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An Introduction to the New Testament | decerptum esse monstratur (Treatise in which is demonstrated that the gospel of Mark has been wholly derived from the commentaries of Matthew and Luke) (1789) Royce Gordon Gruenler, New Approaches to Jesus and the Gospels: A Phenomenological and Exegetical Study of Synoptic Christology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982) Robert Guelich, “The Gospel Genre,” in Das Evangelium und die Evangelien, 183–219 Robert H. Gundry, “Recent Investigations into the Literary Genre ‘Gospel,’ “ in New Dimensions in New Testament Study, ed. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C. Tenney (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 101–13 Erhardt Güttgemanns, Candid Questions Concerning Gospel Form Criticism: A Methodological Sketch of the Fundamental Problematics of Form and Redaction Criticism (ET Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1979) John C. Hawkins, Horae Synopticae (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909) Peter M. Head, Christology and the Synoptic Problem: An Argument for Markan Priority, SNTSMS 94 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) Peter M. Head and P. J. Williams, “Q Review,” TynB 54 (2003): 119–44 Martin Hengel, “Literary, Theological, and Historical Problems in the Gospel of Mark,” in Studies in the Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 221–65 idem, “The Titles of the Gospels and the Gospel of Mark,” in ibid., 64–84 idem, The Four Gospels and the One Gospel of Jesus Christ (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2000) J. G. Herder, Von der Regel der Zusammenstimmung unserer Evangelien (1797) David Hill, New Testament Prophecy (Richmond: John Knox, 1979) E. D. Hirsch Jr., Validity in Interpretation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1967) Harold Hoehner, Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977) H. J. Holtzmann, Die synoptische Evangelien: Ihr Ursprung und ihr geschichtlicher Charakter (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1863) M. D. Hooker, “On Using the Wrong Tool,” Theol 75 (1972): 570–81 Colin J. Humphreys and W. Graeme Waddington, “The Date of the | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | and W. Graeme Waddington, “The Date of the Crucifixion,” JASA 37 (1985): 2–10 Philip Jenkins, Hidden Gospels: How the Search for Jesus Lost its Way (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus (London: SCM, 1966) Luke T. Johnson, The Real Jesus (San Francisco: Harper, 1996) Martin Kähler, The So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic, Biblical Christ (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964) Ernst Käsemann, “The Problem of the Historical Jesus,” in Essays on New Testament Themes (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964), 15–47 Werner H. Kelber, The Oral and the Written Gospel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983) Jack Dean Kingsbury, Matthew as Story (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986) John Kloppenborg, Excavating Q: The History and Setting of the Sayings Gospel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000) W. L. Knox, The Sources of the Synoptic Gospels, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957) Helmut Koester, Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1990) Werner Georg Kümmel, The New Testament: The History of the Investigation of Its Problems (New York: Abingdon, 1970) Karl Lachmann, “De Ordine narrationum im evangeliis synopticis,” TSK 8 (1835): 570–90 G. E. Lessing, Neue Hypothese über die Evangelisten als bloss menschliche Geschichtschreiber betrachtet (1784) R. H. Lightfoot, History and Interpretation in the Gospels (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1935) R. L. Lindsey, “A Modified Two-Document Theory of the Synoptic Dependence and Interdependence,” NovT 6 (1963): 239–63 Eta Linnemann, Is There a Synoptic Problem? Rethinking the Literary Dependence of the First Three Gospels (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992) Tremper Longman III, Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987) Harvey K. McArthur, ed., In Search of the Historical Jesus (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1969) Edgar V. McKnight, Meaning in Texts (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Meaning in Texts (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974) idem, Post- Modern Use of the Bible: The Emergence of Reader-Oriented Criticism (Nashville: Abingdon, 1988) Scot McKnight, Interpreting the Synoptic Gospels (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988) idem, “Source Criticism,” in Interpreting the New Testament, ed. David Black and David Dockery (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2001), 74–105 Allan J. McNicol, David L. Dungan, and David B. Peabody, Beyond the Q Impasse: Luke’s Use of Matthew (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996) Burton L. Mack, The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian Origins (San Francisco: Harper, 1993) Joel Marcus, Mark 1–8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 27 (New York: Doubleday, 2000) I. Howard Marshall, I Believe in the Historical Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977) idem, Luke: Historian and Theologian, new, enlarged ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989) Ralph Martin, Mark: Evangelist and Theologian (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1972) idem, “The New Quest of the Historical Jesus,” in Jesus of Nazareth: Savior and Lord, ed. Carl F. H. Henry (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966), 31–45 Willi Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist: Studies on the Redaction History of the Gospel (Nashville: Abingdon, 1969) Sharon Lee Mattila, “A Question Too Often Neglected,” NTS 41 (1995): 199–217 J. P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, 4 vols. (New York: Doubleday, 1991–) Ben F. Meyer, The Aims of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979) Alan Millard, Reading and Writing in the Time of Jesus (Washington Square: New York University Press, 2000) S. D. Moore, Poststructuralism and the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994) Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971) idem, Studies in the Fourth Gospel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969) Stephen Neill and Tom Wright, The Interpretation of the New Testament, 1861–1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988) Franz Neirynck, The Minor Agreements of | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 1988) Franz Neirynck, The Minor Agreements of Matthew and Luke Against Mark, with a Cumulative List, BETL 37 (Louvain: Louvain University Press, 1974) David J. Neville, Mark’s Gospel:Prior or Posterior? A Reappraisal of the Phenomenon of Order, JSNTSup 222 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002) George Ogg, The Chronology of the Public Ministry of Jesus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940) Grant R. Osborne, “The Evangelical and Redaction Criticism: Critique and Methodology,” JETS 22 (1979): 305–22 idem, “History and Theology in the Synoptic Gospels,” TrinJ 24 (2003): 5–22 H. P. Owen, Observations of the Four Gospels (1764) Daniel Patte, Structural Exegesis for New Testament Critics (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1990) idem, What Is Structural Exegesis? (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976) Norman Perrin, Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus (London: SCM, 1967) idem, What Is Redaction Criticism? (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969) Norman R. Peterson, Literary Criticism for New Testament Critics (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978) A. Polag, Fragmenta Q: Texthelf zur Logienquelle, 2nd ed. (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1982) Stanley E. Porter, The Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research: Previous Discussion and New Proposals, JSNTSup 191 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000) E. J. Pryke, Redactional Style in the Marcan Gospel: A Study of Syntax and Vocabulary as Guides to Redaction in Mark, SNTSMS 33 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978) William Ramsay, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (repr., Grand Rapids: Baker, 1953) Friedrich Rehkopf, Der lukanische Sonderquelle, WUNT 5 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1959) Bo Reicke, The Roots of the Synoptic Gospels (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986) Rainer Riesner, Jesus als Lehrer, WUNT 7 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1981) idem, “Jüdische Elementarbildung und Evangelienüberlieferung,” in GP 1.209–23 John M. Rist, On the Independence of Matthew | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | John M. Rist, On the Independence of Matthew and Mark, SNTSMS 32 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978) J. A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976) James M. Robinson, A New Quest of the Historical Jesus, SBT 25 (London: SCM, 1959) Joachim Rohde, Rediscovering the Teaching of the Evangelists (London: SCM, 1968) E. P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985) F. Schleiermacher, “Über die Zeugnisse des Papias von unseren ersten beiden Evangelien,” TSK 5 (1832): 335–68 Karl Ludwig Schmidt, Der Rahmen der Geschichte Jesu: Literarkritische Untersuchungen zur ältesten Jesusüberlieferung (Berlin: Trowitzsch & Son, 1919) idem, “Die Stellung der Evangelien in der allgemeinen Literaturgeschichte,” in ETXAPI£THPION: Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments, Fs. Hermann Gunkel, ed. K. L. Schmidt, FRLANT 19.2 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1923) John J. Schmitt, “In Search of the Origin of the Siglum Q,” JBL 100 (1981): 609–11 Albert Schweitzer, The Quest for the Historical Jesus (New York: Macmillan, 1961) Philip L. Shuler, A Genre for the Gospels: The Biographical Character of Matthew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982) Moisés Silva, “Ned B. Stonehouse and Redaction Criticism. Part I: The Witness of the Synoptic Evangelists to Christ; Part II: The Historicity of the Synoptic Tradition,” WTJ 40 (1977–78): 77–88, 281–303 Graham N. Stanton, Gospel Truth? New Light on Jesus and the Gospels (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1995) idem, The Gospels and Jesus, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) idem, Jesus of Nazareth in New Testament Preaching, SNTSMS 27 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974) Robert Stein, “The ‘Criteria’ of Authenticity,” in GP 1.225–63 idem, Studying the Synoptic Gospels: Origin and Interpretation, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001) idem, “What Is Redaktionsgeschichte?” in JBL 88 (1969): 45–56 Hans-Herbert Stoldt, History and Criticism of | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Hans-Herbert Stoldt, History and Criticism of the Marcan Hypothesis (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1980) Ned B. Stonehouse, The Witness of the Synoptic Gospels to Christ (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979) Georg Strecker, ed., Minor Agreements: Symposium Göttingen 1991 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993) B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins (London: Macmillan, 1924) G. M. Styler, “The Priority of Mark,” in The Birth of the New Testament, ed. C. F. D. Moule, 3rd ed. (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1982), 285–316 Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977) Randall K. T. Tan, “Recent Developments in Redaction Criticism: From Investigation of Textual Prehistory Back to Historical-Grammatical Exegesis?” JETS 44 (2001): 599–614 Vincent Taylor, The Formation of the Gospel Tradition, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1935) idem, The Gospel According to St. Mark, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1966) idem, The Passion Narrative of St. Luke: A Critical and Historical Investigation, ed. Owen E. Evans, SNTSMS 19 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972) Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998 [1996]) Robert L. Thomas and F. David Farnell, eds., The Jesus Crisis: The Inroads of Historical Criticism into Evangelical Scholarship (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998) C. C. Torrey, The Four Gospels (New York: Harper, 1933) C. M. Tuckett, Q and the History of Early Christianity (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1996) C. H. Turner, “Chronology of the New Testament,” in A Dictionary of the Bible, ed. James Hastings, 5 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1898–1904), 1.403–25 Nigel Turner, Grammatical Insights into the New Testament (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1965) Joseph B. Tyson and Thomas R. W. Longstaff, Synoptic Abstract, The Computer Bible 15 (Wooster: College of Wooster, 1978) L. Vaganay, Le problème synoptique: Une hypothèse de travail (Paris: Desclée, 1954) | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Une hypothèse de travail (Paris: Desclée, 1954) Kevin Vanhoozer, “A Lamp in the Labyrinth: The Hermeneutics of ‘Aesthetic’ Theology,” TrinJ 8 (1987): 25–56 C. W. Votaw, “The Gospels and Contemporary Biographies,” AJT 19 (1915): 45–71 Johannes Weiss, Jesus’ Proclamation of the Kingdom of God (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971) C. H. Weisse, Die evangelische Geschichte kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet (1838) David Wenham, “The Synoptic Problem Revisited: Some New Suggestions About the Composition of Mark 4:1–34,” TynB 23 (1972): 3–38 John Wenham, Redating Matthew, Mark, and Luke: A Fresh Assault on the Synoptic Problem (Downers Grove: IVP, 1992) B. F. Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, 8th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1895) C. G. Wilke, Der Urevangelist oder exegetisch-kritische Untersuchungen über das Verwandtschaftsverhältniss der drei ersten Evangelien (1838) William Wrede, Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1901) N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 1»It can be found in NPNF2 6.77-236.
2Martin uses Luke 1:1-4 in a similar way in his introduction (1.119-21).
3Schmidt’s Der Rahmen der Geschichte Jesu: Literarkritische Untersuchungen zur ältesten Jesusüberlieferung was published in 1919 by Trowitzsch & Son in Berlin and has never been translated. Also appearing in 1919 in its original German edition was Martin Dibelius’s From Tradition to Gospel (ET New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, n.d.); The History of the Synoptic Tradition by Rudolf Bultmann was published in 1921 (ET New York: Harper & Row, 1963).
4E.g., Dibelius, From Tradition to Gospel, 178–79.
5In addition to the Dibelius and Bultmann works mentioned, see Vincent Taylor, The Formation of the Gospel Tradition, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1935). Taylor uses form criticism with less historical skepticism than does either Dibelius or Bultmann.
6Bultmann, Synoptic Tradition, 4.
7Norman Perrin, Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus (London: SCM, 1967), 27; cf. Bultmann, Synoptic Tradition, 127-28.
8C. H. Dodd, for instance, proposes that from the beginning, the pattern of early Christian preaching had imposed a certain pattern in the gospel material (“The Framework of the Gospel Narrative,” ExpTim 43 [1932]: 396-400).
9Alan Millard, Reading and Writing in the Time of Jesus (Washington Square: New York University Press, 2000).
10See Richard Bauckham, “The Eyewitnesses and the Gospel Traditions,” JSHJ1 (2003): 28-60.
11See esp. Erhardt Güttgemanns, Candid Questions Concerning Gospel Form Criticism: A Methodological Sketch of the Fundamental Problematics of Form and Redaction Criticism (ET Pittsburgh: Pickwick, 1979), and Werner H. Kelber, The Oral and the Written Gospel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 12E.g., David Hill, New Testament Prophecy (Richmond: John Knox, 1979), 16085; J. D. G. Dunn, “Prophetic ‘I'-Sayings and the Jesus Tradition: The Importance of Testing Prophetic Utterances Within Early Christianity,” NTS 24 (1978): 175-98; David Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 245.
13E. P. Sanders, The Tendencies of the Synoptic Tradition, SNTSMS 11 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).
14Stanley Porter argues that, despite much criticism, little real progress has been made in updating the criteria. He proposes that new criteria focusing on the Greek language might help to move the discussion forward (The Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research: Previous Discussion and New Proposals, JSNTSup 191 [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000]).
15See, e.g., M. D. Hooker, “On Using the Wrong Tool,” Theol75 (1972): 570-81.
16See esp. Robert Stein, “The ‘Criteria’ of Authenticity,” in GP 1.225-63; Ben F. Meyer, The Aims of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 85-87.
17McNeile, 53.
18Birger Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity, ASNU 22 (Lund: Gleerup, 1964). For a review of this proposal, see Peter Davids, “The Gospels and Jewish Tradition: Twenty Years after Gerhardsson,” in GP 1.75-99.
19Rainer Riesner, Jesus als Lehrer, WUNT 7 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1981); idem, “Jüdische Elementarbildung und Evangelienüberlieferung,” in GP 1.209-23.
20See S. Byrskog, Story as History—History as Story: The Gospel Tradition in the Context of Ancient Oral History, WUNT 123 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 2000); Bauck- ham, “Eyewitnesses.” | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 21The agreement in the Greek text is almost as close, with variations only in the tense of an infinitive, the inclusion of a nonessential verb in Luke, and the choice of a particle at the beginning of the last sentence. (Notice the “for” in Matthew, with nothing comparable in Luke (the Greek text has d? [de], “and,” “but”).
22Full accounts of the history of the investigation may be found in Werner Georg Kümmel, The New Testament: The History of the Investigation of Its Problems (New York: Abingdon, 1970), 74–88, 144–61; Stephen Neill and Tom Wright, The Interpretation of the New Testament, 1861–1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 112–36; William Baird, History of New Testament Research, vol. 1: From Deism to Tübingen (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992), 295–310. The best account of recent study is Craig Blomberg, “The Synoptic Problem: Where We Stand at the Beginning of a New Century,” in Rethinking the Synoptic Problem, ed. David Alan Black and David R. Beck (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), 17–40.
23G. E. Lessing, Neue Hypothese über die Evangelisten als blos menschichliche Geschichtschreiber betrachtet, nos. 24–49 (1784).
24J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1804).
25C. C. Torrey, The Four Gospels (New York: Harper, 1933). See also X. Léon- Dufour, “The Synoptic Gospels,” in Robert/Feuillet, 252-86. Léon-Dufour argues that the synoptic evangelists are independent on the literary level, all the similarities arising through dependence on an Aramaic Matthew and oral tradition.
26J. G. Herder, Von der Regel der Zusammenstimmung unserer Evangelien (1797).
27J. K. L. Gieseler, Historisch-kritischer Versuch über die Entstehung und die frühesten Schicksale der schriftlichen Evangelien (1818).
28B. F. Westcott was one of the better-known defenders of the view. See his Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, 8th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1895), 165-212. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 29John M. Rist has argued that the agreements between Matthew and Mark can be explained by common use of oral tradition without having to bring in written sources or to have one depend on the other (On the Independence of Matthew and Mark, SNTSMS 32 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978]). Bo Reicke attributes the similarities among the Synoptic Gospels to a combination of shared (mainly) oral tradition and personal contacts among the authors (The Roots of the Synoptic Gospels [Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986]). And Eta Linnemann thinks that the similarities among the Synoptic Gospels can be explained by vivid and accurate memory of the actual events and sayings (Is There a Synoptic Problem? Rethinking the Literary Dependence of the First Three Gospels [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992]). See also Robert L. Thomas and F. David Farnell, eds., The Jesus Crisis: The Inroads of Historical Criticism into Evangelical Scholarship (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1998), esp. chap. 1, “The Synoptic Gospels in the Ancient Church,” by Thomas and Farnell; chap. 3, “Source Criticism: The Two-Source Theory,” by Thomas R. Edgar; and chap. 6, “Redaction Criticism,” by Thomas.
