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An Introduction to the New Testament | One of the entailments of this burgeoning diversity of approaches is that the “introductions” to the New Testament written in the last decade or two have themselves taken on highly diverse emphases. It used to be that introductions to the New Testament primarily dealt with matters of date, authorship, background, authenticity, and perhaps a brief history of the discipline. These were written from various stances, of course, but the matters covered were rather similar. But today, although such matters remain the focus of some introductions,124 others introduce the New Testament by focusing on the growth and context of the church,125 on its history and literature,126 or on its history and theology127 (not necessarily quite the same thing!); by attempting a fairly comprehensive and integrated interpretation of the whole (though inevitably that means that certain elements are less discussed than in other works);128 by relatively brief surveys of the material written from a dogmatic and usually reductionistic stance that scarcely acknowledges there are other judgments;129 or by providing a brief survey and a representative smattering of primary sources relevant to the origins of Christianity (though of course the selection itself says a great deal and can prove limiting).130 The volume you are reading devotes most attention to the historical questions of traditional introductions but also introduces a range of hermeneutical and theological issues.
To project the future of the study of the New Testament demands a courage the authors of this volume lack. Some are convinced that it lies with postmodern approaches.131 Rather amusingly, Bockmuehl lists “possible futures” to New Testament scholarship as he extrapolates what would happen if any of the current emphases now on offer had its way and became hegemonic. The effect, of course, is to expose the rather painful reductionism of so much of the current enterprise. He concludes by observing, | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | At the end of the day it may turn out that the implied reader is in a better position to understand the text than the aloof or the distrusting interpreter.
Adolf Schlatter (1969) was perhaps right after all to criticize atheistic methods of theological study for their inadequate perception of what is in the text… : there are limits to how much you can usefully say about the stained glass windows of King’s College Chapel without going inside.132
But perhaps the most perceptive advice is offered by Craig Blomberg: those with a confessional stance toward the New Testament must engage both with the text of holy Scripture and with the way it is discussed in their own generation, bearing in mind some of the long heritage that has gone before.133
1See especially Alan Millard, Reading and Writing in the Time of Jesus (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000).
2The best survey is Bruce M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament: Their Origin, Transmission and Limitations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977).
3Amulets are charms, often worn around the neck to ward off assorted evils. Some amulets were simply “magic” stones or the like, but others were sayings or cherished quotations written on papyrus, vellum, potsherd, or wood. Where superstition overlaid Christian faith, inevitably some of these quotations were biblical. Obviously, neither ostraca nor amulets can provide evidence for extensive passages.
4For further reading, see John A. L. Lee, A History of New Testament Lexicography, SBG 8 (New York: Peter Lang, 2003).
5One of the fourteen was Codex Bezae, now recognized as the chief witness to the Western Text. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 6A small minority of textual critics argue that the pursuit of the original is a vain exercise: e.g., D. C. Parker, The Living Text of the Gospels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). The manuscript tradition is so fluid, they say, that the attempt to uncover the original reading is pointless. Worse, it diverts attention from the study of what the diverse textual traditions tell us of what the church thought at various times and places. However, not only does Parker overemphasize the freedom of the textual tradition, but he also fails to reflect on the significance of the fact that for every book there was an original. That we cannot reproduce it with perfect certainty with respect to every word does not vitiate the fact that the pursuit is valuable and that its goal is, in no small measure, attainable.
7The best introductions to the subject are still those of Bruce Metzger, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), and Kurt Aland and Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism, trans. Erroll F. Rhodes (Leiden: Brill; Grand Rapids: Eerd- mans, 1987). Students have long relied on the reasoning displayed in entry after entry of Bruce Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, 2nd ed. (London/New York: United Bible Societies, 1994). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 8Perhaps the best defense of this view is Wilbur N. Pickering, The Identity of the New Testament Text II, 3rd ed. (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2003). The best succinct treatment of this position from the stance of mainstream eclecticism is probably that of Kurt Aland, “The Text of the Church?” TrinJ 8 (1987): 131-44. For popular treatments, see D. A. Carson, The King James Version Debate: A Plea for Realism (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979); James R. White, The King James Only Controversy (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1995); Doug Kutilek, J. Frank Norris and His Heirs: The Bible Translation Controversy (Pasadena: Pilgrim, 1999).
9In some ways this movement is rather a sustained critique of the weak spots in eclecticism. It is best represented by the work of J. K. Elliott and his best students (and earlier by the text-critical essays of G. D. Kilpatrick). See, for instance, J. K. Elliott, ed., The Principles and Practice of New Testament Textual Criticism: Collected Essays of G. D. Kilpatrick, BETL 96 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1990); idem, Essays and Studies in New Testament Textual Criticism, EFN 3 (Córdoba: Ediciones el Almendro, 1992); Kent D. Clarke, Textual Optimism: A Critique of the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament, JSNTSup 138 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997). The best response to thoroughgoing eclecticism as a movement (though not necessarily to each particular criticism the movement offers) is the description of the goals and methods of mainstream textual criticism offered in the sort of standard texts listed in n. 7 above.
10The stance of Parker, The Living Text of the Gospels—that textual criticism is not concerned with getting as close as possible to the original text but is simply an exercise in hermeneutics—is frankly baffling. See the penetrating review by Moisés Silva in WTJ 62 (2000): 295-302. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 11E.g., W. G. Kümmel, The New Testament: The History of the Investigation of Its Problems (Nashville: Abingdon, 1972), 13: “It is impossible to speak of a scientific view of the New Testament until the New Testament became the object of investigation as an independent body of literature with historical interest, as a collection of writings that could be considered apart from the Old Testament and without dogmatic or creedal bias. Since such a view began to prevail only during the course of the eighteenth century, earlier discussion of the New Testament can only be referred to as the prehistory of New Testament scholarship.” It is doubtful if anyone informed by postmodern awareness of the unavoidable fact that all interpreters bring their biases to the text could make quite the same remark today.
12Dialogue with Trypho almost certainly represents a later report of actual discussions Justin Martyr had with Jews. Its level and tone are remarkably elevated and fair- minded, unlike some later treatises. Almost every major Christian writer of the first five centuries either wrote a treatise against Judaism or incorporated substantial arguments of that sort within other works, but most scholars conclude that this became a literary conceit usefully deployed to defend the uniqueness of Christ and of Christianity. See especially Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 1:15-16.
13E. A. Judge, “Ancient Contradictions in the Australian Soul,” ISCAST Bulletin 33 (Winter 2001): 8.
14Cited by Augustine, City of God 10.32.
15R. L. Wilken, “Religious Pluralism and Early Christian Thought,” in Remembering the Christian Past (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 42-43.
16See chapter 23 on the Johannine Epistles.
17James A. Robinson, ed., The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 3rd ed. (San Francisco: Harper, 1990). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 18Walter Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971 [orig. 1934]).
19So I. Howard Marshall, whose title amusingly draws attention to the point: “Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earlier Christianity,” Themelios 2/1 (1976): 5–14. Other useful works on this subject include Daniel J. Harrington, “The Reception of Walter Bauer’s Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity During the Last Decade,” HTR 77 (1980): 289–99; Harold O. J. Brown, Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present (Garden City: Doubleday, 1984); Graham N. Stanton and Guy G. Strousma, eds., Tolerance and Intolerance in Early Judaism and Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Craig L. Blomberg, “The New Testament Definition of Heresy (or When Do Jesus and the Apostles Really Get Mad?),” JETS 45 (2002): 59-72, which, despite the racy title, is penetrating.
20Philip Jenkins, Hidden Gospels: How the Search for Jesus Lost Its Way (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 115-16.
21Although relatively little of his enormous oeuvre survives, some of his extant work is accessible to those who read only modern English translations. Origen’s massive commentary on Romans, written in Greek, is lost, but it was translated into Latin and somewhat condensed by Rufinus (345-410), and has only recently been translated from the Latin into English by Thomas P. Scheck: Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans,2 vols. (Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 2001-2). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 22We say “variety of theories” because how church and state relate to each other varies widely. Separation of church and state does not mean the same thing in, say, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. But all Christian experience and heritage on this subject, as complex and as variegated as it is, remains profoundly different from, for example, the Muslim heritage. Once Muhammad gained power at Medina, the religious and civil authorities were one. The first three centuries of Islam witnessed rapid growth by military conquest. There is nothing in Islam quite like the seminal utterance found on the lips of Jesus, “Give back to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s.” By the same token, Islam has never conceived of the nation-state quite the way the West has, nor has it ever had a “clergy” closely analogous to Christian clergy.
23Doubtless this system developed in part because traveling preachers/lecturers were common in the Roman world. The best of them could make a good living. They gained disciples who would pay for the privilege of attaching themselves to the teacher. Occasionally one of these traveling preachers would stop traveling and settle somewhere, opening a small academy. There were no institutions akin to modern universities.
24The nature of these controversies can be quickly discovered in any good dictionary of church history, e.g., F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
25See Thomas C. Oden, The Justification Reader (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002).
26For an interesting if overstated description of the role of monasteries, see Thomas Cahill, How the Irish Saved Civilization (New York: Doubleday, 1995). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 27For easy access to the issues, see Daniel B. Clendenin, Eastern Orthodox Theology: A Contemporary Reader (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995); idem, Eastern Orthodox Christianity: A Western Perspective (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994); and especially Theodore G. Stylianopoulos, The New Testament: An Orthodox Perspective, Vol. 1: Scripture, Tradition, Hermeneutics (Brookline: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1997). Cf. also Bradley Nassif, “Eastern Orthodoxy and Evangelicalism: The Status of an Emerging Global Dialogue,” SBET18 (2000): 21-55.
28Intriguingly, during his reign, Pope John Paul II canonized sixty-four saints, which is more than all the canonizations by popes during the last four hundred years. This does not include several currently in process.
29See further M. Fiedler and L. Rabben, eds., Rome Has Spoken: A Guide to Forgotten Papal Statements, and How They Have Changed through the Centuries (New York: Crossroad, 1998).
30For further reading, see G. R. Evans, ed., The Medieval Theologians: An Introduction to Theology in the Medieval Period (Blackwell: Oxford, 2001).
31See the important work of Henri de Lubac, Medieval Exegesis, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998-2000). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 32In recent years it has been pointed out, not least by Thomas C. Oden (“A Patristic Perspective on European Christianity in World Perspective,” ERT27 [2003]: 31836), that the Christianity of the first few centuries was not primarily a European phenomenon. The gospel spread out from Jerusalem into what is now called Turkey (which was for a millennium the heart of Byzantium), the North African coast, Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, and probably as far east as the Indus Valley, with some evidence of extension to China, not to mention extension to Rome, and then to what are now France and Spain. Thus, for either the friends or foes of Christianity to see the Christian religion, in its origins and initial expansion, as primarily a European phenomenon, is simply mistaken. On the other hand, one should also point out that, owing in substantial part to the expansionist pressures from Islam, Europe became the dominant voice preserving, articulating, defending, and expounding Christianity, especially after the fall of Constantinople. These roles, of course, contemporary Europe seems determined to shed.
33For an introduction to the rise and definition of the canon, see the final chapter of this book.
34This is no less true of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, of course, than of, say, the Puritans, even though, transparently, the two parties emerged with radically different conclusions. Both felt the massive impact of the Reformation. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 35See D. A. Carson, “New Testament Theology,” in Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments (Downers Grove: IVP, 1997), 796-814, some of which has been adapted for use here, and the opening pages of Charles H. H. Scobie, The Ways of Our God: An Approach to Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003). For an earlier survey, see Gerhard F. Hasel, New Testament Theology: Basic Issues in the Current Debate (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978); idem, “The Nature of Biblical Theology: Recent Trends and Issues,” AUSS32 (1994): 203-15.
36See J. Sandys-Wunsch and L. Eldredge, “J. P. Gabler and the Distinction Between Biblical and Dogmatic Theology,” SJT33 (1980): 133-58.
37See Horton Harris, The Tübingen School(Grand Rapids: Baker, repr. 1990 [1975]); or, in shorter compass, Stephen Neill and N. T. Wright, The Interpretation of the New Testament 1861-1986, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 20-34.
38Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1897. The work was translated into English by Robert Morgan as “The Task and Methods of ‘New Testament Theology,'” in Robert Morgan, The Nature of New Testament Theology (London: SCM, 1973), 68-116.
39Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Nördlingen: Beck, 1886).
40Of his many books, the most important to this discussion was his Die Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 2 vols. (Stuttgart: Verlag der Vereinsbuchhandlung, 1909-10)— though Schlatter revised his work significantly in a later edition. The 1923 edition has now been translated into English by Andreas Köstenberger in two volumes with the respective titles The History of the Christ: The Foundations of New Testament Theology and The Theology of the Apostles: The Development of New Testament Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997, 1999). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 41See especially his Theology of the New Testament, 2 vols. (ET London: SCM, 1952-55 [1948-53]). For additional insight into his approach, see his important essay, “The Problem of a Theological Exegesis of the New Testament,” available in ET in The Beginnings of Dialectical Theology, ed. J. M. Robinson (Richmond: John Knox, 1968), 47-72 (the original appeared in 1941).
42See especially his Salvation in History (New York: Harper & Row, 1967).
43See especially G. Ernest Wright, God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital, SBT 8 (London: SCM, 1962).
44Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, eds., Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933-74; ET: Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19641974).
45See especially Brevard Childs, Biblical Theology in Crisis (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1970). No less influential was James Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961); and most recently his magisterial The Concept of Biblical Theology: An Old Testament Perspective (London: SCM, 1999).
46Biblical Theology: Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1948).
47A Theology of the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974 [rev. ed. 1993]).
48New Testament Theology (Downers Grove: IVP, 1981).
49The Theology of the New Testament According to Its Major Witnesses (London: SCM, 1974 [1969]).
50New Testament Theology: The Proclamation of Jesus (New York: Scribner’s, 1971). This was the only volume to be published of what was supposed to be a multivolume series tracing the theology of the different sources and corpora.
51Neutestamentliche Theologie: Ein Überblick (Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1989); idem, Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Freiburg: Herder, 1994).
52Theology of the New Testament (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000).
53An Outline of the Theology of the New Testament (New York: Harper and Row, 1967). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 54Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments: Theological Reflection on the Christian Bible (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992).
55New Testament Theology, ed. Lincoln D. Hurst (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
56Theologiegeschichte des Urchristentums (Tübingen: Francke, 1994).
57See especially Peter Balla, Challenges to New Testament Theology: An Attempt to Justify the Enterprise, WUNT 95 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1997); Dan O. Via, What Is New Testament Theology? GBS (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002); D. A. Carson, “Current Issues in Biblical Theology: A New Testament Perspective,” BBR 5 (1995): 17-41; and many of the essays in T. D. Alexander and Brian S. Rosner, eds., New Dictionary of Biblical Theology (Downers Grove: IVP, 2000).
58E.g., Brian S. Rosner, Paul, Scripture and Ethics: A Study of 1 Corinthians 1-7, AGJU 12 (Leiden: Brill, 1994); Dorothy Lee, Flesh and Glory: Symbol, Gender, and Theology in the Gospel of John (New York: Crossroad, 2003).
