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1922_46 | The JMB design has been criticized since the two middle-section capacitors in C2 are not strictly necessary to obtain a match; however, the middle sections conveniently limit the disturbance of the adjustment for C1 caused by changes to C2. |
1922_47 | Z match
The Z-Match is an ATU widely used for low-power amateur radio which is commonly used both as an unbalanced and as a balanced tuner. The Z match is a doubled version of a resonant transformer circuit, with three tuning capacitors. Two of the capacitors with separate connections to the primary transformer coil are ganged, and effectively constitute two separate resonant transformer circuits, with two distinct resonant frequencies. The double-resonance enables the single circuit across the coil to cover a wider frequency range without switching the inductance. Because the output side is a transformer secondary (optionally grounded) it can be used to feed either balanced or unbalanced transmission lines, without any modification to the circuit. |
1922_48 | The Z-match design is limited in its power output by the core used for the output transformer. A powdered iron or ferrite core about 1.6 inches in diameter should handle 100 W. A tuner built for low-power use (“QRP” – typically 5 W or less) can use a smaller core.
Note also that all of the capacitors in the design must be electrically isolated from ground.
Unbalanced tuner and a balun
Another approach to feeding balanced lines is to use an unbalanced tuner with a balun on either the input (transmitter) or output (antenna) side of the tuner. Most often using the popular high pass T circuit described above, with either a 1:1 current balun on the input side of the unbalanced tuner or a balun (typically 4:1) on the output side. It can be managed, but doing so both efficiently and safely is not easy. |
1922_49 | Balun between the antenna and the ATU
Any balun placed on the output (antenna) side of a tuner must be built to withstand high voltage and current stresses, because of the wide range of impedances it must handle.
For a wide range of frequencies and impedances it may not be possible to build a robust balun that is adequately efficient. For a narrow range of frequencies, using transmission line stubs or sections for impedance transforms (as described above) may well be more feasible and will certainly be more efficient. |
1922_50 | Balun between the transmitter and the ATU
The demands put on the balun are more modest if the balun is put on the input end of the tuner – between the tuner and the transmitter. Placed on that end it always operates into a constant 50 Ω impedance from the transmitter on one side, and has the matching network to protect it from wild swings in the feedline impedance on the other side: All to the good. Unfortunately, making the input from the transmitter balanced creates problems that must be remedied. |
1922_51 | If an unbalanced tuner is fed with a balanced line from a balun instead of directly from the transmitter, then its normal antenna connection – the center wire of its output coaxial cable – provides the signal as usual to one side of the antenna. However the ground side of that same output connection must now feed an equal and opposite current to the other side of the antenna, and the entire grounded portion of the tuner becomes "hot" with RF power, including the tuner's metal chassis and control knobs. |
1922_52 | The "hot ground" in the ATU
The "true" external ground voltage at the antenna and transmitter must lie halfway between the two "hot" feeds, one of which is the internal ground: Inside the ATU, the matching circuit's "false" ground level is equally different from the "true" ground level at either the antenna or the transmitter as the original "hot" wire is (but with opposite polarity). Either the "hot" output wire or the matching circuit "ground" will give you exactly the same shock if you touch it.
The tuner circuit must "float" above or below the exterior ground level in order for the ATU circuit ground (or common side) to feed the second hot wire that formerly was attached to the output cable's ground wire: The circuit's floating ground must provide a voltage difference adequate to drive current through an output terminal to make the second output "hot". |
1922_53 | High voltages are normal in any efficient ("high ") impedance matching circuit bridging a wide mismatch. Unless the incompatible grounds are carefully kept separate, the high voltages present between this interior floating ground and the exterior transmitter and antenna grounds can lead to arcing, corona discharge, capacitively coupled ground currents, and electric shock.
Carefully keeping the incompatible grounds separate
To reduce power loss and protect the operator and the equipment, the tuner chassis must be double-layered: An outer chassis and an inner chassis. The outer chassis must enclose and separate the tuning circuit and its floating ground from the outside, while itself remaining at the level of the exterior ground(s). With the protective outer chassis, the inner chassis can maintain its own incompatible "floating ground" level, safely isolated. |
1922_54 | The inner chassis can be reduced to nothing more than a mounting platform inside the outer chassis, elevated on insulators to keep a safe distance between the "floating ground" and the "true" electrical ground line(s) wired to the outer chassis. The inner tuning circuit's metal mounting chassis, and in particular the metal rods connected to adjustment knobs on the outer chassis must all be kept separate from the surface touched by the operator and from direct electrical contact with the transmitter's ground on its connection cable ("true" ground). |
1922_55 | Isolating the controls is usually done by replacing at least part of the metal connecting rods between knobs on the outside surface and adjustable parts on the inside platform with an insulated rod, either made of a sturdy ceramic or a plastic that tolerates high temperatures. Further, the metal inner and outer parts must be spaced adequately far apart to prevent current leaking out via capacitive coupling when the interior voltages are high. Finally, all these arrangements must be secured with greater than usual care, to ensure that jostling, pressure, or heat expansion cannot create a contact between the inner and outer grounds. |
1922_56 | Summary
Using an inherently unbalanced circuit for a balanced tuner puts difficult constraints on the tuner's construction and high demands on the builder's craftsmanship. The advantage of such a design is that its inner, inherently unbalanced matching circuit always requires only a single component where a balanced version of the same circuit often requires two. Hence it does not require identical pairs of components for the two "hot" ends of the circuit(s) in order to ensure balance to ground within the ATU, and its output is inherently balanced with respect to the exterior "true" ground, even though the interior circuit is unbalanced with respect to the interior "false" ground.
Antenna system losses |
1922_57 | ATU location
An ATU can be inserted anywhere along the line connecting the radio transmitter or receiver to the antenna. The antenna feedpoint is usually high in the air (for example, a horizontal dipole antenna) or far away (for example, a ground-mounted monopole antenna placed far from radio interference sources, such as house-wiring and the computer sitting beside the transmitter). A transmission line (feedline) must carry the signal between the transmitter and the antenna. The ATU can be placed anywhere along the feedline – at the transmitter output, at the antenna input, or anywhere in between – and if desired, two or more ATUs can be placed at different locations between the antenna and the transmitter (usually at the two ends of the feedline) and tuned so that they co‑operatively create an impedance match throughout the antenna system. |
1922_58 | Antenna matching is best done as close to the antenna as possible, to minimize loss, increase bandwidth, and reduce voltage and current on the transmission line. Also, when the information being transmitted has frequency components whose wavelength is a significant fraction of the electrical length of the feed line, distortion of the transmitted information will occur if there are standing waves on the line. Analog TV and FM stereo broadcasts are affected in this way; for those modes, placing the matching unit at or very near the antenna is mandatory.
