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1919_22 | Transport Thom
Transport Thom was a charter, tour, and commuter bus operator headquartered in Gatineau, Quebec. It operated three lines as part of OC Transpo's Rural Partner Services, which are now run by Classic Alliance Motorcoach. Route 500 connects Arnprior with Central Ottawa and the government offices in Gatineau. Route 502 connects the villages of Pakenham and Almonte in Mississippi Mills, Ontario, and the town of Carleton Place with Ottawa and Gatineau. Route 503 also terminates in the two city centres, after originating in Perth; the line also serves Innisville in Drummond/North Elmsley and Carleton Place.
Transtario
Transtario is a charter, tour, and school bus operator based in Bradford.
Transtur
Transtur Coach Lines, based in Niagara Falls Ontario, operates luxury coaches and conducts charters from Toronto to Montreal and to the USA. |
1919_23 | Trott Transit
Trott Transit was a Canadian owned and operated, full service bus company with its headquarters in Mississauga. Founded in 1976, it is a contractor of regular school bus services, private parent-funded bussing, and public charters. Operations are confined to the province of Ontario, providing regular bussing service to the Peel Region and charter services throughout Ontario including main centres such as Toronto, Kingston, Niagara Falls and London.
Trott Transit is a medium-sized school bus operator operating mainly in the Peel Region. Trott Transit moves approximately 8,000 students per day in its school board bussing programme and 1,200 additional students per day in its parent-funded and private school programme.
Trott Transit provides charter services throughout Ontario, providing over 5,000 charters per year in the Peel Region.
It has been purchased by Switzer-Carty Transportation in 2013.
Voyageur |
1919_24 | Voyageur Colonial, now branded as just Voyageur, formerly owned by Canada Steamship Lines, was a subsidiary of Greyhound Canada. They provided intercity coach services between Ottawa and Montreal.
Wills Bus Lines
'''Wills Bus Lines (Motors Ltd), was a School Bus, Mini-Bus and Highway Coach Operator.
Operating from their office/shop in Binbrook, ON since 1921.
They were the first licensed school bus operator in Ontario, servicing Stoney Creek and Hamilton and continuing school bus operations until 2002. The School Bus Division was sold to Sharp Bus Lines and operated by their sister company Caledonia Transportation. The transaction saw the Highway Coach Division from Sharps moving to Wills. They kept a number of school buses for their Charter Division.
The Company sold to Badder Bus Lines in 2014. |
1919_25 | Wubs Transit
Wubs Transit is a commuter and school bus charter operator based in Winchester. It provides transportation services to the Townships of North Dundas and South Dundas in Eastern Ontario.
Wubs Transit operates a commuter bus service as part of the Rural Partners Service of OC Transpo
Route 541 Chesterville - Ottawa, serving Chesterville, Winchester, Vernon, Metcalfe and Greely.
See also
Cardinal Transportation
Laidlaw
McCluskey Transportation Services
Megabus (North America)
Stock Transportation
References
External links
Ontario Motor Coach Association
Ontario School Bus Association
Motor Coach Canada
Bus transport in Ontario
Intercity bus companies of Canada |
1920_0 | Rapa Nui or Rapanui (, Rapa Nui: , Spanish: ), also known as Pascuan () or Pascuense, is an Eastern Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family. It is spoken on the island of Rapa Nui, also known as Easter Island.
The island is home to a population of just under 6,000 and is a special territory of Chile. According to census data, there are 9,399 people (on both the island and the Chilean mainland) who identify as ethnically Rapa Nui. Census data does not exist on the primary known and spoken languages among these people. In 2008, the number of fluent speakers was reported as low as 800. Rapa Nui is a minority language and many of its adult speakers also speak Spanish. Most Rapa Nui children now grow up speaking Spanish and those who do learn Rapa Nui begin learning it later in life. |
1920_1 | History
The Rapa Nui language is isolated within Eastern Polynesian, which also includes the Marquesic and Tahitic languages. Within Eastern Polynesian, it is closest to Marquesan morphologically, although its phonology has more in common with New Zealand Māori, as both languages are relatively conservative in retaining consonants lost in other Eastern Polynesian languages.
Like all Polynesian languages, Rapa Nui has relatively few consonants. Uniquely for an Eastern Polynesian language, Rapa Nui has preserved the original glottal stop of Proto-Polynesian. It is, or until recently was, a verb-initial language.
One of the most important recent books written about the language of Rapa Nui is Verónica du Feu's Rapanui (Descriptive Grammar) (). |
1920_2 | Very little is known about the Rapa Nui language prior to European contact. The majority of Rapa Nui vocabulary is inherited directly from Proto–Eastern Polynesian. Due to extensive borrowing from Tahitian there now often exist two forms for what was the same word in the early language. For example, Rapa Nui has Tahitian alongside original for 'to see', both derived from Proto-Eastern Polynesian *kitea. There are also hybridized forms of words such as 'to teach', from native (causative prefix) and Tahitian .
Language notes from 1770 and 1774
Spanish notes from a 1770 visit to the island record 94 words and terms. Many are clearly Polynesian, but several are not easily recognizable. For example, the numbers from one to ten seemingly have no relation to any known language. They are compared with contemporary Rapa Nui words, in parenthesis: |
1920_3 | cojàna ( )
corena ( )
cogojù ( )
quirote ( )
majanà ( )
teùto ( )
tejèa ( )
moroqui ( )
vijoviri ( )
queromata-paùpaca quacaxixiva ( )
It may be that the list is a misunderstanding, and the words not related to numbers at all. The Spanish may have shown Arabic numerals to the islanders who did not understand their meaning, and likened them to some other abstraction. For example, the "moroqui" for number eight would have actually been , a small fish that is used as a bait, since "8" can look like a simple drawing of a fish.
Captain James Cook visited the island four years later, and had a Tahitian interpreter with him, who, while recognizing some Polynesian words (up to 17 were written down), was not able to converse with the islanders in general. The British also attempted to record the numerals and were able to record the correct Polynesian words. |
1920_4 | Post-Peruvian enslavement
In the 1860s the Peruvian slave raids began, as Peruvians were experiencing labor shortages and came to regard the Pacific as a vast source of free labor. Slavers raided islands as far away as Micronesia, but Rapa Nui was much closer and became a prime target.
In December 1862 eight Peruvian ships landed their crewmen and between bribery and outright violence they captured some 1,000 Rapanui, including the king, his son, and the ritual priests (one of the reasons for so many gaps in knowledge of the ancient ways). It has been estimated that 2,000 Rapanui were captured over a period of years. Those who survived to arrive in Peru were poorly treated, overworked, and exposed to diseases. Ninety percent of the Rapa Nui died within one or two years of capture. |
1920_5 | Eventually the Bishop of Tahiti caused a public outcry and an embarrassed Peru rounded up the few survivors to return them. A shipload headed to Rapa Nui, but smallpox broke out en route and only 15 arrived at the island. They were put ashore. The resulting smallpox epidemic nearly wiped out the remaining population.
In the aftermath of the Peruvian slave deportations in the 1860s, Rapa Nui came under extensive outside influence from neighbouring Polynesian languages such as Tahitian. While the majority of the population that was taken to work as slaves in the Peruvian mines died of diseases and bad treatment in the 1860s, hundreds of other Islanders who left for Mangareva in the 1870s and 1880s to work as servants or labourers adopted the local form of Tahitian-Pidgin. Fischer argues that this pidgin became the basis for the modern Rapa Nui language when the surviving part of the Rapa Nui immigrants on Mangareva returned to their almost deserted home island. |
1920_6 | Language notes from 1886
William J. Thomson, paymaster on the USS Mohican, spent twelve days on Rapa Nui from 19 to 30 December 1886. Among the data Thomson collected was the Rapa Nui calendar.