59Cf. D. A. Carson, New Testament Commentary Survey, 5th ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001).
60See, for example, the important work of W. Ward Gasque, A History of the Criticism of the Acts of the Apostles, BGBE 17 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1975), though it is now somewhat dated.
61Although most of the ways of breaking down and ordering the following literary tools and approaches to the New Testament text are not remarkable, some scholars adopt slightly different classifications.
62See especially his History of the Synoptic Tradition (New York: Harper and Row, 1963).
63See his The Gospel of John (Oxford: Blackwell, 1971). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 64For example, by comparing the forms of the parables recorded in different gospels, Joachim Jeremias (The Parables of Jesus [New York: Scribner’s, 1963], 113-14) developed what he called ten “laws of [parable] transmission.” At one time widely influential, this work is now almost entirely eclipsed. For a useful treatment of the history of parable research, see Craig Blomberg, Interpreting the Parables (Downers Grove: IVP, 1990).
65By and large, source and form critics have not been as adventuresome in the NT letters as in the gospels. Even so, there are many variations. Perhaps the most extreme source critic in recent memory is J. C. O’Neill, who argues, for instance, that Paul wrote no more than about two-thirds of Galatians: see his The Recovery of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians (London: SPCK, 1972).
66See, for instance, Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter, The Question of Criteria: The Quest for the Plausible Jesus (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002), and the biting review by R. T. France in Theol 106 (2003): 272-73.
67One thinks, for instance, of the work of The Jesus Seminar, with its color-coded gospels measuring out the historical probability of this or that snippet. Of the several books that reflect the work of the Seminar, perhaps easiest access is found in Robert W. Funk, A Credible Jesus: Fragments of a Vision (Santa Rosa: Polebridge, 2002). See the negative assessments by the classical historian Philip Jenkins, Hidden Gospels;Michael J. Wilkins and J. P. Moreland, eds., Jesus Under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents the Historical Jesus (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 68For instance, the multivolume work of John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew (New York: Doubleday: 1991-). The net results of the first three massive volumes (a fourth volume, on John, is still promised) conclude that Jesus was a prophetic figure emerging from the diversity of first-century Judaism; that he was linked in some way with John the Baptist, expected God’s rule, and had some ill-defined group of followers (of whom only Judas and Peter are at all known); that he performed healings and associated with outcasts; and that he interacted with other Jewish religious groups. In the Bultmannian heritage, Meier wants to protect the Christ of faith—the Christ in whom Christians believe, if they are Christians at all—from the results of his own historical probings, that is, from what he calls the Jesus of history. Implicitly, of course, this denies the incarnation—the revelation of God himself in real history.
69E.g., Stanley E. Porter, The Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research: Previous Discussion and New Proposals, JSNTSup 191 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000). There are also countless essays and books on particular historical-critical tools: e.g., on redaction criticism, see D. A. Carson, “Redaction Criticism: On the Legitimacy and Illegitimacy of a Literary Tool,” in Scripture and Truth, ed. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 115-42; Randall K. J. Tan, “Recent Developments in Redaction Criticism: From Investigation of Textual Prehistory Back to Historical-Grammatical Exegesis?” JETS44 (2001): 599-614.
70See especially Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerd- mans, 1998). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 71E.g., Samuel Byrskog, Jesus the Only Teacher: Didactic Authority and Transmission in Ancient Israel, Ancient Judaism, and the Matthean Community (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1994); idem, Story as History—History as Story: The Gospel Tradition in the Context of Ancient Oral History, WUNT 123 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 2000). See the useful evaluation in the review article by Peter M. Head, “The Role of Eyewitnesses in the Formation of the Gospel Tradition,” TynB 52 (2001): 275-94.
72See especially Richard Bauckham, ed., The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998).
73Even here, however, we would be remiss not to notice that Ned B. Stonehouse was advocating precisely such sensitive reading of the canonical gospels before “redaction criticism” had become a household word. See esp. his The Witness of the Synoptic Gospels to Christ (Grand Rapids: Baker, repr. 1979 [1944]).
74Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
75For a comprehensive introduction to the study of rhetoric, see Heinrich Lausberg, Handbook of Literary Rhetoric: A Foundation for Literary Study (Leiden: Brill, 1998). For a focus on classical rhetoric and an introduction to most of the categories used by NT scholars in this regard, see Stanley E. Porter, Handbook of Classical Rhetoric in the Hellenistic Period 330 BC-AD 400 (Leiden: Brill, 1998). For a much briefer introduction, see A. J. Hauser and D. F. Watson, Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible, BIS 6 (Leiden: Brill, 1994); and, with special reference to Pauline studies, R. D. Anderson, Ancient Rhetorical Theory and Paul, CBET 18, 2nd ed. (Leuven: Peeters, 1999).
76See the essays collected by Stanley E. Porter and Dennis E. Stamps, eds., The Rhetorical Interpretation of Scripture, JSNTSup 180 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).
77The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 78Perhaps Lindbeck’s most seminal work is The Nature of Doctrine: Religion and Theology in a Post-liberal Age (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1984)—though he has written a string of important essays and books since then.
79C. Baldick, ed., Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
80Kevin J. Vanhoozer, “The Reader in New Testament Interpretation,” in Hearing the New Testament, ed. Joel B. Green (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 313-14.
81Charles Mabee, Reading Sacred Texts Through American Eyes: Biblical Interpretation as Cultural Critique (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1991).
82David Seeley, Deconstructing the New Testament, BIS 5 (Leiden: Brill, 1994).
83Stephen D. Moore, Mark and Luke in Poststructuralist Perspectives: Jesus Begins to Write (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
84Stephen D. Moore, Poststructuralism and the New Testament: Derrida and Foucault at the Foot of the Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994).
85Christopher Rowland and Mark Corner, Liberating Exegesis: The Challenge of Liberation Theology to Biblical Studies (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1989).
86E.g., Fernando F. Segovia, Decolonizing Biblical Studies: A View from the Margins (Maryknoll: Orbis, 2000); Heikki Räisänen, Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, R. S. Sugirtharajah, Krister Stendahl, and James Barr, Reading the Bible in the Global Village: Helsinki (Atlanta: SBL, 2000); R. S. Sugirtharajah, Postcolonial Reconfigurations: An Alternative Way of Reading the Bible and Doing Theology (St. Louis: Chalice, 2003).
87As a mere sample from a very wide range, see the multivolume and growing series, The Feminist Companion to the Bible (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993-).
88Gordon J. Thomas, “Telling a Hawk from a Handsaw? An Evangelical Response to the New Literary Criticism,” EQ71 (1999): 48. Cf. similarly, Peter Cotterell and Max Turner, Linguistics and Biblical Interpretation (London: SPCK, 1989), 30. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 89Elsewhere, borrowing language from Karl Popper, this has been called the “asymptotic approach.” See D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 121-22.
90Neil Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994), 73 and passim.>
91Brenda Watson, “To Know, Or Not To Know? Re-assessing Historical Skepticism,” Theol 103 (2000): 195-96.
92The term is notoriously slippery but cannot be unpacked here. One of the most informed treatments is that of Robert W. Yarbrough, “The ‘heilsgeschichtliche’ Perspective in Modern New Testament Theology” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Aberdeen, 1985). A revised form of the dissertation is The Salvation-Historical Fallacy? Re-assessing the History of New Testament Theology (Leiderdorp: Deo, 2004).
93E.g., compare F. Gerald Downing, Making Sense in (and of) the First Christian Century, JSNTSup 197 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), and Peter J. Tomson, ‘If this be from Heaven …':Jesus and the New Testament Authors in their Relationship to Judaism (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001).
94Judaism and Hellenism: Studies in Their Encounter in Palestine During the Early Hellenistic Period, 2 vols. (London: SCM, 1974). More recently, a collection of essays edited by Troels Engberg-Pedersen, Paul Beyond the Judaism/Hellenism Divide (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), despite its many seminal suggestions, goes too far in the attempt to obliterate distinctions between the two heritages, as if there were no distinction to be made whatsoever. Some of the argumentation in the book is in transparent and visceral reaction against any claim that the Old Testament and Judaism constitute the fundamental soil from which Christianity springs.
95“Parallelomania,” JBL 81 (1962): 2-13.
96Galatians: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Churches in Galatia, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 97See esp. Philip H. Kern, Rhetoric and Galatians: Assessing an Approach to Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians, SNTSMS 101 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
98Theology of the New Testament. See also the review article by Simon Gathercole, Themelios 28/3 (2003): 40-48.
99Of the many books on this subject, one of the clearest is that of Edwin A. Yamauchi, Pre-Christian Gnosticism: A Survey of the Proposed Evidences, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1983). Half a century ago, there was somewhat more of an excuse for C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), when he mistakenly read John against the background of the Hermetica (a subset of the second-century gnostic movement). But there is very little excuse today.
100Paul and Palestinian Judaism
101(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).
102From the voluminous literature, see Seyoon Kim, Paul and the New Perspective: Second Thoughts on the Origin of Paul’s Gospel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002); D. A. Carson, Peter T. O’Brien, and Mark Seifrid, eds., Justification and Variegated Nomism, 2 vols. (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck/Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001-4).
103E.g., see the dispute between Bruce Winter (Seek the Welfare of the City [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995]; idem, Philo and Paul Among the Sophists, SNTSMS 96 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997]), who argues that much of 1 and 2 Corinthians should be interpreted against the background of a rather early Sophist movement in Corinth, and his most articulate critic, Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, in his review article in RevBib 110 (2003): 428-33.
104See, for instance, Colin J. Hemer, The Letters to The Seven Churches in Their Local Settings, JSNTSup 11 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986 [repr. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001]).
105Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993-.
106N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 107John G. Gager, Kingdom and Community: The Social World of Early Christianity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975).
108Gerd Theissen, The Sociology of Early Palestinian Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978); idem, Social Reality and the Early Christians (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1993); idem, Psychological Aspects of Pauline Theology (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1987).
109New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983.
110Effected, it appears, by the essay of J. H. Elliott, “Social-Scientific Criticism of the New Testament: More on Methods and Models,” Semeia 35 (1986): 1-33.
111Among the more useful surveys are David G. Horrell, Social-Scientific Approaches to New Testament Interpretation (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999) and Anthony J. Blasi, Jean Duhaime, and Paul-André Turcotte, eds., Handbook of Early Christianity: Social Science Approaches (Walnut Creek/Lanham: Altamira Press, 2003). Representative works include Bruce J. Malina, The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology (Atlanta: John Knox, 1991); idem, The Social World of Jesus and the Gospels (London: Routledge, 1996); Jerome H. Neyrey, ed., The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretation (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1991); idem, Honor and Shame in the Gospel of Matthew (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998); Richard L. Rohrbaugh, “ ‘Social Location of Thought’ as a Heuristic Construct in New Testament Study,” JSNT30 (1987): 103-9; idem, ed., The Social Sciences and New Testament Interpretation (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1996); Vernon K. Robbins, Exploring the Texture of Texts: A Guide to Socio-Rhetorical Interpretation (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996)—which integrates some of the strengths of social-science criticism with some of the strengths of rhetorical analysis. Several of the commentaries by Ben Witherington III run down the same avenue. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 112See especially the essay by Kenneth Berding, “The Hermeneutical Framework of Social-Scientific Criticism: How Much Can Evangelicals Get Involved?” EQ75 (2003): 3-22.
113An Idiom-Book of New Testament Greek (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953).
114John A. L. Lee, A History of New Testament Lexicography, SBG 8 (New York: Peter Lang, 2003).
115Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), now commonly abbreviated BDAG.
116This is the series of volumes titled New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity, edited by various people. The series began in 1983, and so far has reached volume 9. It is published by Macquarie University in Australia (more recently by Eerdmans in the United States).
117Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, eds., Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, 2 vols. (New York: UBS, 1988).
118See especially Stanley E. Porter, Verbal Aspect in the Greek of the New Testament with Reference to Tense and Mood, SBG 1 (New York: Peter Lang, 1989); idem, Idioms of the Greek New Testament (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992); Buist M. Fanning, Verbal Aspect in New Testament Greek (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); K. L. McKay, A New Syntax of the Verb in New Testament Greek: An Aspectual Approach, SBG 5 (New York: Peter Lang, 1994). These theoretical treatments are increasingly being tested on contiguous texts: e.g., Rodney J. Decker, Temporal Deixis of the Greek Verb in the Gospel of Mark with Reference to Verbal Aspect, SBG 10 (New York: Peter Lang, 2001). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 119Especially in his work How To Do Things with Words, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975 [1962]). Austin distinguishes the locutionary act of an utterance (i.e., what it means, made up of sense and reference) from its illocutionary act (i.e., “the performance of an act in saying something as opposed to performance of an act of saying something”) and its perlocutionary act (i.e., the consequential effects on the feelings, thoughts, or actions, whether intentional or otherwise, of the speaker or the audience).
120See esp. Richard S. Briggs, Words in Action: Speech Act Theory and Biblical Interpretation (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2001), and Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998).
121See, for instance, the use to which it is put in the important commentary by Anthony C. Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NIGTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000). vol. 3, Craig Bartholomew, Jonathan Chaplin, Robert Song, Al Wolters, eds., A Royal Priesthood? The Use of the Bible Ethically and Politically: A Dialogue with Oliver O’Donovan (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002); and vol. 4, Craig Bartholomew, C. Stephen Evans, Mary Healy, and Murray Rae, eds., “Behind” the Text: History and Biblical Interpretation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003).
122One of the seminal books in this area is Johannes P. Louw, Sociolinguistics and Communication, UBSMS 1 (London: UBS, 1986).
123See especially n. 32, above.
124See esp. the magisterial work of Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament (New York: Doubleday, 1997).
125E.g., Arthur G. Patzia, The Emergence of the Church: Context, Growth, Leadership & Worship (Downers Grove: IVP, 2001).
126E.g., Lee Martin McDonald and Stanley E. Porter, Early Christianity and Its Sacred Literature (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2000).
127Achtemeier/Green/Thompson.
128E.g., Johnson. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 127Achtemeier/Green/Thompson.
128E.g., Johnson.
129E.g., Gerd Theissen, Fortress Introduction to the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003); Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). One of the interesting features of Ehrman’s Introduction is that it includes treatment of some noncanonical early Christian writings. This is historically useful, of course, but it also reflects the author’s conviction that there is no difference in authority or revelation between the canonical books of the New Testament (which are “canonical” only for reasons of historical accident) and other first- and second-century Christian literature. In this regard Ehrman’s work is a more user-friendly version of the older work by Helmut Koester, Introduction to the New Testament, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982).
130E.g., Delbert Burkett, An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
131E.g., Robert F. Shedinger, “Kuhnian Paradigms and Biblical Scholarship: Is Biblical Studies a Science?” JBL 119 (2000): 453-71—and of course he offers a resounding “No” to his question.
