundgren's production career and of the career of XTC. He commented that, in spite of the turmoil surrounding its making, the record \"ultimately ... sounds like we were having a great time doing it. And at times we were having a good time.\" All three members expressed admiration for the end product.",
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"plaintext": "During the mid-to-late 1970s, Rundgren regularly played the eye-catching psychedelic Gibson SG (known variously as \"Sunny\" or \"The Fool\"), which Eric Clapton had played in Cream. After he had stopped using it ca. 1968, Clapton gave the guitar to George Harrison, who subsequently 'loaned' it to British singer Jackie Lomax. In 1972, after meeting at a recording session, Lomax sold the guitar to Rundgren for $500 with an option to buy it back, which he never took up. Rundgren played it extensively during the early years of Utopia before retiring the instrument for a short time in the mid to late 1970s, which in that time he had the guitar restored having a lacquer finish applied to protect the paint and replaced the tailpiece and bridge to stabilize tuning, bringing the guitar back out on tour during the 1980 Deface the Music tour and using it on and off throughout the 1980s until 1993 when he permanently retired the guitar, eventually auctioning it off in 1999; he now uses a reproduction given to him in 1988 by a Japanese fan.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren began a relationship with model Bebe Buell in 1972. During a break in their relationship, Buell had a brief relationship with Steven Tyler, which resulted in an unplanned pregnancy. Buell gave birth to Liv Tyler on July 1, 1977. Buell initially claimed that Todd Rundgren was the biological father and named the child Liv Rundgren. Shortly after Liv's birth, Rundgren and Buell ended their romantic relationship, but Rundgren remained committed to Liv. At age eleven, Liv learned that her biological father was Steven Tyler. According to Liv Tyler \"...Todd basically decided when I was born that I needed a father so he signed my birth certificate. He knew that there was a chance that I might not be his, but…\" He paid to put her through private school, and she visited him several times a year. As of 2012, Tyler maintains a close relationship with Rundgren. \"I'm so grateful to him, I have so much love for him. You know, when he holds me it feels like Daddy. And he's very protective and strong.\" Buell's stated reason for claiming that Rundgren was Liv's father was that Tyler was too heavily addicted to drugs at the time of Liv's birth.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren had a long-term relationship with Karen Darvin, with whom he had two sons, Rex (born 1980) and Randy (born 1985). Rex was a minor league baseball player (infielder) for nine seasons. Darvin had previously been with Bruce Springsteen in a relationship that ended in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "Rundgren married Michele Gray in 1998. Gray had been a dancer with The Tubes and had performed with Rundgren as a backup singer on the tour for his album Nearly Human which led to a number of appearances on the David Letterman Show as one of The World's Most Dangerous Backup Singers. Together, they have a son, named Rebop.",
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"plaintext": "In the book A Wizard, a True Star, it is stated that he diagnosed himself with attention-deficit disorder.",
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"plaintext": " 1984: Grammy Award nomination for Best Music Video – “Videosyncracy”",
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"plaintext": " 1995: Berkeley Lifetime Achievement Award from the Popular Culture Society at UC Berkeley.",
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"plaintext": " 2017: Honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music, where he delivered the commencement address, and an honorary doctorate from DePauw University.",
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"plaintext": " 2018: Nominated for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's class of 2019. Since becoming eligible in 1995, he has often been asked about his absence from the Hall of Fame. A 2018 poll conducted by the institution, which is not factored in the final vote, placed Rundgren as the third-most deserving nominee on the ballot. In 2016, Rundgren told an interviewer: \"It doesn't have the same cachet as a Nobel Peace Prize or some historical foundation. If I told you about how they actually determine who gets into the Hall of Fame, you'd think that I was bullshitting you, because I've been told what's involved. ... It's just as corrupt as anything else, and that's why I don't care.\"",
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"plaintext": "The nomenclature for paclitaxel is structured on a tetracyclic 17-atom skeleton. There are a total of 11 stereocenters. The active stereoisomer is (−)-paclitaxel (shown here).",
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"plaintext": "From 1967 to 1993, almost all paclitaxel produced was derived from bark of the Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia, the harvesting of which kills the tree in the process. The processes used were descendants of the original isolation method of Monroe Wall and Mansukh Wani; by 1987, the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) had contracted Hauser Chemical Research of Boulder, Colorado, to handle bark on the scale needed for phase II and III trials. While both the size of the wild population of the Pacific yew and the magnitude of the eventual demand for paclitaxel were uncertain, it was clear that an alternative, sustainable source of the natural product would be needed. Initial attempts to broaden its sourcing used needles from the tree, or material from other related Taxus species, including cultivated ones, but these attempts were challenged by the relatively low and often highly variable yields obtained. Early in the 1990s, coincident with increased sensitivity to the ecology of the forests of the Pacific Northwest, paclitaxel was successfully extracted on a clinically useful scale from these sources.",
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"plaintext": "Concurrently, synthetic chemists in the U.S. and France had been interested in paclitaxel, beginning in the late 1970s. As noted, by 1992 extensive efforts were underway to accomplish the total synthesis of paclitaxel, efforts motivated by the desire to generate new chemical understanding rather than to achieve practical commercial production. In contrast, the French group of Pierre Potier at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) addressed the matter of overall process yield, showing that it was feasible to isolate relatively large quantities of the compound 10-deacetylbaccatin from the European yew, Taxus baccata, which grew on the CNRS campus and whose needles were available in large quantity. By virtue of its structure, 10-deacetylbaccatin was seen as a viable starting material for a short semisynthesis to produce paclitaxel. By 1988, Poitier and collaborators had published a semisynthetic route from needles of the European yew to paclitaxel.",
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"plaintext": "The view of the NCI, however, was that even this route was not practical. The group of Robert A. Holton had also pursued a practical semisynthetic production route; by late 1989, Holton's group had developed a semisynthetic route to paclitaxel with twice the yield of the Potier process. Florida State University, where Holton worked, signed a deal with Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS) to license their semisynthesis and future patents. In 1992, Holton patented an improved process with an 80% yield, and BMS took the process in-house and started to manufacture paclitaxel in Ireland from 10-deacetylbaccatin isolated from the needles of the European yew. In early 1993, BMS announced that it would cease reliance on Pacific yew bark by the end of 1995, effectively terminating ecological controversy over its use. This announcement also made good their commitment to develop an alternative supply route, made to the NCI in their cooperative research and development agreement (CRADA) application of 1989.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2013, BMS was using the semisynthetic method utilizing needles from the European yew to produce paclitaxel. Another company which worked with BMS until 2012, Phyton Biotech, Inc., uses plant cell fermentation (PCF) technology. By cultivating a specific Taxus cell line in fermentation tanks, they no longer need ongoing sourcing of material from actual yew tree plantations. Paclitaxel is then captured directly from the suspension broth by a resin allowing concentration to highly enriched powder containing about 40% paclitaxel. The compound is then purified by one chromatographic step followed by crystallization. Compared to the semisynthesis method, PCF eliminates the need for many hazardous chemicals and saves a considerable amount of energy.",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, paclitaxel was discovered as a natural product in a newly described endophytic fungus living in the yew tree. It has since been reported in a number of other endophytic fungi, including Nodulisporium sylviforme, Alternaria taxi, Cladosporium cladosporioides MD2, Metarhizium anisopliae, Aspergillus candidus MD3, Mucor rouxianus, Chaetomella raphigera, Phyllosticta tabernaemontanae, Phomopsis, Pestalotiopsis pauciseta, Phyllosticta citricarpa, Podocarpus sp., Fusarium solani, Pestalotiopsis terminaliae, Pestalotiopsis breviseta, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Gliocladium sp., Alternaria alternata var. monosporus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Nigrospora sp., Pestalotiopsis versicolor, and Taxomyces andreanae. However, there has been contradictory evidence for its production by endophytes, with other studies finding independent production is unlikely.",
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"plaintext": "Taxol is a tetracyclic diterpene, and the biosynthesis of diterpenes starts with a FPP molecule being elongated by the addition of an IPP molecule in order to form geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). The biosynthesis of Taxol contains nineteen steps. These 19 steps can be considered in several steps, with the first step being the formation of the taxane skeleton, which then undergoes a series of oxygenations. Following the oxygenations, two acetylations and a benzoylation occur on the intermediate. The oxygenation of the taxane core is believed to occur on C5 and C10, C2 and C9, C13 followed by C7, and a C1 hydroxylation later on in the pathway. Later in the pathway, an oxidation at C9 forms a ketone functional group and an oxetane, forming the intermediate baccatin III. The final steps of the pathway include the formation of a C13-side chain which is attached to baccatin III. The biosynthesis of Taxol is illustrated in more detail in the figure, with steps 1-7 all occurring in the enzyme taxadiene synthase (TS on the figure). Taxol's biosynthesis begins with E,E,E-GGPP losing pyrophosphate via an SN1 mechanism (step 1 in the figure). The double-bond attacks the cation via electrophilic addition, yielding a tertiary cation and creating the first ring closure (step 2). Another electrophilic attack occurs, further cyclizing the structure by creating the first 6-membered ring and creating another tertiary cation (step 3). An intramolecular proton transfer occurs, attacking the verticillyl cation (step 4) and creating a double bond, yielding a tertiary cation. An electrophilic cyclization occurs in step 5, and an intramolecular proton transfer attacks the taxenyl cation (step 6). This forms the fused ring structure intermediate known as taxadiene. Taxadiene then undergoes a series of 10 oxidations via NADPH, forming the intermediate taxadiene-5α-acetoxy-10β-ol (multiple steps later in the figure). A series of hydroxylations and esterficiations occur, forming the intermediate 10-deacetyl-baccatin III, which undergoes a further series of esterifications and a side-chain hydroxylation. This finally yields the product taxol.",
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"plaintext": "By 1992, at least thirty academic research teams globally were working to achieve a total synthesis of this natural product, with the synthesis proceeding from simple natural products and other readily available starting materials. This total synthesis effort was motivated primarily by the desire to generate new chemical understanding, rather than with an expectation of the practical commercial production of paclitaxel. The first laboratories to complete the total synthesis from much less complex starting materials were the research groups of Robert A. Holton, who had the first article to be accepted for publication, and of K. C. Nicolaou who had the first article to appear in print (by a week, on 7 February 1994). Though the Holton submission preceded the Nicolaou by a month (21 December 1993 versus 24 January 1994), the near coincidence of the publications arising from each of these massive, multiyear efforts—11–18 authors appearing on each of the February 1994 publications—has led the ending of the race to be termed a \"tie\" or a \"photo finish\", though each group has argued that their synthetic strategy and tactics were superior.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2006, five additional research groups had reported successful total syntheses of paclitaxel: Wender et al. in 1997, and Kuwajima et al. and Mukaiyama et al. in 1998 with further linear syntheses, and Danishefsky et al. in 1996 and Takahashi et al. in 2006 with further convergent syntheses. As of that date, all strategies had aimed to prepare a 10-deacetylbaccatin-type core containing the ABCD ring system, followed generally by last stage addition of the \"tail\" to the 13-hydroxyl group.",
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"plaintext": "While the \"political climate surrounding [paclitaxel] and [the Pacific yew] in the early 1990s ... helped bolster [a] link between total synthesis and the [paclitaxel] supply problem,\" and though total synthesis activities were a requisite to explore the structure-activity relationships of paclitaxel via generation of analogs for testing, the total synthesis efforts were never seen \"as a serious commercial route\" to provide significant quantities of the natural product for medical testing or therapeutic use.",
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"plaintext": "The discovery of paclitaxel began in 1962 as a result of a NCI-funded screening program. A number of years later it was isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia, hence its name \"taxol\".",
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"plaintext": "The discovery was made by Monroe E. Wall and Mansukh C. Wani at the Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, in 1971. These scientists isolated the natural product from the bark of the Pacific yew tree, determined its structure and named it \"taxol\", and arranged for its first biological testing. The compound was then developed commercially by BMS, who had the generic name assigned as \"paclitaxel\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1955, the NCI in the United States set up the Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Center (CCNSC) to act as a public screening center for anticancer activity in compounds submitted by external institutions and companies. Although the majority of compounds screened were of synthetic origin, one chemist, Jonathan Hartwell, who was employed there from 1958 onwards, had experience with natural product derived compounds, and began a plant screening operation. After some years of informal arrangements, in July 1960, the NCI commissioned the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) botanists to collect samples from about 1,000 plant species per year. On 21 August 1962, one of those botanists, Arthur S. Barclay, collected bark from a single Pacific yew tree in a forest north of the town of Packwood, Washington, as part of a four-month trip to collect material from over 200 different species. The material was then processed by a number of specialist CCNSC subcontractors, and one of the tree's samples was found to be cytotoxic in a cellular assay on 22 May 1964.",
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"plaintext": "Accordingly, in late 1964 or early 1965, the fractionation and isolation laboratory run by Monroe E. Wall in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, began work on fresh Taxus samples, isolating the active ingredient in September 1966 and announcing their findings at an April 1967 American Chemical Society meeting in Miami Beach. They named the pure compound taxol in June 1967. Wall and his colleague Wani published their results, including the chemical structure, in 1971.",
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"plaintext": "The NCI continued to commission work to collect more Taxus bark and to isolate increasing quantities of taxol. By 1969, of crude extract had been isolated from almost of bark, although this ultimately yielded only of pure material, but for several years, no use was made of the compound by the NCI. In 1975, it was shown to be active in another in vitro system; two years later, a new department head reviewed the data and finally recommended taxol be moved on to the next stage in the discovery process. This required increasing quantities of purified taxol, up to , and in 1977 a further request for of bark was made.",
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"plaintext": "In 1978, two NCI researchers published a report showing taxol was mildly effective in leukaemic mice. In November 1978, taxol was shown to be effective in xenograft studies. Meanwhile, taxol began to be well known in the cell biology, as well as the cancer community, with a publication in early 1979 by Susan B. Horwitz, a molecular pharmacologist at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, showing taxol had a previously unknown mechanism of action involving the stabilization of microtubules. Together with formulation problems, this increased interest from researchers meant that, by 1980, the NCI envisaged needing to collect of bark. Animal toxicology studies were complete by June 1982, and in November NCI applied for the IND necessary to begin clinical trials in humans.",
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"plaintext": "Phase I clinical trials began in April 1984, and the decision to start Phase II trials was made a year later. These larger trials needed more bark and collection of a further 12,000 pounds was commissioned, which enabled some phase II trials to begin by the end of 1986. But by then it was recognized that the demand for taxol might be substantial and that more than 60,000 pounds of bark might be needed as a minimum. This unprecedentedly large amount brought ecological concerns about the impact on yew populations into focus for the first time, as local politicians and foresters expressed unease at the program.",
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"plaintext": "The first public report from a phase II trial in May 1988 showed promising effects in melanoma and refractory ovarian cancer. At this point, Gordon Cragg of the NCI's Natural Product Branch calculated the synthesis of enough taxol to treat all the ovarian cancer and melanoma cases in the US would require the destruction of 360,000 trees annually. For the first time, serious consideration was given to the problem of supply.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the practical and, in particular, the financial scale of the program needed, the NCI decided to seek association with a pharmaceutical company, and in August 1989, it published a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) offering its current stock and supply from current bark stocks, and proprietary access to the data so far collected, to a company willing to commit to providing the funds to collect further raw material, isolate taxol, and fund a large proportion of clinical trials. In the words of Goodman and Welsh, authors of a substantial scholarly book on taxol, \"The NCI was thinking, not of collaboration, ... but of a hand-over of taxol (and its problems)\".",
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"plaintext": "Although the offer was widely advertised, only four companies responded to the CRADA, including the American firm Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS),",
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"plaintext": "which was selected as the partner in December 1989. The choice of BMS later became controversial and was the subject of Congressional hearings in 1991 and 1992. While it seems clear the NCI had little choice but to seek a commercial partner, there was also controversy about the terms of the deal, eventually leading to a report by the General Accounting Office in 2003, which concluded the NIH had failed to ensure value for money. In related CRADAs with the USDA and Department of the Interior, Bristol-Myers Squibb was given exclusive first refusal on all Federal supplies of Taxus brevifolia.",
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"plaintext": "This exclusive contract lead to some criticism for giving BMS a \"cancer monopoly\".",
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"plaintext": "Eighteen months after the CRADA, BMS filed a new drug application (NDA), which was given FDA approval at the very end of 1992.",
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"plaintext": "Although there was no patent on the compound, the provisions of the Waxman-Hatch Act gave Bristol-Myers Squibb five years exclusive marketing rights.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, BMS applied to trademark the name taxol as Taxol(R). This was controversially approved in 1992. At the same time, paclitaxel replaced taxol as the generic (INN) name of the compound. Critics, including the journal Nature, argued the name taxol had been used for more than two decades and in more than 600 scientific articles and suggested the trademark should not have been awarded and the BMS should renounce its rights to it. BMS argued changing the name would cause confusion among oncologists and possibly endanger the health of patients. BMS has continued to defend its rights to the name in the courts.",
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"plaintext": "BMS has also been criticized for misrepresentation by Goodman and Walsh, who quote from a company report saying \"It was not until 1971 that ... testing ... enabled the isolation of paclitaxel, initially described as 'compound 17\". This quote is, strictly speaking, accurate: the objection seems to be that this misleadingly neglects to explain that it was the scientist doing the isolation who named the compound taxol and it was not referred to in any other way for more than twenty years. Annual sales peaked in 2000, reaching US$1.6 billion; paclitaxel is now available in generic form.",
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"plaintext": ", the cost to the NHS per patient in early breast cancer, assuming four cycles of treatment, was about £4,000 (approx. $6,000).",
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"plaintext": "Caffeine has been speculated to inhibit paclitaxel-induced apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from its direct clinical use, paclitaxel is used extensively in biological and biomedical research as a microtubule stabilizer. In general, in vitro assays involving microtubules, such as motility assays, rely on paclitaxel to maintain microtubule integrity in the absence of the various nucleating factors and other stabilizing elements found in the cell. For example, it is used for in vitro tests of drugs that aim to alter the behavior of microtubule motor proteins, or for studies of mutant motor proteins. Moreover, Paclitaxel has been used in vitro to inhibit insulin fibrillation; in a molar ratio of 10:1 (insulin:paclitaxel), it hindered insulin fibrillation near 70%. Iso-thermal titration calorimetry (ITC) findings indicated a spontaneous tendency of paclitaxel to interact with insulin through hydrogen bonds and van der Waal's forces. Also, the inhibitory role of paclitaxel is attributed to its impact on the colloidal stability of protein solution, as it was observed that paclitaxel inhibited lysozyme fibrillation by inducing the formation of \"off-pathway\" oligomeric intermediates and increasing the colloidal stability subsequently. Paclitaxel is sometimes used for in vivo studies as well; it can be fed to test organisms, such as fruit flies, or injected into individual cells, to inhibit microtubule disassembly or to increase the number of microtubules in the cell. Paclitaxel induces remyelination in a demyelinating mouse in vivo and inhibits hPAD2 in vitro though its methyl ester side chain. Angiotech Pharmaceuticals Inc. began phase II clinical trials in 1999 as a multiple sclerosis treatment but in 2002, reported that the results showed no statistical significance.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016 in vitro multi-drug resistant mouse tumor cells were treated with paclitaxel encased in exosomes. Doses 98% less than common dosing had the same effect. Also, dye-marked exosomes were able to mark tumor cells, potentially aiding in diagnosis.",
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"plaintext": " Molecule of the Month: TAXOL by Neil Edwards, University of Bristol.",
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"plaintext": " A Tale of Taxol from Florida State University.",
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"plaintext": "Occam's razor, Ockham's razor, or Ocham's razor (), also known as the principle of parsimony or the law of parsimony (), is the problem-solving principle that \"entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity\". It is generally understood in the sense that with competing theories or explanations, the simpler one, for example a model with fewer parameters, is to be preferred. The idea is frequently attributed to English Franciscan friar William of Ockham (), a scholastic philosopher and theologian, although he never used these words. This philosophical razor advocates that when presented with competing hypotheses about the same prediction, one should select the solution with the fewest assumptions, and that this is not meant to be a way of choosing between hypotheses that make different predictions.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, in science, Occam's razor is used as an abductive heuristic in the development of theoretical models rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models. In the scientific method, Occam's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion. For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since failing explanations can always be burdened with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they tend to be more testable.",
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"plaintext": "The phrase Occam's razor did not appear until a few centuries after William of Ockham's death in 1347. Libert Froidmont, in his On Christian Philosophy of the Soul, takes credit for the phrase, speaking of \"novacula occami\". Ockham did not invent this principle, but the \"razor\"—and its association with him—may be due to the frequency and effectiveness with which he used it. Ockham stated the principle in various ways, but the most popular version, \"Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity\" () was formulated by the Irish Franciscan philosopher John Punch in his 1639 commentary on the works of Duns Scotus.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of what has come to be known as Occam's razor are traceable to the works of earlier philosophers such as John Duns Scotus (1265–1308), Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253), Maimonides (Moses ben-Maimon, 1138–1204), and even Aristotle (384–322BC). Aristotle writes in his Posterior Analytics, \"We may assume the superiority [other things being equal] of the demonstration which derives from fewer postulates or hypotheses.\" Ptolemy () stated, \"We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible.\"",
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"plaintext": "Phrases such as \"It is vain to do with more what can be done with fewer\" and \"A plurality is not to be posited without necessity\" were commonplace in 13th-century scholastic writing. Robert Grosseteste, in Commentary on [Aristotle's] the Posterior Analytics Books (Commentarius in Posteriorum Analyticorum Libros) (c. 1217–1220), declares: \"That is better and more valuable which requires fewer, other circumstances being equal... For if one thing were demonstrated from many and another thing from fewer equally known premises, clearly that is better which is from fewer because it makes us know quickly, just as a universal demonstration is better than particular because it produces knowledge from fewer premises. Similarly in natural science, in moral science, and in metaphysics the best is that which needs no premises and the better that which needs the fewer, other circumstances being equal.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) states that \"it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles has been produced by many.\" Aquinas uses this principle to construct an objection to God's existence, an objection that he in turn answers and refutes generally (cf. quinque viae), and specifically, through an argument based on causality. Hence, Aquinas acknowledges the principle that today is known as Occam's razor, but prefers causal explanations to other simple explanations (cf. also Correlation does not imply causation).",
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"plaintext": "William of Ockham (circa 1287–1347) was an English Franciscan friar and theologian, an influential medieval philosopher and a nominalist. His popular fame as a great logician rests chiefly on the maxim attributed to him and known as Occam's razor. The term razor refers to distinguishing between two hypotheses either by \"shaving away\" unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two similar conclusions.",
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"plaintext": "While it has been claimed that Occam's razor is not found in any of William's writings, one can cite statements such as William of Ockham – Wikiquote (\"Plurality must never be posited without necessity\"), which occurs in his theological work on the Sentences of Peter Lombard (Quaestiones et decisiones in quattuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi; ed. Lugd., 1495, i, dist. 27, qu. 2, K).",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, the precise words sometimes attributed to William of Ockham, (Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity), are absent in his extant works; this particular phrasing comes from John Punch, who described the principle as a \"common axiom\" (axioma vulgare) of the Scholastics. William of Ockham's contribution seems to restrict the operation of this principle in matters pertaining to miracles and God's power; so, in the Eucharist, a plurality of miracles is possible, simply because it pleases God.",
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"plaintext": "This principle is sometimes phrased as (\"Plurality should not be posited without necessity\"). In his Summa Totius Logicae, i. 12, William of Ockham cites the principle of economy, (\"It is futile to do with more things that which can be done with fewer\"; Thorburn, 1918, pp.352–53; Kneale and Kneale, 1962, p.243.)",
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"plaintext": "To quote Isaac Newton, \"We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the sentence hypotheses non fingo, Newton affirms the success of this approach.",
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"plaintext": "Bertrand Russell offers a particular version of Occam's razor: \"Whenever possible, substitute constructions out of known entities for inferences to unknown entities.\"",
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"plaintext": "Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observationsfor example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. The only assumption is that the environment follows some unknown but computable probability distribution. This theory is a mathematical formalization of Occam's razor.",
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"plaintext": "Another technical approach to Occam's razor is ontological parsimony. Parsimony means spareness and is also referred to as the Rule of Simplicity. This is considered a strong version of Occam's razor. A variation used in medicine is called the \"Zebra\": a physician should reject an exotic medical diagnosis when a more commonplace explanation is more likely, derived from Theodore Woodward's dictum \"When you hear hoofbeats, think of horses not zebras\".",
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"plaintext": "Ernst Mach formulated the stronger version of Occam's razor into physics, which he called the Principle of Economy stating: \"Scientists must use the simplest means of arriving at their results and exclude everything not perceived by the senses.\"",
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"plaintext": "This principle goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who wrote \"Nature operates in the shortest way possible.\" The idea of parsimony or simplicity in deciding between theories, though not the intent of the original expression of Occam's razor, has been assimilated into common culture as the widespread layman's formulation that \"the simplest explanation is usually the correct one.\"",
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"plaintext": "Prior to the 20th century, it was a commonly held belief that nature itself was simple and that simpler hypotheses about nature were thus more likely to be true. Thomas Aquinas made this argument in the 13th century, writing, \"If a thing can be done adequately by means of one, it is superfluous to do it by means of several; for we observe that nature does not employ two instruments [if] one suffices.\"",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in the 20th century, epistemological justifications based on induction, logic, pragmatism, and especially probability theory have become more popular among philosophers.",
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"plaintext": "Occam's razor has gained strong empirical support in helping to converge on better theories (see Uses section below for some examples).",
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"plaintext": "In the related concept of overfitting, excessively complex models are affected by statistical noise (a problem also known as the bias-variance trade-off), whereas simpler models may capture the underlying structure better and may thus have better predictive performance. It is, however, often difficult to deduce which part of the data is noise (cf. model selection, test set, minimum description length, Bayesian inference, etc.).",
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"plaintext": "The razor's statement that \"other things being equal, simpler explanations are generally better than more complex ones\" is amenable to empirical testing. Another interpretation of the razor's statement would be that \"simpler hypotheses are generally better than the complex ones\". The procedure to test the former interpretation would compare the track records of simple and comparatively complex explanations. If one accepts the first interpretation, the validity of Occam's razor as a tool would then have to be rejected if the more complex explanations were more often correct than the less complex ones (while the converse would lend support to its use). If the latter interpretation is accepted, the validity of Occam's razor as a tool could possibly be accepted if the simpler hypotheses led to correct conclusions more often than not.",
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"plaintext": "Even if some increases in complexity are sometimes necessary, there still remains a justified general bias toward the simpler of two competing explanations. To understand why, consider that for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there is always an infinite number of possible, more complex, and ultimately incorrect, alternatives. This is so because one can always burden a failing explanation with an ad hoc hypothesis. Ad hoc hypotheses are justifications that prevent theories from being falsified.",
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"plaintext": "For example, if a man, accused of breaking a vase, makes supernatural claims that leprechauns were responsible for the breakage, a simple explanation might be that the man did it, but ongoing ad hoc justifications (e.g. \"... and that's not me breaking it on the film; they tampered with that, too\") could successfully prevent complete disproof. This endless supply of elaborate competing explanations, called saving hypotheses, cannot be technically ruled out – except by using Occam's razor.",
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"plaintext": "Any more complex theory might still possibly be true. A study of the predictive validity of Occam's razor found 32 published papers that included 97 comparisons of economic forecasts from simple and complex forecasting methods. None of the papers provided a balance of evidence that complexity of method improved forecast accuracy. In the 25 papers with quantitative comparisons, complexity increased forecast errors by an average of 27 percent.",
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"plaintext": "One justification of Occam's razor is a direct result of basic probability theory. By definition, all assumptions introduce possibilities for error; if an assumption does not improve the accuracy of a theory, its only effect is to increase the probability that the overall theory is wrong.",
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"plaintext": "There have also been other attempts to derive Occam's razor from probability theory, including notable attempts made by Harold Jeffreys and E. T. Jaynes. The probabilistic (Bayesian) basis for Occam's razor is elaborated by David J. C. MacKay in chapter 28 of his book Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, where he emphasizes that a prior bias in favor of simpler models is not required.",
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"plaintext": "William H. Jefferys and James O. Berger (1991) generalize and quantify the original formulation's \"assumptions\" concept as the degree to which a proposition is unnecessarily accommodating to possible observable data. They state, \"A hypothesis with fewer adjustable parameters will automatically have an enhanced posterior probability, due to the fact that the predictions it makes are sharp.\" The use of \"sharp\" here is not only a tongue-in-cheek reference to the idea of a razor, but also indicates that such predictions are more accurate than competing predictions. The model they propose balances the precision of a theory's predictions against their sharpness, preferring theories that sharply make correct predictions over theories that accommodate a wide range of other possible results. This, again, reflects the mathematical relationship between key concepts in Bayesian inference (namely marginal probability, conditional probability, and posterior probability).",
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"plaintext": "The bias–variance tradeoff is a framework that incorporates the Occam's razor principle in its balance between overfitting (associated with lower bias but higher variance) and underfitting (associated with lower variance but higher bias).",
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"plaintext": "Karl Popper argues that a preference for simple theories need not appeal to practical or aesthetic considerations. Our preference for simplicity may be justified by its falsifiability criterion: we prefer simpler theories to more complex ones \"because their empirical content is greater; and because they are better testable\". The idea here is that a simple theory applies to more cases than a more complex one, and is thus more easily falsifiable. This is again comparing a simple theory to a more complex theory where both explain the data equally well.",
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"plaintext": "The philosopher of science Elliott Sober once argued along the same lines as Popper, tying simplicity with \"informativeness\": The simplest theory is the more informative, in the sense that it requires less information to a question. He has since rejected this account of simplicity, purportedly because it fails to provide an epistemic justification for simplicity. He now believes that simplicity considerations (and considerations of parsimony in particular) do not count unless they reflect something more fundamental. Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity (i.e., endowed it with a sui generis existence), when it has meaning only when embedded in a specific context (Sober 1992). If we fail to justify simplicity considerations on the basis of the context in which we use them, we may have no non-circular justification: \"Just as the question 'why be rational?' may have no non-circular answer, the same may be true of the question 'why should simplicity be considered in evaluating the plausibility of hypotheses?'\"",
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"plaintext": "Richard Swinburne argues for simplicity on logical grounds:",
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"plaintext": "According to Swinburne, since our choice of theory cannot be determined by data (see Underdetermination and Duhem–Quine thesis), we must rely on some criterion to determine which theory to use. Since it is absurd to have no logical method for settling on one hypothesis amongst an infinite number of equally data-compliant hypotheses, we should choose the simplest theory: \"Either science is irrational [in the way it judges theories and predictions probable] or the principle of simplicity is a fundamental synthetic a priori truth.\".",
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"plaintext": "From the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus:",
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"plaintext": " 3.328 \"If a sign is not necessary then it is meaningless. That is the meaning of Occam's Razor.\"",
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"plaintext": " (If everything in the symbolism works as though a sign had meaning, then it has meaning.)",
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"plaintext": " 4.04 \"In the proposition, there must be exactly as many things distinguishable as there are in the state of affairs, which it represents. They must both possess the same logical (mathematical) multiplicity (cf. Hertz's Mechanics, on Dynamic Models).\"",
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"plaintext": " 5.47321 \"Occam's Razor is, of course, not an arbitrary rule nor one justified by its practical success. It simply says that unnecessary elements in a symbolism mean nothing. Signs which serve one purpose are logically equivalent; signs which serve no purpose are logically meaningless.\"",
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"plaintext": "and on the related concept of \"simplicity\":",
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"plaintext": " 6.363 \"The procedure of induction consists in accepting as true the simplest law that can be reconciled with our experiences.\"",
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"plaintext": "In science, Occam's razor is used as a heuristic to guide scientists in developing theoretical models rather than as an arbiter between published models. In physics, parsimony was an important heuristic in Albert Einstein's formulation of special relativity, in the development and application of the principle of least action by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and Leonhard Euler, and in the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie.",
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"plaintext": "In chemistry, Occam's razor is often an important heuristic when developing a model of a reaction mechanism. Although it is useful as a heuristic in developing models of reaction mechanisms, it has been shown to fail as a criterion for selecting among some selected published models. In this context, Einstein himself expressed caution when he formulated Einstein's Constraint: \"It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience\". An often-quoted version of this constraint (which cannot be verified as posited by Einstein himself) says \"Everything should be kept as simple as possible, but not simpler.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the scientific method, parsimony is an epistemological, metaphysical or heuristic preference, not an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result. As a logical principle, Occam's razor would demand that scientists accept the simplest possible theoretical explanation for existing data. However, science has shown repeatedly that future data often support more complex theories than do existing data. Science prefers the simplest explanation that is consistent with the data available at a given time, but the simplest explanation may be ruled out as new data become available. That is, science is open to the possibility that future experiments might support more complex theories than demanded by current data and is more interested in designing experiments to discriminate between competing theories than favoring one theory over another based merely on philosophical principles.",
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"plaintext": "When scientists use the idea of parsimony, it has meaning only in a very specific context of inquiry. Several background assumptions are required for parsimony to connect with plausibility in a particular research problem. The reasonableness of parsimony in one research context may have nothing to do with its reasonableness in another. It is a mistake to think that there is a single global principle that spans diverse subject matter.",
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"plaintext": "It has been suggested that Occam's razor is a widely accepted example of extraevidential consideration, even though it is entirely a metaphysical assumption. Most of the time, however, Occam's razor is a conservative tool, cutting out \"crazy, complicated constructions\" and assuring \"that hypotheses are grounded in the science of the day\", thus yielding \"normal\" science: models of explanation and prediction. There are, however, notable exceptions where Occam's razor turns a conservative scientist into a reluctant revolutionary. For example, Max Planck interpolated between the Wien and Jeans radiation laws and used Occam's razor logic to formulate the quantum hypothesis, even resisting that hypothesis as it became more obvious that it was correct.",