Language notes from the twentieth century
Father Sebastian Englert, a German missionary living on Easter Island during 1935–1969, published a partial Rapa Nui–Spanish dictionary in his La Tierra de Hotu Matua in 1948, trying to save what was left of the old language. Despite the many typographical mistakes, the dictionary is valuable, because it provides a wealth of examples which all appear drawn from a real corpus, part oral traditions and legends, part actual conversations. |
1920_7 | Englert recorded vowel length, stress, and glottal stop, but was not always consistent, or perhaps the misprints make it seem so. He indicated vowel length with a circumflex, and stress with an acute accent, but only when it does not occur where expected. The glottal stop is written as an apostrophe, but is often omitted. The velar nasal is sometimes transcribed with a , but sometimes with a Greek eta, , as a graphic approximation of .
Rongorongo
It is assumed that rongorongo, the undeciphered script of Rapa Nui, represents the old Rapa Nui language. |
1920_8 | Hispanisation
The island is under the jurisdiction of Chile and is now home to a number of Chilean continentals. The influence of the Spanish language is noticeable in modern Rapa Nui speech. As fewer children learn to speak Rapa Nui at an early age, their superior knowledge of Spanish affects the 'passive knowledge' they have of Rapa Nui. A version of Rapanui interspersed with Spanish nouns, verbs and adjectives has become a popular form of casual speech. The most well integrated borrowings are the Spanish conjunctions (or), (but) and y (and). Spanish words such as problema (problem), which was once rendered as poroborema, are now often integrated with minimal or no change. |
1920_9 | Spanish words are still often used within Rapanui grammatical rules, though some word order changes are occurring and it is argued that Rapanui may be undergoing a shift from VSO to the Spanish SVO. This example sentence was recorded first in 1948 and again in 2001 and its expression has changed from VSO to SVO.
'They both suffer and weep'
1948: he aroha, he tatagi ararua
2001: ararua he aroha he tatagi
Rapa Nui's indigenous Rapanui toponymy has survived with few Spanish additions or replacements, a fact that has been attributed in part to the survival of the Rapa Nui language. This contrasts with the toponymy of continental Chile, which has lost most of its indigenous names.
Phonology
Rapa Nui has ten consonants and five vowels.
Consonants
As present generation Rapa Nui speak Spanish as their first language in younger years and learn Rapa Nui later in life, flap in word-initial position can be pronounced alveolar trill . |
1920_10 | Vowels
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
|
|
|
|-
! Mid
|
|
|
|-
! Low
|
|
|
|}
All vowels can be either long or short and are always long when they are stressed in the final position of a word. Most vowel sequences are present, with the exception of *uo. The only sequence of three identical vowels is , also spelled ('yes').
Orthography
Written Rapanui uses the Latin script. The Latin alphabet for Rapanui consists of 20 letters:
A, Ā, E, Ē, H, I, Ī, K, M, N, Ŋ, O, Ō, P, R, T, U, Ū, V, |
1920_11 | The nasal velar consonant is generally written with the Latin letter , but occasionally as . In electronic texts, the glottal plosive may be written with a (always lower-case) saltillo to avoid the problems of using the punctuation mark . A special letter, , is sometimes used to distinguish the Spanish , occurring in introduced terms, from the Rapa Nui . Similarly, has been written to distinguish it from Spanish g. The IPA letter is now also coming into use.
Morphology
Syllable structure
Syllables in Rapa Nui are CV (consonant-vowel) or V (vowel). There are no consonant clusters or word-final consonants.
Reduplication
The reduplication of whole nouns or syllable parts performs a variety of different functions within Rapa Nui. To describe colours for which there is not a predefined word, the noun for an object of a like colour is duplicated to form an adjective. For example:
(mist) → (dark grey)
(dawn) → (white) |
1920_12 | Besides forming adjectives from nouns, the reduplication of whole words can indicate a multiple or intensified action. For example:
(weave) → (fold)
(undo) → (take to pieces)
(dive) → (go diving)
There are some apparent duplicate forms for which the original form has been lost. For example:
(tired)
The reduplication of the initial syllable in verbs can indicate plurality of subject or object. In this example the bolded section represents the reduplication of a syllable which indicates the plurality of the subject of a transitive verb:
(dance):
(he/she/they is/are dancing)
(they are all dancing)
The reduplication of the final two syllables of a verb indicates plurality or intensity. In this example the bolded section represents the reduplication of two final syllables, indicating intensity or emphasis:
(tell):
(Tell the story)
(Tell the whole story)
Loanwords |
1920_13 | Rapa Nui incorporates a number of loanwords in which constructions such as consonant clusters or word-final consonants occur, though they do not occur naturally in the language. Historically, the practice was to transliterate unfamiliar consonants, insert vowels between clustered consonants and append word-final vowels where necessary.
e.g.: Britain (English loanword) → Peretane (Rapa Nui rendering)
More recently, loanwords – which come primarily from Spanish – retain their consonant clusters. For example, "litro" (litre). |
1920_14 | Word Classes
Rapa Nui can be said to have a basic two-way distinction in its words, much like other Polynesian languages. That is between full words, and particles. Full words occur in the head of the phrase and are mostly open classes (exceptions like locationals exist). Particles occur in fixed positions before or after the head, and have a high frequency. There also exists an intermediate category, Pro-Forms, which occur in the head of a phrase, and can be preceded or followed by a particle. Unlike full words, they do not have lexical meaning, and like particles, form a closed class. Pro-forms include personal, possessive and benefactive pronouns, as well as interrogative words.Additionally, two other intermediate categories are the negator (ina) and the numerals. While both of them form a closed class, they are able to function as phrase nuclei. |
1920_15 | Demonstratives
Rapa Nui doesn't have one class of demonstratives, instead it has four classes of particles with demonstrative functions. Each class is made up of three particles of different degrees of distance; proximal, medial, or distal. This is a three-way distinction, similar to Samoan and Māori, two closely related languages from the same language family. Tongan, by contrast, has a two-way contrast. |
1920_16 | Rapa Nui speakers hence distinguish between entities that are close to the speaker (proximal), something at a medium distance or close to the hearer (medial), and something far away, removed from both the speaker and hearer (distal). This is called a person-oriented system, in which one of the demonstratives denotes a referent in proximity of the hearer. For Rapa Nui speakers, that is the medial distinction, //. This system of spatial contrasts and directions is known as spatial deixis, and Rapa Nui is full of ways to express this, be it through locationals, postverbal or postnominal demonstratives, or directionals.
These four classes that function as demonstratives are similar in form, but differ in syntactic status and have certain differences in functions.
Postnominal Demonstratives
The postnominal demonstratives are used to indicate different degrees of distance. They always occur on the right periphery of the noun phrase. |
1920_17 | Postnominal demonstratives are obligatory when following a t-demonstrative (tau/tou/tū) unless the noun phrase contains the identity marker ā/ ana. They can also co-occur with other determiners, like articles in this example:
Postnominal demonstratives can be used deictically or anophorically. As deictic markers they are used to point at something visible, while as anaphoric markers they refer to entities in discourse context (entities which have been discussed before or are known by other means). In practice, the anaphoric use is much more common.
Distal/Neutral era
is used deictically to point to something at a distance from both speaker and hearer. |
1920_18 | However, it's more common to see used anaphorically, as a general purpose demonstrative. is often found co-occurring with the neutral t-demonstrative determiner, as the general form tau/tou/tū (N) era, and this combination doubles as a common strategy to refer to a participant mentioned earlier in the discourse. So common, that era is the seventh most common word overall in the text corpus.
For example, the two main characters in this story are simply referred to as tau taŋata era 'that man' and tau vi e era 'that woman'. |
1920_19 | era is also used in combination anaphorically with te, a more conventional determiner instead of a demonstrative determiner. Rapa Nui uses this combination to refer to something which is known to both speaker and hearer, regardless of whether it has been mentioned in the discourse. This means the "te N era" construction (Where N is a noun), indicates definiteness, making it the closest equivalent to English (or Spanish) definite article, rather than a demonstrative.
Te N era can also be used to refer to entities which are generally known, or presumed to be present in context. In the example, the cliffs refer to the cliffs in general, which can be presumed to be known by all Rapa Nui speakers on Rapa Nui with the coastline being a familiar feature. No specific cliff is meant. |
1920_20 | Deictic Locationals
Deictic locationals utilize the same form as demonstrative determiners (nei, nā and rā). They can be the head of a phrase as they are locationals, and like other locationals they can be preceded by a preposition, but not by a determiner. They indicate distance with respect to the origo, which is either the speaker or the discourse situation.