30See Eusebius, H.E. 3.39.16, and the discussion below and in chapter 3.
31See esp. F. Schleiermacher, “Über die Zeugnisse des Papias von unseren ersten beiden Evangelien,” TSK 5 (1832): 335-68.
32F. Gerald Downing notes that Josephus rarely quoted his sources word-for-word. If this tendency can be assumed for the synoptic evangelists, it is the similarities, not the differences, that require explanation (“Redaction Criticism: Josephus’ Antiquities and the Synoptic Gospels,” JSNT 8 [1980]: 33).
33Robert H. Stein, Studying the Synoptic Gospels: Origin and Interpretation, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), 46. Stein’s entire discussion of this matter, replete with many examples, gives a detailed defense of synoptic interdependence (29-47).
34Augustine, The Harmony of the Gospels 1.2, in NPNF2 Vol. 6. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 35B. C. Butler, The Originality of St. Matthew: A Critique of the Two-Document Hypothesis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951); see also D. J. Chapman, Matthew, Mark, and Luke: A Study in the Order and Interrelation of the Synoptic Gospels, ed. John M. T. Barton (London: Longmans, Green, 1937). The proposal of John Wenham is similar, though he puts more stress on independence (Redating Matthew, Mark, and Luke: A Fresh Assault on the Synoptic Problem [Downers Grove: IVP, 1992]).
36J. J. Griesbach, Commentatio qua Marci evangelium totum e Matthaei et Lucae commentariis decerptum esse monstratur (“Treatise in which is demonstrated that the gospel of Mark has been wholly derived from the commentaries of Matthew and Luke”) (1789). Griesbach was anticipated in this proposal by H. P. Owen in 1764 (Observations of the Four Gospels).
37See esp. William Farmer, The Synoptic Problem: A Critical Analysis (New York: Macmillan, 1964); Hans-Herbert Stoldt, History and Criticism of the Marcan Hypothesis (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1980); William Farmer, ed., New Synoptic Studies: The Cambridge Gospel Conference and Beyond (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1983). A collection of significant essays for and against the hypothesis is found in Arthur J. Bellinzoni Jr., ed., The Two-Source Hypothesis: A Critical Appraisal (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1985). In his book A History of the Synoptic Problem (New York: Doubleday, 1999), David Dungan argues that the two-source hypothesis was adopted more for philosophical and political reasons than for scholarly ones.
38Karl Lachmann, “De Ordine narrationum im evangeliis synopticis,” TSK 8 (1835): 570-90; C. G. Wilke, Der Urevangelist oder exegetisch-kritische Untersuchungen über das Verwandtschaftsverhältniss der drei ersten Evangelien (1838); C. H. Weisse, Die evangelische Geschichte kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet (1838). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 39H. J. Holtzmann, Die synoptische Evangelien: Ihr Ursprung und ihr geschichtlicher Charakter (1863).
40B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins (London: Macmillan, 1924).
41See the surveys in Zahn 2.392-96 and William Farmer, Jesus and the Gospel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982), 13-110.
42See, however, R. L. Lindsey, “A Modified Two-Document Theory of the Synoptic Dependence and Interdependence,” NovT 6 (1963): 239.
43For further details and other arguments, see esp. Kümmel, The New Testament, 56-63; Stein, Studying the Synoptic Gospels, 49-96; Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “The Priority of Mark and the ‘Q’ Source in Luke,” in Jesus and Man’s Hope, ed. Donald G. Miller (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, 1970), 1:131-70; Scot McKnight, “Source Criticism,” in Interpreting the New Testament, ed. David Black and David Dockery (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2001), 74-105.
44The statistics are from Stein, Studying the Synoptic Gospels, 48, who is citing Joseph B. Tyson and Thomas R. W. Longstaff, Synoptic Abstract, The Computer Bible 15 (Wooster, Ohio: College of Wooster, 1978), 169-71.
45E.g., David L. Dungan, “The Purpose and Provenance of the Gospel of Mark According to the Two-Gospel (Owen-Griesbach) Hypothesis,” in New Synoptic Studies, 411-40.
46G. M. Styler, “The Priority of Mark,” in Moule, 231.
47See, however, David J. Neville (Mark’s Gospel: Prior or Posterior? A Reappraisal of the Phenomenon of Order, JSNTSup 222 [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002]), who argues that the argument from order must be pursued with greater methodological precision and that it does not necessarily favor the priority of Mark.
48See, e.g., David Wenham, “The Synoptic Problem Revisited: Some New Suggestions About the Composition of Mark 4:1-34,” TynB 23 (1972): 3-38. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 49The designation is often thought to be the first letter of the German word Quelle, “source.” See the discussion in John J. Schmitt, “In Search of the Origin of the Siglum Q,” JBL 100 (1981): 609-11.
50See esp. James M. Robinson, Paul Hoffmann, and John Kloppenborg, The Critical Edition of Q (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000). See also A. Polag, Fragmenta Q: Texthelf zur Logienquelle, 2nd ed. (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1982); Brown, 118-19, provides a helpful outline.
51Richard A. Edwards, A Theology of Q (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976).
52See, e.g., Burton L. Mack, The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian Origins (San Francisco: Harper, 1993).
53See, e.g., Kümmel, The New Testament, 65-66; Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX, AB (Garden City: Doubleday, 1981), 76-81. See the discussion of this matter, along with the issue of the relationship between the wording of Q and of Matthew and Luke in, respectively, Michael Goulder, “Self-Contradiction in the IQP,” JBL 118 (1999): 506-17; Robert A. Derrenbacher Jr., and John S. Kloppenborg Verbin, “Self-Contradiction in the IQP? A Reply to Michael Goulder,” JBL 120 (2001): 57-76; Michael Goulder, “The Derrenbacher-Kloppenborg Defense,” JBL 121 (2002): 33-36.
54Stein, Studying the Synoptic Gospels, 111.
55See, on this point, John C. Hawkins, Horae Synopticae (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), 80-107.
56See, for instance, David Catchpole, The Quest for Q (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1993); C. M. Tuckett, Q and the History of Early Christianity (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1996).
57Maurice Casey, for instance, posits multiple written sources, many, at least, in Aramaic (An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, SNTSMS 122 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002]). For a critical review, see Peter M. Head and P. J. Williams, “Q Review,” TynB 54 (2003): 131-44. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 58See esp. John Drury, Tradition and Design in Luke’s Gospel: A Study in Early Christian Historiography (Atlanta: John Knox, 1976), 120-73; Allan J. McNicol, David L. Dungan, and David B. Peabody, Beyond the Q Impasse: Luke’s Use of Matthew (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996).
59See especially Mark Goodacre, The Case Against Q: Studies in Markan Priority and the Synoptic Problem (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2002); idem, The Synoptic Problem: A Way through the Maze (New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001). In response to Goodacre, see esp. Paul Foster, “Is It Possible to Dispense with Q?” NovT45 (2003): 313-37. See also Michael D. Goulder, Luke: A New Paradigm, 2 vols.; JSNTSup 20 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989); Austin Farrer, “On Dispensing with Q,” in Studies in the Gospels: Essays in Memory of R. H. Lightfoot, ed. D. E. Nineham (Oxford: Blackwell, 1955), 55-88. A few scholars have even suggested that Matthew might have depended on Luke: e.g., R. V. Huggins, “Matthean Posteriority: A Preliminary Proposal,” NovT34 (1992): 1-22; cf. also Martin Hengel, The Four Gospels and the One Gospel of Jesus Christ (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 2000), 169-207.
60The number of these agreements is debated; see the tabulation and discussion in Franz Neirynck, The Minor Agreements of Matthew and Luke Against Mark, with a Cumulative List, BETL 37 (Louvain: Louvain University Press, 1974); Georg Strecker, ed., Minor Agreements: Symposium Göttingen 1991 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993); Andreas Ennulat, Die “Minor Agreements”: Untersuchungen zu einer offenen Frage des synoptischen Problems, WUNT 62 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1994).
61For these suggestions, see Streeter, Four Gospels, 293-331; Stein, Studying the Synoptic Gospels, 123-27; F. Neirynck, “Synoptic Problem,” in IDBSup, 845.
62As R. E. Brown comments, “The process was probably more complex than the most complex modern reconstruction” (115). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 63See Hengel, The Four Gospels, 169-86.
64E.g., Günther Bornkamm, Jesus of Nazareth (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1960), 217; Vincent Taylor makes such a suggestion, but very cautiously in The Gospel According to St. Mark, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1966), 67-77.
65Kümmel, 62.
66The translation is by Kirsopp Lake, from Eusebius: Ecclesiastical History, vol. 1, LCL (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926). See further discussion of this passage in chap. 3 below under “Author.”
67E.g., Zahn 2.601-17. Others who maintain the existence of an Aramaic or Hebrew Matthew lying behind the Synoptic Gospels are Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, 188-89; Chapman, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, 90-92; X. Léon-Dufour, “Synoptic Problem,” 283-86; and J. A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), 97.
68See esp. Streeter, Four Gospels, 199-221; Vincent Taylor, The Passion Narrative of St. Luke: A Critical and Historical Investigation, ed. Owen E. Evans, SNTSMS 19 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972); Friedrich Rehkopf, Der lukanische Sonderquelle, WUNT 5 (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1959).
69See Fitzmyer, LukeI-IX, 90-91, for criticisms.
70See, e.g., the complicated source-critical proposal of L. Vaganay, Leproblème synoptique: Une hypothèse de travail (Paris: Desclée, 1954); note his summary on p. 444.
71Correctly emphasized by Robinson, Redating, 93-94.
72Sharon Lee Mattila, “A Question Too Often Neglected,” NTS 41 (1995): 199-217. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 73Good descriptions of redaction criticism are found in Norman Perrin, What is Redaction Criticism?(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969); R. H. Stein, “What Is Redaktionsgeschichte?” JBL 88 (1969): 45-56; idem, Studying the Synoptic Gospels, 262-72; Joachim Rohde, Rediscovering the Teaching of the Evangelists (London: SCM, 1968). R. T. France provides an illuminating example of redaction criticism at work in his “Exegesis in Practice: Two Samples,” in New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Principles and Methods, ed. I. Howard Marshall (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 253-64.
74For the methodology of redaction criticism as applied to Mark, see E. J. Pryke, Redactional Style in the Marcan Gospel: A Study of Syntax and Vocabulary as Guides to Redaction in Mark, SNTSMS 33 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Stein, Synoptic Problem, 251-63. Skeptical of the whole enterprise of redaction criticism as applied to Mark is C. Clifton Black, The Disciples in Mark: Markan Redaction in Current Debate, JSNTSup 27 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989).
75William Wrede, Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien (Göttingen: Vanden- hoeck & Ruprecht, 1901 [ET The Messianic Secret in Mark]).
76R. H. Lightfoot’s 1934 Bampton Lectures, published as History and Interpretation in the Gospels (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1935), anticipate many of the emphases of redaction criticism, as do Ned B. Stonehouse’s The Witness of Matthew and Mark to Christ (1944) and The Witness of Luke to Christ (1951) (the two can be found in a one-volume edition from Baker Book House [1979]). On Stonehouse’s work, see Moisés Silva, “Ned B. Stonehouse and Redaction Criticism. Part I: The Witness of the Synoptic Evangelists to Christ; Part II: The Historicity of the Synoptic Tradition,” WTJ 40 (1977-78): 77-88, 281-303.
77It can be found in English translation in G. Bornkamm, G. Barth, and H. J. Held, Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1974). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 78Hans Conzelmann, The Theology of St. Luke (New York: Harper & Row, 1960). The German original, more revealingly titled Die Mitte der Zeit (“The Center of Time”), was published in 1954.
79Willi Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist: Studies on the Redaction History of the Gospel (Nashville: Abingdon, 1969); the German original appeared in 1956.
80Note particularly three monographs from conservative scholars that employ redaction-critical methods and that dissent from the conclusions of Marxsen, Conzelmann, and Bornkamm: Ralph Martin, Mark: Evangelist and Theologian (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1972); I. Howard Marshall, Luke: Historian and Theologian, new, enlarged ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989); R. T. France, Matthew: Evangelist and Theologian (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989). See also Grant R. Osborne, “History and Theology in the Synoptic Gospels,” TrinJ24 (2003): 5-22.
81For more detail on these points and others, see D. A. Carson, “Redaction Criticism: On the Legitimacy and Illegitimacy of a Literary Tool,” in Scripture and Truth, ed. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983), 119-42, 376-81.
82The difficulty of isolating “redaction” has led some to suggest a more cautious approach that focuses on thematic studies within a gospel (e.g., “composition criticism”); see Randall K. T. Tan, “Recent Developments in Redaction Criticism: From Investigation of Textual Prehistory Back to Historical-Grammatical Exegesis?” JETS 44 (2001): 599-614.
83See Graham N. Stanton, Jesus of Nazareth in New Testament Preaching, SNTSMS 27 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974).
84Richard Bauckham, “For Whom were the Gospels Written?” in The Gospels for All Christians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 9-48. See also Hengel, The Four Gospels, 106-11. For criticism of Bauckham’s hypothesis, see Joel Marcus, Mark 1-8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 27 (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 25-27.
85Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist, 23. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 85Marxsen, Mark the Evangelist, 23.
86The issue raised in this paragraph is very broad and important. For these points and others, see esp. R. T. France, “The Authenticity of the Sayings of Jesus,” in History, Criticism, and Faith, ed. Colin Brown (Downers Grove: IVP, 1976), 101-41; Craig Blomberg, The Historical Reliability of the Gospels (Downers Grove: IVP, 1987), esp. 35-43, 113-52; I. Howard Marshall, I Believe in the Historical Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977).
87See, e.g., Grant R. Osborne, “The Evangelical and Redaction Criticism: Critique and Methodology,” JETS 22 (1979): 305-22.
88Leon Morris, Studies in the Fourth Gospel (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 107.
89The New Testament use of (euangelion, “gospel”) and (euangelizomai, “to preach good news”) is taken from the Old Testament. These Greek words translate Hebrew words (from the root “bear good tidings"]) that refer to the deliverance that God has promised his people (see esp. Isa. 40:9; 42:7; 52:7; 61:1; Ps. 95:1).
90See, e.g., G. Friedrich, “,” in TDNT2.721-35.
91E.g., Martin Hengel, “The Titles of the Gospels and the Gospel of Mark,” in Studies in the Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 64-84.
92K. L. Schmidt, “Die Stellung der Evangelien in der allgemeinen Literaturgeschichte,” in ETXAPISTHPION: Studien zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments, Fs. Hermann Gunkel, ed. K. L. Schmidt, FRLANT 19.2 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1923), 59-60.
93See Robert Guelich, “The Gospel Genre,” in Das Evangelium und die Evangelien, ed. Peter Stuhlmacher (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1983), 183-219.
94See, e.g., Kümmel, 37; Guthrie, 16-19; Martin, 1:20; Robert H. Gundry, “Recent Investigations into the Literary Genre ‘Gospel,'” in New Dimensions in New Testament Study, ed. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C. Tenney (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974), 101-13. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 95The most thorough defense is R. A. Burridge, What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Greco-Roman Biography, SNTSMS 70 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). See also C. W. Votaw, “The Gospels and Contemporary Biographies,” AJT 19 (1915): 45-71; Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977); Philip L. Shuler, A Genre for the Gospels: The Biographical Character of Matthew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982); Detlev Dormeyer and Hubert Frankemölle, “Evangelium als literarische Gattung und als theologisches Begriff: Tendenzen und Aufgaben der Evangelienforschung im 20. Jahrhundert, mit einer Untersuchung des Markusevangeliums in seinem Verhältnis zur antiken Biographie,” in ANRW 25.2, pp.1545-81; Albrecht Dihle, “Die Evangelien und die griechische Biographie,” in Das Evangelium und die Evangelien, 383-411; David E. Aune, The New Testament in Its Literary Environment, LEC 8 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987), 17-76; Graham N. Stanton, The Gospels and Jesus, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 14-18 (a change from the earlier edition, in which the uniqueness of the gospel genre was emphasized).
96Burridge, What are the Gospels? 62.
97Patricia Cox makes the important point that ancient biographies recounted the “deeds” ( [praxeis]) of its subject only as a means of illuminating his or her “essence,” or “manner of life” ( [ethos]) (Biography in Late Antiquity [Berkeley: University of California, 1983], 65). This does not match the intention of the evangelists.
98See, e.g., Helmut Koester, Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1990), 1-48. And note the title of the important study of Q by John Kloppenborg: Excavating Q: The History and Setting of the Sayings Gospel (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000).
99Philip Jenkins, Hidden Gospels: How the Search for Jesus Lost its Way (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 100Edgar V. McKnight, Post-Modern Use of the Bible: The Emergence of Reader- Oriented Criticism (Nashville: Abingdon, 1988), 14.
101A fine brief survey of the movement generally, with competent critique, is Tremper Longman III, Literary Approaches to Biblical Interpretation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987). Some important studies that consider various approaches within this general movement are Norman R. Peterson, Literary Criticism for New Testament Critics (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978); Edgar V. McKnight, Meaning in Texts (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974); idem, Post-Modern Use of the Bible; Daniel Patte, What Is Structural Exegesis? (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1976); idem, Structural Exegesis for New Testament Critics (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1990); Robert W. Funk, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative (Sonoma: Polebridge, 1989); S. D. Moore, Poststructuralism and the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994). See also Jack Dean Kingsbury, Matthew as Story (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986).