When possible, an automatic or remotely-controlled tuner in a weather-proof case at or near the antenna is convenient and makes for an efficient system. With such a tuner, it is possible to match a wide variety of antennas over a broad range of frequencies (including stealth antennas). |
1922_59 | High-impedance feedline
When the ATU must be located near the radio for convenient adjustment, any significant SWR will increase the loss in the feedline. For that reason, when using an ATU at the transmitter, low-loss, high-impedance feedline is a great advantage (open-wire line, for example). High impedance lines – such as most parallel-wire lines – carry power mostly as high voltage rather than high current, and current alone determines the power lost to line resistance. So for the same number of Watts delivered to the antenna, typically very little power is lost in high-impedance line even at severe SWR levels, when compared to losses in low-impedance line, like typical coaxial cable, with the same SWR. A short length of coaxial line with low loss is acceptable, but with longer coaxial lines the greater losses, aggravated by SWR, become very high. |
1922_60 | It is important to remember that when an ATU is placed near the transmitter and far from the antenna, even though the ATU matches the transmitter to the line there is no change in the line beyond the ATU. The backlash currents reflected from the antenna are retro-reflected by the ATU and so are invisible on the transmitter-side of the ATU. Individual waves are usually reflected between the antenna and the ATU several times; the result of the multiple reflections is compounded loss, higher voltage and / or higher currents on the line and in the ATU, and narrowed bandwidth. None of these bad effects can be remediated by an ATU sitting beside the transmitter.
Loss in antenna tuners
Every means of impedance match will introduce some power loss. This will vary from a few percent for a transformer with a ferrite core, to 50% or more for a complicated ATU that is improperly adjusted, or working near the limits of its tuning range. |
1922_61 | Among the narrow-band tuner circuits, the L-network has the lowest loss, partly because it has the fewest components, but mainly because it can match at just one setting, and that setting is necessarily the lowest possible for a given impedance transformation. In effect, the L-network does not have any "bad match" to choose: Its only available match is good. |
1922_62 | The L-network using only capacitors will have the lowest loss, but this network only works where the load impedance is very inductive, making it a good choice for a small loop antenna. Inductive impedance also occurs with straight-wire antennas used at frequencies slightly above a resonant frequency, where the antenna is too long – for example, between a quarter and a half wave long at the operating frequency – hence, one can deliberately build an antenna that is too long for all design frequencies with the intention of tuning it only with capacitors, similar to a loop antenna. Unfortunately, the typical problem encountered in the HF band is that antennas are too short for the frequency in use, and tuning them requires inductive reactance.
With the high-pass T-network, the loss in the tuner can vary from a few percent – if tuned for lowest loss – to over 50% if the tuner is adjusted to a "bad match" instead of a good one. |
1922_63 | As a rule of thumb, using the maximum possible capacitance will involve the least loss, as compared to simply tuning for any match, without regard for the settings. This is because increasing the capacitance produces less reactance; the usual consequence is that less balancing reactance is needed from the inductor, which means running current through fewer turns of wire on the inductor, and the loss in almost every ATU is mainly from resistance in the inductor wire (loss from dirty capacitor contacts comes in a distant second). |
1922_64 | Sacrificing efficiency in exchange for harmonic suppression
If additional filtering is desired, the inductor in any of the three-element designs can be deliberately set to large values, raising the circuit and so providing a partial band pass effect. Either the high-pass T or low-pass can be adjusted in this manner; the SPC tuner provides a full band-pass effect when similarly adjusted. The additional attenuation at harmonic frequencies can be increased significantly with only a small percentage of additional loss at the tuned frequency.
When adjusted for minimum loss, the SPC tuner will always have better harmonic rejection than the high-pass T, since the SPC design is a band-pass circuit. Either type is capable of good harmonic rejection if a small additional loss is acceptable. The low-pass has exceptional harmonic attenuation at any setting, including the lowest-loss.
Standing wave ratio |
1922_65 | It is a common misconception that a high standing wave ratio (SWR) per se causes loss, or that an antenna must be resonant in order to transmit well; neither is true. A well-adjusted ATU feeding an antenna through a low-loss line may have only a small percentage of additional loss compared with an intrinsically matched antenna, even with a high SWR (4:1, for example). An ATU sitting beside the transmitter just re-reflects energy reflected from the antenna (“backlash current”) back yet again along the feedline to the antenna (“retro-reflection”). High losses arise from RF resistance in the feedline and antenna, and those multiple reflections due to high SWR cause feedline losses to be compounded. |
1922_66 | Using low-loss, high-impedance feedline with an ATU results in very little loss, even with multiple reflections. However, if the feedline-antenna combination is ‘lossy’, like coaxial line, then an identical high SWR may waste a considerable fraction of the transmitter's power output heating up the coax. On the other hand, parallel-wire, high impedance line typically has much lower loss, even when SWR is high. For that reason, radio operators using high-impedance feedline can be more casual about using tuners. |
1922_67 | Without an ATU, the SWR from a mismatched antenna and feedline can present an improper load to the transmitter, causing distortion and loss of power or efficiency with heating and/or burning of the output stage components. Modern solid state transmitters are designed to automatically protect themselves by reducing power when confronted with backlash current. Consequently, some solid-state power stages only produce weak signals if the SWR rises above 1.5:1 . Were it not for that problem, even the losses from an SWR of 2:1 could be tolerated, since only 11 percent of transmitted power would be reflected and 89 percent sent through to the antenna (a loss of only dB). So the main loss of power at high SWR is due to the transmitter ‘backing off’ its output power when challenged by a high SWR. |
1922_68 | Tube transmitters and amplifiers usually have an adjustable output network that can feed mismatched loads up to perhaps 3:1 SWR without trouble. In effect the network in the transmitter output stage acts as a built-in ATU. Further, tubes are electrically robust (even though mechanically fragile), so tube-based circuits have no need to ‘back off’ their output power, since they can shrug off very high backlash current with impunity.