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"plaintext": "Appeals to simplicity were used to argue against the phenomena of meteorites, ball lightning, continental drift, and reverse transcriptase. One can argue for atomic building blocks for matter, because it provides a simpler explanation for the observed reversibility of both and chemical reactions as simple separation and rearrangements of atomic building blocks. At the time, however, the atomic theory was considered more complex because it implied the existence of invisible particles that had not been directly detected. Ernst Mach and the logical positivists rejected John Dalton's atomic theory until the reality of atoms was more evident in Brownian motion, as shown by Albert Einstein.",
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"plaintext": "In the same way, postulating the aether is more complex than transmission of light through a vacuum. At the time, however, all known waves propagated through a physical medium, and it seemed simpler to postulate the existence of a medium than to theorize about wave propagation without a medium. Likewise, Isaac Newton's idea of light particles seemed simpler than Christiaan Huygens's idea of waves, so many favored it. In this case, as it turned out, neither the wave—nor the particle—explanation alone suffices, as light behaves like waves and like particles.",
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"plaintext": "Three axioms presupposed by the scientific method are realism (the existence of objective reality), the existence of natural laws, and the constancy of natural law. Rather than depend on provability of these axioms, science depends on the fact that they have not been objectively falsified. Occam's razor and parsimony support, but do not prove, these axioms of science. The general principle of science is that theories (or models) of natural law must be consistent with repeatable experimental observations. This ultimate arbiter (selection criterion) rests upon the axioms mentioned above.",
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"plaintext": "If multiple models of natural law make exactly the same testable predictions, they are equivalent and there is no need for parsimony to choose a preferred one. For example, Newtonian, Hamiltonian and Lagrangian classical mechanics are equivalent. Physicists have no interest in using Occam's razor to say the other two are wrong. Likewise, there is no demand for simplicity principles to arbitrate between wave and matrix formulations of quantum mechanics. Science often does not demand arbitration or selection criteria between models that make the same testable predictions.",
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"plaintext": "Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's razor in either of two contexts both in evolutionary biology: the units of selection controversy and systematics. George C. Williams in his book Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) argues that the best way to explain altruism among animals is based on low-level (i.e., individual) selection as opposed to high-level group selection. Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g., R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behavior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost to the individual, and many posit individual selection as the mechanism that explains altruism solely in terms of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective of others who propose selection at the level of the group as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic traits (e.g., D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The basis for Williams' contention is that of the two, individual selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he is invoking a variant of Occam's razor known as Morgan's Canon: \"In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.\" (Morgan 1903).",
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"plaintext": "However, more recent biological analyses, such as Richard Dawkins' The Selfish Gene, have contended that Morgan's Canon is not the simplest and most basic explanation. Dawkins argues the way evolution works is that the genes propagated in most copies end up determining the development of that particular species, i.e., natural selection turns out to select specific genes, and this is really the fundamental underlying principle that automatically gives individual and group selection as emergent features of evolution.",
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"plaintext": "Zoology provides an example. Muskoxen, when threatened by wolves, form a circle with the males on the outside and the females and young on the inside. This is an example of a behavior by the males that seems to be altruistic. The behavior is disadvantageous to them individually but beneficial to the group as a whole and was thus seen by some to support the group selection theory. Another interpretation is kin selection: if the males are protecting their offspring, they are protecting copies of their own alleles. Engaging in this behavior would be favored by individual selection if the cost to the male musk ox is less than half of the benefit received by his calf – which could easily be the case if wolves have an easier time killing calves than adult males. It could also be the case that male musk oxen would be individually less likely to be killed by wolves if they stood in a circle with their horns pointing out, regardless of whether they were protecting the females and offspring. That would be an example of regular natural selection – a phenomenon called \"the selfish herd\".",
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"plaintext": "Systematics is the branch of biology that attempts to establish patterns of relationship among biological taxa, today generally thought to reflect evolutionary history. It is also concerned with their classification. There are three primary camps in systematics: cladists, pheneticists, and evolutionary taxonomists. Cladists hold that classification should be based on synapomorphies (shared, derived character states), pheneticists contend that overall similarity (synapomorphies and complementary symplesiomorphies) is the determining criterion, while evolutionary taxonomists say that both genealogy and similarity count in classification (in a manner determined by the evolutionary taxonomist).",
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"plaintext": "It is among the cladists that Occam's razor is applied, through the method of cladistic parsimony. Cladistic parsimony (or maximum parsimony) is a method of phylogenetic inference that yields phylogenetic trees (more specifically, cladograms). Cladograms are branching, diagrams used to represent hypotheses of relative degree of relationship, based on synapomorphies. Cladistic parsimony is used to select as the preferred hypothesis of relationships the cladogram that requires the fewest implied character state transformations (or smallest weight, if characters are differentially weighted). Critics of the cladistic approach often observe that for some types of data, parsimony could produce the wrong results, regardless of how much data is collected (this is called statistical inconsistency, or long branch attraction). However, this criticism is also potentially true for any type of phylogenetic inference, unless the model used to estimate the tree reflects the way that evolution actually happened. Because this information is not empirically accessible, the criticism of statistical inconsistency against parsimony holds no force. For a book-length treatment of cladistic parsimony, see Elliott Sober's Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference (1988). For a discussion of both uses of Occam's razor in biology, see Sober's article \"Let's Razor Ockham's Razor\" (1990).",
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"plaintext": "Other methods for inferring evolutionary relationships use parsimony in a more general way. Likelihood methods for phylogeny use parsimony as they do for all likelihood tests, with hypotheses requiring fewer differing parameters (i.e., numbers or different rates of character change or different frequencies of character state transitions) being treated as null hypotheses relative to hypotheses requiring more differing parameters. Thus, complex hypotheses must predict data much better than do simple hypotheses before researchers reject the simple hypotheses. Recent advances employ information theory, a close cousin of likelihood, which uses Occam's razor in the same way. Of course, the choice of the \"shortest tree\" relative to a not-so-short tree under any optimality criterion (smallest distance, fewest steps, or maximum likelihood) is always based on parsimony ",
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"plaintext": "Francis Crick has commented on potential limitations of Occam's razor in biology. He advances the argument that because biological systems are the products of (an ongoing) natural selection, the mechanisms are not necessarily optimal in an obvious sense. He cautions: \"While Ockham's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research.\" This is an ontological critique of parsimony.",
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"plaintext": "In biogeography, parsimony is used to infer ancient vicariant events or migrations of species or populations by observing the geographic distribution and relationships of existing organisms. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral population subdivisions are inferred to be those that require the minimum amount of change.",
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"plaintext": "In the philosophy of religion, Occam's razor is sometimes applied to the existence of God. William of Ockham himself was a Christian. He believed in God, and in the authority of Scripture; he writes that \"nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident (literally, known through itself) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture.\" Ockham believed that an explanation has no sufficient basis in reality when it does not harmonize with reason, experience, or the Bible. However, unlike many theologians of his time, Ockham did not believe God could be logically proven with arguments. To Ockham, science was a matter of discovery, but theology was a matter of revelation and faith. He states: \"only faith gives us access to theological truths. The ways of God are not open to reason, for God has freely chosen to create a world and establish a way of salvation within it apart from any necessary laws that human logic or rationality can uncover.\"",
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"plaintext": "St. Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologica, uses a formulation of Occam's razor to construct an objection to the idea that God exists, which he refutes directly with a counterargument:",
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"plaintext": "Further, it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles has been produced by many. But it seems that everything we see in the world can be accounted for by other principles, supposing God did not exist. For all natural things can be reduced to one principle which is nature; and all voluntary things can be reduced to one principle which is human reason, or will. Therefore there is no need to suppose God's existence.",
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"plaintext": "In turn, Aquinas answers this with the quinque viae, and addresses the particular objection above with the following answer:",
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"plaintext": "Since nature works for a determinate end under the direction of a higher agent, whatever is done by nature must needs be traced back to God, as to its first cause. So also whatever is done voluntarily must also be traced back to some higher cause other than human reason or will, since these can change or fail; for all things that are changeable and capable of defect must be traced back to an immovable and self-necessary first principle, as was shown in the body of the Article.",
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"plaintext": "Rather than argue for the necessity of a god, some theists base their belief upon grounds independent of, or prior to, reason, making Occam's razor irrelevant. This was the stance of Søren Kierkegaard, who viewed belief in God as a leap of faith that sometimes directly opposed reason. This is also the doctrine of Gordon Clark's presuppositional apologetics, with the exception that Clark never thought the leap of faith was contrary to reason (see also Fideism).",
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"plaintext": "Various arguments in favor of God establish God as a useful or even necessary assumption. Contrastingly some anti-theists hold firmly to the belief that assuming the existence of God introduces unnecessary complexity (Schmitt 2005, e.g., the Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit).",
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"plaintext": "Another application of the principle is to be found in the work of George Berkeley (1685–1753). Berkeley was an idealist who believed that all of reality could be explained in terms of the mind alone. He invoked Occam's razor against materialism, stating that matter was not required by his metaphysics and was thus eliminable. One potential problem with this belief is that it's possible, given Berkeley's position, to find solipsism itself more in line with the razor than a God-mediated world beyond a single thinker.",
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"plaintext": "Occam's razor may also be recognized in the apocryphal story about an exchange between Pierre-Simon Laplace and Napoleon. It is said that in praising Laplace for one of his recent publications, the emperor asked how it was that the name of God, which featured so frequently in the writings of Lagrange, appeared nowhere in Laplace's. At that, he is said to have replied, \"It's because I had no need of that hypothesis.\" Though some points of this story illustrate Laplace's atheism, more careful consideration suggests that he may instead have intended merely to illustrate the power of methodological naturalism, or even simply that the fewer logical premises one assumes, the stronger is one's conclusion.",
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"plaintext": "In his article \"Sensations and Brain Processes\" (1959), J. J. C. Smart invoked Occam's razor with the aim to justify his preference of the mind-brain identity theory over spirit-body dualism. Dualists state that there are two kinds of substances in the universe: physical (including the body) and spiritual, which is non-physical. In contrast, identity theorists state that everything is physical, including consciousness, and that there is nothing nonphysical. Though it is impossible to appreciate the spiritual when limiting oneself to the physical, Smart maintained that identity theory explains all phenomena by assuming only a physical reality. Subsequently, Smart has been severely criticized for his use (or misuse) of Occam's razor and ultimately retracted his advocacy of it in this context. Paul Churchland (1984) states that by itself Occam's razor is inconclusive regarding duality. In a similar way, Dale Jacquette (1994) stated that Occam's razor has been used in attempts to justify eliminativism and reductionism in the philosophy of mind. Eliminativism is the thesis that the ontology of folk psychology including such entities as \"pain\", \"joy\", \"desire\", \"fear\", etc., are eliminable in favor of an ontology of a completed neuroscience.",
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"plaintext": "In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsimony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution of punishment in order to avoid excessive punishment. In the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of punishment, Jeremy Bentham's \"parsimony principle\" states that any punishment greater than is required to achieve its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identical to the legal concept of proportionality. Parsimony is a key consideration of the modern restorative justice, and is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment, as well as the prison abolition movement. Bentham believed that true parsimony would require punishment to be individualised to take account of the sensibility of the individual—an individual more sensitive to punishment should be given a proportionately lesser one, since otherwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due to the impracticality of determining each alleged criminal's relative sensitivity to specific punishments.",
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"plaintext": "Marcus Hutter's universal artificial intelligence builds upon Solomonoff's mathematical formalization of the razor to calculate the expected value of an action.",
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"plaintext": "There are various papers in scholarly journals deriving formal versions of Occam's razor from probability theory, applying it in statistical inference, and using it to come up with criteria for penalizing complexity in statistical inference. Papers have suggested a connection between Occam's razor and Kolmogorov complexity.",
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"plaintext": "One of the problems with the original formulation of the razor is that it only applies to models with the same explanatory power (i.e., it only tells us to prefer the simplest of equally good models). A more general form of the razor can be derived from Bayesian model comparison, which is based on Bayes factors and can be used to compare models that don't fit the observations equally well. These methods can sometimes optimally balance the complexity and power of a model. Generally, the exact Occam factor is intractable, but approximations such as Akaike information criterion, Bayesian information criterion, Variational Bayesian methods, false discovery rate, and Laplace's method are used. Many artificial intelligence researchers are now employing such techniques, for instance through work on Occam Learning or more generally on the Free energy principle.",
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"plaintext": "Statistical versions of Occam's razor have a more rigorous formulation than what philosophical discussions produce. In particular, they must have a specific definition of the term simplicity, and that definition can vary. For example, in the Kolmogorov–Chaitin minimum description length approach, the subject must pick a Turing machine whose operations describe the basic operations believed to represent \"simplicity\" by the subject. However, one could always choose a Turing machine with a simple operation that happened to construct one's entire theory and would hence score highly under the razor. This has led to two opposing camps: one that believes Occam's razor is objective, and one that believes it is subjective.",
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"plaintext": "The minimum instruction set of a universal Turing machine requires approximately the same length description across different formulations, and is small compared to the Kolmogorov complexity of most practical theories. Marcus Hutter has used this consistency to define a \"natural\" Turing machine of small size as the proper basis for excluding arbitrarily complex instruction sets in the formulation of razors. Describing the program for the universal program as the \"hypothesis\", and the representation of the evidence as program data, it has been formally proven under Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory that \"the sum of the log universal probability of the model plus the log of the probability of the data given the model should be minimized.\" Interpreting this as minimising the total length of a two-part message encoding model followed by data given model gives us the minimum message length (MML) principle.",
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"plaintext": "One possible conclusion from mixing the concepts of Kolmogorov complexity and Occam's razor is that an ideal data compressor would also be a scientific explanation/formulation generator. Some attempts have been made to re-derive known laws from considerations of simplicity or compressibility.",
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"plaintext": "According to Jürgen Schmidhuber, the appropriate mathematical theory of Occam's razor already exists, namely, Solomonoff's theory of optimal inductive inference and its extensions. See discussions in David L. Dowe's \"Foreword re C. S. Wallace\" for the subtle distinctions between the algorithmic probability work of Solomonoff and the MML work of Chris Wallace, and see Dowe's \"MML, hybrid Bayesian network graphical models, statistical consistency, invariance and uniqueness\" both for such discussions and for (in section 4) discussions of MML and Occam's razor. For a specific example of MML as Occam's razor in the problem of decision tree induction, see Dowe and Needham's \"Message Length as an Effective Ockham's Razor in Decision Tree Induction\".",
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"plaintext": "In software development, the rule of least power argues the correct programming language to use is the one that is simplest while also solving the targeted software problem. In that form the rule is often credited to Tim Berners-Lee since it appeared in his design guidelines for the original Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Complexity in this context is measured either by placing a language into the Chomsky hierarchy or by listing idiomatic features of the language and comparing according to some agreed to scale of difficulties between idioms. Many languages once thought to be of lower complexity have evolved or later been discovered to be more complex than originally intended; so, in practice this rule is applied to the relative ease of a programmer to obtain the power of the language, rather than the precise theoretical limits of the language.",
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"plaintext": "Occam's razor is not an embargo against the positing of any kind of entity, or a recommendation of the simplest theory come what may. Occam's razor is used to adjudicate between theories that have already passed \"theoretical scrutiny\" tests and are equally well-supported by evidence. Furthermore, it may be used to prioritize empirical testing between two equally plausible but unequally testable hypotheses; thereby minimizing costs and wastes while increasing chances of falsification of the simpler-to-test hypothesis.",
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"plaintext": "Another contentious aspect of the razor is that a theory can become more complex in terms of its structure (or syntax), while its ontology (or semantics) becomes simpler, or vice versa. Quine, in a discussion on definition, referred to these two perspectives as \"economy of practical expression\" and \"economy in grammar and vocabulary\", respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Galileo Galilei lampooned the misuse of Occam's razor in his Dialogue. The principle is represented in the dialogue by Simplicio. The telling point that Galileo presented ironically was that if one really wanted to start from a small number of entities, one could always consider the letters of the alphabet as the fundamental entities, since one could construct the whole of human knowledge out of them.",
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"plaintext": "Occam's razor has met some opposition from people who have considered it too extreme or rash. Walter Chatton () was a contemporary of William of Ockham who took exception to Occam's razor and Ockham's use of it. In response he devised his own anti-razor: \"If three things are not enough to verify an affirmative proposition about things, a fourth must be added, and so on.\" Although there have been a number of philosophers who have formulated similar anti-razors since Chatton's time, no one anti-razor has perpetuated in as much notability as Chatton's anti-razor, although this could be the case of the Late Renaissance Italian motto of unknown attribution (\"Even if it is not true, it is well conceived\") when referred to a particularly artful explanation.",
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"plaintext": "Anti-razors have also been created by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), and Karl Menger (1902–1985). Leibniz's version took the form of a principle of plenitude, as Arthur Lovejoy has called it: the idea being that God created the most varied and populous of possible worlds. Kant felt a need to moderate the effects of Occam's razor and thus created his own counter-razor: \"The variety of beings should not rashly be diminished.\"",
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"plaintext": "Karl Menger found mathematicians to be too parsimonious with regard to variables, so he formulated his Law Against Miserliness, which took one of two forms: \"Entities must not be reduced to the point of inadequacy\" and \"It is vain to do with fewer what requires more.\" A less serious but even more extremist anti-razor is 'Pataphysics, the \"science of imaginary solutions\" developed by Alfred Jarry (1873–1907). Perhaps the ultimate in anti-reductionism, \"'Pataphysics seeks no less than to view each event in the universe as completely unique, subject to no laws but its own.\" Variations on this theme were subsequently explored by the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges in his story/mock-essay \"Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius\". Physicist R. V. Jones contrived Crabtree's Bludgeon, which states that \"[n]o set of mutually inconsistent observations can exist for which some human intellect cannot conceive a coherent explanation, however complicated.\"",
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"plaintext": " (Preprint available as \"Sharpening Occam's Razor on a Bayesian Strop\").",
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"plaintext": " Ockham's Razor, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sir Anthony Kenny, Marilyn Adams & Richard Cross (In Our Time, 31 May 2007)",
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| [
"Adages",
"Concepts_in_epistemology",
"Concepts_in_ethics",
"Concepts_in_metaphysics",
"Concepts_in_the_philosophy_of_mind",
"Concepts_in_the_philosophy_of_science",
"Deductive_reasoning",
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"Hypotheses",
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"Philosophical_analogies",
"Philosophical_logic",
"Philosophical_problems",
"Philosophy_of_science",
"Principles",
"Razors_(philosophy)",
"Reductionism",
"Scholasticism"
]
| 131,012 | 128,954 | 433 | 237 | 0 | 0 | Occam's razor | philosophical principle used to judge credibility of statements | [
"Occam's Razor",
"Ockham's Razor",
"Occam razor",
"Ockham razor",
"law of parsimony",
"principle of parsimony"
]
|
36,806 | 1,106,664,767 | Cotton | [
{
"plaintext": "Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor percentages of waxes, fats, pectins, and water. Under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will increase the dispersal of the seeds.",
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"plaintext": "The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa, Egypt and India. The greatest diversity of wild cotton species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia and Africa. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds.",
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"plaintext": "The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable, and durable textile. The use of cotton for fabric is known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric dated to the fifth millennium BC have been found in the Indus Valley civilization, as well as fabric remnants dated back to 6000 BC in Peru.",
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"plaintext": "Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the invention of the cotton gin that lowered the cost of production that led to its widespread use, and it is the most widely used natural fiber cloth in clothing today.",
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"plaintext": "Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, accounting for 2.5% of the world's arable land. India is the world's largest producer of cotton. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years.",
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"plaintext": "There are four commercially grown species of cotton, all domesticated in antiquity:",
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"plaintext": "Gossypium hirsutum– upland cotton, native to Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean and southern Florida (90% of world production)",
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"plaintext": "Gossypium barbadense– known as extra-long staple cotton, native to tropical South America (8% of world production)",
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"plaintext": "Gossypium arboreum– tree cotton, native to India and Pakistan (less than 2%)",
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"plaintext": "Gossypium herbaceum– Levant cotton, native to southern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (less than 2%)",
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"plaintext": "Hybrid varieties are also cultivated. The two New World cotton species account for the vast majority of modern cotton production, but the two Old World species were widely used before the 1900s. While cotton fibers occur naturally in colors of white, brown, pink and green, fears of contaminating the genetics of white cotton have led many cotton-growing locations to ban the growing of colored cotton varieties.",
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"plaintext": "The word \"cotton\" has Arabic origins, derived from the Arabic word ( or ). This was the usual word for cotton in medieval Arabic. Marco Polo in chapter 2 in his book, describes a province he calls Khotan in Turkestan, today's Xinjiang, where cotton was grown in abundance. The word entered the Romance languages in the mid-12th century, and English a century later. Cotton fabric was known to the ancient Romans as an import but cotton was rare in the Romance-speaking lands until imports from the Arabic-speaking lands in the later medieval era at transformatively lower prices.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest evidence of the use of cotton in the Old World, dated to 5500 BC and preserved in copper beads, has been found at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, at the foot of the Bolan Pass in ancient India, today in Balochistan Pakistan. Fragments of cotton textiles have been found at Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization, and cotton may have been an important export from it.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton bolls discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico, have been",
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"plaintext": "dated to as early as 5500 BC, but this date has been challenged. More securely dated is the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico between around 3400 and 2300 BC. During this time, people between the Río Santiago and the Río Balsas grew, spun, wove, dyed, and sewed cotton. What they didn't use themselves, they sent to their Aztec rulers as tribute, on the scale of ~116 million pounds annually.",
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"plaintext": "In Peru, cultivation of the indigenous cotton species Gossypium barbadense has been dated, from a find in Ancon, to c. 4200 BC, and was the backbone of the development of coastal cultures such as the Norte Chico, Moche, and Nazca. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and wearing clothing made of it.",
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"plaintext": "The Greeks and the Arabs were not familiar with cotton until the Wars of Alexander the Great, as his contemporary Megasthenes told Seleucus I Nicator of \"there being trees on which wool grows\" in \"Indica\". This may be a reference to \"tree cotton\", Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Columbia Encyclopedia:",
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"plaintext": "In Iran (Persia), the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era (5th century BC); however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. Cotton cultivation was common in Merv, Ray and Pars. In Persian poems, especially Ferdowsi's Shahname, there are references to cotton (\"panbe\" in Persian). Marco Polo (13th century) refers to the major products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited Safavid Persia, spoke approvingly of the vast cotton farms of Persia.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum Linnaeus) may have been domesticated 5000 BC in eastern Sudan near the Middle Nile Basin region, where cotton cloth was being produced.",
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"plaintext": "Around the 4th century BC, the cultivation of cotton and the knowledge of its spinning and weaving in Meroë reached a high level. The export of textiles was one of the sources of wealth for Meroë. Aksumite King Ezana boasted in his inscription that he destroyed large cotton plantations in Meroë during his conquest of the region.",
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"plaintext": "During the Han dynasty (207 BC - 220 AD), cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan.",
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"plaintext": "Egyptians grew and spun cotton in the first seven centuries of the Christian era.",
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"plaintext": "Handheld roller cotton gins had been used in India since the 6th century, and was then introduced to other countries from there. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, dual-roller gins appeared in India and China. The Indian version of the dual-roller gin was prevalent throughout the Mediterranean cotton trade by the 16th century. This mechanical device was, in some areas, driven by water power.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest clear illustrations of the spinning wheel come from the Islamic world in the eleventh century. The earliest unambiguous reference to a spinning wheel in India is dated to 1350, suggesting that the spinning wheel was likely introduced from Iran to India during the Delhi Sultanate.",
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"plaintext": "During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an imported fiber in northern Europe, without any knowledge of how it was derived, other than that it was a plant. Because Herodotus had written in his Histories, Book III, 106, that in India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub. This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in several Germanic languages, such as German Baumwolle, which translates as \"tree wool\" (Baum means \"tree\"; Wolle means \"wool\"). Noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in 1350, stated as fact that \"There grew there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungry.\" (See Vegetable Lamb of Tartary.)",
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"plaintext": "Cotton manufacture was introduced to Europe during the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily. The knowledge of cotton weaving was spread to northern Italy in the 12th century, when Sicily was conquered by the Normans, and consequently to the rest of Europe. The spinning wheel, introduced to Europe circa 1350, improved the speed of cotton spinning. By the 15th century, Venice, Antwerp, and Haarlem were important ports for cotton trade, and the sale and transportation of cotton fabrics had become very profitable.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Mughal Empire, which ruled in the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th century to the early 18th century, Indian cotton production increased, in terms of both raw cotton and cotton textiles. The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms such as a new revenue system that was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton and indigo, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.",
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"plaintext": "The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century. Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan. The most important center of cotton production was the Bengal Subah province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.",
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"plaintext": "The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century, and is still used in India through to the present day. Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire. The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin, led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.",
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"plaintext": "It was reported that, with an Indian cotton gin, which is half machine and half tool, one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day. With a modified Forbes version, one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day. If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines, and a few people's labour was used to feed them, they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 19th century, a Frenchman named M. Jumel proposed to the great ruler of Egypt, Mohamed Ali Pasha, that he could earn a substantial income by growing an extra-long staple Maho (Gossypium barbadense) cotton, in Lower Egypt, for the French market. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt; and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops.",
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"plaintext": "Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth most productive cotton industry in the world, in terms of the number of spindles per capita. The industry was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as animal power, water wheels, and windmills, which were also the principal energy sources in Western Europe up until around 1870. It was under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century that steam engines were introduced to the Egyptian cotton industry.",
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"plaintext": "By the time of the American Civil war annual exports had reached $16 million (120,000 bales), which rose to $56 million by 1864, primarily due to the loss of the Confederate supply on the world market. Exports continued to grow even after the reintroduction of US cotton, produced now by a paid workforce, and Egyptian exports reached 1.2 million bales a year by 1903.",
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"plaintext": "The English East India Company (EIC) introduced the British to cheap calico and chintz cloth on the restoration of the monarchy in the 1660s. Initially imported as a novelty side line, from its spice trading posts in Asia, the cheap colourful cloth proved popular and overtook the EIC's spice trade by value in the late 17th century. The EIC embraced the demand, particularly for calico, by expanding its factories in Asia and producing and importing cloth in bulk, creating competition for domestic woollen and linen textile producers. The impacted weavers, spinners, dyers, shepherds and farmers objected and the calico question became one of the major issues of National politics between the 1680s and the 1730s. Parliament began to see a decline in domestic textile sales, and an increase in imported textiles from places like China and India. Seeing the East India Company and their textile importation as a threat to domestic textile businesses, Parliament passed the 1700 Calico Act, blocking the importation of cotton cloth. As there was no punishment for continuing to sell cotton cloth, smuggling of the popular material became commonplace. In 1721, dissatisfied with the results of the first act, Parliament passed a stricter addition, this time prohibiting the sale of most cottons, imported and domestic (exempting only thread Fustian and raw cotton). The exemption of raw cotton from the prohibition initially saw 2 thousand bales of cotton imported annually, to become the basis of a new indigenous industry, initially producing Fustian for the domestic market, though more importantly triggering the development of a series of mechanised spinning and weaving technologies, to process the material. This mechanised production was concentrated in new cotton mills, which slowly expanded till by the beginning of the 1770s seven thousand bales of cotton were imported annually, and pressure was put on Parliament, by the new mill owners, to remove the prohibition on the production and sale of pure cotton cloth, as they could easily compete with anything the EIC could import.",
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"plaintext": "The acts were repealed in 1774, triggering a wave of investment in mill-based cotton spinning and production, doubling the demand for raw cotton within a couple of years, and doubling it again every decade, into the 1840s.",
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"plaintext": "Indian cotton textiles, particularly those from Bengal, continued to maintain a competitive advantage up until the 19th century. In order to compete with India, Britain invested in labour-saving technical progress, while implementing protectionist policies such as bans and tariffs to restrict Indian imports. At the same time, the East India Company's rule in India contributed to its deindustrialization, opening up a new market for British goods, while the capital amassed from Bengal after its 1757 conquest was used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacturing and greatly increase British wealth. British colonization also forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton, giving Britain a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods. Britain eventually surpassed India as the world's leading cotton textile manufacturer in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "India's cotton-processing sector changed during EIC expansion in India in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. From focusing on supplying the British market to supplying East Asia with raw cotton. As the Artisan produced textiles were no longer competitive with those produced Industrially, and Europe preferring the cheaper slave produced, long staple American, and Egyptian cottons, for its own materials.",
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"plaintext": "The advent of the Industrial Revolution in Britain provided a great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as Britain's leading export. In 1738, Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, of Birmingham, England, patented the roller spinning machine, as well as the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at different speeds. Later, the invention of the James Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 1764, Richard Arkwright's spinning frame in 1769 and Samuel Crompton's spinning mule in 1775 enabled British spinners to produce cotton yarn at much higher rates. From the late 18th century on, the British city of Manchester acquired the nickname \"Cottonopolis\" due to the cotton industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role as the heart of the global cotton trade.",
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"plaintext": "Production capacity in Britain and the United States was improved by the invention of the modern cotton gin by the American Eli Whitney in 1793. Before the development of cotton gins, the cotton fibers had to be pulled from the seeds tediously by hand. By the late 1700s, a number of crude ginning machines had been developed. However, to produce a bale of cotton required over 600 hours of human labor, making large-scale production uneconomical in the United States, even with the use of humans as slave labor. The gin that Whitney manufactured (the Holmes design) reduced the hours down to just a dozen or so per bale. Although Whitney patented his own design for a cotton gin, he manufactured a prior design from Henry Odgen Holmes, for which Holmes filed a patent in 1796. Improving technology and increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at first) purchased from colonial plantations, processed into cotton cloth in the mills of Lancashire, and then exported on British ships to captive colonial markets in West Africa, India, and China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).",
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"plaintext": "By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American species, Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense), encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from plantations in the United States and in the Caribbean. By the mid-19th century, \"King Cotton\" had become the backbone of the southern American economy. In the United States, cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of slaves.",
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"plaintext": "During the American Civil War, American cotton exports slumped due to a Union blockade on Southern ports, and because of a strategic decision by the Confederate government to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the Confederacy or enter the war. The Lancashire Cotton Famine prompted the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, to turn to Egyptian cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton plantations. The Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to cheap American exports, sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's occupation by the British Empire in 1882.",
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"plaintext": "During this time, cotton cultivation in the British Empire, especially Australia and India, greatly increased to replace the lost production of the American South. Through tariffs and other restrictions, the British government discouraged the production of cotton cloth in India; rather, the raw fiber was sent to England for processing. The Indian Mahatma Gandhi described the process:",
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"plaintext": "English people buy Indian cotton in the field, picked by Indian labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.",
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"plaintext": "This cotton is shipped on British ships, a three-week journey across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the Mediterranean, through Gibraltar, across the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent profit on this freight is regarded as small.",
