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An Introduction to the New Testament | This book is gratefully dedicated to Joy and Jenny
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER ONE: THINKING ABOUT THE STUDY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
CHAPTER TWO: THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
CHAPTER THREE: MATTHEW
CHAPTER FOUR: MARK
CHAPTER FIVE: LUKE
CHAPTER SIX: JOHN
CHAPTER SEVEN: ACTS
CHAPTER EIGHT: NEW TESTAMENT LETTERS
CHAPTER NINE: PAUL: APOSTLE AND THEOLOGIAN
CHAPTER TEN: ROMANS
CHAPTER ELEVEN: 1 AND 2 CORINTHIANS
CHAPTER TWELVE: GALATIANS
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: EPHESIANS
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: PHILIPPIANS
CHAPTER FIFTEEN: COLOSSIANS
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: 1 AND 2 THESSALONIANS
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: THE PASTORAL EPISTLES
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: PHILEMON
CHAPTER NINETEEN: HEBREWS
CHAPTER TWENTY: JAMES
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: 1 PETER
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: 2 PETER
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE: 1, 2, 3 JOHN
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR: JUDE
CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE: REVELATION
CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX: THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON
SCRIPTURE INDEX
NAME INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
ABOUT THE PUBLISHER
PREFACE | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | SUBJECT INDEX
ABOUT THE PUBLISHER
PREFACE
The primary focus of this book is “special introduction”—that is, it treats historical questions dealing with authorship, date, sources, purpose, destination, and the like. Many recent books devote more space than we do to literary form, rhetorical criticism, and historical parallels. We do not minimize the importance of such topics, and we have introduced them where they directly bear on the subject at hand. However, in our experience, they are better given extended treatment in courses on exegesis, especially the exegesis of particular books. Moreover, we fear that too much focus on these topics at the expense of traditional questions of introduction tends to divorce the New Testament books from their historical settings and students from some important debates in the first centuries of the Christian church. This also means that we have often referred to primary sources. In debates over such questions as what Papias means by “John the elder,” we have tended to cite the passage and work through it, so that students may see for themselves what the turning points in the debate are (or should be!).
Although the emphasis of this book is on “special introduction,” we have included a brief outline or résumé of each New Testament document, sometimes providing a rationale for the choices we have made. In each case we have provided a brief account of current studies on the book and have indicated something of the theological contribution that each New Testament document makes to the canon. Our ultimate concern is that new generations of theological students will gain a better grasp of the Word of God. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | We have tried to write with the first-and second-year student of seminaries and theological colleges in mind. Doubtless in most instances the material will be supplemented by lectures. Some teachers will want to use the material in some order other than that presented here (e.g., by assigning chapters on Matthew, Mark, and Luke before assigning the chapter on the Synoptic Gospels). Bibliographies are primarily in English, but a small number of works in German, French, and other modern languages appear. These bibliographies are meant to be brief enough not to be daunting, and comprehensive enough not to be reductionistic. Lecturers may provide guidance as to what in these lists is especially useful in particular contexts.
Not least important, we have restricted the length of this New Testament introduction so that it can be used as a textbook. One or two well-known introductions are so long that only relatively short parts of them are assigned to students. This means that it is possible to graduate from a seminary without ever having read a single New Testament introduction right through. Although the brevity of this volume precludes detailed discussion of many topics we would have liked to pursue, we hope the constraints we have chosen will enhance its value for classroom use.
Confessionally, the two authors are evangelicals. Doubtless that heritage biases our readings somewhat, but (we hope) no more than other New Testament scholars are influenced by their heritage. If we have tried to eschew obscurantism, we have nevertheless sometimes raised possibilities and questions that are too quickly turned aside in some introductions. We have tried to engage a representative sampling of the vast amount of current literature, sometimes following traditional paths and at other times suggesting a fresh way of looking at an issue. Where the evidence seems entirely inconclusive to us, we have left questions open. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Some readers will want to know how this book relates to the earlier one (1992) with the same title but written by three of us—Carson, Moo, and Leon Morris. In many ways this is an update of that earlier volume. Nevertheless, several important changes have been introduced: (1) Because advancing years have meant that Leon Morris was unable to contribute to this volume, we decided, with his concurrence, that it would be simpler if the two of us divided his chapters between us. As a result, each of us has written about half of this volume. We have updated and revised our own work and have largely revised or rewritten the chapters we inherited from Leon Morris. (2) The chapter on Paul has been expanded to include a brief analysis of the current debates on the “new perspective.” (3) A preliminary chapter has been added to provide a brief history to explain how Christians have moved from the reading of the first hand-written documents that make up the New Testament to contemporary study of the New Testament. That kind of survey is rather daunting, but our aim has been to help the student locate current trends within a stream of historical discussion and debate. (4) The section on “pseudonymity” in the chapter on the Pastoral Epistles has been removed from that chapter and significantly expanded. It has been added to an expanded section on Paul’s letters to constitute a new chapter, “New Testament Letters.” (5) We have included in each chapter a more substantial summary of the content of the biblical books and brief interaction, where relevant, with some of the more recent literary and social-science approaches to New Testament interpretation.
These changes have added length to this volume, but we hope that the work has retained enough compactness that it will still be useful—indeed, more useful—to new generations of students. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Each of us has offered suggestions and critiques of the work of the other. We have also tried to reduce stylistic and other differences to a minimum. Although in a few instances, references in the text betray the identity of the author, the work has been very much a team effort. Readers who love to compare editions will discover where, in a few instances, we have changed our minds on some matters.
We are profoundly grateful to Jonathan Davis and Michael Thate for compiling the indexes.
Soli Deo gloria.
D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo
ABBREVIATIONS
AB Anchor Bible
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary
Achtemeier/Green/Thompson
Paul J. Achtemeier, Joel B. Green, and Marianne Meye
Thompson, Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature
and Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001)
AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums
AGSU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Spätjudentums und Urchristentums
AJT American Journal of Theology
ALGHJ Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen Judentums
AnBib Analecta Biblica
ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt
Ant Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews
ANTC Abingdon New Testament Commentaries
ASNU Acta Seminarii Neotestamentici Upsaliensis
ATR Anglican Theological Review
AusBibRev Australian Biblical Review
AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies
BAGD Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979)
Barker/Lane/Michaels
Glenn W. Barker, William L. Lane, and J. Ramsey Michaels, The New Testament Speaks (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1969)
BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research
BCBC Believers Church Bible Commentary | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | BCBC Believers Church Bible Commentary
BDAG Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000)
BECNT Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament
BETL Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium
BFCT Beiträge zur Förderung christlicher Theologie
BGBE Beiträge zur Geschichte der biblischen Exegese
BI Biblical Interpretation
Bib Biblica
BIP Biblical Institute Press
BIS Biblical Interpretation Series
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BL Bampton Lectures
BNTC Black’s New Testament Commentaries (= HNTC)
Bornkamm Günther Bornkamm, The New Testament: A Guide to Its Writings (London: SPCK, 1974)
Brown Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997)
BR Biblical Research
BS Bibliotheca Sacra
BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin
BU Biblische Untersuchungen
BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament
BZ Biblische Zeitschrift
BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
c. circa
CAH Cambridge Ancient History
CBET Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series
CEB Commentaire Évangélique de la Bible
CGSTJ China Graduate School of Theology Journal
CGTC Cambridge Greek Testament Commentary
Childs Brevard S. Childs, The New Testament as Canon: An Introduction (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984)
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
CJT Canadian Journal of Theology
Clogg Frank Bertram Clogg, An Introduction to the New Testament (London: University Press and Hodder & Stoughton, 1940)
CNT Commentaire du Nouveau Testament
ConBNT Coniectanea neotestamentica or Coniectanea biblica: New Testament Series
Contra Ap. Josephus, Contra Apion (Against Apion)
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | d. died
Davies W. D. Davies, Invitation to the New Testament (London: DLT, 1957)
De Vita Contemp. Philo, De Vita Contemplativa (The Contemplative Life)
DBI A Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation
Dibelius Martin Dibelius, A Fresh Approach to the New Testament and Early Christian Literature (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1936)
DJG Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels
DLNT Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments
DLT Darton, Longman and Todd
DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters
EBC The Expositor’s Bible Commentary
EBib Etudes bibliques
ECC Eerdmans Critical Commentary
EFN Estudios de Filología Neotestamentaria
EGGNT Exegetical Guide to the Greek New Testament
EGT The Expositor’s Greek Testament
Ehrman Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004)
EKKNT Evangelisch-katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament
Ellis E. Earle Ellis, History and Interpretation in New Testament Perspective, BIS 54 (Leiden: Brill, 2001)
Enslin Morton Scott Enslin, Christian Beginnings (New York: Harper, 1936)
EphThLov Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses
EQ Evangelical Quarterly
ERT Evangelical Review of Theology
EstBib Estudios bíblicos
ET English translation
EuroJTh European Journal of Theology
Exp The Expositor
ExpTim Expository Times
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
Fs. Festschrift
GBS Guides to Biblical Scholarship
GNC Good News Commentaries
Goodspeed Edgar J. Goodspeed, An Introduction to the New Testament (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1937)
GP Gospel Perspectives: Studies of History and Tradition in the Four Gospels, 6 vols., ed. R. T. France, David Wenham, and Craig Blomberg (Sheffield: JSOT, 1980–86)
Grant Robert M. Grant, A Historical Introduction to the New Testament (London: Collins, 1963) | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Guthrie Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th ed. (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP, 1990)
Harrison Everett F. Harrison, Introduction to the New Testament, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971)
Hennecke E. Hennecke, ed., New Testament Apocrypha, 2 vols. (ET London: Lutterworth, 1963–65)
Hermeneia Hermeneia—A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible
HNT Handbuch zum Neuen Testament
HNTC Harper’s New Testament Commentaries (= BNTC)
HTKNT Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament
HTR Harvard Theological Review
HTS Harvard Theological Studies
Hunter A. M. Hunter, Introducing the New Testament (London: SCM, 1945)
HUT Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur Theologie
IB Interpreter’s Bible
IBS Irish Biblical Studies
IBT Interpreting Biblical Texts
ICC International Critical Commentary
ICE Institute for Christian Economics
IDB Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible
IDBSup Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible Supplement
Int Interpretation
ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
ISCAST Bulletin Bulletin of the Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Technology
IVP InterVarsity Press
IVPNTC IVP New Testament Commentary
JASA Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation
JB Jerusalem Bible
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JBR Journal of Bible and Religion
JCE Journal of Christian Education
JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
Johnson Luke T. Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament, rev. ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999)
JPTSS Journal of Pentecostal Theology Supplement Series
JSHJ Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus
JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament
JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JTC Journal for Theology and the Church
JTS Journal of Theological Studies | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | JTS Journal of Theological Studies
Jülicher Adolf Jülicher, An Introduction to the New Testament (London: Smith, Elder, 1904)
KBW Katholisches Bibelwerk
KEK Meyers Kritish-exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament
KJV King James Version
Klijn A. F. J. Klijn, An Introduction to the New Testament (Leiden: Brill, 1967)
Kümmel Werner Georg Kümmel, Introduction to the New Testament, rev. ed. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1975)
Lake Kirsopp Lake and Silva Lake, An Introduction to the New Testament (London: Christophus, 1938)
LCL Loeb Classical Library
LEC Library of Early Christianity
LLC Literary and Linguistic Computing
LouvStud Louvain Studies
LSJ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, and Henry Stuart Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940)
LW Luther’s Works
LXX Septuagint
McDonald/Porter
Lee Martin McDonald and Stanley E. Porter, Early Christianity and its Sacred Literature (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2000).
McNeile A. H. McNeile, An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament, 2nd ed., revised by C. S. C. Williams (Oxford: Clarendon, 1953)
Martin Ralph P. Martin, New Testament Foundations: A Guide for Christian Students, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975–78)
Marxsen Willi Marxsen, Introduction to the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968)
Metzger Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (London: UBS, 1971)
MNTC Moffatt New Testament Commentary
Moffatt James Moffatt, An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament, rev. ed. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1918)
Moule C. F. D. Moule, The Birth of the New Testament, 3rd ed. (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1981)
MS(S) manuscript(s)
NA26 Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament, 26th ed.
NA27 Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament, 27th ed.
NABPRDS The National Association of Baptist Professors of Religion Dissertation Series
NAC New American Commentary
NAG Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, philologisch-historische Klasse | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | NCB New Century Bible
NCBC New Cambridge Bible Commentaries
NClarB New Clarendon Bible
NEB New English Bible
Neot Neotestamentica
NewDocs New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity
NIBC New International Bible Commentary
NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament
NIGTC New International Greek Testament Commentary
NIV New International Version
NIVAC New International Version Application Commentary
NovT Novum Tstamentum
NovTSup Supplements to Novum Testamentum
NPNF2 The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, 2nd ser., 14 vols. (reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975)
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
NRT La Nouvelle Revue Théologique
NSBT New Studies in Biblical Theology
NTAbh Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen
NTC New Testament Commentary
NTD Das Neue Testament Deutsch
NTG New Testament Guides
NTL The New Testament Library
NTS New Testament Studies
NTT New Testament Theology (series from Cambridge University Press)
ÖstK Östkirchliche Studien
Penguin Penguin New Testament Commentaries
Perrin/Duling Norman Perrin and Dennis C. Duling, The New Testament: An Introduction, 2nd ed.; ed. Robert Ferm (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982)
PL Patrologia Latina (Migne)
PNTC Pillar New Testament Commentaries
Readings Readings: A New Biblical Commentary
RevBib Revue biblique
RevQ Revue de Qumran
RHPR Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses
RNT Regensburger Neues Testament
Robert/Feuillet A. Robert and A. Feuillet, eds., Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Desclée, 1965)
RSV Revised Standard Version
RTR Reformed Theological Review
RVV Religionsversuche und Vorarbeiten
SacPag Sacra Pagina
SBET Scottish Bulletin of Evangelical Theology
SBG Studies in Biblical Greek
SBL Society of Biblical Literature
SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series
SBS Stuttgarter Bibelstudien
SBT Studies in Biblical Theology | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | SBT Studies in Biblical Theology
Schürer E. Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, 3 vols., new ed. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1973–87)
SD Studies and Documents
SE Studia Evangelica
SIL Summer Institute of Linguistics
SJLA Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity
SJT Scottish Journal of Theology
SN Studia Neotestamentica
SNT Studien zum Neuen Testament
SNTSMS Society of New Testament Studies Monograph Series
SNTU Studien zum Neuen Testament und seiner Umwelt
SNTW Studies of the New Testament and Its World
SP Scholars Press
SPB Studia Postbiblica
SR Studies in Religion = Sciences religieuses
ST Studia Theologica
SUNT Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments
SWJT Southwest Journal of Theology
TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
Theol Theology
THNT Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament
ThR Theologische Rundschau
TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung
TNIV Today’s New International Version
TNTC Tyndale New Testament Commentary
TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
TrinJ Trinity Journal
TSAJ Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum
TSK Theologische Studien und Kritiken
TU Texte und Untersuchungen
TynB Tyndale Bulletin
UBS United Bible Societies
UBSMS United Bible Societies Monograph Series
UPA University Press of America
van Unnik W. C. van Unnik, The New Testament (London: Collins, 1964)
Wars Josephus, History of the Jewish War
WBC Word Biblical Commentary
WC Westminster Commentaries
WdF Wege der Forschung
WEC Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary
Weiss Bernhard Weiss, A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament, 2 vols. (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, n.d.)