102An excellent sample of these various approaches, applied to the Gospel of Mark, is found in Mark and Method: New Approaches in Biblical Studies, ed. Janice Capel Anderson and Stephen D. Moore (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992).
103See, for this point, Kevin Vanhoozer, “A Lamp in the Labyrinth: The Hermeneutics of ‘Aesthetic’ Theology,” TrinJ 8 (1987): 25-56.
104See, e.g., E. D. Hirsch Jr., Validity in Interpretation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
105On Reimarus and other key figures in the debate about the “historical Jesus” through the middle of the nineteenth century, see esp. Colin Brown, Jesus in European Protestant Thought, 1778-1860 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988). A broader survey is found in Charles C. Anderson, Critical Quests of Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969).
106Albert Schweitzer, The Quest for the Historical Jesus (New York: Macmillan, 1961). The German title is Von Reimarus zu Wrede (From Reimarus to Wrede). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 107Johannes Weiss, Jesus’ Proclamation of the Kingdom of God (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971); the German original was published in 1892.
108Martin Kähler, The So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic, Biblical Christ (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964); the German original was published in 1896.
109The German original, Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien, was first published in 1901.
110E. E. Ellis, “Gospels Criticism: A Perspective on the State of the Art,” in Das Evangelium und die Evangelien, 30.
111Rudolf Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951-55), 1.26.
112Ernst Käsemann, “The Problem of the Historical Jesus,” in Essays on New Testament Themes (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1964), 15-47; Bornkamm, Jesus of Nazareth, esp. 13-26; and note James M. Robinson, A New Quest of the Historical Jesus, SBT 25 (London: SCM, 1959). For a conservative appraisal, see Ralph P. Martin, “The New Quest of the Historical Jesus,” in Jesus of Nazareth: Savior and Lord, ed. Carl F. H. Henry (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966), 31-45.
113The results of the Seminar’s work are collected in The Five Gospels, ed. R. W. Funk and R. W. Hoover (Sonoma: Polebridge, 1993).
114See especially L. T. Johnson, The Real Jesus (San Francisco: Harper, 1996).
115J. D. Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (San Francisco: Harper, 1991); M. Borg, Jesus: A New Vision (San Francisco: Harper, 1987).
116See, e.g., E. P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985); J. P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus,4 vols. (New York: Doubleday, 1991-); N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 117A helpful survey is Ben Witherington III, The Jesus Quest (Downers Grove: IVP, 1995); see also N. T. Wright, Who Was Jesus? (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993). Two books documenting the historical issues in some detail are Markus Bockmuehl, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Jesus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) and Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998 [1996]). And see the general survey of all four gospels in Darrell L. Bock, Jesus According to Scripture: Restoring the Portrait from the Gospels (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002).
118Martin Hengel, “Literary, Theological, and Historical Problems in the Gospel of Mark,” in Studies in the Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 41.
119Note, e.g., the approach advocated by Royce Gordon Gruenler, New Approaches to Jesus and the Gospels: A Phenomenological and Exegetical Study of Synoptic Christology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982).
120See, e.g., Marshall, I Believe in the Historical Jesus; Blomberg, Historical Reliability of the Gospels.
121Childs, 154-56.
122On harmonizing, see esp. Craig L. Blomberg, “The Legitimacy and Limits of Harmonization,” in Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon, ed. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986), 135-74, 388-97.
123See esp. Harold Hoehner, Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977), 12-13.
124E.g., William Ramsay, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament, reprint ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1953), 238-300.
125E.g., Nigel Turner, Grammatical Insights into the New Testament (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1965), 23-24. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 126E.g., Paul Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times (Downers Grove: IVP, 1999), 21. Within this general span, there are several possibilities for the exact month and date, depending on which calendar may have been used. See, e.g., George Ogg, The Chronology of the Public Ministry of Jesus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940), 174-83.
127E.g., F. Godet, A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, n.d.), 1:166-67.
128Most evangelical scholars argue that John’s cleansing of the temple is a different cleansing than the one narrated in the Synoptic Gospels. If, however, they are one and the same event, then John would refer to only two separate Passovers.
129Hoehner’s claim that John’s gospel, as it now stands, requires a ministry of at least three years, appears to depend on taking Jesus’ reference in 4:35 as an indication that it was January or February (Chronological Aspects, 56–63). But this is unlikely (see Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, NICNT [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971], 278–80); nor does Hoehner seriously consider the possibility that John’s cleansing is the same as the one narrated in the Synoptics. See particularly the discussion in C. H. Turner, “Chronology of the New Testament,” in A Dictionary of the Bible, ed. James Hastings (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1898-1904), 1.407-9; and Karl P. Donfried, “Chronology, New Testament,” in ABD 1:1014-15.
130Morris, John, 774-86.
131D. A. Carson, “Matthew,” in EBC8 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 528-32.
132For this conclusion, which differs from the claims of some other scholars, see Rainer Riesner, Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 57-58. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 133The most recent calculations are found in Colin J. Humphreys and W. Graeme Waddington, “The Date of the Crucifixion,” JASA 37 (1985): 2-10; see also J. K. Fotheringham, “The Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion,” JTS 35 (1934): 146-62; Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus (London: SCM, 1966), 36-41.
134Hoehner, Chronological Aspects,105-11
CHAPTER THREE
MATTHEW
CONTENTS
That Matthew was a skilled literary craftsman no one denies. Disagreements over the structure of this gospel arise because there are so many overlapping and competing structural pointers that it appears impossible to establish a consensus on their relative importance.
If we consider the structure of the book as a whole, then, apart from several idiosyncratic proposals,1 there are three dominant theories.
1. Some have detected a geographic framework that is related to Mark’s gospel (see chap. 2 on the synoptic problem).2 Matthew 1:1–2:23 is the prologue, and it is tied to 3:1–4:11 (Jesus’ preparation for ministry) to constitute an introduction parallel to Mark 1:1–13. Matthew 4:12–13:58 finds Jesus ministering in Galilee (cf. Mark 1:14–6:13). This ministry extends to other locales in the north (Matt. 14:1–16:12; Mark 6:14–8:26) before Jesus begins to move toward Jerusalem (Matt. 16:13–20:34; Mark 8:27–10:52). The confrontation in Jerusalem (Matt. 21:1–25:46; Mark 11:1–13:37) issues in his passion and resurrection (Matt. 26:1–28:20; Mark 14:1–16:8).
This sort of analysis rightly reflects the broad chronological development of Jesus’ ministry and preserves some geographic distinctions. But it is based entirely on a selection of thematic considerations and does not reflect on the literary markers that Matthew has left us. Precisely because, with minor alterations, this sort of analysis could be applied to any of the Synoptic Gospels, it tells us very little of the purposes that are uniquely Matthew’s. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 2. Following suggestions made by Stonehouse, Lohmeyer, and Krentz,3 Kingsbury has argued for three large sections, tightly tied to christological development.4 The first he titles “The Person of Jesus Messiah” (1:1–4:16); the second, “The Proclamation of Jesus Messiah” (4:17–16:20); and the third, “The Suffering, Death, and Resurrection of Jesus Messiah” (16:21–28:20). Immediately after the two breaks come the decisive words (apo tote, “from that time on”), signaling progress in the plot. The last two of the three sections each contains three summary passages (4:23–25; 9:35; 11:1; and 16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19).
Though this outline has gained adherents (e.g., Kümmel), it suffers from several weaknesses. It is not at all clear that (apo tote) is so redactionally important for Matthew that his entire structure turns on it: after all, Matthew uses it at 26:16 without any break in the flow of the narrative. One could argue that there are four passion summaries in the third section, not three (add 26:2). At both structural transitions, Matthew may have been more influenced by his following of Mark than by other considerations. In any case, the outline breaks up the important Peter passage in Matthew 16 in an unacceptable way. Even the christological development is not as clear as Kingsbury alleges: the person of Jesus (section 1) is still a focal point in sections 2 and 3 (e.g., 16:13–16; 22:41–46); the proclamation of Jesus can scarcely be restricted to section 2, for two of the discourses (chaps. 18 and 24–25) and several important exchanges (chaps. 21–23) are reserved for the third section. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 3. The most frequently proposed structures turn on the observation that Matthew presents five discourses, each of which begins in a specific context and ends with a formula found nowhere else (lit. “And it happened, when Jesus had finished saying these things, that …” [Matt. 7:28–29; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1]). It becomes attractive to link narrative with discourse in five pairs. Bacon proposed just such a scheme, calling the five sections “books.”5 Book 1 deals with discipleship (narrative, chaps. 3–4; discourse, chaps. 5–7); book 2 with apostleship (narrative, 8–9; discourse, 10); book 3 with the hiding of the revelation (narrative, 11–12; discourse, 13); book 4 with church administration (narrative, 14–17; discourse, 18); and book 5 with the judgment (narrative, 19–22; discourse, 23–25). This leaves Matthew 1–2 as a preamble and 26–28 as an epilogue. Bacon himself thought that this was Matthew’s self-conscious response to, and fulfillment of, the five books of Moses.
Few today think that Matthew intended any link between these five sections and the five books of Moses: proposed connections are just too tenuous. The ties between each narrative and discourse pair are not always very strong, and any outline that relegates the entire passion and resurrection narrative to the status of an epilogue must be seriously questioned. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | But something of the scheme can be salvaged. That Matthew reports extensive teaching of Jesus outside the five discourses is no criticism of the outline: the fivefold sequence of narrative and discourse does not assume that Jesus is not portrayed as speaking in the narrative sections. He may do so, even extensively (e.g., chaps. 11, 21). The point, rather, is that the five discourses are so clearly marked, from a literary point of view, that it is well-nigh impossible to believe that Matthew did not plan them. Chapters 1–2 do constitute a preamble or prologue: all four canonical gospels preserve some kind of independent opening before turning to the first step taken in common, namely, the ministry of John the Baptist (in Matthew, beginning at 3:1). Certainly Matthew 26–28 must not be taken as a mere epilogue. But it is just possible that Matthew thinks of these chapters as the climactic, sixth narrative section, with the corresponding “teaching” section laid on the shoulders of the disciples (28:18–20) and therefore open-ended.
Superimposing on these literary markers the transparent development of the plot, we arrive at a seven-part outline:
The prologue (1:1–2:23). This is divisible into six sections, treating the genealogy of Jesus (1:1–17), his birth (1:18–25), the visit of the Magi (2:1–12), the escape to Egypt (2:13–15), the massacre at Bethlehem (2:16–18), and the return to Nazareth (2:19–23). A quotation from the Old Testament, introduced by an appropriate fulfillment formula, dominates the last five of these sections. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The gospel of the kingdom (3:1–7:29). The narrative (3:1–4:25) includes the foundational steps (3:1–4:11)—including the ministry of John the Baptist (3:1–12), the baptism of Jesus (3:13–17), and the temptation of Jesus (4:1–11)—and Jesus’ early Galilean ministry (4:12–25). The first discourse (5:1–7:29) is the Sermon on the Mount. After the setting is established (5:1–2), the kingdom of heaven is introduced, with its norms (5:3–12) and its witness (5:13–16). The great body of the sermon runs from 5:17 to 7:12, beginning and ending with the way in which the kingdom is related to the Old Testament scriptures, “the Law and the Prophets.” This is particularly the theme of 5:17–48, with its initial explanation (5:17–20) and dependent antitheses (“You have heard … but I tell you” [5:21–48]). The demand for perfection (5:48) introduces correlative warnings against rank hypocrisy (6:1–18), with particular attention devoted to the proper way to go about the three traditional manifestations of Jewish piety: alms (6:2–4), prayer (6:5–15), and fasting (6:16–18). To maintain such a stance it is necessary to pursue kingdom perspectives (6:19–34), including unswerving loyalty to kingdom values (6:19–24) and uncompromised trust in God (6:25–34). The demand for balance and perfection, fulfilling Old Testament expectations (7:1–12), is followed by a conclusion that sets forth two ways (7:13–14), two trees (7:15–20), two claims (7:21–23), and two builders (7:24–27); every reader must choose. The closing verses (7:28–29) not only offer the first instance of the formula that terminates the five discourses but reaffirm Jesus’ authority, thus preparing for the series of authoritative miracles that dominate the next two chapters. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The kingdom extended under Jesus’ authority (8:1–11:1). The narrative (8:1–10:4) includes not only a number of miracles, each symbol-laden to portray some facet of the kingdom and its king, but the calling of Matthew (9:9) and Jesus’ insistence on eating with public sinners (9:10–13) while announcing that the dawning kingdom, manifest in his own presence, was a time for joy (9:14–17). The miracles and Jesus’ audacity are pushing back the frontiers of darkness, but the narrative ends with the demand for prayer for more workers (9:35–38) and the commissioning of the Twelve (10:1–4). This naturally leads to the second discourse, on mission and martyrdom (10:5–11:1), which moves from the immediate project (10:5b–16) to warnings of future sufferings (10:17–25), a prohibition of fear in the light of the Father’s providence (10:26–31), and a more general description of authentic discipleship (10:32–39). Response to such disciples, for good or ill, is equivalent to response to Jesus himself (10:40–42). The transitional conclusion (11:1) points to Jesus’ expanding ministry. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Teaching and preaching the gospel of the kingdom: rising opposition (11:2–13:53). The narrative (11:2–12:50) not only establishes the relative roles of John the Baptist and of Jesus in the stream of redemptive history (11:2–19) but reverses public expectations by reporting Jesus’ strong condemnation of the “good,” Jewish, religious towns of Galilee (which are aligned in his mind with pagan cities such as Tyre and Sidon, or a proverbially wicked center such as Sodom), and by announcing relief and rest to the weary and broken—provided they find it in the context of the “yoke” of the Son (11:20–30). Tension mounts as Sabbath conflicts erupt (12:1–14), as Jesus proves to be rather more a meek and suffering servant than a visibly conquering king (12:15–21), and as confrontation develops not only between Jesus and the Pharisees (12:22–45) but between Jesus and his own family (12:46–50). The reversal of expectations is a major theme of the discourse that follows, which is a series of parables (13:1–53; see outline below). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The glory and the shadow: progressive polarization (13:54–19:2). The narrative (13:54–17:27) is a series of vignettes that reflect the rising polarization (e.g., rejection at Nazareth, 13:54–58; Herod and Jesus, 14:1–12; demands for a sign, 16:1–4) or, where they display the power of Jesus’ ministry, nevertheless betray the profound misunderstanding of its nature and focus (e.g., the feeding of the five thousand, 14:13–21; the walk on the water, 14:22–33; Jesus and the tradition of the elders, 15:1–20; the transfiguration, 17:1–13; the healing of the epileptic boy, 17:14–20[21]). The high point of the narrative is the confession of Jesus by Peter (16:13–20), but the aftermath—the first passion prediction (16:21–23; cf. the second in 17:22–23)—shows how little even he has understood. The fourth discourse (18:1–19:2) describes life under kingdom authority. Greatness is irrefragably tied to humility (18:3–4); few sins are more odious than causing believers, Jesus’ “little ones,” to sin (18:5–9); the saving of lost sheep is judged more important than the mere nurture of safe sheep (18:10–14); the priority of forgiveness and the importance of discipline in the messianic community are set forth (18:15–35). The transitional conclusion (19:1–2) serves as an introduction to the Judean ministry. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Opposition and eschatology: the triumph of grace (19:3–26:5). The narrative (19:3–23:39) leads through a number of exchanges and parables that stress the surprising conduct expected of those who would follow Jesus (19:3–20:34), leading up to the events of passion week (21:1–23:39). The triumphal entry (21:1–11), Jesus’ cleansing of the temple (21:12–17), and his cursing of the fig tree (21:18–22) are preludes to a string of controversies in the temple court (21:23–22:46), increasingly pointed and focused on Jesus’ messianic claims. Exasperated, Jesus pronounces his woes on the teachers of the law and the Pharisees (23:1–36) and utters his lament over Jerusalem (23:37–39). The Olivet (or eschatological) Discourse that follows (24:1–25:46), notoriously difficult to interpret, begins with the setting overlooking the temple (24:1–3), and describes the birth pains of the interadvent period (24:4–28) and the coming of the Son of Man (24:29–31), before reflecting on the significance of the birth pains (24:32–35) and urging the need to be prepared, since the day and hour of the coming of the Son are unknown (24:36–41). A series of parables presents variations on the theme of watchfulness (24:42–25:46). The transitional conclusion (26:1–5) includes this gospel’s fourth major passion prediction and some details of the plot against Jesus, which prepares for the final section of the book. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The passion and resurrection of Jesus (26:6–28:20). The pace is now rapid. The anointing at Bethany (26:6–13) and Judas’s betrayal agreement (26:14–16) are rapidly followed by the Last Supper (26:17–30), including the words of institution in vv. 26–30), a prediction of abandonment and denial (26:31–35), Gethsemane (26:36–46), the arrest (26:47–56), Jesus before the Sanhedrin (26:57–68), Peter’s denial of Jesus (26:69–75), the formal decision of the Sanhedrin (27:1–2) and the death of Judas Iscariot (27:3–10), Jesus before Pilate (27:11–26), the soldiers’ treatment of Jesus (27:27–31), the crucifixion and mocking (27:32–44), Jesus’ death (27:45–50) and its immediate impact (27:51–56), the burial of Jesus (27:57–61), and the guard at the tomb (27:62–66). The resurrection narratives (28:1–17) climax in the Great Commission, placing the job of spreading the gospel and the content of Jesus’ teaching squarely on the shoulders of the small enclave of witnesses, who are assured of Jesus’ presence with them to the end of the age (28:18–20).