Pronouns
Pronouns are usually marked for number: in Rapa Nui there are markers for first, second and third personal singular and plural; however, there is only a marker for dual in the first person. The first person dual and plural can mark for exclusive and inclusive. The pronouns are always ahead of the person singular (PRS) a and relational particle (RLT) i or dative (DAT) ki. However, in some examples, they do not have PRS, RLT and DAT.
There is only one paradigm of pronouns for Rapa Nui. They function the same in both subject and object cases.
Here is the table for the pronoun forms in Rapa Nui: |
1920_21 | Questions
Yes/no questions are distinguished from statements chiefly by a particular pattern of intonation. Where there is no expectation of a particular answer, the form remains the same as a statement. A question expecting an agreement is preceded by .
Conjunction
Original Rapa Nui has no conjunctive particles. Copulative, adversative and disjunctive notions are typically communicated by context or clause order. Modern Rapa Nui has almost completely adopted Spanish conjunctions rather than rely on this.
Possession
Alienable and inalienable possession |
1920_22 | In the Rapa Nui, there are alienable and inalienable possession. Lichtemberk described alienable possession as the possessed noun being contingently associated with the possessor, and on the other hand inalienable possession as the possessed noun being necessarily associated with the possessor. The distinction is marked by a possessive suffix inserted before the relevant pronoun.
Possessive particles:
(alienable) expresses dominant possession
Alienable possession is used to refer to a person's spouse, children, food, books, work, all animals (except horses), all tools and gadgets (including refrigerators), and some illnesses.
(children) is an alienable possession therefore a is used to indicate that in this sentence, therefore the possessive pronoun a is used instead of ooku. |
1920_23 | (inalienable) expresses the subordinate possession
It is used with parents, siblings, house, furniture, transports (including carts, cars, scooters, boats, airplanes), clothes, feeling, native land, parts of the body (including mind), horses, and their bridles.
Inalienable possession o is used in this example, therefore ooku instead of aaku is used. It is talking about the speaker's brother, which is an inalienable relation.
There are no markers to distinguish between temporary or permanent possession; the nature of objects possessed; or between past, present or future possession. |
1920_24 | A and O possession
A and O possession refer to alienable and inalienable possession in Rapa Nui. marks for alienable possession and marks for inalienable possession. a and o are marked as suffixes of the possessive pronouns; however, they are only marked when the possessive pronoun is in the first, second or third person singular. In (2) above, taina 'sibling' is inalienable and the possessor is first person singular ooku 'my'. However, for all the other situations, a and o are not marked as a suffix of the possessor.
In the above example, the possessor mee 'those' is not a possessive pronoun of the first, second or third person singular. Therefore, o is marked not as a suffix of the possessor but a separate word in the sentence.
Classifiers
There are no classifiers in the Rapa Nui language.
Exclamation
Ko and ka are exclamatory indicators.
suggests a personal reaction:
Ko te aroha (Poor thing!)
suggests judgement on external events:
Ka haakiaki (Tell the whole story!) |
1920_25 | Compound words
Terms which did not exist in original Rapa Nui were created via compounding:
= ('spear fish') = harpoon
= ('spear food') = fork
= ('skin foot') = shoe
= ('bird spear') = wasp
= ('stool horse') = saddle
= ('stool stay') = chair
Negation
In Rapa Nui, negation is indicated by free standing morphemes. Rapa Nui has four main negators:
ina (neutral)
kai (perfective)
(e)ko (imperfective)
tae (constituent negator)
Additionally there are also two additional particles/ morphemes which also contribute to negation in Rapa Nui:
kore (Existential/noun negator)
hia / ia (verb phrase particle which occurs in combination with different negators to form the meaning 'not yet') |
1920_26 | Negation occurs as preverbal particles in the verb phrase, with the clausal negator kai and (e)ko occurring in first position in the verbal phrase, while the constituent negator (tae) occurs in second position in the verbal phrase. Clausal negators occur in the same position as aspect markers and subordinators—this means it is impossible for these elements to co-occur. As a result, negative clauses tend to have fewer aspectual distinctions. Hia occurs in eighth position as a post-verbal marker. Verbal negators precede adjectives. The table below roughly depicts the positions of negators in the Verb Phrase:
Position in the verb phrase
Clausal negators |
1920_27 | Ina
Ina is the neutral negator (regarding aspect). It has the widest range of use in a variety of contexts. It usually occurs in imperfective contexts, as well as habitual clauses and narrative contexts, and is used to negate actions and states. It almost always occurs clause initially and is always followed by the neutral aspectual he + noun or he + verb.
In the example above ina is followed by the combination of he+ maeha (noun)
In this example, ina is followed by he + takea (verb)
In addition to negating verbal and nominal clauses, it also functions as the term ꞌnoꞌas shown below:
Unlike the other two clausal negators (which are preverbal particles), ina is a phrase head, thus it can form a constituent of its own.
Kai
Kai negates clauses with perfective aspects. |
1920_28 | It is used to negate past events and narrative events, and is usually combined with ina. It is also used to negate stative verbs, and a verb phrase marked with kai may contain various post-verbal particles such as the continuity marker â / ana. This marker occurs when the clause has perfect aspect (often obligatory with the perfect marker ko). When combined with kai, it indicates that the negative state continues.
(E)ko
(E)ko is the imperfective negator, which (like kai) replaces the aspectual marker in front of the verb, and which can occur with the negator ina.
It marks negative commands in imperatives (usually with ina) with the e often excluded in imperatives.
In other contexts, especially when ina is absent, the e is obligatory.
Constituent negator |
1920_29 | Tae
Tae is a constituent negator used to negate anything other than a main clause. This can be subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, possessive predicates and other non-verbal clauses. It also negates nominalised verbs and sub-constituents such as adjectives and quantifiers. It does not negate nouns (this is done by the noun negator kore). It is also used to negate locative phrases, actor emphasis constructions, and is also used to reinforce the preposition mai.
Tae is an indicator for subordinate clauses, as it can also negate subordinate clauses without subordinate markers (in which case it usually occurs with an aspect marker).
It also occurs in main clauses with main clause negators and aspect markers i and e, when the clause has a feature of a subordinate clause such as oblique constituents
Noun negator: kore
kore is a verb meaning 'the absence or lack of something'. |
1920_30 | It immediately follows the noun in the adjective position, and is used to indicate that the entity expressed by the noun or noun modifier does not exist or is lacking in the given context.
Hia / ia
Hia / ia is a morpheme used immediately after negated verbs and co-occurs with a negator to indicate actions or events which are interrupted or are yet to happen.
Double negation
In Rapa Nui, double negation is more frequent than single negation (with the negator ina often co-occurring with another clause negator most of the time). It is often used as a slight reinforcement or emphasis.
Ina can be combined with negators kai and (e)ko- both of these are main clause negators.
In the example above we see the negator ina co-occurring with the perfective negator kai.
When tae occurs in double negation, if the other negator is kai or (e)ko, the negative polarity is cancelled out. |
1920_31 | Ina only negates main clauses so it never combines with the negator tae, which is a subordinate clause negator. When occurring with ina, negation may be reinforced.
Double negation occurs very frequently in imperatives in particular.
Numerals
There is a system for the numerals 1–10 in both Rapa Nui and Tahitian, both of which are used, though all numbers higher than ten are expressed in Tahitian. When counting, all numerals whether Tahitian or Rapanui are preceded by ka. This is not used however, when using a number in a sentence.