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"plaintext": "The cotton is turned into cloth in Lancashire. You pay shilling wages instead of Indian pennies to your workers. The English worker not only has the advantage of better wages, but the steel companies of England get the profit of building the factories and machines. Wages; profits; all these are spent in England.",
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"plaintext": "The finished product is sent back to India at European shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains, officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.",
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"plaintext": "The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, growing Southern cotton generated significant wealth and capital for the antebellum South, as well as raw material for Northern textile industries. Before 1865 the cotton was largely produced through the labor of enslaved African Americans. It enriched both the Southern landowners and the new textile industries of the Northeastern United States and northwestern Europe. In 1860 the slogan \"Cotton is king\" characterized the attitude of Southern leaders toward this monocrop in that Europe would support an independent Confederate States of America in 1861 in order to protect the supply of cotton it needed for its very large textile industry.",
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"plaintext": " Russell Griffin of California was a farmer who farmed one of the biggest cotton operations. He produced over sixty thousand bales.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton remained a key crop in the Southern economy after slavery ended in 1865. Across the South, sharecropping evolved, in which landless farmers worked land owned by others in return for a share of the profits. Some farmers rented the land and bore the production costs themselves. Until mechanical cotton pickers were developed, cotton farmers needed additional labor to hand-pick cotton. Picking cotton was a source of income for families across the South. Rural and small town school systems had split vacations so children could work in the fields during \"cotton-picking.\"",
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"plaintext": "During the middle 20th century, employment in cotton farming fell, as machines began to replace laborers and the South's rural labor force dwindled during the World Wars. Cotton remains a major export of the United States, with large farms in California, Arizona and the Deep South.",
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"plaintext": "China's Chang'e 4 took cotton seeds to the Moon's far side. On 15 January 2019, China announced that a cotton seed sprouted, the first \"truly otherworldly plant in history\". Inside the Von Kármán Crater, the capsule and seeds sit inside the Chang'e 4 lander.",
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"plaintext": "Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long frost-free period, plenty of sunshine, and a moderate rainfall, usually from . Soils usually need to be fairly heavy, although the level of nutrients does not need to be exceptional. In general, these conditions are met within the seasonally dry tropics and subtropics in the Northern and Southern hemispheres, but a large proportion of the cotton grown today is cultivated in areas with less rainfall that obtain the water from irrigation. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Cotton is naturally a perennial but is grown as an annual to help control pests. Planting time in spring in the Northern hemisphere varies from the beginning of February to the beginning of June. The area of the United States known as the South Plains is the largest contiguous cotton-growing region in the world. While dryland (non-irrigated) cotton is successfully grown in this region, consistent yields are only produced with heavy reliance on irrigation water drawn from the Ogallala Aquifer. Since cotton is somewhat salt and drought tolerant, this makes it an attractive crop for arid and semiarid regions. As water resources get tighter around the world, economies that rely on it face difficulties and conflict, as well as potential environmental problems. For example, improper cropping and irrigation practices have led to desertification in areas of Uzbekistan, where cotton is a major export. In the days of the Soviet Union, the Aral Sea was tapped for agricultural irrigation, largely of cotton, and now salination is widespread.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton can also be cultivated to have colors other than the yellowish off-white typical of modern commercial cotton fibers. Naturally colored cotton can come in red, green, and several shades of brown.",
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"plaintext": "The water footprint of cotton fibers is substantially larger than for most other plant fibers. Cotton is also known as a thirsty crop; on average, globally, cotton requires 8,000–10,000 liters of water for one kilogram of cotton, and in dry areas, it may require even more such as in some areas of India, it may need 22,500 liters.",
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"plaintext": "Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life. The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton, called Bt cotton, to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the Bt protein in the transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to noninsecticide pest management.",
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"plaintext": "However, Bt cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests, such as plant bugs, stink bugs, and aphids; depending on circumstances it may still be desirable to use insecticides against these. A 2006 study done by Cornell researchers, the Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the Chinese Academy of Science on Bt cotton farming in China found that after seven years these secondary pests that were normally controlled by pesticide had increased, necessitating the use of pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton and causing less profit for farmers because of the extra expense of GM seeds. However, a 2009 study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Stanford University and Rutgers University refuted this. They concluded that the GM cotton effectively controlled bollworm. The secondary pests were mostly miridae (plant bugs) whose increase was related to local temperature and rainfall and only continued to increase in half the villages studied. Moreover, the increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. A 2012 Chinese study concluded that Bt cotton halved the use of pesticides and doubled the level of ladybirds, lacewings and spiders. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that, worldwide, GM cotton was planted on an area of 25 million hectares in 2011. This was 69% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton.",
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"plaintext": "GM cotton acreage in India grew at a rapid rate, increasing from 50,000 hectares in 2002 to 10.6 million hectares in 2011. The total cotton area in India was 12.1 million hectares in 2011, so GM cotton was grown on 88% of the cotton area. This made India the country with the largest area of GM cotton in the world. A long-term study on the economic impacts of Bt cotton in India, published in the Journal PNAS in 2012, showed that Bt cotton has increased yields, profits, and living standards of smallholder farmers. The U.S. GM cotton crop was 4.0 million hectares in 2011 the second largest area in the world, the Chinese GM cotton crop was third largest by area with 3.9 million hectares and Pakistan had the fourth largest GM cotton crop area of 2.6 million hectares in 2011. The initial introduction of GM cotton proved to be a success in Australia– the yields were equivalent to the non-transgenic varieties and the crop used much less pesticide to produce (85% reduction). The subsequent introduction of a second variety of GM cotton led to increases in GM cotton production until 95% of the Australian cotton crop was GM in 2009 making Australia the country with the fifth largest GM cotton crop in the world. Other GM cotton growing countries in 2011 were Argentina, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, South Africa and Costa Rica.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton has been genetically modified for resistance to glyphosate a broad-spectrum herbicide discovered by Monsanto which also sells some of the Bt cotton seeds to farmers. There are also a number of other cotton seed companies selling GM cotton around the world. About 62% of the GM cotton grown from 1996 to 2011 was insect resistant, 24% stacked product and 14% herbicide resistant.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton has gossypol, a toxin that makes it inedible. However, scientists have silenced the gene that produces the toxin, making it a potential food crop. On 17 October 2018, the USDA deregulated GE low-gossypol cotton.",
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"plaintext": "Organic cotton is generally understood as cotton from plants not genetically modified and that is certified to be grown without the use of any synthetic agricultural chemicals, such as fertilizers or pesticides. Its production also promotes and enhances biodiversity and biological cycles. In the United States, organic cotton plantations are required to enforce the National Organic Program (NOP). This institution determines the allowed practices for pest control, growing, fertilizing, and handling of organic crops. As of 2007, 265,517 bales of organic cotton were produced in 24 countries, and worldwide production was growing at a rate of more than 50% per year. Organic cotton products are now available for purchase at limited locations. These are popular for baby clothes and diapers; natural cotton products are known to be both sustainable and hypoallergenic.",
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"plaintext": "The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals, such as fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides, although a very small number of farmers are moving toward an organic model of production. Under most definitions, organic products do not use transgenic Bt cotton which contains a bacterial gene that codes for a plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests especially the bollworms. For most producers, Bt cotton has allowed a substantial reduction in the use of synthetic insecticides, although in the long term resistance may become problematic.",
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"plaintext": "Significant global pests of cotton include various species of bollworm, such as Pectinophora gossypiella. Sucking pests include cotton stainers, the chili thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis; the cotton seed bug, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis. Defoliators include the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton yield is threatened by the evolution of new biotypes of insects and of new pathogens. Maintaining good yield requires strategies to slow these adversaries' evolution.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, in North America, one of the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil. Boll weevils are beetles who ate cotton in the 1950s, that slowed the production of the cotton industry drastically. “This bone pile of short budgets, loss of market share, failing prices, abandoned farms, and the new immunity of boll weevils generated a feeling of helplessness” Boll Weevils first appeared in Beeville, Texas wiping out field after field of cotton in south Texas. This swarm of Boll Weevils swept through east Texas and spread to the eastern seaboard, leaving ruin and devastation in its path, causing many cotton farmers to go out of business.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This program, along with the introduction of genetically engineered Bt cotton, has improved the management of a number of pests such as cotton bollworm and pink bollworm). Sucking pests include the cotton stainer, Dysdercus suturellus and the tarnish plant bug, Lygus lineolaris. A significant cotton disease is caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp. malvacearum.",
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"plaintext": "Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is harvested mechanically, either by a cotton picker, a machine that removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton plant, or by a cotton stripper, which strips the entire boll off the plant. Cotton strippers are used in regions where it is too windy to grow picker varieties of cotton, and usually after application of a chemical defoliant or the natural defoliation that occurs after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics, and without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton continues to be picked by hand in developing countries and in Xinjiang, China, by forced labor. Xinjiang produces over 20% of the world's cotton.",
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"plaintext": "The era of manufactured fibers began with the development of rayon in France in the 1890s. Rayon is derived from a natural cellulose and cannot be considered synthetic, but requires extensive processing in a manufacturing process, and led the less expensive replacement of more naturally derived materials. A succession of new synthetic fibers were introduced by the chemicals industry in the following decades. Acetate in fiber form was developed in 1924. Nylon, the first fiber synthesized entirely from petrochemicals, was introduced as a sewing thread by DuPont in 1936, followed by DuPont's acrylic in 1944. Some garments were created from fabrics based on these fibers, such as women's hosiery from nylon, but it was not until the introduction of polyester into the fiber marketplace in the early 1950s that the market for cotton came under threat. The rapid uptake of polyester garments in the 1960s caused economic hardship in cotton-exporting economies, especially in Central American countries, such as Nicaragua, where cotton production had boomed tenfold between 1950 and 1965 with the advent of cheap chemical pesticides. Cotton production recovered in the 1970s, but crashed to pre-1960 levels in the early 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "High water and pesticide use in cotton cultivation has prompted sustainability concerns and created a market for natural fiber alternatives. Other cellulose fibers, such as hemp, are seen as more sustainable options because of higher yields per acre with less water and pesticide use than cotton. Cellulose fiber alternatives have similar characteristics but are not perfect substitutes for cotton textiles with differences in properties like tensile strength and thermal regulation.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include terrycloth for highly absorbent bath towels and robes; denim for blue jeans; cambric, popularly used in the manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term \"blue-collar\"); and corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill. Socks, underwear, and most T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets often are made from cotton. It is a preferred material for sheets as it is hypoallergenic, easy to maintain and non-irritant to the skin. Cotton also is used to make yarn used in crochet and knitting. Fabric also can be made from recycled or recovered cotton that otherwise would be thrown away during the spinning, weaving, or cutting process. While many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials blend cotton with other fibers, including rayon and synthetic fibers such as polyester. It can either be used in knitted or woven fabrics, as it can be blended with elastine to make a stretchier thread for knitted fabrics, and apparel such as stretch jeans. Cotton can be blended also with linen producing fabrics with the benefits of both materials. Linen-cotton blends are wrinkle resistant and retain heat more effectively than only linen, and are thinner, stronger and lighter than only cotton.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the textile industry, cotton is used in fishing nets, coffee filters, tents, explosives manufacture (see nitrocellulose), cotton paper, and in bookbinding. Fire hoses were once made of cotton.",
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"plaintext": "The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which, after refining, can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left generally is fed to ruminant livestock; the gossypol remaining in the meal is toxic to monogastric animals. Cottonseed hulls can be added to dairy cattle rations for roughage. During the American slavery period, cotton root bark was used in folk remedies as an abortifacient, that is, to induce a miscarriage. Gossypol was one of the many substances found in all parts of the cotton plant and it was described by the scientists as 'poisonous pigment'. It also appears to inhibit the development of sperm or even restrict the mobility of the sperm. Also, it is thought to interfere with the menstrual cycle by restricting the release of certain hormones.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton linters are fine, silky fibers which adhere to the seeds of the cotton plant after ginning. These curly fibers typically are less than long. The term also may apply to the longer textile fiber staple lint as well as the shorter fuzzy fibers from some upland species. Linters are traditionally used in the manufacture of paper and as a raw material in the manufacture of cellulose. In the UK, linters are referred to as \"cotton wool\".",
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"plaintext": "A less technical use of the term \"cotton wool\", in the UK and Ireland, is for the refined product known as \"absorbent cotton\" (or, often, just \"cotton\") in U.S. usage: fluffy cotton in sheets or balls used for medical, cosmetic, protective packaging, and many other practical purposes. The first medical use of cotton wool was by Sampson Gamgee at the Queen's Hospital (later the General Hospital) in Birmingham, England.",
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"plaintext": "Long staple (LS cotton) is cotton of a longer fibre length and therefore of higher quality, while Extra-long staple cotton (ELS cotton) has longer fibre length still and of even higher quality. The name \"Egyptian cotton\" is broadly associated high quality cottons and is often an LS or (less often) an ELS cotton. Nowadays the name \"Egyptian cotton\" refers more to the way cotton is treated and threads produced rather than the location where it is grown. The American cotton variety Pima cotton is often compared to Egyptian cotton, as both are used in high quality bed sheets and other cotton products. While Pima cotton is often grown in the American southwest, the Pima name is now used by cotton-producing nations such as Peru, Australia and Israel. Not all products bearing the Pima name are made with the finest cotton: American-grown ELS Pima cotton is trademarked as Supima cotton. \"Kasturi\" cotton is a brand-building initiative for Indian long staple cotton by the Indian government. The PIB issued a press release announcing the same.",
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"plaintext": "Cottons have been grown as ornamentals or novelties due to their showy flowers and snowball-like fruit. For example, Jumel's cotton, once an important source of fiber in Egypt, started as an ornamental. However, agricultural authorities such as the Boll Weevil Eradication Program in the United States discourage using cotton as an ornamental, due to concerns about these plants harboring pests injurious to crops.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton lisle, or fil d'Ecosse cotton, is a finely-spun, tightly twisted type of cotton that is noted for being strong and durable. Lisle is composed of two strands that have each been twisted an extra twist per inch than ordinary yarns and combined to create a single thread. The yarn is spun so that it is compact and solid. This cotton is used mainly for underwear, stockings, and gloves. Colors applied to this yarn are noted for being more brilliant than colors applied to softer yarn. This type of thread was first made in the city of Lisle, France (now Lille), hence its name.",
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"plaintext": "The largest producers of cotton, as of 2017, are India and China, with annual production of about 18.53 million tonnes and 17.14 million tonnes, respectively; most of this production is consumed by their respective textile industries. The largest exporters of raw cotton are the United States, with sales of $4.9 billion, and Africa, with sales of $2.1 billion. The total international trade is estimated to be $12 billion. Africa's share of the cotton trade has doubled since 1980. Neither area has a significant domestic textile industry, textile manufacturing having moved to developing nations in Eastern and South Asia such as India and China. In Africa, cotton is grown by numerous small holders. Dunavant Enterprises, based in Memphis, Tennessee, is the leading cotton broker in Africa, with hundreds of purchasing agents. It operates cotton gins in Uganda, Mozambique, and Zambia. In Zambia, it often offers loans for seed and expenses to the 180,000 small farmers who grow cotton for it, as well as advice on farming methods. Cargill also purchases cotton in Africa for export.",
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"plaintext": "The 25,000 cotton growers in the United States are heavily subsidized at the rate of $2 billion per year although China now provides the highest overall level of cotton sector support. The future of these subsidies is uncertain and has led to anticipatory expansion of cotton brokers' operations in Africa. Dunavant expanded in Africa by buying out local operations. This is only possible in former British colonies and Mozambique; former French colonies continue to maintain tight monopolies, inherited from their former colonialist masters, on cotton purchases at low fixed prices.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "To encourage trade and organize discussion about cotton, World Cotton Day is celebrated every October 7.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": "The five leading exporters of cotton in 2019 are (1) India, (2) the United States, (3) China, (4) Brazil, and (5) Pakistan.",
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{
"plaintext": "In India, the states of Maharashtra (26.63%), Gujarat (17.96%) and Andhra Pradesh (13.75%) and also Madhya Pradesh are the leading cotton producing states, these states have a predominantly tropical wet and dry climate.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the state of Texas led in total production as of 2004, while the state of California had the highest yield per acre.",
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"plaintext": "Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the world. It provides livelihoods for up to 1 billion people, including 100 million smallholder farmers who cultivate cotton. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with developed countries.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
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},
{
"plaintext": "This has led to an international dispute (see Brazil–United States cotton dispute):",
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"plaintext": "On 27 September 2002, Brazil requested consultations with the US regarding prohibited and actionable subsidies provided to US producers, users and/or exporters of upland cotton, as well as legislation, regulations, statutory instruments and amendments thereto providing such subsidies (including export credits), grants, and any other assistance to the US producers, users and exporters of upland cotton.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "On 8 September 2004, the Panel Report recommended that the United States \"withdraw\" export credit guarantees and payments to domestic users and exporters, and \"take appropriate steps to remove the adverse effects or withdraw\" the mandatory price-contingent subsidy measures.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "While Brazil was fighting the US through the WTO's Dispute Settlement Mechanism against a heavily subsidized cotton industry, a group of four least-developed African countries– Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mali– also known as \"Cotton-4\" have been the leading protagonist for the reduction of US cotton subsidies through negotiations. The four introduced a \"Sectoral Initiative in Favour of Cotton\", presented by Burkina Faso's President Blaise Compaoré during the Trade Negotiations Committee on 10 June 2003.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": "In addition to concerns over subsidies, the cotton industries of some countries are criticized for employing child labor and damaging workers' health by exposure to pesticides used in production. The Environmental Justice Foundation has campaigned against the prevalent use of forced child and adult labor in cotton production in Uzbekistan, the world's third largest cotton exporter.",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": "The international production and trade situation has led to \"fair trade\" cotton clothing and footwear, joining a rapidly growing market for organic clothing, fair fashion or \"ethical fashion\". The fair trade system was initiated in 2005 with producers from Cameroon, Mali and Senegal, with the Association Max Havelaar France playing a lead role in the establishment of this segment of the fair trade system in conjunction with Fairtrade International and the French organisation Dagris (Développement des Agro-Industries du Sud).",
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325
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Cotton is bought and sold by investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity on 2 different commodity exchanges in the United States of America.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Cotton No. 2 futures contracts are traded on the ICE Futures US Softs (NYI) under the ticker symbol CT. They are delivered every year in March, May, July, October, and December.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cotton futures contracts are traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) under the ticker symbol TT. They are delivered every year in March, May, July, October, and December.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Favorable travel temperature range: below ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Optimum travel temperature: ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Glow temperature: ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Fire point: ",
"section_idx": 9,
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Autoignition temperature: - ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Autoignition temperature (for oily cotton): ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "A temperature range of is the optimal range for mold development. At temperatures below , rotting of wet cotton stops. Damaged cotton is sometimes stored at these temperatures to prevent further deterioration.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Egypt has a unique climatic temperature that the soil and the temperature provide an exceptional environment for cotton to grow rapidly.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "International trade",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "1 thread = ",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "British standard yarn measures",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "1 skein or rap = 80 threads ()",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "British standard yarn measures",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "1 hank = 7 skeins ()",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "British standard yarn measures",
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},
{
"plaintext": "1 spindle = 18 hanks ()",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "British standard yarn measures",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Depending upon the origin, the chemical composition of cotton is as follows:",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Fiber properties",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cellulose 91.00%",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Water 7.85%",
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"plaintext": "Protoplasm, pectins 0.55%",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": "Waxes, fatty substances 0.40%",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mineral salts 0.20%",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Fiber properties",
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"plaintext": "Cotton has a more complex structure among the other crops. A matured cotton fiber is a single, elongated complete dried multilayer cell that develops in the surface layer of cottonseed. It has the following parts.",
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"plaintext": " The winding layer is the first layer of secondary thickening it is also called the S1 layer . It is different in structure from both the primary wall and the remainder of the secondary wall. It consists of fibrils aligned at 40 to 70-degree angles to the fiber axis in an open netting type of pattern.",
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"plaintext": " The secondary wall consists of concentric layers of cellulose it is also called the S2 layer, that constitute the main portion of the cotton fiber. After the fiber has attained its maximum diameter, new layers of cellulose are added to form the secondary wall. The fibrils are deposited at 70 to 80-degree angles to the fiber axis, reversing angle at points along the length of the fiber.",
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"plaintext": " The lumen is the hollow canal that runs the length of the fiber. It is filled with living protoplasm during the growth period. After the fiber matures and the boll opens, the protoplast dries up, and the lumen naturally collapses, leaving a central void, or pore space, in each fiber. It separates the secondary wall from the lumen and appears to be more resistant to certain reagents than the secondary wall layers. The lumen wall also called the S3 layer.",
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"plaintext": "Dead cotton is a term that refers to unripe cotton fibers that do not absorb dye. Dead cotton is immature cotton that has poor dye affinity and appears as white specks on a dyed fabric. When cotton fibers are analyzed and assessed through a microscope, dead fibers appear differently. Dead cotton fibers have thin cell walls. In contrast, mature fibers have more cellulose and a greater degree of cell wall thickening",
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"plaintext": "There is a public effort to sequence the genome of cotton. It was started in 2007 by a consortium of public researchers. Their aim is to sequence the genome of cultivated, tetraploid cotton. \"Tetraploid\" means that its nucleus has two separate genomes, called A and D. The consortium agreed to first sequence the D-genome wild relative of cultivated cotton (G. raimondii, a Central American species) because it is small and has few repetitive elements. It has nearly one-third of the bases of tetraploid cotton, and each chromosome occurs only once. Then, the A genome of G. arboreum would be sequenced. Its genome is roughly twice that of G. raimondii. Part of the difference in size is due to the amplification of retrotransposons (GORGE). After both diploid genomes are assembled, they would be used as models for sequencing the genomes of tetraploid cultivated species. Without knowing the diploid genomes, the euchromatic DNA sequences of AD genomes would co-assemble, and their repetitive elements would assemble independently into A and D sequences respectively. There would be no way to untangle the mess of AD sequences without comparing them to their diploid counterparts.",
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"plaintext": "The public sector effort continues with the goal to create a high-quality, draft genome sequence from reads generated by all sources. The effort has generated Sanger reads of BACs, fosmids, and plasmids, as well as 454 reads. These later types of reads will be instrumental in assembling an initial draft of the D genome. In 2010, the companies Monsanto and Illumina completed enough Illumina sequencing to cover the D genome of G. raimondii about 50x. They announced that they would donate their raw reads to the public. This public relations effort gave them some recognition for sequencing the cotton genome. Once the D genome is assembled from all of this raw material, it will undoubtedly assist in the assembly of the AD genomes of cultivated varieties of cotton, but much work remains.",
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"plaintext": " Beckert, Sven. Empire of Cotton: A Global History. New York: Knopf, 2014.",
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"plaintext": " Brown, D. Clayton. King Cotton: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945 (University Press of Mississippi, 2011) 440 pp. ",
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"plaintext": " Ensminger, Audrey H. and Konlande, James E. Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia, (2nd ed. CRC Press, 1993). ",
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"plaintext": " USDA – Cotton Trade",
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"plaintext": " Moseley, W.G. and L.C. Gray (eds). Hanging by a Thread: Cotton, Globalization and Poverty in Africa (Ohio University Press and Nordic Africa Press, 2008). ",
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"plaintext": " Riello, Giorgio. Cotton: The Fabric that Made the Modern World (2013) excerpt",
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"plaintext": " Smith, C. Wayne and Joe Tom Cothren. Cotton: origin, history, technology, and production (1999) 850 pages",
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"plaintext": " True, Alfred Charles. The cotton plant: its history, botany, chemistry, culture, enemies, and uses (U.S. Office of Experiment Stations, 1896) online edition",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Yafa, Stephen H. Big Cotton: How A Humble Fiber Created Fortunes, Wrecked Civilizations, and Put America on the Map (2004) excerpt and text search; also published as Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber. New York: Penguin USA, 2006. excerpt",
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"plaintext": "The fibrous cardiac skeleton gives structure to the heart. It forms the atrioventricular septum, which separates the atria from the ventricles, and the fibrous rings, which serve as bases for the four heart valves. The cardiac skeleton also provides an important boundary in the heart's electrical conduction system since collagen cannot conduct electricity. The interatrial septum separates the atria, and the interventricular septum separates the ventricles. The interventricular septum is much thicker than the interatrial septum since the ventricles need to generate greater pressure when they contract.",
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"plaintext": "The heart has four valves, which separate its chambers. One valve lies between each atrium and ventricle, and one valve rests at the exit of each ventricle.",
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"plaintext": "The valves between the atria and ventricles are called the atrioventricular valves. Between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve has three cusps, which connect to chordae tendinae and three papillary muscles named the anterior, posterior, and septal muscles, after their relative positions. The mitral valve lies between the left atrium and left ventricle. It is also known as the bicuspid valve due to its having two cusps, an anterior and a posterior cusp. These cusps are also attached via chordae tendinae to two papillary muscles projecting from the ventricular wall.",
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"plaintext": "The papillary muscles extend from the walls of the heart to valves by cartilaginous connections called chordae tendinae. These muscles prevent the valves from falling too far back when they close. During the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle, the papillary muscles are also relaxed and the tension on the chordae tendineae is slight. As the heart chambers contract, so do the papillary muscles. This creates tension on the chordae tendineae, helping to hold the cusps of the atrioventricular valves in place and preventing them from being blown back into the atria. ",
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"plaintext": "Two additional semilunar valves sit at the exit of each of the ventricles. The pulmonary valve is located at the base of the pulmonary artery. This has three cusps which are not attached to any papillary muscles. When the ventricle relaxes blood flows back into the ventricle from the artery and this flow of blood fills the pocket-like valve, pressing against the cusps which close to seal the valve. The semilunar aortic valve is at the base of the aorta and also is not attached to papillary muscles. This too has three cusps which close with the pressure of the blood flowing back from the aorta.",
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"plaintext": "The right heart consists of two chambers, the right atrium and the right ventricle, separated by a valve, the tricuspid valve.",
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"plaintext": "The right atrium receives blood almost continuously from the body's two major veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. A small amount of blood from the coronary circulation also drains into the right atrium via the coronary sinus, which is immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava. In the wall of the right atrium is an oval-shaped depression known as the fossa ovalis, which is a remnant of an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale. Most of the internal surface of the right atrium is smooth, the depression of the fossa ovalis is medial, and the anterior surface has prominent ridges of pectinate muscles, which are also present in the right atrial appendage.",
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"plaintext": "The right atrium is connected to the right ventricle by the tricuspid valve. The walls of the right ventricle are lined with trabeculae carneae, ridges of cardiac muscle covered by endocardium. In addition to these muscular ridges, a band of cardiac muscle, also covered by endocardium, known as the moderator band reinforces the thin walls of the right ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction. It arises from the lower part of the interventricular septum and crosses the interior space of the right ventricle to connect with the inferior papillary muscle. The right ventricle tapers into the pulmonary trunk, into which it ejects blood when contracting. The pulmonary trunk branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries that carry the blood to each lung. The pulmonary valve lies between the right heart and the pulmonary trunk.",
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"plaintext": "The left heart has two chambers: the left atrium and the left ventricle, separated by the mitral valve.",
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"plaintext": "The left atrium receives oxygenated blood back from the lungs via one of the four pulmonary veins. The left atrium has an outpouching called the left atrial appendage. Like the right atrium, the left atrium is lined by pectinate muscles. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle by the mitral valve.",
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"plaintext": "The left ventricle is much thicker as compared with the right, due to the greater force needed to pump blood to the entire body. Like the right ventricle, the left also has trabeculae carneae, but there is no moderator band. The left ventricle pumps blood to the body through the aortic valve and into the aorta. Two small openings above the aortic valve carry blood to the heart muscle; the left coronary artery is above the left cusp of the valve, and the right coronary artery is above the right cusp.",
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"plaintext": "The heart wall is made up of three layers: the inner endocardium, middle myocardium and outer epicardium. These are surrounded by a double-membraned sac called the pericardium.",
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"plaintext": "The innermost layer of the heart is called the endocardium. It is made up of a lining of simple squamous epithelium and covers heart chambers and valves. It is continuous with the endothelium of the veins and arteries of the heart, and is joined to the myocardium with a thin layer of connective tissue. The endocardium, by secreting endothelins, may also play a role in regulating the contraction of the myocardium.",
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"plaintext": "The middle layer of the heart wall is the myocardium, which is the cardiac muscle—a layer of involuntary striated muscle tissue surrounded by a framework of collagen. The cardiac muscle pattern is elegant and complex, as the muscle cells swirl and spiral around the chambers of the heart, with the outer muscles forming a figure 8 pattern around the atria and around the bases of the great vessels and the inner muscles, forming a figure 8 around the two ventricles and proceeding toward the apex. This complex swirling pattern allows the heart to pump blood more effectively.",
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"plaintext": "There are two types of cells in cardiac muscle: muscle cells which have the ability to contract easily, and pacemaker cells of the conducting system. The muscle cells make up the bulk (99%) of cells in the atria and ventricles. These contractile cells are connected by intercalated discs which allow a rapid response to impulses of action potential from the pacemaker cells. The intercalated discs allow the cells to act as a syncytium and enable the contractions that pump blood through the heart and into the major arteries. The pacemaker cells make up 1% of cells and form the conduction system of the heart. They are generally much smaller than the contractile cells and have few myofibrils which gives them limited contractibility. Their function is similar in many respects to neurons. Cardiac muscle tissue has autorhythmicity, the unique ability to initiate a cardiac action potential at a fixed rate—spreading the impulse rapidly from cell to cell to trigger the contraction of the entire heart.",
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"plaintext": "There are specific proteins expressed in cardiac muscle cells. These are mostly associated with muscle contraction, and bind with actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and troponin. They include MYH6, ACTC1, TNNI3, CDH2 and PKP2. Other proteins expressed are MYH7 and LDB3 that are also expressed in skeletal muscle.",
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"plaintext": "The pericardium is the sac that surrounds the heart. The tough outer surface of the pericardium is called the fibrous membrane. This is lined by a double inner membrane called the serous membrane that produces pericardial fluid to lubricate the surface of the heart. The part of the serous membrane attached to the fibrous membrane is called the parietal pericardium, while the part of the serous membrane attached to the heart is known as the visceral pericardium. The pericardium is present in order to lubricate its movement against other structures within the chest, to keep the heart's position stabilised within the chest, and to protect the heart from infection.",
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"plaintext": "Heart tissue, like all cells in the body, needs to be supplied with oxygen, nutrients and a way of removing metabolic wastes. This is achieved by the coronary circulation, which includes arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels. Blood flow through the coronary vessels occurs in peaks and troughs relating to the heart muscle's relaxation or contraction.",
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"plaintext": "Heart tissue receives blood from two arteries which arise just above the aortic valve. These are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery. The left main coronary artery splits shortly after leaving the aorta into two vessels, the left anterior descending and the left circumflex artery. The left anterior descending artery supplies heart tissue and the front, outer side, and septum of the left ventricle. It does this by branching into smaller arteries—diagonal and septal branches. The left circumflex supplies the back and underneath of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, and lower posterior sections of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery also supplies blood to the atrioventricular node (in about 90% of people) and the sinoatrial node (in about 60% of people). The right coronary artery runs in a groove at the back of the heart and the left anterior descending artery runs in a groove at the front. There is significant variation between people in the anatomy of the arteries that supply the heart The arteries divide at their furthest reaches into smaller branches that join at the edges of each arterial distribution.",
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"plaintext": "The coronary sinus is a large vein that drains into the right atrium, and receives most of the venous drainage of the heart. It receives blood from the great cardiac vein (receiving the left atrium and both ventricles), the posterior cardiac vein (draining the back of the left ventricle), the middle cardiac vein (draining the bottom of the left and right ventricles), and small cardiac veins. The anterior cardiac veins drain the front of the right ventricle and drain directly into the right atrium.",
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"plaintext": "Small lymphatic networks called plexuses exist beneath each of the three layers of the heart. These networks collect into a main left and a main right trunk, which travel up the groove between the ventricles that exists on the heart's surface, receiving smaller vessels as they travel up. These vessels then travel into the atrioventricular groove, and receive a third vessel which drains the section of the left ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. The left vessel joins with this third vessel, and travels along the pulmonary artery and left atrium, ending in the inferior tracheobronchial node. The right vessel travels along the right atrium and the part of the right ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. It usually then travels in front of the ascending aorta and then ends in a brachiocephalic node.",