No outline can do justice to the numerous ministructures that the text displays (cf. Kümmel, 106–7).6 Nevertheless there are many that leap from the page. In particular, this gospel is full of triadic structures—not only in the Sermon on the Mount,7 but throughout the work.8 For instance, in the parables discourse (Matt. 13), Matthew largely agrees with Mark as far as 13:23, but from 13:24 on he goes his own way and starts producing triads. There are three parables of growth: 13:24–30; 13:31–32; 13:33. Each is introduced by “ + (allēn parabolēn + autois, “another parable” + “to them”). After a small interpretive explanation, another triad follows (13:44; 13:45–46; 13:47–50). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In fact, the challenge of sorting out Matthew’s ministructures is even more daunting, partly because by taking into account longer or shorter sections, it is possible to uncover multiple structures. Perhaps this should not be too surprising in a culture that loved various forms of parallelism, but the effect is sometimes striking. To take but one example: the third discourse, the parables of the kingdom, can be read as a large chiasm:
To the crowds (13:3b–33)
1. the parable of the soils (13:3b–9)
2. interlude (13:10–23)
(a) on understanding parables (13:10–17)
(b) interpretation of the parable of the soils (13:18–23)
3. the parable of the weeds (13:24–30)
4. the parable of the mustard seed (13:31–32)
5. the parable of the yeast (13:33)
Pause (13:34–35)
—parables as fulfillment of prophecy (13:34–35)
—interpretation of the parable of the weeds (13:36–43)
To the disciples (13:44–52)
5'.the parable of the hidden treasure (13:44)
4'.the parable of the expensive pearl (13:45–46)
3'. the parable of the net (13:47–48)
2'. interlude (13:49–51)
(a') interpretation of the parable of the net (13:49–50)
(b’) on understanding parables (13:51)
1'. the parable of the teacher of the law (13:52)9
AUTHOR
It is frequently asserted that the gospel commonly designated as Matthew’s, like the other three canonical gospels, is anonymous. That is formally correct if the standard of comparison is, say, Paul’s epistle to the Romans, where the opening lines of the agreed text designate both the author and the initial readers. There is nothing comparable in Matthew, Mark, Luke, or John. Nevertheless, we have no evidence that these gospels ever circulated without an appropriate designation, (kata Matthaion, “according to Matthew”) or the like. How early are these titles? | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Until recently, most scholars tacitly assumed that the four gospels first circulated anonymously and that the present titles were first attached to them about A.D. 125. There is little evidence to support this date as the decisive turning point; it is little more than an educated guess, based only on the presupposition that the gospels were originally entirely anonymous and on the fact that by about 140, and perhaps earlier, the traditional attributions were widely known, without significant variation. Now, however, this consensus has been vigorously challenged by Martin Hengel.10 Hengel examines the practice of book distribution in the ancient world, where titles were necessary to identify a work to which any reference was made. In this context he studies the manner in which second-century authors refer to the gospels, calling to mind, among other things, Tertullian’s criticism of Marcion for publishing his own gospel (a highly truncated version of Luke) without the author’s name. Tertullian contends that “a work ought not to be recognized, which holds not its head erect … which gives no promise of credibility from the fulness of its title and the just profession of its author.”11 Hengel argues that as soon as two or more gospels were publicly read in any one church—a phenomenon that certainly occurred, he thinks, not later than A.D. 100—it would have been necessary to distinguish between them by some such device as a title.12 The unanimity of the attributions in the second century cannot be explained by anything other than the assumption that the titles were part of the works from the beginning. It is inconceivable, he argues, that the gospels could circulate anonymously for up to sixty years, and then in the second century suddenly display unanimous attribution to certain authors. If they had originally been anonymous, then surely there would have been some variation in second-century attributions (as was the case with some of the second-century apocryphal | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | case with some of the second-century apocryphal gospels). Hengel concludes that the four canonical gospels were never even formally anonymous. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Objections have been raised against this proposal in four areas.
1. Some of Hengel’s arguments are of the “what must have been the case” variety. That is a fair charge. Even so, what must have been the case in the church’s reference to the gospels that were circulating is based on demonstrable second-century practices. Certainly Hengel’s reconstruction makes more sense than any other theory that seeks to explain the unanimity of second-century attribution.
2. Hengel’s arguments are no defense against pseudonymity. Again, that is correct. But most scholars think of the four canonical gospels as anonymous, not pseudonymous. In any case, not only was pseudonymity in the first century largely restricted to apocalyptic works, but as soon as the church began to discuss the issue, there was unanimity in rejecting the authority of any work that fell under the suspicion of being a pseudonymous composition.
3. Anonymity was surely less threatening than Hengel intimates. Was not the epistle to the Hebrews, for example, written anonymously? Certainly Tertullian overstates the argument. Nevertheless, the epistle to the Hebrews is distinguished from other epistles by a title, namely, its (assumed) addressees; and its adoption by the church into the canon was constrained in part by doubts as to the identity of its author. It is not an accident that it was first accepted in the East, where tradition associated it with the apostle Paul. Hengel himself has discussed this question at length.13 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. Hengel’s interpretation assumes that (kata Matthaion, “according to Matthew”) is an attribution of authorship, whereas parallels show that the phrase “according to” serves other purposes. For example, in the titles “Gospel According to the Hebrews” and “Gospel According to the Egyptians,” the prepositional expression does not indicate authorship. Plummer says it “implies conformity to a type, and need not mean more than ‘drawn up according to the teaching of.’”14 Plummer and others acknowledge that by the time of Papias, ?at? (kata, “according to”) is understood to indicate authorship, but they insist that the expression does not necessarily bear that weight. Hengel agrees that plus the accusative is not itself a necessary indication of authorship and indeed is only rarely used in that way in contemporary Greek literature. But he draws attention to a telling analogy. In the Greek fathers, the one Old Testament is referred to as “according to the Seventy” or “according to Aquila” or “according to Symmachus,” where the prepositional expression is used to introduce the person or group thought to be responsible for producing the version concerned. In the same way, the one gospel early circulated in four distinct forms, “according to Matthew,” “according to Mark,” and so forth, where the prepositional expression introduces the person understood to be the originator of the particular form.
In short, the argument that Matthew was understood to be the author of the first gospel long before Papias wrote his difficult words affirming such a connection seems very strong, even if not unassailable. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Before considering Papias’s disputed words, it is important to recognize that the credibility of Papias himself is widely questioned. Although Irenaeus, writing in the second half of the second century, insists that both Papias and Polycarp knew the apostle John personally, the fourth-century church historian Eusebius disputes the claim in the case of Papias (Eusebius, H.E. 3.39). Largely on this ground, modern scholarship tends to date Papias to A.D. 140 or later; but if Irenaeus is right and Eusebius is wrong, then there is no reason Papias could not have written twenty or more years earlier, and with excellent access to accurate information. In recent years it has been repeatedly shown that Eusebius misunderstood Papias on several points and tried his best to reduce his importance because he could not stand his millenarian views. (The evidence and arguments are summarized in chap. 6 below.)15 It is far more likely that Irenaeus is correct in his assessment of Papias than that Eusebius is.
Whatever the date and knowledge of Papias, what he actually wrote is available to us only in quotations preserved by Eusebius. The five exegetical books of Papias, Logion Kyriakon Exegesis (Exegesis of the Dominical Logia), survived into the Middle Ages in some libraries in Europe, but they are no longer extant. It is from this work that Eusebius (H.E. 3.39.14–16) quotes Papias’s two surviving comments on the authorship of the gospels. The one that bears on the fourth gospel is discussed later in this volume; the one that bears directly on Matthew is notoriously difficult to translate, as indicated here. “Matthew (synetaxeto, ‘composed’? ‘compiled’? ‘arranged [in an orderly form]’?) (ta logia, ‘the sayings’? ‘the gospel’?) in (Hebraïdi dialek-to, ‘the Hebrew [Aramaic] language’? ‘Hebrew [Aramaic] style’?), and each (hērnēneusen, ‘interpreted’? ‘translated’ ‘transmitted’?) them as best he could.”16 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | There is no doubt that the early church understood this to mean that Matthew first wrote his gospel in Hebrew or Aramaic (the same Greek word was used to refer to both cognate languages) and that it was then translated by others. But there are serious problems with this view. Although a few modern scholars argue that Matthew’s entire gospel was first written in Aramaic,17 substantial linguistic evidence is against them. In the first place, the many quotations from the Old Testament do not reflect a single text form. Some are unambiguously Septuagintal; others are apparently translations from a Semitic original; still others are so eccentric as to defy easy classification.18 Had the gospel first been written in Aramaic, one might have expected that the Old Testament quotations would be either the translator’s own rendering of the Aramaic or standard quotations from the accepted Bible of the early church, the LXX. The mix of text forms suggests an author writing in Greek but knowledgeable in Semitic languages and therefore able to vary his form.
Second, assuming that Matthew depends on Mark (see chap. 2 on the synoptic problem), the detailed verbal connections between Matthew and Mark make it extremely unlikely that Matthew was first written in Aramaic. Of course, those who do not accept the priority of Mark, or who propose that an Aramaic edition of Matthew preceded the publication of Mark, which then served as the heart of our Greek Matthew, will perceive no problem here.
Finally, the Greek text of Matthew does not read like translation Greek. True, there are Semitisms and, more frequently, Semitic enhancements,19 but these are largely restricted to the sayings of Jesus, and (arguably) they are introduced for effect by an author who is demonstrably capable of writing idiomatic Hellenistic Greek.20 One could argue that a very good translator could have produced the same effect, but he would have had to be a very good translator indeed. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | How, then, should the statement of Papias be taken? Among the dominant proposals are these (see also Guthrie, 44–49):
1. Some identify the (logia, “sayings”) with some independent collection of Jesus’ sayings, perhaps Q (on which see chap. 2 on the synoptic problem).21 That would make Matthew the author of a sayings source (if Q, about 250 verses common to Matthew and Luke). Papias confused this source with the canonical Matthew. But it is not at all clear how an apostolic source as important as this could have fallen so completely out of use as to be lost to posterity. Indeed, the entire Q-hypothesis, however reasonable, is still merely a hypothesis. However much one may speak of material common to Matthew and Luke, it is far from clear that such material was all drawn from one common source. Besides, as we shall see, Papias does not normally use to refer only to sayings.
2. Some of the same criticisms can be raised against the view that (logia) refers to Old Testament “testimonia” books, that is, it was a book of Old Testament proof texts compiled by Matthew from the Hebrew canon, used in Christian apologetics and now incorporated in canonical Matthew.22 It is not certain that such books ever existed independently. In any case, it does not explain the diversity of text forms in Old Testament quotations in Matthew, still less the fact that Matthew most closely follows the LXX where he is parallel to Mark. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 3. J. Kürzinger,23 followed by Gundry,24 thinks that ta (ta logia) refers to canonical Matthew but that (Hebraïdi dialekto) refers, not to the Hebrew or Aramaic language, but to Semitic style or literary form: Matthew arranged or composed ( [synetaxeto]) his gospel in Semitic (i.e., Jewish Christian) literary form, dominated by Semitic themes and devices. This is an unlikely rendering, but certainly possible (see LSJ 1.401). In this view, the last clause of Papias’s statement cannot refer to translation, since Semitic language is no longer in view: everyone simply interpreted the text to the world as he was able. Kürzinger points out that immediately preceding this passage, Papias describes Mark as the (hermeneutes) of Peter; this, Kürzinger says, cannot mean that Mark was Peter’s “translator,” but that Mark “interpreted” Peter and thus “transmitted” his message to the world. If the same reasoning is applied to the cognate verb in Papias’s statement about Matthew, Kürzinger’s interpretation becomes possible.
But however possible, it is not the natural way to read the passage, and it is certainly not what later church fathers understood. Without exception, they held that the apostle Matthew wrote canonical Matthew and that it was first written in Semitic. That is true, for instance, of Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. 3.1.1, quoted in Eusebius, H.E. 5.8.2), Tertullian (Adv. Marc., 4.2), Origen (quoted by Eusebius, H.E. 6.25.3–6), Eusebius himself (H.E. 3.24.5–6), and Jerome (De vir. ill. 3).25 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | There seems to be increasing agreement as to what (ta logia) means. Although at this period it would be most natural to use this expression to refer either to Old Testament oracles of God, and thus derivatively to the entire Old Testament, or else to the sayings of Jesus, two bits of evidence suggest that Papias used the term to refer to the words and deeds of Jesus—in short, to the substance of what became our gospels. First, although the title of his five-volume work is Exegesis of the Dominical Logia, enough is known of this work to conclude that it was not restricted in scope to an exposition of Jesus’ words but included exposition also of deeds alleged to have been performed by Jesus. Moreover, in the sequence preserved in Eusebius, just before Papias tells us of how Matthew wrote, he tells us that Mark recorded from Peter’s teaching “the things said or done by the Lord.” This teaching, however, was given as the occasion demanded; Peter was not speaking “as if he were making an ordered collection ( [syntaxis]) of the Lord’s oracles ( [takyriakalogia]).” Clearly, what Mark was writing was the gospel that bears his name, with its collection of “things either said or done by the Lord"; and the parallelism between this clause and (ta logia) shows that the latter expression can include deeds as well as words. When a few lines later we read that Matthew (ta logia synetaxeto, “composed the logia,” or “put the logia in order”), it is most natural to conclude that what he was doing, at least in Papias’s mind, was composing the gospel that bears his name. It is thus highly unlikely that should be understood to refer to Q or to a book of “testimonies.” | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | In short, the evidence leads to a difficult conclusion. Unless we adopt the solution of Kürzinger, we are gently nudged to the conclusion that Papias was wrong when he claimed that Matthew was first written in Aramaic. And if he was wrong on this point, what prevents us from supposing that he was likely wrong in his ascription of authorship to the apostle Matthew? | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Such skepticism, superficially plausible, seems a trifle extreme. The two issues are not integrally connected. Authors have been known to err on one point without erring on all points! Moreover, plausible reasons have been advanced to suggest why Papias may have been led astray on the question of a Semitic original. It may have been an intelligent, albeit erroneous, guess. The early church fathers assumed that Matthew was the first gospel to be written. Since Jesus and his apostles lived and served among the Hebrews, it may well have been a natural conclusion that the first gospel to be written was produced “in the Hebrew [Aramaic] dialect”—the more so if Papias, living in the Hellenistic world, had no real knowledge of just how much Greek was spoken in first-century Palestine, especially in Galilee. Moreover, Papias may have confused canonical Matthew with another gospel, written in Aramaic or Hebrew, that was well known in the second century. Reports have come down to us of a “gospel according to the Hebrews,” a “gospel of the Nazareans,” and a “gospel of the Ebionites.” It is uncertain whether these titles refer to three separate books or two or more of them refer to one book.26 Epiphanius claims that the Ebionites, a group he regards as heretical, based their beliefs on a gospel of Matthew that they called “According to the Hebrews,” written in Hebrew, but (as far as Epiphanius was concerned) falsified and mutilated; for a start, it eliminated the genealogy of Jesus and began with the ministry of John the Baptist. Similarly, Irenaeus says that the Ebionites used only the gospel of Matthew but denied the virgin birth—which again suggests that their Matthew did not include Matthew 1–2. The great translator Jerome claims that he translated the “gospel according to the Hebrews” into both Greek and Latin. This book he associates with the Nazareans, who, he insists, gave him permission to copy the Hebrew original of the gospel according to Matthew. Yet as far as we | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | the gospel according to Matthew. Yet as far as we can tell from his frequent references, the actual content is far removed from canonical Matthew. All this suggests that there was ample opportunity for confusion to arise between some “gospel according to the Hebrews” and Matthew, engendering the theory that the latter was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | We note several other factors in the contemporary debate over the authorship of Matthew:
1. Only this gospel refers to “Matthew the tax collector” (10:3). On the assumption of apostolic authorship, this is best seen as gentle self-deprecation, an allusive expression of gratitude for the freedom of grace (see 9:9–13). Those who deny apostolic authorship of this book are inclined to interpret the same evidence as the reason why the unknown author(s) chose to associate the book with Matthew as opposed to some other apostle. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 2. In Mark 2:14 and Luke 5:27, the man whom Jesus calls from his role as tax collector is identified as Levi. In what is transparently the same story, Matthew 9:9–13 identifies the man as Matthew. All three Synoptic Gospels, in their respective lists of the apostles (Matt. 10:2–4; Mark 3:16–18; Luke 6:13–16; cf. Acts 1:13), name a “Matthew,” and Matthew 10:3 identifies this Matthew as the tax collector. The reasonable assumption is that Matthew and Levi are one and the same person. But other suggestions are not lacking. Pesch,27 followed by Beare,28 has argued that the calling of the tax collector concerned one Levi, but that the unknown first evangelist, choosing to identify this otherwise unknown disciple with an apostle, substituted the name of a relatively obscure apostle, Matthew, whom he then dubbed a tax collector. Albright and Mann suggest that “Matthew” is the personal name and that “Levi” refers to his tribe (i.e., that the original designation was “Matthew the Levite” but that at some early point in the tradition the designation was confused and became the common personal name Levi).29 The theory has its attractions. It would explain why the author has such a detailed command of the Old Testament. As for the likelihood that a Levite would find employment as a disreputable tax collector, Albright and Mann argue that there were far more Levites than were needed to run the temple complex and that many therefore had to seek employment elsewhere. By taking on this task, Matthew the Levite forfeited the esteem of his tribe and his race, the most strict of whom viewed tax collectors not only as traitors (since they were indirectly serving the despised Herods; see Schürer 1.372–76) but as immoral and rapacious (since the taxfarming system ensured that a fair bit of corruption was bound up with the job). But the linguistic transformation of “Levite” to “Levi” is not very plausible, and no text preserves the designation “Matthew the Levite.” On the whole, the most | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | “Matthew the Levite.” On the whole, the most economical explanation still seems the best: “Matthew” and “Levi” are alternative Semitic names for one person—a phenomenon found not only in Simon/Cephas (= Peter) but also in inscriptional evidence.30 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 3. The assumption that Matthew was a tax collector (essentially a minor customs official collecting tariff on goods in transit) and was the author of this gospel makes sense of a number of details.31 Not all the evidence cited is equally convincing. A number of peculiarly Matthean pericopes do depict financial transactions (17:24–27; 18:23–35; 20:1–16; 26:15; 27:3–10; 28:11–15), but none of them betrays an insider’s knowledge of the customs system. Certainly a customs official in Matthew’s position would have had to be fluent in both Aramaic and Greek, and such fluency must have been important when the gospel was first crossing racial barriers: indeed, it squares with the notion of a gospel written in Greek that nevertheless could draw on Semitic sources. C. F. D. Moule suggests that 13:52 is a subtle self-reference by the author: the “scribe” ( [grammateus], TNIV “teacher of the law”) who becomes a disciple should not be understood as a reference to a rabbinic scribe but to a “scribe in the secular sense,” that is, a well-educated writer.32 Goodspeed goes further yet; after compiling impressive evidence that shorthand was widely practiced in the Roman world, he suggests that Matthew’s training and occupation would have equipped him to be a kind of note taker or secretary for the group of disciples, even during Jesus’ ministry.33 The theory is plausible enough, but completely without hard evidence. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. On the assumption of Markan priority, some think it unlikely that an apostle would so freely use the work of a secondary witness such as Mark and believe that this tells against any theory of apostolic authorship. But plagiarism in the modern sense, and the shame associated with it, developed in the wake of the invention of the printing press and the financial gain that could be associated with the mass production of some writing. The wholesale takeover, without acknowledgment, of someone else’s literary work, with or without changes, was a common practice in the ancient world, and no opprobrium was connected with it. In that case, it is hard to think of a reason why an apostle might not also find the practice congenial, the more so if he knew that behind Mark’s gospel was the witness of Peter.