Syntax
Word order
Rapa Nui is a VSO (verb–subject–object) language. Except where verbs of sensing are used, the object of a verb is marked by the relational particle .
e.g.: He hakahu koe i te rama (the relational particle and object are bolded)
"You light the torch"
Where a verb of sensing is used, the subject is marked by the agentive particle .
e.g.: He tikea e au te poki (the agentive particle and subject are bolded)
"I can see the child" |
1920_32 | Directionals
Spatial deictics is also present in Rapa Nui, in the form of two directionals: mai and atu. They indicate direction with respect to a specific deictic centre or locus.
indicates movement towards the deictic centre, hence the gloss hither.
atu indicates movement away from the deictic centre, and is as such glossed as away. They are both reflexes of a larger system in Proto-Polynesian.
Postverbal Demonstratives
The postverbal demonstratives (PVDs) have the same form as the postnominal demonstratives, and they have the same meaning:
: proximity, close to the speaker
: medial distance, close to the hearer
: default PVD; farther distance, removed from both speaker and hearer.
How they differ from postnominal demonstratives is their function/where they can appear, as it is quite limited. They can only appear in certain syntactic contexts, listed here: |
1920_33 | PVDs are common after imperfective e to express a progressive or habitual action.
The contiguous marker ka is often followed by a PVD, both in main and subordinate clauses.
With the perfect ko V ā, era is occasionally used to express an action which is well and truly finished.
PVDs also appear in relative clauses
Overall, their main function is to provide nuance to the aspectual marker they are being used alongside.
References
From Du Feu, Veronica (1996). Rapanui.
From Kieviet, Paulus (2017). A Grammar of Rapa Nui.
Other footnotes
ACT:action
LIM:limitative
PPD:postpositive determinant
PRS:person singular
RLT:relational particle
STA:state (verbal)
TOW:towards subject
EMP:emphasis
GRP:group plural
RES:resultative
PROX:proximal demonstrative
PRED:predicate marker
NTR:neutral aspect
PROP:proper article
SUBS:subsequent
CONNEG:constituent negator
Bibliography
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. |
1920_34 | Pagel, S., 2008. The old, the new, the in-between: Comparative aspects of Hispanisation on the Marianas and Easter Island (Rapa Nui). In T. Stolz, D. Bakker, R.S. Palomo (eds) Hispanisation: The Impact of Spanish on the Lexicon and Grammar of the Indigenous Languages of Austronesia and the Americas. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 167–201.
External links
Englert's Rapa Nui dictionary: Internet Archive version from 2007-10-16
Mirror of Englert's Rapa Nui dictionary
Rapa Nui Swadesh vocabulary list (Wiktionary)
Rapa Nui words from the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
Miki Makihara (Queens College), has several papers on contemporary Rapa Nui language and language revival efforts
Analytic languages
Easter Island
Isolating languages
East Polynesian languages
Languages of Chile
Verb–subject–object languages
Endangered Austronesian languages
Endangered languages of Oceania |
1921_0 | Television in the Soviet Union was owned, controlled and censored by the state. The body governing television in the era of the Soviet Union was the Gosteleradio committee, which was responsible for both the Soviet Central Television and the All-Union Radio.
Soviet television production was classified into central (Soviet Central Television), republican, and regional broadcasting.
History
In 1938, television broadcasting began in Moscow and Leningrad under the auspices of the All-Union Committee for Radiofication and Radio Broadcasting at the USSR Sovnarkom (Всесоюзный комитет по радиофикации и радиовещанию при СНК СССР).
On 1 October 1934, Russia's first televisions were produced. The B-2 had a 3 × 4 cm screen and a mechanical raster scan in 30 lines at 12.5 frames per second. On 15 November 1934, Moscow had its first television broadcast. It was a concert. Then, on 15 October 1935, the first film was broadcast. |
1921_1 | On 9 March 1938, a first experimental studio television program was broadcast from Shabolovka tower in Moscow. Three weeks later, the first full film, The Great Citizen (Великий гражданин) was broadcast. On 7 June 1938, a television broadcast was trialled in Leningrad.
World War II disrupted regular television broadcasting until it was re-instated in Moscow on 15 December 1945. On 4 November 1948, the Moscow television centre started broadcasting in a 625 line standard. On 29 June 1949, the first out of studio broadcast of a football match was broadcast live from the Dynamo sports stadium. On 24 August 1950, a long range broadcast was made from Moscow to Ryazan. |
1921_2 | In time for the golden jubilee year of the October Revolution in 1967, SECAM colour broadcasts debuted in both Moscow and Leningrad on their respective local TV channels. By 1973, the Soviet television service had grown into six full national channels, plus republican and regional stations serving all republics and minority communities.
Distance and geography
The size and geography of the Soviet Union made television broadcasting difficult. These factors included mountains such as the Urals, the Taiga and the Steppes and the encompassing of eleven different time zones. For instance, a program broadcast at 18:00 in Moscow would be shown at 21:00 in Frunze, Kirghizia. The population density was irregular with many more residents found in the west. The Soviet Union was also relaying broadcasts to other Warsaw Pact states. |
1921_3 | Soviet television standard
The Soviet broadcast television standard used CCIR System D (OIRT VHF band with the "R" channels ranging from R1 to R12) and System K (pan-European/African UHF band), with SECAM as the color system standard. The resulting system is commonly referred to as "SECAM D/K".
Soviet television channels
There were six television channels (called "programmes") in the Soviet Union. The "First Programme" was the main channel with time slots for regional programming. (see #Regional television services below). The other channels included the All Union Programme (the second channel), the Moscow Programme (the third channel), the Fourth Programme (the fourth channel), the Fifth programme (broadcast from Leningrad) and the Sixth Programme (sports, science and technology). |
1921_4 | Not all channels were available across the Soviet Union. Until perestroika and the establishment of the Gorizont satellite network, many regions only had access to the First Programme and the All Union Programme. The new satellite network had enough transponders for all six channels to be carried to the entire Soviet Union. This increased the variation of television programmes offered. The new channels offered urban news and entertainment (Channel 3); culture, documentaries and programmes for the Intelligentsia (Channel 4), information and entertainment from the point of view of another city (Channel 5) and scientific and technological content (Channel 6). |
1921_5 | Regional television services
In addition to the national television channels, each of the Republics of the Soviet Union (RSS) and Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics of the Soviet Union (ARSS) had its own state radio and television company or state broadcasting committees. The regional company or committee was able to broadcast regional programming in Russian or the local language alongside the official First Programme schedule. The regional company or committee was able to broadcast additional channels for their coverage area only. Alongside them were a number of city television stations that served as retransmitters of national programming with local opt-outs for news and current affairs.
Soviet satellite services
The Soviet Union's domestic satellite television system, Orbita, was as large as Canada's Anik and the U.S.'s satellite system. |
1921_6 | In 1990, there were 90 Orbita satellites, supplying programming to 900 main transmitters and over 4,000 relay stations. The best known Soviet satellites were the Molniya (or "Lightning") satellites. Other satellite groups were named the Gorizont ("Horizon"), Ekran ("Screen"), and Statsionar ("Stationary") satellites. People residing outside the Soviet Union who used a TVRO satellite television could receive Soviet broadcasts.
Broadcasts were time-shifted to counter the problems of the Soviet Union's geography and time zones. The national television channels were only on the air for part of the day giving room in the schedule to time-shift. There were two types of Soviet time-shifting, one based on a similar radio programme, and "Double" programs, which was composite time-shifting for the different time zones. |
1921_7 | Only the First Programme was time-shifted based on the pattern of a similar radio programme, the All-Union First Programme from Soviet radio. TV Orbita-1 was broadcast in time zones UTC +11, +12, and +13 time zones. TV Orbita-2 was broadcast in time zones UTC +9 and +10 time zones, TV Orbita-3 in UTC +7 and +8 time zones, TV Orbita-4 in UTC +5 and +6 and the First Programme in time zones UTC +2, +3, and +4.
All other national television channels (the All-Union, Moscow, Fourth and Leningrad programmes) used the "double" programme composite time-shifting format.
Programming
Soviet TV programming was diverse. It was similar to that of American PBS. It included news programmes, educational programmes, documentaries, occasional movies, and children's programmes. Major sports events such as soccer and ice hockey matches were often broadcast live. Programming was domestic or made in Warsaw Pact countries. |
1921_8 | The broadcasts had relatively high levels of self-censorship. Prohibited topics included criticism against the status and implementation of Soviet ideology, all aspects of erotica, nudity, graphic portrayal of violence and coarse language and illicit drug use.