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"plaintext": "The heart receives nerve signals from the vagus nerve and from nerves arising from the sympathetic trunk. These nerves act to influence, but not control, the heart rate. Sympathetic nerves also influence the force of heart contraction. Signals that travel along these nerves arise from two paired cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata. The vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system acts to decrease the heart rate, and nerves from the sympathetic trunk act to increase the heart rate. These nerves form a network of nerves that lies over the heart called the cardiac plexus.",
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"plaintext": "The vagus nerve is a long, wandering nerve that emerges from the brainstem and provides parasympathetic stimulation to a large number of organs in the thorax and abdomen, including the heart. The nerves from the sympathetic trunk emerge through the T1-T4 thoracic ganglia and travel to both the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes, as well as to the atria and ventricles. The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves. This shortens the repolarization period, thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction, which results in an increased heart rate. It opens chemical or ligand-gated sodium and calcium ion channels, allowing an influx of positively charged ions. Norepinephrine binds to the beta–1 receptor.",
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"plaintext": "The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at about three weeks into embryogenesis. This early start is crucial for subsequent embryonic and prenatal development.",
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"plaintext": "The heart derives from splanchnopleuric mesenchyme in the neural plate which forms the cardiogenic region. Two endocardial tubes form here that fuse to form a primitive heart tube known as the tubular heart. Between the third and fourth week, the heart tube lengthens, and begins to fold to form an S-shape within the pericardium. This places the chambers and major vessels into the correct alignment for the developed heart. Further development will include the formation of the septa and the valves and the remodeling of the heart chambers. By the end of the fifth week, the septa are complete, and by the ninth week, the heart valves are complete.",
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"plaintext": "Before the fifth week, there is an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale. The foramen ovale allowed blood in the fetal heart to pass directly from the right atrium to the left atrium, allowing some blood to bypass the lungs. Within seconds after birth, a flap of tissue known as the septum primum that previously acted as a valve closes the foramen ovale and establishes the typical cardiac circulation pattern. A depression in the surface of the right atrium remains where the foramen ovale was, called the fossa ovalis.",
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"plaintext": "The embryonic heart begins beating at around 22 days after conception (5 weeks after the last normal menstrual period, LMP). It starts to beat at a rate near to the mother's which is about 75–80 beats per minute (bpm). The embryonic heart rate then accelerates and reaches a peak rate of 165–185 bpm early in the early 7th week (early 9th week after the LMP). After 9 weeks (start of the fetal stage) it starts to decelerate, slowing to around 145 (±25) bpm at birth. There is no difference in female and male heart rates before birth.",
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"plaintext": "The heart functions as a pump in the circulatory system to provide a continuous flow of blood throughout the body. This circulation consists of the systemic circulation to and from the body and the pulmonary circulation to and from the lungs. Blood in the pulmonary circulation exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen in the lungs through the process of respiration. The systemic circulation then transports oxygen to the body and returns carbon dioxide and relatively deoxygenated blood to the heart for transfer to the lungs.",
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"plaintext": "The right heart collects deoxygenated blood from two large veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. Blood collects in the right and left atrium continuously. The superior vena cava drains blood from above the diaphragm and empties into the upper back part of the right atrium. The inferior vena cava drains the blood from below the diaphragm and empties into the back part of the atrium below the opening for the superior vena cava. Immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava is the opening of the thin-walled coronary sinus. Additionally, the coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood from the myocardium to the right atrium. The blood collects in the right atrium. When the right atrium contracts, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary trunk divides into pulmonary arteries and progressively smaller arteries throughout the lungs, until it reaches capillaries. As these pass by alveoli carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. This happens through the passive process of diffusion.",
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"plaintext": "In the left heart, oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. It is then pumped into the left ventricle through the mitral valve and into the aorta through the aortic valve for systemic circulation. The aorta is a large artery that branches into many smaller arteries, arterioles, and ultimately capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen and nutrients from blood are supplied to body cells for metabolism, and exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products. Capillary blood, now deoxygenated, travels into venules and veins that ultimately collect in the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the right heart.",
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"plaintext": "The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in which the heart contracts and relaxes with every heartbeat. The period of time during which the ventricles contract, forcing blood out into the aorta and main pulmonary artery, is known as systole, while the period during which the ventricles relax and refill with blood is known as diastole. The atria and ventricles work in concert, so in systole when the ventricles are contracting, the atria are relaxed and collecting blood. When the ventricles are relaxed in diastole, the atria contract to pump blood to the ventricles. This coordination ensures blood is pumped efficiently to the body.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, the ventricles are relaxing. As they do so, they are filled by blood passing through the open mitral and tricuspid valves. After the ventricles have completed most of their filling, the atria contract, forcing further blood into the ventricles and priming the pump. Next, the ventricles start to contract. As the pressure rises within the cavities of the ventricles, the mitral and tricuspid valves are forced shut. As the pressure within the ventricles rises further, exceeding the pressure with the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves open. Blood is ejected from the heart, causing the pressure within the ventricles to fall. Simultaneously, the atria refill as blood flows into the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Finally, when the pressure within the ventricles falls below the pressure within the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves close. The ventricles start to relax, the mitral and tricuspid valves open, and the cycle begins again.",
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"plaintext": "Cardiac output (CO) is a measurement of the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle (stroke volume) in one minute. This is calculated by multiplying the stroke volume (SV) by the beats per minute of the heart rate (HR). So that: CO = SV x HR.",
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"plaintext": "The cardiac output is normalized to body size through body surface area and is called the cardiac index.",
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"plaintext": "The average cardiac output, using an average stroke volume of about 70mL, is 5.25 L/min, with a normal range of 4.0–8.0 L/min. The stroke volume is normally measured using an echocardiogram and can be influenced by the size of the heart, physical and mental condition of the individual, sex, contractility, duration of contraction, preload and afterload.",
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"plaintext": "Preload refers to the filling pressure of the atria at the end of diastole, when the ventricles are at their fullest. A main factor is how long it takes the ventricles to fill: if the ventricles contract more frequently, then there is less time to fill and the preload will be less. Preload can also be affected by a person's blood volume. The force of each contraction of the heart muscle is proportional to the preload, described as the Frank-Starling mechanism. This states that the force of contraction is directly proportional to the initial length of muscle fiber, meaning a ventricle will contract more forcefully, the more it is stretched.",
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"plaintext": "Afterload, or how much pressure the heart must generate to eject blood at systole, is influenced by vascular resistance. It can be influenced by narrowing of the heart valves (stenosis) or contraction or relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels.",
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"plaintext": "The strength of heart muscle contractions controls the stroke volume. This can be influenced positively or negatively by agents termed inotropes. These agents can be a result of changes within the body, or be given as drugs as part of treatment for a medical disorder, or as a form of life support, particularly in intensive care units. Inotropes that increase the force of contraction are \"positive\" inotropes, and include sympathetic agents such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine. \"Negative\" inotropes decrease the force of contraction and include calcium channel blockers.",
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"plaintext": "The normal rhythmical heart beat, called sinus rhythm, is established by the heart's own pacemaker, the sinoatrial node (also known as the sinus node or the SA node). Here an electrical signal is created that travels through the heart, causing the heart muscle to contract. The sinoatrial node is found in the upper part of the right atrium near to the junction with the superior vena cava. The electrical signal generated by the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium in a radial way that is not completely understood. It travels to the left atrium via Bachmann's bundle, such that the muscles of the left and right atria contract together. The signal then travels to the atrioventricular node. This is found at the bottom of the right atrium in the atrioventricular septum, the boundary between the right atrium and the left ventricle. The septum is part of the cardiac skeleton, tissue within the heart that the electrical signal cannot pass through, which forces the signal to pass through the atrioventricular node only. The signal then travels along the bundle of His to left and right bundle branches through to the ventricles of the heart. In the ventricles the signal is carried by specialized tissue called the Purkinje fibers which then transmit the electric charge to the heart muscle.",
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"plaintext": "The normal resting heart rate is called the sinus rhythm, created and sustained by the sinoatrial node, a group of pacemaking cells found in the wall of the right atrium. Cells in the sinoatrial node do this by creating an action potential. The cardiac action potential is created by the movement of specific electrolytes into and out of the pacemaker cells. The action potential then spreads to nearby cells.",
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"plaintext": "When the sinoatrial cells are resting, they have a negative charge on their membranes. A rapid influx of sodium ions causes the membrane's charge to become positive; this is called depolarisation and occurs spontaneously. Once the cell has a sufficiently high charge, the sodium channels close and calcium ions then begin to enter the cell, shortly after which potassium begins to leave it. All the ions travel through ion channels in the membrane of the sinoatrial cells. The potassium and calcium start to move out of and into the cell only once it has a sufficiently high charge, and so are called voltage-gated. Shortly after this, the calcium channels close and potassium channels open, allowing potassium to leave the cell. This causes the cell to have a negative resting charge and is called repolarization. When the membrane potential reaches approximately −60 mV, the potassium channels close and the process may begin again.",
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"plaintext": "The ions move from areas where they are concentrated to where they are not. For this reason sodium moves into the cell from outside, and potassium moves from within the cell to outside the cell. Calcium also plays a critical role. Their influx through slow channels means that the sinoatrial cells have a prolonged \"plateau\" phase when they have a positive charge. A part of this is called the absolute refractory period. Calcium ions also combine with the regulatory protein troponin C in the troponin complex to enable contraction of the cardiac muscle, and separate from the protein to allow relaxation.",
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"plaintext": "The adult resting heart rate ranges from 60 to 100 bpm. The resting heart rate of a newborn can be 129 beats per minute (bpm) and this gradually decreases until maturity. An athlete's heart rate can be lower than 60 bpm. During exercise the rate can be 150 bpm with maximum rates reaching from 200 to 220 bpm.",
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"plaintext": "The normal sinus rhythm of the heart, giving the resting heart rate, is influenced by a number of factors. The cardiovascular centres in the brainstem control the sympathetic and parasympathetic influences to the heart through the vagus nerve and sympathetic trunk. These cardiovascular centres receive input from a series of receptors including baroreceptors, sensing the stretching of blood vessels and chemoreceptors, sensing the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and its pH. Through a series of reflexes these help regulate and sustain blood flow.",
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"plaintext": "Baroreceptors are stretch receptors located in the aortic sinus, carotid bodies, the venae cavae, and other locations, including pulmonary vessels and the right side of the heart itself. Baroreceptors fire at a rate determined by how much they are stretched, which is influenced by blood pressure, level of physical activity, and the relative distribution of blood. With increased pressure and stretch, the rate of baroreceptor firing increases, and the cardiac centers decrease sympathetic stimulation and increase parasympathetic stimulation. As pressure and stretch decrease, the rate of baroreceptor firing decreases, and the cardiac centers increase sympathetic stimulation and decrease parasympathetic stimulation. There is a similar reflex, called the atrial reflex or Bainbridge reflex, associated with varying rates of blood flow to the atria. Increased venous return stretches the walls of the atria where specialized baroreceptors are located. However, as the atrial baroreceptors increase their rate of firing and as they stretch due to the increased blood pressure, the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase heart rate. The opposite is also true. Chemoreceptors present in the carotid body or adjacent to the aorta in an aortic body respond to the blood's oxygen, carbon dioxide levels. Low oxygen or high carbon dioxide will stimulate firing of the receptors.",
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"plaintext": "Exercise and fitness levels, age, body temperature, basal metabolic rate, and even a person's emotional state can all affect the heart rate. High levels of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones can increase the heart rate. The levels of electrolytes including calcium, potassium, and sodium can also influence the speed and regularity of the heart rate; low blood oxygen, low blood pressure and dehydration may increase it.",
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"plaintext": "Cardiovascular diseases, which include diseases of the heart, are the leading cause of death worldwide. The majority of cardiovascular disease is noncommunicable and related to lifestyle and other factors, becoming more prevalent with ageing. Heart disease is a major cause of death, accounting for an average of 30% of all deaths in 2008, globally. This rate varies from a lower 28% to a high 40% in high-income countries. Doctors that specialise in the heart are called cardiologists. Many other medical professionals are involved in treating diseases of the heart, including doctors, cardiothoracic surgeons, intensivists, and allied health practitioners including physiotherapists and dieticians.",
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"plaintext": "Coronary artery disease, also known as ischaemic heart disease, is caused by atherosclerosis—a build-up of fatty material along the inner walls of the arteries. These fatty deposits known as atherosclerotic plaques narrow the coronary arteries, and if severe may reduce blood flow to the heart. If a narrowing (or stenosis) is relatively minor then the patient may not experience any symptoms. Severe narrowings may cause chest pain (angina) or breathlessness during exercise or even at rest. The thin covering of an atherosclerotic plaque can rupture, exposing the fatty centre to the circulating blood. In this case a clot or thrombus can form, blocking the artery, and restricting blood flow to an area of heart muscle causing a myocardial infarction (a heart attack) or unstable angina. In the worst case this may cause cardiac arrest, a sudden and utter loss of output from the heart. Obesity, high blood pressure, uncontrolled diabetes, smoking and high cholesterol can all increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.",
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"plaintext": "Heart failure is defined as a condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the demands of the body. Patients with heart failure may experience breathlessness especially when lying flat, as well as ankle swelling, known as peripheral oedema. Heart failure is the result of many diseases affecting the heart, but is most commonly associated with ischaemic heart disease, valvular heart disease, or high blood pressure. Less common causes include various cardiomyopathies. Heart failure is frequently associated with weakness of the heart muscle in the ventricles (systolic heart failure), but can also be seen in patients with heart muscle that is strong but stiff (diastolic heart failure). The condition may affect the left ventricle (causing predominantly breathlessness), the right ventricle (causing predominantly swelling of the legs and an elevated jugular venous pressure), or both ventricles. Patients with heart failure are at higher risk of developing dangerous heart rhythm disturbances or arrhythmias.",
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"plaintext": "Cardiomyopathies are diseases affecting the muscle of the heart. Some cause abnormal thickening of the heart muscle (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), some cause the heart to abnormally expand and weaken (dilated cardiomyopathy), some cause the heart muscle to become stiff and unable to fully relax between contractions (restrictive cardiomyopathy) and some make the heart prone to abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy). These conditions are often genetic and can be inherited, but some such as dilated cardiomyopathy may be caused by damage from toxins such as alcohol. Some cardiomyopathies such as hypertrophic cardiomopathy are linked to a higher risk of sudden cardiac death, particularly in athletes. Many cardiomyopathies can lead to heart failure in the later stages of the disease.",
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"plaintext": "Healthy heart valves allow blood to flow easily in one direction, but prevent it from flowing in the other direction. Diseased heart valves may have a narrow opening and therefore restrict the flow of blood in the forward direction (referred to as a stenotic valve), or may allow blood to leak in the reverse direction (referred to as valvular regurgitation). Valvular heart disease may cause breathlessness, blackouts, or chest pain, but may be asymptomatic and only detected on a routine examination by hearing abnormal heart sounds or a heart murmur. In the developed world, valvular heart disease is most commonly caused by degeneration secondary to old age, but may also be caused by infection of the heart valves (endocarditis). In some parts of the world rheumatic heart disease is a major cause of valvular heart disease, typically leading to mitral or aortic stenosis and caused by the body's immune system reacting to a streptococcal throat infection.",
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"plaintext": "While in the healthy heart, waves of electrical impulses originate in the sinus node before spreading to the rest of the atria, the atrioventricular node, and finally the ventricles (referred to as a normal sinus rhythm), this normal rhythm can be disrupted. Abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias may be asymptomatic or may cause palpitations, blackouts, or breathlessness. Some types of arrhythmia such as atrial fibrillation increase the long term risk of stroke.",
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"plaintext": "Some arrhythmias cause the heart to beat abnormally slowly, referred to as a bradycardia or bradyarrhythmia. This may be caused by an abnormally slow sinus node or damage within the cardiac conduction system (heart block). In other arrhythmias the heart may beat abnormally rapidly, referred to as a tachycardia or tachyarrhythmia. These arrhythmias can take many forms and can originate from different structures within the heart—some arise from the atria (e.g. atrial flutter), some from the atrioventricular node (e.g. AV nodal re-entrant tachycardia) whilst others arise from the ventricles (e.g. ventricular tachycardia). Some tachyarrhythmias are caused by scarring within the heart (e.g. some forms of ventricular tachycardia), others by an irritable focus (e.g. focal atrial tachycardia), while others are caused by additional abnormal conduction tissue that has been present since birth (e.g. Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome). The most dangerous form of heart racing is ventricular fibrillation, in which the ventricles quiver rather than contract, and which if untreated is rapidly fatal.",
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"plaintext": "The sac which surrounds the heart, called the pericardium, can become inflamed in a condition known as pericarditis. This condition typically causes chest pain that may spread to the back, and is often caused by a viral infection (glandular fever, cytomegalovirus, or coxsackievirus). Fluid can build up within the pericardial sac, referred to as a pericardial effusion. Pericardial effusions often occur secondary to pericarditis, kidney failure, or tumours, and frequently do not cause any symptoms. However, large effusions or effusions which accumulate rapidly can compress the heart in a condition known as cardiac tamponade, causing breathlessness and potentially fatal low blood pressure. Fluid can be removed from the pericardial space for diagnosis or to relieve tamponade using a syringe in a procedure called pericardiocentesis.",
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"plaintext": "Some people are born with hearts that are abnormal and these abnormalities are known as congenital heart defects. They may range from the relatively minor (e.g. patent foramen ovale, arguably a variant of normal) to serious life-threatening abnormalities (e.g. hypoplastic left heart syndrome). Common abnormalities include those that affect the heart muscle that separates the two side of the heart (a \"hole in the heart\", e.g. ventricular septal defect). Other defects include those affecting the heart valves (e.g. congenital aortic stenosis), or the main blood vessels that lead from the heart (e.g. coarctation of the aorta). More complex syndromes are seen that affect more than one part of the heart (e.g. Tetralogy of Fallot).",
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"plaintext": "Some congenital heart defects allow blood that is low in oxygen that would normally be returned to the lungs to instead be pumped back to the rest of the body. These are known as cyanotic congenital heart defects and are often more serious. Major congenital heart defects are often picked up in childhood, shortly after birth, or even before a child is born (e.g. transposition of the great arteries), causing breathlessness and a lower rate of growth. More minor forms of congenital heart disease may remain undetected for many years and only reveal themselves in adult life (e.g., atrial septal defect).",
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"plaintext": "Heart disease is diagnosed by the taking of a medical history, a cardiac examination, and further investigations, including blood tests, echocardiograms, electrocardiograms, and imaging. Other invasive procedures such as cardiac catheterisation can also play a role.",
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"plaintext": "The cardiac examination includes inspection, feeling the chest with the hands (palpation) and listening with a stethoscope (auscultation). It involves assessment of signs that may be visible on a person's hands (such as splinter haemorrhages), joints and other areas. A person's pulse is taken, usually at the radial artery near the wrist, in order to assess for the rhythm and strength of the pulse. The blood pressure is taken, using either a manual or automatic sphygmomanometer or using a more invasive measurement from within the artery. Any elevation of the jugular venous pulse is noted. A person's chest is felt for any transmitted vibrations from the heart, and then listened to with a stethoscope.",
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"plaintext": "Typically, healthy hearts have only two audible heart sounds, called S1 and S2. The first heart sound S1, is the sound created by the closing of the atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction and is normally described as \"lub\". The second heart sound, S2, is the sound of the semilunar valves closing during ventricular diastole and is described as \"dub\". Each sound consists of two components, reflecting the slight difference in time as the two valves close. S2 may split into two distinct sounds, either as a result of inspiration or different valvular or cardiac problems. Additional heart sounds may also be present and these give rise to gallop rhythms. A third heart sound, S3 usually indicates an increase in ventricular blood volume. A fourth heart sound S4 is referred to as an atrial gallop and is produced by the sound of blood being forced into a stiff ventricle. The combined presence of S3 and S4 give a quadruple gallop.",
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"plaintext": "Heart murmurs are abnormal heart sounds which can be either related to disease or benign, and there are several kinds. There are normally two heart sounds, and abnormal heart sounds can either be extra sounds, or \"murmurs\" related to the flow of blood between the sounds. Murmurs are graded by volume, from 1 (the quietest), to 6 (the loudest), and evaluated by their relationship to the heart sounds, position in the cardiac cycle, and additional features such as their radiation to other sites, changes with a person's position, the frequency of the sound as determined by the side of the stethoscope by which they are heard, and site at which they are heard loudest. Murmurs may be caused by damaged heart valves or congenital heart disease such as ventricular septal defects, or may be heard in normal hearts. A different type of sound, a pericardial friction rub can be heard in cases of pericarditis where the inflamed membranes can rub together.",
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"plaintext": "Blood tests play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of many cardiovascular conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Troponin is a sensitive biomarker for a heart with insufficient blood supply. It is released 4–6 hours after injury, and usually peaks at about 12–24 hours. Two tests of troponin are often taken—one at the time of initial presentation, and another within 3–6 hours, with either a high level or a significant rise being diagnostic. A test for brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) can be used to evaluate for the presence of heart failure, and rises when there is increased demand on the left ventricle. These tests are considered biomarkers because they are highly specific for cardiac disease. Testing for the MB form of creatine kinase provides information about the heart's blood supply, but is used less frequently because it is less specific and sensitive.",
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"plaintext": "Other blood tests are often taken to help understand a person's general health and risk factors that may contribute to heart disease. These often include a full blood count investigating for anaemia, and basic metabolic panel that may reveal any disturbances in electrolytes. A coagulation screen is often required to ensure that the right level of anticoagulation is given. Fasting lipids and fasting blood glucose (or an HbA1c level) are often ordered to evaluate a person's cholesterol and diabetes status, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Using surface electrodes on the body, it is possible to record the electrical activity of the heart. This tracing of the electrical signal is the electrocardiogram (ECG) or (EKG). An ECG is a bedside test and involves the placement of ten leads on the body. This produces a \"12 lead\" ECG (three extra leads are calculated mathematically, and one lead is electrically ground, or earthed).",
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"plaintext": "There are five prominent features on the ECG: the P wave (atrial depolarisation), the QRS complex (ventricular depolarisation) and the T wave (ventricular repolarisation). As the heart cells contract, they create a current that travels through the heart. A downward deflection on the ECG implies cells are becoming more positive in charge (\"depolarising\") in the direction of that lead, whereas an upward inflection implies cells are becoming more negative (\"repolarising\") in the direction of the lead. This depends on the position of the lead, so if a wave of depolarising moved from left to right, a lead on the left would show a negative deflection, and a lead on the right would show a positive deflection. The ECG is a useful tool in detecting rhythm disturbances and in detecting insufficient blood supply to the heart. Sometimes abnormalities are suspected, but not immediately visible on the ECG. Testing when exercising can be used to provoke an abnormality, or an ECG can be worn for a longer period such as a 24-hour Holter monitor if a suspected rhythm abnormality is not present at the time of assessment.",
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"plaintext": "Several imaging methods can be used to assess the anatomy and function of the heart, including ultrasound (echocardiography), angiography, CT, MRI, and PET, scans. An echocardiogram is an ultrasound of the heart used to measure the heart's function, assess for valve disease, and look for any abnormalities. Echocardiography can be conducted by a probe on the chest (transthoracic), or by a probe in the esophagus (transesophageal). A typical echocardiography report will include information about the width of the valves noting any stenosis, whether there is any backflow of blood (regurgitation) and information about the blood volumes at the end of systole and diastole, including an ejection fraction, which describes how much blood is ejected from the left and right ventricles after systole. Ejection fraction can then be obtained by dividing the volume ejected by the heart (stroke volume) by the volume of the filled heart (end-diastolic volume). Echocardiograms can also be conducted under circumstances when the body is more stressed, in order to examine for signs of lack of blood supply. This cardiac stress test involves either direct exercise, or where this is not possible, injection of a drug such as dobutamine.",
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"plaintext": "CT scans, chest X-rays and other forms of imaging can help evaluate the heart's size, evaluate for signs of pulmonary oedema, and indicate whether there is fluid around the heart. They are also useful for evaluating the aorta, the major blood vessel which leaves the heart.",
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"plaintext": "Diseases affecting the heart can be treated by a variety of methods including lifestyle modification, drug treatment, and surgery.",
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"plaintext": "Narrowings of the coronary arteries (ischaemic heart disease) are treated to relieve symptoms of chest pain caused by a partially narrowed artery (angina pectoris), to minimise heart muscle damage when an artery is completely occluded (myocardial infarction), or to prevent a myocardial infarction from occurring. Medications to improve angina symptoms include nitroglycerin, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers, while preventative treatments include antiplatelets such as aspirin and statins, lifestyle measures such as stopping smoking and weight loss, and treatment of risk factors such as high blood pressure and diabetes.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to using medications, narrowed heart arteries can be treated by expanding the narrowings or redirecting the flow of blood to bypass an obstruction. This may be performed using a percutaneous coronary intervention, during which narrowings can be expanded by passing small balloon-tipped wires into the coronary arteries, inflating the balloon to expand the narrowing, and sometimes leaving behind a metal scaffold known as a stent to keep the artery open.",
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"plaintext": "If the narrowings in coronary arteries are unsuitable for treatment with a percutaneous coronary intervention, open surgery may be required. A coronary artery bypass graft can be performed, whereby a blood vessel from another part of the body (the saphenous vein, radial artery, or internal mammary artery) is used to redirect blood from a point before the narrowing (typically the aorta) to a point beyond the obstruction.",
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"plaintext": "Diseased heart valves that have become abnormally narrow or abnormally leaky may require surgery. This is traditionally performed as an open surgical procedure to replace the damaged heart valve with a tissue or metallic prosthetic valve. In some circumstances, the tricuspid or mitral valves can be repaired surgically, avoiding the need for a valve replacement. Heart valves can also be treated percutaneously, using techniques that share many similarities with percutaneous coronary intervention. Transcatheter aortic valve replacement is increasingly used for patients consider very high risk for open valve replacement.",
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"plaintext": "Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) can be treated using antiarrhythmic drugs. These may work by manipulating the flow of electrolytes across the cell membrane (such as calcium channel blockers, sodium channel blockers, amiodarone, or digoxin), or modify the autonomic nervous system's effect on the heart (beta blockers and atropine). In some arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation which increase the risk of stroke, this risk can be reduced using anticoagulants such as warfarin or novel oral anticoagulants.",
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"plaintext": "If medications fail to control an arrhythmia, another treatment option may be catheter ablation. In these procedures, wires are passed from a vein or artery in the leg to the heart to find the abnormal area of tissue that is causing the arrhythmia. The abnormal tissue can be intentionally damaged, or ablated, by heating or freezing to prevent further heart rhythm disturbances. Whilst the majority of arrhythmias can be treated using minimally invasive catheter techniques, some arrhythmias (particularly atrial fibrillation) can also be treated using open or thoracoscopic surgery, either at the time of other cardiac surgery or as a standalone procedure. A cardioversion, whereby an electric shock is used to stun the heart out of an abnormal rhythm, may also be used.",
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"plaintext": "Cardiac devices in the form of pacemakers or implantable defibrillators may also be required to treat arrhythmias. Pacemakers, comprising a small battery powered generator implanted under the skin and one or more leads that extend to the heart, are most commonly used to treat abnormally slow heart rhythms. Implantable defibrillators are used to treat serious life-threatening rapid heart rhythms. These devices monitor the heart, and if dangerous heart racing is detected can automatically deliver a shock to restore the heart to a normal rhythm. Implantable defibrillators are most commonly used in patients with heart failure, cardiomyopathies, or inherited arrhythmia syndromes.",
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"plaintext": "As well as addressing the underlying cause for a patient's heart failure (most commonly ischaemic heart disease or hypertension), the mainstay of heart failure treatment is with medication. These include drugs to prevent fluid from accumulating in the lungs by increasing the amount of urine a patient produces (diuretics), and drugs that attempt to preserve the pumping function of the heart (beta blockers, ACE inhibitors and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists).",
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"plaintext": "In some patients with heart failure, a specialised pacemaker known as cardiac resynchronisation therapy can be used to improve the heart's pumping efficiency. These devices are frequently combined with a defibrillator. In very severe cases of heart failure, a small pump called a ventricular assist device may be implanted which supplements the heart's own pumping ability. In the most severe cases, a cardiac transplant may be considered.",
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"plaintext": "Humans have known about the heart since ancient times, although its precise function and anatomy were not clearly understood. From the primarily religious views of earlier societies towards the heart, ancient Greeks are considered to have been the primary seat of scientific understanding of the heart in the ancient world. Aristotle considered the heart to be the organ responsible for creating blood; Plato considered the heart as the source of circulating blood and Hippocrates noted blood circulating cyclically from the body through the heart to the lungs. Erasistratos (304–250 BCE) noted the heart as a pump, causing dilation of blood vessels, and noted that arteries and veins both radiate from the heart, becoming progressively smaller with distance, although he believed they were filled with air and not blood. He also discovered the heart valves.",
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"plaintext": "The Greek physician Galen (2nd century CE) knew blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Galen, noting the heart as the hottest organ in the body, concluded that it provided heat to the body. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves. Galen believed the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right through 'pores' between the ventricles. Air from the lungs passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart and created arterial blood.",
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"plaintext": "These ideas went unchallenged for almost a thousand years.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest descriptions of the coronary and pulmonary circulation systems can be found in the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, published in 1242 by Ibn al-Nafis. In his manuscript, al-Nafis wrote that blood passes through the pulmonary circulation instead of moving from the right to the left ventricle as previously believed by Galen. His work was later translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, the teachings of Galen continued to dominate the academic community and his doctrines were adopted as the official canon of the Church. Andreas Vesalius questioned some of Galen's beliefs of the heart in De humani corporis fabrica (1543), but his magnum opus was interpreted as a challenge to the authorities and he was subjected to a number of attacks. Michael Servetus wrote in Christianismi Restitutio (1553) that blood flows from one side of the heart to the other via the lungs.",
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"plaintext": "A breakthrough in understanding the flow of blood through the heart and body came with the publication of De Motu Cordis (1628) by the English physician William Harvey. Harvey's book completely describes the systemic circulation and the mechanical force of the heart, leading to an overhaul of the Galenic doctrines. Otto Frank (1865–1944) was a German physiologist; among his many published works are detailed studies of this important heart relationship. Ernest Starling (1866–1927) was an important English physiologist who also studied the heart. Although they worked largely independently, their combined efforts and similar conclusions have been recognized in the name \"Frank–Starling mechanism\".",
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"plaintext": "Although Purkinje fibers and the bundle of His were discovered as early as the 19th century, their specific role in the electrical conduction system of the heart remained unknown until Sunao Tawara published his monograph, titled Das Reizleitungssystem des Säugetierherzens, in 1906. Tawara's discovery of the atrioventricular node prompted Arthur Keith and Martin Flack to look for similar structures in the heart, leading to their discovery of the sinoatrial node several months later. These structures form the anatomical basis of the electrocardiogram, whose inventor, Willem Einthoven, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1924.",
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"plaintext": "The first heart transplant in a human ever performed was by James Hardy in 1964, using a chimpanzee heart, but the patient died within 2 hours. The first human to human heart transplantation was performed in 1967 by the South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town. This marked an important milestone in cardiac surgery, capturing the attention of both the medical profession and the world at large. However, long-term survival rates of patients were initially very low. Louis Washkansky, the first recipient of a donated heart, died 18 days after the operation while other patients did not survive for more than a few weeks. The American surgeon Norman Shumway has been credited for his efforts to improve transplantation techniques, along with pioneers Richard Lower, Vladimir Demikhov and Adrian Kantrowitz. As of March 2000, more than 55,000 heart transplantations have been performed worldwide. The first successful transplant of a heart from a genetically modified pig to a human in which the patient lived for a longer time, was performed January 7, 2022 in Baltimore by heart surgeon Bartley P. Griffith, recipient was David Bennett (57) this successfully extended his life until 8 March 2022 (1 month and 30 days).",
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"plaintext": "By the middle of the 20th century, heart disease had surpassed infectious disease as the leading cause of death in the United States, and it is currently the leading cause of deaths worldwide. Since 1948, the ongoing Framingham Heart Study has shed light on the effects of various influences on the heart, including diet, exercise, and common medications such as aspirin. Although the introduction of ACE inhibitors and beta blockers has improved the management of chronic heart failure, the disease continues to be an enormous medical and societal burden, with 30 to 40% of patients dying within a year of receiving the diagnosis.",
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"plaintext": "As one of the vital organs, the heart was long identified as the center of the entire body, the seat of life, or emotion, or reason, will, intellect, purpose or the mind. The heart is an emblematic symbol in many religions, signifying \"truth, conscience or moral courage in many religions—the temple or throne of God in Islamic and Judeo-Christian thought; the divine centre, or atman, and the third eye of transcendent wisdom in Hinduism; the diamond of purity and essence of the Buddha; the Taoist centre of understanding.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the Hebrew Bible, the word for heart, lev, is used in these meanings, as the seat of emotion, the mind, and referring to the anatomical organ. It is also connected in function and symbolism to the stomach.",
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"plaintext": "An important part of the concept of the soul in Ancient Egyptian religion was thought to be the heart, or ib. The ib or metaphysical heart was believed to be formed from one drop of blood from the child's mother's heart, taken at conception. To ancient Egyptians, the heart was the seat of emotion, thought, will, and intention. This is evidenced by Egyptian expressions which incorporate the word ib, such as Awi-ib for \"happy\" (literally, \"long of heart\"), Xak-ib for \"estranged\" (literally, \"truncated of heart\"). In Egyptian religion, the heart was the key to the afterlife. It was conceived as surviving death in the nether world, where it gave evidence for, or against, its possessor. It was thought that the heart was examined by Anubis and a variety of deities during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony. If the heart weighed more than the feather of Maat, which symbolized the ideal standard of behavior. If the scales balanced, it meant the heart's possessor had lived a just life and could enter the afterlife; if the heart was heavier, it would be devoured by the monster Ammit.",