132Markus Bockmuehl, “ ‘To Be or Not To Be': The Possible Futures of New Testament Scholarship,” SJT 51 (1998): 271-306, quote on 302.
133Craig L. Blomberg, “Where Should Twenty-first Century Evangelical Biblical Scholarship Be Heading?” BBR11 (2001): 161-72
CHAPTER TWO
THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
INTRODUCTION | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
INTRODUCTION
The first three gospels were first labeled the Synoptic Gospels by J. J. Griesbach, a German biblical scholar, at the end of the eighteenth century. The English adjective synoptic comes from the Greek (synopsis), which means “seeing together,” and Griesbach chose the word because of the high degree of similarity found among Matthew, Mark, and Luke in their presentations of the ministry of Jesus. These similarities, which involve structure, content, and tone, are evident even to the casual reader. They serve not only to bind the first three gospels together but also to separate them from the Gospel of John. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Matthew, Mark, and Luke structure the ministry of Jesus according to a general geographic sequence: ministry in Galilee, withdrawal to the north (with Peter’s confession as a climax and point of transition), ministry in Judea and Perea while Jesus is on his way to Jerusalem (less clear in Luke), and final ministry in Jerusalem. Very little of this sequence is found in John, where the focus is on Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem during his periodic visits to the city. In content, the first three evangelists narrate many of the same events, focusing on Jesus’ healings, exorcisms, and teaching in parables. John, while narrating several significant healings, has no exorcisms and no parables (at least of the type found in Matthew, Mark, and Luke). Also, many of the events we think of as characteristic of the first three gospels, such as the sending out of the Twelve, the transfiguration, the Olivet Discourse, and the Last Supper narrative, are absent from John. By having Jesus constantly on the move and by juxtaposing actions—miracles, especially—with (usually) brief teachings, the first three evangelists convey a tone of intense, rapid-fire action. This is quite in contrast to the more meditative tone of John, who narrates far fewer events than do the synoptic evangelists and who prefers to present Jesus as speaking in long discourses rather than in brief parables or pithy sayings. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Over the last two centuries, scholars have scrutinized the Synoptic Gospels from many angles and with many different results. This is inevitable, given the vital importance of these books for Christian belief and life. In these books is narrated the life of the One in whom God has chosen especially to make himself known to human beings. They depict the events on which the significance of history and the destiny of every single individual depend: the death and resurrection of Jesus the Messiah. Issues pertaining to these books individually will be treated in the chapters devoted to each; here we address significant issues that embrace all three accounts. Specifically, we examine three questions: How did the Synoptic Gospels come into being? How should we understand the gospels as works of literature? And what do the gospels tell us about Jesus?
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | THE EVOLUTION OF THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
How did the Synoptic Gospels come to be written? A simple and in some ways adequate answer would be to identify the people who, under inspiration of God’s Spirit, wrote these books, and to note the circumstances in which they were written. These issues are addressed in the introductions devoted to each of the four gospels. But simply identifying the authors of the Synoptic Gospels leaves some questions unanswered. How did the authors get the material about Jesus that they have used? Why are the three accounts so similar at so many places and so different at others? What was the role of the evangelists themselves? Recorders of tradition? Authors with a viewpoint of their own? And, to raise the larger question that lurks behind all of these, why four gospels? These and similar questions have occupied thoughtful Christians since the beginning of the church. A second-century Christian, Tatian, combined all four gospels together in his Diatessaron. Augustine wrote a treatise entitled The Harmony of the Gospels. 1 But scholars have pursued these questions especially vigorously since the rise of modern biblical criticism at the end of the eighteenth century.
While we may dismiss as inconsequential some of the questions raised during this time, and even more of the answers as simply wrong, the issue of synoptic origins and relations is one that cannot be avoided. The number and nature of the gospels raise such literary and historical questions. Moreover, one of the evangelists refers to the process by which the gospel material has come to him: | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first were eyewitnesses and servants of the word. With this in mind, since I myself have carefully investigated everything from the beginning, I too decided to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you may know the certainty of the things you have been taught. (Luke 1:1–4)
In this introduction to his two-volume “history of Christian origins,” Luke acknowledges three stages in the genesis of his work: the “eyewitnesses and servants of the word” who “handed down” the truth of Jesus; those “many” who have already drawn up accounts of Jesus and the early church; and Luke himself, who, having “carefully investigated” these sources, now composes his own “orderly” account. Investigation of the process to which Luke refers appears to be quite in order. We look first, then, at the earliest stage of transmission, during which eyewitnesses and others handed down the tradition about Jesus, much of it orally; then at the stage when written sources began to grow and become more important; and last, at the stage of final authorship.2
The Stage of Oral Traditions: Form Criticism | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The Stage of Oral Traditions: Form Criticism
In the course of investigation into the origins of the gospels over the last two centuries, several distinct approaches have emerged, each of them emphasizing different aspects or stages. Three approaches in particular have made distinct and significant contributions to the problem of gospel origins and development: form criticism (Formgeschichte), which focuses on the period of oral transmission; source criticism, which focuses on the way different literary units were put together to make up the gospels; and redaction criticism (Redaktionsgeschichte), which focuses on the literary and theological contributions of the authors of the gospels. These methods correspond generally to the three stages mentioned by Luke in his introduction. Yet they are not mutually exclusive; most contemporary gospel critics employ all three simultaneously in what is called traditions analysis or tradition criticism (Traditionsgeschichte). Nevertheless, these three approaches are both historically and methodologically distinct, and we examine each in turn.
We begin with form criticism because, though arising only after the heyday of source criticism, it concentrates on the earliest stage in the process by which the gospels came into being: the oral stage. Form critics claim that the early Christians transmitted the words and actions of Jesus by word of mouth for a considerable length of time. Only after two decades or so did the material begin to be put into written sources, with the gospels themselves coming shortly afterward. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Description. Form criticism was first applied to the Old Testament by scholars such as Hermann Gunkel and was then brought into New Testament studies in the second and third decades of the twentieth century by a trio of men who had come to recognize that the source-critical approach, pursued rigorously for several decades, had exhausted its potential. These men were Karl Ludwig Schmidt, Martin Dibelius, and Rudolf Bultmann.3 Though differing at several important points, these pioneers of form criticism had in common at least six assumptions and beliefs that came to be the basis for form criticism.
1. The stories and sayings of Jesus circulated in small independent units. The early form critics argued that an exception to this rule was the passion narrative, which they thought was a self-contained literary unit from a very early period.4 Even this exception is not admitted by many contemporary form critics.
2. The transmission of the gospel material can be compared to the transmission of other folk and religious traditions. Responsibility for this transmission rests not with individuals but with the community within which the material takes shape and is handed down. Certain laws of transmission generally observable in such instances of oral transmission can be applied to the transmission of the gospels.
3. The stories and sayings of Jesus took on certain standard forms (hence “form” criticism, or “the history of forms”) that are for the most part still readily visible in the gospels. Form critics have not agreed on the number and exact nature of these forms. Table 1 presents three influential schemes.5 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. The form of a specific story or saying makes it possible to determine its Sitz im Leben (“setting in life”), or function in the life of the early church. According to Bultmann, “The proper understanding of form-criticism rests upon the judgement that the literature in which the life of a given community, even the primitive Christian community, has taken shape, springs out of quite definite conditions and wants of life from which grows up a quite definite style and quite specific forms and categories. Thus, every literary category has its ‘life situation.’”6
5. As it passed down the sayings and stories of Jesus, the early Christian community not only put the material into certain forms, but it also modified it under the impetus of its own needs and situations. With this point we move from what may be called form criticism proper (a literary enterprise) into a broader conception of the discipline in which historical judgments are being rendered that by and large do not grow out of the discipline as such.
Table 1
Terminology of Form Criticism
Form critics differ widely over the degree to which the early church modified and created gospel material. Bultmann, for instance, thinks the influence was huge, attributing most of the gospel material to the early church and finding relatively little that can be reliably considered to have come from the earthly ministry of Jesus. He does so because he, with many other form critics, believes that the early church was not concerned to distinguish between things Jesus said while on earth and things that he was continuing to say through prophets in the life of the church. As Norman Perrin puts it, “The modern distinction between historical Jesus and risen Lord is quite foreign to the early church.”7 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Radical historical judgments such as these are not intrinsic to form criticism, and many form critics are much more conservative in their historical assessments. Vincent Taylor is one, and there are others still more conservative who confine the influence of the early church mainly to the arrangement of material (e.g., the series of controversy stories in Mark 2:1–3:6 and parallels). But these are exceptions to the rule, and it must be said that the great majority of form critics have pursued their enterprise with a good measure of historical skepticism. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 6. Classic form critics have typically used various criteria to enable them to determine the age and historical trustworthiness of particular pericopes. These criteria are based on certain laws of transmission that are thought to hold good for any orally transmitted material. According to these so-called laws, people tend to (1) lengthen their stories, (2) add details to them, (3) conform them more and more to their own language, and (4) generally preserve and create only what fits their own needs and beliefs. On the basis of these laws, many form critics have declared that gospel material that is shorter, lacks details, contains Semitisms, and does not fit with the interests of the early church or first-century Judaism is earlier and thus more likely to be historical. The last criterion, usually called the criterion of dissimilarity, is especially important for the more radical form critics. By eliminating anything that was likely to have been introduced by the early church or that could have been picked up from the Jewish milieu, advocates of this criterion claim to be able to secure a “critically assured” minimum number of sayings and activities on which a supposedly historical understanding of Jesus can be based. The criterion of dissimilarity, for instance, suggests that Mark 13:32—“But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father”—may well be original with Jesus, since it uses language not typical of Judaism (“the Son”) and contains a premise (Jesus’ ignorance) that runs counter to a view in the early church. A fifth criterion is a by-product of this one, holding material to be authentic that agrees with material isolated by the criterion of dissimilarity. A sixth criterion, multiple attestation, gives preference to material found in more than one stream of tradition (e.g., Mark and “Q”—about which more below). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Evaluation. The historical skepticism that characterizes many of the most prominent form critics has given form criticism itself the reputation of attacking the historicity of the gospels. But as we have suggested above, this need not be the case. As a literary discipline, form criticism entails no a priori judgment about the historicity of the material it analyzes. Moreover, many of the assumptions on which form criticism is based appear to be valid: there was indeed a period of mainly oral transmission of the gospel material, much of it likely in small units; there probably was a tendency for this material to take on certain standard forms; and the early church undoubtedly influenced the way this material was handed down. Defined narrowly in this way, there is certainly a place for form criticism in the study of the gospels. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Nevertheless, we must register certain cautions even about this narrow application of the discipline. First, it is probable that more of the gospel material than many form critics allow existed from very early periods in written form and that much of the rest of it may already have been connected together into larger literary units.8 Alan Millard, for example, has demonstrated that writing was quite common in Herodian Palestine and that there were many precedents for the recording in writing of a religious teacher’s sayings.9 Second, we must be careful not to impose a straitjacket of specified, clearly delineated forms on the material. The existence of so-called mixed forms suggests that any classification must be viewed as provisional and general at best. Third, the claims of form critics to be able to identify the setting in the life of the church that gave rise to specific forms must be treated with healthy skepticism. Often—perhaps usually—we lack sufficient data for any such identification. Finally, and perhaps most damaging, the assumptions of many of the form critics about the nature of the transmission process are suspect. Several authors have argued that most form critics have not sufficiently appreciated the dynamics and nature of oral transmission and that far too little attention has been given to the role of individuals—including eyewitnesses10 —in shaping and handing down the material.11 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | More serious criticisms must be directed against the antihistorical application of form criticism typified by Bultmann, Dibelius, and many of their heirs. First, the claim that the early church did not distinguish the earthly Jesus from the risen Lord and thus felt free to place on the lips of the earthly Jesus sayings uttered by early Christian prophets is unjustified. Bultmann claimed that verses such as 2 Corinthians 5:16b—“if, indeed, we have known Christ according to the flesh, we now no longer will know him in this way” (authors’ translation)—demonstrated that Paul and others in the early church had no interest in the earthly Jesus as such. But Paul is saying in this text, not that he would no longer have any interest in a “fleshly” (i.e., earthly) Jesus, but that he was determined no longer to regard Jesus “from a fleshly point of view.” In fact, nothing in the New Testament substantiates the notion that early Christians did not distinguish the earthly Jesus and the risen Lord, and the radical form critics have never come near to explaining how the utterance of a Christian prophet in, say, Antioch in A.D. 42 would have been put on the lips of Jesus as he taught in a specific locale in Galilee thirteen or so years earlier. That Christian prophecy actually functioned in this way is being questioned more and more.12
Second, we must question whether the transmission of the gospel material over a period of twenty or so years can appropriately be compared with some of the other material that form critics use to draw conclusions about the gospels. The rabbinic literature, for instance, with which both Bultmann and Dibelius compare the gospels, was a very undefined body of material gathered over the course of centuries. And the rabbis never produced anything remotely resembling a gospel. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Third, and related to this last point, are doubts about the validity of the so-called laws of transmission. E. P. Sanders and others have shown that oral transmission by no means always tends to lengthen material.13 The use of such laws, then, to attribute stories and sayings to the church rather than to Jesus is not valid.14 Particularly to be criticized is the criterion of dissimilarity. To be sure, the application of this criterion is often misunderstood: most who use it do not claim that only those sayings that it can isolate are authentic, but rather that these are the only ones we can be sure about. Nevertheless, its use has the tendency to focus attention on what was peculiar to Jesus over against both his Jewish environment and the early church. Its use thus tends to skew our view of Jesus.15 More conservative form critics insist that the criterion must not be used in isolation and must be used only with the positive purpose of providing evidence of historicity rather than the negative purpose of disproving historicity.16 Even so, the use of the criterion assumes a discontinuity in the process of transmission that needs to be questioned.
A fourth problem with radical form criticism is its failure to come to grips with the presence of eyewitnesses, some of them hostile, who were in a position to contest any wholesale creation of gospel incidents and sayings. As McNeile puts it, “Form-critics write as though the original eye-witnesses were all caught up to heaven at the Ascension and the Christian Church was put to live on a desert island.”17 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Fifth, many form critics are guilty of underestimating the degree to which first-century Jews would have been able to remember and transmit accurately by word of mouth what Jesus had said and done. The so-called Scandinavian School, represented particularly in the work of Birger Gerhardsson,18 looked to key authoritative figures in the early church as the transmitters of the gospel tradition and argued that the process would have been akin to the transmission of the rabbinic traditions, in which both written materials and careful memorization would have played key roles. Criticism that this particular approach assumes a similarity between the scholastic setting of the rabbis and the more popular setting of early Christianity is warranted. But the importance of memorization in first-century Jewish society is undeniable, and we are justified in thinking that this provides a sufficient basis for the careful and accurate oral transmission of gospel material.19 Recent study of eyewitness testimony in the Greco-Roman world at large also generally confirms the value and accuracy of such testimony.20 And when we add to these points the very real possibility that the words and actions of Jesus were being written down from the beginning, we have every reason to think that the early Christians were both able and willing to hand down accurately the deeds and words of Jesus. | [
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0.35424795746803284
] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The Stage of Written Sources: Source Criticism (the Synoptic Problem) Introduction. The oral stage of the development of the Synoptic Gospels, which we examined in the last section, probably also included some written traditions about Jesus’ life and teachings. Some of the apostles may have taken notes on Jesus’ teachings and activities during the ministry itself, and they and other eyewitnesses probably accelerated that process after the resurrection. At the same time, of course, much of the material was being passed on orally. But as time moved on, we can suspect that these early written fragments were combined with oral testimony to produce lengthier written sources and, finally, the canonical gospels. Source criticism is devoted to the investigation of this written stage in the production of the gospels. It asks and seeks to answer this question: What written sources, if any, did the evangelists use in compiling their gospels?