5. Among the reasons Kümmel (p. 121) advances for holding that apostolic authorship is “completely impossible” is the insistence that this gospel is “systematic and therefore nonbiographical.” This is a double non sequitur because (1) a topically ordered (“systematic”) account can yield biographical information as easily as a strictly chronological account,34 and (2) it is surely a false step to assume that apostles would for some reason prove incapable of choosing anything other than a chronological form.
6. The most powerful reason today for denying even the possibility of apostolic authorship is bound up with an entire array of antecedent judgments about the development of the gospel tradition, about the shape of the history of the church in the first century, about the evidence of redactional changes, and much more. The conclusion drawn from these prior judgments is that Matthew is too late and too theologically developed to be assigned to any of the first witnesses. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | It is impossible here to address all of these issues. Some of them have been briefly discussed in chapter 2. We must recognize that these interlocking theories not only discount the external evidence, such as it is, but in fact rest on far less tangible support than is often thought. For instance, how far the theology reflected in this gospel has developed is often judged on the basis of Matthew’s Christology. But a high Christology developed very early, as the so-called Christ-hymns in the Pauline corpus (e.g., Phil. 2:5–11; Col. 1:15–20) testify, and it has been shown that Matthew is quite careful to distinguish, at point after point, what the first disciples understood during the time of Jesus’ ministry and what he himself knows to be the case some decades later.35 Such evidence might almost better be taken to support apostolic authorship; that is, only those present at the beginning would be likely to preserve such distinctions and point out with such sharpness how much the first disciples did not understand at the beginning (e.g., Matt. 16:21–23). Other factors alleged to demonstrate the lateness of Matthew’s gospel are briefly mentioned in the next section. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 7. Several scholars have argued that the author could not have been a Jew, let alone an apostle, on one of two grounds: (1) it is alleged that there are too many signs of a profound ignorance of Jewish customs and culture; (2) some have argued that the work is too anti-Jewish (some prefer the more emotionally laden term “anti-Semitic”) to have been written by a Jew.36 But the alleged ignorance of Jewish culture is sharply disputed. For example, it is alleged that Matthew lumps together the teaching of the Pharisees and the teaching of the Sadducees as if there were no difference between the two (16:12). But Matthew himself elsewhere highlights some of the differences (22:23–33). All that Matthew 16:12 requires us to hold is that in certain respects, allied with their joint failure to recognize the Messiah when he came, the Pharisees and the Sadducees were at one. Groups that differ do not have to differ on everything; compared with some other group—in this case, the group of nascent Christians—they may hold more in common than they themselves at first suspect. Common enemies make strange bedfellows. Many alleged errors (e.g., the use of Zech. 9:9 in Matt. 21:4–5, where Matthew has two animals) are better treated in the commentaries.37 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | As for the anti-Jewishness of Matthew, it must be remembered that this book depicts Jesus as being sent only to Israel (15:24) and recalls Jesus forbidding his disciples from extending their ministry beyond Israel (10:5–6), while at the same time it reports a commission to spread the gospel to all nations (28:18–20) and looks forward to people from every point on the compass participating in the Jewish messianic banquet (8:11–12). Arguably, the tension in presentation stems from two factors: (1) Matthew attempts to distinguish what happened “back then,” during Jesus’ ministry, from what is happening in his own day; (2) Matthew’s ambivalent treatment of the Jews may well be shaped in part by the confusing crosscurrents between Christianity and Judaism at the time of writing. Some Jews were still being converted, and Matthew wants to woo them and stabilize the faith of new Jewish converts; others, especially more conservative leaders, were appalled by this upstart faith and opposed it, ensuring that Matthew would warn his readers against their views, and especially against their rejection of Jesus the Messiah.38 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | It must be said that at one level very little hangs on the question of the authorship of this gospel. By and large, neither its meaning nor its authority is greatly changed if one decides that its author was not an apostle. What changes, however, is the matrix of thought in which these and related questions are evaluated. Strong commitments to the view that this gospel reflects late traditions that cannot possibly be tied directly to any apostle inevitably casts a hermeneutical shadow on how the evidence, including the external evidence, will be evaluated. Conversely, the judgment that in all probability the apostle Matthew was responsible for the work casts a hermeneutical shadow on the reconstruction of early church history. The web of interlocking judgments soon affects how one weighs evidence in other parts of the New Testament. Such problems can be addressed both as large-scale theoretical challenges and at the level of their constituent details. All that can be attempted in this short Introduction is a rather perfunctory statement of how we read the evidence and of why we weight things as we do.
PROVENANCE
From the time of the influential work of Kilpatrick,39 many have held that this book is not the work of an individual author but the product of a Christian community. Whoever wrote it was simply putting down the materials, liturgical and otherwise, that were circulating in his church. Doubtless this unknown writer ordered the material in various ways, but the book as a whole is best seen as the product of community thought and catechesis, rather than the theological and literary contribution of a single author. Indeed, Kilpatrick argues that the community deliberately and pseudonymously assigned the work to Matthew in order to ensure its wider acceptance in the Christian church. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | On the basis of form criticism (see chap. 2 above), Stendahl argues that the conception of individual authorship must be relegated to an entirely subsidiary role. Unlike Kilpatrick, however, he thinks the group that produced Matthew is not some church as a whole but a school, a group within the community devoted to study and instruction, and particularly interested in the way the ancient Hebrew Scriptures are to be related to Christian life and thought.40
These proposals no longer have the influence they once did. In part, this owes something to redaction criticism (see chaps. 1 and 2), with its insistence that the evangelists, even if they took over traditional material, so presented it and shaped it that they gave it a distinctive theological cast. Reasons for a more traditional ascription of authorship were outlined in the last section. But whether this gospel is understood to be the product of a single author or a community of thought, one must try to hazard a guess as to its geographic provenance.41
Because the Fathers held the work to have been written first in Aramaic, quite naturally they also presupposed that it was written in Palestine. Indeed, Jerome specifically ties it to Judea (De vir. ill. 3). Certainly, a Palestinian origin makes sense of many features: the inclusion of Aramaic words without translation (see 5:22; 6:24; 27:46), the assumption of some Jewish customs, the bilingual character of the text forms when the Old Testament is cited, and the adoption for literary purpose of forms of speech that are more typically Semitic than Greek. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Most scholars today, however, opt for Syria as the place of origin. This choice depends primarily on two factors: (1) the adoption of a date after A.D. 70, by which time most of Palestine was destroyed; (2) the influence of Streeter,42 who argued for Antioch as the provenance of this gospel. The first factor, we shall argue, is too subjective; the second is far more important. Not all of Streeter’s arguments are weighty. But Antioch did boast a very large Jewish population yet was the first center for outreach to the Gentile world; these two realities come together rather forcefully in Matthew, “which breathes a Jewish atmosphere and yet looks upon the Gentile mission in a most favorable light.”43 Moreover, the Gospel of Matthew has its first convincing external attestation in the writings of Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in the early years of the second century (see Eph. 19:1–3 and Matt. 2; Smyr. 1:1 and Matt. 3:15; Polyc. 2:2 and Matt. 10:16). Neither argument is conclusive, still less so others that have been adduced, but Syria, if not necessarily Antioch, is an entirely plausible suggestion.
Other centers have been suggested: Alexandria, Caesarea Maritima, Edessa, and Phoenicia all have their champions. The most plausible alternative to Syria is the Transjordan, defended by Slingerland,44 who notes that both 4:25 and 19:1 seem to view Jesus’ presence in Palestine from the east side of the Jordan. That is possible, though Davies and Allison cautiously argue against such a reading of the text.45
In short, we cannot be certain of the geographic provenance of this gospel. Syria is perhaps the most likely suggestion, but nothing of importance hangs on the decision.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | DATE
The quotations of Matthew in Ignatius (referred to above) put an upper limit on the date that can be assigned to the publication of this gospel. The modern consensus approaches that limit: most hold that Matthew was written during the period A.D. 80–100. Yet most of the reasons advanced in defense of this date depend on a network of disputed judgments.
1. Most scholars today hold that Matthew borrowed from Mark. Dates for Mark commonly vary from about A.D. 55 to 70, with opinion generally favoring the high end. Hence, a date of Matthew before 80 seems impracticable. There are several disputed points in this chain of reasoning. Some scholars continue to uphold the unanimous or virtually unanimous opinion of the early church that Matthew was written first.46 Although we have argued that Markan priority is more likely, a theory of straightforward dependence is probably too simplistic, and in any case we recognize that the arguments are sufficiently fragile that we are reluctant to let too much rest on them. Moreover, even if Markan priority prevails and if Mark is dated to, say, A.D. 60, there is plenty of time for Matthew to be published before 70, when Jerusalem and its temple were destroyed. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 2. Many aver that anachronisms in Matthew point to a date of writing after A.D. 70. The two most commonly cited are the reference to the destruction of a city and the references to the church. In the parable of the wedding feast, we are told that the king “sent his army and destroyed those murderers and burned their city” (22:7). This, it is argued, must be seen as an oblique reference to the destruction of Jerusalem at the end of the Jewish War (A.D. 66–70), and the mention of the burning suggests knowledge of what had already happened at the time of writing. The utterance is cast as a prophecy but depends on historical knowledge. This judgment, it is thought, is confirmed by the fact that such sweeping destruction of an entire city seems wildly disproportionate to the offense—namely, lame excuses for turning down a wedding invitation. But quite apart from the question as to whether Jesus could predict the future, most scholars who think that Mark was written before A.D. 70 concede that he predicts the fall of Jerusalem (Mark 13:14; cf. Matt. 24:15). They argue that if Mark wrote about 65, he was so close to the events that he could see how political circumstances were shaping up. But on this reasoning, Matthew, even if he borrowed from Mark, could have done the same thing in 66. More to the point, the language of Matthew 22:7, including the reference to the burning of the city, is the standard language of both the Old Testament and the Roman world describing punitive military expeditions against rebellious cities. Granted that Jesus foresaw the destruction of Jerusalem (as did many prophets before him), the language he used does not in any detail depend on specific knowledge as to how things actually turned out in A.D. 70.47 In fact, Robinson goes so far as to argue that the synoptic prophecies about the fall of Jerusalem, including Matthew 22:7, are so restrained that they must have been written before 70.48 Otherwise, he insists, we should expect to see some | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | he insists, we should expect to see some indication that the prophecies had actually been fulfilled. True, the punishment in this particular parable seems extravagant if the offense was nothing more than the social gaffe of turning down the wedding invitation of a petty monarch. But there is reason to think this offense is more serious: in the first-century world, it smacks of rebellion against one’s lord. More important, many of Jesus’ parables begin with the commonplace and then introduce elements that destroy the listeners’ world of expectations. The monarch represented by the king in this parable is God himself; the wedding is the wedding of God’s own Son. To refuse his invitation—indeed, his command—is dangerous rebellion that invites catastrophic retribution. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Explicit references to “church” ( [ekklēesia], Matt. 16:18; 18:17–18) are often taken to betray an interest in church order that developed only later. But these texts say nothing about church order. Bishops and deacons are not mentioned (though Phil. 1:1, written before A.D. 70, does!). The church envisaged is simply the messianic community. The discipline pictured in Matthew 18 is cast in broad principles applicable even in the earliest stages of Christianity. And Meyer has mounted an admirable defense of the authenticity of Matthew 16:18.49
3. The references in Matthew to the effect that something or other has continued “to this [very] day” (Matt. 27:8; 28:15)50 are frequently taken as evidence that there was a long interval between the events of Jesus’ day and the time of writing. But how long is a long interval? Would not three decades suffice? If we were to say that the effects of President Nixon’s resignation continue “to this day,” would that be thought an inappropriate judgment on the ground that the resignation took place some thirty years ago? | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. Tensions between Jews and Christians must have been high when this book was written, and the most plausible date for such tensions, it is argued, is either just before or just after the Council of Jamnia (c. 85), which allegedly introduced the so-called Birkath ha-Minim into the Jewish synagogue liturgy. This was a clause in the Eighteen Benedictions that were supposed to be recited three times a day by all pious Jews. In the version found in the Cairo Geniza,51 it reads, “Let Nazarenes [= Christians] and minim [= heretics] perish in a moment; let them be blotted out of the book of the living, and let them not be written with the righteous.” This had the effect (it is argued) of expelling Christians from the synagogues and was the climax of mutual antipathy between Jews and Christians in the first century. But mutual suspicions between Jews and Christians have much longer roots, as both Acts and the epistles of Paul testify. It is far from clear that such antipathy followed a straight line of development, enabling us to plot its apex; it must have varied enormously from place to place and from time to time. Moreover, there is now very strong evidence that the circumstantial reconstruction that locates the Birkath ha-Minim at the time of Jamnia is to be questioned at every level (see discussion in chap. 6, the section “Date”).
It appears, then, that arguments for a relatively late date of Matthew depend on a network of antecedent judgments, each of which can be questioned in turn. Theological developments that many scholars think must have taken at least two generations of believers may well have occurred more rapidly (after all, Romans was written within thirty years of the resurrection).52 And some of the arguments, such as the contention that the prophecy of Matthew 22:7 is in reality a prophecy after the fact, can be turned on their heads to argue for a date before A.D. 70. Indeed, five other arguments point in the same direction. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 1. The question of date is marginally bound up with the question of authorship. If the apostle Matthew is judged, on balance, to be the evangelist, a date before A.D. 70 is more plausible (though certainly not necessary—there is excellent evidence that the apostle John was active for at least two decades after 70).
2. The early church fathers are unanimous in assigning Matthew an early date. Because this is tied to Matthean priority, a view discounted by most scholars today, the relevant patristic evidence is given little weight in the contemporary debate. But the two issues do not have to be tied together. Whether Mark was written shortly after Peter’s death, in the mid-sixties, as Irenaeus claims (see H.E. 3.1.1),53 or while Peter was still alive, as Clement of Alexandria assumes (H.E. 2.15.1–2; 6.14.6–7), there is time for Matthew to write before A.D. 70. More can be said for Clement’s dating than is sometimes thought.54
3. Some sayings of Jesus might be taken to indicate that the temple was still standing when Matthew wrote (Matt. 5:23–24; 12:5–7; 23:16–22; cf. 26:60–61). It might be objected that Matthew is simply being historically accurate: these things were said during Jesus’ days, regardless of whether the temple was still standing when Matthew wrote. But one must at least inquire why Matthew would include so many utterances cast in terms no longer relevant to his readers. The story about the payment of the temple tax (17:24–27) is stronger evidence yet. Before A.D. 70, the episode, whatever else it meant, would be taken as a gesture reinforcing solidarity with Israel. After 70, when the tax still had to be paid by Jews but was collected on behalf of the temple of Jupiter in Rome,55 the same episode might suggest solidarity with idolatry. Even if for other reasons Matthew had wanted to preserve this pericope, it is hard to see how, if he was writing after 70, he could have permitted such an implication without comment. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 4. While many assign Matthew to the period A.D. 70–100, we actually have few primary sources from that period, so it is difficult to check the claims. By contrast, Gundry has compiled a list of passages in Matthew that he thinks, on the basis of features known to have existed during that period, suggest a date before 70.56 Not all of his suggestions are equally convincing, but many carry considerable weight (e.g., insertion of the Sabbath day alongside winter as an undesirable time to flee from Jerusalem [24:20]; baptism before teaching [28:19; cf. Didache 7:1 and other later sources]).
