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1937_1 | The CODIS software contains multiple different databases depending on the type of information being searched against. Examples of these databases include, missing persons, convicted offenders, and forensic samples collected from crime scenes. Each state, and the federal system, has different laws for collection, upload, and analysis of information contained within their database. However, for privacy reasons, the CODIS database does not contain any personal identifying information, such as the name associated with the DNA profile. The uploading agency is notified of any hits to their samples and are tasked with the dissemination of personal information pursuant to their laws. |
1937_2 | Establishment |
1937_3 | The creation of a national DNA database within the U.S. was first mentioned by the Technical Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (TWGDAM) in 1989. In 1990, the FBI began a pilot DNA databasing program with 14 state and local laboratories. In 1994, Congress passed the DNA Identification Act which authorized the FBI to create a national DNA database of convicted offenders as well as separate databases for missing persons and forensic samples collected from crime scenes. The Act also required that laboratories participating in the CODIS program maintain accreditation from an independent nonprofit organization that is actively involved in the forensic fields and that scientists processing DNA samples for submission into CODIS maintain proficiency and are routinely tested to ensure the quality of the profiles being uploaded into the database. The national level of CODIS (NDIS) was implemented in October 1998. Today, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, federal law enforcement, the |
1937_4 | Army Laboratory, and Puerto Rico participate in the national sharing of DNA profiles. |
1937_5 | Database structure
The CODIS database contains several different indexes for the storage of DNA profile information. For assistance in criminal investigations three indexes exist: the offender index, which contains DNA profiles of those convicted of crimes; the arrestee index, which contains profiles of those arrested of crimes pursuant to the laws of the particular state; and the forensic index, which contains profiles collected from a crime scene. Additional indexes, such as the unidentified human remain index, the missing persons index, and the biological relatives of missing persons index, are used to assist in identifying missing persons. Specialty indexes also exist for other specimens that do not fall into the other categories. These indexes include the staff index, for profiles of employees who work with the samples, and the multi-allelic offender index, for single-source samples that have three or more alleles at two or more loci.
Non-criminal indexes |
1937_6 | While CODIS is generally used for linking crimes to other crimes and potentially to suspects there are non-criminal portions of the database such as the missing person indexes. The National Missing Person DNA Database, also known as CODIS(mp), is maintained by the FBI at the NDIS level of CODIS allowing all states to share information with one another. Created in 2000 using the existing CODIS infrastructure, this section of the database is designed to help identify human remains by collecting and storing DNA information on the missing or the relatives of missing individuals. Unidentified remains are processed for DNA by the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification which is funded by the National Institute of Justice. Nuclear, Y-STR (for males only), and mitochondrial analysis can be performed on both unknown remains and on known relatives in order to maximize the chance of identifying remains.
Statistics |
1937_7 | , NDIS contained more than 14 million offender profiles, more than 4 million arrestee profiles and more than one million forensic profiles. The effectiveness of CODIS is measured by the number of investigations aided through database hits. , CODIS had aided in over 520 thousand investigations and produced more than 530 thousand hits. Each state has their own SDIS database and each state can set their own inclusionary standards that can be less strict than the national level. For this reason, a number of profiles that are present in state level databases are not in the national database and are not routinely searched across state lines.
Scientific basis |
1937_8 | The bulk of identifications using CODIS rely on short tandem repeats (STRs) that are scattered throughout the human genome and on statistics that are used to calculate the rarity of that specific profile in the population. STRs are a type of copy-number variation and comprise a sequence of nucleotide base pairs that is repeated over and over again. At each location tested during DNA analysis, also known as a locus (plural loci), a person has two sets of repeats, one from the father and one from the mother. Each set is measured and the number of repeat copies is recorded. If both strands, inherited from the parents, contain the same number of repeats at that locus the person is said to be homozygous at that locus. If the repeat numbers differ they are said to be heterozygous. Every possible difference at a locus is an allele. This repeat determination is performed across a number of loci and the repeat values is the DNA profile that is uploaded to CODIS. As of January 1, 2017, |
1937_9 | requirements for upload to national level for known offender profiles is 20 loci. |
1937_10 | Alternatively, CODIS allows for the upload of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) information into the missing persons indexes. Since mtDNA is passed down from mother to offspring it can be used to link remains to still living relatives who have the same mtDNA.
Loci
Prior to January 1, 2017, the national level of CODIS required that known offender profiles have a set of 13 loci called the "CODIS core". Since then, the requirement has expanded to include seven additional loci. Partial profiles are also allowed in CODIS in separate indexes and are common in crime scene samples that are degraded or are mixtures of multiple individuals. Upload of these profiles to the national level of CODIS requires at least eight of the core loci to be present as well as a profile rarity of 1 in 10 million (calculated using population statistics). |
1937_11 | Loci that fall within a gene are named after the gene. For example, TPOX, is named after the human thyroid peroxidase gene. Loci that do not fall within genes are given a standard naming scheme for uniformity. These loci are named D + the chromosome the locus is on + S + the order in which the location on that chromosome was described. For example, D3S1358 is on the third chromosome and is the 1358th location described. The CODIS core are listed below; loci with asterisks are the new core and were added to the list in January 2017.
The loci used in CODIS were chosen because they are in regions of noncoding DNA, sections that do not code for proteins. These sections should not be able to tell investigators any additional information about the person such as their hair or eye color, or their race. However, new advancements in the understanding of genetic markers and ancestry have indicated that the CODIS loci may contain phenotypic information.
International use |
1937_12 | While the U.S. database is not directly connected to any other country, the underlying CODIS software is used by other agencies around the world. , the CODIS software is used by 90 international laboratories in 50 countries. International police agencies that want to search the U.S. database can submit a request to the FBI for review. If the request is reasonable and the profile being searched would meet inclusionary standards for a U.S. profile, such as number of loci, the request can be searched at the national level or forwarded to any states where reasonable suspicion exists that they may be present in that level of the database.
Controversies
Arrestee collection |
1937_13 | The original purpose of the CODIS database was to build upon the sex offender registry through the DNA collection of convicted sex offenders. Over time, that has expanded. Currently, all 50 states collect DNA from those convicted of felonies. A number of states also collect samples from juveniles as well as those who are arrested, but not yet convicted, of a crime. Note that even in states which limit collection of DNA retained in the state database only to those convicted of a crime, local databases, such as the forensic laboratory operated by New York City's Office of Chief Medical Examiner, may collect DNA samples of arrestees who have not been convicted. The collection of arrestee samples raised constitutional issues, specifically the Fourth Amendment prohibiting unreasonable search and seizure. It was argued that the collection of DNA from those that were not convicted of a crime, without an explicit order to collect, was considered a warrantless search and therefore unlawful. In |
1937_14 | 2013, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Maryland v. King that the collection of DNA from those arrested for a crime, but not yet convicted, is part of the police booking procedure and is reasonable when that collection is used for identification purposes. |
1937_15 | Familial searching
The inheritance pattern of some DNA means that close relatives share a higher percentage of alleles between each other than with other, random, members of society. This allows for the searching of close matches within CODIS when an exact match is not found. By focusing on close matches, investigators can potentially find a close relative whose profile is in CODIS narrowing their search to one specific family. Familial searching has led to several convictions after the exhaustion of all other leads including the Grim Sleeper serial killer. This practice also raised Fourth Amendment challenges as the individual who ends up being charged with a crime was only implicated because someone else's DNA was in the CODIS database. , twelve states have approved the use of familial searching in CODIS.