The question is of particular interest to the historian of the early Christian movement and one that any student of the Synoptic Gospels is bound to ask. For there are startling similarities, both in general outline and in particular wording, among the Synoptic Gospels. Consider the italicized words in the example in table 2, the account of the healing of a paralytic.
Table 2
Synoptic Parallels: The Healing of a Paralytic | [
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0.42817702889442444,
0.05161396041512489,
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0.29927125573158264,
0.2762450575828552,
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0.3416556417942047,
1.0928962230682373,
0.052151575684547424,
0.16463834047317505,
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0.3598264753818512,
0.4106035530567169,
0.09510483592748642,
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0.3951086699962616,
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0.17228549718856812,
0.09300756454467773,
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0.4526521563529968,
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0.3824384808540344,
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0.526456356048584,
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0.7735646963119507,
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Not only is the wording almost exact (as is true in the Greek original), but each of the three evangelists inserts an abrupt break in Jesus’ words at the same point. (This break, an awkward syntactical shift from a second person plural address—“I want you to know”—to the third singular—“he said to the man”—in Matthew 9:6/Mark 2:10/Luke 5:24, is smoothed out in the TNIV quoted above.) Such duplication of unusual or awkward constructions occurs at other places, along with passages in which two or three of the evangelists use precisely the same words, in the same order, over several lines of text. In table 3, for instance, note how Matthew and Luke use almost exactly the same words to record Jesus’ lament over Jerusalem.21 The student of the gospels naturally wants to know how we can account for so exact a similarity in wording.
But what makes the synoptic problem particularly knotty is the fact that, alongside such exact agreements, there are so many puzzling differences. Take the passage cited in table 2, for example. While the three accounts agree closely in the portion we have put in italics, Matthew omits the “I tell you” found in both Mark and Luke. And when we consider the passage as a whole, other potentially more significant differences appear. Matthew, for instance, does not include the part about the paralyzed man’s friends opening a hole in the roof to let his mat down in front of Jesus.
Table 3
Synoptic Parallels: Jesus’ Lament over Jerusalem | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | This combination of agreement and disagreement extends to the larger structure of the gospels as well. Consider the list of events in table 4, which follows Mark’s order. (Any place where one gospel has deviated from the other two in order of events is indicated with bold type.) We find here, though not perhaps in the same proportion, the kinds of agreements and disagreements that recur throughout the Synoptic Gospels. All three roughly follow the same order of events, even when there is no clear chronological or historical reason to do so. Each evangelist, however, omits material found in the other two, each contains unique incidents, and some of the events that are found in one or both of the others are put in a different order.
The question behind the synoptic problem, then, may be reformulated in light of these data: What hypothesis best accounts for the combination of exact agreement and wide divergence that characterizes the first three gospels?
The Main Solutions. While the number of solutions to the synoptic problem is proportionate to the amazing amount of research and imaginative thinking that has been devoted to the matter,22 we may single out four main options.
Table 4
Order of Events in the Synoptics
Common dependence on one original gospel. In 1771 the German writer and literary critic G. E. Lessing argued that the relationships among the Synoptic Gospels could be explained if they had independently used one original gospel written in Hebrew or Aramaic.23 This proposal was adopted by others and received modification at the hands of J. G. Eichhorn, who postulated the existence of several lost gospels as the sources for the Synoptic Gospels.24 The proposal has not met with much favor in the last one hundred years, although C. C. Torrey argued a form of it in 1933.25 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Common dependence on oral sources. Shortly after Lessing had proposed an “Ur-gospel” as the solution to the synoptic problem, the German critic J. G. Herder argued that dependence of the Synoptic Gospels on a relatively fixed oral summary of the life of Christ explained the data better.26 This approach was expanded and defended at length by J. K. L. Gieseler in 1818.27 The view was more popular in the nineteenth century than it is today,28 but it continues to be argued by a few scholars.29
Common dependence on gradually developing written fragments. The important and controversial theologian F. Schleiermacher suggested that several fragments of gospel tradition existed in the early church and that these gradually grew until they became incorporated into the Synoptic Gospels. This thesis is no longer argued in this form, but Schleiermacher was apparently the first to argue that Papias’s “logia”30 refers to one of these fragments—a collection of the sayings of Jesus.31
Interdependence as the solution to the synoptic problem has been urged from early in the history of the church and commands almost universal assent among contemporary New Testament scholars — with good reason. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Interdependence. The last basic solution to the synoptic problem maintains that two of the evangelists used one or more of the other gospels in constructing their own. Without necessarily denying the use of other sources now lost, advocates of this view argue that only borrowing at the final literary level can explain the degree of similarity among the Synoptic Gospels. This solution to the synoptic problem has been urged from early in the history of the church (e.g., Augustine; see below) and commands almost universal assent among contemporary New Testament scholars—with good reason. While the ability of first-century Jews to transmit traditions with a remarkable degree of accuracy must not be minimized (see the discussion of form criticism above), it is unlikely that the degree of agreement in the Greek text such as is illustrated above can be explained by recourse to oral tradition alone.32 Robert Stein draws attention to Mark 13:14 = Matthew 24:15 in this regard, where each of the evangelists directs a parenthetical remark to the reader. 33 Moreover, as quoted above, Luke makes clear that he, at least, used written sources in writing his gospel (1:1–4).
The hypothesis of a Semitic-language Ur-gospel encounters the same difficulty in explaining the remarkable agreement in the Greek text of the gospels. What is the likelihood that independent translators would come up with exactly the same wording in so many places? To be sure, we could propose a large Greek Ur-gospel as the source for all three gospels. But this hypothesis has three serious drawbacks. First, we would have expected so major a literary product in Greek to have been mentioned somewhere in early Christian literature—but it is not. Second, it is harder to explain the genesis of the three Synoptic Gospels if so significant a text already existed. And third, viewed as a comprehensive hypothesis, this theory has difficulty explaining the differences among the Synoptic Gospels. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Theories of Interdependence. Only a theory that includes as a major component literary interdependence among the Synoptic Gospels is capable of explaining the data. One aspect of these data stands out as particularly determinative for the viability of proposed theories: the relationship among the gospels in the order of their recording of the events of the ministry. A study of the sequential parallelism of the Synoptic Gospels at this point reveals a significant fact: while Matthew and Mark frequently agree against Luke in the order of events, and Luke and Mark frequently agree against Matthew, Matthew and Luke almost never agree against Mark. This can be seen from the data in table 4 above. Note that Matthew and Mark agree, against Luke, in placing the accusation that Jesus casts out demons in the name of Beelzebul just before the so-called parables of the kingdom; and Luke and Mark agree, against Matthew, in putting the stilling of the storm and the healing of Gerasene demoniac just after these parables. At no point, however, do Matthew and Luke agree against Mark. To put it another way, at no point does Mark follow an order that disagrees with the other two (hence the lack of any bold type in the Mark column). This phenomenon has given rise to one of the most important arguments for the nature of synoptic relationships: the argument from order. It appears to require that Mark be the “middle term” in any scheme of relationships among Mark, Matthew, and Luke. In other words, Mark must have a relationship to both Matthew and Luke, whether he is earlier than both, comes between both, or is later than both. Figure 1 shows the four possibilities. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Each of these schemes can explain the phenomenon of order. Moreover, we cannot exclude the possibility that there is a relationship between Matthew and Luke independent of their use of Mark. The argument from order, in and of itself, does not exclude dependence of Matthew and Luke on one another, although it requires that the evangelist who wrote last would have deliberately chosen to follow the order of the other two gospels, whenever they agreed. We thus have the six additional possibilities shown in figure 2.
Figure 1
Synoptic Relations: Mark as Middle Term
Figure 2
Synoptic Relations: Interdependence of Matthew and Luke
Of the ten schemes, only three have received significant support in the history of the study of the question.
The Augustinian Proposal. Taking its name from the famous North African theologian who first advocated it, this proposal holds that Matthew was the first gospel written. Mark then borrowed from Matthew, with Luke, finally, borrowing from both Matthew and Mark.34 Until the nineteenth century this was the standard view of those who saw a literary relationship among the Synoptic Gospels. At that time, however, many began to prefer alternative proposals. Augustine’s proposal has not won many modern advocates, with a few exceptions.35
The “Two-Gospel” Hypothesis. As part of his ground-breaking critical approach to the Synoptic Gospels, J. J. Griesbach, while agreeing that Matthew was the first gospel written, maintained that Luke was second and that Mark was dependent on both Matthew and Luke.36 His proposal, dubbed the two-gospel hypothesis to contrast it with the two-source hypothesis, has enjoyed a considerable resurgence in popularity in the last thirty years.37 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The “Two-Source” Hypothesis. While the two-gospel hypothesis views Matthew and Luke as the building blocks of Mark, the two-source hypothesis holds that Mark and “Q,” a lost collection of Jesus’ sayings, have been used independently by Matthew and Luke. Markan priority was first proposed in the 1830s, apparently independently, by Karl Lachmann and C. G. Wilke, while the full two-source hypothesis was advanced by C. H. Weisse in 183 8.38 It was given its classic expression in an 1863 monograph by H. J. Holtzmann.39 Finally, in a work that stands as the high-water mark in source criticism, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins (1924),40 B. H. Streeter posited the existence of two other sources in addition to Mark and Q: “M,” the material peculiar to Matthew’s gospel, and “L,” the material peculiar to Luke’s gospel. This “four-source” hypothesis was an attempt to provide a comprehensive explanation of the origin of the gospels through source criticism. Streeter even suggested dates and provenances for his sources. His resultant scheme may be diagramed as in figure 3.
Streeter took source criticism as far it could be taken (some would say beyond), and his was the last major work in the discipline to appear for some time. Not everyone agreed with the details of his scheme, and most contemporary gospel critics are skeptical about the existence of M and L as written documents and about the chronological and geographic conclusions he reached. (Some scholars use M and L simply to denote, respectively, material peculiar to Matthew and Luke.) But most scholars thought that Streeter and his predecessors had clearly proven the two-source hypothesis in general, and this explanation of gospel origins was generally assumed by those, such as the redaction critics, who were working on other aspects of the gospels.
Figure 3
Streeter’s Four-Source Hypothesis | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Figure 3
Streeter’s Four-Source Hypothesis
As noted above, however, this is no longer true. The two-source hypothesis has been subjected over the last thirty years to serious criticism, most notably by advocates of the two-gospel, or Griesbach proposal, but also by others, some of whom maintain Markan priority while questioning the existence or nature of Q. To the extent that these challenges have introduced some caution into what was often an overly dogmatic and simplistic reconstruction of gospel origins, they have had a salutary effect. The two-source theory has been appropriately dethroned from the status of being an “assured result of scholarship.” Nevertheless, properly nuanced, it remains the best general explanation of the data. In the sections that follow, we will examine the evidence for and against each of the two sources of the two-source hypothesis.
Markan Priority. Until the nineteenth century, most Christians assumed that Matthew was the first gospel to be written.41 This tradition, which became the official position of the Roman Catholic Church, must be respected, particularly since it appears to be bolstered by the second-century testimony of Papias, as cited by Eusebius (see below). Nevertheless, it does not settle the issue. Many gave Matthew priority on the inadequate grounds that he was the only apostle among the synoptic evangelists. Another equally strong tradition holds that Mark wrote his gospel based on the preaching of Peter (see the introduction to Mark), and this makes Markan dependence on Matthew difficult. Since Lukan priority is rarely argued,42 the main alternative to Matthean priority is Markan priority. Why have so many scholars been convinced that Mark is the gospel that lies at the basis of both Matthew and Luke? The following are the most important arguments.43 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The brevity of Mark. Mark is considerably shorter than both Matthew and Luke: 11,025 words as against 18,293 and 19,376, respectively. It is not Mark’s relative brevity per se that provides evidence for Mark’s priority (it cannot be demonstrated that the shorter is necessarily the earlier), but its brevity taken in conjunction with its close relationship to Luke, and especially to Matthew. Over 97 percent of Mark’s words have a parallel in Matthew; over 88 percent in Luke.44 It therefore makes more sense to think that Matthew and Luke have taken over much of Mark, expanding it with their own material, than that Mark has abbreviated Matthew and/or Luke with the omission of so much material. To be sure, it is possible to argue that Mark is a deliberate condensation of Matthew and Luke—as proponents of the two-gospel theory maintain.45 But it would be a strange condensation that generally lengthens the narratives taken from these other gospels while omitting things like the Sermon on the Mount, the birth narratives, and the appearances of the risen Lord. Put simply, this argument runs: “Given Mark, it is easy to see why Matthew was written; given Matthew, it is hard to see why Mark was needed.”46 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The verbal agreements among the gospels. As we illustrated earlier, at many places the three Synoptic Gospels manifest a remarkable degree of verbal parallelism. But careful study reveals that while all three accounts sometimes agree (as in table 2), Matthew and Mark frequently agree, as do Mark and Luke, but Matthew and Luke agree less often. As with the argument from order, this phenomenon can be explained as long as Mark is the middle term of the three. It is much more difficult to explain if Mark is not the first, however, because on any other hypothesis, recourse must be had to the supposition of a deliberate and unlikely method of composition.47 With the Augustinian hypothesis, we would have to think that Luke almost always chose to use Mark’s wording rather than Matthew’s; with the two-gospel hypothesis, we would have to assume that Mark almost never introduced any wording of his own. While possible, both procedures are less likely than the alternative. (The minor agreements between Matthew and Luke are discussed below.)