Broadcast Applications
AM broadcast transmitters
One of the oldest applications for antenna tuners is in mediumwave and shortwave AM broadcasting transmitters. AM band transmitters usually use a vertical antenna (tower) which are usually between 0.20 and 0.68 wavelengths long. At the base of the tower (in the "coupling hut") an ATU is used to match the antenna to the 50 Ω transmission line from the transmitter. The most commonly used circuit is a low-pass T-network with two series inductors and a shunt capacitor between them. |
1922_69 | When multiple towers are used the ATU network may also provide for a phase adjustment, so that the currents in each tower can be phased relative to the others to produce a signal in a desired direction. Stations are often required by the terms of their operating license to prevent signals in directions that could produce interference with other stations. The transmitting station also benefits from more of the station's signal power, paid for in its electrical bill, going into its assigned target area, on which its advertising revenue is based. Adjustment of the ATUs in a multitower array is a complicated, time-consuming process, requiring considerable expertise. |
1922_70 | High-power shortwave transmitters
High-power (50 kW and above) international shortwave broadcasting stations change frequencies seasonally – even daily – to adapt to ionospheric propagation conditions, so their signals can reach their intended audience. Frequent transmitting frequency changes require frequent adjustment of antenna matching and phasing circuitry. Modern shortwave transmitters typically include built-in impedance-matching circuitry for SWR up to 2:1 that can adjust to a new frequency and hence new output impedance within 15 seconds. |
1922_71 | The matching networks in transmitters sometimes incorporate a balun or an external one can be installed at the transmitter in order to feed a balanced line. Through to the 1950s balanced transmission lines of 300 Ω or more were more-or-less standard for all shortwave transmitters and antennas, including amateurs' equipment. Most shortwave broadcasters continue to use high-impedance feeds even after automatic impedance matching has become commonly available. |
1922_72 | The most commonly used shortwave antennas for international broadcasting are the HRS antenna (curtain array), which covers a 2 to 1 frequency range, and the log-periodic antenna, which can cover up to an 8 to 1 frequency range. Within the design range, the antenna SWR will vary, but these designs usually keep the SWR below 1.7 to 1 – easily within the range of SWR that can be tuned by built-in automatic antenna matching in many modern transmitters. So when feeding well-chosen antennas, a modern transmitter will be able to adjust itself as needed to match to the antenna at any frequency.
Automatic Antenna Tuning
Automatic antenna tuning is used in flagship mobile phones; in transceivers for amateur radio; and in land mobile, marine, and tactical HF radio transceivers. |
1922_73 | Several control schemes can be used, in a radio transceiver or radio transmitter, to automatically adjust an antenna tuner (AT). Each AT shown in the figure has a port, referred to as ″antenna port″, which is directly or indirectly coupled to an antenna, and another port, referred to as ″radio port″ (or as ″user port″), for transmitting and/or receiving radio signals through the AT and the antenna. Each AT shown in the figure is a single-antenna-port (SAP) AT, but a multiple-antenna-port (MAP) AT may be needed for MIMO radio transmission. |
1922_74 | Several control schemes, which can be used to automatically adjust a SAP AT of a wireless transmitter, are based on one of the two configurations shown in the figure. In both configurations, the transmitter comprises: an antenna; the AT; a sensing unit (SU); a control unit (CU); and a transmission and signal processing unit (TSPU) which consists of all parts of the transmitter not shown elsewhere in the figure.
The TX port of the TSPU delivers an excitation. The SU delivers, to the TSPU, one or more sensing unit output signals determined by one or more electrical variables (such as voltage, current, incident or forward voltage, etc) caused by the excitation, sensed at the radio port in the case of configuration (a) or at the antenna port in the case of configuration (b). |
1922_75 | It is possible to define five types of antenna tuner control schemes. Type 0 designates the open-loop AT control schemes which do not use any SU, the adjustment being typically only based on the knowledge of an operating frequency. Type 1 and type 2 control schemes use configuration (a), type 2 using extremum-seeking control whereas type 1 doesn't. Type 3 and type 4 control schemes use configuration (b), type 4 using extremum-seeking control whereas type 3 doesn't. The control schemes may be compared as regards: their use of closed-loop control and/or open-loop control; the measurements used; their ability to mitigate the effects of the electromagnetic characteristics of the surroundings; their aim; their accuracy and speed; and their dependence on a model of the AT and CU.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Tuner
Wireless tuning and filtering |
1923_0 | Piers Anthony Dillingham Jacob (born 6 August 1934) is an American author in the science fiction and fantasy genres, publishing under the name Piers Anthony. He is best known for his long-running novel series set in the fictional realm of Xanth.
Many of his books have appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list, and he claims one of his greatest achievements has been to publish a book beginning with every letter of the alphabet, from Anthonology to Zombie Lover. |
1923_1 | Early life
Anthony's parents, Alfred and Norma Jacob, were Quaker pacifists studying at Oxford University who interrupted their studies in 1936 to undertake relief work on behalf of the Quakers during the Spanish Civil War, establishing a food kitchen for children in Barcelona. Piers and his sister were left in England in the care of their maternal grandparents and a nanny. Alfred Jacob, although a British citizen, had been born in America near Philadelphia, and in 1940, after being forced out of Spain and with the situation in Britain deteriorating, the family sailed to the United States. In 1941 the family settled in a rustic "back to the land" utopian community near Winhall, Vermont, where a young Piers made the acquaintance of radical author Scott Nearing, a neighbor. Both parents resumed their academic studies, and Alfred eventually became a professor of Romance languages, teaching at a number of colleges in the Philadelphia area. |
1923_2 | Piers was moved around to a number of schools, eventually enrolling in Goddard College in Vermont where he graduated in 1956. On This American Life on 27 July 2012, Anthony revealed that his parents had divorced, he was bullied, and he had poor grades in school. Anthony referred to his high school as a "very fancy private school", and refuses to donate money to it. He recalls being part of "the lower crust", and that no one paid attention to, or cared about him. He said, "I didn't like being a member of the underclass, of the peons like that". |
1923_3 | Marriage and early career
Anthony met his future wife, Carol Marble, while both were attending college. They were married in 1956, the same year he graduated from Goddard College, and he worked in a series of odd jobs. In 1957, Anthony decided to join the United States Army, as his wife was now pregnant, and they needed both medical coverage and a steady source of income. During his two-year enlistment, he became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1958 and became an editor and cartoonist for his battalion's newspaper.
After completing military service, he briefly taught school at Admiral Farragut Academy in St. Petersburg, Florida before deciding to try to become a full-time writer. |
1923_4 | Anthony and his wife made a deal: if he could sell a piece of writing within one year, she would continue to work to support him. But if he could not sell anything in that year, then he would forever give up his dream of being a writer. At the end of the year, he managed to get a short story published. He credits his wife as the person who made his writing career possible, and he advises aspiring writers that they need to have a source of income other than their writing in order to get through the early years of a writing career. |
1923_5 | Writing
On multiple occasions Anthony has moved from one publisher to another (taking a profitable hit series with him) when he says he felt the editors were unduly tampering with his work. He has sued publishers for accounting malfeasance and won judgments in his favor. Anthony maintains an Internet Publishers Survey in the interest of helping aspiring writers. For this service, he won the 2003 "Friend of EPIC" award for service to the electronic publishing community. His website won the Special Recognition for Service to Writers award from Preditors and Editors, an author's guide to publishers and writing services.
His popular novel series Xanth has been optioned for movies. It inspired the DOS video game Companions of Xanth, by Legend Entertainment. The same series also spawned the board game Xanth by Mayfair Games. |
1923_6 | Anthony's novels usually end with a chapter-long Author's Note, in which he talks about himself, his life, and his experiences as they related to the process of writing the novel. He often discusses correspondence with readers and any real-world issues that influenced the novel.
Since about 2000, Anthony has written his novels in a Linux environment.