See also
Debbie Smith Act
GEDmatch
Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS)
References |
1937_16 | External links
CODIS page on FBI.gov. Accessed May 27, 2015.
"ACLU Warns of Privacy Abuses in Government Plan to Expand DNA Databases". ACLU. March 1, 1999.
A Not So Perfect Match, CBS, 2007
"DNA didn't prove anything, as it only had five points out of 13. Juror Explains Verdict In Double Murder". November 13, 2008.
Biometrics
DNA
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Law enforcement databases in the United States
Identity documents
National DNA databases
Sex offender registration
Forensic databases
Biological databases |
1938_0 | Cui Shi (崔湜; 671–713), courtesy name Chenglan (澄瀾), was a Chinese writer and politician. He served as an official of the Chinese Tang Dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reigns of Wu Zetian's sons Emperor Zhongzong and Emperor Ruizong and grandsons Emperor Shang and Emperor Xuanzong. In 713, with Emperor Xuanzong locked in a rivalry with his aunt Princess Taiping, Cui chose to side with Princess Taiping, and after Emperor Xuanzong suppressed Princess Taiping's party, Cui was exiled and ordered to commit suicide in exile.
Life |
1938_1 | Early life
Cui Shi was born in 671, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. Cui Shi's grandfather Cui Renshi briefly served as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong's father Emperor Taizong, and Cui Shi's father Cui Yi (崔挹) later served as the principal of the imperial university. Cui Shi himself was said to be literarily talented and ambitious in his youth. He passed the imperial examinations in his youth and was made Zuo Bujue (左補闕), a low level official at the examination bureau of government (鸞臺, Luantai). He participated in the editing of a work known as the Essence of Pearls from the Three Religions (三教珠英, Sanjiao Zhuying) -- a compilation of various poetry about Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism—a project headed by Wu Zetian's lovers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong and the imperial scholar Li Jiao. After the work was complete, he was made Dianzhong Shi Yushi (殿中侍御史), a low level imperial censor. |
1938_2 | Under Zhongzhong |
1938_3 | In 705, Wu Zetian was overthrown in a coup, and her son and crown prince Li Xian, formerly emperor, was restored to the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong). Around this time, Cui Shi became Kaogong Yuanwai Lang (考功員外郎), a low level official at the ministry of civil service affairs. Upon Emperor Zhongzong's restoration, initially, five officials who were instrumental in the coup that overthrew Wu Zetian and restored him, Zhang Jianzhi, Cui Xuanwei, Huan Yanfan, Jing Hui, and Yuan Shuji, were powerful chancellors, but Emperor Zhongzong's cousin (Wu Zetian's nephew) Wu Sansi the Prince of Dejing, who was also the lover of Emperor Zhongzong's wife Empress Wei, soon became a trusted and powerful advisor to Emperor Zhongzong. Huan and Jing feared what machinations Wu Sansi might have, and so tried to make Cui Shi an associate and have him keep an eye on Wu Sansi, but Cui Shi, realizing that Emperor Zhongzong trusted Wu Sansi and not the coup leaders, instead revealed the coup leaders' plans to |
1938_4 | Wu Sansi. Subsequently, he became a strategist for Wu Sansi, and at Wu Sansi's recommendation was made Zhongshu Sheren (中書舍人), a mid-level official at the legislative bureau (中書省). The coup leaders were subsequently, after accusations by Wu Sansi, all exiled to the Lingnan region in 706 with provisions that they would never be allowed to return to the capital Chang'an. However, Cui Shi warned Wu Sansi that if somehow they returned to the capital later, they would create problems for him, and that they should somehow be killed in exile. Wu Sansi agreed, and at Cui Shi's recommendation, commissioned Cui Shi's cousin Zhou Lizhen (周利貞) to visit the Lingnan region, ostensibly to review the region, but with instructions to kill the five coup leaders. When Zhou reached the region, Zhang and Cui Xuanwei had already died, and Zhou had Huan, Jing, and Yuan killed cruelly. |
1938_5 | Wu Sansi was killed in 707 in an unsuccessful coup by Emperor Zhongzong's crown prince Li Chongjun, and Cui Shi soon became closely associated with Emperor Zhongzong's powerful concubine Consort Shangguan Wan'er; traditional historians generally believed that they had an affair. In 708, he became the deputy minister of defense (兵部侍郎, Bingbu Shilang). (HIs father Cui Yi was then serving as the deputy minister of rites, and having father and son both serve as deputy ministers of one of the six departments of the executive bureau (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng) was unprecedented at that time.) In 709, at her recommendation, by which time Cui was Zhongshu Shilang (中書侍郎), the deputy head of the legislative bureau, Cui was given the designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (同中書門下平章事), making him a chancellor de facto. He and fellow chancellor Zheng Yin were also made acting deputy ministers of civil service affairs (吏部侍郎, Libu Shilang), making them in charge of selecting officials, and it |
1938_6 | was said that both he and Zheng violated civil service regulations, accepted bribes, and promoted inappropriate persons. Further, his father Cui Yi was also accepting bribes and trying to influence Cui Shi, and when Cui Shi refused to follow Cui Yi's requests, the father-son relationship became a difficult one. (On one occasion, Cui Yi accepted a bribe from a reserve official hoping for a commission but forgot to tell Cui Shi about it, and Cui Shi did not grant that reserve official a commission. That reserve official went to see Cui Shi and asked him, "Your relative accepted my bribe. Why did I not get a commission?" Cui Shi angrily responded, "Who accepted the bribe? I will cane him to death!" The reserve official responded, "Do not do that! If you do that, you will have to observe a period of mourning." Cui realized that it was his father and became ashamed.) Later in 709, after indictment by the censors Jin Heng (靳恆) and Li Shangyin and investigation by the censor Pei |
1938_7 | Cui (裴漼), Cui and Zheng were removed from their offices. Cui was initially supposed to demoted to be the military advisor to the prefect of Jiang Prefecture (江州, roughly modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi), while Zheng was to be exiled to Ji Prefecture (吉州, roughly modern Ji'an, Jiangxi). After intercession by Consort Shangguan, as well as Emperor Zhongzong's daughter Li Guo'er the Princess Anle and Li Guo'er's husband Wu Yanxiu (武延秀), Cui was instead made the prefect of Xiang Prefecture (襄州, roughly modern Xiangfan, Hubei), and Zheng was made the military advisor to the prefect of Jiang Prefecture. However, later in the year, when Emperor Zhongzong was set to make sacrifices to heaven and earth south of Chang'an, he recalled both Cui and Zheng to attend to him during the ceremony, and Cui was soon made Shangshu Zuo Cheng (尚書左丞), one of the secretaries general of the executive bureau. Sometime during these years, Cui also suggested that a new canal should be built between Lantian (藍田, near |