The leading news programmes used presenters with exemplary diction and excellent knowledge of the Russian language. Sergey Georgyevich Lapin, chairman of the USSR State Committee for Television and Radio (1970 to 1985) made a number of rules. Male presenters could not have beards and had to wear a tie and jacket. Women were not allowed to wear pants. Lapin banned a broadcast of a close up of Alla Pugacheva singing into the microphone, as he considered it reminiscent of oral sex. Lapin and his committee were accused of anti-semitism in the television programming. |
1921_9 | Despite these limitations, television grew in popularity. The average daily volume of broadcasting grew from 1673 hours in 1971 to 3,700 hours in 1985. A new television and radio complex, the "PTRC" was built for the 1980 Moscow Olympics. The Ostankino Technical Center in Moscow was one of the largest in the world at that time.
In the late 1980s, the nature of programming began to change. Some Western programs, mostly from the United Kingdom and Latin America, were imported. Talk shows and game shows were introduced, often copied from their western counterparts. For example, the game show, Pole Chudes (The Field of Miracles) based on Wheel of Fortune. Free speech regulations were gradually eased.
Until the late 1980s, Soviet television had no advertisements. Even then, they were rare, because few companies could produce advertisements about themselves.
The Soviet Union's television news was provided by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS). |
1921_10 | Made-for-TV movies
In the beginning of the 1960s television in the USSR was expanding rapidly. The increase in the number of channels and the duration of daily broadcast caused shortage of content deemed suitable for broadcast. This led to production of television films, in particular of multiple-episode television films (Russian: многосерийный телевизионный фильм)—the official Soviet moniker for miniseries. Despite that the Soviet Union started broadcasting in color in 1967, color TV sets did not become widespread until the end of the 1980s. This justified shooting made-for-TV movies on black-and-white film. |
1921_11 | The 1965 four-episode Calling for fire, danger close is considered the first Soviet miniseries. It is a period drama set in the Second World War depicting the Soviet guerrilla fighters infiltrating German compound and directing the fire of the regular Soviet Army to destroy the German airfield. During the 1970s the straightforward fervor gave way to a more nuanced interplay of patriotism, family and everyday life wrapped into traditional genres of crime drama, spy show or thriller. One of the most popular Soviet miniseries—Seventeen Moments of Spring about a Soviet spy operating in Nazi Germany—was shot in 1972. This 12-episode miniseries incorporated features of political thriller and docudrama and included excerpts from period newsreels. Originally produced in black-and-white in 4:3 aspect ratio, it was colorized and re-formatted for wide-screen TVs in 2009. |
1921_12 | Other popular miniseries of the Soviet era include The Shadows Disappear at Noon (1971, 7 episodes) about the fate of several generations of locals from a Siberian village, The Meeting Place Cannot Be Changed (1979, 5 episodes) about the fight against criminals in the immediate post-war period, and TASS Is Authorized to Declare... (1984, 10 episodes) about the tug-of-war of Soviet and American intelligence agencies. |
1921_13 | Numerous miniseries were produced for children in the 1970s-1980s. Among them are: The Adventures of Buratino (1976, 2 episodes)—an adaptation of The Golden Key, or the Adventures of Buratino by Alexey Tolstoy, which in turn is a retelling of The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi; The Two Captains (1976, 6 episodes)—an adaptation of The Two Captains by Veniamin Kaverin about a search for a lost Arctic expedition and the discovery of Severnaya Zemlya; The Adventures of Elektronic (1979, 3 episodes) about a humanoid robot meeting and befriending his prototype—a 6th grade schoolboy; Guest from the Future (1985, 5 episodes) about a boy and a girl travelling in time and fighting intergalactic criminals. In each of these, CTV-USSR co-produced them with the Gorky Film Studio.
See also
Censorship in the Soviet Union
Propaganda in the Soviet Union
Soviet Central Television
Media of the Soviet Union
References
1990 edition of the WRTH (World Radio and Television Handbook) |
1921_14 | External links
CCCP TV: the Soviet TV portal
Library of Congress—The U.S. Naval Academy Collection of Soviet & Russian TV
Russian Museum of Radio and TV website
The U.S. Naval Academy Collection of Soviet & Russian TV
Nu Pogodi, the Soviet equivalent of Road Runner/Coyote, or Tom and Jerry.
Eastern Bloc mass media |
1922_0 | An antenna tuner (and any of the names in the list below) is a device that is inserted between a radio transmitter and its antenna; when properly adjusted (tuned) it improves power transfer by matching the impedance of the radio to the impedance of the antenna, or the feedline which connects the antenna to the transmitter.
Various alternate names are used for this device: matching network, (antenna) impedance matching unit, matchbox, transmatch, antenna match, antenna tuning unit (ATU), antenna coupler, feedline coupler. English language technical jargon makes no distinction between the terms. |
1922_1 | Antenna tuners are particularly important for use with transmitters. Transmitters are typically designed to feed power into a reactance-free, resistive load of a specific value: 50 Ω (Ohms), by modern convention. However the impedance of the antenna and feedline connected to the transmitter can vary, depending on frequency and other factors. In addition to reducing the power radiated by the antenna, the mismatch can distort the signal, and in high power transmitters may overheat the amplifier.
To avoid possible damage resulting from applying power into a mismatched load, ATUs are a standard part of almost all radio transmitting systems. If the transmitter detects a load impedance that departs from the designed load, circuits in modern transmitters automatically cut back the power output to protect the equipment from the consequences of the impedance mismatch. |
1922_2 | The system ATU may be a circuit incorporated into the transmitter itself, or a separate piece of equipment connected anywhere between the transmitter and the antenna, or a combination of several of these. In transmitting systems with an antenna distant from the transmitter and connected to it by a long transmission line (feedline), in addition to an ATU where the feedline connects to the transmitter there may be a second matching network (or ATU) at the antenna, to match the transmission line’s impedance to the antenna’s.
Overview
Antenna tuners are particularly important for use with transmitters. Transmitters are designed to feed power into a resistive load of a specific value, by modern standards, 50 Ω (Ohms). If the impedance seen by the transmitter departs from this design value due to improper tuning of the combined feedline and antenna, overheating of the transmitter final stage, distortion, or loss of output power may occur. |
1922_3 | Use in transmitters
Antenna tuners are used almost universally with solid-state transmitters. Without an ATU, in addition to reducing the power radiated by the antenna, the reflected current can overheat transformer cores and cause signal distortion. In high-power transmitters it may overheat the transmitter's output amplifier. When reflected power is detected, self-protection circuits in modern transmitters automatically reduce power to safe levels, hence reduce the power of the signal leaving the antenna even more than the loss from reflected current. |
1922_4 | Because of this, ATUs are a standard part of almost all radio transmitting systems. They may be a circuit incorporated into the transmitter itself, or a separate piece of equipment connected between the transmitter and the antenna. In transmitting systems with an antenna separated from the transmitter and connected to it by a transmission line (feedline), there may be another matching network (or ATU) at the antenna that matches the transmission line's impedance to the antenna. |
1922_5 | Narrow-band transmitters in cell phones and walkie-talkies have an ATU circuit inside permanently set to work with the installed antenna. In multi-frequency communication stations like amateur radio stations, and high power transmitters like radio broadcasting stations, the ATU is adjustable to accommodate changes in the transmitting system or its environment. Instruments such as SWR meters, antenna analyzers, or impedance bridges are used to measure the degree of match or mismatch. Adjusting the ATU to match the transmitter to the feedline and antenna is an important procedure done after any change perturbs the antenna system or its environment. |
1922_6 | High power transmitters like radio broadcasting stations have a matching unit that is adjustable to accommodate changes in the transmit frequency, the transmitting unit, the antenna, or the antenna's environment. Adjusting the ATU to match the transmitter to the antenna is an important procedure which is done after any work on the transmitter or antenna occurs, or any drastic change in the weather affecting the antenna (e.g. hoar frost or dust storms).