Anthony's Xanth series was ranked No. 99 in a 2011 NPR readers' poll of best science fiction and fantasy books. |
1923_7 | In other media
Act One of episode 470 of the radio program This American Life is an account of boyhood obsessions with Piers Anthony. The act is written and narrated by writer Logan Hill who, as a 12-year-old, was consumed with reading Anthony's novels. For a decade he felt he must have been Anthony's number one fan, until, when he was 22, he met "Andy" at a wedding and discovered their mutual interest in the writer. Andy is interviewed for the story and explains that, as a teenager, he had used escapist novels in order to cope with his alienating school and home life in Buffalo, New York. In 1987, at age 15, he decided to run away to Florida in order to try to live with Piers Anthony. The story includes Anthony's reflections on these events. |
1923_8 | Naomi King, the daughter of writer Stephen King, enjoyed reading books by Piers Anthony, which included things like pixies, imps and fairies. After she told her father, "Dad, I just don't like those to be scared. Would you write something with dragons in it?", he wrote The Eyes of the Dragon which was originally published in 1984 and later in 1987 by Viking Press.
But What of Earth?
Early in Anthony's literary career, there was a dispute surrounding the original publication (1976) of But What of Earth?. Editor Roger Elwood commissioned the novel for his nascent science-fiction line Laser Books. According to Anthony, he completed But What of Earth?, and Elwood accepted and purchased it. Elwood then told Anthony that he wished to make several minor changes, and in order not to waste Anthony's time, he had hired copy editor (and author) Robert Coulson to retype the manuscript with the changes. Anthony described Coulson as a friend and was initially open to his contribution. |
1923_9 | However, Elwood told Coulson he was to be a full collaborator, free to make revisions to Anthony's text in line with suggestions made by other copy editors. Elwood promised Coulson a 50–50 split with Anthony on all future royalties. According to Anthony, the published novel was very different from his version, with changes to characters and dialog, and with scenes added and removed. Anthony felt the changes worsened the novel. Laser's ultimate publication of But What of Earth? listed Anthony and Coulson together as collaborators. Publication rights were reverted to Anthony under threat of legal action. In 1989, Anthony (re)published his original But What of Earth? in an annotated edition through Tor Books. This edition contains an introduction and conclusion setting out the story of the novel's permutations and roughly 60 pages of notes by Anthony giving examples of changes to plot and characters, and describing some of the comments made by copy editors on his manuscript. |
1923_10 | Criticism
Some critics have described Anthony's portrayal of women characters as stereotypical and misogynist, particularly in the early parts of the Xanth series, and have taken issue with themes of underage sexuality and eroticism within Anthony's work. Jason Heller argues that Anthony's female characters are treated "as obstacles, props, and objects of lust and condescension." Anthony has argued in interviews that these critiques do not accurately reflect his work, and states that he receives more fan mail from female readers than male readers.
Personal life
Anthony lives on his tree farm in Florida. |
1923_11 | He and his first wife, Carol Ann Marble Jacob, had two daughters, Penelope "Penny" Carolyn and Cheryl. Penny died in 2009, due to complications from skin cancer, and Cheryl has one child named Logan. Carol Ann died at home 3 October 2019 due to what is suspected to be heart related complications due to a 15 year long battle with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP).
On 22 April 2020, he married MaryLee Boyance.
Religious beliefs
Regarding his religious beliefs, Anthony wrote in the October 2004 entry of his personal website, "I'm agnostic, which means I regard the case as unproven, but I'm much closer to the atheist position than to the theist one." In 2017 he stated, "I am more certain about God and the Afterlife: they don't exist."
Bibliography
References
External links
Piers Anthony's page at Macmillan.com
Extensive 2005 Interview |
1923_12 | 20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
American fantasy writers
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Novelists from Florida
Admiral Farragut Academy alumni
British emigrants to the United States
American agnostics
1934 births
Living people
Goddard College alumni
Science fiction fans
United States Army soldiers
People from Oxford
English agnostics
English fantasy writers
English science fiction writers
American male short story writers
Westtown School alumni
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
21st-century American male writers
Naturalized citizens of the United States |
1924_0 | The 2013–14 South Pacific cyclone season was a slightly below average tropical cyclone season, with six tropical cyclones occurring within the basin between 160°E and 120°W. The season ran from November 1, 2013, to April 30, 2014, however, the first four tropical disturbances occurred during October 2013 and were included as a part of the season. During the season, tropical cyclones were officially monitored by the Fiji Meteorological Service (FMS), Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) and New Zealand's MetService. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) and other national meteorological services including Météo-France and NOAA also monitored the basin during the season. During the season there were 21 significant tropical disturbances were assigned a number and an "F" suffix by the FMS's Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in Nadi, Fiji (RSMC Nadi), including the remnants of Tropical Cyclone Hadi from the Australian region. The BoM, MetService and RSMC Nadi all |
1924_1 | estimated sustained wind speeds over a period of 10-minutes and used the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale, while the JTWC estimated sustained winds over a 1-minute period, which are subsequently compared to the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHS). |
1924_2 | Seasonal forecasts |
1924_3 | Ahead of the cyclone season, the BoM, the FMS, MetService, the New Zealand National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) and various other Pacific Meteorological services, all contributed towards the Island Climate Update tropical cyclone outlook that was released during October 2013. The outlook took into account the ENSO neutral conditions that had been observed across the Pacific and analogue seasons that had ENSO neutral conditions occurring during the season. The outlook called for a near average number of tropical cyclones for the 2013–14 season, with eight to twelve named tropical cyclones, to occur between 135°E and 120°W compared to an average of 10. At least four of the tropical cyclones were expected to become category 3 severe tropical cyclones, while three could become category 4 severe tropical cyclones, they also noted that a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone was unlikely to occur. In addition to contributing towards the Island Climate Update outlook, the |
1924_4 | FMS and the BoM both issued their own seasonal forecasts for the South Pacific region. |
1924_5 | The BoM issued 3 seasonal forecasts for the South Pacific region between 142.5°E and 120°W, one for the Western Southern Pacific region between 142.5°E and 165°E and one for the Eastern Southern Pacific region between 165°E and 120°W. They noted that the tropical Pacific Ocean was currently experiencing neutral ENSO conditions which meant that there was no strong shift expected in the average location of tropical cyclone formation. They also noted that there was nothing in the broad climate drivers to suggest anything, but a typical tropical cyclone season for the South Pacific region. As a result, they predicted that the South Pacific region as a whole, would experience near average tropical cyclone activity during the coming season with a 48% chance of it being above average. The Western region was predicted to have 56% chance of being above average while the Eastern region had a 47% chance of being above average. Within their outlook the FMS predicted that between four and eight |