WH B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek (London: Macmillan, 1881)
Wikenhauser Alfred Wikenhauser and Josef Schmid, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 6th ed. (Freiburg: Herder, 1973)
WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament
WTJ Westminster Theological Journal | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | WTJ Westminster Theological Journal
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
Zahn Theodore B. Zahn, Introduction to the New Testament, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1909)
ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZTK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche
ABBREVIATIONS AND TRANSLATIONS
OF WORKS OF THE CHURCH FATHERS
Chrysostom
Hom. in Matt. Homilies in St. Matthew
Clement of Alexandria
Quis div. Quis dives salvetur (Who Is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?)
Strom. Stromateis (Miscellanies)
Epiphanius
Haer. Panarion Haereses (Medicine Box of Heresies)
Eusebius
H.E. Historia Ecclesiastica(History of the Church)
Ignatius of Antioch
Eph. Pros Ephesious (Letter to Ephesus)
Magn. Magnesieusin (Letter to Magnesia)
Phil. Philadelpheusin (Letter to Philadelphia)
Rom. Pros Romaious (Letter to Rome)
Smyr. Smyrnaiois (Letter to Smyrna)
Trall. Trallianois (Letter to Tralles)
Irenaeus
Adv. Haer. Adversus Haereses (Against Heresies)
Jerome
De vir. ill. De viris illustribus (On Illustrious Men)
Justin Martyr
Apol. Apologia
Dial. Dialogue with Trypho
Origen
Comm. on Matt. Commentary on Matthew
Comm. on John Commentary on John
Papias
Logion Kyriakon Exegesis (Greek)
Exegesis of the Dominical Logia (Latin)
(Exposition of the Oracle of the Lord)
Polycarp
Phil. Epistle to the Philippians
Tertullian
Adv. Marc. Adversus Marcion (Against Marcion)
Victorinus
Apoc. Commentary on the Apocalypse
CHAPTER ONE
THINKING ABOUT THE STUDY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | THINKING ABOUT THE STUDY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
People have been reading and studying the New Testament for as long as its documents have been in existence. Even before all twenty-seven canonical New Testament books were written, some found the interpretation of the available documents more than a little challenging (see the comment of 2 Pet. 3:15–16 regarding Paul). A distance of two millennia, not to mention changes of language, culture, and history, have not made the task any easier. The torrential outpouring of commentaries, studies, and essays across the centuries, all designed to explain—or in some cases, explain away—the New Testament documents, makes the task both easier and harder. It is easier because there are many good and stimulating guides; it is harder because the sheer volume of the material, not to mention its thoroughly mixed nature and, frequently, its mutually contradictory content, is profoundly daunting to the student just beginning New Testament study.
This chapter provides little more than a surface history of a selection of the people, movements, issues, and approaches that have shaped the study of the New Testament. The student setting out to come to terms with contemporary study of the New Testament must suddenly confront a bewildering array of new disciplines (e.g., text criticism, historical criticism, hermeneutics), the terminology of new tools (e.g., form criticism, redaction criticism, discourse analysis, postmodern readings), and key figures (e.g., F. C. Baur, J. B. Lightfoot, E. P. Sanders). Students with imagination will instantly grasp that they do not pick up New Testament scrolls as they were dropped from an apostolic hand; they pick up a bound sheaf of documents, printed, and probably in translation. Moreover, the text itself is something that believers and unbelievers alike have been studying and explaining for two millennia. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The aim here, then, is to provide enough of a framework to make the rest of this textbook, and a lot of other books on the New Testament, a little easier to understand.
PASSING ON THE TEXT
At the beginning of his gospel, Luke comments that “many others” had already undertaken to write accounts of Jesus (Luke 1:1–4). Although some scholars have argued that there was a long period of oral tradition before anything substantial about Jesus or the early church was written down, the evidence is against such a stance: the world into which Jesus was born was highly literate.1 From such a perspective, the existence of the documents that make up the New Testament canon is scarcely surprising.
These documents were originally hand-written on separate scrolls. There is very good evidence that the writing was in capital letters, without spaces, and with very little punctuation. Printing was still almost a millennium and a half away, so additional copies were made by hand. In theory, this could be done by professional copiers: in a scriptorium, one man would read at dictation speed, several scribes would take down his dictation, and another would check each copy against the original, often using ink of a different color to make the corrections. This kind of professional multiplying of copies was labor-intensive and therefore expensive. Most early Christian copies of the New Testament were doubtless done by laypeople eager to obtain another letter by Paul or a written account of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus. That brought the price down: Christians were investing their own time to make their own copies, and they were not having to pay large sums to professional scribes. On the other hand, the private copy made by an eager and well-meaning layperson was likely to include more transcriptional errors than copies made and checked in a scriptorium. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | How the New Testament canon came together is briefly discussed in the final chapter of this book. For the moment it is sufficient to observe that as the numbers of copies of New Testament documents multiplied, three formal changes were soon introduced. First, the scroll gave way to the codex, that is, to a book bound more or less like a modern book, which enabled readers to look up passages very quickly without having to roll down many feet of scroll. Second, increasingly (though certainly not exclusively) the capital letters (scholars call them “uncials”) gave way to cursive scripts that were messier but much more quickly written. And third, because the early church, even within the Roman Empire, was made up of highly diverse groups, it was not long before the New Testament, and in fact the whole Bible, was translated into other languages. These “versions” of the Bible (as translations are called) varied widely in quality.2 There were no copyright laws and no central publishing houses, so there were soon numerous Latin versions, Syriac versions, and so forth, as individuals or local churches produced what seemed necessary for their own congregations. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Today the printing press churns out thousands of identical copies. When each copy is written by hand, however, if the work is of substantial length, each copy will be a little different than all others because the accidental mistakes introduced by successive copying will not all congregate in the same place. The challenge of producing a copy that is perfectly true to the original soon multiplies. A slightly later Christian, making a copy of a copy, spots what he judges to be mistakes in the manuscript before him and corrects them in his fresh copy. Unfortunately, however, it is possible that some things he thought were mistakes were actually in the original. For instance, it is well known that there are many grammatical anomalies in the book of Revelation. The reason for this is disputed; there are three major theories and several minor ones. But a later copyist might well have thought that errors had been introduced by intervening copyists and “corrected” them to “proper” grammar—thereby introducing new errors. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Two further “accidents” of history and geography have helped to determine just what material has come down to us. First, just as the Roman Empire divided between East and West (stemming from the decision of Emperor Constantine to establish an eastern capital in what came to be called Constantinople), so also did the church. In the West, because it was not only the official language of Rome but also tended in time to squeeze out Greek as the lingua franca, Latin soon predominated in the church. Initially, there were many Latin versions, but toward the end of the fourth century, Damasus, Bishop of Rome, commissioned Jerome to prepare an official Latin version that would be widely distributed and sometimes imposed throughout the churches of the West. This Latin version, revised several times, became the Vulgate, which held sway in the West for a millennium. By contrast, Greek dominated in the East, in what eventually became the Byzantine Empire. Inevitably, Greek manuscripts were used and copied much more often under this linguistic heritage than in the West, until Constantinople fell to the Muslim Turks in 1453. Many Eastern scholars then fled West, bringing their Greek manuscripts with them—a development that helped to fuel both the Reformation and the Renaissance. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Second, the material on which ancient books were written (i.e., their equivalent of paper) decomposed more readily in some climates than in others. The most expensive books were made of parchment, treated animal skin. Higher quality parchment was called vellum. More commonly, books were made of papyrus, a plant that grew plentifully in the Nile Delta. Papyrus has the constituency of celery or rhubarb. Long strips could be peeled off, pounded, and glued together to make sheets. Although parchment is tougher than papyrus, both materials are organic and thus readily decompose, especially when there is moisture in the atmosphere. So it is not surprising that the best caches of really ancient manuscripts come from the hot, dry sands of Egypt.
There are about five thousand manuscripts or parts of manuscripts (some of them mere fragments) of all or part of the Greek New Testament. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | So just what textual evidence has come down to us? There are about five thousand manuscripts or parts of manuscripts (some of them mere fragments) of all or part of the Greek New Testament, and about eight thousand manuscripts or parts of manuscripts of versions. All of this evidence can be classified in various ways. For example, one can break it down according to writing material (parchment or papyrus). More importantly, uncial manuscripts of the Greek New Testament (i.e., those written in capital letters) number under three hundred, whereas there are almost three thousand miniscules (manuscripts not written in capitals). In addition, there are over two thousand lectionarries—church reading books that contain selections of the biblical text to be read on many days of the ecclesiastical year. Other sources include quotations of the Bible found in the early church fathers, and short portions of New Testament writings on ostraca (pieces of pottery often used by poor people as writing material) and amulets,3 ranging from the fourth to the thirteenth century. Similar breakdowns can be put forward for all the versional evidence. Although most of this material springs from the thousand-year period between A.D. 500 and 1500, the earliest fragments come from the first half of the second century. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | It is useful to observe that of all the works that have come down to us from the ancient world, the New Testament is the most amply attested in textual evidence. For example, for the first six books of the Annals, written by the famous Roman historian Tacitus, there is but a single manuscript, dating from the ninth century. The extant works of Euripides, the best-attested of the Greek tragedians, are preserved in 54 papyri and 276 parchment manuscripts, almost all of the latter deriving from the Byzantine period. The history of Rome by Velleius Paterculus came down to us in one incomplete manuscript, which was lost in the seventeenth century after a copy had been made. By comparison, the wealth and range of material supporting the Greek New Testament is staggering.
The printing press made the hand-copying of manuscripts forever obsolete. The first printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared on 10 January 1514. It was volume 5 of a polyglot Bible commissioned by the cardinal primate of Spain, Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros (1437–1517). Printed in the town of Alcalá, called Complutum in Latin, the work came to be known as the Complutensian Polyglot Bible. Volume 5 also contained the first printed Greek glossary, the progenitor of countless lexicons that have been published since then.4 But although the Complutensian Bible contained the first Greek New Testament ever printed, it was not the first one to be published (i.e., both printed and put on the market). That honor belongs to the edition prepared by Desiderius Erasmus (1469–1536), a Dutch scholar from Rotterdam. Erasmus managed to complete the edition and have it out by 1516. The volume contains hundreds of typographical errors and was based primarily on two inferior twelfth-century manuscripts kept in a monastery in Basle. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Erasmus continued to prepare fresh editions that corrected many of the earlier typos, editions that were based on a few more Greek manuscripts. The best of these was a tenth-century miniscule. It was better than his other manuscripts, being a copy of an early uncial, but because it was rather different from the other manuscripts he had at hand, Erasmus did not rely on it very much. His definitive fourth edition (1527) was prepared after Erasmus had consulted the Complutensian. It boasts three columns: the Greek, the Vulgate, and Erasmus’s own Latin translation. His fifth edition (1535) abandoned the Vulgate, but so far as the Greek text is concerned, it was largely indistinguishable from his fourth edition.
All the early editions of the Greek New Testament were copies or adaptations of the work of Erasmus. Robert Estienne (whose last name often appears in the Latinized form, Stephanus) published four such editions of the Greek New Testament, three in Paris (1546, 1549, and 1550) and the last one in Geneva (1551), where as a Protestant he spent his last years. His first two editions were a mix of the Erasmian and Complutensian editions; his third (1550) was much more like the fourth and fifth editions of Erasmus and included, for the first time, a critical apparatus, variant readings, printed on inner margins, of the fourteen Greek manuscripts that were his base, plus readings from the Complutensian Polyglot.5 This third edition was destined to exercise an astonishing influence. In 1553 it was reprinted by Jean Crispin in Geneva, who introduced only a half-dozen changes to the Greek text. Théodore de Bèze (Beza), successor to Calvin in Geneva, published nine editions of the Greek New Testament. These editions contain some new textual evidence collated by Beza himself, but they are very similar to the third and fourth editions of Stephanus. The King James translators (1611) depended heavily on Beza’s editions of 1588–89 and 1598. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Then, in 1624, the brothers Bonaventure and Abraham Elzevir published in Leiden a compact edition of the Greek New Testament largely taken from Beza’s 1565 edition. The Elzevir brothers’ second edition, dated 1633, boasts (in what would today be called an advertising blurb) that the reader now has “the text which is now received by all, in which we give nothing changed or corrupted”: the words we have italicized reflect the Latin textus receptus, referring to a commonly received text, and thus a standard text. This is the “received text” which, more or less, stands behind all English translations of the Bible until 1881. This textual tradition is grounded in what was at the time a mere handful of mostly late miniscule manuscripts.