The order of events. We noted above that a comparison of the order of events in the Synoptic Gospels reveals a situation similar to what is observed about the verbal agreements: Matthew and Luke do not agree against Mark. This phenomenon was noted by Lachmann, who argued, furthermore, that this situation was best explained if Mark was the prior gospel. As with the verbal agreements, the phenomenon of order can be explained by other hypotheses. For example, Luke might have determined to follow Mark’s order when he diverged from Matthew (on the Augustinian explanation), or Mark might have decided never to deviate from Matthew and Luke when they agreed. Again, the virtue of Markan priority is that it provides a natural explanation for this phenomenon rather than having to postulate an unlikely compositional procedure on the part of one of the evangelists. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Mark’s awkward and more primitive style. It is generally agreed that Mark has more grammatical irregularities and awkward constructions than do Matthew and Luke. This, it is argued, favors Markan priority, because the natural tendency would have been for later authors to smooth out such irregularities (a similar criterion is used in textual criticism). Similarly, Mark preserves more Aramaic expressions than does either Matthew or Luke in their parallels with Mark. It is easier to see, it is argued, why Matthew and Luke would eliminate or translate Aramaic expressions that would be unintelligible to their Greek-speaking readers than why Mark would have added such Aramaic expressions without a basis in his sources. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Mark’s more primitive theology. Many scholars find many more theologically difficult statements in Mark than in Matthew and Luke, and this suggests (again, paralleling textual-critical principles) that Mark is the earliest. An example is Mark 6:5, where the evangelist claims that, because of the unbelief of the people in Nazareth, Jesus “could not do any miracles there.” In the parallel verse, Matthew says that Jesus “did not do many miracles there” (13:58). It is argued that it is more likely that Matthew has removed the potentially troublesome implication that Jesus was incapable of working a miracle than that Mark has added it. This argument has some weight, but it is not as decisive as the ones above. Not only could one argue about which evangelist has the more difficult statements, but one also must take into account the effect of each evangelist’s compositional purposes and theology. This makes it much harder to be sure about the direction of borrowing. The same objection applies to the related argument that redaction critics have found it more plausible to explain Matthew on the basis of Mark than vice versa. At least in some pericopes, there would be disagreement about this,48 and the sparsity of redactional studies assuming Matthean priority means that most of the data will be on one side in any case.
While not all of equal weight, these arguments taken together make a strong case for thinking that Matthew and Luke have independently used Mark’s gospel in writing their own. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | “Q". As we noted above, Schleiermacher was the first to posit the existence of a collection of Jesus’ sayings as a source for the gospels. His suggestion was taken up by Weisse as the second main source of the two-source hypothesis. Like Schleiermacher, some critics think that Papias refers to this document in his famous statement about the logia (see the discussion in the introduction to Matthew), but this is doubtful. At some point toward the end of the nineteenth century, the source became known as “Q"; just how and where is a matter of debate.49 Most proponents of Markan priority think that a sayings source such as Q must have been used by both Matthew and Luke. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The reason for positing the existence of such a written collection of Jesus’ teaching is that there are approximately 250 verses common to Matthew and Luke that are not found in Mark. Most, though not all of this material, consists of teachings of Jesus. Many of these verses exhibit a degree of verbal parallelism that favors the existence of a common written source in Greek (see the example in table 3 above). The simplest explanation for this phenomenon would be dependence of one gospel on the other. Against this, however, is the lack of agreement between Matthew and Luke in their ordering of events and the general lack of verbal agreements between them. These factors strongly suggest that Matthew and Luke did not use one another; hence, the need to posit an additional source. Considerable effort has been expended in seeking to reconstruct this hypothetical source,50 and the degree of certainty with which the hypothesis is entertained by some may be gauged from the fact that a book has even been written entitled A Theology of Q.51 Others go so far as to claim that Q was the first “gospel” and provides us with the earliest and most authentic picture of Jesus.52 But despite these claims, there is considerable debate about Q, and we must consider below some of the main arguments for and against the hypothesis.
In addition to the argument from verbal agreement in non-Markan material, there are three main arguments for the existence of the Q source.
The agreement in order. A number of scholars have discerned in the non-Markan material common to Matthew and Luke (sometimes called the double tradition) a similar order.53 Such a similar order would argue for a single written source. But the agreement in order is not all that clear, and this argument has limited force at best.54 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Doublets in Matthew and Luke. “Doublets” are accounts that appear more than once in a single gospel. It is argued that these occur because the evangelist in question is following Mark at one point and Q at the other. An example is Luke 8:17 and 12:2, in both of which Jesus says “there is nothing hidden [concealed] that will not be disclosed, and [or] nothing concealed [hidden] that will not be known.” The first is paralleled only in Mark 4:22 and the second in Matthew 10:26. The assumption is that Luke has taken the first from Mark and the second from Q.55 Such doublets suggest the existence of a common source in addition to Mark; they are insufficient to show, however, that Q must have been a single written source.
Different placement of Q material. The non-Markan material shared by Luke and Matthew is put in different contexts, Matthew grouping much of it in his five great discourses, Luke generally leaving it scattered throughout the gospel (mainly in 6:20–8:3 and 9:51–18:14). This phenomenon is easier to explain if both were making independent use of a common source than if Luke was using Matthew.
These arguments have convinced most scholars that Matthew and Luke have access to a common non-Markan tradition. Probably most of these think that Q was a single written document.56 But other scholars disagree. They prefer to think of Q as a series of written fragments or as a combination of written and oral traditions.57 But other scholars are not convinced that we need to posit the existence of any such tradition, arguing that it is far simpler to think that Luke has used Matthew. Since Luke’s knowledge of Matthew would seriously undermine the evidence for Markan priority, most of those who deny the existence of Q also deny Markan priority.58 But some maintain both Markan priority and the use of Matthew by Luke.59 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The strongest argument in favor of Luke’s use of Matthew, and therefore against the two-source theory as a whole, is the existence of what have been called minor agreements between Matthew and Luke and against Mark. These consist both of agreements in the order of particular verses or sayings, and of wording.60 How can these be explained if Luke and Matthew have not used one another? Whether we even attempt such an explanation will depend on how convinced we are by the arguments above that Luke did not know Matthew. If we concede the strength of these earlier arguments, then several such explanations are possible: (1) overlap of Mark and Q, with the agreement of Matthew and Luke being the result of their common use of Q; (2) coincidental redaction of Mark in the same way; (3) textual corruption, based on the known tendency of scribes to harmonize gospel accounts; and (4) common use of oral traditions that may have overlapped with Mark.61
These minor agreements demonstrate that the history of gospel origins was probably more complex than any single-source hypothesis can explain.62 But they do not overthrow the strength of the case in favor of the two-source hypothesis. A source like Q remains the best explanation for the agreements between Matthew and Luke in non-Markan material. Almost certainly some, if not a substantial portion, of Q was in written form. But we must probably allow for more than one written source and for some mixture of oral traditions as well.63 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Proto-Gospel Theories. Partly in order to fill in some of the gaps left with the two-source hypothesis, partly because of early Christian testimony, and partly because of internal indications, various scholars have posited the existence of an earlier edition of each of the Synoptic Gospels. Lachmann, one of the first proponents of the two-source theory, worked from the assumption of an original gospel, arguing that Mark was the closest to that original. Some modern scholars, noting the problem of the minor agreements and some elements in Matthew and Luke that are difficult to explain if these evangelists were using the canonical Mark, have suggested that one or both may have used an earlier edition of Mark.64 This hypothesis must remain doubtful. The minor agreements are not all of the same kind; many cannot be explained by positing dependence on an “Ur-Mark.”65 More basically, we must question the assumption that dependence on a different source must be used to explain all the changes Matthew and Luke have made in their Markan source. Source criticism takes too much on itself when it presumes to explain every line in Matthew and Luke with reference to a written source. The influence of eyewitness accounts, various oral traditions, and the evangelists’ own theological purposes must be allowed. When these factors are taken into account, the need for an Ur-Mark disappears. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Much more popular has been the thesis that Matthew wrote an earlier edition of his gospel. In this case, however, the motivation is only partly a more satisfactory explanation of synoptic relations; more important is the apparent reference to such an earlier edition in the second-century remark of Papias (quoted by Eusebius, H.E. 3.39.16): “Matthew collected the oracles [ (ta logia)] in the Hebrew language [ (Hebraidi dialekto)], and each interpreted [ (herneneusen)] them as best he could.”66 If Papias is referring to a gospel written in Aramaic or Hebrew, he must be referring to an earlier Semitic edition of our Greek Matthew, since later church fathers appealed to Papias to prove the priority of canonical Matthew. It has been popular, then, to suppose that a Semitic Matthew was the first gospel written; that Peter, or Peter and Mark together, used that edition in composing Greek Mark; and that Greek Matthew then made use of Mark.67 The stubborn tradition that Matthew was first written in Aramaic or Hebrew, along with the widespread belief in the early church that Matthew was the first gospel, renders the hypothesis of a Semitic “first edition” of Matthew attractive. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Clearly, however, if such an edition existed, the canonical Matthew is not simply a translation of this Semitic original. Matthew does not read like “translation Greek"; more important, Matthew has probably, as we have seen, used Greek Mark in composing his gospel. And there are other problems for the supposition that Mark has used a Semitic-language Matthew. Strong early tradition views Mark as composing his gospel on the basis of Peter’s preaching (see the introduction to Mark’s gospel). But then it is hard to imagine how Mark could also be using an earlier edition of Matthew. Moreover, Papias may not be referring to a gospel at all (see the discussion in the introduction to Matthew). All in all, the hypothesis of an earlier, Semitic-language edition of Matthew cannot certainly be either proven or disproven.
The evidence for a proto-Luke comes from within Luke itself and rests on three considerations: (1) the greater amount of special material in Luke in comparison with Matthew and Mark; (2) Luke’s tendency to “go his own way,” even in material shared with Matthew and Mark (especially in the passion narrative); and (3) the fact that Luke includes material from Mark in blocks rather than scattered evenly throughout the gospel. These phenomena have suggested to many scholars that Luke had composed a first edition of this gospel with the use of Q and L (his special material) and then later integrated Mark into this initial work.68 While the case remains unproven,69 the hypothesis is an attractive one (see discussion in chap. 5). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Conclusion. The two-source hypothesis provides the best overall explanation for the relationships among the Synoptic Gospels, but two caveats must be introduced in conclusion. First, the process through which the gospels came into being was a complex one, so complex that no source-critical hypothesis, however detailed,70 can hope to provide a complete explanation of the situation. Granted that at least one of the evangelists was an eyewitness, that various oral and written traditions unrecoverable to us were undoubtedly circulating, and that the evangelists may even have talked together about their work, the “scissors-and-paste” assumptions of some source critics are quite unfounded.71 Indeed, some source critics assume processes of collection and editing quite unlike anything we know of from the ancient world.72 Recognizing this complexity, along with the stubborn persistence of phenomena that the two-source hypothesis cannot satisfactorily explain, we should treat this hypothesis more as a working theory than as a conclusion set in concrete. Especially important is the need to be open to the possibility that, in a given pericope, an explanation based on the two-source hypothesis may not fit the data. For a given text, we thus may conclude that Matthew is more primitive than Mark, or that Luke has followed a special eyewitness source rather than Mark, or that Matthew has relied on his own remembrance or written notes rather than on Q.
The Stage of Final Composition: Redaction Criticism | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In our account of gospel origins thus far, we have paid but scant attention to the evangelists themselves. We have looked at the earliest, mainly oral stage of transmission, where the apostles and other unknown Christian preachers and teachers preserved Jesus’ teachings and the stories about him. And we have examined the written sources, known and unknown, that the evangelists used in composing their gospels. The evangelist Mark, we have argued, is the author of one of those basic sources. But our interest in Mark from a source-critical standpoint is not in his work as an author but in his gospel as a source for Matthew and Luke. So in both form criticism and source criticism, interest in the evangelists themselves recedes into the background. It is redaction criticism that brings the evangelists back onto center stage.
Description. Redaction criticism seeks to describe the theological purposes of the evangelists by analyzing the way they use their sources. Without denying the need for form critics to study the oral traditions or for source critics to scrutinize written sources, redaction critics insist that the evangelists must be given their rightful place as authors: people who, however dependent on sources and traditions, have creatively and purposefully molded that tradition into a literary whole with a theology of its own. The evangelists have not simply collected traditions and sources and pasted them together. They have added their own modifications to those traditions, and in doing so, they have brought their own particular emphases to the story of Jesus.73 Redaction criticism is therefore one method of gospel study, and it includes five basic elements. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 1. Redaction criticism distinguishes between tradition and redaction. “Tradition,” in this sense, is everything—from long written sources to brief orally transmitted stories and sayings—that the evangelist had before him as he wrote his gospel. “Redaction” refers to the process of modifying that tradition as the gospel was actually written. Because redaction criticism depends on our ability to identify the traditions on which the evangelist worked (so we can know what changes he made), it is accomplished most successfully on Matthew and Luke. We can compare their final edition with two extensive sources they have used: Mark and Q (albeit, a Q reconstructed from Matthew and Luke). For the same reason, redaction criticism of Mark is a much more difficult procedure, since we do not possess any sources that he has used.74
2. The redactional, or editorial activity of the evangelists can be seen in several areas:
The material they have chosen to include and exclude. For instance, it is generally agreed that the roughly parallel sermons recorded by Matthew in chapters 5–7 and Luke in 6:20–49 are taken from Q. Luke’s, however, is less than one-third the length of Matthew’s, and it is evident that Luke has omitted almost all reference to the Old Testament and the law (e.g., Matt. 5:17–19, and the antitheses of Matt. 5:21–48). This suggests that Matthew has a serious interest in teaching the church in his day about Jesus’ relationship to the law, while Luke does not. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The arrangement of the material. It can be seen from table 4 above that Matthew differs from Mark and Luke in the placement of three significant miracle stories: the stilling of the storm (8:18, 23–27), the healing of the Gerasene demoniac(s) (8:28–34), and the intertwined accounts of the raising of Jairus’s daughter and the healing of the woman with a flow of blood (9:18–26). Since Mark is probably Matthew’s main source for these stories, it is evident that Matthew has chosen to put them in a different order. When we find him doing the same thing with other miracle stories that end up in Matthew 8–9, we are justified in concluding that Matthew is deliberately arranging the material to make a point about Jesus as miracle worker. Such rearrangement takes place within pericopes also: Does the change in order of the temptations (Matt. 4:1–11 = Luke 4:1–12) reveal different emphases of the respective evangelists?
The “seams” that the evangelist uses to stitch his tradition together. In order to fashion a continuous narrative from diverse sources, an evangelist has to supply transitions. These transitions, or seams, often reveal important concerns of the author. Matthew, for instance, alternates teaching and narrative in a very effective manner, signaling the transition at the end of discourses with a repeated formula: “when Jesus had finished saying these things” (7:28; 19:1; see also 11:1; 13:53; 26:1).
Additions to the material. In Luke’s account of Jesus’ healing ministry and call of the Twelve (6:12–19), which appears to depend on Mark 3:7–18, he mentions the fact, not found in Mark, that “Jesus went out to a mountainside to pray, and spent the night praying to God” (Luke 6:12). Here, perhaps, we find evidence of a Lukan concern. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Omission of material. Where the redaction critic can be pretty sure that an evangelist has had access to a tradition that he does not include, it is important to ask whether the omission serves a theological interest. For instance, it is frequently argued that Luke has omitted the reference to Jesus “coming on the clouds of heaven” (found in both Mark and Matthew) in his reply to the high priest (22:69) because he wants to avoid the idea of an imminent parousia.