1938_8 | Chang'an) and Shang Prefecture (商州, roughly modern Shangluo, Shaanxi), and Emperor Zhongzong agreed, putting Cui in charge of the project. The canal was built with some tens of thousands of conscripted laborers, and somewhere between 13 and 15 laborers died during the project. Cui would eventually be recognized for the project when the older canal that the new canal replaced became unnavigable after a serious summer storm. |
1938_9 | Under Shang
In 710, Emperor Zhongzong died suddenly—a death that traditional historians believed to be a poisoning carried out by Empress Wei and Li Guo'er. His son by a concubine, Li Chongmao the Prince of Wen, was poised to be named emperor, but before Li Chongmao officially took the throne, Empress Wei carried out a number of official movements in order to consolidate her power, and as part of these moves, Cui, who was then Libu Shilang, was again made chancellor with the designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi. Li Chongmao soon took the throne (as Emperor Shang), but Empress Wei retained power as empress dowager and regent. Less than a month later, a coup led by Emperor Zhongzong's sister Princess Taiping and nephew Li Longji the Prince of Linzi killed Empress Wei and Li Guo'er. Li Longji's father Li Dan the Prince of Xiang, himself a former emperor, was made emperor (as Emperor Ruizong), displacing Emperor Shang, who was demoted back to being Prince of Wen. |
1938_10 | Under Ruizong |
1938_11 | After Emperor Ruizong took the throne, the chancellors commissioned by Empress Dowager Wei were generally demoted, and Cui Shi was demoted to be the prefect of Hua Prefecture (華州, roughly modern Weinan, Shaanxi). He was almost immediately recalled to serve again as deputy minister of civil service affairs and chancellor de facto, but later in the year was removed from that post and again became Shangshu Zuo Cheng. He was soon made Taizi Zhanshi (太子詹事), the head of household for Li Longji, who had been created crown prince by that point. He was further recognized for his role in building the new canal to Shang Prefecture, and was given the honorific title of Yinqing Guanglu Daifu (銀青光祿大夫). Meanwhile, another son of Emperor Zhongzong's, Li Chongfu the Prince of Qiao, had made an unsuccessful attempt to challenge Emperor Ruizong for the throne, and was killed. After Li Chongfu's death, Cui was accused of having improperly communicated with Li Chongfu while serving as prefect of |
1938_12 | Xiang Prefecture and receiving a golden belt from Li Chongfu—an offense that might subject him to execution, but Zhang Shuo and Liu Youqiu spoke on his behalf, and he was not punished. |
1938_13 | Meanwhile, Princess Taiping and Li Longji struggled with each other in attempts to influence Emperor Ruizong's decisions. They both sought Cui's support as well. Cui's brother Cui Di (崔滌) was a close associate of Li Longji's, and Li Longji visited Cui Shi's mansion several times, hoping to make him a close associate as well, but Cui, who eventually started an affair with Princess Taiping, became a member of her faction, and was said to have participated in her scheme to have Zhang removed from chancellorship. In 711, at her recommendation, he was again made Zhongshu Shilang and chancellor de facto, with the designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Sanpin (同中書門下三品). (He admired fellow official Lu Xiangxian, who was not a member of Princess Taiping's faction. When Princess Taiping suggested that she would recommend him for chancellorship, he recommended Lu as well. She initially refused, but he stated that he would not dare to be chancellor unless Lu was promoted as well, and |
1938_14 | subsequently, she recommended both.) |
1938_15 | Under Xuanzong |
1938_16 | In 712, Emperor Ruizong passed the throne to Li Longji, who took the throne (as Emperor Xuanzong). Emperor Ruizong, however, retained actual power as Taishang Huang (retired emperor). Soon after Emperor Xuanzong's assumption of the throne, Cui Shi was made acting Zhongshu Ling (中書令), the head of the legislative bureau and a post considered one for a chancellor. Soon, there was a plan by Liu Yiuqiu, who was a close associate of Emperor Xuanzong's, and the general Zhang Wei (張暐), to kill several chancellors associated with Princess Taiping - Cui, Dou Huaizhen, and Cen Xi. However, the plan was leaked by the censor Deng Guangbin (鄧光賓), who was part of the plot. Emperor Xuanzong disavowed knowledge of the plan, and Liu, Zhang, and Deng were exiled. After Liu was exiled to Feng Prefecture (封州, roughly modern Zhaoqing, Guangdong), Cui gave instructions to Zhou Lizhen, who was then serving as the commandant at Guang Prefecture (廣州, roughly modern Guangzhou, Guangdong), under whose area |
1938_17 | of responsibility Feng Prefecture was, to have Liu killed. Liu's friend Wang Jun, who was then the commandant at Gui Prefecture (桂州, roughly modern Guilin, Guangxi), heard of this secret instruction, and therefore, when Liu went through Gui Prefecture, detained him and refused to let him go on to Feng Prefecture. Zhou submitted accusations that Wang was disobeying an imperial edict, and Cui repeatedly tried to pressure Wang to release Liu to Feng Prefecture. Liu himself pointed out to Wang that he did not want to put Wang in danger as well, but Wang refused to let Liu go on, and Liu was spared from death. |
1938_18 | By 713, it was said that Princess Taiping, Dou, Cen, Xiao Zhizhong, Cui; along with other officials Xue Ji, Li Jin (李晉) the Prince of Xinxing (a grandson of Li Deliang (李德良), a cousin of Tang's founder Emperor Gaozu), Li You (李猷), Jia Yingfu (賈膺福), Tang Jun (唐晙); the generals Chang Yuankai (常元楷), Li Ci (李慈), and Li Qin (李欽); and the monk Huifan (惠範), They are all very powerful and influential, especially princess Taiping that was at the head of their leadership and seriously were plotting to overthrow Emperor Xuanzong. It was further said that they discussed, with the lady in waiting Lady Yuanto poison the gastrodia elata that Emperor Xuanzong routinely took as an aphrodisiac. When this alleged plot was reported to Emperor Xuanzong by Wei Zhigu, Emperor Xuanzong, who had already received advice from Wang Ju (王琚), Zhang Shuo, and Cui Riyong to act first, did so. He convened a meeting with his brothers Li Fan (李範) the Prince of Qi, Li Ye (李業) the Prince of Xue, Guo Yuanzhen, along |