1924_6 | tropical cyclones, would occur within the basin compared to an average of around 7.4 cyclones. At least two of the tropical cyclones were expected to become category 3 severe tropical cyclones, while 1-2 might intensify into a category 4 or 5 severe tropical cyclones. They also reported that the tropical cyclone genesis trough was expected to be located near to and to the west of the International Date Line. This was based on the expected and predicted ENSO conditions, and the existence of the Pacific warm pool of sub-surface temperature anomalies in this region. |
1924_7 | The FMS and Island Climate Update tropical cyclone outlooks both assessed, the risk of a tropical cyclone affecting a certain island or territory. As the tropical cyclone genesis trough of low pressure was expected to be located near to and to the west of the International Date Line, normal or slightly above normal activity was expected for areas near the dateline. It was also predicted that activity between Vanuatu and New Caledonia, as well as east of the International Date Line to be normal or below normal during the season. The Island Climate Update Outlook predicted that Vanuatu and New Caledonia had a reduced chance of being affected by multiple tropical cyclones. The Cook Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoan Islands, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna and French Polynesia's Austral and Society Islands were all predicted to have a normal chance of being affected by a tropical cyclone. Niue and New Zealand were predicted to face an elevated risk while |
1924_8 | French Polynesia's Tuamotu Archipelago and Marquesas Islands, Kiribati and the Pitcairn Islands, had an unlikely chance of being affected by a tropical cyclone. The FMS outlook predicted that the Cook and Samoan Islands, Tokelau and Niue had a below average risk of being affected by a tropical cyclone. The Solomon Islands, Wallis and Futuna, Vanuatu and Tonga were predicted to face an average risk of being affected by a tropical cyclone. New Caledonia, Tuvalu and Fiji were predicted to face an above average chance of being affected by a tropical cyclone. The FMS also predicted that there was an increased risk of severe tropical cyclones, affecting the region this year when compared to the previous season. There was a very high risk of Wallis and Futuna, Tonga, Fiji and New Caledonia being affected by a severe tropical cyclone. The Samoan Islands, Tokelau, Niue, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu had a high risk, while the Cook Islands had a low to moderate risk of being affected by a severe |
1924_9 | tropical cyclone. |
1924_10 | Seasonal summary |
1924_11 | Ahead of the season formally starting on November 1, 2013, three tropical depressions and a tropical disturbance developed, within the Coral Sea during October. Tropical Disturbance 01F developed on October 19, to the southeast of the Solomon Islands and moved westwards, as a small compact system before it was last noted during the next day. Tropical Depression 02F was first noted on October 19, to the northeast of Suva, Fiji, over the next couple of days the system rapidly consolidated further. However, despite having a good chance of developing into a tropical cyclone, atmospheric convection surrounding the system failed to consolidate enough. The system was subsequently last noted on October 26, as it moved through the island nation of Vanuatu. Tropical Depression 03F was briefly noted on October 22, to the northeast of Honiara on the Solomon Island of Guadalcanal. Tropical Depression 04F developed on October 25, to the southeast of Honiara and affected the islands before RSMC Nadi |
1924_12 | issued its final advisory on the system during October 27, as it was not expected to develop into a tropical cyclone. |
1924_13 | Systems
Tropical Depression 02F |
1924_14 | Early on October 19, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 02F had developed, about to the northeast of Suva, Fiji. Over the next day the system moved westwards within an area of low vertical wind shear and rapidly consolidated further and became a tropical depression during October 20. After the system had started to move towards the south-southwest and continued to consolidate, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the system during October 21. However, this alert was cancelled during the next day after satellite imagery revealed a poorly defined low level circulation center, with unorganized atmospheric convection that had not consolidated and vertical wind shear over the system had started to increase. RSMC Nadi subsequently issued their final warning on the system during October 23, as the system weakened into an area of low pressure over the islands of Vanuatu. However, the remnant area of low pressure was monitored until October |
1924_15 | 26, as it moved through Vanuatu. |
1924_16 | Between October 23–24, heavy rainfall associated with the system, caused flooding and landslides on the island of Paama in Malampa Province. Because of the islands geography, impacts were reported to most villages on the island with specific damage reported to homes, roads, a school and the islands air strip. Other impacts included over 160 food gardens being destroyed and the ground water supply was contaminated.
Severe Tropical Cyclone Ian
During January 2, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 07F had developed to the southeast of Futuna Island. Over the next three days the system gradually developed further underneath an upper-level ridge of high pressure, within an area of moderate vertical wind shear, as it slowly moved towards the southwest. Late on January 5, the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Cyclone 07P, before RSMC Nadi named the system Ian, after it had become a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian scale.
Tropical Cyclone June |
1924_17 | During January 13, the FMS reported that Tropical Disturbance 08F had developed, along a surface trough of low pressure to the southeast of the Solomon Island Makira. Over the next couple of days the system moved south-westwards and moved into the Australian region during January 15, where it was classified as a monsoonal low. The disturbance, however, exited that basin on January 16 without upgrading it to a tropical cyclone. The RSMC Nadi had reported that the system intensified into a Category 1 tropical cyclone and was named June the next day.
June caused at least one fatality in New Caledonia, possibly two.
Tropical Cyclone Edna |
1924_18 | During February 4, Tropical Cyclone Edna moved into the basin, just after deep convection surrounding the system had significantly improved and it had re-intensified into a tropical cyclone. Over the next day the system was steered to the south-southeast by a mid-level ridge of high pressure and affected the French Territory of New Caledonia. Both RSMC Nadi and JTWC subsequently estimated that the system had reached its peak sustained winds of , which made it a category 2 tropical cyclone on the Australian scale.
Tropical Cyclone Kofi
On February 24, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Depression 15F had developed about west of Nadi, Fiji. This was quite close to Tropical Depression 14F, and JTWC appear to have regarded them as the same system. There had also been severe flooding in Central and Eastern parts of Fiji Islands on February 27. During Kofi's duration, the system submerged many homes in the Fiji Islands.
Severe Tropical Cyclone Lusi |
1924_19 | Early on March 7, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 18F had developed about to the west of Nadi, Fiji. Over the next two days the system moved towards the north-northwest and slowly consolidated, as atmospheric convection wrapped into the systems low level circulation center, before RSMC Nadi reported during March 9, that the system had developed into a tropical depression.