The effect of this adjustment is typically measured using an instrument called an SWR meter, which indicates the aggregate mismatch between a reference impedance (typically the same as the transmitter: ) and the complex impedance at the point of insertion of the SWR meter. Other instruments such as antenna analyzers, or impedance bridges, provide more detailed information, such as the separate mismatches of the resistive and reactive parts of the impedance on the input and output sides of the ATU. |
1922_7 | What an "antenna tuner" actually tunes
Despite its name, an "antenna" tuner does not actually tune the antenna. It matches the resistive (real) impedance of the transmitter to the complex resistive + reactive impedance presented by the near end of the feedline. The transmission line will show an input impedance different from the feedline's characteristic impedance, if the impedance of the antenna on the other end of the line is not matched to the line's characteristic impedance.
The consequence of the mismatch is to raise out-of-phase voltage standing waves and current standing waves on the feedline, or equivalently, the line's impedance (voltage to current ratio and phase) will oscillate along the length of line. |
1922_8 | If both the tuner and the feedline were lossless, tuning at the transmitter end would indeed produce a perfect match at every point in the transmitter-feedline-antenna system. However, in practical systems lossy feedlines limit the ability of the antenna tuner to change the antenna's resonant frequency. If the feedline carrying the transmitter's signal to the antenna is extremely short ( wave), or has extremely low DC resistance per meter of length, or carries power as high voltage and low current (high impedance) instead of low voltage and high current (low impedance), then power loss in the line will be low. When feedline power loss is low, a tuner at the transmitter end can produce a worthwhile degree of matching and tuning for the antenna and feedline network as a whole. But with lossy, low-impedance feedlines like the commonly-used 50 Ω (Ohm) coaxial cable, maximum power transfer occurs only if matching is done at the antenna in conjunction with a matched transmitter and |
1922_9 | feedline, producing a match at both ends of the line and every point in between. |
1922_10 | In any case, regardless of its placement, an ATU does not alter the gain, efficiency, or directivity of the antenna, nor does it change the internal complex impedances within the parts of the antenna itself, nor the impedance presented at the antenna’s feedpoint. |
1922_11 | Efficiency and SWR
If there is still a high standing wave ratio (SWR) beyond the ATU, in a significantly long segment of feedline, any loss in that part of the feedline is typically increased by the transmitted waves reflecting back and forth between the tuner and the antenna, causing resistive losses in the wires and possibly the insulation of the transmission line. Even with a matching unit at both ends of the feedline – the near ATU matching the transmitter to the feedline and the remote ATU matching the feedline to the antenna – losses in the circuitry of the two ATUs will slightly reduce power delivered to the antenna.
The most efficient use of a transmitter's power is to use a resonant antenna, fed with a matched-impedance feedline to a matched-impedance transmitter; there are still small losses in any feedline even when all impedances match, but matching minimizes loss. |
1922_12 | It is almost equally efficient to feed a remote antenna tuner attached directly to the antenna, via a feedline matched to the transmitter and the ATU feed; the only extra losses are in the tuner circuitry, which can be kept small if the tuner is correctly adjusted and the line carefully tested at or near the antenna.
It is usually inefficient to operate an antenna far from one of its resonant frequencies and attempt to compensate with an ATU next to the transmitter, far from the antenna; the entire feedline from the ATU to the antenna is still mismatched, which will aggravate normal loss in the feedline, particularly if it is low-impedance line, like standard 50 Ω coax.
The least efficient way to transmit, is to feed a non-resonant antenna through lossy feedline with no impedance matching anywhere along the line. |
1922_13 | Use in receivers
ATUs are not widely used in shortwave receivers, and almost never used in mediumwave or longwave receivers. They are, however, needed for receivers operating in the upper shortwave (upper HF), and VHF and above. |
1922_14 | In a receiver, if the complex impedance of the antenna is not a conjugate match for the complex input impedance at the antenna end of the transmission line, then some of the incoming signal power will be reflected back out to the antenna and will not reach the receiver. However this is only important for frequencies at and above the middle HF band. In radio receivers working below roughly 10~20 MHz, atmospheric radio noise dominates the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the incoming radio signal, and the power of the atmospheric noise that arrives with the signal is far greater than the inherent thermal radio noise generated within the receiver's own circuitry. Therefore, the receiver can amplify the weak signal to compensate for any inefficiency caused by impedance mismatch without perceptibly increasing noise in the output. |
1922_15 | At higher frequencies, however, receivers encounter very little atmospheric noise and noise added by the receiver's own front end amplifier dominates the signal to noise ratio. At frequencies above about 10~20 MHz the internal circuit noise is the factor limiting sensitivity of the receiver for weak signals, and so as the frequency rises it becomes increasingly important that the antenna complex impedance be conjugately matched to the input impedance at the antenna end of the transmission line, to transfer the maximum available power from a weak signal into the first amplifier to provide a stronger signal than its own internally-generated noise.
So impedance-matching circuits or impedance-matched antennas are incorporated in some receivers for the upper HF band, such as ‘deluxe’ CB radio receivers, and for most VHF and higher frequency receivers, such as FM broadcast receivers, and scanners for aircraft and public safety radio. |
1922_16 | Broad band matching methods
Transformers, autotransformers, and baluns are sometimes incorporated into the design of narrow band antenna tuners and antenna cabling connections. They will all usually have little effect on the resonant frequency of either the antenna or the narrow band transmitter circuits, but can widen the range of impedances that the antenna tuner can match, and/or convert between balanced and unbalanced cabling where needed.
Ferrite transformers
Solid-state power amplifiers operating from 1–30 MHz typically use one or more wideband transformers wound on ferrite cores. MOSFETs and bipolar junction transistors typically used in modern radio frequency amplifiers are designed to operate into a low impedance, so the transformer primary typically has a single turn, while the 50 Ω secondary will have 2 to 4 turns. This design of feedline system has the advantage of reducing the retuning required when the operating frequency is changed. |
1922_17 | A similar design can match an antenna to a transmission line: For example, many TV antennas have a 300 Ω impedance but feed the signal to the TV through a 75 Ω coaxial line. A small ferrite core transformer makes the broad band impedance transformation. This transformer does not need, nor is it capable of adjustment. For receive-only use in a TV the small SWR variation with frequency is not a major problem.
Also note that many ferrite transformers perform a balanced-to-unbalanced transformation in addition to the impedance change. When the anced to balanced function is present these transformers are called a balun (otherwise an unun). The most common baluns have either a 1:1 or a 1:4 impedance transformation. |
1922_18 | Autotransformers
There are several designs for impedance matching using an autotransformer, which is a simple, single-wire transformer with different connection points or taps spaced along the coil windings. They are distinguished mainly by their impedance transform ratio, and whether the input and output sides share a common ground, or are matched from a cable that is grounded on one side (unbalanced) to an ungrounded (usually balanced) cable. When autotransformers connect balanced and unbalanced lines they are called baluns, just as two-winding transformers are. |
1922_19 | The circuit pictured at the right has three identical windings wrapped in the same direction around either an "air" core (for very high frequencies) or ferrite core (for middle frequencies) or a powdered-iron core (for very low frequencies). The three equal windings shown are wired for a common ground shared by two unbalanced lines (so this design is an unun), and can be used as 1:1, 1:4, or 1:9 impedance match, depending on the tap chosen.
For example, if the right-hand side is connected to a resistive load of 10 Ω, the user can attach a source at any of the three ungrounded terminals on the left side of the autotransformer to get a different impedance. Notice that on the left side, the line with more windings between the line's tap-point and the ground tap measures greater impedance for the same 10 Ω load on the right. |
1922_20 | Narrow band design
The "narrow-band" methods described below cover a very much smaller span of frequencies, by comparison with the broadband methods described above.
Antenna matching methods that use transformers tend to cover a wide range of frequencies. A single, typical, commercially available balun can cover frequencies from 3.5–30.0 MHz, or nearly the entire shortwave band. Matching to an antenna using a cut segment of transmission line (described below) is perhaps the most efficient of all matching schemes in terms of electrical power, but typically can only cover a range about 3.5–3.7 MHz wide in the HF band – a very small range indeed, compared to the 27 MHz bandwidth of a well-made broadband balun.