1938_19 | with a number of his associates — the general Wang Maozhong (王毛仲), the officials Jiang Jiao (姜皎) and Li Lingwen (李令問), his brother-in-law Wang Shouyi (王守一), the eunuch Gao Lishi, and the military officer Li Shoude (李守德) — and decided to act first. On July 29, Emperor Xuanzong had Wang Maozhong take 300 soldiers to the imperial guard camp to behead Chang and Li Ci. Then, Jia, Li You, Xiao, and Cen were arrested and executed as well. Dou and Princess Taiping committed suicide. Emperor Ruizong yielded powers to Emperor Xuanzong and no longer actively participated in policy decisions thereafter. |
1938_20 | Before Emperor Xuanzong acted, he again tried to make Cui a member of his own faction by summoning him to a private meeting. Before Cui went to the meeting, Cui Di warned him that he should switch to Emperor Xuanzong's side, but Cui Shi took no heed. After Princess Taiping's death, Cui Shi and another lover of Princess Taiping's, Lu Cangyong (盧藏用), were both exiled—in Cui's case, to Dou Prefecture (竇州, roughly modern Maoming, Guangdong). However, Cui believed that he would soon be recalled, and therefore progressed slowly. Meanwhile, after he left, Li Jin, at his execution, proclaimed, "This plan was Cui Shi's, not mine. Now I am dying, and Cui Shi lives. How is this right?" Further, when Lady Yuan was interrogated, she stated that Cui Shi was the one who planned to poison Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong therefore issued an edict ordering Cui Shi to commit suicide. The edict reached Cui at Jing Prefecture (荊州, roughly modern Jingzhou, Hubei), and he committed suicide |
1938_21 | there. |
1938_22 | It was said that Cui Shi was famed for both his literary talent and physical attractiveness. His brothers Cui Ye (崔液) and Cui Di and cousin Cui Huai (崔淮) were also known for their talent. Whenever they had feasts among themselves, Cui Shi would compare his own household to the Wang and Xie clans of the Southern Dynasties—highly honored clans that were honored for generations. He also stated, "My household and experience can be said to be the highest there could be. A man should control key positions so that he can control others; how can he let others control him?" It was said this principle governed Cui's actions and ultimately led him to destructive ambitions.
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Old Book of Tang, vol. 74.
New Book of Tang, vol. 99.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 208, 209, 210. |
1938_23 | 671 births
713 deaths
Chancellors under Emperor Ruizong of Tang
Chancellors under Emperor Shang of Tang
Chancellors under Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Chancellors under Emperor Zhongzong of Tang
Cui clan of Boling
Tang dynasty writers |
1939_0 | The rights of children living in New Zealand are secured through various pieces of legislation. These include the Children's Commissioner Act 2003 (CCA), and the Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989 (CYPFA), the Care of Children Act 2004, the Education Act 1989, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (NZBORA), the Crimes Act 1961, the Human Rights Act 1993, the Privacy Act 1993, and the Official Information Act 1982 (OIA). The laws and policies comply with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which New Zealand ratified on 6 April 1993. |
1939_1 | In New Zealand a person is considered a child or "minor" until the age of 20. On reaching this "age of majority" the person is no longer a child in the eyes of the law, and has all the rights and obligations of an adult. There are laws to protect young people from harm they may be subject to due to their lack of maturity. Some legal age restrictions are lifted below the age of majority, trusting that a child of a certain age is equipped to deal with the potential harm. For example, a 16-year-old may leave school; an 18-year-old may buy alcohol.
History
19th century
In the early 19th century, minors living in New Zealand were not given special rights in law, as they were not distinguished from adults. This position changed later in the century as minors were seen as a vulnerable group in need of protection; the concept of children's rights did not arise until later. The developments in the 19th century are indicative of the belief that children had a right to protection. |
1939_2 | 20th century
The rights of minors in New Zealand became increasingly acknowledged and expanded in the 20th century. Towards the end of the century New Zealand began to follow the international movement towards enhancing and protecting the lives of children.
21st century
The rights of New Zealand minors in the 21st century are being continually solidified through enacted legislation and a commitment to international law on children's rights. |
1939_3 | Types of rights
Minors in New Zealand have rights that fall within two categories of human rights. First, minors have the same general human rights as adults. However, there are some limitations on rights that a minor may only benefit from once they reach a certain age. Some examples of age-dependent rights are the right to marry, the right to vote, the right to adoption, or the right to gamble. Second, minors have special human rights that serve to protect them as they have needs and concerns that are distinct to their age group. These include rights to an adequate standard of living, health care, education, and the right to protection from discrimination, abuse, and neglect. |
1939_4 | The rights of children are multi-faceted and can be defined according to their social, cultural, civil, political or economical features. Typically, children's rights fall into two sub-categories that either advocate for children as autonomous agents under the law, or view children as dependant and in need of protection from harm. This two-pronged approach is illustrative when comparing children's right and youth rights. The difference between children's rights and youth rights is that the former is focused on the protection and welfare of the individual. The latter is concerned with a more expansive approach to individuals who have reached a specific age or maturity. For example, an individual may consent to sexual activity with another individual, if both individuals are 16 years or older.
Education |
1939_5 | The right to education is not specifically stated in New Zealand domestic law, however it is reflected in the Education Act 1989, the Education Standards Act 2001 (an amendment to the Education Act 1989), and the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975. The law on education in New Zealand is underpinned by the universal recognition of the entitlement to education found in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and Articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
There are three levels to the right to education in New Zealand: |
1939_6 | Primary: This level is free and compulsory at the age of 6 years old. However, a child of 5 years old may enrol and attend school, although it is not required at this age.
Secondary: This level is also free and compulsory up until the child turns 19 years. However, a child may leave school at the age of 16 years.