The following centuries uncovered the vast amount of textual evidence already briefly summarized. The work of the textual critic is to sift this evidence and look for patterns in the attempt to uncover what reading is closest to the original, which of course we do not have.6 Textual critics have organized this vast manuscript evidence into text types: patterns of readings thought to reflect the textual tradition of a particular locale. Inevitably, if a manuscript was transported to another locale and a further copy was made using both this transported manuscript and manuscripts from the local region, it was possible to generate a copy with “mixed types.” A small group of manuscripts with even stronger affinities, usually some evidence of direct borrowing, is sometimes called a family. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | As a discipline, textual criticism begins with the work of Richard Simon, a French priest studying and writing at the end of the seventeenth century. Then, in 1707, John Mill, an Anglican theologian, produced, two weeks before his death, a beautiful edition of the Greek Testament, the product of decades of work (the latter part of which was enriched by the writing of Richard Simon). It reproduced the “received text” unaltered, but the apparatus, which took up more space on each page than the text itself, included not only parallel passages but the readings of all available manuscripts, versions, and printed editions. This edition also included succinct summaries of all the known data regarding the origin and textual descent of each book of the New Testament canon, plus descriptions of all New Testament manuscripts then known to be extant, plus comments on all translations.
In some ways, however, the crucial figure at the head of textual criticism is Johann Albrecht Bengel, a Swabian pietist. His edition of the Greek New Testament, published in 1734, offered not only a text that differs in countless passages from the “received text” (though most of the changes were unimportant), but also a substantial “critical apparatus.” Here Bengel presented the most important of the textual variants in five groups, depending on their importance (a practice not unlike that followed in some editions of the Greek Testament today). His evaluation of what was most likely original corresponds to a high degree with similar judgments made today. Bengel formulated rules or principles on which he based his decisions, and in large measure these have stood the test of time. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | For example, Bengel recognized that the number of manuscripts with a particular reading was a matter of little importance. After all, the many manuscripts might be largely late, or belong exclusively to one textual tradition. It is important to weigh when manuscripts were written, and how many text types support a reading (usually representing textual traditions in different parts of the world). Bengel understood that the most important question a text-critic can ask is this: Which reading is most likely to have generated all the others? Moreover, because on the whole scribes tended to eliminate perceived difficulties, Bengel formulated the rule, “The more difficult reading is to be preferred over the easier” (Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua).
Of course, none of these rules is absolute. For a start, one must try to distinguish between unintentional errors that copyists made, and intentional changes. Intentional changes were often motivated by the desire to “improve” the text, under the assumption that some earlier scribe had made a mistake. Under such an assumption, Bengel’s rule works very well: the more difficult reading is likely to be more original. But where there is an unintentional error—for instance, where a scribe became sloppy and accidentally inserted three words from a previous line and then carried on—then clearly the same rule does not work. The “more difficult reading” is the one with the unaccountable insertion, but even though it is more difficult, it is certainly not more original. The complexity of the text-critical task can be met only by scholars who spend an extraordinary amount of time in the manuscripts themselves, becoming deeply familiar with the writing, scribal corrections, and tendencies of individual manuscripts. The discipline is never merely mechanical. It calls for both vast knowledge and sound judgment.7 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Intrinsic to these arguments, and progressively worked out during the next century, are two pairs of distinctions. First, one must distinguish between external evidence (i.e., what readings are supported by what manuscripts) and internal evidence (i.e., what arguments from the text itself can be advanced in defense of this or that reading). Second, with respect to the internal evidence, textual critics came to distinguish between intrinsic probability (i.e., what the author is likely to have written, as judged by his observed proclivities) and transcriptional probability (i.e., what copyists were likely to have put down, whether in an intentional or an unintentional change).
This brief account of the rise of textual criticism does not begin to do justice to the countless scholars who toiled diligently on specific texts, still less to a handful of luminaries—for example, Brian Walton (1600–61), Richard Bentley (1662–1742), Johann Jakob Wettstein (1693–1754), Edward Harwood (1729–94), Johann Jakob Griesbach (1745–1812), Lobegott Friedrich Constantin von Tischendorf (1815–74), and the combined work of Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901) and Fenton John Anthony Hort (1828–92). Today the most important center for textual criticism of the New Testament, both for the comprehensiveness of its holdings and for the astonishingly high percentage of texts now digitized, is the Institut für Textforschung in Münster. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The overwhelming majority of contemporary textual critics adopt a position labeled eclecticism. That simply means that they choose (the Greek for the verb “to choose” is eklegomai) the reading on the basis of what they perceive to be the best fit once all the evidence, internal and external, is carefully evaluated. But there are two minority groups. One continues to support the “received text,” if not in the form published by the Elzevir brothers, then at least the “majority text,” that is, readings that are supported by the greatest number of manuscripts.8 The other minority group promotes thoroughgoing eclecticism. Its members discount the external evidence (i.e., they do not think that any consideration should be given to arguments regarding which manuscripts or groups of manuscripts support any reading); all of their focus is on the internal evidence.9 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Whatever the ongoing scholarly disputes, serious Christian readers today are equipped with astonishingly accurate and detailed information in their printed Greek New Testaments. The overwhelming majority of the text of the Greek New Testament is firmly established. Where uncertainties remain, it is important to recognize that in no case is any doctrinal matter at issue. Of course, textual variants may raise the question as to whether a particular doctrinal stance or historical datum is or is not supported in this or that passage, but inevitably one can appeal to parallel passages where the text is secure to address the larger doctrinal or historical issues. In terms of the availability and range of textual evidence, owing to the large number of manuscript discoveries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, we are incomparably better off than Christians have been for almost nineteen hundred years.10 Perhaps too, it is worth speculating that, in God’s providence, we are better off without the originals, for we would almost certainly have treated them with idolatrous reverence focused more on the mere artifact than on what the manuscript actually said.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | LONGSTANDING INTERPRETIVE TRADITIONS
A perennial danger among contemporary students of the New Testament is to overlook the two-thousand-year history of debate and interpretation generated by these twenty-seven books. The pressure to be up-to-date with the voluminous contemporary literature, combined with the penchant endemic to twenty-first-century Western culture to revere the innovative, even the faddish, and be suspicious of the traditional, conspires to blind us to our connections with twenty centuries of Christian readers. Moreover, both conservative and liberal scholars are inclined, for different reasons, to focus on the most recent centuries. On the conservative side, many (not least evangelicals) are sometimes tempted to think that serious theological reflection began with the Reformation and that, provided one does careful exegesis, there is not much to be learned from historical theology anyway. On the liberal side, many treat the period before the Enlightenment as a swamp of superstitious and unscientific interpretation now safely abandoned by our much greater learning.11
Obviously, one short section of one chapter of a book cannot pretend to do justice to this long tradition. What follows is not a comprehensive catalog of interpretive developments across a millennium and a half, but a highly selective summary of a handful of important people and movements that proved influential in the interpretation of the New Testament and some small indication of the impact of the New Testament documents in history. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 1. One of the most important developments was the collection of the New Testament documents into groups (Did the Pauline writings, or some of them, ever circulate together? Cf. 2 Pet. 3:15–16) and into the canon of the New Testament itself. Some of the steps in that process are sketched in the last chapter of this book and need not be probed here. But it is worth mentioning that debates during the first centuries of the church as to what should be included in the canon dealt with issues that are still addressed in any competent contemporary introduction to the New Testament. For instance, the church fathers refused to admit to the canon any book they judged pseudonymous (i.e., ostensibly written by someone such as Paul, when in fact it was not), and that refusal embroiled them in issues of authorship. In short, not only interpretive issues but also technical matters of “introduction” occupied the interest of the church from the beginning.
2. From its inception, Christianity inevitably defined itself, at least in part, against the background of the various forms of Judaism prevalent in the first century. Just as the worldwide movement we refer to today as “Christianity” has a wide diversity of forms and commitments, many of which would be considered only marginally Christian by some others in the movement, so also first-century Judaism was highly diverse, and some of its forms were zealously condemned by other branches as apostate. Full discussion of the relations between the early Christians and Judaism is therefore necessarily complex. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Most of the first Christians, of course, were themselves Jews. As rising numbers of Gentiles were added to the church, and as the earliest Christians reflected on what God had accomplished by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, various tensions inevitably developed among those who grappled with such issues (see Acts 15 and Gal. 2:11–14). The New Testament documents chronicle some of the early developments, as Christians came to recognize that if Jesus is the exclusively sufficient ground of salvation, then certain features intrinsic to Judaism, such as circumcision, or features widely observed in Judaism, such as kosher food restrictions, could not be mandated of all believers. Moreover, if Jesus’ sacrifice dealt with our sin, then the role of the temple sacrifices could not go unchallenged. Christians were thus driven to think through their own relationship with the Mosaic covenant. If the Lord Jesus had inaugurated a new covenant in his blood (Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25; cf. 2 Cor. 3:6; Jer. 31:31–34), then the Mosaic covenant must be thought of as the old covenant (cf. 2 Cor. 3:6; Heb. 8:13).
Such reflections as these, already glimpsed in the pages of the New Testament, bred ongoing discussions between Jews and Christians in the second century. The most eloquent of these discussions comes from the pen of Justin Martyr (c. 100–165) in the book Dialogue with Trypho. It tells of Justin’s conversation with a learned Jew, Trypho, and some of his friends. It not only shows Justin’s desire to win Jews as well as Gentiles to Christ but also how a second-century Christian apologist interpreted the Old Testament in the light of the New to construct a whole-Bible theology.12 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 3. At the same time, the first Christians were soon winning Gentiles to Christ. The book of Acts reports the expansion, identifying Antioch as the city with the first strong church of mixed race of which we know anything substantial (Acts 11:19–30; 13:1–3; 15:1–35). Paul understood his role to be apostle to the Gentiles (Gal. 2:7–10). He was capable of evangelizing Jews and others who attended local synagogues (see especially the report of his evangelism in the synagogue in Pisidian Antioch, Acts 13:16–43), but he was called primarily to evangelize Gentile pagans, whether ordinary folk in small towns (Acts 14:8–18), sophisticated urbanites (Acts 19), or intellectuals (Acts 17:16–34). In such contexts he inevitably confronted various “philosophies”: the Epicureans and the Stoics are mentioned in Acts 17:18, but there were many others. At the time, the word philosophy did not call to mind an esoteric discipline in which students are taught substantial doses of skepticism and not much constructive content. In the ancient world, philosophy meant something like what we mean by “worldview.” Various teachers taught competing worldviews, and Christians earnestly sought to evangelize men and women who held these diverse pagan worldviews. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In one sense, the Roman world of the first three centuries of the Christian era was highly pluralistic. To keep the peace, the Romans made it a capital offense to desecrate a temple—any temple. But the plurality of religions and worldviews was monolithic in at least one regard: these diverse religions agreed that there was no one way to god. On this there was strong agreement, for it was “an axiom of Greek culture that the cosmos was total (including the gods), perfect and changeless. Its harmony was endlessly repeated. Human error could be corrected by education.”13 In consequence, most Greeks thought that Christianity was notoriously bigoted and narrow. Thus, the pagan Celsus insisted on the equal validity of diverse ancient customs and beliefs, over against Origen’s insistence on the unique superiority of Christianity. Porphyry argued, “No teaching has yet been established which offers a universal way for the liberation of the soul.”14 One scholar puts it this way:
All the ancient critics of Christianity were united in affirming that there is no one way to the divine…. It was not the kaleidoscope of religious practices and feelings that was the occasion for the discussion of religious pluralism in ancient Rome; it was the success of Christianity, as well as its assertions about Christ and about Israel…. By appealing to a particular history as the source of knowledge of God, Christian thinkers transgressed the conventions that governed civilized theological discourse in antiquity.15
Thus, from the beginning Christians worked out their theology and interpreted their most sacred and authoritative documents within the context of disagreement, mission, cross-cultural communication, and competing claims. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. Moreover, even within the fledgling movement itself, various aberrant positions soon arose, forcing Christian leaders to decide which were minor variations and which had to be condemned as thoroughly outside the Christian camp, regardless of what their proponents claimed. Thus, in one of the earliest of the New Testament documents, Paul warns about “a different gospel” that is really no gospel at all and pronounces his “anathema” on all who teach it (Gal. 1:6–9); while in one of the latest of the New Testament documents, John can describe the departure of a certain group that had once belonged to the church but that had departed over certain doctrinal and ethical issues as proving, by their departure, that they had never really belonged to Christ’s people—for if they had, they would not have left (1 John 2:19). The early church was prepared to excommunicate not only those who refused to turn from gross moral turpitude (1 Cor. 5:1–13), but also those judged to be blasphemers (1 Tim. 1:20).
But although doctrinal and ethical disputes helped the church clarify its thinking from the beginning, it was soon beset by Gnosticism, a movement that was so large and so culturally supported that it proved to be a serious threat. Early voices of the movement (some scholars label them “proto-gnostic”) constitute part of the background to some of the later New Testament documents,16 but the movement crested in the second and third centuries. The most substantial cache of gnostic documents conveniently available in English translation is from Nag Hammadi.17 An hour or two of quiet reading of these works discloses a very different world from that of the New Testament. The gnostic documents display ideas about human origins far removed from those in the New Testament or in the entire Bible. Usually matter is seen to be intrinsically bad; salvation is secured, not by the substitutionary death of a sacrifice, but by knowledge of one’s true identity; and secret rites abound. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In all these domains, then, Christian apologists in the second and third centuries were called upon to understand their times and to use the Christian Scriptures to refute what were, from an orthodox perspective, insupportable and dangerous heresies. Perhaps the best known of the apologists is Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, who devoted five volumes to the detection and overthrow of various forms of gnosticism. Though he wrote toward the end of the second century, in his youth he had listened to Polycarp, who had in turn been a disciple of John.