Tropical Cyclone Mike |
1924_20 | On March 12, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 19F had developed about to the southeast of Pago Pago, American Samoa. Over the next few days the system gradually developed further before early on March 19, RSMC Nadi reported the system had become a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian scale and named it Mike. The JTWC subsequently initiated advisories on the system and assigned it the designation Tropical Cyclone 20P. Later that day RSMC Nadi and the JTWC issued their final advisories on Mike, as it moved below 25S and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone. The extra-tropical remnants of the cyclone were subsequently monitored by TCWC Wellington, until they were last noted during March 24, while they were located over to the east of Wellington, New Zealand. |
1924_21 | Other systems |
1924_22 | The first numbered tropical disturbance of the year developed within an area of low vertical wind shear, to the southeast of the Solomon Islands on October 19. The system subsequently moved westwards as a small compact system, before it was during October 20 as it dissipated to the north of Vanuatu. During the following day Tropical Disturbance 03F developed within an area of low shear, about to the northeast of Honiara on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. The system was last noted during October 22, after convection surrounding the centre had significantly reduced. On October 25, the FMS reported that Tropical Depression 04F had developed under an upper-level ridge of high pressure within an area of low windshear, about to the southeast of Honiara. Over the next couple of days the system affected the Solomon Islands, before it was last noted during October 27, as it was not expected to develop into a Category 1 tropical cyclone. A reanalysis of these three systems was performed |
1924_23 | by Steve Young during April 2014, who felt that these three systems represented one weak system that existed between October 18–27, near the Solomon Islands. |
1924_24 | On December 9, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 05F had developed to the east of an upper-level trough, in an area of moderate to high vertical windshear about to the northeast of Nadi, Fiji. During that day the system moved towards the southeast and passed over the Fijian island of Viti Levu. After passing over Fiji the system continued to move south-eastwards and developed into a tropical depression during December 11. During December 12, the system passed about to the south of Tongatapu Island, before RSMC Nadi issued its final advisory on the system during the next day, as the system was not expected to develop into a tropical cyclone. On December 23, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 06F had developed under an upper-level ridge of high pressure, within an area of moderate vertical wind shear to the northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands. Over the next few days the system moved south-eastwards and influenced the "moist easterly wind flow" over the Fijian |
1924_25 | Islands until it was last noted during December 29. |
1924_26 | Late on January 21, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Depression 09F had developed about to the southwest of the Cook Island: Palmerston. Over the next day the system moved westwards and developed into a tropical depression, while located within an area of low to moderate vertical windshear. Over the next couple of days the JTWC also monitored the system as a subtropical system that was becoming tropical, before it was last noted by RSMC Nadi on January 24. During January 22, RSMC Nadi also started monitoring Tropical Disturbance 10F, which had developed around to the northeast of Port Vila, Vanuatu. The system lied within an area of moderate to high vertical windshear to the north of an upper-level ridge of high pressure. Over the next couple of days the system moved westwards into an area of low vertical windshear and the Australian region, where it developed into Tropical Cyclone Dylan during January 26. Tropical Disturbance 11F subsequently developed to the southwest of Nadi, |
1924_27 | Fiji during January 29. The system lay to the east of an upper-level trough of low pressure within an area of high vertical windshear. During that day the system moved towards the east-southeast and was subsequently last noted by RSMC Nadi later that day as it moved into TCWC Wellingtons area of responsibility. |
1924_28 | During February 23, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 14F had developed, within a trough of low pressure to the north-northwest of Maewo, Vanuatu. Over the next day the system moved slowly towards the south-southeast and developed into a tropical depression. Over the next two days the system continued to move towards the south-southeast and prompted heavy rain warnings for Fiji, before it dissipated during February 26. Late on February 26, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 16F, had developed about south of the Indispensable Reefs. Over the next day the system moved westwards and moved into the Australian region, where it eventually developed into Tropical Cyclone Hadi during March 9. On March 6, RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 17F had developed about to the northeast of Port Vila, Vanuatu. Over the next two days the system remained weak as it moved south-westwards, before it was last noted during March 8, as it moved into an area of moderate to |
1924_29 | high vertical windshear and the Australian Region. Tropical Cyclone Hadi subsequently moved back into the South Pacific basin late on March 12, where RSMC Nadi designated it as Tropical Disturbance 20F. On March 18, the Tropical Disturbance re-exited the South Pacific basin into the Australian basin. The last tropical disturbance of the season: 21F, formed on March 17, about to the north of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, before dissipating two days later. |
1924_30 | Season effects
This table lists all the storms that developed in the South Pacific to the east of longitude 160°E during the 2013–2014 season. It includes their intensity on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale, duration, name, landfalls, deaths, and damages. All data is taken from RSMC Nadi and/or TCWC Wellington, and all of the damage figures are in 2014 USD. |
1924_31 | |-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Solomon Islands, Vanuatu || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Kiribati, Vanuatu || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Solomon Islands || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Solomon Islands || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Fiji, Tonga || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vanuatu || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Fiji, Tonga || || 1 ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Solomon Islands, New CaledoniaNew Zealand || Minor || 1 ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Cook Islands, Niue, Tonga || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Solomon Islands || None || None ||
|- |
1924_32 | | || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Fiji || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || New Caledonia, New Zealand || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vanuatu, Fiji || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vanuatu, Fiji || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Fiji, Tonga || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Solomon Islands, Vanuatu || Unknown || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vanuatu || None || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vanuatu, Fiji, New Zealand || Unknown || 10 ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Cook Islands || Minor || None ||
|-
| || || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || None || None || None ||
|- |
1924_33 | See also
Tropical cyclones in 2013 and 2014
List of South Pacific cyclone seasons
Atlantic hurricane seasons: 2013, 2014
Pacific hurricane seasons: 2013, 2014
Pacific typhoon seasons: 2013, 2014
North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 2013, 2014
2013–14 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season
2013–14 Australian region cyclone season
References
External links
South Pacific cyclone seasons
2013 SPac
2014 SPac |
1925_0 | Kenner Star Wars action figures are a line of more than 100 unique toys, produced and sold from 1978 to 1985, among a total of more than 300 million Star Wars action figures sold then.
Kenner began producing new Star Wars action figures in 1995.
History
The license for Star Wars action figures was offered in 1976 to the Mego Corporation, which was the leading company in action figures in the 1970s. Mego refused the offer and the license was subsequently picked up by Kenner, a division of General Mills Fun Group.
Star Wars (1977) was the first film to successfully market toys based on the movie. In fact, they were so successful that George Lucas independently used the funds to finance the next two movie chapters, The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983). |
1925_1 | Although the original Star Wars film had been released in May 1977, Kenner was unprepared for the unprecedented response to the film and the high demand for toys, mainly due to George Lucas's unwillingness to provide character/vehicle designs for fear his creations would be plagiarized by movie/tv competitors. Unable to build sufficient stock in time for the lucrative Christmas market, they instead sold an "Early Bird Certificate Package" which included a certificate which could be mailed to Kenner and redeemed for four Star Wars action figures. The first four figures to be distributed were Luke Skywalker, Princess Leia, Chewbacca and R2-D2. The box also contains a diorama display stand, some stickers, and a Star Wars fan club membership card. |
1925_2 | By the time the action figures were offered for direct sale in shops, the range had been augmented with a further eight figures—C-3PO, Darth Vader, Stormtrooper, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Han Solo, Jawa, Sand People, and Death Squad Commander—bringing the total number of figures in the initial release to twelve. These were supplemented later in 1978 with a number of vehicle and playset accessories, as well as the J.C. Penney exclusive Sonic controlled landspeeder and the Sears exclusive Cantina adventure playset which introduced four new figures. |
1925_3 | The four figures that were first brought out in the Sears Cantina set were released for individual sale with a further four figures later in 1978, bringing the total number of figures to 20. Demand for the action figures and accessories was such that Kenner continued to have difficulty fulfilling demand. Shortages of the toys in the lead up to Christmas 1978 led some to claim that Kenner was deliberately manipulating the market. Sales of Kenner's Star Wars range in 1978 reached 40 million units, accounting for a revenue of $100 million.