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"plaintext": "The Chinese character for \"heart\", 心, derives from a comparatively realistic depiction of a heart (indicating the heart chambers) in seal script. The Chinese word xīn also takes the metaphorical meanings of \"mind\", \"intention\", or \"core\". In Chinese medicine, the heart is seen as the center of 神 shén \"spirit, consciousness\". The heart is associated with the small intestine, tongue, governs the six organs and five viscera, and belongs to fire in the five elements.",
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"plaintext": "The Sanskrit word for heart is hṛd or hṛdaya, found in the oldest surviving Sanskrit text, the Rigveda. In Sanskrit, it may mean both the anatomical object and \"mind\" or \"soul\", representing the seat of emotion. Hrd may be a cognate of the word for heart in Greek, Latin, and English.",
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"plaintext": "Many classical philosophers and scientists, including Aristotle, considered the heart the seat of thought, reason, or emotion, often disregarding the brain as contributing to those functions. The identification of the heart as the seat of emotions in particular is due to the Roman physician Galen, who also located the seat of the passions in the liver, and the seat of reason in the brain.",
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"plaintext": "The heart also played a role in the Aztec system of belief. The most common form of human sacrifice practiced by the Aztecs was heart-extraction. The Aztec believed that the heart (tona) was both the seat of the individual and a fragment of the Sun's heat (istli). To this day, the Nahua consider the Sun to be a heart-soul (tona-tiuh): \"round, hot, pulsating\".",
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"plaintext": "In Catholicism, there has been a long tradition of veneration of the heart, stemming from worship of the wounds of Jesus Christ which gained prominence from the mid sixteenth century. This tradition influenced the development of the medieval Christian devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the parallel veneration of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, made popular by John Eudes.",
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"plaintext": "The expression of a broken heart is a cross-cultural reference to grief for a lost one or to unfulfilled romantic love.",
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"plaintext": "The notion of \"Cupid's arrows\" is ancient, due to Ovid, but while Ovid describes Cupid as wounding his victims with his arrows, it is not made explicit that it is the heart that is wounded. The familiar iconography of Cupid shooting little heart symbols is a Renaissance theme that became tied to Valentine's day.",
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"plaintext": "Animal hearts are widely consumed as food. As they are almost entirely muscle, they are high in protein. They are often included in dishes with other offal, for example in the pan-Ottoman kokoretsi.",
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"plaintext": "Chicken hearts are considered to be giblets, and are often grilled on skewers; examples of this are Japanese hāto yakitori, Brazilian churrasco de coração, and Indonesian chicken heart satay. They can also be pan-fried, as in Jerusalem mixed grill. In Egyptian cuisine, they can be used, finely chopped, as part of stuffing for chicken. Many recipes combined them with other giblets, such as the Mexican pollo en menudencias and the Russian ragu iz kurinyikh potrokhov.",
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"plaintext": "The hearts of beef, pork, and mutton can generally be interchanged in recipes. As heart is a hard-working muscle, it makes for \"firm and rather dry\" meat, so is generally slow-cooked. Another way of dealing with toughness is to julienne the meat, as in Chinese stir-fried heart.",
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"plaintext": "Beef heart may be grilled or braised. In the Peruvian anticuchos de corazón, barbecued beef hearts are grilled after being tenderized through long marination in a spice and vinegar mixture. An Australian recipe for \"mock goose\" is actually braised stuffed beef heart.",
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"plaintext": "Pig heart is stewed, poached, braised, or made into sausage. The Balinese oret is a sort of blood sausage made with pig heart and blood. A French recipe for cœur de porc à l'orange is made of braised heart with an orange sauce.",
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"plaintext": "The size of the heart varies among the different animal groups, with hearts in vertebrates ranging from those of the smallest mice (12mg) to the blue whale (600kg). In vertebrates, the heart lies in the middle of the ventral part of the body, surrounded by a pericardium. which in some fish may be connected to the peritoneum.",
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"plaintext": "The sinoatrial node is found in all amniotes but not in more primitive vertebrates. In these animals, the muscles of the heart are relatively continuous, and the sinus venosus coordinates the beat, which passes in a wave through the remaining chambers. Since the sinus venosus is incorporated into the right atrium in amniotes, it is likely homologous with the SA node. In teleosts, with their vestigial sinus venosus, the main centre of coordination is, instead, in the atrium. The rate of heartbeat varies enormously between different species, ranging from around 20 beats per minute in codfish to around 600 in hummingbirds and up to 1200 bpm in the ruby-throated hummingbird.",
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"plaintext": "Adult amphibians and most reptiles have a double circulatory system, meaning a circulatory system divided into arterial and venous parts. However, the heart itself is not completely separated into two sides. Instead, it is separated into three chambers—two atria and one ventricle. Blood returning from both the systemic circulation and the lungs is returned, and blood is pumped simultaneously into the systemic circulation and the lungs. The double system allows blood to circulate to and from the lungs which deliver oxygenated blood directly to the heart.",
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"plaintext": "In reptiles, other than snakes, the heart is usually situated around the middle of the thorax. In terrestrial and arboreal snakes it is usually located nearer to the head; in aquatic species the heart is more centrally located. There is a heart with three chambers: two atria and one ventricle. The form and function of these hearts are different than mammalian hearts due to the fact that snakes have an elongated body, and thus are affected by different environmental factors. In particular, the snake's heart relative to the position in their body has been influenced greatly by gravity. Therefore, snakes that are larger in size tend to have a higher blood pressure due to gravitational change. The ventricle is incompletely separated into two-halves by a wall (septum), with a considerable gap near the pulmonary artery and aortic openings. In most reptilian species, there appears to be little, if any, mixing between the bloodstreams, so the aorta receives, essentially, only oxygenated blood. The exception to this rule is crocodiles, which have a four-chambered heart.",
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"plaintext": "In the heart of lungfish, the septum extends partway into the ventricle. This allows for some degree of separation between the de-oxygenated bloodstream destined for the lungs and the oxygenated stream that is delivered to the rest of the body. The absence of such a division in living amphibian species may be partly due to the amount of respiration that occurs through the skin; thus, the blood returned to the heart through the venae cavae is already partially oxygenated. As a result, there may be less need for a finer division between the two bloodstreams than in lungfish or other tetrapods. Nonetheless, in at least some species of amphibian, the spongy nature of the ventricle does seem to maintain more of a separation between the bloodstreams. Also, the original valves of the conus arteriosus have been replaced by a spiral valve that divides it into two parallel parts, thereby helping to keep the two bloodstreams separate.",
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"plaintext": "Archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) and mammals show complete separation of the heart into two pumps for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of archosaurs evolved independently from that of mammals. In crocodilians, there is a small opening, the foramen of Panizza, at the base of the arterial trunks and there is some degree of mixing between the blood in each side of the heart, during a dive underwater; thus, only in birds and mammals are the two streams of blood—those to the pulmonary and systemic circulations—permanently kept entirely separate by a physical barrier.",
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"plaintext": "Fish have what is often described as a two-chambered heart, consisting of one atrium to receive blood and one ventricle to pump it. However, the fish heart has entry and exit compartments that may be called chambers, so it is also sometimes described as three-chambered or four-chambered, depending on what is counted as a chamber. The atrium and ventricle are sometimes considered \"true chambers\", while the others are considered \"accessory chambers\".",
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"plaintext": "Primitive fish have a four-chambered heart, but the chambers are arranged sequentially so that this primitive heart is quite unlike the four-chambered hearts of mammals and birds. The first chamber is the sinus venosus, which collects deoxygenated blood from the body through the hepatic and cardinal veins. From here, blood flows into the atrium and then to the powerful muscular ventricle where the main pumping action will take place. The fourth and final chamber is the conus arteriosus, which contains several valves and sends blood to the ventral aorta. The ventral aorta delivers blood to the gills where it is oxygenated and flows, through the dorsal aorta, into the rest of the body. (In tetrapods, the ventral aorta has divided in two; one half forms the ascending aorta, while the other forms the pulmonary artery).",
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"plaintext": "In the adult fish, the four chambers are not arranged in a straight row but instead form an S-shape, with the latter two chambers lying above the former two. This relatively simple pattern is found in cartilaginous fish and in the ray-finned fish. In teleosts, the conus arteriosus is very small and can more accurately be described as part of the aorta rather than of the heart proper. The conus arteriosus is not present in any amniotes, presumably having been absorbed into the ventricles over the course of evolution. Similarly, while the sinus venosus is present as a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable.",
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"plaintext": "Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system. In this system, deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities (sinuses). This blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one-way channels. The heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel, a cavity between the organs. The heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body, under the back and from the base of the head. Instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment, copper-based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter. Haemoglobin is only used by a few arthropods.",
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"plaintext": "In some other invertebrates such as earthworms, the circulatory system is not used to transport oxygen and so is much reduced, having no veins or arteries and consisting of two connected tubes. Oxygen travels by diffusion and there are five small muscular vessels that connect these vessels that contract at the front of the animals that can be thought of as \"hearts\".",
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"plaintext": "Squids and other cephalopods have two \"gill hearts\" also known as branchial hearts, and one \"systemic heart\". The branchial hearts have two atria and one ventricle each, and pump to the gills, whereas the systemic heart pumps to the body.",
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"plaintext": "Only the chordates (including vertebrates) and the hemichordates have a central \"heart\", which is a vesicle formed from the thickening of the aorta and contracts to pump blood. This suggests a presence of it in the last common ancestor of these groups (may have been lost in the echinoderms).",
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"plaintext": " Transplantation of pig heart to human. BBC, 11 Jan 2022. ",
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"plaintext": " Heart surgeon Bartley P Griffith talks about the unique transplant of pig heart to human.",
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"plaintext": " What Is the Heart? – NIH",
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"plaintext": " Atlas of Human Cardiac Anatomy",
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"plaintext": " Dissection review of the anatomy of the Human Heart including vessels, internal and external features",
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"plaintext": " Prenatal human heart development",
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"plaintext": " Animal hearts: fish, squid",
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"plaintext": " The Heart, BBC Radio 4 interdisciplinary discussion with David Wootton, Fay Bound Alberti & Jonathan Sawday (In Our Time, 1 June 2006)",
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| 1,072 | 67,451 | 2,334 | 640 | 1 | 0 | heart | organ found inside most animals | []
|
36,811 | 1,097,167,346 | Subset_sum_problem | [
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"plaintext": "The subset sum problem (SSP) is a decision problem in computer science. In its most general formulation, there is a multiset of integers and a target-sum , and the question is to decide whether any subset of the integers sum to precisely . The problem is known to be NP. Moreover, some restricted variants of it are NP-complete too, for example:",
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"plaintext": " The variant in which all inputs are positive.",
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"plaintext": " The variant in which inputs may be positive or negative, and . For example, given the set , the answer is yes because the subset sums to zero. ",
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"plaintext": " The variant in which all inputs are positive, and the target sum is exactly half the sum of all inputs, i.e., . This special case of SSP is known as the partition problem.",
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"plaintext": "SSP can also be regarded as an optimization problem: find a subset whose sum is at most T, and subject to that, as close as possible to T. It is NP-hard, but there are several algorithms that can solve it reasonably quickly in practice.",
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"plaintext": "SSP is a special case of the knapsack problem and of the multiple subset sum problem.",
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"plaintext": "The run-time complexity of SSP depends on two parameters: ",
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"plaintext": " - the number of input integers. If n is a small fixed number, then an exhaustive search for the solution is practical.",
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"plaintext": " - the precision of the problem, stated as the number of binary place values that it takes to state the problem. If L is a small fixed number, then there are dynamic programming algorithms that can solve it exactly.",
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"plaintext": "As both n and L grow large, SSP is NP-hard. The complexity of the best known algorithms is exponential in the smaller of the two parameters n and L. The problem is NP-hard even when all input integers are positive (and the target-sum T is a part of the input). This can be proved by a direct reduction from 3SAT. It can also be proved by reduction from 3-dimensional matching (3DM):",
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"plaintext": " We are given an instance of 3DM, where the vertex sets are W, X, Y. Each set has n vertices. There are m edges, where each edge contains exactly one vertex from each of W, X, Y. Denote L := ceiling(log2(m+1)), so that L is larger than the number of bits required to represent the number of edges.",
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"plaintext": " We construct an instance of SSP with m positive integers. The integers are described by their binary representation. Each input integer can be represented by 3nL bits, divided into 3n zones of L bits. Each zone corresponds to a vertex.",
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"plaintext": " For each edge (w,x,y) in the 3DM instance, there is an integer in the SSP instance, in which exactly three bits are \"1\": the least-significant bits in the zones of the vertices w, x, and y. For example, if n=10 and L=3, and W=(0,...,9), X=(10,...,19), Y=(20,...,29), then the edge (0, 10, 20) is represented by the number (20+230+260).",
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"plaintext": " The target sum T in the SSP instance is set to an integer with \"1\" in the least-significant bit of every zone, that is, (20+21+...+23n-1).",
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"plaintext": " If the 3DM instance has a perfect matching, then summing the corresponding integers in the SSP instance yields exactly T.",
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"plaintext": " Conversely, if the SSP instance has a subset with sum exactly T, then, since the zones are sufficiently large so that there are no \"carries\" from one zone to the next, the sum must correspond to a perfect matching in the 3DM instance.",
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"plaintext": "The following variants are also known to be NP-hard:",
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"plaintext": " The input integers can be both positive and negative, and the target-sum T = 0. This can be proved by reduction from the variant with positive integers. Denote that variant by SubsetSumPositive and the current variant by SubsetSumZero. Given an instance (S, T) of SubsetSumPositive, construct an instance of SubsetSumZero by adding a single element with value T. Given a solution to the SubsetSumPositive instance, adding the T yields a solution to the SubsetSumZero instance. Conversely, given a solution to the SubsetSumZero instance, it must contain the T (since all integers in S are positive), so to get a sum of zero, it must also contain a subset of S with a sum of +T, which is a solution of the SubsetSumPositive instance.",
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"plaintext": "The input integers are positive, and T = sum(S)/2. This can also be proved by reduction from the general variant; see partition problem.",
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"plaintext": "The most naïve algorithm would be to cycle through all subsets of n numbers and, for every one of them, check if the subset sums to the right number. The running time is of order , since there are subsets and, to check each subset, we need to sum at most n elements.",
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"plaintext": "The algorithm can be implemented by depth-first search of a binary tree: each level in the tree corresponds to an input number; the left branch corresponds to excluding the number from the set, and the right branch corresponds to including the number (hence the name Inclusion-Exclusion). The memory required is . The run-time can be improved by several heuristics:",
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"plaintext": " Process the input numbers in descending order.",
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"plaintext": " If the integers included in a given node exceed the sum of the best subset found so far, the node is pruned.",
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"plaintext": " If the integers included in a given node, plus all remaining integers, are less than the sum of the best subset found so far, the node is pruned.",
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"plaintext": "In 1974, Horowitz and Sahni published a faster exponential-time algorithm, which runs in time , but requires much more space - . The algorithm splits arbitrarily the n elements into two sets of each. For each of these two sets, it stores a list of the sums of all possible subsets of its elements. Each of these two lists is then sorted. Using even the fastest comparison sorting algorithm, Mergesort for this step would take time . However, given a sorted list of sums for elements, the list can be expanded to two sorted lists with the introduction of a ()th element, and these two sorted lists can be merged in time . Thus, each list can be generated in sorted form in time . Given the two sorted lists, the algorithm can check if an element of the first array and an element of the second array sum up to T in time . To do that, the algorithm passes through the first array in decreasing order (starting at the largest element) and the second array in increasing order (starting at the smallest element). Whenever the sum of the current element in the first array and the current element in the second array is more than T, the algorithm moves to the next element in the first array. If it is less than T, the algorithm moves to the next element in the second array. If two elements that sum to T are found, it stops. (The sub-problem for two elements sum is known as two-sum.)",
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"plaintext": "Schroeppel and Shamir presented an algorithm based on Horowitz and Sanhi, that requires similar runtime - , much less space - . Rather than generating and storing all subsets of n/2 elements in advance, they partition the elements into 4 sets of n/4 elements each, and generate subsets of n/2 element pairs dynamically using a min heap which yields the above time and space complexities since this can be done in and space given 4 lists of length k.",
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"plaintext": "Due to space requirements, the HS algorithm is practical for up to about 50 integers, and the SS algorithm is practical for up to 100 integers.",
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"plaintext": "Howgrave-Graham and Joux presented a probabilistic algorithm that runs faster than all previous ones - in time using space . It solves only the decision problem, cannot prove there is no solution for a given sum, and does not return the subset sum closest to T.",
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"plaintext": "The techniques of Howgrave-Graham and Joux were subsequently extended bringing the time-complexity to .",
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"plaintext": "SSP can be solved in pseudo-polynomial time using dynamic programming. Suppose we have the following sequence of elements in an instance:",
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"plaintext": "We define a state as a pair (i, s) of integers. This state represents the fact that",
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"plaintext": "\"there is a nonempty subset of which sums to .\"",
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"plaintext": "Each state (i, s) has two next states:",
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"plaintext": " (i+1, s), implying that is not included in the subset;",
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"plaintext": " (i+1, s+), implying that is included in the subset.",
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"plaintext": "Starting from the initial state (0, 0), it is possible to use any graph search algorithm (e.g. BFS) to search the state (N, T). If the state is found, then by backtracking we can find a subset with a sum of exactly T.",
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"plaintext": "The run-time of this algorithm is at most linear in the number of states. The number of states is at most N times the number of different possible sums. Let be the sum of the negative values and the sum of the positive values; the number of different possible sums is at most B-A, so the total runtime is in . For example, if all input values are positive and bounded by some constant C, then B is at most N C, so the time required is .",
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"plaintext": "This solution does not count as polynomial time in complexity theory because is not polynomial in the size of the problem, which is the number of bits used to represent it. This algorithm is polynomial in the values of and , which are exponential in their numbers of bits. However, Subset Sum encoded in unary is in P, since then the size of the encoding is linear in B-A. Hence, Subset Sum is only weakly NP-Complete.",
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"plaintext": "For the case that each is positive and bounded by a fixed constant , Pisinger found a linear time algorithm having time complexity (note that this is for the version of the problem where the target sum is not necessarily zero, otherwise the problem would be trivial). In 2015, Koiliaris and Xu found a deterministic algorithm for the subset sum problem where is the sum we need to find. In 2017, Bringmann found a randomized time algorithm.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, Curtis and Sanches found a simple recursion highly scalable in SIMD machines having time and space, where is the number of processing elements, and is the lowest integer. This is the best theoretical parallel complexity known so far.",
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"plaintext": "A comparison of practical results and the solution of hard instances of the SSP is discussed by Curtis and Sanches.",
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"plaintext": "Suppose all inputs are positive. An approximation algorithm to SSP aims to find a subset of S with a sum of at most T and at least r times the optimal sum, where r is a number in (0,1) called the approximation ratio.",
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"plaintext": "The following very simple algorithm has an approximation ratio of 1/2:",
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"plaintext": " Order the inputs by descending value;",
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"plaintext": " Put the next-largest input into the subset, as long as it fits there.",
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"plaintext": "When this algorithm terminates, either all inputs are in the subset (which is obviously optimal), or there is an input that does not fit. The first such input is smaller than all previous inputs that are in the subset, so it must be smaller than T/2. Therefore, the sum of inputs in the subset is more than T/2, which is obviously more than OPT/2.",
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"plaintext": "The following algorithm attains, for every , an approximation ratio of . Its run time is polynomial in and . Recall that n is the number of inputs and T is the upper bound to the subset sum.",
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"plaintext": " initialize a list L to contain one element 0.",
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"plaintext": " for each i from 1 to n do",
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"plaintext": " let Ui be a list containing all elements y in L, and all sums xi + y for all y in L.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": " sort Ui in ascending order",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": " make L empty ",
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"plaintext": " let y be the smallest element of Ui",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": " add y to L",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": " for each element z of Ui in increasing order do",
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"plaintext": " // Trim the list by eliminating numbers close to one another",
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"plaintext": " // and throw out elements greater than the target sum T.",
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"plaintext": " if y + ε T/n < z ≤ T then",
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"plaintext": " y = z",
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"plaintext": " add z to L",
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"plaintext": " return the largest element in L.",
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"plaintext": "Note that without the trimming step (the inner \"for each\" loop), the list L would contain the sums of all subsets of inputs. The trimming step does two things:",
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"plaintext": " It ensures that all sums remaining in L are below T, so they are feasible solutions to the subset-sum problem.",
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"plaintext": " It ensures that the list L is \"sparse\", that is, the difference between each two consecutive partial-sums is at least . ",
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"plaintext": "These properties together guarantee that the list contains no more than elements; therefore the run-time is polynomial in .",
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"plaintext": "When the algorithm ends, if the optimal sum is in , then it is returned and we are done. Otherwise, it must have been removed in a previous trimming step. Each trimming step introduces an additive error of at most , so steps together introduce an error of at most . Therefore, the returned solution is at least which is at least .",
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"plaintext": "The above algorithm provides an exact solution to SSP in the case that the input numbers are small (and non-negative). If any sum of the numbers can be specified with at most bits, then solving the problem approximately with is equivalent to solving it exactly. Then, the polynomial time algorithm for approximate subset sum becomes an exact algorithm with running time polynomial in and (i.e., exponential in ).",
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"plaintext": "Kellerer, Mansini, Pferschy and Speranza and Kellerer, Pferschy and Pisinger present other FPTAS-s for subset sum.",
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"plaintext": " Knapsack problem - a generalization of SSP in which each input item has both a value and a weight. The goal is to maximize the value such that the total weight is bounded.",
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"plaintext": "Multiple subset sum problem - a generalization off SSP in which one should choose several subsets.",
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"plaintext": "3SUM",
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"plaintext": " Merkle–Hellman knapsack cryptosystem",
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"plaintext": " A3.2: SP13, pg.223.",
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| 1,154,420 | 7,772 | 54 | 32 | 0 | 0 | subset sum problem | []
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|
36,812 | 1,104,766,735 | Pericles | [
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"plaintext": "Pericles promoted the arts and literature, and it is principally through his efforts that Athens acquired the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world. He started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon. This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory and gave work to its people. Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics called him a populist. Pericles was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically-influential Alcmaeonid family. He, along with several members of his family, succumbed to the Plague of Athens in 429 BC, which weakened the city-state during a protracted conflict with Sparta.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles was born c. 495 BC, in Athens, Greece. He was the son of the politician Xanthippus, who, though ostracized in 485–484 BC, returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later. Pericles' mother, Agariste, was a member of the powerful and controversial noble family of the Alcmaeonidae, and her familial connections played a crucial role in helping start Xanthippus' political career. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, and the niece of the Athenian reformer Cleisthenes.",
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"plaintext": "According to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed, a few nights before Pericles' birth, that she had borne a lion. Legends say that Philip II of Macedon had a similar dream before the birth of his son, Alexander the Great. One interpretation of the dream treats the lion as a traditional symbol of greatness, but the story may also allude to the unusually large size of Pericles' skull, which became a popular target of contemporary comedians (who called him \"Squill-head\", after the squill or sea-onion). Although Plutarch claims that this deformity was the reason that Pericles was always depicted wearing a helmet, this is not the case; the helmet was actually the symbol of his official rank as strategos (general).",
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"plaintext": "Pericles belonged to the tribe of Acamantis (). His early years were quiet; the introverted young Pericles avoided public appearances, instead preferring to devote his time to his studies.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles' manner of thought and rhetorical charisma may have possibly been in part products of Anaxagoras' emphasis on emotional calm in the face of trouble, and skepticism about divine phenomena. His proverbial calmness and self-control are also often regarded as products of Anaxagoras' influence.",
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"plaintext": "In the spring of 472 BC, Pericles presented The Persians of Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy, demonstrating that he was one of the wealthier men of Athens. Simon Hornblower has argued that Pericles' selection of this play, which presents a nostalgic picture of Themistocles' famous victory at Salamis, shows that the young politician was supporting Themistocles against his political opponent Cimon, whose faction succeeded in having Themistocles ostracized shortly afterward.",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch says that Pericles stood first among the Athenians for forty years. If this was so, Pericles must have taken up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC in his early or mid-thirties. Throughout these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens. For example, he would often avoid banquets, trying to be frugal.",
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"plaintext": "In 463 BC, Pericles was the leading prosecutor of Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction who was accused of neglecting Athens' vital interests in Macedon. Although Cimon was acquitted, this confrontation proved that Pericles' major political opponent was vulnerable.",
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"plaintext": "Around 461 BC, the leadership of the democratic party decided it was time to take aim at the Areopagus, a traditional council controlled by the Athenian aristocracy, which had once been the most powerful body in the state. The leader of the party and mentor of Pericles, Ephialtes, proposed a reduction of the Areopagus' powers. The Ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) adopted Ephialtes' proposal without opposition. This reform signaled the beginning of a new era of \"radical democracy\".",
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"plaintext": "The democratic party gradually became dominant in Athenian politics, and Pericles seemed willing to follow a populist policy to cajole the public. According to Aristotle, Pericles' stance can be explained by the fact that his principal political opponent, Cimon, was both rich and generous, and was able to gain public favor by lavishly handing out portions of his sizable personal fortune. The historian Loren J. Samons II argues, however, that Pericles had enough resources to make a political mark by private means, had he so chosen.",
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"plaintext": "In 461 BC, Pericles achieved the political elimination of this opponent using ostracism. The accusation was that Cimon betrayed his city by aiding Sparta.",
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"plaintext": "After Cimon's ostracism, Pericles continued to promote a populist social policy. He first proposed a decree that permitted the poor to watch theatrical plays without paying, with the state covering the cost of their admission. With other decrees he lowered the property requirement for the archonship in 458–457 BC and bestowed generous wages on all citizens who served as jurymen in the Heliaia (the supreme court of Athens) some time just after 454BC. His most controversial measure, however, was a law of 451 BC limiting Athenian citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.",
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"plaintext": "Such measures impelled Pericles' critics to hold him responsible for the gradual degeneration of the Athenian democracy. Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, argues that Pericles sought for the expansion and stabilization of all democratic institutions. Accordingly, he enacted legislation granting the lower classes access to the political system and the public offices, from which they had previously been barred.",
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"plaintext": "According to Samons, Pericles believed that it was necessary to raise the demos, in which he saw an untapped source of Athenian power and the crucial element of Athenian military dominance. (The fleet, backbone of Athenian power since the days of Themistocles, was manned almost entirely by members of the lower classes.)",
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"plaintext": "Cimon, in contrast, apparently believed that no further free space for democratic evolution existed. He was certain that democracy had reached its peak and Pericles' reforms were leading to the stalemate of populism. According to Paparrigopoulos, history vindicated Cimon, because Athens, after Pericles' death, sank into the abyss of political turmoil and demagogy. Paparrigopoulos maintains that an unprecedented regression descended upon the city, whose glory perished as a result of Pericles' populist policies.",
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"plaintext": "According to another historian, Justin Daniel King, radical democracy benefited people individually, but harmed the state. In contrast, Donald Kagan asserts that the democratic measures Pericles put into effect provided the basis for an unassailable political strength. After all, Cimon finally accepted the new democracy and did not oppose the citizenship law, after he returned from exile in 451BC.",
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"plaintext": "Ephialtes' murder in 461 BC paved the way for Pericles to consolidate his authority. Without opposition after the expulsion of Cimon, the unchallengeable leader of the democratic party became the unchallengeable ruler of Athens. He remained in power until his death in 429BC.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles made his first military excursions during the First Peloponnesian War, which was caused in part by Athens' alliance with Megara and Argos and the subsequent reaction of Sparta. In 454 BC he attacked Sicyon and Acarnania. He then unsuccessfully tried to conquer Oeniadea on the Corinthian gulf, before returning to Athens. In 451 BC, Cimon returned from exile and negotiated a five years' truce with Sparta after a proposal of Pericles, an event which indicates a shift in Pericles' political strategy. Pericles may have realized the importance of Cimon's contribution during the ongoing conflicts against the Peloponnesians and the Persians. Anthony J. Podlecki argues, however, that Pericles' alleged change of position was invented by ancient writers to support \"a tendentious view of Pericles' shiftiness\".",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch states that Cimon struck a power-sharing deal with his opponents, according to which Pericles would carry through the interior affairs and Cimon would be the leader of the Athenian army, campaigning abroad. If it were actually made, this bargain would constitute a concession on Pericles' part that he was not a great strategist. Kagan's view is that Cimon adapted himself to the new conditions and promoted a political marriage between Periclean liberals and Cimonian conservatives.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-450s the Athenians launched an unsuccessful attempt to aid an Egyptian revolt against Persia, which led to a prolonged siege of a Persian fortress in the Nile Delta. The campaign culminated in disaster; the besieging force was defeated and destroyed. In 451–450 BC the Athenians sent troops to Cyprus. Cimon defeated the Persians in the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, but died of disease in 449BC. Pericles is said to have initiated both expeditions in Egypt and Cyprus, although some researchers, such as Karl Julius Beloch, argue that the dispatch of such a great fleet conforms with the spirit of Cimon's policy.",
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"plaintext": "Complicating the account of this period is the issue of the Peace of Callias, which allegedly ended hostilities between the Greeks and the Persians. The very existence of the treaty is hotly disputed, and its particulars and negotiation are ambiguous. Ernst Badian believes that a peace between Athens and Persia was first ratified in 463 BC (making the Athenian interventions in Egypt and Cyprus violations of the peace), and renegotiated at the conclusion of the campaign in Cyprus, taking force again by 449–448BC.",
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"plaintext": "John Fine, in contrast, suggests that the first peace between Athens and Persia was concluded in 450–449BC, due to Pericles' calculation that ongoing conflict with Persia was undermining Athens' ability to spread its influence in Greece and the Aegean. Kagan believes that Pericles used Callias, a brother-in-law of Cimon, as a symbol of unity and employed him several times to negotiate important agreements.",
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"plaintext": "In the spring of 449 BC, Pericles proposed the Congress Decree, which led to a meeting (\"Congress\") of all Greek states to consider the question of rebuilding the temples destroyed by the Persians. The Congress failed because of Sparta's stance, but Pericles' intentions remain unclear. Some historians think that he wanted to prompt a confederation with the participation of all the Greek cities; others think he wanted to assert Athenian pre-eminence. According to the historian Terry Buckley the objective of the Congress Decree was a new mandate for the Delian League and for the collection of \"phoros\" (taxes).",
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"plaintext": "During the Second Sacred War Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi and reinstated Phocis in its sovereign rights on the oracle. In 447 BC Pericles engaged in his most admired excursion, the expulsion of barbarians from the Thracian peninsula of Gallipoli, to establish Athenian colonists in the region. At this time, however, Athens was seriously challenged by a number of revolts among its subjects. In 447 BC the oligarchs of Thebes conspired against the democratic faction. The Athenians demanded their immediate surrender, but after the Battle of Coronea, Pericles was forced to concede the loss of Boeotia to recover the prisoners taken in that battle. With Boeotia in hostile hands, Phocis and Locris became untenable and quickly fell under the control of hostile oligarchs.",
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"plaintext": "In 446 BC, a more dangerous uprising erupted. Euboea and Megara revolted. Pericles crossed over to Euboea with his troops, but was forced to return when the Spartan army invaded Attica. Through bribery and negotiations, Pericles defused the imminent threat, and the Spartans returned home. When Pericles was later audited for the handling of public money, an expenditure of 10 talents was not sufficiently justified, since the official documents just referred that the money was spent for a \"very serious purpose\". Nonetheless, the \"serious purpose\" (namely the bribery) was so obvious to the auditors that they approved the expenditure without official meddling and without even investigating the mystery.",
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"plaintext": "After the Spartan threat had been removed, Pericles crossed back to Euboea to crush the revolt there. He then punished the landowners of Chalcis, who lost their properties. The residents of Histiaea, meanwhile, who had butchered the crew of an Athenian trireme, were uprooted and replaced by 2,000 Athenian settlers. The crisis was brought to an official end by the Thirty Years' Peace (winter of 446–445BC), in which Athens relinquished most of the possessions and interests on the Greek mainland which it had acquired since 460BC, and both Athens and Sparta agreed not to attempt to win over the other state's allies.",