5. Arguing for a date earlier than A.D. 90, Kilpatrick draws attention to the fact that, although the apostolic fathers demonstrate their knowledge of many epistles from the Pauline corpus, in Matthew there is no undisputed instance of dependence on Paul.57 Indeed, Kilpatrick argues that some passages in Matthew would not have been written as they are if certain passages in Paul were known (e.g., Matt. 28, with respect to the list of resurrection appearances in 1 Cor. 15). Kilpatrick concludes that a church unaffected by Paulinism and apparently unacquainted with Paul’s epistles cannot possibly be dated after 90. We are inclined to agree, but wonder why this terminus ad quem must be so late. If Matthew was written before 70, this complete independence from Paul would be still easier to understand.
None of the arguments presented is conclusive. Other arguments tend to be even less decisive, owing to additional imponderables. For example, Gundry specifies a date not later than A.D. 63, but this depends on his view that Luke borrowed from Matthew and that Luke-Acts was published while Paul was still alive. Few agree with the latter (see the discussion in chap. 7), and fewer yet agree with the former.
On balance, then, the preponderance of evidence suggests that Matthew was published before 70, but not long before.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | DESTINATION
The usual assumption is that the evangelist wrote this gospel to meet the needs of believers in his own area. There is a prima facie realism to this assumption if we hold that Matthew was working in centers of large Jewish population, whether in Palestine or Syria (see “Provenance” above). Since the book betrays so many Jewish features, it is not easy to imagine that the author had a predominantly Gentile audience in mind. But it is not implausible to suggest that Matthew wrote his gospel with certain kinds of readers in mind, rather than readers in a particular location. Moreover, the strong arguments of Bauckham and others, to the effect that the gospels were first written to be read by all Christians, should not be lightly set aside.58
PURPOSE
Because Matthew includes no direct statement of his purpose in writing, all attempts at delineating it are inferences drawn from his themes and from the way he treats certain topics as compared with the way the other gospels treat similar topics. This forces us to recognize several limitations that must be imposed on quests to uncover his purpose. Matthew’s dominant themes are several, complex, and to some extent disputed. Attempts to delineate a single narrow purpose are therefore doomed to failure. It is always possible for other scholars to emphasize complementary themes and correspondingly to shift the purpose to another area. Students of the New Testament are well aware how difficult it is to achieve consensus on the purpose of some of Paul’s letters, even though most of them were written with occasional purposes in mind that may actually be articulated in the text. How much more difficult is it to isolate the distinguishing purpose of a gospel! | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The challenge increases when we recognize that Matthew, like any gospel writer but unlike the writer of an epistle, is committed to describing what happened during the ministry and passion of the historical Jesus, while nevertheless addressing issues that are contemporary to his own ministry. This leads some commentators to try to infer what kind of situation might prompt Matthew to include this or that pericope (e.g., the transfiguration) and to present it as he does. But it is always possible that he sees no direct connection between what happened formerly and what is happening currently in his own congregation(s). For instance, he may at times be interested in explaining the basis in Jesus’ ministry for beliefs and practices that are accepted (or disputed) in the evangelist’s time. That means inferences must be more remote and therefore more speculative. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Because Matthew devotes so much space to Old Testament quotations, some have suggested that he wrote his gospel to teach Christians how to read their Bibles—what we refer to as the Old Testament. Others appeal to the same evidence to infer that he was trying to evangelize Jews. Or perhaps he wrote to train Christians to sharpen their apologetics as they wrestled with the Pharisaic Judaism of their own day. Because Matthew devotes many passages to Jesus’ teaching on the law, some have thought he was aiming to confute incipient antinomianism, or even Paulinism. Others have appealed to the same evidence to argue that Matthew was a master churchman, struggling to develop a distinctively Christian ethical structure and to do so in a way that retains the unique place assigned to Jesus without offending too many Jewish sensitivities over the law. Conversely, others suppose that Matthew was trying to head off too rapid an institutionalization of the church, returning to an earlier, more charismatic emphasis while retaining some of the gains that a few decades of church experience had brought. Or did he write his work to train leaders, or as a catechesis for new converts?
These and many more suggestions have been put forward as the purpose of Matthew’s gospel. Still others find contradictory strands in Matthew—for example, between Jewish exclusivism and worldwide mission, or between recognition of the place of law and the assumption that the law has been fulfilled in Christ—and conclude that no unitary purpose is possible: the conflicting emphases reflect different strands of tradition that have been brought together by incompetent redactors. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | These diverse opinions do not prevent us from saying anything about Matthew’s purpose. If we restrict ourselves to widely recognized themes, it is surely fair to infer that Matthew wishes to demonstrate, among other things: (1) that Jesus is the promised Messiah, the Son of David, the Son of God, the Son of Man, Immanuel, the one to whom the Old Testament points; (2) that many Jews, especially Jewish leaders, sinfully failed to recognize Jesus during his ministry (and, by implication, are in great danger if they continue in that stance after the resurrection); (3) that the promised eschatological kingdom has already dawned, inaugurated by the life, death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus; (4) that this messianic reign is continuing in the world as believers, both Jews and Gentiles, submit to Jesus’ authority, overcome temptation, endure persecution, wholeheartedly embrace Jesus’ teaching, and thus demonstrate that they constitute the true locus of the people of God and the true witness to the world of the “gospel of the kingdom"; and (5) that this messianic reign is not only the fulfillment of Old Testament hopes but the foretaste of the consummated kingdom that will dawn when Jesus the Messiah personally returns.
Doubtless this complex array of themes (and more could be enumerated) was designed to meet diverse needs. Such themes would effectively instruct and perhaps catechize the church (the latter facilitated by the carefully crafted, topical arrangement of many sections). They would also be effective in equipping Christians in the task of Jewish evangelism and might prove to be an effective evangelistic tool in their own right.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | TEXT
Compared with Acts, for example, the text of Matthew is relatively stable. But as with all the Synoptic Gospels, Matthew’s text is afflicted with many variants that are tied to the synoptic problem. This provides many opportunities for harmonizing or disharmonizing alterations in the transmission (e.g., variants at 12:47; 16:2–3; 18:10–11). But not every instance of possible harmonization should be taken as such and assumed to be secondary (12:4, 47; 13:35 may well be examples where caution is required). Davies and Allison provide an excellent bibliography on these textual matters.59
ADOPTION INTO THE CANON
The gospel of Matthew was universally received as soon as it was published and continued to be the most frequently cited gospel for centuries. The refusal of Marcion to accept it carries no weight, since his antipathy to all things Jewish is well known. So far as our sources go, the book never divided the Eastern and Western wings of the church as did, say, the epistle to the Hebrews.
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An Introduction to the New Testament | MATTHEW IN RECENT STUDIES
Until a quarter of a century ago, English-language commentators ignored Matthew more than any other of the canonical gospels. This has been redressed by the publication of numerous major commentaries.60 Two of these six, however, are mildly eccentric. The bibliography and discussion in Beare (1981) was fifteen years out of date the day it was published. Gundry’s work (1982) is a detailed redaction-critical study of the Greek text but comes to so many conclusions that scholars of all stripes find implausible that it has not been well received. In particular, several of his contentions—(1) that Q (see chap. 2 above) embraces far more than the 250 or so verses normally assigned to it; (2) that the changes and additions Matthew makes in his sources are entirely motivated by theological concerns and are without historical referent (including, e.g., the birth narratives in Matt. 1 –2); and (3) that the genre of literature he was writing (which Gundry labels “midrash”) would have been recognized as a mixture of history and ahistorical reflection by the first readers—have all come in for considerable criticism. On the third point, it has repeatedly been observed that in the first century, “midrash” could refer to many different kinds of commentary: it was not a well-defined genre that readers would instantly recognize, thereby enabling them to draw conclusions about its nonreferential nature.61 Extending well beyond the commentaries, excellent surveys in English of recent Matthean studies are provided by Stanton62 and France.63 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Until fairly recently, much scholarly energy during the past half-century was devoted to redaction-critical studies of Matthew. Beginning with the groundbreaking work of Bornkamm, Barth, and Held,64 many scholars focused on differences between Matthew and Mark, and between Matthew and what can be retrieved of Q, in order to determine what is distinctive in Matthew’s gospel. Although many of these proved suggestive, not a few were so narrowly based as to be somewhat eccentric. Rolf Walker thinks that Matthew was written to show that Israel has been entirely rejected: the Great Commission authorizes that the gospel be preached exclusively to Gentiles.65 Only rarely is Walker exegetically convincing. His treatment of (panta ta ethnē, “all nations”) in 28:19 has persuaded almost no one; nowhere does he adequately struggle with the fact that all the disciples and early converts were Jews. Hubert Frankemölle argues that Matthew is so unlike Mark that it cannot meaningfully be called a gospel at all;66 rather, like Deuteronomy and Chronicles, it is a book of history—the history, not of Jesus, but of the community, since in this “literary fiction,” Jesus is an idealized figure intentionally fused with Matthew the theologian. But Frankemölle overemphasizes formal differences between Mark and Matthew and neglects substantial differences between Matthew and Deuteronomy or Chronicles. Although he is right to read Matthew as a unified book, he does not adequately reflect on the fact that for most of his gospel, Matthew heavily depends on Mark and Q (however Q is understood). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Some studies have been widely accepted, not least the work of Bornkamm.67 He holds that whereas in Mark the disciples do not understand what Jesus says until he explains things to them in secret, Matthew attributes large and instant understanding to the disciples. In fact, this is what sets the disciples off from the crowds: the disciples understand. The faltering of the disciples at various points stems from their lack of faith, not from any lack of understanding. Yet one is tempted to qualify this thesis. Apart from the fact that he relies rather too heavily on the so-called Messianic secret in Mark, Bornkamm does not adequately deal with the disciples’ request for private instruction (13:36), their failure to understand Jesus’ teaching about his passion even after his explanations (e.g., 16:21–26; 17:23; 26:51–56), or the passages that deal with “stumbling” and “falling away.” This is not a peripheral failure; at bottom, Bornkamm does not wrestle with the degree to which the failure of the disciples turns on their location in the stream of redemptive history. They were unprepared before the passion and resurrection to conceive of a messiah who could be defeated, who could die the ignominious and odious death of the scum of Roman society. To this extent, the disciples’ coming to deeper understanding and faith was unique: it was in part a function of their place in salvation history, a place rendered forever obsolete by the triumph of Jesus’ resurrection. Our coming to faith and understanding today, or even in Matthew’s day, therefore, cannot be exactly like the coming to faith and understanding of the first disciples. In numerous ways Matthew makes this clear, but Bornkamm is so interested in reading Matthew’s church into Matthew’s description of the first disciples that the exegesis becomes skewed.68 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Although a handful of scholars have argued that the author or final redactor of Matthew’s gospel was a Gentile,69 one of the most conspicuous recent trends in the study of the New Testament in general and of Matthew in particular has been the tendency to stress the essential Jewishness of many of its documents. In the case of Matthew, however, this trend has sometimes gone over the top. Several scholars have argued that Matthew’s gospel is so Jewish that it is scarcely Christian at all, but a kind of Judaism. In such a reading, the evangelist may variously be considered an apostate, a reformer, or a revolutionary, but his document cannot really be judged to be genuinely Christian.70 But Donald Hagner has shown that the weight such authors rest on a singular reading of Matthew 5:17ff. and a few other texts is unjustified.71 Moreover, the interest in evangelizing all the nations is not restricted to the Great Commission (28:18–20) but is embedded as well in utterances about how Gentiles will sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the kingdom (8:11–12) and in parables with a similar purpose (esp. 21:28–22:14),72 while atonement language to describe Jesus’ death is unswervingly taken over from Mark (Mark 10:45; Matt. 20:28). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Some recent studies, however, have manifested an increasing concern to read Matthew holistically—that is, to read Matthew in his own right, even while keeping an eye cocked on the synoptic (and other) parallels. Where the first gospel is studied as a book on its own and not simply as a modified Mark, its themes, unity, and essential power more easily come into focus. This is not to deny the validity of other approaches; it is to insist that the traditional historical-critical method be complemented by greater literary sensitivity. To take up again the theme of the disciples’ understanding in Matthew: one recent work strenuously argues for a closer dialog between those engaged in narrative criticism and those committed to such historical-critical approaches as redaction criticism. Such dialog results in the conclusion that the disciples in Matthew, while at one level comprehending Jesus to be the Messiah, consistently misunderstand the kind of Messiah Jesus is.73
THE CONTRIBUTION OF MATTHEW
Because of the tight relationships among the Synoptic Gospels, the contribution made by any one of them must be evaluated in light of the contribution made by all three. If Matthew suddenly disappeared, much of its material would still be found, more or less intact, in Mark and Luke. In that sense, Matthew cannot be said to make the same sort of independent contribution that Hebrews or the Apocalypse does, for example. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | But the Synoptic Gospels as a whole make an irreplaceable contribution. Alongside John, they constitute the foundational witness to the person, ministry, teaching, passion, and resurrection of Jesus the Messiah. Nor are the three Synoptic Gospels to be seen as merely redundant testimony. Each provides its own slant, together providing a kind of stereoscopic depth that would otherwise be almost entirely missing. And at a secondary level, each provides a window onto the life of the church at the time each was written. But this window, it must be insisted, is never transparent: it is at best translucent, and the shadows one sees through it have to be interpreted with some care.
Within this framework, we may highlight some of Matthew’s emphases, and therefore some of the peculiar contributions this gospel makes to the canon.
1. Matthew preserves large blocks of Jesus’ teaching in the discourses already enumerated. Doubtless that was one of the major reasons this gospel was so popular in the early church.74 However they came to be preserved in this form, there can be no doubt that the church would be greatly impoverished without the Sermon on the Mount, Matthew’s list of parables, his version of the eschatological discourse, and so forth.
2. Matthew complements the other gospels, Luke in particular, by giving an alternative account of Jesus’ virginal conception, cast in Joseph’s perspective. Quite apart from other stories in the birth narrative of which there is no other record (e.g., the visit of the Magi, the flight into Egypt), the whole account is strongly tied to the antecedent revelation in what we now call the Old Testament.75 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 3. More generally, Matthew’s use of the Old Testament is particularly rich and complex. The most noticeable peculiarity is the number of Old Testament quotations (variously estimated between ten and fourteen) found only in Matthew and introduced by a fulfillment formula characterized by a passive form of (plēroō, “to fulfill”). These “formula quotations” are all asides by the evangelist, his own reflections (hence, the widely used German word for them, Reflexionszitate). Characteristically, they adopt a text form rather more Semitic and rather less like the LXX than most of the other Old Testament quotations in Matthew. The precise significance of these features is disputed.76 What is clear is that Matthew’s appreciation for the links between the old covenant and the new is characterized by extraordinarily evocative nuances. For instance, his notion of prophecy and fulfillment cannot be reduced to mere verbal prediction and historical fulfillment in raw events (though it sometimes includes such a notion). He employs various forms of typology and a fortiori arguments and adopts a fundamentally christological reading of the Old Testament. Thus, Jesus’ temptations (Matt. 4:1–11), for instance, are in some sense a reenactment of the temptations confronted in the wilderness by the Israelites, God’s “son” (Exod. 4:22–23)—except that Jesus the Son of God is entirely victorious in them because he is determined by God’s Word. Allison has shown how much of a role exodus typology plays in the book.77
4. In the same way, Matthew’s treatment of the law is especially suggestive. Although many think Matthew internalizes the law, radicalizes it, subsumes it under the love command, absolutizes only its moral dimensions, or treats it as a schoolmaster that conducts people to Christ, it is better to use Matthew’s own category: Jesus comes to “fulfill” the law (5:17). In Matthew’s usage, that verb presupposes that even the law itself enjoys a teleological, prophetic function.78 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 5. Matthew’s gospel is foundational not only as one looks backward to the scriptures of the old covenant but also as one looks forward to what the church became. The later debates on the relation between Israel and the church find much of their genesis in Matthew, John, Romans, and Hebrews. Not a little of this debate, as far as Matthew is concerned, has focused on his treatment of the Jewish leaders.79
6. Finally, there are shadings to Matthew’s portrait of Jesus—surely the heart of his gospel—that are unique. It is important to say, again, that much of what is central in Matthew’s thought in this regard is not unique;80 it is not just in Matthew that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of David, the Son of God, the Son of Man, the Servant of the Lord, and so forth. Whatever special coloring these titles take on in Matthew, their semantic overlap with their usage in other gospels is even more striking. Nor is it justifiable to try to isolate one christological title as that which explains or hermeneutically controls all the others in this gospel.81 But having entered these caveats, Matthew’s shadings are important. He may achieve such shading by associating a particular title with some theme, as when he repeatedly links “Son of David” with Jesus’ healing ministry (and he is not alone in this association).82 He may also do it by introducing titles of which the other evangelists make no mention, as when he insists that Jesus is Immanuel, “God with us” (1:23).