Tertiary: This level is not compulsory. The minimum age at which a student may enrol in a tertiary institution is typically set at 16 years. |
1939_7 | There are also a range of rights and obligations that surround aspects of attendance in a primary of secondary school. For instance, a child between the ages of six and under 16 may be employed, although not within school hours. Once a child is 16 years or older, they have the right to leave school and be employed during the hours when they would attend school. Furthermore, if a child is under the age of 16 years, the parents of the child may refuse attendance of a particular class, based upon religious or cultural grounds. Once the child has reached the age of 16 years, they may ask to be released from the class themselves, although a request must be in writing and the principal of the school must be satisfied that the request is genuine and adequate supervision is provided. |
1939_8 | Children in the courts
The laws covering minors in New Zealand courts are reflective of the balancing act between considering child protection and advocating children as autonomous agents. On the one hand, recent legislation has meant that in cases over disputes of day-to-day care or parental relocation, a child's welfare and best interests are regarded as needing protection. Therefore, the rights of the child often override other considerations, such as the parent's interests or rights. However, other legislation establishes children as autonomous by allowing fot a child between the ages of 10 years and 14 years to be charged with serious offences such as murder or manslaughter. |
1939_9 | Child protection in the courts
The Care of Children Act 2004 is the most recent piece of legislation covering the rights of minors in New Zealand. Its predecessor was the Guardianship Act 1968, which places the minor as a paramount consideration. The new Act strengthened the approach taken towards minors by ensuring that any judicial proceedings taken under the Act must take into account the general theme of a minor's welfare and best interests. Furthermore, the Act also gives the minor the right to express his or her own views, especially in cases where the day-to-day care of the minor is in question. |
1939_10 | Child autonomy in the courts
While minors require protection in the law, New Zealand recognises that at certain ages specified in law, minors have the maturity to understand and be responsible for their acts. People who are below the general age of majority but have reached a specific age are deemed to have the same liability for crime they commit as adults. For example, a child of at least 14 may be charged with any crime within New Zealand. However, criminal cases involving minors under 18 are tried in the Youth Courts.
See also
Other issues relating to a child's rights in New Zealand
Youth justice in New Zealand
Child poverty in New Zealand
Global children's rights
Declaration of the Rights of the Child
Children's rights in Chile
Children's rights in Colombia
Children's rights in Mali
Timeline of young people's rights in the United States
Timeline of young people's rights in the United Kingdom
Witchcraft accusations against children in Africa
Child sacrifice in Uganda |
1939_11 | Children's rights organizations
References
External links
Convention on the Rights of the Child
Children's Commissioner Act 2003
Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989
Care of Children Act 2004
Education Act 1989
New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
Crimes Act 1961
Human Rights Act 1993
Privacy Act 1993
Official Information Act 1982
Human rights in New Zealand
Student rights |
1940_0 | "Tweeter and the Monkey Man" is a song by the American supergroup the Traveling Wilburys that first appeared on the 1988 album Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1.
Background
The songwriting credit goes officially to all members of the band, but the song is published by Bob Dylan's Special Rider Music label, indicating that the main writer is Dylan, who is also the lead singer on the record. This is partially contradicted by George Harrison's account of the song in the 2007 documentary The True History of the Traveling Wilburys:
"Tweeter and the Monkey Man" was really [written by] Tom Petty and Bob [Dylan]. Well, Jeff [Lynne] were there too, but they were just sitting there around in the kitchen, and he was for some reason talking about all this stuff that didn't make much sense, you know, and we got a tape cassette and put it on and then transcribed everything they were saying. |
1940_1 | Harrison also recalled that he and Lynne then contributed the chorus, beginning with the line "And the walls came down", based on an idea of Dylan's from the same tape. |
1940_2 | "Tweeter and the Monkey Man" is sometimes regarded as a playful homage to the songs of Bruce Springsteen, who was often hailed as "the next Dylan" early in his career. The lyrics include the titles of many Springsteen songs, and the song borrows many of Springsteen's themes. The setting of the song itself is New Jersey, Springsteen's home state and the setting for many of Springsteen's own songs. New Jersey locations such as Rahway Prison and Jersey City are mentioned by name. Springsteen song title references include: "Stolen Car", "Mansion on the Hill", "Thunder Road", "State Trooper", "Factory", "The River", and a song made popular by Springsteen but written by Tom Waits, "Jersey Girl". Additionally, "Lion's Den" and "Paradise" are each mentioned and prominently enunciated in the song, each being the title of a Springsteen song released after the Traveling Wilburys album. |
1940_3 | Only Dylan, Harrison, Petty and Lynne took part in recording the song. This is the only Wilburys song on Vol. 1 not to feature Roy Orbison on lead or backing vocals.
Composition and lyrical content
Dylan sings lead on the song's verses, with the rest of the group joining, except Orbison, singing backup on the chorus sections. At five verses in 5 minutes 27 seconds, "Tweeter and the Monkey Man" is the longest Traveling Wilburys song put to record.
The song tells the story of two drug dealers – Tweeter and the Monkey Man – their nemesis, the "Undercover Cop", and the cop's sister, Jan, a longtime love interest of the Monkey Man. Some lyrics raise a question regarding Tweeter's gender identity, for example: "Tweeter was a boy scout / before she went to Vietnam ..." Later in the song, Jan is quoted as saying of Tweeter, "I knew him long before he ever became a Jersey girl." |
1940_4 | Throughout the ballad, the demise of Tweeter, the Monkeyman and the Undercover Cop, as well as Jan's fate, are examined.
Personnel
The Traveling Wilburys
Bob Dylan – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, backing vocals
George Harrison – acoustic guitar, dobro, slide guitar, backing vocals
Jeff Lynne – acoustic guitar, bass guitar, keyboards, backing vocals
Tom Petty – acoustic guitar, backing vocals
Additional musicians
Jim Keltner – drums
Jim Horn – saxophones
Ray Cooper – percussion
Cover versions
Canadian rock band Headstones recorded a cover of the song for their debut album Picture of Health, and the song became a radio hit in Canada. The lyrics were changed somewhat, including eliminating the implication of Tweeter changing genders and replacing some American references with Canadian ones, such as the inclusion of the band's hometown of Kingston. |
1940_5 | Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers performed a cover of the song several times in 2013, including the Beacon Theatre on May 20, the Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival on June 14, and the Firefly Music Festival (Dover, DE) on June 22. The performance from the Beacon appears on the group's digital album Live 2013.
P. Paul Fenech (The Meteors) covered this song on his solo album International Super Bastard in 2010.
Freek de Jonge recorded a version in Dutch on his 2002 album Parlando, under the title "Libelle en mug".
References
External links
Comment by Morten Felgenhauer on George Starostin's Music Reviews site – Discussing the song and Springsteen connections.
"Tweeter and the Monkey Man" page at The Dylan Lyric Commentaries
Explanation and analysis of the song at everything2.com. |
1940_6 | 1988 songs
Traveling Wilburys songs
Songs written by Bob Dylan
Songs written by Tom Petty
Songs written by George Harrison
Songs written by Jeff Lynne
Songs written by Roy Orbison
Song recordings produced by Jeff Lynne
Song recordings produced by George Harrison
LGBT-related songs
Songs about criminals
Songs about drugs
Transgender-related music
Songs about primates |
1941_0 | HIV tests are used to detect the presence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), in serum, saliva, or urine. Such tests may detect antibodies, antigens, or RNA.
AIDS diagnosis
AIDS is diagnosed separately from HIV.
Terminology
The window period is the time from infection until a test can detect any change. The average window period with HIV-1 antibody tests is 25 days for subtype B. Antigen testing cuts the window period to approximately 16 days and nucleic acid testing (NAT) further reduces this period to 12 days.