But for our purposes, the importance of the subject is found not only in its intrinsic interest but in two related matters. The first is that, under the influence of Walter Bauer,18 a substantial body of contemporary opinion argues that in the earliest church there was no real distinction between orthodoxy and heresy. Fledgling Christianity was sufficiently robust and inclusive to avoid such distinctions, which were later and rather nasty developments, owing more to the fact that “orthodoxy” gained the ear of the Emperor Constantine than to any intrinsic superiority in its arguments. This argument has been refuted many times. Bauer himself examined only the texts from the second century on. Not only was he mistaken with respect to the second century, but he displayed more than a little cheek by referring to the second century as earliest Christianity19 — and the evidence already briefly scanned demonstrates that even in the earliest books of the New Testament, Christians were willing and able to distinguish between true and false teaching. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The second matter of some importance is the influence of The Jesus Seminar, whose work, discussed elsewhere in this book (see especially the next chapter), has been disseminated in the mass media. Most of the scholars connected with The Jesus Seminar not only accept the Bauer thesis but go farther and argue that the earliest strata of Christian teaching actually support gnosticism and often present Jesus as rather more akin to a traveling Cynic preacher than anything else. The historian Philip Jenkins has it right:
The problem with these reconstructions is the suggestion that both orthodoxy and Gnosticism are equally ancient and valid statements of the earliest Christianity, which they are not. What became the orthodox view has very clear roots in the first century, and indeed in the earliest discernible strands of the Jesus movement; in contrast, all the available sources for the Gnostic view are much later, and that movement emerges as a deliberate reaction to that orthodoxy.20
5. Sometimes contemporary scholars give the impression that genuinely “critical” thought on the New Testament is of relatively recent provenance. It would be truer to say that the framework out of which “critical” thought has been undertaken has shifted again and again during the last twenty centuries, largely depending on the epistemological and cultural givens of the time. Christians did not have to wait until the eighteenth century, for example, before pondering the relationships among the gospels. Already in the second century Tatian (c. 110–72) produced his Diatessaron, essentially a harmony of the four canonical gospels. His work was used in the Syrian church as a guide for its liturgy until the fifth century. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 6. It would be tedious to chart the interpretation of the New Testament espoused by every important patristic theologian or movement. This is not, after all, a volume of church history. Nevertheless, it is important for today’s students of the New Testament to have some awareness of others who have studied the New Testament before them, to feel a part of an ongoing stream of New Testament interpretation and to know something of its continuities, its disputes, and its connections with certain events and interpretive approaches.
By the end of the third century, the two most influential approaches to the study of the Bible were centered on Alexandria and Antioch respectively. The Alexandrian school warmly embraced philosophy as a weapon in the arsenal of Christian apologetics, especially philosophy descended from Plato. Often resorting to allegorical method in their exegesis, the Alexandrians sometimes flirted with a view of the Trinity that bordered on tri-theism (belief in three Gods). By contrast, the Antiochene school favored a more literal, rational, and historical exegesis. As a result, they insisted that some parts of Scripture have more doctrinal and spiritual value than others and felt no need to extract such value from the less fecund parts by resorting to allegory. In general, they approached the subject of Christology by beginning with Christ’s true humanity. The more radical fringe of the Antiochenes tended to see Christ, not as the God-man, but as a man indwelt by God. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The patristic period cast up more than its share of theologians and other Christian thinkers who took their primary cue from their reading of the Bible. Some of the contributions of Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Jerome have already been mentioned. The most stalwart defender of orthodox Christology was Athanasius (c. 296–373), an Egyptian by birth but Greek by education. He produced both theological apologetics, not least in defense of the full deity of Christ, and many commentaries on biblical books. The Council of Nicea (325) gave us the Nicene Creed, which stood against the teaching of Arius to the effect that the Logos (“Word” in John 1:1) was “made,” insisting rather that Christ is of the same “being” as his Father. John Chrysostom (c. 344–407), bishop of Constantinople, was renowned for his expository preaching, which then multiplied his influence in published form—hundreds of his sermons have been preserved, along with practical and devotional writings and 236 letters. We are not so fortunate with the literary remains of Origen (c. 185–254), Alexandrian theologian extraordinaire. Most of his works have not come down to us, but we are aware of major commentaries from his pen, plus apologetic works, text-critical work (some have called him, not Bengel, the father of New Testament text criticism), and one of the first systematic theologies. Though elements of his theology were later condemned by some synods (e.g., the Synod of Constantinople of 543), and certainly his Alexandrian deployment of allegory seems forced by Antiochene standards (let alone by later standards), there is a fresh vitality in his writing that still bears pondering.21 Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 265–339) has been called “The Father of Church History.” Owing to his extensive quotations of sources, sometimes the only access we have to important earlier documents is his Historia Ecclesiastica. In addition to his history, he wrote numerous apologetic books. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | And what shall we make of Augustine of Hippo in North Africa (354–430), the single most influential figure of the first four centuries after the apostles? His expositions of the Psalms and of John’s Gospel can still be read with profit, and his Confessions—simultaneously a highly personal document and a mature theology—is still among the classic Christian works of all time. When the Roman Empire began to fall apart after the sack of Rome in A.D. 410, Augustine’s The City of God was simultaneously a refutation of the pagan accusations that Christians were ultimately responsible for the disaster and an interpretation of Roman and Christian history to show that there are two “cities,” an earthly, human city with all of its own loves and aims, and the city of God, which alone endures forever. This eschatological reading of both Testaments and of the contemporary history proved a hugely stabilizing factor for Christians as the foundations of order were progressively swept away.
The point of this summary is to drive home the fact that Christians were a profoundly textual people from the beginning: their access to the unique history and unique Person by whom they were saved was above all textual. The Old Testament pointed to Christ; the New Testament told of him. Christian teachers and pastors therefore gave themselves to the study of these documents, wrote commentaries on them, and sought to commend them and defend them. This does not always mean that these church fathers were in perfect agreement; still less does it mean that each one was always right. But this is the early part of the heritage that any student of the New Testament assumes when he or she begins the task of studying, interpreting, and teaching these twenty-seven documents.
7. One historical “hinge” that must be noted is the role played by Constantine, the first (nominally) Christian Roman emperor. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | During its first three centuries, the church multiplied by the power of the Spirit, manifested in its preaching and in the quality of the life of its members. The church enjoyed no governmental advantages or support; frequently it suffered grievously under imperial persecution. For the Christians, this marked not defeat but victory, for they were the followers of One who died an ignominious death on a cross and yet was vindicated in the resurrection. Moreover, they remembered that he himself had taught, “Give back to Caesar what is Caesar’s and to God what is God’s” (Mark 12:17; cf. Matt. 22:21; Luke 20:25). Before that time, the authority of religion and the authority of the state were more tightly linked, often identified. Ancient Israel was, at least in theory, a theocracy. But Jesus established a kingdom which, when fully consummated, would embrace everything in heaven and earth, but which, until then, would be contested. His people on earth would be called forth from every language and tribe and nation but would not constitute a nation with geographical borders here on earth. Christians would find themselves living as citizens of two kingdoms, and they would owe allegiance to both: to Caesar, they should give what is his due; and to God, what is his due. Of course, if Caesar overstepped the mark and claimed more allegiance than was his due, Christians would be called to obey God rather than any human being. Nevertheless, the principle was put in place by the Master himself: we are citizens of two realms, we live in two cities, and the tensions are to be borne, even unto death, until the kingdom of God is consummated. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | But shortly after he emerged victorious by defeating Maxentius in 312 at the battle of Milvian Bridge north of Rome, Constantine decreed full legal toleration for Christians. The church began to enjoy imperial favor. Previously confiscated property was restored, there were various exemptions for the clergy, financial aid flowed to Christians, and some bishops began to enjoy civil jurisdiction. The bishop of Rome, already preeminent among the bishops, could only gain in authority by these arrangements.
The tension between the civil and the ecclesiastical authority never disappeared, of course, and it kept changing its shape for more than a millennium, as individual monarchs and popes proved peculiarly able or influential. Nevertheless, the fundamental tension between the claims of Caesar and the claims of God, developed by Paul to help Roman Christians see that the authority of the state is God-ordained (especially Rom. 13:1–7) and by John to help Christians see that the state can wrongly claim idolatrous allegiance (so Revelation), remained in place and led, in due course, to a variety of theories of the distinction between church and state.22 These developments have materially shaped, in various ways, not only the religious but also the political heritage of many countries that have long enjoyed a substantial number of Christians. The political and religious realities in which we work out our discipleship can often be traced back, in convoluted ways, to distinctions made in the New Testament itself. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 8. One of the crucial developments that took place during the first few centuries was the rise of “monarchical bishops.” Within the period when the New Testament documents were written, the labels “pastor” (which simply means “shepherd”), “elder,” and “bishop” (sometimes “overseer” in modern English versions) all referred to the same people, that is, those primarily responsible for the leadership of local congregations. As early as the beginning of the second century, however (and there are hints of this trend even earlier), some bishops or pastors came to have a measure of authority over other local congregations. Those who gained such oversight came to be called bishops, while those who did not retained the labels elder and pastor only. The reasons for the rise of monarchical bishops are doubtless complex, but some of them sprang from good motives, even if the result was rather more dubious. The number of Christians was growing so rapidly, and churches were being planted so frequently, that the level of training of many local Christian leaders was not very high. Partly to accommodate the need for teaching, a class of traveling Christian preachers arose who went from church to church.23 But who was to authorize such travelers? Inevitably, some shysters arose, fluent in God-talk, who found this was an agreeable way to earn a living, even though they were woefully unqualified. Others were doubtless sincere and thought they were helping churches, but their vision of their own competence outstripped the reality. Some were frankly heretical. And worse, in many instances local church leaders were insufficiently knowledgeable and mature to distinguish those who could genuinely help from those who were incompetent or even dangerous. So it is not surprising that a second-century document gives instructions as to which traveling preachers or “prophets” were to be accepted as genuine and which were to be dismissed. The genuine ones did not stay too long, did not ask for | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | ones did not stay too long, did not ask for money, and taught faithful Christian doctrine (cf. Didache xi). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Inevitably, under these circumstances some local pastors turned on occasion to the most knowledgeable bishop/elder/pastor in the vicinity, who then began to have a veto power over who was licensed to teach and preach in an entire area instead of in his congregation alone. Although they provided a valuable safeguard, eventually such bishops gained distinctive roles and authority unknown in the New Testament.
The reason why this is important for our purposes is that it is difficult to understand how the early church came in time to settle its disputes over what the apostles actually taught, without grasping the rising roles of bishops and occasionally of other noted teachers. The most serious disputes called together bishops from every region of the Empire in crucial “ecumenical councils” made up primarily of bishops from the whole (Roman) world, the oikoumenē. The seven councils that most Christians recognize to be truly “ecumenical,” with their dates and the subjects with which they primarily wrestled are: Nicea I (325), Arianism; Constantinople (381), Apollinarianism; Ephesus (431), Nestorianism; Chalcedon (451), Eutychianism; Constantinople II (553), Three Chapters Controversy; Constantinople III (680–81), Monothelitism; and Nicea II (787), Iconoclasm.24
9. These councils on doctrinal issues understood themselves to be deciding what the truth of some issue really was. When the Council of Nicea (325) decided on appropriate terms to talk about the deity of Christ, or the Council of Chalcedon (451) deployed certain terms that have become standard in discussion of the Trinity, the participants did not think of themselves as inventing new theology or even as discovering new truth in the Bible that no one had ever seen before. Rather, they were adjudicating conflicting interpretations of the Christian message and trying to formulate biblical truth in a way that made ambiguity or outright error in that domain much more difficult. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Similarly, when in the sixteenth century the Reformers worked hard to articulate a doctrine of justification that they felt was rigorously in line with Paul and with the rest of the Bible, it is not that no one had believed in justification before or had failed to see how important it was. The theme constantly recurs during the patristic period.25 But it took the disputes at the time of the Reformation to call forth a lot of detailed work. The reasons that generate doctrinal controversy may be ugly and painful, but God not infrequently uses such controversies to bring renewed theological strength and clarity of vision and understanding to his people. Such controversies therefore become part of the web of the history of the interpretation of the New Testament, indeed, of the whole Bible.
10. After the Roman Empire fell, standards of literacy declined sharply in the West. Latin, long dominant, virtually snuffed out remaining vestiges of what was once a deep knowledge of Greek and Hebrew. As the Middle Ages progressed, many local clergy were abysmally trained; countless rulers, even powerful ones, were illiterate or semi-literate. Perhaps the greatest centers of learning were the monasteries, although the quality of the work done in them varied a great deal. Nevertheless, for hundreds of years these were the centers where manuscripts were copied (even when they were poorly understood), where hymns were created, where commentaries and theological treatises were written.26 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Across the centuries, the church changed structurally and modified its teaching in many important ways, and inevitably these changes and modifications fed back into the way people handled the New Testament. Organizationally, the first really great schism was between the Western (or Latin) church, and the Eastern (or Orthodox) church. It is impossible to assign a beginning date to the division, but the date assigned to the final separation is usually 1054. Located primarily in the countries of Eastern Europe, the Orthodox church tends to organize itself nationally (hence the Greek Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Russian Orthodox Church, etc.) while recognizing the honorary primacy of the patriarch of Constantinople. Its distinctive doctrines and features need not be traced here.27 In the West, primacy was gradually assigned to the bishop of Rome. What became the Roman Catholic Church soon embraced considerable diversity and faced the challenges of both failures and various renewal movements, the most powerful of which produced fresh schisms at the time of the Reformation. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Nevertheless, it is crucially important to understand that what became the Roman Catholic Church as we think of it today did not happen overnight. For instance, prayers for the dead began about 300. The title “Mother of God” was first applied to Mary by the Council of Ephesus (initially in order to defend the deity of Christ), but prayers directed to Mary, to dead saints, and to angels rose in popularity around 600, while the dogma of the assumption of Mary—that she ascended bodily into heaven—was not promulgated as a dogma (a teaching orthodox Catholics must believe) until 1950. The practice of sprinkling holy water with a pinch of salt in it and blessed by a priest, arose around 850. The College of Cardinals was established in 927. Canonization of dead saints was first undertaken in 995 by Pope John XV.28 The doctrine of transubstantiation was proclaimed as dogma by Pope Innocent III in 1215 (though its roots stretch back much farther). The Bible was forbidden to laypeople and was actually placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by the Council of Valencia in 1229. Purgatory, which was taught by Gregory I in 593, was promulgated as dogma by the Council of Florence in 1439. The immaculate conception of Mary was proclaimed by Pope Pius IX in 1854, and the infallibility of the pope in his teaching office on matters of faith and morals at the first Vatican Council in 1870.29
Some of these items will strike many contemporary readers as far removed from the New Testament. But that is just the point. Once such items have become entrenched as established orthodoxy, such orthodoxy is likely to be the framework in which one reads the New Testament unless one rigorously attempts to distance oneself from one’s theological heritage, self-consciously attempting, so far as it is possible, to read oneself into the frames of reference of the biblical writers. That is one of the things that takes place during any reforming movement. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 11. As a rubric, “the Middle Ages” covers countries and centuries so diverse and complex that generalizations regularly call forth a “Yes, but” from scholars familiar with the period. On the one hand, the Middle Ages gave us the Crusades and a broader conflict with Islam, some of the most immoral popes, the first rounds of the “Black Death” (bubonic plague), institutionalized illiteracy among the masses, and rising superstition of the most appalling sort (one thinks of the hungry search for magic-endowed Christian relics and the rising traffic in indulgences). On the other hand, the Middle Ages gave us some glorious hymns, some soaring conceptions of God (reflected not least in the design and construction of cathedrals), some theologians of immense gift and erudition, and, toward the end of the period, some reformers of perception and courage who urged a whole-hearted return to the Bible (e.g., Jan Hus [1373–1415] in Czechoslovakia, John Wycliffe [c. 1329–1384] in England), not a few of whom were martyred.