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"plaintext": "In 444 BC, the conservative and the democratic factions confronted each other in a fierce struggle. The ambitious new leader of the conservatives, Thucydides (not to be confused with the historian of the same name), accused Pericles of profligacy, criticizing the way he spent the money for the ongoing building plan. Thucydides initially managed to incite the passions of the ecclesia regarding these charges in his favor. However, when Pericles took the floor, his resolute arguments put Thucydides and the conservatives firmly on the defensive. Finally, Pericles proposed to reimburse the city for all questionable expenses from his private property, with the proviso that he would make the inscriptions of dedication in his own name. His stance was greeted with applause, and Thucydides was soundly, if unexpectedly, defeated. In 442BC, the Athenian public voted to ostracize Thucydides from the city for 10 years and Pericles was once again the unchallenged ruler of the Athenian political arena.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles wanted to stabilize Athens' dominance over its alliance and to enforce its pre-eminence in Greece. The process by which the Delian League transformed into an Athenian empire is generally considered to have begun well before Pericles' time, as various allies in the league chose to pay tribute to Athens instead of manning ships for the league's fleet, but the transformation was speeded and brought to its conclusion by Pericles.",
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"plaintext": "The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens' defeat in Egypt, which challenged the city's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae. Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or as a pretext to gain control of the League's finances, Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454–453BC.",
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"plaintext": "By 450–449 BC the revolts in Miletus and Erythrae were quelled and Athens restored its rule over its allies. Around 447 BC Clearchus proposed the Coinage Decree, which imposed Athenian silver coinage, weights and measures on all of the allies. According to one of the decree's most stringent provisions, surplus from a minting operation was to go into a special fund, and anyone proposing to use it otherwise was subject to the death penalty.",
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"plaintext": "It was from the alliance's treasury that Pericles drew the funds necessary to enable his ambitious building plan, centered on the \"Periclean Acropolis\", which included the Propylaea, the Parthenon and the golden statue of Athena, sculpted by Pericles' friend, Phidias. In 449 BC Pericles proposed a decree allowing the use of 9,000 talents to finance the major rebuilding program of Athenian temples. Angelos Vlachos, a Greek Academician, points out the use of the alliance's treasury, initiated and executed by Pericles, as one of the largest embezzlements in human history; this misappropriation financed, however, some of the most marvellous artistic creations of the ancient world.",
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"plaintext": "The Samian War was one of the last significant military events before the Peloponnesian War. After Thucydides' ostracism, Pericles was re-elected yearly to the generalship, the only office he ever officially occupied, although his influence was so great as to make him the de facto ruler of the state. In 440 BC Samos went to war against Miletus over control of Priene, an ancient city of Ionia on the foot-hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians.",
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"plaintext": "When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration in Athens, the Samians refused. In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos, \"alleging against its people that, although they were ordered to break off their war against the Milesians, they were not complying\".",
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"plaintext": "In a naval battle the Athenians led by Pericles and nine other generals defeated the forces of Samos and imposed on the island an Athenian administration. When the Samians revolted against Athenian rule, Pericles compelled the rebels to capitulate after a tough siege of eight months, which resulted in substantial discontent among the Athenian sailors. Pericles then quelled a revolt in Byzantium and, when he returned to Athens, gave a funeral oration to honor the soldiers who died in the expedition.",
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"plaintext": "Between 438 and 436 BC Pericles led Athens' fleet in Pontus and established friendly relations with the Greek cities of the region. Pericles focused also on internal projects, such as the fortification of Athens (the building of the \"middle wall\" about 440BC), and on the creation of new cleruchies, such as Andros, Naxos and Thurii (444BC) as well as Amphipolis (437–436BC).",
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"plaintext": "Pericles and his friends were never immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule. Just before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War, Pericles and two of his closest associates, Phidias and his companion, Aspasia, faced a series of personal and judicial attacks.",
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"plaintext": "Phidias, who had been in charge of all building projects, was first accused of embezzling gold meant for the statue of Athena and then of impiety, because, when he wrought the battle of the Amazons on the shield of Athena, he carved out a figure that suggested himself as a bald old man, and also inserted a very fine likeness of Pericles fighting with an Amazon.",
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"plaintext": "Aspasia, who was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser, was accused of corrupting the women of Athens to satisfy Pericles' perversions. The accusations against her were probably nothing more than unproven slanders, but the whole experience was very bitter for Pericles. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of Pericles, his friend Phidias died in prison according to Plutarch; however, he is also credited with the later statue of Zeus at Olympia, therefore this is debated, and another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia for his religious beliefs.",
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"plaintext": "Beyond these initial prosecutions, the ecclesia attacked Pericles himself by asking him to justify his ostensible profligacy with, and maladministration of, public money. According to Plutarch, Pericles was so afraid of the oncoming trial that he did not let the Athenians yield to the Lacedaemonians. Beloch also believes that Pericles deliberately brought on the war to protect his political position at home. Thus, at the start of the Peloponnesian War, Athens found itself in the awkward position of entrusting its future to a leader whose pre-eminence had just been seriously shaken for the first time in over a decade.",
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"plaintext": "The causes of the Peloponnesian War have been much debated, but many ancient historians lay the blame on Pericles and Athens. Plutarch seems to believe that Pericles and the Athenians incited the war, scrambling to implement their belligerent tactics \"with a sort of arrogance and a love of strife\". Thucydides hints at the same thing, believing the reason for the war was Sparta's fear of Athenian power and growth. However, as he is generally regarded as an admirer of Pericles, Thucydides has been criticized for bias against Sparta.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles was convinced that the war against Sparta, which could not conceal its envy of Athens' pre-eminence, was inevitable if unfortunate. Therefore, he did not hesitate to send troops to Corcyra to reinforce the Corcyraean fleet, which was fighting against Corinth. In 433 BC the enemy fleets confronted each other at the Battle of Sybota and a year later the Athenians fought Corinthian colonists at the Battle of Potidaea; these two events contributed greatly to Corinth's lasting hatred of Athens. During the same period, Pericles proposed the Megarian decree, which resembled a modern trade embargo. According to the provisions of the decree, Megarian merchants were excluded from the market of Athens and the ports in its empire. This ban strangled the Megarian economy and strained the fragile peace between Athens and Sparta, which was allied with Megara. According to George Cawkwell, a praelector in ancient history, with this decree Pericles breached the Thirty Years' Peace \"but, perhaps, not without the semblance of an excuse\". The Athenians' justification was that the Megarians had cultivated the sacred land consecrated to Demeter and had given refuge to runaway slaves, a behavior which the Athenians considered to be impious.",
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"plaintext": "After consultations with its allies, Sparta sent a deputation to Athens demanding certain concessions, such as the immediate expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae family including Pericles and the retraction of the Megarian Decree, threatening war if the demands were not met. The obvious purpose of these proposals was the instigation of a confrontation between Pericles and the people; this event, indeed, would come about a few years later. At that time, the Athenians unhesitatingly followed Pericles' instructions. In the first legendary oration Thucydides puts in his mouth, Pericles advised the Athenians not to yield to their opponents' demands, since they were militarily stronger. Pericles was not prepared to make unilateral concessions, believing that \"if Athens conceded on that issue, then Sparta was sure to come up with further demands\". Consequently, Pericles asked the Spartans to offer a quid pro quo. In exchange for retracting the Megarian Decree, the Athenians demanded from Sparta to abandon their practice of periodic expulsion of foreigners from their territory (xenelasia) and to recognize the autonomy of its allied cities, a request implying that Sparta's hegemony was also ruthless. The terms were rejected by the Spartans, and with neither side willing to back down, the two cities prepared for war. According to Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos, professors of strategic studies and international politics, \"rather than to submit to coercive demands, Pericles chose war\". Another consideration that may well have influenced Pericles' stance was the concern that revolts in the empire might spread if Athens showed itself weak.",
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"plaintext": "In 431 BC, while peace already was precarious, Archidamus II, Sparta's king, sent a new delegation to Athens, demanding that the Athenians submit to Sparta's demands. This deputation was not allowed to enter Athens, as Pericles had already passed a resolution according to which no Spartan deputation would be welcomed if the Spartans had previously initiated any hostile military actions. The Spartan army was at this time gathered at Corinth, and, citing this as a hostile action, the Athenians refused to admit their emissaries. With his last attempt at negotiation thus declined, Archidamus invaded Attica, but found no Athenians there; Pericles, aware that Sparta's strategy would be to invade and ravage Athenian territory, had previously arranged to evacuate the entire population of the region to within the walls of Athens.",
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"plaintext": "No definite record exists of how exactly Pericles managed to convince the residents of Attica to agree to move into the crowded urban areas. For most, the move meant abandoning their land and ancestral shrines and completely changing their lifestyle. Therefore, although they agreed to leave, many rural residents were far from happy with Pericles' decision. Pericles also gave his compatriots some advice on their present affairs and reassured them that, if the enemy did not plunder his farms, he would offer his property to the city. This promise was prompted by his concern that Archidamus, who was a friend of his, might pass by his estate without ravaging it, either as a gesture of friendship or as a calculated political move aimed to alienate Pericles from his constituents.",
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"plaintext": "In any case, seeing the pillage of their farms, the Athenians were outraged, and they soon began to indirectly express their discontent towards their leader, who many of them considered to have drawn them into the war. Even when in the face of mounting pressure, Pericles did not give in to the demands for immediate action against the enemy or revise his initial strategy. He also avoided convening the ecclesia, fearing that the populace, outraged by the unopposed ravaging of their farms, might rashly decide to challenge the vaunted Spartan army in the field. As meetings of the assembly were called at the discretion of its rotating presidents, the \"prytanies\", Pericles had no formal control over their scheduling; rather, the respect in which Pericles was held by the prytanies was apparently sufficient to persuade them to do as he wished. While the Spartan army remained in Attica, Pericles sent a fleet of 100 ships to loot the coasts of the Peloponnese and charged the cavalry to guard the ravaged farms close to the walls of the city. When the enemy retired and the pillaging came to an end, Pericles proposed a decree according to which the authorities of the city should put aside 1,000 talents and 100 ships, in case Athens was attacked by naval forces. According to the most stringent provision of the decree, even proposing a different use of the money or ships would entail the penalty of death. During the autumn of 431 BC, Pericles led the Athenian forces that invaded Megara and a few months later (winter of 431–430 BC) he delivered his monumental and emotional Funeral Oration, honoring the Athenians who died for their city.",
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"plaintext": "In 430 BC, the army of Sparta looted Attica for a second time, but Pericles was not daunted and refused to revise his initial strategy. Unwilling to engage the Spartan army in battle, he again led a naval expedition to plunder the coasts of the Peloponnese, this time taking 100 Athenian ships with him. According to Plutarch, just before the sailing of the ships an eclipse of the sun frightened the crews, but Pericles used the astronomical knowledge he had acquired from Anaxagoras to calm them. In the summer of the same year an epidemic broke out and devastated the Athenians. The exact identity of the disease is uncertain; typhus or typhoid fever are suspected, but this has been the source of much debate. In any case, the city's plight, caused by the epidemic, triggered a new wave of public uproar, and Pericles was forced to defend himself in an emotional final speech, a rendition of which is presented by Thucydides. This is considered to be a monumental oration, revealing Pericles' virtues but also his bitterness towards his compatriots' ingratitude. Temporarily, he managed to tame the people's resentment and to ride out the storm, but his internal enemies' final bid to undermine him came off; they managed to deprive him of the generalship and to fine him at an amount estimated between 15 and 50 talents. Ancient sources mention Cleon, a rising and dynamic protagonist of the Athenian political scene during the war, as the public prosecutor in Pericles' trial.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, within just a year, in 429 BC, the Athenians not only forgave Pericles but also re-elected him as strategos. He was reinstated in command of the Athenian army and led all its military operations during 429 BC, having once again under his control the levers of power. In that year, however, Pericles witnessed in the epidemic the death of both Paralus and Xanthippus, his legitimate sons from his first wife. His morale undermined, overwhelmed with grief, Pericles wept copiously for his loss and not even the companionship of Aspasia could console him. He himself died of the plague later in the year.",
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"plaintext": "Just before his death, Pericles' friends were concentrated around his bed, enumerating his virtues during peace and underscoring his nine war trophies. Pericles, though moribund, heard them and interrupted them, pointing out that they forgot to mention his fairest and greatest title to their admiration; \"for\", said he, \"no living Athenian ever put on mourning because of me\". Pericles lived during the first two and a half years of the Peloponnesian War and, according to Thucydides, his death was a disaster for Athens, since his successors were inferior to him; they preferred to incite all the bad habits of the rabble and followed an unstable policy, endeavoring to be popular rather than useful. With these bitter comments, Thucydides not only laments the loss of a man he admired, but he also heralds the flickering of Athens' unique glory and grandeur.",
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"plaintext": "Pausanias (c. 150 AD) records (I.29) seeing the tomb of Pericles along a road near the Academy.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles, following Athenian custom, was first married to one of his closest relatives, with whom he had two sons, Paralus and Xanthippus, but around 445BC, Pericles divorced his wife. He offered her to another husband, with the agreement of her male relatives. The name of his first wife is not known; the only information about her is that she was the wife of Hipponicus, before being married to Pericles, and the mother of Callias from this first marriage.",
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"plaintext": "After Pericles divorced his wife, he had a long-term relationship with Aspasia of Miletus, with whom he had a son, Pericles the Younger. While Aspasia was held in high regard by many of Athens' socialites, her status as a non-Athenian led many to attack their relationship. Even Pericles' son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father. Nonetheless, such objections did not greatly undermine the popularity of the couple and Pericles readily fought back against accusations that his relationship with Aspasia was corrupting of Athenian society.",
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"plaintext": "His sister and both his legitimate sons, Xanthippus and Paralus, died during the Plague of Athens. Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a citizen, and legitimate heir, a striking decision considering that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles marked a whole era and inspired conflicting judgments about his significant decisions. The fact that he was at the same time a vigorous statesman, general and orator only tends to make an objective assessment of his actions more difficult.",
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"plaintext": "Some contemporary scholars call Pericles a populist, a demagogue and a hawk, while other scholars admire his charismatic leadership. According to Plutarch, after assuming the leadership of Athens, \"he was no longer the same man as before, nor alike submissive to the people and ready to yield and give in to the desires of the multitude as a steersman to the breezes\". It is told that when his political opponent, Thucydides, was asked by Sparta's king, Archidamus, whether he or Pericles was the better fighter, Thucydides answered without any hesitation that Pericles was better, because even when he was defeated, he managed to convince the audience that he had won. In matters of character, Pericles was above reproach in the eyes of the ancient historians, since \"he kept himself untainted by corruption, although he was not altogether indifferent to money-making\".",
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"plaintext": "Thucydides (the historian), an admirer of Pericles, maintains that Athens was \"in name a democracy but, in fact, governed by its first citizen\". Through this comment, the historian illustrates what he perceives as Pericles' charisma to lead, convince and, sometimes, to manipulate. Although Thucydides mentions the fining of Pericles, he does not mention the accusations against Pericles but instead focuses on Pericles' integrity. On the other hand, in one of his dialogues, Plato rejects the glorification of Pericles and declares: \"as I know, Pericles made the Athenians slothful, garrulous and avaricious, by starting the system of public fees\".",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch mentions other criticism of Pericles' leadership: \"many others say that the people were first led on by him into allotments of public lands, festival-grants, and distributions of fees for public services, thereby falling into bad habits, and becoming luxurious and wanton under the influence of his public measures, instead of frugal and self-sufficing\".",
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"plaintext": "Thucydides argues that Pericles \"was not carried away by the people, but he was the one guiding the people\". His judgement is not unquestioned; some 20th-century critics, such as Malcolm F. McGregor and John S. Morrison, proposed that he may have been a charismatic public face acting as an advocate on the proposals of advisors, or the people themselves. According to King, by increasing the power of the people, the Athenians left themselves with no authoritative leader. During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles' dependence on popular support to govern was obvious.",
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"plaintext": "For more than 20 years Pericles led many expeditions, mainly naval ones. Being always cautious, he never undertook of his own accord a battle involving much uncertainty and peril and he did not accede to the \"vain impulses of the citizens\". He based his military policy on Themistocles' principle that Athens' predominance depends on its superior naval power and believed that the Peloponnesians were near-invincible on land. Pericles also tried to minimize the advantages of Sparta by rebuilding the walls of Athens, which, it has been suggested, radically altered the use of force in Greek international relations.",
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"plaintext": "During the Peloponnesian War, Pericles initiated a defensive \"grand strategy\" whose aim was the exhaustion of the enemy and the preservation of the status quo. According to Platias and Koliopoulos, Athens as the strongest party did not have to beat Sparta in military terms and \"chose to foil the Spartan plan for victory\". The two basic principles of the \"Periclean Grand Strategy\" were the rejection of appeasement (in accordance with which he urged the Athenians not to revoke the Megarian Decree) and the avoidance of overextension. According to Kagan, Pericles' vehement insistence that there should be no diversionary expeditions may well have resulted from the bitter memory of the Egyptian campaign, which he had allegedly supported. His strategy is said to have been \"inherently unpopular\", but Pericles managed to persuade the Athenian public to follow it. It is for that reason that Hans Delbrück called him one of the greatest statesmen and military leaders in history. Although his countrymen engaged in several aggressive actions soon after his death, Platias and Koliopoulos argue that the Athenians remained true to the larger Periclean strategy of seeking to preserve, not expand, the empire, and did not depart from it until the Sicilian Expedition. For his part, Ben X. de Wet concludes his strategy would have succeeded had he lived longer.",
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"plaintext": "Critics of Pericles' strategy, however, have been just as numerous as its supporters. A common criticism is that Pericles was always a better politician and orator than strategist. Donald Kagan called the Periclean strategy \"a form of wishful thinking that failed\", Barry S. Strauss and Josiah Ober have stated that \"as strategist he was a failure and deserves a share of the blame for Athens' great defeat\", and Victor Davis Hanson believes that Pericles had not worked out a clear strategy for an effective offensive action that could possibly force Thebes or Sparta to stop the war. Kagan criticizes the Periclean strategy on four counts: first that by rejecting minor concessions it brought about war; second, that it was unforeseen by the enemy and hence lacked credibility; third, that it was too feeble to exploit any opportunities; and fourth, that it depended on Pericles for its execution and thus was bound to be abandoned after his death. Kagan estimates Pericles' expenditure on his military strategy in the Peloponnesian War to be about 2,000 talents annually, and based on this figure concludes that he would have only enough money to keep the war going for three years. He asserts that since Pericles must have known about these limitations he probably planned for a much shorter war. Others, such as Donald W. Knight, conclude that the strategy was too defensive and would not succeed.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, Platias and Koliopoulos reject these criticisms and state that \"the Athenians lost the war only when they dramatically reversed the Periclean grand strategy that explicitly disdained further conquests\". Hanson stresses that the Periclean strategy was not innovative, but could lead to a stagnancy in favor of Athens. It is a popular conclusion that those succeeding him lacked his abilities and character.",
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"plaintext": "Modern commentators of Thucydides, with other modern historians and writers, take varying stances on the issue of how much of the speeches of Pericles, as given by this historian, do actually represent Pericles' own words and how much of them is free literary creation or paraphrase by Thucydides. Since Pericles never wrote down or distributed his orations, no historians are able to answer this with certainty; Thucydides recreated three of them from memory and, thereby, it cannot be ascertained that he did not add his own notions and thoughts.",
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"plaintext": "Although Pericles was a main source of his inspiration, some historians have noted that the passionate and idealistic literary style of the speeches Thucydides attributes to Pericles is completely at odds with Thucydides' own cold and analytical writing style. This might, however, be the result of the incorporation of the genre of rhetoric into the genre of historiography. That is to say, Thucydides could simply have used two different writing styles for two different purposes.",
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"plaintext": "Ioannis Kakridis and Arnold Gomme were two scholars who debated the originality of Pericles' oratory and last speech. Kakridis believes that Thucydides altered Pericles words. Some of his strongest arguments included in the Introduction of the speech, (Thuc.11.35). Kakridis proposes that it is impossible to imagine Pericles deviating away from the expected funeral orator addressing the mourning audience of 430 after the Peloponnesian war. The two groups addressed were the ones who were prepared to believe him when he praised the dead, and the ones who did not. Gomme rejects Kakridis's position, defending the fact that \"Nobody of men has ever been so conscious of envy and its workings as the Greeks, and that the Greeks and Thucydides in particular had a passion for covering all ground in their generalizations, not always relevantly.\"",
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"plaintext": "Kagan states that Pericles adopted \"an elevated mode of speech, free from the vulgar and knavish tricks of mob-orators\" and, according to Diodorus Siculus, he \"excelled all his fellow citizens in skill of oratory\". According to Plutarch, he avoided using gimmicks in his speeches, unlike the passionate Demosthenes, and always spoke in a calm and tranquil manner. The biographer points out, however, that the poet Ion reported that Pericles' speaking style was \"a presumptuous and somewhat arrogant manner of address, and that into his haughtiness there entered a good deal of disdain and contempt for others\".",
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"plaintext": "Gorgias, in Plato's homonymous dialogue, uses Pericles as an example of powerful oratory. In Menexenus, however, Socrates (through Plato) casts aspersions on Pericles' rhetorical fame, claiming ironically that, since Pericles was educated by Aspasia, a trainer of many orators, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon. He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of Pericles.",
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"plaintext": "Sir Richard C. Jebb concludes that \"unique as an Athenian statesman, Pericles must have been in two respects unique also as an Athenian orator; first, because he occupied such a position of personal ascendancy as no man before or after him attained; secondly, because his thoughts and his moral force won him such renown for eloquence as no one else ever got from Athenians\".",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greek writers call Pericles \"Olympian\" and extol his talents; referring to him \"thundering and lightning and exciting Greece\" and carrying the weapons of Zeus when orating. According to Quintilian, Pericles would always prepare assiduously for his orations and, before going on the rostrum, he would always pray to the gods, so as not to utter any improper word.",
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"plaintext": "Nothing was more alien to the Greeks than the notion of a Separation between church and state. In Athens, the community provided a tight framework for religious manifestations while, symmetrically, religion was deeply embedded in civic life. Within this context, participation in the rituals was an action highly political in the broadest sense of the term.",
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"plaintext": "To analyze Pericles's relations with gods, one has to position oneself at the intersection of the general and the particular, where what was personal and what was shared by the whole community came together. On the one hand, the career of the strategos will illuminate the Athenians' collective relationship to all that was divine. As a reelected strategos and a persuasive orator, Pericles was the spokesman of a civic religion that was undergoing a mutation. He was implicated in a policy of making constant offerings and of launching huge architectural religious works not only on the Acropolis but also throughout Attica; and, furthermore, he was engaged in such activities at a time when city was introducing profound changes into its religious account of its origins—that is, autochthony—within a context of strained diplomatic relations.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, the ancient sources made it possible to glimpse the personal relations that Pericles had developed with gods. These were relations of proximity in the first place: he was sometimes depicted as a protégé of goddess Athena, but in Attic comedies he was also assimilated to god Zeus, in an analogy that was in no way flattering. But then, there were also relations that emphasized distance: some philosophical accounts presented him as a man close to the sophists or even as a freethinker. Finally, there were relations involving irreverence: some later and less trustworthy sources made much of several trials for impiety in which those close to him were involved, and this raises the question of religious tolerance in fifth-century Athens and, in particular, how far individuals enjoyed freedom of thought when faced with the civic community.",
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"plaintext": "Pericles' most visible legacy can be found in the literary and artistic works of the Golden Age, much of which survive to this day. The Acropolis, though in ruins, still stands and is a symbol of modern Athens. Paparrigopoulos wrote that these masterpieces are \"sufficient to render the name of Greece immortal in our world\".",
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"plaintext": "In politics, Victor L. Ehrenberg argues that a basic element of Pericles' legacy is Athenian imperialism, which denies true democracy and freedom to the people of all but the ruling state. The promotion of such an arrogant imperialism is said to have ruined Athens. Pericles and his \"expansionary\" policies have been at the center of arguments promoting democracy in oppressed countries.",
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"plaintext": "Other analysts maintain an Athenian humanism illustrated in the Golden Age. The freedom of expression is regarded as the lasting legacy deriving from this period. Pericles is lauded as \"the ideal type of the perfect statesman in ancient Greece\" and his Funeral Oration is nowadays synonymous with the struggle for participatory democracy and civic pride.",
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"plaintext": "In 1932, botanist Albert Charles Smith published Periclesia, a monotypic genus of flowering plants from Ecuador belonging to the family Ericaceae and named after Pericles.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2016 video game Civilization VI Pericles is one of the two playable leaders for the Greek civilization, the other being Gorgo.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey Pericles's life as a politician and his death are both presented, although his death being from injuries sustained during a violent attack is not historically accurate.",
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"plaintext": " See original text in Perseus program",
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"plaintext": " Quintilian, Institutiones. See original text in The Latin Library.",
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"plaintext": " , I–III. See original text in Perseus program",
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"plaintext": " Xenophon (?), Constitution of Athens. See original text in Perseus program (translation)",
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"plaintext": " Delbrück, Hans (1920): History of the Art of War, University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. Volume 1.",
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"plaintext": " Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. Volume VIII. article: The Funeral Speech over the Fallen. Volume XV. article: Pericles (in Greek).",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Kakridis, Ioannis Th. (1993). Interpretative Comments on the Pericles' Funeral Oration. Estia (in Greek).",
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{
"plaintext": " King, J.D. (2005). .",
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"plaintext": " Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (Karolidis, Pavlos) (1925), History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab). Eleftheroudakis (in Greek).",
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"plaintext": " {{cite book|title=The Anatomy of Error: Ancient Military Disasters and Their Lessons for Modern Strategists|last=Ober Josiah|first=Strauss Barry S.|publisher=St Martins Pr|year=1990|isbn=978-0-312-05051-1|url=",
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"plaintext": " Vlachos, Angelos (1992). Remarks on Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (Α΄-Δ΄). Volume I. Estia (in Greek).",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Vlachos, Angelos (1974). Thucydides' bias''. Estia (in Greek).",
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"plaintext": " Gore Vidal, Creation (novel) for a fictional account of Pericles and a Persian view of the wars.",
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"plaintext": "The act began in the early 1920s as part of a vaudeville comedy act billed as \"Ted Healy and His Stooges\", consisting originally of Ted Healy and Moe Howard. Over time, they were joined by Moe's brother, Shemp Howard, and then Larry Fine. The four appeared in one feature film, Soup to Nuts, before Shemp left to pursue a solo career. He was replaced by his and Moe's younger brother, Jerome \"Curly\" Howard, in 1932. Two years later, after appearing in several movies, the trio left Healy and signed on to appear in their own short-subject comedies for Columbia Pictures, now billed as \"The Three Stooges\". From 1934 to 1946, Moe, Larry and Curly produced over 90 short films for Columbia, bringing them their peak popularity.",
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"plaintext": "Curly suffered a debilitating stroke in May 1946. Shemp returned, reconstituting the original lineup, until his death of a heart attack on November 22, 1955, three years and ten months after Curly's death of a cerebral hemorrhage on January 18, 1952. Film actor Joe Palma stood in to complete four Shemp-era shorts under contract. This proceduredisguising one actor as another, outside of stunt shotsbecame known as the \"fake Shemp\". Columbia contract player Joe Besser joined as the third Stooge for two years (1956–57), departing in 1958 to nurse his ill wife after Columbia terminated its shorts division. The studio then released all the shorts via Screen Gems, Columbia's television studio and distribution unit. Screen Gems then syndicated the shorts to television, whereupon the Stooges became one of the most popular comedy acts of the early 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Comic actor Joe DeRita became \"Curly Joe\" in 1958, replacing Besser for a new series of full-length theatrical films. With intense television exposure in the United States, the act regained momentum throughout the 1960s as popular kids' fare, until Larry's paralyzing stroke in the midst of filming a pilot for a Three Stooges TV series in January 1970. He died in January 1975 after a further series of strokes. Unsuccessful attempts were made in 1970 and 1975 to revive the act with longtime supporting actor Emil Sitka in Fine's role, but they were cut short by Moe Howard's death on May 4, 1975.",
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"plaintext": "The Three Stooges began in 1922 as part of a raucous vaudeville act called \"Ted Healy and His Stooges\" (\"stooges\" being show-business slang for on-stage assistants). The act was also known as \"Ted Healy and His Southern Gentlemen\" and \"Ted Healy and His Racketeers\". Moe Howard (born Moses Harry Horwitz) joined Healy's act in 1922, and his brother Shemp Howard (Samuel Horwitz) came aboard a few months later. After several shifts and changes in the Stooges membership, sometime between 1925 and 1928, violinist-comedian Larry Fine (Louis Feinberg) also joined the group. In the act, lead comedian Healy would attempt to sing or tell jokes while his noisy assistants would keep interrupting him, causing Healy to retaliate with verbal and physical abuse.",
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"plaintext": "Ted Healy and His Stooges (plus comedian Fred Sanborn) appeared in their first Hollywood feature film, Soup to Nuts (1930), released by Fox Film Corporation. The film was not a critical success, but the Stooges' performances were singled out as memorable, leading Fox to offer the trio a contract, minus Healy. This enraged Healy, who told studio executives the Stooges were his employees, whereupon the offer was withdrawn. Howard, Fine, and Howard learned of the offer and subsequent withdrawal, and left Healy to form their own act (billed as \"Howard, Fine & Howard\" or \"Three Lost Souls\"). The act quickly took off with a tour of the theater circuit. Healy attempted to stop the new act with legal action, claiming that they were using his copyrighted material. There are accounts of Healy threatening to bomb theaters if Howard, Fine and Howard ever performed there, which worried Shemp so much that he almost left the act; reportedly, only a pay raise kept him on board.",
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"plaintext": "Healy tried to save his act by hiring replacement stooges, but they were inexperienced and not as well-received as their predecessors. Healy reached a new agreement with his former Stooges in 1932, with Moe now acting as business manager, and they were booked in a production of Jacob J. Shubert's The Passing Show of 1932. During rehearsals, Healy received a more lucrative offer and found a loophole in his contract allowing him to leave the production. Shemp, fed up with Healy's abrasiveness, bad temper, and heavy drinking, decided to quit the act and toured in his own comedy revue for several months.",
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"plaintext": "Shemp had been working for the Vitaphone studio in Brooklyn, New York since 1931. He first appeared in movie comedies playing small roles and bits in the Roscoe Arbuckle shorts, and gradually worked his way up to star comedian. Shemp stayed with Vitaphone through 1937.",
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"plaintext": "With Shemp gone, Healy and the two remaining stooges (Moe and Larry) needed a replacement, so Moe suggested his younger brother Jerry Howard. Healy reportedly took one look at Jerry, who had long chestnut-red hair and a handlebar mustache, and remarked that Jerry didn't look like he was funny. Jerry left the room and returned a few minutes later with his head shaved (although his mustache remained for a time), and then quipped: \"Boy, do I look girly.\" Healy heard \"Curly\", and the name stuck. Other accounts have been given for how the Curly character actually came about.",
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"plaintext": "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) signed Healy and his Stooges to a movie contract in 1933. They appeared in feature films and short subjects, either together, individually, or with various combinations of actors. The trio was featured in a series of musical comedy shorts, beginning with Nertsery Rhymes. The short was one of a few shorts to be made with an early two-color Technicolor process, including one featuring Curly without Healy or the other Stooges, Roast Beef and Movies (1934) as well as the recently rediscovered Technicolor short Hello Pop!. Jail Birds of Paradise (1934) was also shot in Technicolor, but as of 2022 no print has been found. The short films were built around recycled Technicolor film footage of production numbers cut from MGM musicals, such as Children of Pleasure, Lord Byron of Broadway and the unfinished March of Time (all 1930). The studio concluded the series with standard, black-and-white two-reel subjects: Beer and Pretzels (1933) Plane Nuts (1933), and The Big Idea (1934).",
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"plaintext": "Healy and company also appeared in several MGM feature films as comic relief, such as Turn Back the Clock (1933), Meet the Baron (1933), Dancing Lady (1933) (with Joan Crawford, Clark Gable, Fred Astaire and Robert Benchley), Fugitive Lovers (1934) and Hollywood Party (1934). Healy and the Stooges also appeared together in Myrt and Marge for Universal Pictures.",
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"plaintext": "In 1934, the team's contract expired with MGM, and the Stooges' professional association with Healy came to an end. According to Moe Howard's autobiography, the split was precipitated by Healy's alcoholism and abrasiveness. Their final film with Healy was MGM's Hollywood Party (1934). Both Healy and the Stooges went on to separate successes, with Healy dying under mysterious circumstances in 1937.",
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"plaintext": "In 1934, the trio—now officially named \"The Three Stooges\"—contracted to Columbia Pictures for a series of two-reel comedy short subjects. Moe wrote in his autobiography that they each received $600 per week (equal to $ today) on a one-year contract with a renewable option; in the Ted Okuda–Edward Watz book The Columbia Comedy Shorts, the Stooges are said to have received $1,000 among them for their first Columbia effort, Woman Haters (1934), and then signed a term contract for $7,500 per film (equal to $ today), to be divided among the trio.",
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"plaintext": "The Stooges' release schedule was eight short subjects per year, filmed within a 40-week period; for the remaining 12 weeks, they were free to pursue other employment, time that was either spent with their families or touring the country with their live act. The Stooges appeared in 190 film shorts and five features while at Columbia, outlasting every one of their contemporaries employed in the short-film genre. Del Lord directed more than three dozen Stooge films, Jules White directed dozens more and his brother Jack White directed several under the pseudonym \"Preston Black\". Silent-comedy star Charley Chase also shared directorial responsibilities with Lord and White.",
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"plaintext": "The Stooge films made between 1935 and 1941 captured the team at their peak, according to film historians Ted Okuda and Edward Watz, authors of The Columbia Comedy Shorts. Nearly every film produced became a classic in its own right. Hoi Polloi (1935) adapted the premise of Pygmalion, with a stuffy professor making a bet that he can transform the uncultured trio into refined gentlemen; the plotline worked so well that it was reused twice, as Half-Wits Holiday (1947) and Pies and Guys (1958). Three Little Beers (1935) featured the Stooges running amok on a golf course to win prize money. Disorder in the Court (1936) features the team as star witnesses in a murder trial. Violent is the Word for Curly (1938) was a quality Chase-directed short that featured the musical interlude \"Swingin' the Alphabet\". In A Plumbing We Will Go (1940)—one of the team's quintessential comedies—the Stooges are cast as plumbers who nearly destroy a socialite's mansion, causing water to exit every appliance in the home, including an early television set; this one was also remade twice, as Vagabond Loafers and Scheming Schemers. Other entries of the era are considered among the team's finest work, including Uncivil Warriors (1935), A Pain in the Pullman and False Alarms (both 1936), Grips, Grunts and Groans, The Sitter Downers, Dizzy Doctors (all 1937), Tassels in the Air (1938), We Want Our Mummy (1939), Nutty but Nice (1940), and An Ache in Every Stake and In the Sweet Pie and Pie (both 1941).",
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"plaintext": "With the onset of World War II, the Stooges released several entries that poked fun at the rising Axis powers. You Nazty Spy! (1940) and its sequel I'll Never Heil Again (1941) lampooned Hitler and the Nazis at a time when America was still neutral. Moe was cast as \"Moe Hailstone\", an Adolf Hitler-like character, with Curly playing a Hermann Göring character (replete with medals) and Larry a Joachim von Ribbentrop-type ambassador. Moe, Larry, and director Jules White considered You Nazty Spy! their best film. Yet, these efforts indulged in a deliberately formless, non-sequitur style of verbal humor that was not the Stooges' forte, according to Okuda and Watz.",