In the anticipation of the release of the sequel movie The Empire Strikes Back, Kenner offered its first mail-in promotion, in which four proofs of purchase could be redeemed for a new action figure, Boba Fett. This figure was originally intended to feature a backpack with a firing missile, but this was abandoned due to safety concerns. Similar mail-in promotions were periodically offered through to 1984. |
1925_4 | Sales in 1979 again topped $100 million. Kenner continued to introduce waves of action figures from the sequels and in 1984, the year following the release of the movie Return of the Jedi, the range totaled 79 unique character designs (not including the retired versions of R2-D2 and C-3PO).
In 1985, the figure range was renamed Power of the Force in which a further 15 figures were released. Two further ranges of Star Wars action figures were also released, based on the animated series, Star Wars: Droids and Star Wars: Ewoks. The Droids range comprised 12 figures (two of which were identical to figures from the main Star Wars line) and the Ewoks line comprised six figures.
By mid-1985, the demand for Star Wars merchandise had slowed and Kenner discontinued production of its action figures. However, Kenner would produce the new line of Star Wars toys which began in 1995. |
1925_5 | Description
The Star Wars action figures are plastic, usually smaller than four inches (10 cm), and are typically poseable at five points on their bodies, but there are many differences and unique qualities in the individual figures that depart from these norms. Kenner's Star Wars action figures were produced along with vehicles and playsets based on the Star Wars movies.
The majority of figures were packaged individually attached to "cardbacks" in a plastic blister.
List of Kenner Star Wars action figures
Figure variations
Variations exist for most of the different figures. These can range from major resculpts and differences in accessories supplied with the figures, to differences in paint detailing, for instance in hair color, or differences in sculpting materials. Some variations command higher prices in the collector market due to relative scarcity. |
1925_6 | During the Empire Strikes Back run, the R2-D2 figure was altered to include an extendable "sensorscope." Similarly, C-3PO was resculpted with removable limbs. In 1985, R2-D2 was again altered to feature a pop-up lightsaber. Both the removable limb C-3PO and pop-up lightsaber R2-D2 were offered with alternate paint detailing in the Droids range.
The lightsaber-wielding characters originally featured a double-telescoping saber mechanism. This was changed to a single-telescoping mechanism early in 1978. As the Luke Skywalker figure was part of the Early Bird promotion, proportionately more of these were released with the double-telescoping mechanism, while double telescoping Ben (Obi-Wan) Kenobi and Darth Vader figures are comparatively more rare and sought-after. |
1925_7 | The Sears exclusive Cantina adventure playset contains four action figures. The Snaggletooth figure initially included wears a blue outfit with silver disco style boots, and is about the same size as the Luke and Han figures. Upon George Lucas's request, this "Blue Snaggletooth" was subsequently corrected to represent the character as actually featured in the movie; and a resculpted shorter, barefoot, red-outfitted figure was released. Only the corrected "Red Snaggletooth" was released on blistered cardbacks, which made the "Blue Snaggletooth" more scarce and sought after by collectors.
Early Han Solo figures have a somewhat diminutive head sculpt. This was later replaced by a larger sculpt.
Early Jawa figures were released with a vinyl cape similar to that of Obi-Wan Kenobi. This was later changed to a fabric cloak. |
1925_8 | Cardback variations
From the period through 1977 to mid-1984, figures sold individually in stores were issued on cardbacks that corresponded to the most current movie, with figures being sold on cardbacks with Star Wars designs through to 1980, then on Empire Strikes Back cards through to 1983, followed by Return of the Jedi cards and Power of the Force cards in 1984.
As the number of figures in the range increased, the cardback design would be altered accordingly. Thus the earliest figures released for direct sale in shops were issued on a cardback, the rear of which illustrated the then full range of 12 figures, known as a 12-back. The 12-back was supplanted by the 20-back, and subsequently by the 21-back, the 31-back, the 32-back, the 41-back, the 45-back, the 47-back, the 48-back, the 65-back, the 77-back, the 79-back and the 92-back. |
1925_9 | Variations exist for each of the cardback fronts. These range from differences in promotional offer stickers applied to the card to differences in the photograph illustrating the character. Similarly variations exist for all of the cardback rear designs with the exceptions of the 47-back and 92-back designs that were only available in a single version.
, there are 57 different cardback front-rear combinations recognized. This does not include figures released through overseas companies or the Droids or Ewoks ranges.
Non-US licenses
Star Wars figures were offered for sale in a number of countries outside of the US. These were usually sold through other companies, many of which were also subsidiaries of General Mills. |
1925_10 | In the UK, the Star Wars license was held by Palitoy, which imported the figures and packaged them in the UK on Palitoy branded cardbacks. Analogous arrangements were in place in Spain with the company PBP/Poch, in France with Meccano, in the Benelux countries with Clipper, in Germany with Parker, in Italy with Harbert and in Scandinavia with Brio/Playmix.
In Japan, the line was first controlled by the company Takara, then by Popy and finally by Tsukuda.
The licence was acquired in Australia by Toltoys, while in Mexico it was held by Lili Ledy and in Brazil by Glasslite. |
1925_11 | In certain cases, figures produced by the non-US licensed companies are substantially different from those sold by Kenner. Takara, for example, sold resculpted versions of Darth Vader, Stormtrooper, and C-3PO. Lili Ledy used different paint detailing and different fabric accessories. Glasslite figures were molded using slightly different, glossier plastic and used different paint detailing. The Glasslite Droids range was also notable in that it included a character "Vlix" that had not been issued in other countries. The Vlix figure was prototyped for the Kenner line but never made it past the stage of being mocked up on a card. |
1925_12 | Towards the end of the Star Wars figure run, figures for the European market were issued on cardbacks, so-called as the cardback front had three logos in English, French, and Spanish. The cardback rear was a unique design showing 70 characters. are in somewhat greater demand amongst collectors due to overstock having been bought by the US company Kay Bee. The character "Yak Face" that had only previously been issued in Canada and Australia was also available on the card. |
1925_13 | Reproductions
As the figures were intended as and generally used as toys, accessories such as weapons and cloaks were often lost or stickers were damaged. Once a collectors' market had been established, some collectors started replacing accessories with reproduction items. Such items are considered undesirable amongst collectors in some countries, particularly where figure variations centering on differences in accessories has led to a price premium, such as with the double telescoping lightsabers or the vinyl-caped Jawa.