At the risk of generalization, the theological contribution of the Middle Ages was not so much in the domain of penetrating commentaries as in two other fields. First, this extended period produced a stream of mystics (e.g., Bernard of Clairvaux [1090–1153], Julian of Norwich [c. 1342 to after 1413]). Some of this mysticism succumbed to barely controlled subjectivism, but at its best it gave us a corpus of hymns still being sung, in translation, today. Bernard, for instance, wrote “O Sacred Head Now Wounded,” “Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee,” and “Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts.” | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Second, and still more important for our purposes, was the stream of theologians, including Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Abelard, William of Ockham, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus.30 The most influential of these by far was Thomas Aquinas (1224–74), and the best known of his works is his Summa Theologiae, which is simultaneously a systematic compendium of the data of Christian revelation as he understood them, a revision of Augustinian epistemology along Aristotelian lines, and an evangelistic work aimed at Muslims. Despite the enormous influence his work has wielded, especially but by no means exclusively within Catholicism, his categories belong rather more to the domains of philosophy and systematics than to rigorous exegesis. To take one small example: Although earlier Christian theologians, stretching back to the patristic period, had sometimes distinguished moral, civil, and ceremonial law, it was Aquinas who developed this tripartite division of Old Testament law to establish the patterns of continuity and discontinuity between the Old and New Testaments. This tripartite division, which was subsequently picked up and developed by John Calvin and others, offers many helpful insights, but it is not demonstrably the set of categories with which the New Testament writers themselves are operating when they work out the patterns of continuity and discontinuity between the old covenant and the new. Questions about how to conceive the relationships between the two Testaments are of course perennial, and the influence of Aquinas in this area as in numerous others is with us still as we read our New Testaments. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | We have already mentioned that during the first few centuries of the church a remarkable debate arose between the Alexandrian and the Antiochene schools of interpretation—the former a champion of allegory in exegesis (though what was meant by “allegory” in those days was more flexible and less defined than in many contemporary treatments), and the latter insisting on a more direct or literal exegesis. During the Middle Ages a more systematic classification of different methods of biblical interpretation was codified. One must distinguish four levels of biblical interpretation (and different authors put them in different order): the literal sense, which teaches us what happened; the allegorical (sometimes called the tropological) sense, which teaches us what to believe; the moral sense, which tells us what to do; and the analogical (occasionally called the eschatological) sense, which tells us where we are going. Not infrequently such distinctions were tied to a mystical spirituality.31 Inevitably they also had the effect of making the Bible a closed book, reserved for experts, rightly interpreted only by the authorities of the church, and closed to most laypeople (after all, the printing press had not yet been invented). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 12. The Renaissance, a period of European history that historians customarily attach to the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, witnessed a “rebirth” (which is what renaissance means) of classical culture. The printing press was invented, the influence of which cannot easily be overstated. Constantinople fell to the Muslim Turks in 1453, which sent not a few scholars scurrying to the West, bringing their Greek manuscripts with them. The rise of learning and the founding of several European universities trumpeted the call, Ad fontes—“to the sources.” The study of Greek and Hebrew became commonplace; the authority of Latin was increasingly displaced. The renewal of interest in both Christian and pagan foundational documents produced a growing number of informed and highly literate “humanists” who were more than willing to criticize the clerical abuse then rampant at almost every level of the Catholic Church. By and large, the humanists in northern Europe became more interested in the classical Christian texts (the New Testament and the patristics) than in the classical pagan texts, and they have thus sometimes been labeled “Christian humanists.” The most influential of these was Erasmus of Rotterdam, whom we have already met.
Those influenced by the Renaissance also became increasingly suspicious of the four interpretive levels that had been justified by the theologians of the Middle Ages. They wanted to read the primary sources for themselves, and they tried to read them more “literally” or more “naturally.”32 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 13. Scholars still dispute the nature of the relationships between the Renaissance and the Reformation (sixteenth century). Certainly the demand for reform increasingly voiced by Christian humanists contributed to the growing unrest in Western Christendom. That fact generated the old saw that “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.” Moreover, many younger humanists converted to Protestantism, including such leaders as Ulrich Zwingli (d. 1531), Philipp Melanchthon (d. 1560), John Calvin (d. 1564), and Theodore Beza (d. 1605).
The Reformation emphasis on sola scriptura (“Scripture alone”) embraced in practice several emphases. Over against the Catholic view that revelation is a deposit entrusted to the church, a deposit of which Scripture is only a part, the Reformers insisted that while there is much to learn from Christian tradition, much indeed that holds us to account, only the Bible has final authority. The Bible must not be domesticated by the tradition. This emphasis had two complementary effects: (1) Ideally, the Scriptures should be studied in the languages in which they were written; and (2) the Scriptures should be disseminated as widely as possible, which meant that vernacular translations should be prepared. The aim of the Bible translator William Tyndale (strangled and burned in 1536) was to make the ploughboy as knowledgeable in the Bible as the high prelates of the church. Moreover, insistence on “Scripture alone” prompted the Reformers to study once again what constitutes Scripture, and this led to the rejection of the Apocrypha as part of the canon. The fact that the Catholic Church adjudged these books (the exact number of them is somewhat disputed) to be canonical or “deuterocanonical”—that is, canonical in a secondary sense—was not a sufficient reason for hanging onto them. Indeed, at one stage in his life Martin Luther questioned the authority of the canonical James (“a right strawy epistle,” in his famous phrase).33 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Partly under the influence of Renaissance learning, the Reformers learned to be suspicious of the fourfold hermeneutic they had inherited. This does not mean they became crass literalists. They could recognize (as all good readers can) metaphors and other figures of speech. They wrestled with what would today be called typology. The fact that the Bible is often talking of eternal things in the categories of everyday temporal things prompted Luther to think of Scripture as a litera spiritualis. One may doubt that this is the most helpful analysis, yet it is vital to recognize that although the Reformers dismissed as artificial the fourfold interpretive approach defended in the Middle Ages, they were not unaware that the “natural” reading was not always straightforward. Moreover, the efforts of both Luther and Calvin (to go no farther) to write both commentaries on books of the Bible and expositions of Christian doctrine had the effect of tying doctrine to the Bible itself. Indeed, Calvin’s enormously influential Institutes of the Christian Religion was meant to be a kind of accurate introduction to what the Bible teaches. This work wrestles endlessly with Scripture yet works out its doctrinal formulations in interaction not only with issues of importance when Calvin was writing but also in interaction with eminent Christian thinkers throughout history. In conjunction with Calvin’s commentaries, the Institutes taught many generations of believers what to believe and how to think. Inevitably, works such as these constituted models for the interpretation and the teaching of Scripture. It became impossible to try to understand the New Testament, let alone the entire Bible, without reflecting on such work.34
THE RISE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY35 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | THE RISE OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY35
The changing shape of biblical study, and New Testament study in particular, during the last four centuries is a story far too complex to be compressed into a few pages. So in this section and the next we will attempt brief probes into two areas that we hope will serve as useful test cases of the broader developments.
If theology is disciplined discourse about God, one might think that biblical theology is disciplined discourse about God that is based on the Bible. In that sense, of course, there has been biblical theology as long as there has been a Bible or any part of it. But the actual expression “biblical theology” was first coined, so far as we know, in a book by W. J. Christmann published in 1607 and no longer extant. The title was Teutsche biblische Theologie (“German Biblical Theology”). Apparently, it was a rather brief volume of proof-texts drawn from the Bible to support Protestant systematic theology. This use of “biblical theology” continued in some circles for another century and a half. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | It was not long before other uses appeared. In his Pia Desideria (1675), P. J. Spener, and later the Pietists he influenced, distinguished theologia biblica (his own theology) from theologia scholastica, the prevailing Protestant (Lutheran) orthodoxy that had returned to the Aristotelianism Luther had rejected. Thus, “biblical theology” took on an overtone of protest, of being “more biblical” than the prevailing dogmatics. In the second half of the eighteenth century, under the influence of English Deism and the German Aufklärung (Enlightenment), a handful of theologians once again protested against the prevailing dogmatics—now, however, not in favor of Pietism but in favor of rationalism. Several of these works aimed to extract from the Bible timeless truths in accord with reason, while framing them in a way that was still largely, if sometimes uneasily, acceptable to the ecclesiastical establishment. By far the most influential of these theologians was Johann P. Gabler, whose inaugural lecture at the University of Altdorf, An Oration on the Proper Distinction Between Biblical and Dogmatic Theology and the Specific Objectives of Each (1787), captured the rising mood and precipitated the next step. Gabler charged that dogmatic theology, constantly changing and perpetually disputed, is too far removed from Scripture. The biblical theology that he himself was recommending would be a largely inductive study of the biblical text. Such study, he contended, would be much more likely to gain widespread assent among learned and godly scholars, and it could in turn become the foundation on which fresh systematic theology would be constructed. Thus, Gabler’s primary appeal was not that the Bible must first be read historically or that the documents must be set out in historical sequence (though a little of this is implicit in what he said) but that biblical theologians may properly go about their task without being directly bound by doctrinal considerations36 —an | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | directly bound by doctrinal considerations36 —an epoch-making suggestion at the time and one that has earned him the sobriquet “father of biblical theology.” | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The first part of Gabler’s proposal, the invitation to inductive study of the biblical documents in a manner removed from dogmatic control, was rapidly taken up in many European universities; the second part, that fresh dogmatics be built on this new foundation, was largely ignored. Indeed, the more that scholars worked at a merely descriptive level without reflection on the importance of the analogia fidei (the “analogy of the faith”)—the longstanding commitment to read the Bible within the framework of historic confessionalism—the more the diversities within the Bible achieved prominence. The differences between the two Testaments, for example, became so obvious under such a régime that in 1796 G. L. Bauer produced, not a biblical theology, but an Old Testament theology, followed in 1800–1802 by a two-volume New Testament theology. Although biblical theologies (i.e., whole-Bible biblical theologies) continued to be written for another half-century and even into the twentieth century, the move was away from them. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The tendency toward atomism in biblical theology has continued in certain strands of the discipline to the present day. Thus, by “New Testament theology” many writers mean the distinctive theologies found in the various New Testament writings: the theology of Paul, the theology of Matthew, the theology of Luke-Acts, and so forth. The atomism becomes yet more pronounced when three further tendencies are taken into account. (1) Many scholars who defend the atomism are persuaded that some of the New Testament documents are pseudonymous. The result is that “the theology of Paul,” for instance, is based on an ostensibly authentic four or seven of the thirteen letters in the New Testament that bear Paul’s name, while there are distinguishable theologies of, say, Ephesians, 2 Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles, all judged to be pseudonymous. (2) Many scholars are convinced that they can isolate a source used by both Matthew and Luke, often designated “Q.” This in turn leads to attempts to write a theology of Q (see chapter 2 of this book). (3) A variation of the second tendency occurs where scholars are convinced that some part of a New Testament document reflects an unassimilated or even contradictory source or editorial accretion (for example, see the chapters on 2 Thessalonians and Romans in this book). Similar source criticism is applied to other New Testament documents. Atomism triumphs, and it becomes harder to see the big picture and how the various New Testament (not to say biblical) documents might relate to one another. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Inevitably, then, biblical theology felt the impact of historical criticism. We shall reflect a little more on the nature of historical criticism in the next section and repeatedly in later chapters of this book. In some ways, however, we have already stumbled into the subject, and some of its further effects on biblical theology may be usefully probed here. Perhaps the most important intersection took place around the middle of the nineteenth century. In Tübingen, the great German scholar F. C. Baur undertook a fresh examination of how the Pauline Epistles, Acts, and the Gospels came to be written. To this task he brought more than a little philosophical naturalism (i.e., he was averse to admitting any appeal to the supernatural in any historical questions), and he advanced reasons for dating the various New Testament books on the assumption that his re-creation of early church history was correct. This early history, he claimed, saw the church emerge as a minor Jewish sect, then a major Jewish sect, then a peculiar Jewish sect in that it was admitting Gentiles under a variety of conditions; eventually it broke from Judaism to take on a life of its own. The New Testament documents, he argued, fit somewhere along the axis of this trajectory. The debates between the church and Judaism gradually rose in intensity and were soon hot and furious, but once the division took place, the debate died down until eventually it is attested only in barely remembered historical strands. On this basis, for instance, Baur dated Acts well into the second century (by which time the fight was over, so the tone is very different from, say, Galatians). The bearing of all this work on biblical theology was most clearly seen in 1864, when Baur’s own New Testament theology was published posthumously. The combination of a rigidly developmental reconstruction of early church history and a fairly radical naturalism meant that the New Testament documents could not be thought of as revelatory | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | documents could not be thought of as revelatory in any proper sense. They could not be judged to reflect a coherent theological system; rather, they give evidence not only of historical and theological development but of something more: the various layers prove historically interesting but in some ways mutually incompatible. For the same reason, they could not be viewed as theologically binding.37 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | This historicist impulse came to a head in what came to be called “the history-of-religions school” (die religionsgeschichtliche Schule). Here valiant efforts were made to show that all religious movements and the documents they generate are themselves shaped by other religious movements and documents, whether the new ones merely take over antecedent material, or modify it, or react against it. All of this was judged to be responsible historical criticism, that is, a deployment of critical reason that refuses to appeal to supernatural causes to account for the documents that make up the Christian Bible. We may study what first-century people thought were supernatural events and revelations, but critical study will show these first-century judgments to be primitive and naive. The bearing of these developments on New Testament theology came to a head, perhaps, in the blistering and influential little book of W. Wrede, Über Aufgabe und Methode der sogenannten neutestamentliche Theologie (“Concerning the Task and Method of So-Called New Testament Theology”).38 Wrede argued that to treat each book of the New Testament separately was absurd, because each book provides too little information to enable an interpreter to reconstruct the entire “theology” of its author. The only responsible way forward is to construct, as best we can, the history of early Christian religion and theology. Any unified New Testament theology, let alone biblical theology, is a chimera. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | One must not think that these voices at the leading edge of the most skeptical criticism (not to say of dogmatic unbelief) were the only voices. In the nineteenth century, the most penetrating attempt at New Testament theology that sought to build on the Old Testament was probably that of J. C. K. von Hofmann.39 In the first decades of the twentieth century, the most influential figure in the same heritage was doubtless Adolf Schlatter.40 No less than their more skeptical opponents, these scholars recognized the historical nature of the New Testament documents, but they insisted that God had acted in history and therefore that a commitment to philosophical naturalism could not deal fairly with the evidence. They judged their works to be “critical” in that their conclusions were not naive leaps but extensively justified positions authorized by the texts.