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An Introduction to the New Testament | W. F. Albright and C. S. Mann, Matthew, AB 26 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1981) Willoughby C. Allen, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to S. Matthew, ICC (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1912) Dale C. Allison Jr., The New Moses: A Matthean Typology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) idem, “The Structure of the Sermon on the Mount,” JBL 106 (1987): 423–45 B. W. Bacon, “The ‘Five Books’ of Moses Against the Jews,” Exp 15 (1918): 56–66 idem, Studies in Matthew (London: Constable, 1930) Robert Banks, Jesus and the Law in the Synoptic Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975) F. W. Beare, The Gospel According to Matthew (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981) Richard Beaton, Isaiah’s Christ in Matthew’s Gospel, SNTSMS 123 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) Craig L. Blomberg, Matthew, NAC 22 (Nashville: Broadman, 1992) Pierre Bonnard, L’evangile selon Saint Matthieu (Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestlé, 1970) G. Bornkamm, G. Barth, and H. J. Held, Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew (ET London: SCM, 1963) Jeannine K. Brown, The Disciples in Narrative Perspective: The Portrayal and Function of the Matthean Disciples (Atlanta: SBL, 2002) Raymond E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives (Garden City: Doubleday, 1977) Steven M. Bryan, Jesus and Israel’s Traditions of Judgement and Restoration, SNTSMS 117 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002) C. F. Burney, The Poetry of Our Lord (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925) D. A. Carson, “Christological Ambiguities in the Gospel of Matthew,” in Christ the Lord, Fs. Donald Guthrie, ed. Harold Rowdon (Leicester: IVP, 1982), 97–114 idem, “Jewish Leaders in Matthew’s Gospel: A Reappraisal,” JETS 25 (1982): 161–74 idem, “Matthew,” in EBC8 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984) W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison Jr., The Gospel According to Saint Matthew, ICC, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988–97) J. W. Doeve, Jewish Hermeneutics in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts (Assen: | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1954) David Duling, “The Therapeutic Son of David: An Element in Matthew’s Christological Apologetic,” NTS 24 (1978): 392–410 R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission (London: Tyndale, 1971) idem, Matthew, TNTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985) idem, Matthew—Evangelist and Teacher (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989) Hubert Frankemölle, Jahwebund und Kirche Christi: Studien zur Form- und Traditionsgeschichte des “Evangeliums"nach Matthäus (Münster: Aschendorff, 1974) P. Gaechter, Die literarische Kunst im Matthäusevangelium (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1966) E. J. Goodspeed, Matthew: Apostle and Evangelist (Philadelphia: J. C. Winston, 1959) III M. D. Goulder, Midrash and Lection in Matthew (London: SPCK, 1974) F. C. Grant, The Gospels: Their Origin and Their Growth (New York: Harper, 1957) III Robert H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary on His Literary and Theological Art (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982) idem, The Use of the Old Testament in St. Matthew’s Gospel (Leiden: Brill, 1967) Donald A. Hagner, Matthew, WBC 33, 2 vols. (Dallas: Word Books, 1993–95) idem, “Matthew: Apostate, Reformer, Revolutionary?” NTS 49 (2003): 193–209 Daniel J. Harrington, The Gospel of Matthew, SacPag 1 (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1991) J. R. Harris, Testimonies, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920) Martin Hengel, Studies in the Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985) David Hill, The Gospel of Matthew, NCB (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972) idem, “Son and Servant: An Essay on Matthean Christology,” JSNT 6 (1980): 2–16 Craig S. Keener, A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999) G. D. Kilpatrick, The Origins of the Gospel According to St. Matthew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946) J. D. Kingsbury, Matthew: Structure, Christology, Kingdom (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975) Michael Knowles, Jeremiah in Matthew’s Gospel: The | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Knowles, Jeremiah in Matthew’s Gospel: The Rejected Profit Motif in Matthean Redaction, JSNTSup 68 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993) E. Krentz, “The Extent of Matthew’s Prologue,” JBL 83 (1964): 409–14 J. Kürzinger, “Irenäus und sein Zeugnis zur Sprache des Matthäusevangeliums,” NTS 10 (1963): 108–15 idem, “Das Papiaszeugnis und die Erstgestalt des Matthäusevangeliums,” BZ 4 (1960): 19–38 M.- J. Lagrange, Evangile selon Saint Matthieu (Paris: Lecoffre, 1948) W. L. Lane, The Gospel According to Mark, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974) B. Lindars, New Testament Apologetic (London: SCM, 1961) Ernst Lohmeyer, Das Evangelium des Matthäus, ed. W. Schmauck (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1956) C. H. Lohr, “Oral Techniques in the Gospel of Matthew,” CBQ 23 (1961): 403–35 Ulrich Luz, Matthew: A Commentary, 3 vols. (Minneapolis: Augsburg/Fortress Press, 1989–) Richard S. McConnell, Law and Prophecy in Matthew’s Gospel (Basel: Friedrich Reinhardt, 1969) A. H. McNeile, The Gospel According to St. Matthew (London: Macmillan, 1915) T. W. Manson, The Sayings of Jesus (London: SCM, 1949) C. M. Martini, “La problématique générale du texte de Matthieu,” in L'évangile selon Matthieu: Rédaction et Théologie, BETL 29, ed. M. Didier (Gembloux: Duculot, 1972) Edouard Massaux, Influence de l'évangile de Saint Matthieu sur la littérature chrétienne avant Saint Irénée, BETL 75 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1986) John P. Meier, Law and History in Matthew’s Gospel: A Redactional Study of Mt. 5:17–48 (Rome: BIP, 1976) idem, Matthew (Wilmington: Glazier, 1980) idem, The Vision of Matthew: Christ, Church, and Morality in the First Gospel (New York: Paulist, 1979) Ben F. Meyer, The Aims of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979) Douglas J. Moo, The Old Testament in the Gospel Passion Narratives (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1983) L. Morris, “The Gospels and the Jewish Lectionaries,” in GP 1.129–56 C. F. D. Moule, “St. Matthew’s Gospel: Some Neglected Features,” SE 2 (1964): 90–99 | [
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] |
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | Calwer, 1963) Eduard Schweizer, The Good News According to Matthew (Atlanta: John Knox, 1975) David Sim, The Gospel of Matthew and Christian Judaism: The History and Social Setting of the Matthean Community (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1998) H. D. Slingerland, “The Transjordanian Origin of St. Matthew’s Gospel,” JSNT 3 (1979): 18–29 E. M. Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule (Leiden: Brill, 1976) George M. Soarès-Prabhu, The Formula Quotations in the Infancy Narrative of Matthew (Rome: BIP, 1976) G. N. Stanton, “Matthew,” in It Is Written: Scripture Citing Scripture, Fs. Barnabas Lindars, ed. D. A. Carson and H. G. M. Williamson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 205–19 idem, “The Origin and Purpose of Matthew’s Gospel: Matthean Scholarship from 1945 to 1980,” in H. Temporini and W. Haase, eds., ANRW 2.25.3, pp. 1889–1951 idem, A Gospel for a New People: Studies in Matthew (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992) K. Stendahl, The School of St. Matthew, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1968) Ned B. Stonehouse, The Witness of Matthew and Mark to Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1944) G. Strecker, Der Weg der Gerechtigkeit (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962) B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels (London: Macmillan, 1930) G. M. Styler, “Stages in Christology in the Synoptic Gospels,” NTS 10 (1963–64): 398–409 C. C. Torrey, Our Translated Gospels (London: Hodder & Stoughton, n.d.) Wolfgang Trilling, Das wahre Israel: Studien zur Theologie des Matthäus-Evangeliums (Munich: Kösel, 1964) Sjef van Tilborg, The Jewish Leaders in Matthew (Leiden: Brill, 1972) R. Walker, Die Heilsgeschichte im ersten Evangelium (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1967) J. W. Wenham, “Gospel Origins,” TrinJ 7 (1978): 112–34 Stephen Westerholm, Jesus and Scribal Authority (Lund: Gleerup, 1978). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 1E.g., C. H. Lohr proposes a giant chiasm (“Oral Techniques in the Gospel of Matthew,” CBQ 23 [1961]: 403-35), but there are too many tenuous pairings to convince many scholars that Matthew had this in mind. M. D. Goulder attempts to tie the structure of this gospel to a lectionary cycle (Midrash and Lection in Matthew [London: SPCK, 1974]). So little is known about first-century lectionary cycles, however, that the proposal is long on speculation (cf. L. Morris, “The Gospels and the Jewish Lectionaries,” in GP 1.129-56), quite apart from the extraordinary diversity of lection lengths that Goulder proposes.
2E.g., A. H. McNeile, The Gospel According to St. Matthew (London: Macmillan, 1915).
3Ned B. Stonehouse, The Witness of Matthew and Mark to Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1944), 129-31; Ernst Lohmeyer, Das Evangelium des Matthäus, ed. W. Schmauck (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1956); E. Krentz, “The Extent of Matthew’s Prologue,” JBL 83 (1964): 409-14.
4J. D. Kingsbury, Matthew: Structure, Christology, Kingdom (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975).
5B. W. Bacon, “The ‘Five Books’ of Moses Against the Jews,” Exp 15 (1918): 5666. The idea is then worked out in detail in Bacon’s Studies in Matthew (London: Constable, 1930).
6Cf. Kümmel, 106-7. Doubtless that is why Robert H. Gundry prefers to assert that Matthew has no clear structure, but follows an indefinite plan (Matthew: A Commentary on His Literary and Theological Art [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982], 30).
7See D. C. Allison Jr., “The Structure of the Sermon on the Mount,” JBL 106 (1987): 423-45.
8See esp., W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison Jr., The Gospel According to Saint Matthew, ICC (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988-97), 1.62-68.
9See D. A. Carson, “Matthew,” EBC8 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 303-4, 331-33, and sources cited there. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 10Martin Hengel, Studies in the Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 64-84. Cf. the admirable discussion in R. T. France, Matthew—Evangelist and Teacher (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989), 50-80.
11Tertullian, Against Marcion, 4.2.
12The argument has not been taken up and evaluated by many writers—e.g., Donald A. Hagner, Matthew, WBC (Dallas: Word Books, 1993-95), 1.lxxvi, simply asserts that the title “was affixed to the Gospel sometime in the second century.”
13Hengel, Mark, 170-72 n. 57.
14Alfred Plummer, An Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to St. Matthew (London: Robert Scott, 1909), vii.
15In addition to the literature cited in connection with John, see the following discussions that focus on the Matthean connections, all of them arguing against Eusebius: C. Stewart Petrie, “The Authorship of ‘The Gospel According to Matthew': A Reconsideration of the External Evidence,” NTS 14 (1967-68): 15-32; France, Matthew— Evangelist and Teacher, 53-56; Gundry, Matthew, 609ff. Gundry points out, among other things, that Eusebius had earlier (H.E. 3.36.1-2) associated Papias with Ignatius, who died not later than A.D. 110.
16For the bearing of this Papias passage on the synoptic problem, see chap. 2 above.
17E.g., C. F. Burney, The Poetry of Our Lord (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925); C. C. Torrey, Our Translated Gospels (London: Hodder & Stoughton, n.d.); A. Schlatter, Der Evangelist Matthäus: Seine Sprache, sein Ziel, seine Selbständigkeit, 6th ed. (Stuttgart: Calwer, 1963); P. Gaechter, Die literarische Kunst im Matthäusevangelium (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1966); J. W. Wenham, “Gospel Origins,” TrinJ 7 (1978): 112-34. In very recent times, a small number have argued that Hebrew (not Aramaic) underlies the canonical gospels, but this proposal has been rightly dismissed by the overwhelming majority of those who have looked into the matter.
18See the excellent charts in Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1.34-57. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 19In modern linguistic theory, the term “Semitism” is rightly applied only to phenomena in the Greek New Testament where sense can be made of an expression only by appealing to a Semitic underlay. “Semitic enhancement” refers to literary phenomena that do occur elsewhere in purely Greek texts but whose frequency of occurrence in some New Testament book is most easily explained by observing that the construction or expression is common in one or more of the Semitic languages.
20See Moule, 276-80.
21This view was made popular by T. W. Manson, The Sayings of Jesus (London: SCM, 1949), 18ff.
22J. R. Harris, Testimonies, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920); F. C. Grant, The Gospels: Their Origin and Their Growth (New York: Harper, 1957), 65, 144.
23J. Kürzinger. “Das Papiaszeugnis und die Erstgestalt des Matthäusevangeliums,” BZ 4 (1960): 19-38; idem, “Irenäus und sein Zeugnis zur Sprache des Matthäusevangeliums,” NTS 10 (1963): 108-15.
24Gundry, Matthew, 619-20.
25These and other passages are conveniently summarized in France, Matthew— Evangelist and Teacher, 60-62. For the fullest account of the use of Matthew in the early church, see Edouard Massaux, Influence de l'évangile de Saint Matthieu sur la littérature chrétienne avant Saint Irénée, BETL 75 (Louvain: Louvain University Press, 1986).
26For a competent treatment of the sources, see P. Vielhauer in Hennecke 1.118-39.
27R. Pesch, “Levi-Matthäus (Mc 214/Mt 99 103): Ein Beitrag zur Lösing eines alten Problems,” ZNW 59 (1968): 40-56.
28F. W. Beare, The Gospel According to Matthew (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981), 224-25.
29W. F. Albright and C. S. Mann, Matthew, AB 26 (Garden City: Doubleday, 1981), clxxvii-viii, clxxxiii-iv.
30See W. L. Lane, The Gospel According to Mark, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 100-101 n. 29.
31See Gundry, Matthew, 620-21.
32C. F. D. Moule, “St. Matthew’s Gospel: Some Neglected Features,” SE 2 (1964): 90-99; Moule, 94-95. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 33E. J. Goodspeed, Matthew: Apostle and Evangelist (Philadelphia: J. C. Winston, 1959).
34Even contemporary biographies commonly treat certain parts of their subject’s life in topical arrangements; see, e.g., Antonia Fraser, Cromwell: Our Chief of Men (St. Albans: Panther, 1975), 455ff.
35D. A. Carson, “Christological Ambiguities in the Gospel of Matthew,” in Christ the Lord, Fs. Donald Guthrie, ed. Harold Rowdon (Leicester: IVP, 1982), 97-114.
36E.g., John P. Meier, The Vision of Matthew: Christ, Church, and Morality in the First Gospel (New York: Paulist, 1979), 17-23; G. Strecker, Der Weg der Gerechtigkeit (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1962), 34; Sjef van Tilborg, The Jewish Leaders in Matthew (Leiden: Brill, 1972), 17. This subject is admirably treated in Davies and Allison, Matthew, vol. 1, passim.
37On this particular passage, see Barnabas Lindars, New Testament Apologetic (London: SCM, 1961), 114; Carson, “Matthew,” 436-40.
38See France, Matthew—Evangelist and Teacher, 70-73.
39G. D. Kilpatrick, The Origins of the Gospel According to St. Matthew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946).
40K. Stendahl, The School of St. Matthew, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1968).
41For an excellent survey, see Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1.138-47.
42B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels (London: Macmillan, 1930), 500-23.
43Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1.144.
44H. D. Slingerland, “The Transjordanian Origin of St. Matthew’s Gospel,” JSNT 3 (1979): 18-29.
45Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1.142, 420.
46“Virtually unanimous” because some have suggested that the fact that Papias treats Mark before he treats Matthew (at least as Eusebius represents Papias) indicates that Papias thought Mark was written first. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 47See K. H. Rengstorf, “Die Stadt der Mörder (Mt 227),” in Judentum Urchristentum, Kirche, Fs. J. Jeremias, ed. Walther Eltester (Berlin: Töpelmann, 1960), 106-29; B. Reicke, “Synoptic Prophecies on the Destruction of Jerusalem,” in Studies in New Testament and Early Christian Literature, Fs. A. P. Wikgren, ed. D. E. Aune (Leiden: Brill, 1972), 121-34.
48J. A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), chap. 2.
49Ben F. Meyer, The Aims of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 189-91. See also France, Matthew—Evangelist and Teacher, 242ff.; Craig L. Blomberg, Matthew, NAC 22 (Nashville: Broadman, 1992), 252-53.
50Some add Matt. 11:12, but that passage is relevant only if an anachronism is read into the text; see Carson, “Matthew,” 265-68.
51Probably this version was in use in Palestine at the end of the first century. For discussion of the various versions, including the Babylonian version still in use today (in which the “doers of wickedness” are not identified), see Schürer, 2.455-63.
52See Moule, who argues that the period before A.D. 70 is “the most plausible dating” of Matthew’s gospel (p. 242).
53Taking the (exodos) of Peter and Paul to refer to their death.
54See Robinson, Redating, 107-15; contra Hengel, Mark, 2-6.
55Josephus, Wars 7.218; Dio Cassius, 65.7.2; Suetonius, Domitian Hist. Rom. 12. Cf. E. M. Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule (Leiden: Brill, 1976), 371-76.