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"plaintext": "Other wartime entries have their moments, such as They Stooge to Conga (considered the most violent Stooge short), Higher Than a Kite, Back From the Front (all 1943), Gents Without Cents (1944) and the anti-Japanese The Yoke's on Me (also 1944). However, taken in bulk, the wartime films are considered less funny than what preceded them. No Dough Boys (1944) is often considered the best of these farces. The team, made up as Japanese soldiers for a photo shoot, is mistaken for genuine saboteurs by a Nazi ringleader (Vernon Dent, the Stooges' primary foil). The highlight of the film features the Stooges engaging in nonsensical gymnastics (the real spies are renowned acrobats) for a skeptical group of enemy agents.",
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"plaintext": "Wartime also brought on rising production costs that resulted in fewer elaborate gags and outdoor sequences, Del Lord's stock in trade; as such, the quality of the team's films (particularly those directed by Lord) began to slip after 1942. According to Okuda and Watz, entries such as Loco Boy Makes Good, What's the Matador?, Sock-A-Bye Baby (all 1942), I Can Hardly Wait and A Gem of a Jam (both 1943) are considered to be lesser quality works than previous films. Spook Louder (1943), a remake of Mack Sennett's The Great Pie Mystery (1931), is sometimes cited as the Stooges' worst film because of its repetitious and rehashed jokes. Three Smart Saps (1942), a film considered to be an improvement, features a reworking of a routine from Harold Lloyd's The Freshman (1925), in which Curly's loosely basted suit begins to come apart at the seams while he is on the dance floor.",
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"plaintext": "The Stooges made occasional supporting appearances in feature films, though generally they were restricted to their short subjects. Most of the Stooges' peers had either made the transition from shorts to feature films (Laurel and Hardy, The Ritz Brothers) or had been starring their own feature films from the onset (Marx Brothers, Abbott and Costello). However, Moe believed that the team's slapstick style worked better in short form. In 1935, Columbia proposed to star them in their own full-length feature, but Moe rejected the idea saying, \"It's a hard job inventing, rewriting, or stealing gags for our two-reel comedies for Columbia Pictures without having to make a seven-reeler (feature film). We can make short films out of material needed for a starring feature, and then we wouldn't know whether it would be funny enough to click.\"",
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"plaintext": "Film critics have cited Curly as the most popular member of the team. His childlike mannerisms and natural comedic charm (he had no previous acting experience) made him a hit with audiences, particularly children and women (the latter usually finding the trio's humor juvenile and uncouth). Because Curly had to shave his head for the act, it led him to feel unappealing to women. To mask his insecurities, he ate and drank to excess and caroused whenever the Stooges made personal appearances, which was approximately seven months of each year. His weight ballooned in the 1940s, and his blood pressure became dangerously high. Curly's wild lifestyle and constant drinking eventually caught up with him in 1945, and his performances suffered.",
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"plaintext": "During a five-month hiatus from August 1945 through January 1946, the trio committed themselves to making a feature film at Monogram, followed by a two-month-long live appearance gig in New York City, with performances seven days a week. Curly also entered a disastrous third marriage in October 1945, leading to a separation in January 1946 and divorce in July 1946. That unhappy union wrecked his already fragile health. Upon the Stooges' return to Los Angeles in late November 1945, Curly was a shell of his former self. They had two months to rest before reporting back to Columbia in late January 1946, but Curly's condition was irreversible. They had only 24 days of work over the next three months, but eight weeks of time off could not help the situation. In those last six shorts, ranging from Monkey Businessmen (1946) through Half-Wits Holiday (1947), Curly was seriously ill, struggling to get through even the most basic scenes.",
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"plaintext": "During the final day of filming Half-Wits Holiday (1947) on May 6, 1946, Curly suffered a debilitating stroke on the set, ending his 14-year career. They hoped for a full recovery, but Curly never appeared in a film again except for a single cameo appearance in the third film after Shemp returned to the trio, Hold That Lion! (1947). It was the only film that contained all four of the original Stooges (the three Howard brothers and Larry) on screen simultaneously. According to Jules White, this anomaly came about when Curly visited the set one day, and White had him do this bit for fun. (Curly's cameo appearance was recycled in the remake Booty and the Beast, 1953.)",
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"plaintext": "In 1949, Curly filmed a brief scene for Malice in the Palace (1949) as the restaurant's cook, but it was not used. Jules White's copy of the script contained the dialogue for this missing scene, and a production still of Curly does exist, appearing on both the film's original one-sheet and lobby card. Larry played the role of the cook in the final print.",
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"plaintext": "Moe asked his older brother Shemp to take Curly's place, but Shemp was hesitant to rejoin the Stooges as he was enjoying a successful solo career. He realized, however, that not rejoining the Stooges would mean the end of Moe's and Larry's film careers. Shemp wanted assurance that rejoining them would be only temporary and that he could leave the Stooges once Curly recovered. However, Curly's health continued to deteriorate, and it became clear that he could not return. As a result, Shemp resumed being a Stooge full-time for nearly a decade. Curly remained ill until his death of a cerebral hemorrhage from additional strokes on January 18, 1952.",
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"plaintext": "Shemp appeared with the Stooges in 76 shorts and a low-budget Western comedy feature titled Gold Raiders (1951) in which the screen time was evenly divided with cowboy hero George O'Brien. Shemp's return improved the quality of the films, as the previous few had been marred by Curly's sluggish performances. Entries such as Out West (1947), Squareheads of the Round Table (1948) and Punchy Cowpunchers (1950) proved that Shemp could hold his own. New director Edward Bernds, who joined the team in 1945 when Curly was failing, sensed that routines and plotlines that worked well with Curly as the comic focus did not fit Shemp's persona, and allowed the comedian to develop his own Stooge character. Jules White, however, persisted in employing the \"living cartoon\" style of comedy that reigned during the Curly era. White would force either Shemp or Moe to perform similar gags and mannerisms originated by Curly, resulting in what appeared to be lackluster imitations. Most acutely, it created the \"Curly vs. Shemp\" debate that overshadowed the act upon Curly's departure. The Stooges lost some of their charm and inherent appeal to children after Curly retired, but some excellent films were produced with Shemp, an accomplished solo comedian who often performed best when allowed to improvise on his own.",
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"plaintext": "The films from the Shemp era contrast sharply with those from the Curly era, largely owing to the individual directing styles of Bernds and White. From 1947 to 1952, Bernds hit a string of successes, including Fright Night (1947), The Hot Scots, Mummy's Dummies, Crime on Their Hands (all 1948), A Snitch in Time (1950), Three Arabian Nuts (1951) and Gents in a Jam (1952). Two of the team's finest efforts were directed by Bernds: Brideless Groom (1947) and Who Done It? (1949). White also contributed a few fair entries, such as Hold That Lion! (1947), Hokus Pokus (1949), Scrambled Brains (1951), A Missed Fortune and Corny Casanovas (both 1952).",
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"plaintext": "Another benefit from the Shemp era was that Larry was given more time on screen. Throughout most of the Curly era, Larry was relegated to a background role, but by the time that Shemp rejoined the Stooges, Larry was allotted equal footage, even becoming the focus of several films, in particular Fuelin' Around (1949) and He Cooked His Goose (1952).",
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"plaintext": "The Shemp years also marked a major milestone: the Stooges' first appearance on television. In 1948, they guest-starred on Milton Berle's popular Texaco Star Theater and Morey Amsterdam's The Morey Amsterdam Show. By 1949, the team filmed a pilot for ABC-TV for their own weekly television series, titled Jerks of All Trades. Columbia Pictures blocked the series from going into production, but allowed the Stooges to make television guest appearances. The team went on to appear onCamel Comedy Caravan (also known as The Ed Wynn Show), The Kate Smith Hour, The Colgate Comedy Hour, The Frank Sinatra Show and The Eddie Cantor Comedy Theatre, among others.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952, the Stooges lost some key players at Columbia Pictures. The studio decided to downsize its short-subject division, resulting in producer Hugh McCollum being discharged and director Edward Bernds resigning out of loyalty to McCollum. Screenwriter Elwood Ullman, who had worked closely with Bernds, also resigned. Bernds had been contemplating his resignation for some time, as he and Jules White were often at odds. Bernds's departure left only White to direct the Stooges' remaining Columbia comedies. Not long after, the quality of the team's output markedly declined, with producer-director White now assuming complete control over production. DVD Talk critic Stuart Galbraith IV commented that \"the Stooges' shorts became increasingly mechanical...and frequently substituted violent sight gags for story and characterization.\" Production was also significantly faster, with the former four-day filming schedules now tightened to two or three days. In another cost-cutting measure, White would create a \"new\" Stooge short by borrowing footage from old ones, setting it in a slightly different storyline and filming a few new scenes, often with the same actors in the same costumes. White was initially very subtle when recycling older footage: he would reuse only a single sequence of old film, re-edited so cleverly that it was not easy to detect. The later shorts were cheaper and the recycling more obvious, with as much as 75% of the running time consisting of old footage. White came to rely so much on older material that he could film the \"new\" shorts in a single day. New footage filmed in order to link older material suffered from White's heavy-handed directing style and penchant for telling his actors how to act. Shemp, in particular, disliked working with White after 1952.",
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"plaintext": "Three years after Curly's death, Shemp Howard died of a heart attack at age 60 on November 22, 1955, during a taxi ride home with a friend after attending a boxing match. Moe was stunned and contemplated disbanding the Stooges. However, Columbia had promised exhibitors eight Stooge shorts for the year but only four had been completed, forcing producer Jules White to manufacture four more shorts \"with Shemp.\" Recycled footage of Shemp, combined with new footage of Columbia supporting player Joe Palma doubling for him (see also Fake Shemp), was used to complete the last four films: Rumpus in the Harem, Hot Stuff, Scheming Schemers and Commotion on the Ocean (all released in 1956).",
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"plaintext": "By 1956 Moe Howard and Larry Fine were carrying the short-subject series as a two-man team, apart from third member Shemp who was seen entirely in older footage. Moe proposed that he and Larry could continue working as a duo, \"The Two Stooges.\" Columbia flatly refused, having promoted the team as \"The Three Stooges\" for decades. Moe was forced to recruit a third Stooge. Several comedians were considered, including nightclub comic Buddy Hackett, burlesque comic (and former Ted Healy stooge) Paul \"Mousie\" Garner, and noted African-American comedian Mantan Moreland, but Columbia insisted on a comedian already under contract to the studio. They agreed on Joe Besser, who appeared in the final 16 Stooge shorts at Columbia. Besser had been starring in his own short-subject comedies for the studio since 1949 and appeared in supporting roles in a variety of movies, making his persona sufficiently well known.",
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"plaintext": "Besser had observed how one side of Larry Fine's face appeared \"calloused\", so he had a clause in his contract specifically prohibiting him from being hit beyond an infrequent tap (though this restriction was later lifted). \"I usually played the kind of character who would hit others back,\" Besser recalled.",
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"plaintext": "Despite Besser's prolific film and stage career, Stooge entries featuring him have often been considered the team's weakest. During his tenure, the films were assailed as questionable models for youth, and in response began to resemble television sitcoms. Sitcoms, however, were available for free on television, making the short film a throwback to a bygone era. Besser was a talented comic, and was quite popular as \"Stinky\" on The Abbott and Costello Show. However, his whining mannerisms and lack of slapstick punishment against him did not quite blend with the Stooges' brand of humor, though his presence did create a verbal friction between Moe and Larry that improved their mutually insulting banter. Times had changed, and Besser was not solely to blame for the quality of these final entries; the scripts were rehashes of earlier efforts, the budgets were lower, and Moe's and Larry's advanced ages prohibited them from performing as much of the physical comedy that was their trademark. Besser had suggested that Moe and Larry comb their hair back to give them a more gentlemanly appearance. Both Moe and Jules White approved of the idea, but used it sparingly. Their other films -- remakes of older comedies -- required the familiar Stooge haircuts to match the older footage.",
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"plaintext": "Despite their lukewarm reception, the Besser shorts did have their moments. In general, the remakes had the traditional Stooges knockabout, such as 1958's Pies and Guys (a scene-for-scene remake of Half-Wits Holiday, which itself was a reworking of the earlier Hoi Polloi), Guns a Poppin (1957), Rusty Romeos (1957) and Triple Crossed (1959). In contrast, Hoofs and Goofs, Horsing Around and Muscle Up a Little Closer (all 1957) mostly resembled the sitcoms of the era. A Merry Mix Up (also 1957) and Oil's Well That Ends Well (1958) are also amusing, while the musical Sweet and Hot (1958) deserves some credit for straying from the norm. The American science-fiction craze also led to three entries focusing on space travel: Space Ship Sappy, Outer Space Jitters (both 1957) and Flying Saucer Daffy (1958).",
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"plaintext": "Columbia was the last studio still producing live-action two-reel comedies (the Stooges' last live-action competition, the one-reel Joe McDoakes series, had ended its run in 1956), and the market for such films had all but ceased. As a result, Jules White told Columbia president Harry Cohn that he was shutting down the two-reel-comedy department at the end of 1957. The final comedy produced was Flying Saucer Daffy, filmed on December 19–20, 1957. Several days later, the Stooges were unceremoniously fired from Columbia Pictures after 24 years of employment.",
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"plaintext": "No formal goodbyes or congratulatory celebrations occurred in recognition of their work and of the money that their comedies had earned for the studio. Moe visited Columbia several weeks after the dismissal to say goodbye to several executives. But without the current year's studio pass, Moe was refused entry, later stating that it was a crushing blow to his pride.",
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"plaintext": "The studio had enough completed Stooge films to be released over the next 18 months, though not in the order in which they were produced. The final Stooge release, Sappy Bull Fighters, did not reach theaters until June 4, 1959. With no active contract in place, Moe and Larry discussed plans for a personal appearance tour. In the meantime, Besser's wife suffered a minor heart attack and he preferred to stay local, leading him to withdraw from the act.",
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"plaintext": "After Besser's departure, Moe and Larry began looking for potential replacements. Larry suggested former Ted Healy stooge Paul \"Mousie\" Garner, but based on his tryout performance, Moe later remarked that he was \"completely unacceptable.\" Weeks later, Larry came across burlesque performer Joe DeRita, who had starred in his own series of shorts at Columbia back in the 1940s, and thought he would be a good fit.",
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"plaintext": "The early days of television provided movie studios a place to unload a backlog of short films that they thought otherwise unmarketable, and the Stooge films seemed perfect for the burgeoning genre. ABC had even expressed interest as far back as 1949, purchasing exclusive rights to 30 of the trio's shorts and commissioning a pilot for a potential series, Jerks of All Trades. However, the success of television revivals for such names as Laurel and Hardy, Woody Woodpecker, Popeye, Tom and Jerry and the Our Gang series in the late 1950s led Columbia to cash in again on the Stooges. In September 1958, Columbia's television subsidiary Screen Gems offered a package consisting of 78 Stooge shorts (primarily from the Curly era), which were well received. An additional 40 shorts hit the market in April 1959; by September 1959, all 190 Stooge shorts were airing regularly. With so many films available for broadcast, daily television airings provided heavy exposure aimed squarely at children. Parents who had grown up seeing the same films in the theaters began to watch alongside their children and, before long, Howard, Fine, and DeRita were in great demand. After it was discovered that the Curly-era shorts were the most popular, Moe suggested that DeRita shave his head to accentuate his slight resemblance to Curly Howard. He adopted first a crew cut and later a completely shaven head, thus becoming \"Curly Joe.\"",
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"plaintext": "This lineup, now frequently referred to as \"Larry, Moe, and Curly Joe,\" starred in six full-length feature films from 1959 to 1965: Have Rocket, Will Travel (1959), Snow White and the Three Stooges (1961), The Three Stooges Meet Hercules (1962), The Three Stooges in Orbit (1962), The Three Stooges Go Around the World in a Daze (1963) and The Outlaws IS Coming! (1965). The films were aimed at the kiddie-matinee market, and most were black-and-white farce outings in the Stooge tradition, with the exception of Snow White and the Three Stooges, a children's fantasy in color. They also appeared in an extremely brief cameo as firemen (a role that Larry, Moe, and Shemp had also played in the pre-\"Three Stooges\" film Soup to Nuts in 1930) in the film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), and in a larger capacity that same year in 4 for Texas starring Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin. Throughout the early 1960s, the Stooges were one of the most popular and highest-paid live acts in America. They played theaters, summer festivals, fairgrounds, and other venues, and twice performed as the featured act at the Canadian National Exposition. In 1968, they toured Hawaii where they starred in the International 3-Ring Circus at the Honolulu International Center.",
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"plaintext": "The Stooges also tried their hand at another weekly television series in 1960 titled The Three Stooges Scrapbook, filmed in color and with a laugh track. The first episode, \"Home Cooking\", featured the boys rehearsing for a new television show. Like Jerks of All Trades in 1949, the pilot did not sell. However, Norman Maurer was able to reuse the footage (reprocessed in black and white) for the first ten minutes of The Three Stooges in Orbit.",
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"plaintext": "The trio also filmed 41 short comedy skits for The New Three Stooges in 1965, which features a series of 156 animated cartoons produced for television. The Stooges appeared in live-action color footage, which preceded and followed each animated adventure in which they voiced their respective characters.",
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"plaintext": "During this period, The Stooges appeared on numerous television shows including The Steve Allen Show, Here's Hollywood, Masquerade Party, The Ed Sullivan Show, Danny Thomas Meets the Comics, The Joey Bishop Show, Off to See the Wizard and Truth or Consequences.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1969, Howard, Fine and DeRita began production on another half-hour pilot, this time for a syndicated 39-episode TV series titled Kook's Tour, a combination travelogue-sitcom that had the \"retired\" Stooges traveling to various parts of the world with the episodes filmed on location. On January 9, 1970, during production of the pilot, Larry suffered a paralyzing stroke, ending his acting career along with plans for the television series. The pilot was unfinished and several key shots were missing, but producer Norman Maurer edited the available footage and made the pilot a 52-minute special that was released to the home-movie and Cartrivision videocassette home video markets in 1973. It is the last film in which the Stooges appeared and the last known performance of the team.",
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"plaintext": "Following Larry Fine's stroke, plans were made for Emil Sitka to replace him in a new feature film, written by Moe Howard's grandson, Jeffrey Scott [Maurer], titled Make Love, Not War. Moe Howard, Joe DeRita, and Emil Sitka were cast as POWs in a World War II Japanese prison camp, plotting an escape with fellow prisoners. The film would have been a departure from typical Stooge fare, with dark-edged humor and scenes of war violence, but insufficient funding prevented production from advancing beyond the script stage.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 1970, Joe DeRita recruited vaudeville veterans Frank Mitchell and Mousie Garner to tour as The New Three Stooges. Garner had worked with Ted Healy as one of his \"replacement stooges\" decades earlier and was briefly considered as Joe Besser's replacement in 1958. Mitchell had also replaced Shemp as the \"third stooge\" in a 1929 Broadway play and appeared in two of the Stooges' short subjects in 1953. The act fared poorly, with minimal bookings. By this time, Moe's wife had prevailed on him to retire from performing slapstick due to his age. For the next several years, Moe appeared regularly on talk shows and did speaking engagements at colleges, while DeRita quietly retired.",
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"plaintext": "Larry suffered another stroke in mid-December 1974, and four weeks later an even more massive one. After slipping into a coma, he died a week later from a cerebral hemorrhage on January 24, 1975.",
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"plaintext": "Before Larry's death, the Stooges were scheduled to co-star in the R-rated comedy Blazing Stewardesses, featuring Moe and Curly Joe with Emil Sitka in the middle spot as Harry, Larry's brother. The team was signed and publicity shots were taken, but one week prior to March's filming date, Moe was diagnosed with lung cancer and the Stooges had to back out; he died on May 4, 1975. Producer Sam Sherman briefly considered having former Stooge Joe Besser appear in his place, but ultimately decided against it. The Ritz Brothers, Harry and Jimmy, replaced the Stooges and performed much of their own schtick, including the precision dance routine first seen in Sing, Baby, Sing (1936), co-starring original Stooge leader Ted Healy.",
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"plaintext": "As for the remaining original replacement stooges, Joe Besser died of heart failure on March 1, 1988, followed by Joe DeRita of pneumonia on July 3, 1993. Emil Sitka was announced as a Stooge but never performed as such; he died on January 16, 1998, six months after being disabled by a stroke.",
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"plaintext": "Over 60 years since their last short film was released, the Three Stooges remain popular. Their films have never left American television since first appearing in 1958. They were a hard-working group of comedians who were never critics' favorites; a durable act that endured several personnel changes in careers that would have permanently sidelined a less persistent act. They would not have lasted as long as they did as a unit without Moe Howard's guiding hand.",
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"plaintext": "Ted Okuda's and Edward Watz's book The Columbia Comedy Shorts puts the Stooges' legacy in critical perspective:",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in the 1980s, the Stooges finally began to receive critical recognition. The release of nearly all their films on DVD by 2010 allowed critics of Joe Besser and Joe DeRita—often the recipients of significant fan backlash—to appreciate both men's unique styles of comedy. The DVD market has also allowed fans to view the entire Stooge film corpus as distinct periods in their long career, rather than unfairly comparing one Stooge to another (the Curly vs. Shemp debate continues to this day, with Joe Besser not even mentioned in the same breath).",
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"plaintext": "The team appeared in 220 films, but it is the durability of the 190 short films they made at Columbia Pictures that is their enduring legacy. In 1984, American television personality Steve Allen said, \"Although they never achieved widespread critical acclaim, they did succeed in accomplishing what they had always intended to do: They made people laugh.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Three Stooges were among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Three Stooges' slapstick comedy was primarily arranged around basic plots dealing with mundane issues of daily life, a number of their shorts featured social commentary or satire. They were often anti-heroical commentators on class divisions and economic hardships of the Great Depression in the United States. They were usually under- or unemployed and sometimes homeless or living in shanty towns.",
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"plaintext": "The language used by the Three Stooges was more slang-laden than that of typical feature films of the period and deliberately affected a lower class status with use of crude terms, ethnic mannerisms and inside jokes.",
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"plaintext": "An example is the use of the initials A.K. for big shots and pretentious people. A.K. was an inside joke which stood for Alte Kocker (Lit: elderly person who is defecating), a Yiddish idiom which means an old man or woman of diminished capacity who can no longer do things they used to do.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the seeming \"gibberish\" that the Stooges sometimes spoke was actually the Yiddish language of their Jewish ancestry. The most famous example occurs 15 minutes into the 1938 short Mutts to You. Moe and Larry were impersonating Chinese laundrymen in an attempt to fool the local cop. While being questioned Larry says \"Ech Bin A China Boychic Frim Slobatkya-Gebernya Hak Mir Nisht Ken Tshaynik And I Dont Mean Efsher\". This translates as \"I'm a China boy from Slobatkya Gebernya [a made-up area in eastern Russia] so stop annoying me and I don't mean maybe.\"",
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"plaintext": "A third “in-Yiddish” joke is in the episode Pardon My Scotch when the liquor supplier prepares to consume the Stooges' volatile concoction, and they wish him well in a triad pattern saying \"Over the river,\" \"Skip the gutter,\" and concluding with \"Ver geharget,\" a Yiddish expression meaning \"get killed\" or \"drop dead.\"",
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"plaintext": "One important area of political commentary was in the area of the rise of totalitarianism in Europe, notably in the directly satirical You Nazty Spy! and I'll Never Heil Again, both released before United States' entry into World War II despite an industry Production Code that advocated avoiding social and political issues and the negative portrayal of foreign countries.",
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"plaintext": "In their classic 1940 short “No Census, No Feelings”, the Stooges refer to Will H. Hays and his position as Hollywood's censor, when Moe tells Curly, “We have a job now, we’re working for the census”, and Curly replies, “You mean Will Hays?” ",
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"plaintext": "The Three Stooges appeared in 220 films through their career. Of those 220, 190 short films were made for Columbia Pictures, for which the trio are best known today. Their first Columbia film, Woman Haters, premiered on May 5, 1934. Their contract was extended each year until the final one expired on December 31, 1957. The last 8 of the 16 shorts with Joe Besser were released over the next 18 months. The final release, Sappy Bull Fighters, premiered on June 4, 1959.",
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"plaintext": "In 1959, Comedy III Productions (later, C3 Entertainment) was formed by Moe, Larry and Joe DeRita to manage all business and merchandise transactions. Now controlled by DeRita's heirs, it has diversified into a brand-management company licensing personality rights to various nostalgia acts, including the Stooges.",
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"plaintext": "A handful of Three Stooges shorts first aired on television in 1949, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) network. It was not until 1958 that Screen Gems packaged 78 shorts for national syndication; the package was gradually enlarged to encompass the entire library of 190 shorts. In 1959, KTTV in Los Angeles purchased the Three Stooges films for air, but by the early 1970s, rival station KTLA began airing the Stooges films, keeping them in the schedule until early 1994. The Family Channel ran the shorts as part of their Stooge TV block from February 19, 1996, to January 2, 1998. In the late 1990s, AMC had held the rights to the Three Stooges shorts, originally airing them under a programming block called \"Stooges Playhouse\". In 1999, it was replaced with a program called N.Y.U.K. (New Yuk University of Knuckleheads), which starred actor/comedian Leslie Nielsen. The program would show three random Stooge shorts. Nielsen hosts the program as a college instructor, known as the Professor of Stoogelogy, who teaches to the students lectures on the Three Stooges before the Stooges' shorts air. The block aired several shorts often grouped by a theme, such as similar schtick used in different films. Although the block was discontinued after AMC revamped their format in 2002, the network still ran Stooges shorts occasionally. The AMC run ended when Spike TV (now Paramount Network) picked them up in 2004, airing them in their Stooges Slap-Happy Hour every Saturday and Sunday mornings. On June 6, 2005, the network began running the Stooges Slap-Happy as a one-hour summer comedy block which ended on September 2, 2005. By 2007, the network had discontinued the block. Although Spike did air Stooges shorts for a brief period of time after the block was canceled, as of late April 2008, the Stooges had disappeared from the network's schedule entirely. The Three Stooges returned on December 31, 2009, on AMC, starting with the \"Countdown with the Stooges\" New Year's Eve marathon. AMC planned to put several episodes on their website in 2010. The \"Stooges\" shorts were best known in Chicago as a part of a half-hour, late-afternoon show on WGN-TV hosted by Bob Bell as \"Andy Starr\" in the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 1990s Columbia and its television division's successor, Sony Pictures Television, has preferred to license the Stooges shorts to cable networks, precluding the films from being shown on local broadcast TV. Two stations in Chicago and Boston, however, signed long-term syndication contracts with Columbia years ago and have declined to terminate them. Thus, WMEU-CD in Chicago aired all 190 Three Stooges shorts on Saturday afternoons and Sunday evenings until 2014. WSBK-TV in Boston airs Stooge shorts and feature films, including an annual New Year's Eve marathon. KTLA in Los Angeles dropped the shorts in 1994, but brought them back in 2007 as part of a special retro-marathon commemorating the station's 60th anniversary. Since that time, the station's original 16mm Stooges film prints have aired occasionally as part of mini-marathons on holidays. Antenna TV, a network broadcasting on the digital subchannels of local broadcast stations (owned by Tribune Broadcasting, who also owns KTLA), began airing the Stooges shorts upon the network's January 1, 2011 launch, which ran in multi-hour blocks on weekends through December 29, 2012; most of the Three Stooges feature films are also broadcast on the network, through Antenna TV's distribution agreement with Sony Pictures Entertainment (whose Columbia Pictures subsidiary released most of the films). While the network stopped airing Stooges shorts regularly from 2013 to 2015, they were occasionally shown as filler if a movie ran short, as well as in holiday marathons. However, the shorts returned to Antenna TV's regular lineup on January 10, 2015. In 2019, The Three Stooges were picked up by MeTV as part of their lineup.",
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"plaintext": "Columbia's library of 190 Stooge shorts has been modified for television distribution. Sony no longer offers the shorts on motion picture film, and now includes only 100 titles in the television package. All 190 shorts, however, have been released to home video.",
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"plaintext": "Some films have been colorized by two separate companies. The first colorized DVD releases, distributed by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, were prepared by West Wing Studios in 2004, using actual costumes and props for reference. The following year, Legend Films colorized the public domain shorts Malice in the Palace, Sing a Song of Six Pants, Disorder in the Court and Brideless Groom. Disorder in the Court and Brideless Groom also appears on two of West Wing's colorized releases. In any event, the Columbia-produced shorts (aside from the public domain films) are handled by Sony Pictures Entertainment, while the MGM Stooges shorts are owned by Warner Bros. via their Turner Entertainment division. Sony offers 21 of the shorts on their web platform Crackle, along with eleven Minisodes. Meanwhile, the rights to the Stooges' feature films rests with the studios that originally produced them (Columbia/Sony for the Columbia films, and The Walt Disney Company for the Fox Film/20th Century Fox films).",
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"plaintext": "Between 1980 and 1985, Columbia Pictures Home Entertainment and RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video released a total of thirteen Three Stooges volumes various formats. The original thirteen volume titles were later reissued on VHS by its successor, Columbia TriStar Home Video, between 1993 and 1996, with a DVD reissue between 2000 and 2004.",
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"plaintext": "On October 30, 2007, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released a two-disc DVD set titled The Three Stooges Collection, Volume One: 1934–1936. The set contains shorts from the first three years the Stooges worked at Columbia Pictures, marking the first time ever that all 19 shorts were released in their original theatrical order to DVD. Additionally, every short was remastered in high definition, a first for the Stooge films. Previous DVD releases were based on themes (wartime, history, work, etc.), and sold poorly.",
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"plaintext": "The chronological series proved successful, and Sony wasted little time preparing the next set for release. Volume Two: 1937–1939 was released on May 27, 2008, followed by Volume Three: 1940–1942 three months later on August 26, 2008. Demand exceeded supply, proving to Sony that they had a hit on their hands. In response, Volume Four: 1943–1945 was released on October 7, 2008, a mere two months after its predecessor. The global economic crisis slowed down the release schedule after Volume Four, and Volume Five: 1946–1948 was belatedly released on March 17, 2009. Volume Five is the first in the series to feature Shemp Howard with the Stooges and the final volume to feature Curly Howard. Volume Six: 1949–1951 was released June 16, 2009, and Volume Seven: 1952–1954 was released on November 10, 2009. Volume Seven included 3-D glasses for the two shorts: Spooks! and Pardon My Backfire. As of 2013, the 3-D versions of the two shorts in this volume have been removed. Volume Eight: 1955–1959 was released on June 1, 2010. This was the final volume of the Stooges collection, bringing the series to a close. Volume Eight comprised three discs, and was the only volume to feature Joe Besser and the final volume to feature Shemp Howard. With the release of the eighth volume, for the first time in history all 190 Three Stooges short subjects had become available to the public, uncut and unedited.",
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"plaintext": "Two years later, on June 5, 2012, these discs were reissued in a DVD boxed set entitled The Three Stooges: The Ultimate Collection - now with a ninth volume (3 discs) entitled Rare Treasures from the Columbia Picture Vault. This volume is not available separately, and comprises two feature films and three cartoons featuring all three Stooges, and also some of their solo work (14 shorts featuring Shemp Howard, 10 shorts featuring Joe Besser, and four shorts featuring Joe DeRita). On October 18, 2016, The Three Stooges: The Complete DVD Collection was released. It had all the DVDs from volumes 1 through 8 but it did not include the \"Rare Treasures from the Columbia Picture Vault\" discs. All eight volumes are also available on iTunes. On June 15, 2020, iTunes released The Three Stooges: The Complete Series, which features all 190 shorts in an entire collection.",
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"plaintext": " Several instrumental tunes were played over the opening credits of the short features. The most commonly used were:",
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"plaintext": " The verse portion of the Civil War era song \"Listen to the Mockingbird\", played in a comical way, complete with sounds of birds and such. It was first used in Pardon My Scotch, their ninth short film, in 1935. (Prior to this, the opening theme varied and was typically connected to the storyline in some way.)",
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"plaintext": " \"Three Blind Mice\", beginning in 1939 as a slow but straightforward presentation (dubbed the \"sliding strings\" version), often breaking into a \"jazzy\" style before ending. In mid-1942, a faster version was used, featuring accordion.",
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"plaintext": " The Columbia short Woman Haters was done completely in rhyme, mostly recited (not sung), in rhythm with a Jazz-Age underscore running throughout the film, but with some key lines sung. It was sixth in a Musical Novelties short subject series, and appropriated its musical score from the first five films. The memorable \"My Life, My Love, My All\", was originally \"At Last!\" from the film Um-Pa.",
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"plaintext": " \"Swinging the Alphabet\" from Violent Is the Word for Curly is perhaps the best-known song performed by the Stooges on film.",
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"plaintext": " The Stooges broke into a three-part harmonized version of \"Tears\" (\"You'll Never Know Just What Tears Are\") in Horses' Collars, A Ducking They Did Go (where the melody was sung by Bud Jamison) and Half Shot Shooters. The song, written by Moe, Larry, Shemp, and one-time Ted Healy Stooge Fred Sanborn, first appeared in the 1930 feature film Soup to Nuts.",
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"plaintext": " The \"Lucia Sextet\" (Chi mi frena in tal momento?), from the opera Lucia di Lammermoor by Gaetano Donizetti (announced by Larry as \"the Sextet from Lucy\") is played on a record player and lip-synched by the Stooges in Micro-Phonies. The same melody reappears in Squareheads of the Round Table as the tune of \"Oh, Elaine, can you come out tonight?\". Micro-Phonies also includes the Johann Strauss II waltz \"Voices of Spring\" (\"Frühlingsstimmen\") Op. 410. Another Strauss waltz, \"The Blue Danube\", is featured in Ants in the Pantry and Punch Drunks.",
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"plaintext": " The original song \"Frederick March\" (named for the actor Fredric March but misspelled) was composed by staff musicians at the insistence of studio chief Harry Cohn. Weary of paying royalties for existing marches, Cohn wanted an original march that Columbia could own outright. \"Frederick March\" became a favorite of director Jules White; it appears in at least seven different Columbia shorts:",
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"plaintext": " Termites of 1938 – The Stooges \"play\" this song on a violin, flute, and string bass at a dinner party in an attempt to attract mice.",
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"plaintext": " Dutiful But Dumb – Curly is hidden inside a floor-standing radio, and plays the song on a modified harmonica.",
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"plaintext": " Three Little Twirps – Heard as background music at the circus while Moe and Curly sell tickets.",
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"plaintext": " Idle Roomers – Curly plays the song on a trombone to calm a wolf man—who goes berserk when he hears music.",
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"plaintext": " Gents Without Cents – Three girls perform acrobatics on stage while this song is playing.",
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"plaintext": " Gents in a Jam – Shemp and Moe have a problem with a radio that will not stop playing this song.",
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"plaintext": " Pardon My Backfire – The song plays on a car radio.",
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"plaintext": " The Moe/Larry/Curly Joe lineup of the Stooges recorded several musical record albums in the early 1960s. Most of their songs were adaptations of nursery rhymes. Among their more popular recordings were \"Making a Record\" (a surreal trip to a recording studio built around the song \"Go Tell Aunt Mary\"), \"Three Little Fishes\", \"All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth\", \"Wreck the Halls with Boughs of Holly\", \"Mairzy Doats\" and \"I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas\".",
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"plaintext": " In 1983, a group called the Jump 'N the Saddle Band recorded a track called \"The Curly Shuffle\", which featured the narrator singing about his love of the Stooges mixed with a chorus of many of Curly's catchphrases and sound effects. In the mid-1980s, the song became a popular mid-game hit for New York Mets fans in the Shea Stadium bleachers, who danced in small groups when the song was played between innings. The music video, which featured clips of the classic Stooges shorts, was also included as a bonus feature on one of the RCA/Columbia VHS releases.",
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"plaintext": "Three feature-length Columbia releases were actually packages of older Columbia shorts. Columbia Laff Hour (introduced in 1956) was a random assortment that included the Stooges among other Columbia comedians like Andy Clyde, Hugh Herbert, and Vera Vague; the content and length varied from one theater to the next. Three Stooges Fun-o-Rama (introduced in 1959) was an all-Stooges show capitalizing on their TV fame, again with shorts chosen at random for individual theaters. The Three Stooges Follies (1974) was similar to Laff Hour, with a trio of Stooge comedies augmented by Buster Keaton and Vera Vague shorts, a Batman serial chapter, and a Kate Smith musical.",
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"plaintext": "Gary Lassin, grand-nephew-in-law of Larry Fine, opened the Stoogeum in 2004 in Spring House, Pennsylvania, north of Philadelphia. It features three floors of exhibits and an 85-seat theater. Peter Seely, editor of the book Stoogeology: Essays on the Three Stooges, said that the Stoogeum has \"more stuff than I even imagined existed.\" 2,500 people visit it yearly, many during the annual Three Stooges Fan Club gathering in April.",
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"plaintext": "Over the years, several Three Stooges comics were produced.",
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"plaintext": " St. John Publications published the first Three Stooges comics in 1949 with 2 issues, then again in 1953–54 with 7 issues.",
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"plaintext": " Dell Comics published a Three Stooges series first as one-shots in their Four Color Comics line for five issues, then gave them a numbered series for four more issues (#6–9). With #10, the title would be published by Gold Key Comics. Under Gold Key, the series lasted through issue #55 in 1972.",
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"plaintext": " Gold Key Comics then published a series called The Little Stooges (7 issues, 1972–74) with story and art by Norman Maurer, Moe's son-in-law. This series featured the adventures of three fictional sons of the Three Stooges, as sort of modern-day teen-age versions of the characters.",
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"plaintext": " Eclipse Comics published the Three-D Three Stooges series (3 issues, 1986–1987) which reprinted stories from the St. John Publications series.",
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"plaintext": " Malibu Comics did a couple of one-shot comics, reprinting stories from the Gold Key Comics in 1989 and 1991.",