Change of wording. In a well-known beatitude, Jesus, according to Matthew, pronounces a blessing on “the poor in spirit” (5:3); according to Luke, on the “poor” (6:20). The redaction critic would note this difference as perhaps indicating Luke’s relatively greater interest in socioeconomic issues.
3. Redaction critics look for patterns in these kinds of changes within a gospel. Where such a pattern emerges, we may conclude that we are dealing with a theological concern of the author. For instance, the addition of reference to Jesus praying (noted above) is of a piece with similar additions about prayer that Luke makes throughout his gospel. Prayer, we can surmise, was a theological concern of Luke. Following this procedure, a general picture of the theological stance of a particular gospel is eventually built up.
4. On the basis of this general theological picture, the redaction critic then seeks to establish a setting for the production of the gospel. Luke’s alleged omission of references to an imminent parousia, for instance, is said to show that he was writing in a setting where the delay of the parousia had become a problem. To “the setting in the life of Jesus” and “the setting in the life of the church” (the form-critical concern) is added “the setting in the life of the evangelist and his community.” | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 5. Some include within redaction criticism not only the study of the evangelists’ modification of tradition but the literary and theological characteristics of the gospels, however discerned—that is, what is sometimes called composition criticism. To some extent, this is a fruitless semantic quarrel, but it is perhaps better to maintain the narrower definition of redaction criticism so as to differentiate it from the composition criticism that good exegetes have always done.
Origins. William Wrede, though not a redaction critic in the sense defined above, was something of a precursor of the emphasis typical of redaction criticism. Wrede wrote at a time when the “Markan hypothesis” reigned in scholarly study of the gospels. This hypothesis was so named, not just because it maintained Markan priority, but because it also claimed that Mark gave a generally untheological, historically reliable portrait of Jesus. Wrede destroyed this assumption by demonstrating that Mark was as thoroughly theological as the other gospels. Specifically, Wrede argued that Mark had added the many references where Jesus urged silence about his messiahship. This “messianic secret” was designed to explain how it came about that so few people recognized Jesus to be the Messiah during his lifetime.75 While Wrede’s specific thesis is now generally discredited, his contention that Mark is as much theologian as historian (or theologian instead of historian) has been widely accepted. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The implications of Wrede’s understanding of the evangelists as creative theologians were not immediately appropriated. Redaction criticism as an identifiable discipline did not develop until the 1950s. Three German critics were the pioneers in the field.76 Günther Bornkamm’s essay on the stilling of the storm, in which he sought to uncover Matthew’s theological point by comparing his account with Mark’s, was the earliest redaction-critical work.77 More significant were two monographs that appeared later in the decade. Hans Conzelmann, in The Theology of St. Luke, 78 analyzed the theological standpoint of Luke, arguing that the evangelist imposed a threefold periodization of salvation history on the gospel material: the time of Israel, the time of Jesus, and the time of the church. In doing so, according to Conzelmann, Luke provided a basis for a continuing role of the Christian community in history, thereby defusing early Christian disappointment about the delay of the parousia, namely, the failure of Jesus to return as soon as expected. Willi Marxsen did for Mark what Conzelmann did for Luke. Mark, according to Marxsen, was also motivated by concern about the parousia, but Mark believed that the parousia was imminent and wrote his gospel with the overarching purpose of gathering together Christians in Galilee to await the Lord.79 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | It would be impossible to select even the most outstanding redaction-critical works since these initial studies. The conclusions reached by Bornkamm, Marxsen, and Conzelmann are not widely held anymore, but the methodology they pioneered has won a secure place in the field of gospel studies.80 Countless monographs, dissertations, and articles using redaction criticism analyze themes within a gospel or the gospel as a whole, or they compare and contrast the contribution of two or more evangelists to a theme. Hardly any serious study of the gospels proceeds without considerable utilization of redaction criticism. This is not to say that redaction criticism has ousted form criticism or source criticism; contemporary scholars employ all three together as they seek to understand the final product, the gospels (the redactional stage), in terms of the raw material that has gone into them (the stage of tradition).
Evaluation. Popularity does not make anything right. As with any other method, we must take a critical look at redaction criticism before we endorse it as a method of gospel study. We begin with five criticisms of the discipline.81 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 1. Redaction criticism depends for its validity on our ability to distinguish tradition and redaction. We must have a rather clear idea about the sources that a given evangelist has used before we can begin speaking about his modifications to those sources. Almost all redaction critics have assumed the validity of the two-source hypothesis in their research—that is, that Matthew and Luke both used Mark and another source, Q, in writing their gospels. Those who question the accuracy of that hypothesis will also, of course, have to establish a different basis on which to do redaction criticism. Advocates of the two-gospel hypothesis, for instance, will have to speak about Mark’s modifications of Matthew and Luke rather than Matthew’s modifications of Mark, and they will be able to do redaction criticism of Matthew only with great difficulty. But even if we assume the general reliability of the two-source hypothesis, our difficulties for redaction criticism are not eliminated. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | First, as we have argued, in some places the direction of dependence hypothesized with the two-source theory may be reversed. Some places in Mark, let us say, may depend on a version of a story that found its way eventually almost intact into Matthew’s gospel. In such a situation we would have to speak of Mark’s changes of “Matthew” rather than Matthew’s changes of Mark. Second, Matthew or Luke may sometimes depend on a version of a story independent of, but parallel to, Mark. Again, then, what a redaction critic would label “Matthean redaction” (of Mark) may be a tradition that Matthew is simply passing on. Third, since we do not possess a copy of Q, arguments about whether Matthew or Luke has redacted Q are necessarily uncertain. Scholars generally think that they can identify, by various factors, what the original of Q probably was, and they base their redactional judgments on that supposition. But the process is necessarily subjective and leaves room for much disagreement. For instance, with respect to the difference between “poor” (Luke) and “poor in spirit” (Matthew) already mentioned, can we be sure that Luke has socialized Q, rather than Matthew spiritualizing it? In this case, perhaps we can suspect that Luke is the one responsible, since his change conforms to an obvious emphasis in his gospel. But the decision is often much more difficult and is fraught with possibilities for error. All this goes to say that redaction critics often need to be much more cautious about claiming that an evangelist has changed his source. We may not be able to identify redactional elements as often as, or as certainly as, we might like.82 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 2. Redaction critics too often assume that all the changes an evangelist makes to his tradition are theologically motivated. Many no doubt are; but many others, and particularly minor changes affecting one or two words, are stylistic in nature. In other cases, even major additions may be due not to theological concerns but to historical interest. We cannot omit simple historical purposes from the intentions of the evangelists.83
3. Redaction critics have sometimes equated “redactional emphases” with the evangelist’s theology. What is determined to be redaction shows us what is distinct about a particular gospel in comparison with the others or with its sources. We may often legitimately conclude that what is redactional, since it is what an evangelist has deliberately changed, is particularly significant to that evangelist. But it is certainly not the whole of, or perhaps even representative of, his theology. To assume so would be to assume that the tradition an evangelist takes over is not of interest to him or part of his theology. This is manifestly absurd. It would be as if, in comparing the writings of Calvin and Beza, the theologies of each of these men were determined only on the basis of what was unique in each one. The common emphases of Matthew, Mark, and Luke far outweigh their distinctives, and a holistic picture of what each teaches must take both into account. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. The identification of the setting of a particular gospel on the basis of the author’s theology is often far more specific than the data allow. That the additions of Matthew to both Mark and Q involving the Mosaic law and Old Testament quotations demonstrate that Matthew was writing in a setting and to an audience that needed teaching on this matter is evident. And that the tenor of these additions may even allow us to make some guesses about the particular problems of the community in which Matthew was writing is also clear. But the details of setting that some redaction critics hypothesize are often castles built on sand. They usually depend on only part of the evidence (hence, different critics working on the same gospel come up with conflicting settings) and draw conclusions far more specific than the evidence allows. Even the tendency of redaction critics to draw inferences about the nature of the communities to which the evangelists were writing may have to be given up if the argument of Richard Bauckham—that the gospels were written to the general Christian public and not to specific communities—is accepted.84 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 5. Redaction criticism is often pursued in such a way that the historical trustworthiness of the gospel material is called into question. It is not so much that redaction criticism seeks to prove the unhistorical nature of the changes introduced by the evangelists. Rather, many redaction critics assume that the evangelists would have little concern about it. Thus, as Marxsen puts it, “Within this approach, the question as to what really happened is excluded from the outset.”85 In this sense, redaction criticism is a true descendent of radical form criticism. Mark, Matthew, and Luke, according to many redaction critics, had no more interest in historical accuracy than did the early Christian community as reconstructed by Bultmann and Dibelius. So typical is the antihistorical bias of many of the best-known redaction critics that redaction criticism, like form criticism, has earned for itself the reputation of being a method that attacks the historical reliability of the gospels.
But it is unfair to generalize from the way many pursue redaction criticism to the method itself. Nothing about redaction criticism per se is antihistorical. Indeed, as we will argue below, redaction criticism has some very positive contributions to make to our interpretation of the Synoptic Gospels. Why, then, do so many redaction critics come to conclusions that question the historical credibility of the gospels? | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | One major reason is an assumption among many redaction critics that an evangelist cannot be both theologically motivated and historically accurate. We are often presented, explicitly or implicitly, with the choice between history and theology. Yet there is no reason why an evangelist cannot have both concerns. That Matthew, Mark, and Luke have redacted the gospel traditions that came to them is beyond doubt. And for some redaction critics, it appears, this is enough to justify the conclusion that, in tampering with the tradition, the evangelists have tampered with history. But this is not necessary. Rearranging, adding, omitting, and rewording need not detract from the historicity of the event or teaching concerned. For instance, newspapers will frequently rewrite for their own readers news-service reports that they receive, but their rewrites need not affect the accuracy of the report. Major speeches will sometimes be summarized in a few words, or excerpts will be taken from them. In doing so, different newspapers may focus on different emphases in the same speech. We do not accuse these newspapers of inaccuracy in doing this, nor should we accuse the evangelists of historical inaccuracies if they summarize, excerpt, or reword Jesus’ own sayings. That they have done so seems clear, as a comparison among the evangelists at almost any page in a synopsis shows. But their failure to preserve the ipsissima verba Jesu (the authentic words of Jesus) does not mean that they have tampered with the ipsissima vox Jesu (the authentic voice of Jesus). As long as the evangelists’ redactional modifications are consistent with what actually happened or with what Jesus actually said—even if they select, summarize, and reword—historical integrity is maintained.86 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The question, then, boils down to the intentions of the evangelists as these can be determined from their express statements and their actual redactional work. Did they intend to write their gospels with a concern for historical accuracy? Or did they theologize the message of Jesus with little interest in whether it really happened that way or not? Redaction criticism, in itself, cannot answer these questions. And redaction critics themselves come to radically different conclusions about this matter. Some are convinced that a careful study of the modifications introduced by the evangelists shows no tampering with historicity. They separate redaction from tradition in order to understand the message of the gospels better, without supposing that the redaction has any less historical foundation than the tradition.87 Thus, for instance, they may conclude that Luke has redacted Jesus’ beatitude “Blessed are the poor” to include an economic focus by pairing it with his “Woe to you rich,” while Matthew has redacted the same saying as “Blessed are the poor in spirit” to emphasize the spiritual dimension. But as long as Jesus intended both—and it is quite likely that he did, given the Old Testament concept of “poor”—then it would be unfair to accuse either evangelist of an unhistorical tampering with the words of Jesus. Many instances are of course more difficult, and only a text-by-text scrutiny of the data is finally adequate to demonstrate the case one way or the other. Our point here is simply that redaction criticism need not be destructive to the historical accuracy of the gospels and that redaction critics who assume that the evangelists had no concern for history in their redactional activity have not proven their point. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The problems of redaction criticism, then, are problems of exaggerated claims, false assumptions, and inappropriate applications. Pursued properly, redaction criticism offers the promise of real help in interpreting the gospels. Specifically, the discipline of redaction criticism has several positive elements.
1. By focusing on the final, authorial stage in the production of the gospels, it offers immediate help to the interpreter and theologian. In this respect it contrasts favorably with both form and source criticism, which, in their concern with the prehistory of the gospel tradition, are important for the historian of early Christianity but of only minimal help to the interpreter. Redaction criticism looks at the level that deserves most of our attention: the final literary product, the gospel.
2. Redaction criticism reminds us that the evangelists wrote with more than (though not less than) historical interest. They were preachers and teachers, concerned to apply the truths of Jesus’ life and teaching to specific communities in their own day. This theological purpose of the evangelists has sometimes been missed, with a consequent loss of appreciation for the significance and application of the history that the evangelists narrate.
3. Redaction criticism recognizes, and increases our appreciation of, the multiplicity of the gospels. The story of Jesus has come to us, not in one supergospel, but in four gospels, each with its own distinct and important contribution to make to our understanding of Jesus. While creating occasional problems at the historical level, this fourfold gospel should be appreciated for the richness of perspective it brings. “Jesus is such a gigantic figure that we need all four portraits to discern him,”88 and redaction criticism helps us to appreciate the artistry and meaning of each of those portraits.
THE GOSPELS AS WORKS OF LITERATURE | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | THE GOSPELS AS WORKS OF LITERATURE
We have sketched the process by which the gospels have come into being. We now turn our attention to the final products, considered on their own as works of literature. Two matters call for specific consideration: the question of the gospel genre, and the new literary criticism.
The Genre of the Gospels
Nowhere in the New Testament is any of the four accounts of Jesus’ ministry called a gospel ( [euangelion]; on Mark 1:1, see the introduction to Mark). “Gospel” and the cognate verb “preach the gospel” ( [euangelizomai]) are used in the New Testament, and especially frequently in Paul, to denote the message of God’s saving act in his Son (e.g., in Mark 1:14- 15; Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 15:1; Gal. 1:6–7).89 Probably at some time toward the end of the first century or early in the second, titles were added to the church’s authoritative accounts of Jesus’ ministry. Certainly this was when “gospel” was first used to denote a work of literature.90 These titles preserve the stress on the singleness of the gospel by the way they are phrased: not “the gospel by Mark,” but “the [one] gospel, according to [the version of] Mark” (and Matthew and Luke and John). Justin, in the middle of the second century, is the first author to use the word gospel of the canonical accounts of Jesus’ ministry (Apol. 1.66; Dial. 10.2). It was probably Mark’s use of the word in prominent places in his gospel (e.g., 1:1, 14) that led to its use as a literary designation.91 No books before our gospels had ever been given this designation. What implications does this hold for the literary genre of the gospels? | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The question is an important one for the reader of the gospels because accurate interpretation depends to some extent on accurate decisions about genre. The phrase “red rose” will signify something quite different in a botanical treatise than it does in Robert Burns’s line “O, my luve is like a red, red rose.” Similarly, Jesus’ walking on the water will mean one thing for the reader who takes the gospels to be straightforward history and a very different thing for the reader who is convinced that he or she is reading a myth or a midrash.