Performance of medical tests is often described in terms of:
Sensitivity: The percentage of the results that will be positive when HIV is present
Specificity: The percentage of the results that will be negative when HIV is not present. |
1941_1 | All diagnostic tests have limitations, and sometimes their use may produce erroneous or questionable results.
False positive: The test incorrectly indicates that HIV is present in a non-infected person.
False negative: The test incorrectly indicates that HIV is absent in an infected person.
Nonspecific reactions, hypergammaglobulinemia, or the presence of antibodies directed to other infectious agents that may be antigenically similar to HIV can produce false positive results. Autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, have also rarely caused false positive results. Most false negative results are due to the window period.
Principles
Screening donor blood and cellular products |
1941_2 | Tests selected to screen donor blood and tissue must provide a high degree of confidence that HIV will be detected if present (that is, a high sensitivity is required). A combination of antibody, antigen and nucleic acid tests are used by blood banks in Western countries. The World Health Organization estimated that, , inadequate blood screening had resulted in 1 million new HIV infections worldwide.
In the US, the Food and Drug Administration requires that all donated blood be screened for several infectious diseases, including HIV-1 and HIV-2, using a combination of antibody testing (EIA) and more expeditious nucleic acid testing (NAT). These diagnostic tests are combined with careful donor selection. , the risk of transfusion-acquired HIV in the US was approximately one in 2.5 million for each transfusion. |
1941_3 | Diagnosis of HIV infection
Tests used for the diagnosis of HIV infection in a particular person require a high degree of both sensitivity and specificity. In the United States, this is achieved using an algorithm combining two tests for HIV antibodies. If antibodies are detected by an initial test based on the ELISA method, then a second test using the western blot procedure determines the size of the antigens in the test kit binding to the antibodies. The combination of these two methods is highly accurate
Human rights
The UNAIDS/WHO policy statement on HIV Testing states that conditions under which people undergo HIV testing must be anchored in a human rights approach that pays due respect to ethical principles. According to these principles, the conduct of HIV testing of individuals must be
Confidential;
Accompanied by counseling (for those who test positive);
Conducted with the informed consent of the person being tested.
Confidentiality |
1941_4 | Considerable controversy exists over the ethical obligations of health care providers to inform the sexual partners of individuals infected with HIV that they are at risk of contracting the virus.
Some legal jurisdictions permit such disclosure, while others do not. More state funded testing sites are now using confidential forms of testing. This allows for monitoring of infected individuals easily, compared to anonymous testing that has a number attached to the positive test results. Controversy exists over privacy issues. |
1941_5 | In developing countries, home-based HIV testing and counseling (HBHTC) is an emerging approach for addressing confidentiality issues. HBHTC allows individuals, couples, and families to learn their HIV status in the convenience and privacy of their home environment. Rapid HIV tests are most often used, so results are available for the client between 15 and 30 minutes. Furthermore, when an HIV positive result is communicated, the HTC provider can offer appropriate linkages for prevention, care, and treatment.
Anonymous testing
Testing that has only a number attached to the specimen that will be delivered for testing. Items that are confirmed positive will not have the HIV infected individual's name attached to the specimen. Sites that offer this service advertise this testing option. |
1941_6 | Routine testing recommendation
In the United States, one emerging standard of care is to screen all patients for HIV in all health care settings. |
1941_7 | In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) announced an initiative for voluntary, routine testing of all Americans aged 13–64 during health care encounters. An estimated 25% of infected individuals were unaware of their status; if successful, this effort was expected to reduce new infections by 30% per year. The CDC recommends elimination of requirements for written consent or extensive pre-test counseling as barriers to widespread routine testing. In 2006, the National Association of Community Health Centers implemented a model for offering free, rapid HIV testing to all patients between the ages of 13 and 64 during routine primary medical and dental care visits. The program increased testing rates, with 66% of the 17,237 patients involved in the study agreeing to testing (56% were tested for the first time). In September 2010, New York became the first state to require that hospitals and primary care providers offer an HIV test to all patients between the ages of 13 and 64 |
1941_8 | years. An evaluation of the law's impact found that it increased testing significantly throughout the state. |
1941_9 | Antibody tests
HIV antibody tests are specifically designed for routine diagnostic testing of adults; these tests are inexpensive and extremely accurate. |
1941_10 | Window period |
1941_11 | Antibody tests may give false negative (no antibodies were detected despite the presence of HIV) results during the window period, an interval of three weeks to six months between the time of HIV infection and the production of measurable antibodies to HIV seroconversion. Most people develop detectable antibodies approximately 30 days after infection, although some seroconvert later. The vast majority of people (97%) have detectable antibodies by three months after HIV infection; a six-month window is extremely rare with modern antibody testing. During the window period, an infected person can transmit HIV to others although their HIV infection may not be detectable with an antibody test. Antiretroviral therapy during the window period can delay the formation of antibodies and extend the window period beyond 12 months. This was not the case with patients that underwent treatment with post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). Those patients must take ELISA tests at various intervals after the |
1941_12 | usual 28-day course of treatment, sometimes extending outside of the conservative window period of 6 months. Antibody tests may also yield false negative results in patients with X-linked agammaglobulinemia; other diagnostic tests should be used in such patients. |
1941_13 | Three instances of delayed HIV seroconversion occurring in health-care workers have been reported; in these instances, the health-care workers tested negative for HIV antibodies greater than 6 months postexposure but were seropositive within 12 months after the exposure. DNA sequencing confirmed the source of infection in one instance. Two of the delayed seroconversions were associated with simultaneous exposure to hepatitis C virus (HCV). In one case, co-infection was associated with a rapidly fatal HCV disease course; however, it is not known whether HCV directly influences the risk for or course of HIV infection or is a marker for other exposure-related factors.
ELISA
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or enzyme immunoassay (EIA), was the first screening test commonly employed for HIV. It has a high sensitivity. |
1941_14 | In an ELISA test, a person's serum is diluted 400-fold and applied to a plate to which HIV antigens have been attached. If antibodies to HIV are present in the serum, they may bind to these HIV antigens. The plate is then washed to remove all other components of the serum. A specially prepared "secondary antibody" – an antibody that binds to human antibodies – is then applied to the plate, followed by another wash. This secondary antibody is chemically linked in advance to an enzyme. Thus the plate will contain enzyme in proportion to the amount of secondary antibody bound to the plate. A substrate for the enzyme is applied, and catalysis by the enzyme leads to a change in color or fluorescence. ELISA results are reported as a number; the most controversial aspect of this test is determining the "cut-off" point between a positive and negative result. |
1941_15 | ELISA dongle
Researchers from Columbia University have produced an ELISA test dongle capable of testing for HIV and syphilis. It is compatible to any smartphone or computer without additional support or battery power, and takes some fifteen minutes to analyse a drop of blood. The units cost approximately $34 each to manufacture.