Other voices soon assumed greater prominence. First, Karl Barth found the works traceable to the historical and naturalist impulse utterly arid and pastorally useless. He diminished the importance of historical research for the understanding of the Bible and focused on theological interpretation, remaining more interested in systematic theology than in biblical theology. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Second, Rudolf Bultmann tried another path to bridge the gap between historical understanding and theological usefulness. He adopted the naturalism and historicist approach of Wrede, but instead of concluding, with Wrede, that theological synthesis was thereby ruled out of court, he “demythologized” the texts of everything he judged that “modern man” could no longer believe (essentially everything supernatural) in order to uncover what he held to be the real and essential kernel of the New Testament—a certain form of existentialism. The result is that God, faith, revelation, and much else besides become redefined. The language is the language of orthodoxy, but the substance is the substance of Heidegger. Astonishingly influential in the middle of the twentieth century,41 Bultmann’s work is now largely read out of historical interest, not because he is widely followed. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The third development was the rise of the “biblical theology movement.” Eager to be theologically relevant, influenced in part by Barth and in part by von Hofmann, shattered by World War I and by the Great Depression and eventually by World War II, the exponents of the movement exerted increasing influence from the 1930s to the 1950s. Perhaps the most influential of these scholars was Oscar Cullmann, whose insistence on “salvation history” (Heilsgeschichte) attempted to bring together two components, salvation and history, that had been flying apart. Writing in a style calculated to be edifying, his delineation of development across time allowed for a historical reading of the canon while still preserving central canonical unity and therefore authority.42 But the biblical theology movement was remarkably diverse. It included those who held that revelation was borne along on the great events of redemptive history to which Scripture bears witness,43 and those who produced the magisterial Theological Dictionary of the New Testament with its peculiar theologically loaded word studies.44 Nevertheless, by the 1960s the movement was largely dead, cut down by critics who dismissed the linguistic naiveté of many of its exponents or who argued that the unity they found in the canon was not really there.45 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The last fifty years or so have been characterized by astonishing diversity. On the confessional flank, the biblical theology of Geerhardus Vos,46 though it focused more on the Old Testament than the New, taught many Christians how to read the Bible as a single book. The contribution of George Eldon Ladd,47 seminal at the time, in some ways adopted a more conservative line in a common form: a New Testament theology that devoted separate chapters to the theology of the Synoptic Gospels, the theology of Paul, the theology of Hebrews, and so forth, with little attempt at integration. Still in the confessional heritage, Donald Guthrie attempted to address the problem of integration by writing a New Testament theology that traced scores of themes (e.g., “Son of Man,” “God,” “the Cross”) through the different New Testament corpora.48 What was lost, of course, was the feel for how these and other themes hung together within any one particular corpus and then how the corpora related to one another.
Space does not permit discussion of the many works that marked out positions across the theological spectrum—from the centrist New Testament theologies of Werner Kümmel,49 Joachim Jeremias,50 Joachim Gnilka,51 and Georg Strecker,52 who all follow the more-or-less-standard critical orthodoxies, to the contribution of Hans Conzelmann, who does not think it necessary or helpful to include the historical Jesus as a presupposition to his work,53 to the canonical theology of Brevard Childs,54 to the imaginative work of George B. Caird, who mentally sits the authors of the New Testament around a table and gets them to “discuss” their respective contributions,55 and to the large, provocative work of Klaus Berger, who, under the image of a tree with many branches, develops fairly speculative theologies of the many branches according to his radical and detailed reconstruction of how the church developed into mutually exclusive theological communities within the first century.56 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | As a label, then, “biblical theology” refers to several different things, interacting with one another in different ways in the hands of various scholars. It may refer to the theology of groups behind the biblical texts, as attested by the biblical texts themselves, insofar as we can reconstruct those groups using a variety of historical-critical and literary-critical tools. Or it may refer to the theology of the biblical texts or corpora themselves and perhaps also to how those theologies fit together (if the biblical theologian thinks they can be fit together!) along a temporal trajectory. Moreover, this study of the biblical documents may be primarily a self-distanced description of what the texts meant (an attempt at historical description) or a self-conscious wrestling with what the texts mean (a more hermeneutically reflective endeavor). This and similar analyses are common in contemporary discussion of what biblical theology and, in particular, New Testament theology, truly is.57
The last fifty years have also seen works devoted to the theology of Paul, the theology of John, and so forth, and an even longer list of monographs and articles that purport to work out the shape of some individual theological theme within an individual corpus.58 Some of these, of course, are described in the chapters that follow. During the last three decades, a renewed interest in how the New Testament writers use the Old Testament has generated a raft of monographs which are in some respects the building blocks of future works on New Testament and biblical theology. Add to these the many scores of commentaries on New Testament books published each year59 and the countless specialist articles, and one begins to glimpse the spread of New Testament scholarship. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The purpose of this admittedly sketchy survey is to stake out the terrain in which contemporary students of the New Testament necessarily work. Perhaps it will be helpful to include one final survey of a slightly different kind.
HISTORICAL CRITICISM, LITERARY TOOLS, AND THE IMPACT OF POSTMODERNISM
We have already seen how, under the impact of certain kinds of historical criticism, biblical theology as a discipline has divided, during the last 150 years, into several mutually polarized camps. The same could be said for debates over one’s entire approach to the New Testament—whether over technical matters of “introduction” (such as date, authorship, historical setting, sources, authenticity), or over the relationship between history and revelation, or developments in literary theory or epistemology, or the impact of world Christianity on the study of Scripture. In these and other domains, those who devote their lives to the study of the New Testament occupy an ever-expanding circle of positions and options. These can be charted in the treatment of an individual book or corpus of the New Testament;60 however, when it comes to the entire New Testament, the diversity and complexity of the stances adopted can be bewildering to the student beginning to plunge into the literature. What follows, therefore, is a sketchy outline of the literary tools, approaches, and stances that have shaped New Testament study, for better and for worse, during the last century or so.61
Historical Criticism | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Historical Criticism
The historical reconstruction deployed by F. C. Baur to realign the dating of the New Testament documents discussed above led to the historicist reductionism of Wrede. Part of this movement coagulated around the development of various critical “tools.” We briefly noted the source criticism of Rudolf Bultmann. Source criticism itself, of course, should never be demonized. After all, some reflection on source criticism is transparently called up by the nature of some of the New Testament documents themselves. On almost any accounting, either 2 Peter made use of Jude, or Jude made use of 2 Peter; on almost any accounting, some kind of borrowing, of literary dependence, and thus of the use of sources, lies behind the Synoptic Gospels: they are sufficiently close that complete independence is almost impossible to maintain, yet sufficiently independent that the precise nature of the relationship among them is hotly disputed (as will be discussed in the next chapter). Luke clearly had access to written sources before he put quill to papyrus (Luke 1:1–4). But Bultmann’s immensely detailed source criticism of the Synoptic Gospels, frequently extending down to assigning half-verses and even individual words to a particular source or layer,62 turns out, on close inspection, to be frankly unbelievable, in part because of its detail; it is almost impossible to imagine how anyone could have put together any book the way his source theories demand that the gospels were composed. More importantly, such source criticism was little interested in the ostensible sources as atemporal documents that were somehow brought together. Rather, each source, real or imagined, was thought to reflect the theology and outlook of different communities, or different writers, or of the same community at a different time. Doubtless his most creative resort to source criticism lay in Bultmann’s handling, not of the Synoptics, but of the Gospel of John.63 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Of course, his was not the only complex source theory, whether of the Synoptics or of the fourth gospel. Whatever the ownership or popularity of a particular theory, however, because the sources were thought to reflect various layers of tradition, these could be laid out in trajectories that would explain the development of doctrine. Hence, “source criticism” gave rise to “form criticism” and to “tradition criticism.” Form criticism focused on the formal shape or characteristics of various gospel units—miracle stories, for instance, or certain kinds of parables—in order to infer the characteristics and even the history of the Christian communities that either shaped such material or even called it into being.64 Tradition criticism sought to construct trajectories that were judged to unpack the development of the tradition. This in turn led to charges that such theories reduced the final authors of our gospels to mere “scissors and paste” people who cut snippets out of other documents and pasted them into the pastiche that constitutes our canonical Gospels. Partly as a reaction against this objection, “redaction criticism” came into its own. It was argued that, whatever sources the evangelists had, they did not simply cut and paste, but “edited” or “redacted” them (hence “redaction criticism”) to produce gospels that would have the distinctive voice and emphases of each evangelist. Thus, the evangelists were real theologians in their own right. These and other assorted historical-critical “tools” were, on the whole, more interested, at least initially, in drawing inferences about the Christian communities that called such material into being than in the historical Jesus such materials were ostensibly describing. As a result, these tools constitute a large part of the methodological heart of the three principal “quests for the historical Jesus” detailed in the next chapter. Somewhat different but not unrelated source-and form-critical work was also carried out on the | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | form-critical work was also carried out on the rest of the New Testament.65 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | There are still a few voices as radical as that of Bultmann, but not many,66 and some of them have become politically polarized.67 At the same time, even mainstream historical-critical reconstruction of the historical Jesus is remarkably minimalistic in its conclusions.68 Inevitably, other voices, less skeptical, usefully challenge the prevailing criteria of authenticity,69 or point out the importance of well-preserved oral instruction amongst Jesus’ followers70 or the role of eyewitnesses in the formation of the gospel tradition.71 Another small but articulate group of scholars have accumulated much useful evidence that the canonical gospels were never designed for individual communities (a Matthean community, a Markan community, and so on) but were designed from the beginning to be read by all Christians,72 which of course calls into question the common practice of identifying a particular source or stratum or form or even a gospel with a well-defined “layer” of tradition that can be tied to an equally well-defined community.
All of this work has produced a few gains. For instance, we are far more aware of the complexities of synoptic relationships than we were in the past. For the most part, we are more sensitive to the individual emphases and nuances of each canonical gospel, refusing to read them and preach them as if they came to us in a tight “Harmony of the Gospels” instead of what they are: individual books, each with distinctive accents.73 But what strikes the contemporary reader most powerfully, as he or she first breaks into all this discussion, is its immense disarray, the extraordinary smallness of the common ground shared by today’s scholars.
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Literary Criticism
One of the perennial dangers of much of the historical-critical work is its atomism: it keeps focusing on tinier and tinier details in the text, and reconstructing with great erudition what some scholar thinks lies behind the text, but it does not devote much attention to the actual reading of the text as text.