Modern study of the genre of the gospels began with K. L. Schmidt’s decision to classify them as “popular literature” (Kleinliteratur) rather than “literary works” (Hochliteratur). 92 As popular literature, they could be expected to follow the rules of transmission typical of such literature—an important point for Schmidt, who was one of the pioneers of form criticism. This classification also meant that the gospels were to be viewed as distinct from the more literary biographies of various types prevalent in the ancient Greco-Roman world. From a slightly different perspective, C. H. Dodd viewed the gospels (and especially Mark) as mirroring the early Christian preaching (kerygma) about Christ. As expansions of this kerygma, the gospels were viewed more as the last stage in a continuous oral tradition than as self-conscious literary creations.93 These approaches to the gospels led to the view that they could be fitted into no ancient literary genre but were unique. Without necessarily subscribing to either Schmidt’s or Dodd’s view of gospel origins, many (perhaps even a majority of) contemporary scholars think that the gospels do not fit into any established literary category.94 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | But others are convinced that, while possessing some unique features, the gospels share enough features with other works of the ancient world to be placed in the genre of these works. A number of specific genre identifications have been proposed, from Greek aretalogy (stories of the miraculous deeds of a godlike hero) to Jewish midrash. But the most popular suggestion, as well as the most defensible, is that the gospels are biographies. True, they are quite different from the standard modern biography: they lack accounts of Jesus’ childhood development and education, his character and motivations, and chronological precision. But ancient Greco-Roman biographies did not always contain such features either. Indeed, the genre of biography was a very broad one in antiquity, encompassing works of considerable diversity. It was certainly broad enough, it is argued, to include the Synoptic Gospels.95
Our decision about how to classify the gospels will depend considerably on how much flexibility we give to the concept of genre. Most modern literary critics emphasize that genre does not impose a rigid set of requirements but creates the presumption of “a flexible set of expectations.”96 Moreover, they argue that there can really be no such thing as a “unique” book. To be understood at all, a book would have to conform to certain generic conventions. We should probably, therefore, place the gospels into the category of the ancient Greco-Roman bios, the biography. Even the Gospel of Luke, which might be classified as historiography because of its ties to the Acts of the Apostles, can be accomodated within the boundaries of the ancient biography. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | But we should at the same time recognize the genuinely unique features of the gospels. Unlike most other ancient biographies, the gospels are anonymous; they lack the literary pretensions characteristic of most biographies; and, most of all, they combine teaching and action in a preaching-oriented work that stands apart from anything else in the ancient world.97 This latter point is especially important in view of the tendency among some scholars to expand the concept of “gospel” to include such documents as Q, The Gospel of Thomas, and The Gospel of Truth. 98 As Philip Jenkins has shown, this tendency owes more to contemporary ideological trends than it does to serious scholarship.99 In any case, these documents lack the narrative and kerygmatic mixture that seems to be intrinsic to the canonical gospel genre.
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Literary Criticism
Description. We are using “Literary Criticism” as a catchall designation for contemporary approaches to the gospels that focus on careful study of the way the gospels function as pieces of literature. Of course, both scholars and laypeople have pursued this kind of study of the gospels for centuries. But what distinguishes modern literary criticism is a self-conscious turn from the preoccupation with the prehistory of the gospels that dominated gospel studies from 1800–1970 to a concentration on the text “as it is.” Investigations of the prehistory of the Synoptic Gospels such as dominate form and source criticism, it is claimed, have resulted in a “critical distancing of the text” that “has transformed biblical writings into museum pieces without contemporary relevance.”100 Even redaction criticism falls under criticism, because it is built on traditions analysis and tends to be preoccupied with distilling theology from the narrative. Thus, many gospel scholars no longer bother themselves with the question of sources and forms, or even of author and circumstance of writing. They simply want to discover how the gospels function as autonomous literary texts. Applying insights from the wider world of literary studies, these scholars analyze the narratives of the gospels, seeking to discover how the plot unfolds and how the characters develop. The real meaning of the narrative, indeed, is often seen to lie behind the words of the text, in the “deep structures” that the narrative reveals. “Structuralism,” appropriately, is the name given to the specific methodology that seeks to discover and classify these basic components of human thought and expression.101 Various other related methods and viewpoints, such as deconstruction, rhetorical criticism, discourse analysis, social-science criticism, and ideological criticism are often added to the mix.102 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | It should be emphasized that specific approaches within this very broad movement vary widely. As we suggest above, many literary critics are clearly working from a radical postmodern agenda, questioning our ability to discover the “original” meaning of the text and the utility of doing so even if we could. For such critics, the text takes on a life of its own. The meaning it conveys is not tied to its historical origin—whether we think of that origin as located in a community or an author—but to the way it functions as it is read by the modern interpreter. For many literary critics, then, we cannot speak of a true or false meaning of any given gospel text or of the gospel as a whole but only of my meaning and your meaning. Meaning is located, not in an author’s intention, but in the encounter of text and reader. Literary critics studying the gospels in this way mirror the movement in interpretation theory generally from an author-based hermeneutic to a text-or reader-based hermeneutic.
But not all literary critics have turned their backs entirely on author and history. Many use modern literary methods as a basic tool to uncover the meaning intended by the authors of the gospels. They share with the more radical literary critics a conviction that tradition criticism is of minimal help in illuminating the meaning of the text. But they view various forms of literary criticism as tools to illuminate the meaning that the evangelists intended their texts to have. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Evaluation. Literary criticism is rooted in a valid concern: study of the gospels has too often focused on the history of the tradition behind them to the extent that the gospels themselves become lost to sight. Focus on the text as we now have it is a welcome corrective to this tendency. Literary critics have also shed new light on the way different parts of the gospels function within the larger literary unit. And exegetes can profit from the taxonomies of narrative structures that literary critics use in their interpretations. But we must also point out some severe problems with the way many literary critics pursue their discipline.
First, there exists among many literary critics a reaction not only against excessive historical analysis but against history itself. It appears that literary criticism has sought to turn the problem of historical skepticism and uncertainty into a virtue. True, they say, we can know little for certain about Jesus, but by insisting that the truth of the gospels lies within their own “narrative world,” the literary critic can ignore the problem. Yet the problem will not go away so easily, for the evangelists are demonstrably referring to events in the real world. The failure of literary criticism to deal with this means that it can never get to the real heart of the gospels.103
Second, the casting of the text loose from the author means—as many literary critics teach—that there can be no such thing as a correct meaning of the text. But the evangelists were individuals writing in specific circumstances and to specific audiences; this historical setting, not the individual reader, must set the context for interpretation.104 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Third, the general tendency to derive categories of interpretation from modern literature, such as the novel, is a questionable procedure. Quite apart from the issue of the validity of modern theories of novel interpretation (and there is reason for skepticism), it is doubtful whether the gospels should be compared to the modern novel.
Fourth, there are questions about the structuralism used in much literary criticism. These questions have to do with both the existence of the alleged deep structures as well as their usefulness for interpretation. Are we attributing to ancient writers modern structures of thinking and writing? Must all writing fall into such structures? These questions do not apply to all forms of structuralism, but they should make us very cautious about the usefulness of some of the more popular and far-reaching wings of the movement.
Again, we want to emphasize that these criticisms apply only to certain kinds of literary criticism. As we mentioned above, many scholars pursue their literary studies of the gospels in combination with careful historical and philological study and with the aim of illuminating more clearly their original meaning. Such a melding of traditional exegesis and literary criticism holds great promise in discerning the message of the narratives through which God has chosen to communicate to us his good news.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | JESUS AND THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
The two previous questions we have examined—How did the gospels come into being? How are they to be understood as literary works?—are important in their own right, but they become especially significant when we understand their ramifications for the historical issue. Do the gospels tell us a great deal about the early church but almost nothing about Jesus (Bultmann)? Do they tell us mainly about different forms of early Christianity, with Jesus but a shadowy and uncertain figure at its inception (some redaction critics)? Do they introduce us into a narrative world in which Jesus becomes little more than a protagonist in a story (some literary critics)? What do the gospels tell us of Jesus? This is a fundamental question for New Testament studies, and here we answer it only briefly by surveying some of the main approaches and indicating briefly our own position.
The Question of the “Historical” Jesus | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The Question of the “Historical” Jesus
Christians before the eighteenth century entertained few doubts that the gospels were to be read as historically reliable accounts of the life of Jesus. The main problem to be faced was that of harmonization: explaining how the four gospels could be combined together to produce a smooth and coherent account of Jesus’ life. Such attempts date from the earliest days of the church (e.g., Tatian in the second century) and continue to be popular in our own day. But this generally unquestioned confidence in the historical accuracy of the gospels’ portrait of Jesus changed in the eighteenth century under the onslaught of the Enlightenment. A new, critically oriented historiography was less disposed to accept ancient accounts at face value. This attitude applied especially to miracles, which did not fit well into the deistic view of a mechanical and reliable universe. The most famous early attack on the historicity of the gospels was that of Samuel Reimarus. His “Fragments,” published by Lessing in 1774–78 after his death, raised serious doubts about the gospel accounts. Among other things, Reimarus suggested that the resurrection did not occur; instead, the disciples stole the body.105 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Reimarus’s attack on the gospels initiated what has been called the “first quest for the historical Jesus.” Nineteenth-century scholars who pursued this quest often shared the skepticism of Reimarus about the miraculous element in the gospels. H. E. G. Paulus, for example, explained away the resurrection as a revival from a coma in the cold tomb and argued that Jesus’ walking on the water was in reality his walking on a barely submerged sandbar. But a major break with this rationalistic approach came in the groundbreaking Life of Jesus by D. F. Strauss (1835–36). Strauss, while no more accepting of the historicity of the gospels than his rationalistic predecessors, insisted that they taught truth, but truth of a religious and philosophical nature. Much of the gospel material consisted of myths (stories with religious value) that were important witnesses to the “absolute spirit,” a concept taken from the then-popular philosophy of Hegel. Reaction against Strauss and other such extreme skeptics took many forms. One was the Markan hypothesis, which viewed Mark as relatively untheological and therefore a generally reliable basis for a historical Jesus. Such a view fed into the many lives of Jesus, told from a liberal perspective, in which the theological and dogmatic layers of the Greek-influenced early church (and particularly Paul) were stripped off in order to get at the real Jesus: the humble teacher of Nazareth. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Three influential works ended the first quest. The most famous was Albert Schweitzer’s Quest for the Historical Jesus, a chronicle of “lives of Jesus” from Reimarus to his own time (1906).106 Schweitzer showed how each successive “historical” Jesus was little more than the projection of the writer’s own cultural and philosophical outlook back into the plane of history. Building on the work of Johannes Weiss,107 Schweitzer saw eschatology as the key to understanding Jesus. Jesus proclaimed the impending world-ending entrance of the kingdom of God and died disappointed when it had not come. Two other books written a bit earlier called into question the possibility of a nontheological, untendentious picture of Jesus: Martin Kähler’s The So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic, Biblical Christ 108 and William Wrede’s The Messianic Secret in Mark. 109 Thus, as E. E. Ellis puts it, “The Quest began with the supposition that history could be extracted from the Gospels like a kernel from the husk; it ended with the growing recognition that the process was more like peeling an onion with history and interpretation intermixed at every layer.”110 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Rudolf Bultmann kept peeling until there was almost nothing left. His form-critical studies of the gospels convinced him that we could know very little for sure about Jesus himself: the accounts have simply been reinterpreted too thoroughly by the early church. But this did not concern Bultmann, for it is not what we can uncover about Jesus in history that matters for us but what we can experience of Jesus in personal encounter with him here and now. Historical facts cannot prove articles of faith: “Rather, the acknowledgment of Jesus as the one in whom God’s word decisively encounters man, whatever title be given him … is a pure act of faith independent of the answer to the historical question…. Faith, being personal decision, cannot be dependent on a historian’s labor.”111 Bultmann, using existentialist philosophy as a guide, pursues a program of “demythologization” in which the modern reader penetrates through the myths of the gospels to find real truth.
A concern among Bultmann’s own pupils that he had gone too far in casting loose the Christian faith from historical moorings led to the “second quest” for the historical Jesus. These scholars were concerned that Bultmann’s lack of interest in history would leave the church adrift and helpless to make any claims for itself at all. Ernst Käsemann opened this new quest in 1953, and he was followed by several other influential German theologians.112 Nevertheless, what even the “new questers” decided can be reliably known about Jesus was so small a residue of the whole that little was gained. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Study of the historical Jesus has not waned over the years, and the number and variety of approaches defy simple classification. But two rather contrasting movements deserve mention. The first, the Jesus Seminar, continues the generally negative historical judgments that typified both the first and the second “quest.” Members of the Jesus Seminar, which has been in existence since 1985, meet periodically to vote on the authenticity of gospel material. The vote has usually gone against the gospels; only 20 percent of the sayings of Jesus, for instance, have been accepted as possibly authentic.113 The seminar, by means of an adroit media campaign, has attracted a great deal of attention—far more than its work merits. As several scholars have pointed out, the seminar is not representative of biblical scholarship generally, and its conclusions are driven by unwarranted presuppositions.114 Two of its members have published significant “lives” of Jesus, revealing the general tendency of the Seminar as a whole. While the two differ in many important respects, they agree in presenting a portrait of Jesus, built mainly on Q and the noncanonical Gospel of Thomas, that emphasizes his antiestablishment preaching and ignores or plays down his miracles, atoning death, and resurrection.115
The second movement we wish to mention has been dubbed the “third quest for the historical Jesus.” Scholars who might be placed under this rubric represent a wide spectrum of specific viewpoints. But they are generally characterized by a serious attempt to place Jesus squarely within the matrix of first-century Judaism and by a relatively positive approach to the historicity of the gospels.116 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | It would be impossible to catalog here the variety of interpretations of the life of Jesus that are current in scholarship in our own day;117 nor have we done more than scratch the historical surface. Indeed, the picture we come away with from so cursory a survey can be seriously misleading, since it focuses on the new and the unusual at the expense of the many fine restatements of a more conservative approach. But at least it enables us to see the extent to which the gospels have come to be considered exceedingly weak reeds for the historian’s labors.