56Gundry, Matthew, 602-6.
57Kilpatrick, Origins, 129-30.
58Richard Bauckham, ed., The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking the Gospel Audiences (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998). See the discussion in Craig S. Keener, A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 45-51.
59Davies and Allison, Matthew, 1.147-48 n. 127, to which must be added C. M. Martini, “La problématique générale du texte de Matthieu,” in L'évangile selon Matthieu:Rédaction et Théologie, BETL 29, ed. M. Didier (Gembloux: Duculot, 1972), 21-36. | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | 60See the commentaries by Albright and Mann (1981), Beare (1981), Gundry (1982), Carson (1984), France (1985), Davies and Allison (1988-97), Harrington (1991), Blomberg (1992), and Keener (2003).
61The most extended refutation, however—that of Charles L. Quarles, Midrash Criticism: Introduction and Appraisal (Lanham: University Press of America, 1998)— is itself sufficiently eccentric (though it makes a number of telling observations) that it cannot be entirely relied upon. See the review by Peter Enns in WTJ62 (2000): 303-6.
62Stanton, “The Origin and Purpose of Matthew’s Gospel: Matthean Scholarship from 1945 to 1980,” in H. Temporini and W. Haase, eds., ANRW 2.25.3, pp. 18891951.
63France, Matthew—Evangelist and Teacher.
64G. Bornkamm, G. Barth, and H. J. Held, Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew (ET London: SCM, 1963).
65R. Walker, Die Heilsgeschichte im ersten Evangelium (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1967).
66Hubert Frankemölle, Jahwebund und Kirche Christi: Studien zur Form- und Traditionsgeschichte des “Evangeliums"nach Matthäus (Münster: Aschendorff, 1974).
67Bornkamm, Barth, and Held, Tradition and Interpretation, 105-16.
68See esp. Andrew H. Trotter, “Understanding and Stumbling: A Study of the Disciples’ Understanding of Jesus and His Teaching in the Gospel of Matthew” (Ph.D. diss., Cambridge University, 1987).
69One thinks of the works of Wolfgang Trilling, Georg Strecker, and others; see the review of such literature in Boris Repschinski, The Controversy Stories in the Gospel of Matthew: Their Redaction, Form and Relevance for the Relationship between the Matthean Community and Formative Judaism, FRLANT 189 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000), 13-61. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 70See Andrew Overman, Matthew’s Gospel and Formative Judaism: The Social World of the Matthean Community (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990); idem, Church and Community in Crisis: The Gospel According to Matthew, The New Testament in Context (Valley Forge: Trinity Press International, 1996); Anthony Saldarini, Matthew’s Christian-Jewish Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); David Sim, The Gospel of Matthew and Christian Judaism: The History and Social Setting of the Matthean Community (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1998).
71Donald A. Hagner, “Matthew: Apostate, Reformer, Revolutionary?” NTS 49 (2003): 193-209.
72See especially Wesley G. Olmstead, Matthew’s Trilogy of Parables: The Nation, the Nations and the Reader in Matthew 21.28-22.14, SNTSMS 127 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
73Jeannine K. Brown, The Disciples in Narrative Perspective: The Portrayal and Function of the Matthean Disciples (Atlanta: SBL, 2002).
74See especially Massaux, Saint Matthieu.
75The most detailed study is that of Raymond E. Brown, The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives (Garden City: Doubleday, 1977).
76See, among other studies, the bibliographical entries under Doeve, France (Jesus and the Old Testament), Gundry, McConnell, Moo, Rothfuchs, Soarés-Prabhu, Stanton (“Matthew”), Stendahl, Westerholm, Knowles, and Beaton.
77Dale C. Allison Jr., The New Moses: A Matthean Typology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993).
78See esp. the bibliographical entries under Meier (Law), Banks, and Carson (Matthew, 140ff.).
79See discussion of the options in D. A. Carson, “Jewish Leaders in Matthew’s Gospel: A Reappraisal,” JETS 25 (1982): 161-74.
80A point perhaps not sufficiently observed in the important article by G. M. Styler, “Stages in Christology in the Synoptic Gospels,” NTS 10 (1963-64): 398-409. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | 81The best-known instance is the argument of Kingsbury (Matthew) that “Son of God” is for Matthew the controlling title under which all others must be subsumed. See the important response by David Hill, “Son and Servant: An Essay on Matthean Christology,” JSNT 6 (1980): 2-16.
82See David Duling, “The Therapeutic Son of David: An Element in Matthew’s Christological Apologetic,” NTS 24 (1978): 392-410
CHAPTER FOUR
MARK
CONTENTS
Mark’s story of Jesus’ ministry is action oriented. Recounting little extended teaching of Jesus, Mark shifts scenes rapidly ( [euthys], “immediately,” is almost a standard linking word in Mark). Jesus is constantly on the move, healing, exorcising demons, confronting opponents, and instructing the disciples. This fast-paced narrative is punctuated by six transitional paragraphs or statements, which divide Mark’s account into seven basic sections.
Preliminaries to the ministry (1:1–13). While it could be the title of the entire gospel, Mark 1:1 is probably the heading for 1:1–13, the preliminaries to the ministry. The “beginning” ( [archē]) of the “good news” about Jesus Christ consists in the ministry of John the Baptist, the eschatological forerunner (1:2–8), Jesus’ baptism by John (1:9–11), and Jesus’ temptation by Satan in the wilderness (1:12–13).1 | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | First part of the Galilean ministry (1:16–3:6). The important summary in 1:14–15—Jesus’ entrance into Galilee, proclaiming the good news that the time of fulfillment had come and that the kingdom was near—is the first of the six transitional sections. It introduces Jesus’ ministry in Galilee (1:16–8:26) and, more immediately, the opening events in that period of ministry (1:16–3:6). After Jesus’ call of four disciples (1:16–20), Mark gives us a glimpse of a typical day in Jesus’ ministry, including teaching in the synagogue, exorcisms, and healings (1:21–34). The extraordinary nature of these events attracts great crowds of people, but Jesus insists on moving from Capernaum, on the Sea of Galilee (where these events took place), to other towns in Galilee (1:35–39). After another healing story (1:40–45), Mark narrates five events that focus on Jesus’ controversy with Jewish leaders: there are disputes over his claim to be able to forgive sins (2:1–12), over his fellowship with “tax collectors and ‘sinners’ “ (2:13–17), over his disciples’ failure to fast regularly (2:18–22), and over the Sabbath (2:23–28 and 3:1–6). The section climaxes with the plot of the Herodians to take Jesus’ life. | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Second part of the Galilean ministry (3:13–5:43). Mark’s second transitional passage focuses on Jesus’ immense popularity and emphasizes Jesus’ ministry of healing and exorcism (3:7–12). It introduces the third major section of the gospel, in which Jesus continues the Galilean ministry. Mark here focuses especially on the kingdom (3:13–5:43). Like the second section, this one also begins with a narrative about the disciples—in this case, Jesus’ appointment of twelve of them to be “apostles” (3:13–19). There follow further stories about the growing opposition to Jesus on the part of both Jesus’ family (3:20–21, 31–34) and “the teachers of the law” (3:22–30). Jesus uses parables to explain this opposition as part of “the secret of the kingdom of God” (4:1–34). The section comes to a climax with four miracles, each of them representing one of the characteristic types of Jesus’ miracles: the calming of the storm (a nature miracle, 4:35–41); the casting out of a “legion” of demons from a man in the region of the Gerasenes (an exorcism, 5:1–20); the healing of a woman with a flow of blood (a healing, 5:25–34); and the raising of the daughter of Jairus from the dead (a resurrection, 5:21–24, 35–43). | [
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | The concluding phase of the Galilean ministry (6:7–8:26). The story of Jesus’ movement away from the region of the Sea of Galilee, where so much of the action of 1:16–5:43 takes place, to his hometown of Nazareth in the hill country of Galilee (6:1–6) is Mark’s third transitional text. In the ensuing fourth section of his gospel (6:7–8:26), Mark amplifies notes that he has sounded in the two previous sections—Jesus’ amazing feats of power, his criticism of certain Jewish customs, and the growing opposition to him. He also initiates what will become an important theme in the gospel: the disciples’ lack of understanding. The disciples are again featured at the beginning of this section, as Jesus sends the Twelve out on a mission (6:7–13). The rumor that Jesus is John the Baptist returned from the dead, mentioned along with other popular estimates of his person, leads Mark to include here a flashback explanation of John’s death at the hands of Herod Antipas (6:14–29). After the return of the Twelve, the press of the crowds forces Jesus and his disciples into the wilderness, where the five thousand are fed (6:30–44). This is followed by Jesus’ miraculous walking on the water, as he meets the disciples crossing the Sea of Galilee (6:45–52). At Gennesaret, on the western shore of the sea, Jesus heals many people (6:53–56), and shortly afterward he explains the real nature of impurity in response to Jewish criticism (7:1–23). Jesus then leaves Galilee (and Israel) for the regions of Tyre and Sidon to the North, where he commends the faith of a Gentile woman (7:24–30). Very quickly, however, we find him back in the regions around the Sea of Galilee, healing (7:31–37), feeding the four thousand (8:1–13), teaching without much success the “blinded” disciples (8:14–21), and, with considerably greater success, healing a physically blinded man (8:22–26). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The way of glory and suffering (8:27–10:52). Mark’s gospel reaches its climax with Peter’s recognition of Jesus’ messiahship (8:27–30). It forms the fourth major transition in the gospel, as the emphasis shifts from the crowds and the power of Jesus displayed in miracles to the disciples and the cross. The ensuing fifth section of the gospel (8:27–10:52) has at its heart a thrice-repeated sequence that embodies a central purpose of Mark at this point in his narrative:
Followers of Jesus, Mark suggests, must imitate their master by humbling themselves and serving others. In addition, we have in this section the transfiguration (9:1–13), the driving of a demon out of a young lad (9:14–29), and teaching about putting others first (9:38–50), divorce (10:1–12), humility (10:13–16), and the difficulty of combining wealth with discipleship (10:17–31). The section concludes, as Jesus nears Jerusalem, with his giving sight to Bartimaeus in Jericho (10:46–52). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | Final ministry in Jerusalem (11:1–13:37). Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem marks the beginning of the next major stage in the gospel: the days of confrontation with various Jewish groups and authorities preceding the passion (11:1–13:37). Jesus’ public entry into the city, with its messianic overtones (11:1–11), sets the stage for the confrontation; and the cleansing of the temple (11:12–19), a strike at the heart of Judaism, forces the issue. The withering of the fig tree, in addition to being a lesson in faith, is also an acted parable of judgment upon Israel (11:20–25). It is thus no surprise that we find “the chief priests, the teachers of the law and the elders” challenging Jesus’ authority (11:27–33), or Jesus telling a parable in which the Jewish leaders’ rebelliousness to God is a prominent theme (12:1–12). Jesus is further questioned about the appropriateness of paying taxes to a Gentile ruler by “the Pharisees and Herodians” (12:13–17), about implications of the doctrine of resurrection by the Sadducees (12:18–27), and about the greatest commandment in the law by a teacher of the law (12:28–34). Finally, Jesus takes the initiative, asking about the interpretation of Psalm 110:1 in an effort to force the Jews to consider his claims to be Messiah (12:35–40). After Jesus’ commending of a widow’s sacrificial giving (12:41–44) comes the Olivet Discourse, in which Jesus encourages the disciples to be faithful in light of coming suffering and as they look toward his triumphant return in glory (13:1–37). | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The passion and empty-tomb narratives (15:1–16:8). The last section of Mark’s gospel has two parts: the passion narrative (chaps. 14–15) and the story of the empty tomb (chap. 16). Mark leads into the passion narrative with his only mention of a definite date: it is two days before the Passover when the chief priests and teachers of the law plot Jesus’ death (14:1–2). The narrative of Jesus’ anointing in Bethany is found here for topical reasons (for it took place “six days before the Passover"; see John 12:1–8): the anointing of Jesus’ head points to his royal dignity (14:3–9). As Judas provides a means of arresting Jesus quietly, Jesus arranges for himself and the disciples to celebrate Passover together (14:12–26). After this meal, during which he uses elements of the Passover ritual to refer to his death, Jesus and the disciples leave the city for Gethsemane on the Mount of Olives, where Jesus agonizingly prays and is then arrested (14:27–52). There follows the series of judicial proceedings and trials: a nighttime hearing before the supreme Jewish council, the Sanhedrin (14:53–65), during which Peter denies the Lord (14:66–72), a quick morning trial before the Sanhedrin (15:1), and the decisive trial before the Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate (15:2–15). Pilate sentences Jesus to death by crucifixion; he is mocked by the soldiers and executed at Golgotha (15:16–41). The burial takes place that same day (15:42–47). But the despair of the women who saw him buried gives way to awe at the empty tomb and the angel’s announcement of the resurrection (16:1–8).
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] |
An Introduction to the New Testament | AUTHOR
Like the other three gospels, Mark is anonymous. The title, “According to Mark” ( [kata Markon]), 2 was probably added when the canonical gospels were collected and there was need to distinguish Mark’s version of the gospel from the others. The gospel titles are generally thought to have been added in the second century but may have been added much earlier.3 Certainly we may say that the title indicates that by A.D. 125 or so an important segment of the early church thought that a person named Mark wrote the second gospel.
Mark’s connection with the second gospel is asserted or assumed by many early Christian writers. Perhaps the earliest (and certainly the most important) of the testimonies is that of Papias, who was bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia of Asia Minor until about A.D. 130. His statement about the second gospel is recorded in Eusebius’s Historia Ecclesiastica (History of the Church), written in 325.
And the presbyter used to say this, “Mark became Peter’s interpreter [hermeneutes] and wrote accurately all that he remembered, not indeed, in order, of the things said or done by the Lord. For he had not heard the Lord, nor had he followed him, but later on, as I said, followed Peter, who used to give teaching as necessity demanded but not making, as it were, an arrangement of the Lord’s oracles, so that Mark did nothing wrong in writing down single points as he remembered them. For to one thing he gave attention, to leave out nothing of what he had heard and to make no false statements in them. (H.E. 3.39.15)4
Three important claims about the second gospel emerge from this statement:
1. Mark wrote the gospel that, in Eusebius’s day, was identified with this name.
2. Mark was not an eyewitness but obtained his information from Peter.5
3. Mark’s gospel lacks “order,” reflecting the occasional nature of Peter’s preaching.6 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | The importance of these claims is magnified when we realize that the presbyter Papias is quoting is the presbyter John, probably the apostle John himself. If Papias is to be trusted, the identification of Mark as the author of the second gospel goes back to the first generation of Christians.
Christian writers of the second and third centuries confirm that Mark was the author of the second gospel and that he depended on Peter for his information: Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 106; Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses 3.1.2; Tertullian, Adversus Marcion 4:5; Clement of Alexandria, Hypotyposeis (according to Eusebius, H.E. 6.14.5–7); Origen, Commentary on Matthew (again according to Eusebius, H.E. 6.25.5); and, probably, the Muratorian Canon. 7 Some scholars dismiss these testimonies as secondhand evidence going back to Papias, believing that Papias invents his claim about Mark’s connection with Peter in order to defend the gospel against its detractors.8 But Papias does not appear to be defending Mark’s authorship or his connection with Peter but only the reliability of the gospel, against the charge that it lacked “order.” Moreover, no dissenting voice from the early church regarding the authorship of the second gospel is found. This is surprising, since the tendency in the early church was to associate apostles with the writing of the New Testament books. While we must not uncritically accept everything that early Christian writers say about the origins of the New Testament, we should not reject what they say without good reason. The early and uncontested claim that Mark wrote the second gospel based on Peter’s teaching can be overturned only by rather clear indications to the contrary from the gospel itself.9 | [
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An Introduction to the New Testament | To assess this internal evidence, we must first identify the “Mark” intended by Papias and the other early Christian writers. That they refer to the (John) Mark mentioned in Acts (12:12, 25; 13:5, 13; 15:37) and in four New Testament epistles (Col. 4:10; Philem. 24; 2Tim. 4:11; 1 Peter 5:13) is almost certain.10 No other early Christian Mark would have been so well known as to be mentioned without further description.11 Son of a woman prominent in the early Jerusalem church (Christians had gathered at her home during Peter’s imprisonment [Acts 12:12]) and cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10), “John, also called Mark,” accompanied Paul and Barnabas as far as Pamphylia, in Asia Minor, on the first missionary journey (Acts 13:5, 13). For whatever reason (and speculation has been rampant), Mark left Paul and Barnabas before the first journey ended, and Paul therefore refused to take him along on his second extended preaching trip. Barnabas disagreed with Paul’s decision and separated himself from Paul, taking Mark along with him (Acts 15:36–40). Yet Paul and Mark were eventually reconciled: Paul mentions Mark’s presence with him during his Roman imprisonment (Philem. 24; Col. 4:10). Peter, writing from Rome, also mentions that Mark was with him, calling him his son (1 Pet. 5:13), perhaps implying that Mark had been converted through his ministry.12 Mark has also been identified as the “young man” who “fled naked” from Gethsemane when Jesus was arrested (Mark 14:51–52). It has been argued that this enigmatic reference, peculiar to Mark’s gospel, is an autobiographical reminiscence.13 This may be the case, but the identification may call into question Papias’s claim that Mark was not an eyewitness.14 | [
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Subsets and Splits