Interest in literary devices is scarcely new. Under categories such as “metaphor” and “type,” Christians have dealt with literary aspects of the text for centuries. The last few decades have produced a stream of essays and monographs on such things as irony in the fourth gospel. But perhaps more important are the works that deal with larger units of text. They ask what a “gospel” is, and how it is to be related to other forms of biography in the first century. They examine the narrative structure of this or that account, working through such matters as the development of the plot, what characters are being “foregrounded” and “backgrounded,” where the climax of the story is, who the implied readers are. A veritable industry has arisen around the different kinds of letters that were written around the time of Paul, and the extent to which his letters fit into recognizable patterns. A book like Revelation is carefully compared with Jewish apocalyptic works written during the previous two or three centuries. The shape of one of Paul’s sustained arguments is compared with the rhetoric that was taught in Greek circles from at least the time of Aristotle on. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Most of these matters are introduced a little more fully, along with appropriate bibliography, in the pages ahead. One or two examples may help. In 1983, R. Alan Culpepper published a book that proved to be a seminal treatment of the Gospel of John. Its title, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design, 74 nicely captures the kind of literary approach being discussed here. Culpepper was not interested in source-critical or historical questions. He acknowledged that such questions have their place, but he insisted that his focus was on the literary design of the final product. Most remarkable was his choice of literary model, the nineteenth-century English novel. His book was replete with suggestive insights, but the thoughtful reader cannot help but reflect on three things: (1) The choice of controlling model is remarkably anachronistic, not least when applied to a document like the fourth gospel, which purports to bear witness to events that happened in history. (2) The entire effort, stimulating as it is, studiously avoids asking any historical questions or drawing any historical conclusions. The text is being studied as a text in the narrowest sense, without raising questions of extratextual referentiality, that is, of things or events or people outside the text to which the text may be claiming to refer. (3) At least some of the textual features that Culpepper integrates into one literary whole were being used by the source critics and historical-critical scholars to justify the existence of “seams” that suggest an awkward melding of sources. But if certain literary features are suitably explained by the way they fit into a literary narrative, how can they also serve as evidence of sources deriving from distinguishable theological communities? Or, conversely, if certain literary features in the text justify the conclusion that the fourth gospel is made of disparate sources somewhat awkwardly joined together and reflecting rather disparate | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | joined together and reflecting rather disparate theologies, how can the same evidence be read as belonging to a seamless and ahistorical narrative? In other words, although it is rarely acknowledged, some approaches to historical criticism and some approaches to literary criticism use the textual evidence in contradictory ways. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Or consider the voluminous treatments of rhetoric, especially (but certainly not exclusively) with application to the writings of Paul. In addition to numerous surveys and several magisterial volumes, hundreds of essays have been written during the past decade on the rhetoric of this or that passage. Most of them presuppose at least a nodding acquaintance with the categories of Aristotle, modified and developed by educators and orators such as Quintilian and Cicero.75 More recently, however, it has been pointed out rather strongly that the ancient handbooks on rhetoric were designed to help orators, those whose material was prepared for oral delivery, not for letter writers.76 The ancient sources do not apply the categories of rhetoric to letter writing, which is what Paul was doing. In reply, those who defend the rigorous use of the categories of rhetoric point out that ancient tractate letters were meant to be read in public, and therefore the principles of orality are sustained. The debate continues, exacerbated by the fact that although Paul was recognized as a speaker (Acts 14:11–12), he himself was suspicious of rhetoric when it became manipulative or was in danger of masking the substance of the gospel, “Jesus Christ and him crucified” (1 Cor. 2:1–5).
Both of these literary approaches to the text of the New Testament can yield suggestive insights into its meaning, the shape of its arguments, its literary coherence, and the like. On the other hand, abstracted from questions of history and truth, such approaches sometimes project a remarkable feeling of unreality. Scholars from across the widest theological spectrum deploy these approaches in various ways or qualify their deployment in various ways; these literary approaches are not independent and neutral tools but part of the interpretive matrix in which contemporary interpreters do their work.
The New Literary Criticism and the Turn to Postmodern Readings | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In some ways it is difficult to draw a hard line between “literary criticism” and the “new literary criticism.” Inevitably, there are points of overlap and various confusions of labeling. Yet in the main, the distinction is clear enough.
It may be useful to begin with an influential book by Hans W. Frei.77 Frei argues that as liberal historical criticism grew stronger in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scholars became less interested in what the Bible actually says and more interested in that which (they argued) lay behind the text—that is, what really happened. Conservative rebuttals fell into the same trap: everyone was arguing about the alleged history (real or imagined) behind the text and were no longer thinking in the categories of the text itself. Without wanting to deny that such historical questions are important, Frei argues that what the church must do is immerse itself in the text. After all, Christians before the rise of historical criticism believed that God himself was encountering them in the text. Similarly, today’s Christians will find their imagination and understanding illumined by the text; they will worry less about historical re-creations, will encounter God, and will link themselves with believers before the eighteenth century. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Clearly Frei’s approach is strongly text-centered. But what he fails to mention is that Christians before the rise of the more skeptical forms of historical criticism not only immersed themselves in the text (in this sense he is right: they were text-centered, believing that God was encountered there), but they also believed that the text told them the truth. Thus, the charge that conservatives and liberals alike at the end of the eighteenth century and throughout the nineteenth century focused too much attention on arguments over the ostensible reality behind the text and not on the text itself is slightly manipulative. At their best, the conservatives were not so much trying to draw attention away from the text to what lay behind it, as they were attempting to justify the view that the text was telling the truth about extratextual reality. However weighty this criticism, it has been largely ignored. As a result, this particular brand of text-centered reading, sometimes identified as “the Yale School,” finds many able exponents, the most influential of whom is George Lindbeck.78
This is not the only kind of text-centered study that rightly belongs to the “new” literary criticism. One kind, popular three or four decades ago but now largely in eclipse, is structuralism, which “is distinguished by its rejection of those traditional notions according to which literature ‘expresses’ an author’s meaning or ‘reflects’ reality. Instead, the ‘text’ is seen as an objective structure activating various codes and conventions which are independent of author, reader, and external reality.” Indeed, structural criticism “is less interested in interpreting what literary works mean than in explaining how they can mean what they mean; that is, in showing what implicit rules and conventions are operating in a given work.”79 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | This movement led in turn to deconstruction. Deconstructionists are no less text-centered, but they add to the brew a radical skepticism. Convinced that no text is stable or coherent, deconstructionists argue that all texts are indeterminate in meaning and inevitably contain inherent contradictions. That leaves the thoughtful reader with only two alternatives: abandon any search for meaning in texts, which is tantamount to abandoning reading itself, or find meaning in the interplay between the reader and contradictory (though frequently evocative) ideas sparked by a text. Small wonder that Vanhoozer writes, “Deconstruction is not a method of interpretation but a method for undoing interpretations, for exposing readings as functions of various ideological forces.”80 In practice, this means that many readings of texts undertaken by deconstructionists have served the interests of overthrowing perceived injustices and inequities, based as they are on particular ideologies that must themselves be overthrown. But strictly speaking, this end is not achieved by finding such reforming pressures taught by the texts, but by finding them generated by the firm resolve to expose the alleged inconsistencies in the text, and in the interplay between such textual phenomena and the deconstructionist interpreters. In France, where it was born, deconstruction has now largely been eclipsed, but it still commands widespread allegiance in certain circles in North America. In any case, deconstruction locates more and more of the “meaning,” not in the text itself, but in the readers, or in the readers’ interaction with the text, and thus in some gray space between text and reader. If historical criticism tried to get at the historical reality behind the text, and various literary criticisms tried so to focus on the text that increasingly the text was cut off from all history, the end result of deconstruction is to locate shifting meanings in front of the text, in the direction of the | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | in front of the text, in the direction of the readers themselves. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Thus, deconstruction has been one of the inspirations behind reader-response theory. This approach is neither author-centered (like most classical literary and historical criticism) nor text-centered, but reader-centered. In fact, there are several competing reader-response theories. One theory locates virtually all the meaning in the individual interpreter; the text is no more than some kind of stimulus. Another theory demands that more attention be paid to the social context of readers: readers interpret things out of the shared literary and cultural traditions of a particular social group, a group whose shared outlook generates a socially constructed competence. Thus, texts come to have shared meanings for people in a specified social group, but no other independent claim. Another sort of reader-response theory focuses on the tensions between the individual and the group from which he or she springs or on the interactions between the readers and the text. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | These and other approaches are often cumulatively labeled “postmodern readings.” The term postmodern is notoriously slippery, of course, but it is useful nevertheless. If it is applied first and foremost to the domain of epistemology—the study of how we come to know anything, or think we know anything—then the term is useful. Unlike earlier modernism, which by and large was convinced that human beings could learn the utter and objective truth about reality and thus gain certainty and clarity of thought and that all of this enterprise was a good thing, postmodernism takes quite a different tack. Postmoderns are convinced that because we human beings are so small, our knowledge so microscopic, and our social frame of reference so limited, our putative knowledge can at best be never more than provisional. In the strongest forms of postmodernism, all human knowledge is in some sense a social construct and therefore provides no clear or objective knowledge of the objective world at all. Claims to certainty must be dismissed as arrogant bigotry. Indeed, in postmodern perspective, the univocal meaning cherished by modernists is narrow and confining. Surely it is far better to encourage a multiplicity of interpretations and approaches, none of them necessarily “right” or “wrong,” “true” or “false,” but all of them productive, thoughtful, fruitful, a reflection of a (legitimate) interaction between some reader or other and the text. Postmodern readers (we are told) are less interested in the hard lines drawn by truth and error, and more interested in the soft lines drawn by fuzziness and interpretive possibilities. They dislike exclusion, especially any view that says another view is wrong, and they admire inclusion, even of mutually incompatible ideas. They like possibilities and vistas and are suspicious of boundaries and of any insistence that there is such a thing as heresy, just as there is such a thing as orthodoxy. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In the last decade of the twentieth century, these sorts of approaches to the study of the New Testament produced books with titles like: Reading Sacred Texts Through American Eyes,81 Deconstructing the New Testament,82 Mark and Luke in Poststructuralist Perspectives,83 Poststructuralism and the New Testament: Derrida and Foucault at the Foot of the Cross,84 and Liberating Exegesis.85 Scholarly conferences encourage participants to interpret biblical texts out of their own experience, without regard for whether any particular reading is “right” or “wrong"; indeed, such categories, it is argued, betray an old-fashioned modernist approach. A certain reading may be “right” or “wrong” for one particular group, but certainly not for everyone. Among the interesting stances that this creativity has generated is a flurry of books and essays on reading texts from a “postcolonial” perspective, 86 and a now voluminous literature on feminist readings. 87 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | A brief introduction cannot properly evaluate these multiplying approaches to reading the New Testament. Some of the developments described here will turn out to be passing fancies without enduring relevance. For instance, one writer comments, “Structuralism may turn out to be for literary criticism what James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake was for the novel—an experimental dead end. While the structure of Biblical books and narratives is clearly of crucial importance for their interpretation, we have yet to be convinced that structuralism is a useful heuristic tool for identifying such structures.”88 On the other hand, there is an obvious and important element in postmodern epistemology that must not be denied. None of us interprets anything from an entirely neutral stance. One would have to enjoy the attribute of omniscience to be entirely objective. Insofar as it reminds us that we are finite, and that our findings, at some level, must always be qualified by our limitations, postmodernism has been a salutary advance. It has been especially useful in checking the arrogance of modernist claims. The problem is that in the hands of many interpreters, postmodernism demands a nasty antithesis: either we claim we can know objective truth exhaustively, or we insist that our finitude means we cannot know objective truth and therefore cannot truly “know” reality. Since finite human beings can never know anything omnisciently, only the second alternative is defensible. In that case, all our “knowledge” is a social or a personal construct; the only “reality” we can know is the one we construct. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | There is a sense, of course, in which this latter claim is transparently obvious: the only “reality” we can know is the one we construct. But the crucial issue is this: Can this “reality” that we ourselves “know” be tightly aligned with objective reality? In other words, even though we finite human beings can never enjoy omniscient knowledge, can we not legitimately claim to know some objective things truly, even if we do not know them perfectly, exhaustively? After all, this accords with our experience: in almost any field we can get to know some things better than we did before, and this suggests that our knowledge is improving. In principle, it can improve to the point that we may legitimately claim that we know (even if it is not omniscient knowledge) some things truly. And if more or different evidence arrives later and prompts us to change our minds, that too is part of the improvement, the approach to true knowledge.89 We are most definitely not squeezed into the absolute antithesis: either we have perfect knowledge, or else none of our “knowledge” has any more significance than any other social construct. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | This preliminary response deserves six brief further observations. First, as has often been noted, those who insist most vociferously on the relativity of all human knowledge without recognizing how our constructions can and do approach knowledge of the objective, place themselves in a terrible dilemma. For when they insist that all knowledge is a mere social construct, then they admit that their knowledge that all knowledge is a mere social construct is also a mere social construct—so why should we give the claim any more credence than the contrary claim? Second, there is more than a little irony in the fact that many interpreters of the New Testament who claim the independence of their own interpretive grid as their epistemological right, then attempt to influence others that they are right and even denigrate alternative views. To cite but one example, Neil Elliott insists on the rightness of his reading of Paul’s letters, which, he thinks, should be used as a manifesto for political action—and part of Elliott’s rhetoric is to inveigh against various theological understandings of Paul.90 Third, Scripture itself speaks of the knowledge of Christians in a straightforward way. John says that he writes his first letter so that his readers may know that they have eternal life (1 John 5:13). Luke tells Theophilus that he is writing so that the latter “may know the certainty of the things [he has] been taught” (Luke 1:3–4). Sometimes the knowledge in view is personal (e.g., Phil. 3:10, “I want to know Christ”); sometimes it is experiential (e.g., Phil. 3:10, “I want to know … the power of his resurrection and participation in his sufferings”); and sometimes it is propositional (e.g., John 8:32, “you will know the truth"; John 20:31, the fourth gospel is written so that its readers may believe that certain things are true). The Christian gospel, the good news, has propositional content that is to be passed on from one believer to another. That is why it can be referred | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | to another. That is why it can be referred to as “the faith that the Lord has once for all entrusted to us, his people” (Jude 3). Though “truth” in Scripture can refer to more than propositional truth, propositional truth certainly lies within its embrace. So too strong an insistence that we cannot know the truth may assuage postmodern sensibilities, but it is a long step removed from Scripture itself. Fourth, for the same reason, the strongest voices in the Yale School, to which reference has already been made, are vaguely troubling. For it is not enough to fill our minds with biblical ideas, vocabulary, and images, unless we think that by so doing we are being led to think true thoughts about what is actually there—that the Bible actually refers to people, events, and even to God himself, as living outside the Bible, and that the Bible bears true witness to them (even though, transparently, it cannot bear exhaustive witness to them, or produce omniscient knowledge of these extrabiblical realities among those who read about them in the Bible’s pages). We are not saved by biblical ideas: that is a narrowly intellectualist approach. We are saved by the God and the biblical events to which the Bible refers, bearing true witness. Fifth, these reflections suggest that postmodernism has swung the pendulum much too far. In the words of Brenda Watson, | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | [Where a postmodern] sees the need for articulating the partiality and provisional nature of any knowledge we claim, I see the equal need for articulating what are strongly persuasive grounds for regarding as a secure basis for Christian faith—provided the enterprise is shorn of non-essential and unjustified notions of dogmatism or of rigidity.