Western blot
Like the ELISA procedure, the western blot is an antibody detection test. However, unlike the ELISA method, the viral proteins are separated first and immobilized. In subsequent steps, the binding of serum antibodies to specific HIV proteins is visualized. |
1941_16 | Specifically, cells that may be HIV-infected are opened and the proteins within are placed into a slab of gel, to which an electric current is applied. Different proteins will move with different speeds in this field, depending on their size, while their electrical charge is leveled by a surfactant called sodium lauryl sulfate. Some commercially prepared Western blot test kits contain the HIV proteins already on a cellulose acetate strip. Once the proteins are well-separated, they are transferred to a membrane and the procedure continues similar to an ELISA: the person's diluted serum is applied to the membrane and antibodies in the serum may attach to some of the HIV proteins. Antibodies that do not attach are washed away, and enzyme-linked antibodies with the capability to attach to the person's antibodies determine to which HIV proteins the person has antibodies. |
1941_17 | There are no universal criteria for interpreting the western blot test: The number of viral bands that must be present may vary. If no viral bands are detected, the result is negative. If at least one viral band for each of the GAG, POL, and ENV gene-product groups are present, the result is positive. The three-gene-product approach to western blot interpretation has not been adopted for public health or clinical practice. Tests in which less than the required number of viral bands are detected are reported as indeterminate: a person who has an indeterminate result should be retested, as later tests may be more conclusive. Almost all HIV-infected persons with indeterminate western blot results will develop a positive result when tested in one month; persistently indeterminate results over a period of six months suggests the results are not due to HIV infection. In a generally healthy low-risk population, indeterminate results on western blot occur on the order of 1 in 5,000 patients. |
1941_18 | However, for those individuals who have had high-risk exposures to individuals where HIV-2 is most prevalent, Western Africa, an inconclusive western blot test may prove infection with HIV-2. |
1941_19 | The HIV proteins used in western blotting can be produced by recombinant DNA in a technique called recombinant immunoblot assay (RIBA).
Rapid or point-of-care tests
Rapid antibody tests are qualitative immunoassays intended for use in point-of-care testing to aid in the diagnosis of HIV infection. These tests should be used in conjunction with the clinical status, history, and risk factors of the person being tested. The positive predictive value of Rapid Antibody Tests in low-risk populations has not been evaluated. These tests should be used in appropriate multi-test algorithms designed for statistical validation of rapid HIV test results. |
1941_20 | If no antibodies to HIV are detected, this does not mean the person has not been infected with HIV. It may take several months after HIV infection for the antibody response to reach detectable levels, during which time rapid testing for antibodies to HIV will not be indicative of true infection status. For most people, HIV antibodies reach a detectable level after two to six weeks.
Although these tests have high specificity, false positives do occur. Any positive test result should be confirmed by a lab using the western blot.
Interpreting antibody tests
ELISA testing alone cannot be used to diagnose HIV, even if the test suggests a high probability that antibody to HIV-1 is present. In the United States, such ELISA results are not reported as "positive" unless confirmed by a western blot. |
1941_21 | The ELISA antibody tests were developed to provide a high level of confidence that donated blood was not infected with HIV. It is therefore not possible to conclude that blood rejected for transfusion because of a positive ELISA antibody test is in fact infected with HIV. Sometimes, retesting the donor in several months will produce a negative ELISA antibody test. This is why a confirmatory western blot is always used before reporting a "positive" HIV test result. |
1941_22 | Rare false positive results due to factors unrelated to HIV exposure are found more often with the ELISA test than with the western blot. False positives may be associated with medical conditions such as recent acute illnesses and allergies. A rash of false positive tests in the fall of 1991 was initially blamed on the influenza vaccines used during that flu season, but further investigation traced the cross-reactivity to several relatively non-specific test kits.
A false positive result does not indicate a condition of significant risk to health. When the ELISA test is combined with Western Blot, the rate of false positives is extremely low, and diagnostic accuracy is very high (see below). |
1941_23 | HIV antibody tests are highly sensitive, meaning they react preferentially with HIV antibodies, but not all positive or inconclusive HIV ELISA tests mean the person is infected by HIV. Risk history, and clinical judgement should be included in the assessment, and a confirmation test (western blot) should be administered. An individual with an inconclusive test should be re-tested at a later date. |
1941_24 | Accuracy of HIV testing
Modern HIV testing is highly accurate. The evidence regarding the risks and benefits of HIV screening was reviewed in July 2005 by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. The authors concluded that: |
1941_25 | The specificity rate given here for the inexpensive enzyme immunoassay screening tests indicates that, in 1,000 HIV test results of healthy individuals, about 15 of these results will be a false positive. Confirming the test result (i.e., by repeating the test, if this option is available) could reduce the ultimate likelihood of a false positive to about 1 result in 250,000 tests given. The sensitivity rating, likewise, indicates that, in 1,000 test results of HIV infected people, 3 will actually be a false negative result. However, based upon the HIV prevalence rates at most testing centers within the United States, the negative predictive value of these tests is extremely high, meaning that a negative test result will be correct more than 9,997 times in 10,000 (99.97% of the time). The very high negative predictive value of these tests is why the CDC recommends that a negative test result be considered conclusive evidence that an individual does not have HIV. |
1941_26 | Of course, the actual numbers vary depending on the testing population. This is because interpreting of the results of any medical test (assuming no test is 100% accurate) depends upon the initial degree of belief, or the prior probability that an individual has, or does not have a disease. Generally the prior probability is estimated using the prevalence of a disease within a population or at a given testing location. The positive predictive value and negative predictive value of all tests, including HIV tests, take into account the prior probability of having a disease along with the accuracy of the testing method to determine a new degree of belief that an individual has or does not have a disease (also known as the posterior probability). The chance that a positive test accurately indicates an HIV infection increases as the prevalence or rate of HIV infection increases in the population. Conversely, the negative predictive value will decrease as the HIV prevalence rises. Thus a |
1941_27 | positive test in a high-risk population, such as people who frequently engage in unprotected anal intercourse with unknown partners, is more likely to correctly represent HIV infection than a positive test in a very low-risk population, such as unpaid blood donors. |
1941_28 | Many studies have confirmed the accuracy of current methods of HIV testing in the United States, reporting false-positive rates of 0.0004 to 0.0007 and false-negative rates of 0.003 in the general population.
Antigen tests
The p24 antigen test detects the presence of the p24 protein of HIV (also known as CA), the capsid protein of the virus. Monoclonal antibodies specific to the p24 protein are mixed with the person's blood. Any p24 protein in the person's blood will stick to the monoclonal antibody and an enzyme-linked antibody to the monoclonal antibodies to p24 causes a color change if p24 was present in the sample.