Antenna coupling or feedline matching circuits are also narrowband for any single setting, but can be re-tuned more conveniently. However they are perhaps the least efficient in terms of power-loss (aside from having no impedance matching at all!). |
1922_21 | Transmission line antenna tuning methods
There are two different impedance matching techniques using sections of feedline: Either the original feedline can have a deliberately mismatched section of line spliced into it (called section matching), or a short stub of line can branch off from the original line, with the stub's end either shorted or left unconnected (called stub matching). In both cases, the location of the section of extra line on the original feedline and its length require careful placement and adjustment, which will almost surely only work for one desired frequency. |
1922_22 | Section matching
A special section of transmission line can be used to match the main line to the antenna, if that line section's characteristic impedance is different from that of the main line. The technique is essentially to fix a mismatch by creating an opposite mismatch: A line segment with the proper impedance and proper length, inserted at the proper distance from the antenna, can perform complicated matching effects with very high efficiency. The drawback is that matching with line segments only works for a very limited frequency range for which the segment's length and position are appropriate. |
1922_23 | A simple example of this method is the quarter-wave impedance transformer formed by a section of mismatched transmission line. If a quarter-wavelength of 75 Ω coaxial cable is linked to a 50 Ω load, the SWR in the 75 Ω quarter wavelength of line can be calculated as when there is no reactance; the quarter-wavelength of line transforms the mismatched impedance to 112.5 Ω Thus this inserted section matches a 112 Ω antenna to a 50 Ω main line.
The wavelength coaxial transformer is a useful way to match 50 to 75 Ω using the same general method.
Stub matching
A second common method is the use of a stub: Either a shorted or open section of line is connected in parallel with the main feedline, forming a dead-end branch off the main line; with coax this is done using a ‘T’-connector. A stub less than a quarter-wave long whose end is short-circuited acts as an inductor; if its end is left unconnected (open), the stub acts as a capacitor. |
1922_24 | The length of the stub and its location are chosen so that its susceptance will be equal-and-opposite to the susceptance at that point on the line, and the remaining, non-reactive impedance will match the line below the stub, removing the effects of the complex impedance or SWR from the antenna.
The J-pole antenna and the related Zepp antenna are both examples of an antenna with a built-in stub match. |
1922_25 | Basic lumped circuit matching using the L-network
An ‘L’-network is the simplest circuit that will achieve the desired transformation, and always consists of just two components. For any one given antenna and frequency, once a circuit is selected from the eight possible configurations (of which six are shown in the diagram below) only one pair of component values will match the in impedance to the out impedance. Commercially available automatic antenna tuners most often are ‘L’-networks, since they involve the fewest parts and have a unique setting for the adjustment circuitry to seek out.
The ‘L’ circuit is important in that many automatic antenna tuners use it, and also because more complicated circuits can be analyzed as chains of ‘L’-networks, as will be seen a later section, in descriptions of more complicated tuners. The basic circuit required when pairs of lumped capacitors and / or inductors are used is shown in the chart of schematics below. |
1922_26 | This circuit is called an “ell” network, not because it contains an inductor (in fact some ‘L’-networks consist of two capacitors) but rather because in the schematic the two components are at right angles to each other, having the shape (e.g. or ) of a rotated or flipped Roman letter ‘L’. The ‘T’ (“tee”) network and the ‘’ (“pie” / “pee”) network also have their parts laid out in a shape similar to the Roman and Greek letters they are named after.
This basic network is able to act as an impedance transformer. If the output has an impedance consisting of resistive part and reactive part load, which add to make a single complex number The input is to be attached to a source which has an impedance of source resistance and reactance, then
and
.
In this example circuit, and can be swapped. All the ATU circuits below create this network, which exists between systems with different impedances. |
1922_27 | For instance, if the source has a resistive impedance of 50 Ω and the load has a resistive impedance of 1000 Ω :
If the frequency is 28 MHz,
As,
then,
So,
While as,
then,
Theory and practice
A parallel network, consisting of a resistive element (1000 Ω) and a reactive element (−j 229.415 Ω), will have the same impedance and power factor as a series network consisting of resistive (50 Ω) and reactive elements (−j 217.94 Ω).
By adding another element in series (which has a reactive impedance of +j 217.94 Ω), the impedance is 50 Ω (resistive).
Types of L-networks and their uses
The L-network can have eight different configurations, six of which are shown in the diagrams at the right. The two omitted configurations are the same as the bottom row, but with the parallel element (wires vertical) on the right side of the series element (wires horizontal), instead of on the left, as shown. |
1922_28 | In discussion of the diagrams that follows the in connector comes from the transmitter or "source" on the left; the out connector goes to the antenna or "load" on the right.
Without exception, the horizontal element of an L-network goes in series with the side that has the lowest resistance.
So for example, the three circuits in the left column and the two in the bottom row have the series (horizontal) element on the out side are used for stepping up from a low-resistance input (transmitter) to a high-resistance output (antenna), similar to the example analyzed in the section above. The top two circuits in the right column, with the series (horizontal) element on the in side, are generally useful for stepping down from a higher input to a lower output resistance. |
1922_29 | The rule only applies to the resistive part of the load, not its reactive part, so orienting the network based on a meter that only indicates total impedance and not its separate parts may not be successful. In cases where the load is highly reactive – such as an antenna fed with a signal whose frequency is far away from any resonance – the configuration determined by resistance may be opposite the configuration supposed from the total impedance. If far from resonance, the bottom two step down (high-in to low-out) circuits would be used to connect for a step up of impedance (low-in to high-out that is mostly from reactance, not resistance, rather than the actual high-in to low-out resistance for which the orientation rule truly applies). |
1922_30 | The low- and high-pass versions of the four circuits shown in the top two rows use only one inductor and one capacitor. Normally, the low-pass would be preferred with a transmitter, in order to attenuate possible harmonics, but the high-pass configuration may be chosen if the components are more conveniently obtained, or if the radio already contains an internal low-pass filter, or if attenuation of low frequencies is desirable – for example when a local AM station broadcasting on a medium frequency may be overloading a high frequency receiver. It is also possible that one or the other of the low-pass or the high-pass networks may have lower enough loss to make it preferred. |
1922_31 | In the bottom row, the Low R, high C circuit is shown feeding a short vertical antenna, such as would be the case for a compact, mobile antenna or otherwise on frequencies below an antenna's lowest natural resonant frequency. In both cases, small antennas lead to small radiation resistance, so the step-down configuration is appropriate. Here the inherent capacitance of a short, random wire antenna is so high that the L-network is best realized with two inductors, instead of aggravating the problem by using a capacitor.
The Low R, high L circuit is shown feeding a small loop antenna. Below resonance this type of antenna has so much inductance, that more inductance from using a coil in the network would make the reactance even worse. Therefore, the L-network is composed of two capacitors. |
1922_32 | Tuners for unbalanced feedlines
In contrast to two-element L-networks, the circuits described below all have three or more components, and hence have many more choices for inductance and capacitance that will produce an impedance match, unfortunately including some bad choices. The two main goals of a good match are:
to minimize losses in the matching circuit, and
to maximize the span of frequencies that are matched tolerably well.
To obtain good matches and avoid bad ones, with every antenna and matching circuit combination, the radio operator must experiment, test, and use judgement to choose among the many adjustments that match the same impedances. This section discusses circuit designs for unbalanced lines; it is followed by a section that discusses tuners for balanced lines.
High-pass T-network |
1922_33 | This configuration is currently popular because it is capable of matching a large impedance range with capacitors in commonly available sizes. However, it is a high-pass filter and will not attenuate spurious radiation above the cutoff frequency nearly as well as other designs (see the -network section, below). Due to its low losses and simplicity, many home-built and commercial manually tuned ATUs use this circuit. The tuning coil is normally also adjustable (not shown).