We live not by our doubts but by our certainties, however much later experience and fresh evidence may require them to be modified. And even then it is new certainties which act as the trigger in replacing the old ones.
Released from being obliged to accept the tyranny of the naturalist presupposition and its progeny, a more confident yet appropriately flexible approach to certainty may be forthcoming. It will then be easier to accept that balance between complete ignorance and complete knowledge which each person has to reach for themselves and constantly monitor and modify according to their life experience.91
Failure to get this right means that either we will domesticate the Bible by our rigid and often merely traditional categories, or we will domesticate the Bible by insisting that every interpretive stance has as much merit as every other interpretive stance. In neither case will the Bible do its truly transforming work. And sixth, these reflections suggest that a responsible approach to the New Testament, and indeed to the whole Bible, will not only try to come to grips with the fact that this is a text and therefore all its textual characteristics must be understood, but that it conveys a grand story, and that although it can include parables like those of Jesus and a fable like that of Jotham, it purports to tell us some true things about God, his people, his enemies, our origins, and our destiny, and that this story line demands that, among other approaches, we remain sensitive to the salvation-historical 92 unfolding of this drama.
Approaches Based on the Selection of Background Material | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Even while a substantial number of contemporary New Testament scholars operate out of the reader-response and postmodern matrices just described, several other groups are more interested in what happened in history. Many of these attempt to understand the New Testament documents by reading them against the background of particular first-century movements. Ideally, this sort of study is salutary: we are far more likely to avoid introducing hopeless anachronisms into our study of the New Testament if we are well informed about how words were used in the first century and what movements and thought patterns competed with Christian claims or fed into them. Moreover, when such study is done well, it avoids the feeling of unreality and disconnectedness that permeates some of the more subjective approaches. Nevertheless, here too there are several minefields through which one must carefully navigate. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | First, the first century saw Israel at a confluence of huge cultural streams. Rooted in the Hebrew canon and Aramaic paraphrases (the Targums), and knowing itself to belong to streams of Judaism that stretched back for centuries, Israel was also part of a minor province in the mighty Roman Empire, whose official and military language was Latin and whose lingua franca was primarily Greek. Doubtless the New Testament writers most commonly cite what we call the Old Testament, but Paul can also quote minor pagan poets; and in any case, once the gospel was being preached in a predominantly Gentile world, inevitably the questions raised and the challenges to be faced ensured that the good news about Jesus the Messiah would be shaped to prove coherent and convincing in such environments. Thus, both streams can lay claim to being part of the legitimate “background” to the New Testament. Because of the enormous range of such background material, however, inevitably some scholars become experts in the Greco-Roman sources, and others in the Jewish sources. Very few have equal standing in both streams, and many books focus on one stream at the expense of the other.93 Moreover, even within one of these streams, some scholars focus on the textual material but know relatively little about the allied archaeology; others may know a good deal about the archaeology but have a more rudimentary grasp of the textual sources. To make matters still more complicated, some parts of the first-century populace, not least in Galilee, were at home in both worlds, and each of the two streams penetrated the other. Martin Hengel made this point most tellingly three decades ago.94 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Second, even within these three bodies of opinion—that trace, respectively, a Jewish, Greco-Roman, or somehow merged stream—there are many shades of opinion. On the Greco-Roman side, for instance, some argue that the closest background to Jesus’ sayings lies in Cynic thought. A generation or two ago, many scholars insisted that Gnosticism is older than Christianity and is, in fact, the religious movement out of which Christianity, as we know it, grew. Other scholars have focused on Stoic or Sophist elements to explain 1 and 2 Corinthians. All sides wrestle with the extent to which Paul self-consciously used the rhetorical categories that were common in the educated Greco-Roman world. Meanwhile, on the Jewish side, some scholars establish links between the New Testament documents and the Old Testament, while others focus on one part or another of the literature of Second Temple Judaism: the Dead Sea Scrolls, perhaps, or apocalyptic literature, or the writings of Philo, or some part of the vast corpus of rabbinic Judaism. In some instances complex issues of dating and provenance generate disparate schools of scholars with highly diverse opinions as to the extent to which a particular corpus may legitimately be used as background (e.g., the rabbinic literature). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The third minefield to be negotiated is the manner in which such studies of background sources may or may not be legitimately used to shed light on what the New Testament is saying. In other words, it is possible that by forcing a New Testament document onto the Procrustean bed of some particular ostensible background, a kind of interpretive rape takes place. This is what Samuel Sandmel rather shrewdly labeled “parallelomania” several decades ago:95 apparent parallels to New Testament texts may so domesticate those texts that the meaning of the “parallel” is read back into the New Testament, making it impossible to hear what the New Testament is actually saying. For instance, the major commentary on Galatians by Hans Dieter Betz96 interprets the letter almost entirely from the matrix of Greco-Roman “parallels” of disputed relevance: by and large their thought-forms and assumptions succeed only in distorting Paul’s thought.97 The recent New Testament theology by Georg Strecker,98 rather amazingly, reads Pauline Christology against the background of a pre-Christian gnostic-redeemer myth, a category that has been repeatedly shown to be post-Christian.99 The so-called “new perspective on Paul” (discussed later in this volume), though it has earlier roots, was precipitated in large part when E. P. Sanders argued that the various Judaisms in Palestine of the first century all adopted a pattern of religion that he labeled “covenantal nomism.”100 No one disputes that Sanders identified certain important elements in first-century Judaism and that he corrected some important misjudgments of earlier scholars. But because he placed all of the relevant Palestinian Jewish background into one conceptual bucket, his theory exercised hegemonic control over the exegesis of Paul, especially in Anglo-American circles. That hegemonic control is now losing its grip, precisely because several have shown that there are important elements in first-century Palestinian Jewish thought that do | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | first-century Palestinian Jewish thought that do not fit into Sanders’s grid—and this is again freeing up the exegesis of Paul from a rather narrow and stifling paradigm that did not always listen very attentively to Paul himself.101 Sometimes the nature of the ostensible background is itself disputed, and in any case, it should not be allowed to control the exegesis of the New Testament.102 The first obligation of the interpreter of the New Testament is to try to understand the thoughts of these documents on their own terms. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | But none of these warnings means we can dispense with the study of backgrounds. One should be as wary of “parallelophobia” as of parallelomania, since in the providence of God the New Testament documents were written in concrete historical circumstances in which they are embedded. One need only reflect, for instance, on the considerable light shed on Revelation 2 -3 by the archaeological and textual probing of backgrounds undertaken by gifted scholars,103 or the remarkable volumes in the series The Book of Acts in Its First-Century Setting,104 or the comprehensive survey of background thought on resurrection, life after death, and immortality in N. T. Wright’s recent and thorough examination of the resurrection of Jesus Christ,105 to discern how impoverished we would be if there were no such research.
Social-Scientific Approaches | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Social-Scientific Approaches
Social-scientific criticism is deeply indebted both to sociology and to cultural anthropology. Apart from isolated studies, its rise as a burgeoning field with a multiplying literature goes back only thirty or forty years. For the first decade and a half, it tended to apply specific sociological theories to the dynamics of the movements found in the New Testament. For instance, John Gager applied contemporary theories of millenarian movements, functions of social conflict, and cognitive dissonance to Paul’s conversion and the experiences of the Pauline churches in the New Testament.106 In his approach to the New Testament, Gerd Theissen leaned heavily not only on the sociological approaches of Weber but on Freudian psychology.107 In other words, these sorts of approaches depended on adopting the kinds of global categories advanced by (largely) European sociology (the grand theories of Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, Clifford Geertz, and Mary Douglas, among others). Perhaps the most careful of the books in this line is Wayne Meeks’s The First Urban Christians, 108 where he avoids careless transfer of contemporary social categories such as “middle class” to the first-century setting but attempts instead to isolate the social dynamics applicable at the time, including categories of status, honor, benefaction, and the like. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In some ways, Meeks’s book anticipates the slight transition in focus and terminology that took place around 1986.109 After that date, “social-scientific criticism” came increasingly to be used of a network of approaches that owed more to cultural anthropology than to European sociology. Now there is much more emphasis on personal and group relationships within a particular historical and social setting. Such an approach wants to know, for instance, how a father or mother would view his or her role in a first-century family in Ephesus, why first-century itinerant preachers could expect hospitality, what the obligations were between employers and employees, how the patronage system worked, what ingredients were tied to the honor/shame culture of the day, how a local assembly, a local church, would view itself, and be viewed, within the larger social matrix, and much more of the same.110 Clearly such questions are, broadly speaking, historical, but only recently have they received the attention they deserve. At least they are avoiding the solipsism of text-based studies that entirely ignore the extratextual history. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | As helpful as these approaches are, to some extent they have achieved, in the hands of some interpreters, their own regrettable hegemonic authority. By and large, scholars who focus on the social dynamics of the individuals and groups represented in the New Testament are at their best when they help us understand some of the givens and presuppositions of first-century life and outlook in this or that Roman province. Such study sheds useful light that helps us interpret the New Testament in its own historical (and therefore social) setting. They are at their worst when they give the impression that the horizontal axis of social dynamics is a sufficient explanation of New Testament texts, when the supernatural and revelatory dimensions are either systematically ignored or specifically disowned, when specific social theory is treated as a transcultural control that may not itself be questioned, when the values of today’s Mediterranean or Palestinian world are read back into the first century without rigorous questioning—and above all, when the text of the New Testament, far from being illuminated by such study, is ignored or controverted or domesticated on the grounds of the external model.111
Language and Linguistic Approaches | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Language and Linguistic Approaches
Although the last century witnessed a decline in the number of people with a working knowledge of the primary languages important to New Testament study (Greek, of course, but also Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin, followed by the other languages into which the New Testament was first translated), there have nevertheless been some remarkable advances. At the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, the discovery of many colloquial Greek papyri helped to explain the differences in Greek syntax and vocabulary that anyone could discern between the New Testament documents and the works of Homer (eighth century B.C.) or the works of the “classical” period (fifth and fourth centuries B.C.). Of the numerous books that flowed out of these findings, the one by C. F. D. Moule probably still circulates most widely.112 Similar finds have more recently enriched the study of Aramaic.
But what attracts attention here is a handful of linguistic and linguistic-philosophical advances. The three mentioned below are far from exhaustive; they merely represent a plethora of developments. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | First, continual advance is being achieved in the study of words—words as they are found in lexica (“lexical semantics”), and words as they are actually used in concrete contexts (a branch of “pragmatics”). A recent volume by John Lee has provided us with a highly competent history of New Testament lexicography.113 In particular, Lee demonstrates how linguistic awareness is increasingly, and rightly, taking us away from thinking of the meaning of words in the categories of English “glosses” (i.e., quick translation equivalents). The latest English edition of the Bauer lexicon114 is certainly an improvement on its predecessor in this regard, though doubtless there is more to be learned. An ongoing project in Australia is making available to a wider readership the scattered publication of papyrological finds that may have some bearing on our understanding of New Testament words.115 And an innovative lexicon prepared by Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida organizes the Greek words to be studied, not in mere alphabetical order, but in “semantic fields"; that is, it groups words together that have similar or overlapping domains of meaning.116
Second, although linguistic theory falls into several disparate camps, one of the more productive of these camps has carefully distinguished Aktionsart (well known to every seminary student who has taken even the first year of Greek) from “aspect” in the verbal system (not the kind of action, but the author’s choice of how to envisage the action).117 The results challenge not a little of what traditionalists think that each tense of the Greek system actually grammaticalizes. With only occasional exceptions, this work, though some of it has been around for decades, has not yet broken into the general run of New Testament scholarship, though breaks are appearing in the dikes of partition commonly erected between disciplines. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Third, “speech act theory” has brought major advances to how words in text work. Words in contexts do not simply mean something, they may do something. Speech act theory springs from the seminal work of J. L. Austin,118 but it has been developed in a large body of erudite literature,119 and has now become part of the arsenal of every New Testament scholar.120 This certainly does not mean that every subtheory or interpretive grid erected by speech act theorists is unquestioningly adopted—far from it. What it means is that every informed reader of the New Testament is a little more sensitive to the exigencies of thinking through how words function, what they actually perform, as well as what they mean. When Jesus cries to the storm, “Cease! Be still!” we may be misled if we think that the words themselves are primarily meant to convey some deep theological truth. We need to think through Jesus’ intention in uttering the words and to mark their effect. Words do things as well as teach things. And that fact itself requires the reader to discern a new level of meaning as well as, vicariously in imagination, to grasp what the people described in the narrative experienced.
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | As long as it is, this chapter, which ventures to cover the distance from the first writing of the New Testament documents to contemporary study of them, cannot be more than a sketch. Several overwhelming impressions are conveyed by developments during the last century or so. First, an extraordinary diversity of approaches, methods, presuppositions, and conclusions now attends the study of the New Testament.121 Second, the presentation here has been somewhat schematized. In order to attain some degree of clarity, we have described some methods and movements piecemeal. In reality, many scholars mingle their approaches to produce hybrids that are both interesting and fruitful. For instance, there are social-science approaches and there are linguistic approaches, but there are also now sociolinguistic approaches.122 Third, with only limited exceptions, this chapter has focused on Western study of the New Testament. But of course the New Testament, not to say the earliest centuries of the Christian church, was not characteristically Western.123 Today there is a rapidly multiplying church in many parts of the world, and although the depth of scholarship in these fast-growing arenas is still a bit thin, new journals are being published every year, usually in languages that most Westerners cannot read. Insofar as it is possible to probe this literature, one is struck both by the commonality of historic, confessional Christianity, even if it has local flavor, and by the fresh questions that are sometimes asked by people with limited exposure to the Western heritage. And fourth, most of the approaches and historical developments surveyed in this chapter have had some value, but almost all of them have sometimes been deployed irresponsibly, primarily by claiming some kind of near-exclusive methodological control, or by being married to deep-seated rationalism or even philosophical naturalism, both of which find it difficult to read the New Testament sympathetically on its | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | to read the New Testament sympathetically on its own terms. | [
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Subsets and Splits