Some hard to obtain figures have also been reproduced, often with the aim of passing them off as original, authentic figures. Notable examples include the rocket firing Boba Fett prototype and unpainted prototypes of regular figures. |
1925_14 | Bootlegs
While officially licensed figures were produced in many countries, others had no official means of distribution. Taking advantage of consumer demand for the toys, manufacturers in some countries released unlicensed, bootleg figures. These vary in materials, casting method and in quality. For example, some of the figures produced by the manufacturer Uzay in Turkey, are of a high standard and were often cast in unconventional colors with little regard to authenticity. The quirkiness of these figures with their often bizarre psychedelic cardbacks have led to demand from collectors and they frequently demand a high price premium. |
1925_15 | Legacy
A renewed interest in Star Wars was apparent by the mid-1990s, due to a rerelease of the trilogy on laserdisc and VHS and in anticipation of the upcoming Star Wars Special Edition. Kenner, which had been bought by Tonka in 1987 and subsequently by Hasbro in 1991, took advantage of this and, in 1995, released a new line of Star Wars action figures, again under the logo Power of the Force. These figures were easily distinguishable from the vintage range due to the new figures being sculpted in more "heroic" style, with larger muscles, and are known to collectors as Power of the Force 2. The Power of the Force 2 figures continued to be branded as Kenner until 1999, when they were rebranded as Hasbro. Hasbro continues to market Star Wars action figures to the present day.
Kenner's success with the Star Wars line motivated creators of other action-adventure movies to market their own action figure lines. |
1925_16 | In popular culture
Two of Steven Spielberg's 1982 films, Poltergeist and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, feature scenes showing Star Wars action figures.
Star Wars action figures are the subject of a 2014 direct-to-video documentary film, Plastic Galaxy: The Story of Star Wars Toys.
Star Wars action figures and toys were the subject of episode one of the 2017 Netflix documentary The Toys That Made Us.
A 2020 episode of Star Wars: The Clone Wars features a group of three aliens wearing outfits matching original Kenner toys.
See also
Star Wars: The Vintage Collection
References
External links
Star Wars action figures at the Star Wars Wiki
1970s toys
1980s toys
Action figures
Hasbro products
Star Wars merchandise
Products introduced in 1978
1978 establishments in the United States |
1926_0 | Australia has participated officially in every Paralympic Games since its inauguration in 1960 except for the 1976 Winter Paralympics.
The Paralympic Games are held every four years, following the Olympic Games and are governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The Paralympic Games have been contractually tied to the Olympic Games since 2001, however, they have taken place at the same venues since the 1988 Seoul Summer Games and the 1992 Albertville Winter Games.
In order to compete at the Paralympics, athletes must have an eligible impairment that leads to a permanent activity limitation, and athletes will compete in the classification appropriate to their impairment. These impairments are physical, vision and intellectual impairments. |
1926_1 | The Australian Paralympic Committee, established in 1990, is responsible for selecting and preparing the Australian Paralympic Teams for both the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games. This committee assists with funding the athletes and competition in addition to talent identification.
Many of Australia's gold medals have come from Athletics, a sport which has been popular amongst Australian Paralympic athletes, such as Tim Sullivan and Louise Sauvage. The other sport from which many medals have come is Swimming.Australia has hosted the Paralympic Games on one occasion in 2000. Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales hosted the Summer Paralympics from 23 to 31 October 2000. There were 3879 participants from 123 countries across 19 sports and 550 events. Australia won the most medals with 149 overall.
Summer Games
Medal Table
Medals by Summer Sport 1960–2016
Source: |
1926_2 | Winter Games
Since Australia began competing in the Winter Paralympic Games in 1980, it has only sent competitors in Alpine Skiing and hence all medals won at the Winter Paralympics are in Alpine Skiing.
Medal Table
Summary of Australia's Involvement
1960 Summer Paralympics
Athlete, Daphne Hilton (Ceeney) was Australia's first ever swimmer who competed at the Rome 1960 Games. This games were the only Paralympic Games in which Australia did not win a gold medal in athletics.
1964 Summer Paralympics
With the games in Tokyo, Australia was able to send a large contingent of athletes as a result of the shorter than typical journey. Australia placed fourth with a total of 31 overall medals; 12 gold medals, 10 silver medals and 9 bronze medals.
1968 Summer Paralympics
Australia placed fourth again, with 38 overall medals; 15 gold, 16 silver and 7 bronze. Lorraine Dodd was an outstanding athlete at these games, setting three Swimming records for her class, all on the same day. |
1926_3 | 1972 Summer Paralympics
Australian won 25 medals - 6 gold, 9 silver and 10 bronze medals in six sports. Australia finished 11th on the gold medal table and 9th on the total medal table. Elizabeth "Libby" Kosmala competed in her first Paralympics, and won a bronze medal in swimming in the Women's 3x50 m Medley Relay 2–4 event, and participated in other swimming and athletics events.
1976 Summer Paralympics
The Olympic and Paralympic Games both aim to be apolitical; despite this, at the 1976 Paralympic Games, politics intruded into the games. Apartheid practices in South Africa brought controversy with the country's invitation to and inclusion in the games. Australian athlete, Eric Russell took a stance against politics at the Paralympic Games when he refused his gold medal in the class 3 discus event as a protest. He later accepted the medal from Dr Guttman after a press conference, explaining his position. |
1926_4 | For the first time, television coverage of the Paralympics was broadcast daily to more than 600,000 viewers around the world.
1976 Winter Paralympics
This Paralympic Games were the first Winter Paralympic Games. Australia was represented by one athlete, Ron Finneran; however, he was disqualified as his disability did not meet event classifications.
1980 Winter Paralympics
This is the first Winter Paralympics that Australia competed in, but did not medal. Australia had two competitors, Kyrra Grunnsund and Peter Rickards, who participated in Slalom and Middle Distance Alpine Skiing respectively.
1980 Summer Paralympics
It was the 6th Summer Paralympic game in which Australia competed. Australia won 55 medals – 12 gold, 21 silver and 22 bronze medals. Australia competed in 10 sports and won medals in 6 sports. It finished 14th on the gold medal table and 9th on the total medal table. |
1926_5 | 1984 Winter Paralympics
Australia did not win a medal, but was strongly represented by Rodney Mills in cross-country and Kyrra Grunnsund and Andrew Temple in the alpine events of slalom, giant slalom and downhill.
1984 Summer Paralympics
In 1984, Australia more than doubled its previous highest medal count with a tally of 143 medals. For the first time, four Cerebral Palsy athletes and one "Les Autres" athlete participated in the Games. Each won medals: Robert Walden (swimming) won four gold medals, Terry Biggs (table tennis) won a gold medal, Lyn Coleman (cycling) won silver medal and Malcom Chalmers (swimming) won a gold, silver and two bronze medals.
1988 Winter Paralympics
Australia sent five athletes; however, failed to medal. These athletes were Michael Collins, Kyrra Grunnsund, Evan Hodge, Michael Milton and David Munk, who all competed in both men's downhill, men's giant slalom and men's slalom, except Munk who only competed in the latter two events. |
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