Yet such skepticism is not warranted. The evangelists certainly claim to be writing history. True, they write as passionate exponents of a certain interpretation of that history, and they select and arrange their facts accordingly. But as we have seen when discussing redaction criticism, there is no reason to think a person must be a bad historian because he or she is a strong partisan. As Martin Hengel points out, scholars have erred in thinking they had to choose between preaching and historical narration: “In reality the ‘theological’ contribution of the evangelist lies in the fact that he combines both these things inseparably: he preaches by narrating; he writes history and in so doing proclaims.”118 A truly open-minded approach is to listen sympathetically to the case the evangelists are arguing, trying to enter into their own world to see if it makes sense. We might find that it makes more sense than the worlds we have constructed for ourselves.119
The Possibility of a Historical Outline | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The Possibility of a Historical Outline
We have made no attempt here to prove a position with respect to the historicity of the gospels. But if we may grant that others have provided, not a proven position (there is no such thing as proof, in an absolute sense, in such matters), but nonetheless solid grounds for accepting the gospels as historically reliable,120 what kind of information about Jesus can we expect to find in them? Is it possible to reconstruct a historically coherent “life of Jesus"? Some deny the validity of any such attempt. Brevard Childs, for instance, insists that the “canonical shape” of the fourfold gospel should be respected. He faults traditional harmonies for seeking the meaning of the gospels in a historical construct that disregards this canonical shape.121 While Childs is right to insist that meaning is to be found in the texts as we have them rather than in some necessarily hypothetical pasting together of all four accounts, he is wrong to deny all significance to harmonies. For the truth of what the evangelists are saying is inevitably tied to the historical reality of what they narrate. The attempt to put together that historical reality—the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth—is both necessary and significant. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | But is it really possible? A major barrier to the enterprise has always been the many places in which the gospels appear to contradict themselves over historical details. The most troublesome texts have been the subject of many harmonizing interpretations, ranging from the ridiculous to the convincing. Our whole approach to this matter will depend greatly on what we think of the evangelists’ accuracy generally. The more we are impressed by their accuracy—as the authors of this volume are—the further we will search for satisfactory explanations. Nevertheless, there are some places where fully satisfactory answers simply are not available. In such cases, it is better, as Luther put it, just to let it alone than to force unlikely meanings on the text.122
These difficulties must not obscure the fact that the Synoptic Gospels exhibit a high degree of coherence about the general course of Jesus’ ministry as well as about many of the incidents within that ministry. Some of the greatest divergences do not suggest contradictions so much as accounts that have little in common with one another (such as the infancy narratives in Matthew and Luke). Coherence at the historical level in such situations is relatively easy to attain. Nevertheless, a fully satisfactory historical harmony of Jesus’ life is impossible. It was simply not the evangelists’ intention to provide us with the kind of data we would need for such an enterprise. They give few exact chronological indicators, and those we do have (general phrases such as “after these things,” “when,” and Mark’s “immediately”) are often too general to be of real use to the historian. The evangelists narrate historical facts, but they so select, arrange, and present these facts that little information of the kind needed to piece together a detailed life of Jesus is available. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The generally similar chronological sequence in the Synoptic Gospels is not always matched by agreement on individual episodes. In such cases, it is not a matter of chronological error, but of chronological indifference. The evangelists, and sometimes the sources they use, arrange their material topically at times, often making it impossible for us to know when in the ministry of Jesus a particular incident occurred. An example is the series of controversy stories that Mark narrates in 2:1–3:6. That Mark or his source has grouped these stories together because of their similarity in subject matter (Jesus in controversy with Jews) seems likely, particularly when we note that none of the episodes is given a specific chronological relation to any other. When, then, did Jesus heal the man’s hand in the synagogue on the Sabbath (Mark 3:1–6)? Early in the ministry, as we might conclude if Mark’s placement was chronological? Or later on, as the placement of the incident in Matthew might suggest (see 12:9–14)? We might venture some guesses, but we cannot know for sure: the evangelists simply have not given us enough information. The fact, then, that a detailed life of Jesus cannot be reconstructed on the basis of the Synoptic Gospels in no way discredits the gospels as accurate historical sources. They should be judged for what they do tell us, not for what they do not tell us.
Gospel Chronology
The task of setting the events of the gospels against the background of secular history is made easy by the references to well-known historical personages such as Herod the Great (Matt. 2), Caesar Augustus (Luke 2:1), Herod Antipas (Luke 23:6–12), and Pontius Pilate (Matt. 27). With such indicators, we can situate the gospels generally within the history of first-century Palestine and the wider Roman Empire. But can we be any more exact? Several key incidents may yield more exact chronological data. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Jesus’ Birth. Three data have been used to date Jesus’ birth: the involvement of Herod the Great (Matt. 2); the decree of Caesar Augustus, issued when “Quirinius was governor of Syria” (Luke 2:1–2); and the appearance of the “star of Bethlehem” (Matt. 2:1–12). Herod the Great is undoubtedly the “king” of Matthew 2. It is almost certain that Herod died in late March or early April of 4 B.C.123 Jesus must therefore have been born before 4 B.C.—but probably not much before, since Herod slays children only two years old and younger (2:16). Augustus ruled the Roman Empire from 31 B.C. to A.D. 14. Unfortunately, the census to which Luke refers cannot be identified from secular sources. Josephus refers to a local census that took place in A.D. 6, and some think that Luke has confused the census that brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem with this one. Adding fuel to the fire is the fact that the only reference to Quirinius in ancient sources places him in office in the years A.D. 6–8. But it is unlikely that Luke, proven so accurate in historical and geographic details in Acts, would have made so serious a blunder. We may surmise that Quirinius had held an earlier post in Syria,124 or that Luke 2:2 should not be translated “this was the first census that took place while Quirinius was governor of Syria” (TNIV), but “this census was before the census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria.”125 In any case, the census does not help us date the birth of Jesus. Nor does the appearance of the star give us much help. Several identifications of the star with known astronomical phenomena have been proposed—a comet reported in 5 B.C. or a conjunction of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars in 7–6 B.C.—but none is certain. Moreover, in light of Matthew’s statement that the star “went ahead of [the magi] until it stopped over the place where the child was” (2:9), it is perhaps unlikely that the star can be identified with any natural astronomical phenomenon. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | All things considered, then, we can only estimate that Jesus must have been born sometime during 6–4 B.C.
The Beginning of Jesus’ Ministry. According to Luke 3:1, Jesus began his public ministry “in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.” Here, we might think, is an indication that should yield an exact date. But the matter is not so simple. Tiberius became emperor after the death of Augustus in August of A.D. 14. If this is when Luke begins his fifteen years, then the date of the beginning of Jesus’ ministry would be either 28 or 29.126 But Tiberius began a coregency with Augustus in A.D. 11/12. Counting from this date would place the beginning of Jesus’ ministry in 25/26 or 26/27.127 However, while we cannot be certain, the former way of reckoning the beginning of Tiberius’s reign is the most natural, and it is therefore likely that Luke dates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry in either 28 or 29. With any of these dates, justice is done to Luke’s approximation that Jesus was “about thirty years old” at the beginning of his ministry (3:23).
The Length of Jesus’ Ministry. The synoptic evangelists provide little information that can be used to determine the length of the ministry. It has been proposed that the events in the Synoptics could be packed into less than a year, but this compresses events too much. Moreover, Mark indicates that at the time of the feeding of the five thousand, the grass was green (6:39), which points to the Palestinian springtime. Yet since Jesus was crucified in the spring, Mark’s gospel suggests a ministry of at least a year’s duration. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | John supplies us with more information. He mentions the Passover three times in his narration of Jesus’ ministry: at the time of the cleansing of the temple (2:13), at the time of the feeding of the five thousand (6:4), and at the time of Jesus’ crucifixion (11:55). He also mentions a “feast” in 5:1 that may have been, although probably was not, a Passover. If the three Passovers that John mentions were distinct in time,128 then John’s gospel requires a ministry of at least two years.129 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The Death of Jesus. On the basis of the previous two considerations, Jesus’ death must have occurred in A.D. 30 or later. Two lines of evidence have been used to determine the precise year: astronomical/calendrical and historical. We know that Jesus was crucified on Friday (“the Preparation Day” [Mark 15:42 par.]) in the Jewish month of Nisan. The beginning of that month was fixed at the time when the new moon was sighted. Thus, if we knew the date of the crucifixion, we could use astronomical calculations to determine the years during which that date would have fallen on a Friday. Unfortunately, the date of Jesus’ death continues to be a matter of considerable debate, Nisan 14 and 15 being the main possibilities. The uncertainty arises from apparently conflicting data from the Synoptic Gospels and from John. The Synoptics appear to make the Last Supper a Passover meal (see, e.g., Mark 14:12), making Friday Nisan 15. But on one reading of the fourth gospel, John implies that the Passover meal had not yet been eaten at the time of Jesus’ trial (18:28), which suggests that the day of Jesus’ death was Nisan 14. Numerous harmonization attempts have been offered, the two most likely being that the synoptic evangelists and John were utilizing different calendars in use in first-century Palestine,130 or that John in 18:28 does not really intend to suggest that the official Passover meal was still to be eaten.131 In any case, we must remain uncertain about the day of the month on which Jesus died. Nisan 14 probably occurred on a Friday in A.D. 30,132 and almost certainly did in 33; Nisan 15 may have occurred on a Friday in A.D. 30, and possibly also in 31.133 However, since the calculation of the beginning of Nisan depended on human observation, with many possibilities for uncertainty, we must not depend too strongly on the results. Nevertheless, the two most likely candidates are Nisan 14 (= April 3), A.D. 33, and Nisan 14 or 15 (= April 6 or 7), A.D. 30. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The historical argument estimates the time at which it was most likely that Pilate, the Roman governor in Palestine, would have caved in to the pressure exerted on him by the Jewish leaders at the time of Jesus’ trial. Hoehner, for instance, has argued that Pilate’s desire to accommodate the Jewish leaders is credible only after A.D. 31, in October of which year the anti-Semitic Sejanus, ruler of the empire in fact under Tiberius, was executed.134 Combined with the astronomical argument, this narrows the possibilities down to one year: A.D. 33.
But it may be doubted whether this set of circumstances is needed to explain Pilate’s behavior, for the Roman administration, whoever was in charge, was concerned to maintain stability in the provinces, and Pilate had already given some indication of failure at this point. Quite apart from this argument, however, some scholars think that the astronomical data are more favorable to the A.D. 33 date. In contrast, the year 33 is virtually ruled out if Jesus was crucified on Nisan 15, as the synoptic evangelists appear to suggest. Moreover, a crucifixion as late as A.D. 33 might fail to leave enough time between the death of Jesus and Paul’s conversion (see chap. 7).
The various data do not, then, allow us at this time to decide the matter with certainty. But the A.D. 30 date is slightly preferable.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Charles C. Anderson, Critical Quests of Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969) Janice Capel Anderson and Stephen D. Moore, eds., Mark and Method: New Approaches to Biblical Studies (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992) David E. Aune, The New Testament in Its Literary Environment, LEC 8 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987) idem, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983) Paul Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times (Downers Grove: IVP, 1999) Richard Bauckham, “For Whom were the Gospels Written?” in The Gospels for All Christians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 9–48 idem, “The Eyewitnesses and the Gospel Traditions,” JSHJ 1 (2003): 28–60 Arthur J. Bellinzoni Jr., ed., The Two-Source Hypothesis: A Critical Appraisal (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1985) C. Clifton Black, The Disciples in Mark: Markan Redaction in Current Debate, JSNTSup 27 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989) Craig Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the Gospels (Downers Grove: IVP, 1987) idem, “The Legitimacy and Limits of Harmonization,” in Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon, ed. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 135–74, 388–97 idem, “The Synoptic Problem: Where We Stand at the Beginning of a New Century,” in Rethinking the Synoptic Problem, ed. David Alan Black and David R. Beck (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), 17–40 Darrell L. Bock, Jesus According to Scripture: Restoring the Portrait from the Gospels (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002) Markus Bockmuehl, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Jesus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) M. Borg, Jesus: A New Vision (San Francisco: Harper, 1987) Günther Bornkamm, Jesus of Nazareth (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1960) G. Bornkamm, G. Barth, and H. J. Held, Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974) Colin Brown, Jesus in European Protestant Thought, 1778–1860 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988) Rudolf Bultmann, The | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988) Rudolf Bultmann, The History of the Synoptic Tradition (New York: Harper & Row, 1963) - idem, Theology of the New Testament, 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951–55) R. A. Burridge, What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Greco-Roman Biography, SNTSMS 70 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992)- B. C. Butler, The Originality of St. Matthew: A Critique of the Two-Document Hypothesis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951) S. Byrskog, Story as History—History as Story: The Gospel Tradition in the Context of Ancient Oral History, WUNT 123 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 2000) G. B. Caird, “Chronology of the New Testament,” in IDB 1.599–607 D. A. Carson, “Matthew,” in EBC 8 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984) idem, “Redaction Criticism: On the Legitimacy and Illegitimacy of a Literary Tool,” in Scripture and Truth, ed. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 119–42, 376–81 Maurice Casey, An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, SNTSMS 122 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002) David Catchpole, The Quest for Q (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1993) D. J. Chapman, Matthew, Mark, and Luke: A Study in the Order and Interrelation of the Synoptic Gospels, ed. John M. T. Barton (London: Longmans, Green, 1937) Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke (New York: Harper & Row, 1960) Patricia Cox, Biography in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) J. D. Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (San Francisco: Harper, 1991) Peter Davids, “The Gospels and Jewish Tradition: Twenty Years After Gerhardsson,” in GP 1:75–79 Robert A. Derrenbacher Jr., and John S. Kloppenborg Verbin, “Self-Contradiction in the IQP? A Reply to Michael Goulder,” JBL 120 (2001): 57–76 Martin Dibelius, From Tradition to Gospel (ET: New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, n.d.) Albrecht Dihle, “Die Evangelien und die griechische Biographie,” in Das | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | (Oxford: Blackwell, 1955) Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX, AB (Garden City: Doubleday, 1981) idem, “The Priority of Mark and the ‘Q’ Source in Luke,” in Jesus and Man’s Hope, ed. Donald G. Miller (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, 1970), 1:131–70 (reprinted in Bellinzoni, The Two-Source Hypothesis) J. K. Fotheringham, “The Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion,” JTS 35 (1934): 146–62 R. T. France, “The Authenticity of the Sayings of Jesus,” in History, Criticism, and Faith, ed. Colin Brown (Downers Grove: IVP, 1976), 101–41 idem, “Exegesis in Practice: Two Samples,” in New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Methods, ed. I. Howard Marshall (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 253–64 idem, Matthew: Evangelist and Theologian (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989) G. Friedrich, “,” in TDNT 2.721–35 Robert W. Funk, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative (Sonoma: Polebridge, 1989) Robert W. Funk and Roy W. Hoover, The Five Gospels (Sonoma: Polebridge, 1993) Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity, ASNU 22 (Lund: Gleerup, 1964) J. K. L. Gieseler, Historisch-kritischer Versuch über die Entstehung und die frühesten Schicksale der schriftlichen Evangelien (1818) F. Godet, A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, n.d.) Mark Goodacre, The Case Against Q: Studies in Markan Priority and the Synoptic Problem (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2002) idem, the Synoptic Problem: A Way through the Maze (New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001) Michael D. Goulder, Luke: A New Paradigm, 2 vols., JSNTSup 20 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989) idem, “Self-Contradiction in the IQP,” JBL 118 (1999): 506–17 idem, “The Derrenbacher-Kloppenborg Defense,” JBL 121 (2002): 33–36 J. J. Griesbach, Commentatio qua Marci evangelium totum e Matthaei et Lucae commentariis decerptum esse monstratur (Treatise in | [
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Subsets and Splits