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"plaintext": " Eternity Comics published a one-shot comic book called The Three Stooges in 3-D in 1991, reprinting four stories from the Gold Key series.",
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"plaintext": " Bluewater Comics issued a biographical comic in 2011 which followed the lives and careers of the group.",
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"plaintext": " American Mythology Production publishes comics in 2017 which shows the Three Stooges in the modern times. In 2021, it was announced that American Mythology was launching two new books: The Three Stooges Thru The Ages and The Robonic Stooges. Both new series are written by S.A. Check and Jordan Gershowitz.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 1959, the Three Stooges began appearing in a series of novelty records. Their first recording was a 45 rpm single of the title song from Have Rocket, Will Travel. The trio released additional singles and LPs on the Golden, Peter Pan and Coral labels, mixing comedy adventure albums and off-beat renditions of children's songs and stories. Their final recording was the 1966 Yogi Bear and the Three Stooges Meet the Mad, Mad, Mad Dr. No-No, which incorporated the Three Stooges into the cast of the Yogi Bear cartoons.",
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"plaintext": "Sirius XM Radio aired a special about the Stooges hosted by Tom Bergeron on Friday, July 31, 2009, at 2:00PM on the Sirius Howard 101 channel. Bergeron had conducted the interviews at the age of 16 back when he was still in high school in 1971. The television host had the tapes in storage for many years and was convinced on-air during an interview with Howard Stern to bring them in and turn it into a special.",
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"plaintext": "After finding \"the lost tapes\", Bergeron brought them into Stern's production studio. He stated that the tapes were so old that the tapes with the Larry Fine interviews began to shred as Stern's radio engineers ran them on their tape players. They really had only one shot, but the tapes were saved.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Lost Stooges Tapes\" was hosted by Tom Bergeron, with modern commentary on the almost 40-year-old interviews that he had conducted with Larry Fine and Moe Howard. At the times of these interviews, Moe was still living at home, while Larry had suffered a stroke and was living in a Senior Citizen's home.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the unsuccessful television series pilots Jerks of All Trades, The Three Stooges Scrapbook, and the incomplete Kook's Tour, the Stooges appeared in an animated series, The New Three Stooges, which ran from 1965 to 1966. This series featured a mix of forty-one live-action segments which were used as wraparounds to 156 animated Stooges shorts. The New Three Stooges became the only regularly scheduled television show in history for the Stooges. Unlike other films shorts that aired on television, like the Looney Tunes, Tom and Jerry, and Popeye, the film shorts of the Stooges never had a regularly scheduled national television program to air in. When Columbia/Screen Gems licensed the film library to television, the shorts aired in any fashion the local stations chose (examples: late-night \"filler\" material between the end of the late movie and the channel's sign-off time; in \"marathon\" sessions running shorts back-to-back for one, one-and-a-half, or two hours; etc.) By the 1970s, some local stations showed a Columbia short and a New Three Stooges cartoon in the same broadcast.",
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"plaintext": "Another animated series also produced by Hanna-Barbera, titled The Robonic Stooges, originally seen as a featured segment on The Skatebirds (CBS, 1977–1978), featuring Moe, Larry, and Curly (voiced by Paul Winchell, Joe Baker and Frank Welker, respectively) as bionic cartoon superheroes with extendable limbs, similar to the later Inspector Gadget. The Robonic Stooges later aired as a separate half-hour series, retitled The Three Robonic Stooges (each half-hour featured two segments of The Three Robonic Stooges and one segment of Woofer & Whimper, Dog Detectives, the latter re-edited from episodes of Clue Club, an earlier Hanna-Barbera cartoon series).",
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"plaintext": "On June 9, 2015, C3 Entertainment announced it is partnering with London-based production company Cake Entertainment and animation house Titmouse, Inc. to produce a new animated Three Stooges series, consisting of 52 11-minute episodes. Christy Karacas (Co-creator of Superjail!) directed the pilot episode, with Earl and Robert Benjamin, Chris Prynoski, Tom van Waveren and Edward Galton executive producing. The series will be launched to potential buyers at the market of the Annecy International Animated Film Festival.",
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"plaintext": "In the October 13, 1967 \"Who's Afraid of Mother Goose?\" episode of ABC's \"World-of-Disney\"-like anthology series Off to See the Wizard, the Three Stooges made a short appearance as \"the three men in a tub\".",
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"plaintext": "Two episodes of Hanna-Barbera's The New Scooby-Doo Movies aired on CBS featuring animated Stooges as guest stars: the premiere, \"Ghastly Ghost Town\" (September 9, 1972) and \"The Ghost of the Red Baron\" (November 18, 1972).",
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"plaintext": "In a 1980 episode of M*A*S*H, Charles Winchester shows disrespect for three Korean doctors by calling them \"Moe, Larry and Curly\", and says that they are \"highly-respected individuals in the States\". After Winchester throws out his back and is unable to relieve the pain through conventional methods (in real life, Winchester would've received an automatic medical discharge from the United States Army), Colonel Potter has the Korean doctors try acupuncture (much to Winchester's dismay), which cures Winchester. After the treatment, one of the doctors tells Winchester \"Not bad for Three Stooges, huh?\", having caught on to his mistreatment of them.",
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"plaintext": "In the episode \"Beware the Creeper\" of The New Batman Adventures, the Joker retreats to his hide-out after a quick fight with Batman. He yells out for his three henchmen \"Moe? Larr? Cur?\" only to find that they are not there. Shortly after that, Batman comes across these three goons in a pool hall; they have distinctive accents and hairstyles similar to those of Moe, Larry and Curly. These henchmen are briefly seen throughout the rest of the season.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, long-time Stooge fan Mel Gibson executive-produced a TV film (The Three Stooges) about the lives and careers of the comedians. Playing Moe was Paul Ben-Victor, Evan Handler was Larry, John Kassir was Shemp, and Michael Chiklis was Curly. It was filmed in Australia and was produced for and broadcast on ABC. It was based on Michael Fleming's authorized biography of the Stooges, The Three Stooges: From Amalgamated Morons to American Icons. Its unflattering portrayal of Ted Healy led Healy's son to give media interviews calling the film inaccurate. Additional errors of fact included the portrayal that Moe Howard was down on his luck after Columbia cancelled their contract and worked as a gofer at the studio, where he, his brothers and Larry had formerly worked as actors. In reality, Moe was the most careful with his money, which he invested well. He and his wife Helen owned a comfortable house in Toluca Lake, in which they raised their children.",
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"plaintext": "The Three Stooges (in their Curly Joe period) make a brief cameo appearance as airport firemen in the 1963 film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. An epic comedy with an all-star cast, this film contains many cameo appearances by famous comedians.",
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"plaintext": "A film featuring the Three Stooges, titled The Three Stooges, started production on March 14, 2011, with 20th Century Fox and was directed by the Farrelly brothers. The film had been in what one critic has dubbed \"development hell\". The Farrellys, who wanted to make the film since 1996, said that they were not going to do a biopic or remake, but instead new Three Stooges episodes set in the present day. The film is broken up into three continuous episodes that revolves around the Stooges characters.",
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"plaintext": "Casting the title characters proved difficult for the studio. Originally slated were Sean Penn to play Larry, Benicio del Toro to play Moe, and Jim Carrey to play Curly. Both Penn and del Toro left the project but returned while no official confirmation had been made about Jim Carrey. When del Toro was interviewed on MTV News for The Wolfman, he spoke about playing Moe. He was later asked who was going to play Larry and Curly in the film and commented that he still thought that Sean Penn and Jim Carrey were going to play them, though he added, \"Nothing is for sure yet.\"",
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"plaintext": "A story in The Hollywood Reporter stated that Will Sasso would play Curly in the upcoming comedy and that Hank Azaria was the front runner to play Moe. Sasso was ultimately cast as Curly; Sean Hayes of Will & Grace was cast as Larry Fine, while Chris Diamantopoulos was cast as Moe. Jane Lynch later joined the cast, playing a nun. The film was released on April 13, 2012, and grossed over $54 million worldwide. The film received mixed reviews, but Diamantopoulos, Hayes, and Sasso were praised for their performances as Moe, Larry, and Curly.",
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"plaintext": "On February 3, 2016, C3 announced a new action/adventure film titled The Three Little Stooges. It will star Gordy De StJeor, Liam Dow, and Luke Clark as 12-year-old versions of Moe, Larry, and Curly. The first film, which will set the foundation for future films and television spin-offs, is set to begin production in November 2017, and expected to be released in 2018. The screenplay was written by Harris Goldberg, with Sean McNamara set to direct. The film's budget is $5.8 million. On July 19, 2017, C3 began seeking crowdfunding to pay for a portion of the budget. In August 2017, they exceeded their minimum goal of $50,000.",
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"plaintext": "Later in 1987, game developers Cinemaware released a successful Three Stooges computer game, available for Apple IIGS, Amiga, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, and Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Based on the Stooges earning money by doing odd jobs to prevent the foreclosure of an orphanage, it incorporated audio from the original films and was popular enough to be reissued for the Game Boy Advance in 2002, as well as for PlayStation in 2004.",
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"plaintext": "In most other languages, the Three Stooges are known by some corresponding variant of their English name. In Chinese, however, the trio is known idiomatically as Sānge Chòu Píjiàng (三個臭皮匠) or Huóbǎo Sānrénzǔ (活寶三人組). Sānge Chòu Píjiàng, literally \"Three Smelly Shoemakers\", which derives from a saying in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms: Sāngè chòu píjiàng shèngguò yīgè Zhūgě Liàng (三個臭皮匠，勝過一個諸葛亮) or \"Three smelly shoemakers (are enough to) overcome one Zhuge Liang [a hero of the story]\", i.e. three inferior people can overpower a superior person when they combine their strength. Huóbǎo Sānrénzǔ translates as \"Trio of Buffoons\". Likewise in Japanese they are known as San Baka Taishō (三ばか大将) meaning \"Three Idiot Generals\" or \"Three Baka Generals\".",
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"plaintext": "In Spanish they are known as Los tres chiflados or, roughly, \"The Three Crackpots\". In French and German usage, the name of the trio is partially translated as Les Trois Stooges (though the French version of the movie adaptation used a fully translated name, \"Les Trois Corniauds\") and Die drei Stooges respectively. In Italy they are known as I tre marmittoni. In Thai, the trio is known as 3 สมุนจอมป่วน (, ) or 3 พี่น้องจอมยุ่ง (, ). In Portuguese, they are known as Os Três Patetas in Brazil, and Os Três Estarolas in Portugal, estarola being a direct translation of \"stooge\", while pateta being more related to \"goofy\". In Persian the trio are dubbed as \"سه نخاله\". In Turkish, they are dubbed as Üç Ahbap Çavuş (\"The Three Cronies\").",
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"plaintext": " Besser, Joe (with Lenburg, Jeff, and Lenburg, Greg), Not Just a Stooge (1984) Excelsior Books, Inc. (reissued 1987 as Once a Stooge, Always a Stooge) Roundtable Publications (Autobiography of Joe Besser, including anecdotes about Abbott and Costello and Olsen and Johnson)",
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"plaintext": " Bruskin, David N., Behind the Three Stooges: The White Brothers: Conversations with David N. Bruskin (1993) Directors Guild of America (In-depth interviews with producer-directors Jules White, Jack White, and Sam White)",
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"plaintext": " Comedy III Productions, Inc., Pop, You're \"Poifect!\": A Three Stooges Salute to Dad (2002) Andrews McMeel",
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"plaintext": " Davis, Lon and Davis, Debra (eds.), Stooges Among Us (2008) BearManor Media ",
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"plaintext": " Feinberg, Morris, Larry: The Stooge in the Middle (1984) Last Gasp of San Francisco (Biography of Larry Fine, attributed to his brother but actually ghostwritten by Bob Davis)",
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"plaintext": " Fericano, Paul, Stoogism Anthology (1977) Poor Souls Printing",
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"plaintext": " Fine, Larry (with Carone, James), Stroke of Luck (1973) Siena Publishing Co. (Larry Fine's autobiography, transcribed from interviews toward the end of his life)",
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"plaintext": " Flanagan, Bill, Last of the Moe Haircuts (1986) McGraw-Hill/Contemporary Books, Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Fleming, Michael, The Three Stooges: An Illustrated History, from Amalgamated Morons to American Icons (2002) Broadway Publishing",
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"plaintext": " Forrester, Jeffrey, The Stoogephile Trivia Book (1982) Contemporary Books, Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Forrester, Jeffrey, The Stooge Chronicles (1981) Contemporary Books, Inc. (Comprehensive overview of the team's career; also discusses the various Ted Healy stooges)",
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"plaintext": " Forrester, Tom, with Forrester, Jeff, The Stooges' Lost Episodes (1988) Contemporary Books, Inc. (Discussion of obscure Stooges appearances, including solo films by individual Stooges)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Forrester, Jeff, with Forrester, Tom, and Wallison, Joe, The Three Stooges: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the Most Popular Comedy Team of All Time (2001) Donaldson Books",
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"plaintext": " Garner, Paul, Mousie Garner: Autobiography of a Vaudeville Stooge (1999) McFarland & Co.",
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"plaintext": " Hansen, Tom and Forrester, Jeffrey, Stoogemania: An Extravaganza of Stooge Photos, Puzzles, Trivia, Collectibles and More (1984) Contemporary Books, Inc. (Overview of Three Stooges memorabilia)",
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"plaintext": " Howard, Moe, Moe Howard and the Three Stooges (1977) Citadel Press (Moe Howard's autobiography, completed and released posthumously by his daughter)",
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"plaintext": " Koceimba, Bill, with Kaufman, Eric A., and Sack, Steve, The Three Stooges Golf Spoof and Trivia Book (1999) Gazelle, Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Kurson, Robert, The Official Three Stooges Encyclopedia: The Ultimate Knucklehead's Guide to Stoogedom, from Amalgamated Association of Morons to Ziller, Zeller, and Zoller (1999) McGraw-Hill",
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"plaintext": " Kurson, Robert, The Official Three Stooges Cookbook (1998) Contemporary Books, Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Lenburg, Jeff, with Maurer, Joan Howard, and Lenburg, Greg, The Three Stooges Scrapbook (1982, revised 1994, 2000) Citadel Press",
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"plaintext": " Longley, Maximillian, The Conservative In Spite of Himself: A Reluctant Right-Winger's Thoughts on Life, Law and the Three Stooges (2007) Monograph Publishers",
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"plaintext": " Maltin, Leonard, The Great Movie Comedians (1978) Crown Books",
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"plaintext": " Maltin, Leonard, Movie Comedy Teams (1970, revised 1985) New American Library",
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"plaintext": " Maltin, Leonard, Selected Short Subjects (first published as The Great Movie Shorts, 1972) Crown Books, (revised 1983) Da Capo Press",
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"plaintext": " McGarry, Annie, The Wacky World of the Three Stooges (1992) Crescent Books",
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"plaintext": " Maurer, Joan Howard, An Illustrated Biography of the Superstooge (1985, revised 1988) Citadel Press",
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"plaintext": " Maurer, Joan Howard (ed.), The Three Stooges Book of Scripts (1984) Citadel Press",
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"plaintext": " Maurer, Joan Howard and Maurer, Norman (eds.), The Three Stooges Book of Scripts, Volume II (1987) Citadel Press",
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"plaintext": " Okuda, Ted and Watz, Edward, The Columbia Comedy Shorts (1998) McFarland & Co. (Comprehensive history of the Columbia short subject department; Stooge colleagues Edward Bernds and Emil Sitka are quoted extensively)",
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"plaintext": " Pauley, Jim, \"The Three Stooges Hollywood Filming Locations\" (2012) Santa Monica Press (documents the outdoor filming locations of the Stooges' most famous Columbia Pictures short films made in and around Hollywood between 1934 and 1958",
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"plaintext": " Smith, Ronald L., The Stooge Fans' I.Q. Test (1988) Contemporary Books, Inc.",
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"plaintext": " Solomon, Jon, The Complete Three Stooges: The Official Filmography and Three Stooges Companion (2000) Comedy III Productions",
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"plaintext": " Three Stooges Online Filmography",
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"plaintext": " The Stoogeum (Three Stooges Museum)",
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"plaintext": " Portrait (2009) of The Three Stooges (with Shemp) by noted illustrator Drew Friedman",
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"plaintext": " Interview with Moe Howard on new success with the younger generation from the Ocala Star-Banner– February 22, 1959 accessed via Google News",
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36,821 | 1,104,072,481 | Sutter's_Mill | [
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"plaintext": "Sutter's Mill was a water-powered sawmill on the bank of the South Fork American River in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada in California. It was named after its owner John Sutter. A worker constructing the mill, James W. Marshall, found gold there in 1848. This discovery set off the California Gold Rush (1848–1855), a major event in the history of the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The territory of Alta California, which includes modern-day California, was settled by the Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1683 onwards. It became part of an independent Mexico in 1821. John Sutter, a German-Swiss settler, arrived in the region in 1839. He established a colony at New Helvetia (now part of Sacramento), in the Central Valley. The United States conquered the region during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848): California was overrun by US forces in 1846 and a ceasefire in the region was agreed in January 1847. A peace treaty for the wider war had not yet been completed when Sutter decided to begin construction of a sawmill in the forest about 30 miles north-east of his existing colony. Sutter employed James Wilson Marshall, a carpenter originally from New Jersey, to supervise construction of the new building.",
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"plaintext": "On January 24, 1848, while working on construction of the mill, Marshall found flakes of gold in the South Fork American River. On February 2, 1848, before news of the discovery had arrived, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in Mexico City. This peace treaty formally transferred sovereignty over the region to the United States. Two workers at the mill, Henry Bigler and Azariah Smith, were veterans of the Mormon Battalion and recorded their experience in journals. Bigler recorded the date when gold was discovered, January 24, 1848, in his diary. Sutter's claim to the US government for mineral rights was investigated by Joseph Libbey Folsom, who issued confirmation the gold discovery in June. The first flake found by Marshall was shipped to President James K. Polk in Washington DC, arriving in August 1848. It is now on display in the National Museum of American History, part of the Smithsonian Institution.",
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"plaintext": " Discovery of Gold, by John A. Sutter, Hutchings’ California Magazine, November 1857. Sutter describes how he wanted a sawmill near the Sacramento and how Marshall told him of the gold.",
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"plaintext": " Early photographs, illustrations, and textual references to Sutter's Mill, via Calisphere, California Digital Library.",
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36,822 | 1,087,160,343 | Sutter's_Fort | [
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"plaintext": "Sutter's Fort was a 19th-century agricultural and trade colony in the Mexican Alta California province. The site of the fort was established in 1839 and originally called New Helvetia (New Switzerland) by its builder John Sutter, though construction of the fort proper would not begin until 1841. The fort was the first non-indigenous community in the California Central Valley. The fort is famous for its association with the Donner Party, the California Gold Rush, and the formation of the city of Sacramento, surrounding the fort. It is notable for its proximity to the end of the California Trail and Siskiyou Trails, which it served as a waystation.",
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"plaintext": "After gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill (also owned by John Sutter) in Coloma on January 24, 1848, the fort was abandoned. The adobe structure has been restored to its original condition and is now administered by California Department of Parks and Recreation. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961.",
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"plaintext": "The Main Building of the fort is a two-story adobe structure built between 1841 and 1843. This building is the only original surviving structure at the reconstructed Sutter's Fort State Historic Park. It was in here on January 28, 1848, that James Marshall met privately with Sutter in order to show Sutter the gold that Marshall had found during the construction of Sutter's sawmill along the American River only four days earlier. Sutter built the original fort with walls thick and 15 to high. Pioneers took residence at Sutter's Fort around 1841. Following word of the Gold Rush, the fort was largely deserted by the 1850s and fell into disrepair.",
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"plaintext": "The party led by John Augustus Sutter landed on the bank of the American River in August 1839. The group included three Europeans and a Native American boy, probably to serve as interpreter. Most of the colony's first members were Native Hawaiians. Sutter had entered a contract with the governor of Hawaii to hire eight men and two women for three years. Once the first camp was setup, Sutter arranged for local Miwok and Nisenan people to build the first building, a three-room adobe.",
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"plaintext": " Gwinn, Herbert D.. (1931). The history of Sutter's Fort, 1839–1931. University of the Pacific, Thesis. ",
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36,823 | 1,078,733,539 | BWT | [
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36,826 | 1,080,177,945 | Dekker's_algorithm | [
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"plaintext": "Dekker's algorithm is the first known correct solution to the mutual exclusion problem in concurrent programming where processes only communicate via shared memory. The solution is attributed to Dutch mathematician Th. J. Dekker by Edsger W. Dijkstra in an unpublished paper on sequential process descriptions and his manuscript on cooperating sequential processes. It allows two threads to share a single-use resource without conflict, using only shared memory for communication.",
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"plaintext": "It avoids the strict alternation of a naïve turn-taking algorithm, and was one of the first mutual exclusion algorithms to be invented.",
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"plaintext": "If two processes attempt to enter a critical section at the same time, the algorithm will allow only one process in, based on whose turn it is. If one process is already in the critical section, the other process will busy wait for the first process to exit. This is done by the use of two flags, and , which indicate an intention to enter the critical section on the part of processes 0 and 1, respectively, and a variable that indicates who has priority between the two processes.",
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"plaintext": "Processes indicate an intention to enter the critical section which is tested by the outer while loop. If the other process has not flagged intent, the critical section can be entered safely irrespective of the current turn. Mutual exclusion will still be guaranteed as neither process can become critical before setting their flag (implying at least one process will enter the while loop). This also guarantees progress as waiting will not occur on a process which has withdrawn intent to become critical. Alternatively, if the other process's variable was set the while loop is entered and the turn variable will establish who is permitted to become critical. Processes without priority will withdraw their intention to enter the critical section until they are given priority again (the inner while loop). Processes with priority will break from the while loop and enter their critical section.",
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"plaintext": "Dekker's algorithm guarantees mutual exclusion, freedom from deadlock, and freedom from starvation. Let us see why the last property holds. Suppose p0 is stuck inside the \"while wants_to_enter[1]\" loop forever. There is freedom from deadlock, so eventually p1 will proceed to its critical section and set turn = 0 (and the value of turn will remain unchanged as long as p0 doesn't progress). Eventually p0 will break out of the inner \"while turn ≠ 0\" loop (if it was ever stuck on it). After that it will set wants_to_enter[0] to true and settle down to waiting for wants_to_enter[1] to become false (since turn = 0, it will never do the actions in the while loop). The next time p1 tries to enter its critical section, it will be forced to execute the actions in its \"while wants_to_enter[0]\" loop. In particular, it will eventually set wants_to_enter[1] to false and get stuck in the \"while turn ≠ 1\" loop (since turn remains 0). The next time control passes to p0, it will exit the \"while wants_to_enter[1]\" loop and enter its critical section.",
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"plaintext": "If the algorithm were modified by performing the actions in the \"while wants_to_enter[1]\" loop without checking if turn = 0, then there is a possibility of starvation. Thus all the steps in the algorithm are necessary.",
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"plaintext": "One advantage of this algorithm is that it doesn't require special test-and-set (atomic read/modify/write) instructions and is therefore highly portable between languages and machine architectures. One disadvantage is that it is limited to two processes and makes use of busy waiting instead of process suspension. (The use of busy waiting suggests that processes should spend a minimum amount of time inside the critical section.)",
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"plaintext": "Modern operating systems provide mutual exclusion primitives that are more general and flexible than Dekker's algorithm. However, in the absence of actual contention between the two processes, the entry and exit from critical section is extremely efficient when Dekker's algorithm is used.",
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"plaintext": "Many modern CPUs execute their instructions in an out-of-order fashion; even memory accesses can be reordered (see memory ordering). This algorithm won't work on SMP machines equipped with these CPUs without the use of memory barriers.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, many optimizing compilers can perform transformations that will cause this algorithm to fail regardless of the platform. In many languages, it is legal for a compiler to detect that the flag variables wants_to_enter[0] and wants_to_enter[1] are never accessed in the loop. It can then remove the writes to those variables from the loop, using a process called loop-invariant code motion. It would also be possible for many compilers to detect that the turn variable is never modified by the inner loop, and perform a similar transformation, resulting in a potential infinite loop. If either of these transformations is performed, the algorithm will fail, regardless of architecture.",
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"plaintext": "To alleviate this problem, volatile variables should be marked as modifiable outside the scope of the currently executing context. For example, in C# or Java, one would annotate these variables as 'volatile'. Note however that the C/C++ \"volatile\" attribute only guarantees that the compiler generates code with the proper ordering; it does not include the necessary memory barriers to guarantee in-order execution of that code. C++11 atomic variables can be used to guarantee the appropriate ordering requirements — by default, operations on atomic variables are sequentially consistent so if the wants_to_enter and turn variables are atomic a naive implementation will \"just work\". Alternatively, ordering can be guaranteed by the explicit use of separate fences, with the load and store operations using a relaxed ordering.",
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36,827 | 1,107,641,581 | Mutual_exclusion | [
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"plaintext": "In computer science, mutual exclusion is a property of concurrency control, which is instituted for the purpose of preventing race conditions. It is the requirement that one thread of execution never enters a critical section while a concurrent thread of execution is already accessing said critical section, which refers to an interval of time during which a thread of execution accesses a shared resource or shared memory.",
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"plaintext": "The shared resource is a data object, which two or more concurrent threads are trying to modify (where two concurrent read operations are permitted but, no two concurrent write operations or one read and one write are permitted, since it leads to data inconsistency). Mutual exclusion algorithm ensures that if a process is already performing write operation on a data object [critical section] no other process/thread is allowed to access/modify the same object until the first process has finished writing upon the data object [critical section] and released the object for other processes to read and write upon.",
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"plaintext": "The requirement of mutual exclusion was first identified and solved by Edsger W. Dijkstra in his seminal 1965 paper \"Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control\", which is credited as the first topic in the study of concurrent algorithms.",
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"plaintext": "A simple example of why mutual exclusion is important in practice can be visualized using a singly linked list of four items, where the second and third are to be removed. The removal of a node that sits between 2 other nodes is performed by changing the next pointer of the previous node to point to the next node (in other words, if node is being removed, then the next pointer of node is changed to point to node , thereby removing from the linked list any reference to node ). When such a linked list is being shared between multiple threads of execution, two threads of execution may attempt to remove two different nodes simultaneously, one thread of execution changing the next pointer of node to point to node , while another thread of execution changes the next pointer of node to point to node . Although both removal operations complete successfully, the desired state of the linked list is not achieved: node remains in the list, because the next pointer of node points to node .",
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"plaintext": "The term mutual exclusion is also used in reference to the simultaneous writing of a memory address by one thread while the aforementioned memory address is being manipulated or read by one or more other threads.",
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"plaintext": "The problem which mutual exclusion addresses is a problem of resource sharing: how can a software system control multiple processes' access to a shared resource, when each process needs exclusive control of that resource while doing its work? The mutual-exclusion solution to this makes the shared resource available only while the process is in a specific code segment called the critical section. It controls access to the shared resource by controlling each mutual execution of that part of its program where the resource would be used.",
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"plaintext": "A successful solution to this problem must have at least these two properties:",
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"plaintext": " It must implement mutual exclusion: only one process can be in the critical section at a time.",
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"plaintext": " It must be free of deadlocks: if processes are trying to enter the critical section, one of them must eventually be able to do so successfully, provided no process stays in the critical section permanently.",
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"plaintext": " Lockout-freedom guarantees that any process wishing to enter the critical section will be able to do so eventually. This is distinct from deadlock avoidance, which requires that some waiting process be able to get access to the critical section, but does not require that every process gets a turn. If two processes continually trade a resource between them, a third process could be locked out and experience resource starvation, even though the system is not in deadlock. If a system is free of lockouts, it ensures that every process can get a turn at some point in the future.",
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"plaintext": " A k-bounded waiting property gives a more precise commitment than lockout-freedom. Lockout-freedom ensures every process can access the critical section eventually: it gives no guarantee about how long the wait will be. In practice, a process could be overtaken an arbitrary or unbounded number of times by other higher-priority processes before it gets its turn. Under a k-bounded waiting property, each process has a finite maximum wait time. This works by setting a limit to the number of times other processes can cut in line, so that no process can enter the critical section more than k times while another is waiting.",
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"plaintext": "Every process's program can be partitioned into four sections, resulting in four states. Program execution cycles through these four states in order:",
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"plaintext": "Non-Critical Section Operation is outside the critical section; the process is not using or requesting the shared resource.",
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"plaintext": "Trying The process attempts to enter the critical section.",
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"plaintext": "Critical Section The process is allowed to access the shared resource in this section.",
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"plaintext": "Exit The process leaves the critical section and makes the shared resource available to other processes.",
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"plaintext": "If a process wishes to enter the critical section, it must first execute the trying section and wait until it acquires access to the critical section. After the process has executed its critical section and is finished with the shared resources, it needs to execute the exit section to release them for other processes' use. The process then returns to its non-critical section.",
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"plaintext": "On uni-processor systems, the simplest solution to achieve mutual exclusion is to disable interrupts during a process's critical section. This will prevent any interrupt service routines from running (effectively preventing a process from being preempted). Although this solution is effective, it leads to many problems. If a critical section is long, then the system clock will drift every time a critical section is executed because the timer interrupt is no longer serviced, so tracking time is impossible during the critical section. Also, if a process halts during its critical section, control will never be returned to another process, effectively halting the entire system. A more elegant method for achieving mutual exclusion is the busy-wait.",
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"plaintext": "Busy-waiting is effective for both uniprocessor and multiprocessor systems. The use of shared memory and an atomic test-and-set instruction provide the mutual exclusion. A process can test-and-set on a location in shared memory, and since the operation is atomic, only one process can set the flag at a time. Any process that is unsuccessful in setting the flag can either go on to do other tasks and try again later, release the processor to another process and try again later, or continue to loop while checking the flag until it is successful in acquiring it. Preemption is still possible, so this method allows the system to continue to function—even if a process halts while holding the lock.",
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"plaintext": "Several other atomic operations can be used to provide mutual exclusion of data structures; most notable of these is compare-and-swap (CAS). CAS can be used to achieve wait-free mutual exclusion for any shared data structure by creating a linked list where each node represents the desired operation to be performed. CAS is then used to change the pointers in the linked list during the insertion of a new node. Only one process can be successful in its CAS; all other processes attempting to add a node at the same time will have to try again. Each process can then keep a local copy of the data structure, and upon traversing the linked list, can perform each operation from the list on its local copy.",
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"plaintext": " Taubenfeld's black-white bakery algorithm",
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"plaintext": " Maekawa's algorithm",
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"plaintext": "It is often preferable to use synchronization facilities provided by an operating system's multithreading library, which will take advantage of hardware solutions if possible but will use software solutions if no hardware solutions exist. For example, when the operating system's lock library is used and a thread tries to acquire an already acquired lock, the operating system could suspend the thread using a context switch and swap it out with another thread that is ready to be run, or could put that processor into a low power state if there is no other thread that can be run. Therefore, most modern mutual exclusion methods attempt to reduce latency and busy-waits by using queuing and context switches. However, if the time that is spent suspending a thread and then restoring it can be proven to be always more than the time that must be waited for a thread to become ready to run after being blocked in a particular situation, then spinlocks are an acceptable solution (for that situation only).",
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"plaintext": "One binary test&set register is sufficient to provide the deadlock-free solution to the mutual exclusion problem. But a solution built with a test&set register can possibly lead to the starvation of some processes which become caught in the trying section. In fact, distinct memory states are required to avoid lockout. To avoid unbounded waiting, n distinct memory states are required.",
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"plaintext": "Most algorithms for mutual exclusion are designed with the assumption that no failure occurs while a process is running inside the critical section. However, in reality such failures may be commonplace. For example, a sudden loss of power or faulty interconnect might cause a process in a critical section to experience an unrecoverable error or otherwise be unable to continue. If such a failure occurs, conventional, non-failure-tolerant mutual exclusion algorithms may deadlock or otherwise fail key liveness properties. To deal with this problem, several solutions using crash-recovery mechanisms have been proposed.",
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"section_name": "Recoverable mutual exclusion",
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"plaintext": "The solutions explained above can be used to build the synchronization primitives below:",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " Locks (mutexes)",
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"plaintext": " Readers–writer locks",
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"plaintext": " Recursive locks",
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"plaintext": " Semaphores",
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"plaintext": " Monitors",
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"plaintext": " Message passing",
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"plaintext": " Tuple space",
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"plaintext": "Many forms of mutual exclusion have side-effects. For example, classic semaphores permit deadlocks, in which one process gets a semaphore, another process gets a second semaphore, and then both wait till the other semaphore to be released. Other common side-effects include starvation, in which a process never gets sufficient resources to run to completion; priority inversion, in which a higher-priority thread waits for a lower-priority thread; and high latency, in which response to interrupts is not prompt.",
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{
"plaintext": "Much research is aimed at eliminating the above effects, often with the goal of guaranteeing non-blocking progress. No perfect scheme is known. Blocking system calls used to sleep an entire process. Until such calls became threadsafe, there was no proper mechanism for sleeping a single thread within a process (see polling).",
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"plaintext": " Atomicity (programming)",
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"plaintext": " Concurrency control",
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"plaintext": " Dining philosophers problem",
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285344
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"plaintext": " Exclusive or",
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"plaintext": " Mutually exclusive events",
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312648
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"plaintext": " Reentrant mutex",
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"plaintext": " Semaphore",
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"plaintext": " Spinlock",
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244603
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{
"plaintext": " Michel Raynal: Algorithms for Mutual Exclusion, MIT Press, ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " Sunil R. Das, Pradip K. Srimani: Distributed Mutual Exclusion Algorithms, IEEE Computer Society, ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Thomas W. Christopher, George K. Thiruvathukal: High-Performance Java Platform Computing, Prentice Hall, ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gadi Taubenfeld, Synchronization Algorithms and Concurrent Programming, Pearson/Prentice Hall, ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Common threads: POSIX threads explained – The little things called mutexes\" by Daniel Robbins",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
436709
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"plaintext": " Mutual Exclusion with Locks – an Introduction",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mutual exclusion variants in OpenMP",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Black-White Bakery Algorithm",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Concurrency_control"
]
| 1,047,554 | 5,481 | 121 | 66 | 0 | 0 | mutual exclusion | property of concurrency control, which is instituted for the purpose of preventing race conditions | [
"mutex"
]
|
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