The ‘T’ network shown here may be thought of as a high-pass step-down ‘L’ network on the input side feeding into a high-pass step-up ‘L’ network on the output side (). The two side-by-side inductors in the conjoined circuit are combined into a single equivalent inductor. |
1922_34 | Theory and practice
If a source impedance of 200 Ω and a resistive load of 1000 Ω are connected (via a capacitor with an impedance of −j 200 Ω) to the inductor of the transmatch, vector mathematics can transform this into a parallel network consisting of a resistance of 1040 Ω and a capacitor with an admittance of 1.9231×10−4 siemens (XC = 5200 Ω).
A resistive load (RL) of 1000 Ω is in series with XC −j 200 Ω.
The phase angle is
To convert to an equivalent parallel network
If the reactive component is ignored, a 1040 Ω to 200 Ω transformation is needed (according to the equations above, an inductor of +j 507.32 Ω). If the effect of the capacitor (from the parallel network) is taken into account, an inductor of +j 462.23 Ω is needed. The system can then be mathematically transformed into a series network of 199.9 Ω resistive and +j 409.82 Ω reactive.
A capacitor (−j 409.82) is needed to complete the network. The steps are shown here. Hover over each circuit for captions. |
1922_35 | Low-pass network
A (pi) network can also be used; it is the electrical conjugate of the ‘T’ network. This ATU has exceptionally good attenuation of harmonics, and was incorporated into the output stage of tube-based ‘vintage’ transmitters and many modern tube-based RF amplifiers. However, the standard circuit is not popular for stand-alone multiband antenna tuners, since the variable capacitors needed for the lower Amateur bands are inconveniently large and expensive.
The network shown here may be thought of as a low-pass step-up ‘L’ network on the input side feeding into a low-pass step-down ‘L’ network on the output side (). The two noze-to-noze inductors in the joined circuit are replaced with a single equivalent inductor.
Drake’s modified -network |
1922_36 | A modified version of the -network is more practical as it uses a fixed input capacitor (left), which can be several thousand picofarads, allowing the two variable capacitors to be smaller. A band switch selects an inductor and an input capacitor. This circuit was used in tuners covering 1.8–30 MHz made before the popularity of the simpler ‘T’‑network, above.
It can also be viewed as two ‘L’ networks coupled front to back: A capacitor-inductor low pass step-up network on the left, feeding into a capacitor-capacitor step-up network on the right ().
SPC tuner
The Series Parallel Capacitor or SPC tuner uses a band-pass circuit that can act both as an antenna coupler and as a preselector. Because it is a band-pass circuit, the SPC tuner has much better harmonic suppression than the T-match above, but uses similar-cost tuning capacitors; its performance is better than the "Ultimate" circuit below. The SPC’s harmonic suppression is only surpassed by the -network tuners, described above. |
1922_37 | The SPC circuit is equivalent to a back-to-back pair of ‘L’ networks: A high-pass capacitor-inductor step down network on the input side feeding into a capacitor-capacitor step up network on the output side (). The combination of the grounded inductor and the grounded capacitor is a tank circuit, that drains to ground out-of-tune signals. When tuned to exploit that action, the tank circuit makes the SPC a band-pass filter that eliminates harmonics as effectively as the network, although requiring more careful adjustment for best results.
With the SPC tuner the losses will be somewhat higher than with the ‘T’-network, since the grounded capacitor will shunt some reactive current to ground, which must be cancelled by additional current in the inductor. The trade-off is that the effective inductance of the coil is increased, thus allowing operation at lower frequencies than would otherwise be possible. |
1922_38 | Ultimate Transmatch
Originally, the Ultimate Transmatch was promoted as a way to make the components more manageable at the lowest frequencies of interest and also to get some harmonic attenuation. A version of McCoy's Ultimate Transmatch network is shown in the illustration to the right.
It is now considered obsolete; using identical parts, the design goals were better realized by the Series-Parallel Capacitor (SPC) network, shown above, which was designed after the name Ultimate had already been used. It has the same general filter topology () as the Drake modified , above, but with the capacitor-capacitor component on the left, input side, instead of the right, and a high-pass ‘L’-component on the other side instead of a low-pass component. |
1922_39 | Balanced line tuners
Balanced (open line) transmission lines require a tuner that has two "hot" output terminals, rather than one "hot" terminal and one "cold" (grounded). Since all modern transmitters have unbalanced (co-axial) output – almost always 50 Ω – the most efficient system has the tuner provide a balun (balanced to unbalanced) transformation as well as providing an impedance match. The tuner usually includes a coil, and the coil can accept or produce either balanced or unbalanced input or output, depending on where its tap points are placed.
Balanced versions of unbalanced tuner circuits
All of the unbalanced tuner circuits described in the preceding main section can be converted to an equivalent balanced circuit by a standard procedure. |
1922_40 | Commercially available "inherantly balanced" tuners are made as balanced versions of L, T, and circuits. Their drawback is that the components used for each of the two output channels must be carefully matched and attached pairs, so that adjusting them causes an identical tuning change to both "hot" sides of the circuit. Hence, most "inherently balanced" tuners are more than twice as expensive as unbalanced tuners.
Tuned-transformer balanced circuits
The following balanced circuit types have been used for tuners, illustrated in the diagram below. They are all based on tuned transformer circuits; none are balanced versions of the unbalanced circuits discussed above. |
1922_41 | Optional and mandatory grounding connections
All of the circuits show a ground connection (a downward pointing triangle) on the antenna side (right hand side). The antenna ground on the right is shaded grey, with dashed lines, because it is optional; if used it effectively forces balanced voltage against ground on the two output terminals. The triangle on the left represents a mandatory ground, obtained through the signal line ground cabled to the transmitter (although it should be redundantly wired to ground, as shown, for RF safety). |
1922_42 | Fixed link with taps
The Fixed link with taps (top left on the diagram) is the most basic circuit. The factor will be nearly constant and is set by the number of relative turns on the input link. The match is found by tuning the capacitor and selecting taps on the main coil, which may be done with a switch accessing various taps or by physically moving clips from turn to turn. If the turns on the main coil are changed to move to a higher or lower frequency, the link turns should also change. |
1922_43 | Hairpin tuner
The Hairpin tuner (top right) has the same circuit, but uses a “hairpin” inductor (a tapped transmission line, short-circuited at the far end). Moving the taps along the hairpin allows continuous adjustment of the impedance transformation, which is difficult with a solenoid coil. It is useful for very short wavelengths from about 10 meters to 70 cm (frequencies about 30 MHz to 430 MHz) where the solenoid inductor would have too few turns to allow fine adjustment. These tuners typically operate over at most a 2:1 frequency range. |
1922_44 | Series cap with taps
The illustration shows two versions of essentially the same circuit: Series cap with taps and an alternate configuration For low-Z lines. Series cap with taps (middle, left) adds a series capacitor to the input side of the Fixed link with taps. The input capacitor allows fine adjustment with fewer taps on the main coil. An alternate connection (middle, right) for the series cap circuit is useful for low impedances only, but avoids the taps (For low-Z lines in the illustration).
Swinging link with taps
Swinging link with taps (bottom left). A swinging link inserted into the Fixed link with taps also allows fine adjustment with fewer coil taps. The swinging link is a form of variable transformer, that changes the coils' mutual inductance by swinging the input coil in and out of the gap between halves of the main coil. The variable inductance makes these tuners more flexible than the basic circuit, but at some cost in complexity. |
1922_45 | Fixed link with differential capacitors
Fixed link with differential capacitors (bottom right). The circuit with differential capacitors was the design used for the well-regarded Johnson Matchbox (JMB) tuners.
The four output capacitors sections (C2) are a double-differential capacitor: The axes of the four sections are mechanically connected and their plates aligned so that as the top and bottom capacitor sections increase in value the two middle sections decrease in value, and vice versa (notice in the diagram the complementary and opposing directions of the arrow heads on C2). This provides a smooth change of loading that is electrically equivalent to moving taps on the main coil. The Johnson Matchbox used a band switch to change the turns on the main inductor for each of the five frequency bands available to hams in the 1950s. Later, similar designs also have switched taps on the link (input) inductor. |
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