In blood donation screening, this test is no longer used routinely in the US or the EU since the objective was to reduce the risk of false negatives in the window period. Nucleic acid testing (NAT) is more effective for this purpose, and p24 antigen testing is no longer indicated if a NAT test is performed. |
1941_29 | In general diagnostics, p24 antigen tests are used for early detection of HIV, as p24 antigen rises soon after infection relative to antibodies, and the test is often used in combination with an antibody test to effectively cover a longer portion of the window period. It is less useful as a standalone test, as it has low sensitivity and only works during the early time period after infection. The presence of p24 antigen diminishes as the body increases production of antibodies to the p24 protein, making p24 more difficult to detect later.
Antigen/antibody combination tests
A combination, or 4th generation assay, is designed to detect both the p24 antigen and HIV antibodies in a single test. Combination tests can detect HIV as early as 2–6 weeks after infection, and are recommended in laboratory testing.
Nucleic acid-based tests (NAT) |
1941_30 | Nucleic-acid-based tests amplify and detect one or more of several target sequences located in specific HIV genes, such as HIV-I GAG, HIV-II GAG, HIV-env, or the HIV-pol. Since these tests are relatively expensive, the blood is screened by first pooling some 8–24 samples and testing these together; if the pool tests positive, each sample is retested individually. Although this results in a dramatic decrease in cost, the dilution of the virus in the pooled samples decreases the effective sensitivity of the test, lengthening the window period by four days (assuming a 20-fold dilution, ~20hr virus doubling time, detection limit 50 copies/ml, making limit of detection 1,000 copies/ml). Since 2001, donated blood in the United States has been screened with nucleic-acid-based tests, shortening the window period between infection and detectability of disease to a median of 17 days (95% CI, 13–28 Days, assumes pooling of samples). A different version of this test is intended for use in |
1941_31 | conjunction with clinical presentation and other laboratory markers of disease progress for the management of -infected patients. |
1941_32 | In the RT-PCR test, viral RNA is extracted from the patient's plasma and is treated with reverse transcriptase (RT) to convert the viral RNA into cDNA. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process is then applied, using two primers unique to the virus's genome. After PCR amplification is complete, the resulting DNA products are hybridized to specific oligonucleotides bound to the vessel wall, and are then made visible with a probe bound to an enzyme. The amount of virus in the sample can be quantified with sufficient accuracy to detect threefold changes. |
1941_33 | In the Quantiplex bDNA or branched DNA test, plasma is placed in a centrifuge to concentrate the virus, which is then opened to release its RNA. Special oligonucleotides that bind to viral RNA and to certain oligonucleotides bound to the wall of the vessel are added. In this way, viral RNA is fastened to the wall. Then new oligonucleotides that bind at several locations to this RNA are added, and other oligonucleotides that bind at several locations to those oligonucleotides. This is done to amplify the signal. Finally, oligonucleotides that bind to the last set of oligonucleotides and that are bound to an enzyme are added; the enzyme action causes a color reaction, which allows quantification of the viral RNA in the original sample. Monitoring the effects of antiretroviral therapy by serial measurements of plasma HIV-1 RNA with this test has been validated for patients with viral loads greater than 25,000 copies per milliliter. |
1941_34 | Screening
The South African government announced a plan to start screening for HIV in secondary schools by March 2011. This plan was cancelled due to concerns it would invade pupil's privacy, schools typically don't have the facilities to securely store such information, and schools generally do not have the capacity to provide counseling for HIV positive pupils. In South Africa, anyone over the age of 12 may request an HIV test without parental knowledge or consent. Some 80,000 pupils in three provinces were tested under this programme before it ended.
Other tests used in HIV treatment
The CD4 T-cell count is not an HIV test, but rather a procedure where the number of CD4 T-cells in the blood is determined. |
1941_35 | A CD4 count does not check for the presence of HIV. It is used to monitor immune system function in HIV-positive people. Declining CD4 T-cell counts are considered to be a marker of progression of HIV infection. A normal CD4 count can range from 500 cells/mm3 to 1000 cells/mm3. In HIV-positive people, AIDS is officially diagnosed when the count drops below 200 cells/μL or when certain opportunistic infections occur. This use of a CD4 count as an AIDS criterion was introduced in 1992; the value of 200 was chosen because it corresponded with a greatly increased likelihood of opportunistic infection. Lower CD4 counts in people with AIDS are indicators that prophylaxis against certain types of opportunistic infections should be instituted. |
1941_36 | Low CD4 T-cell counts are associated with a variety of conditions, including many viral infections, bacterial infections, parasitic infections, primary immunodeficiency, coccidioidomycosis, burns, trauma, intravenous injections of foreign proteins, malnutrition, over-exercising, pregnancy, normal daily variation, psychological stress, and social isolation.
This test is also used occasionally to estimate immune system function for people whose CD4 T cells are impaired for reasons other than HIV infection, which include several blood diseases, several genetic disorders, and the side effects of many chemotherapy drugs.
In general, the lower the number of T cells the lower the immune system's function will be. Normal CD4 counts are between 500 and 1500 CD4+ T cells/microliter, and the counts may fluctuate in healthy people, depending on recent infection status, nutrition, exercise, and other factors. Women tend to have somewhat lower counts than men.
Criticisms
Oral tests |
1941_37 | As a result of an increase in false positive rates with rapid oral HIV testing in 2005, New York City's Department of Health and Mental Hygiene added the option of testing finger-stick whole blood after any reactive result, before using a western blot test to confirm the positive result. Following a further increase of false positives in NYC DOHMH STD Clinics during the end of 2007 and beginning of 2008, their clinics opted to forgo further oral screenings, and instead reinsituted testing using finger-stick whole blood. Despite the increase in false positives in NYC DOHMH, the CDC still continues to support the use of noninvasive oral fluid specimens due to their popularity in health clinics and convenience of use. The director of the HIV control program for public health at Seattle King county, reported OraQuick failed to spot at least 8 percent of 133 people found to be infected with a comparable diagnostic test. Strategies implemented to determine quality control and false positive |
1941_38 | rates were implemented. It is to be understood that any reactive OraQuick test result is a preliminary positive result and will always require a confirmatory test, regardless of the mean of testing (venipuncture whole blood, fingerstick whole blood or oral mucosal transudate fluid). Several other testing sites who did not experience a spike in false positive rates continue to use OraSure's OraQuick HIV Anti-body Testing. |
1941_39 | AIDS denialism
HIV tests have been criticized by AIDS denialists (a fringe group whose members believe that HIV either does not exist or is harmless). The accuracy of serologic testing has been verified by isolation and culture of HIV and by detection of HIV RNA by PCR, which are widely accepted "gold standards" in microbiology. While AIDS denialists focus on individual components of HIV testing, the combination of ELISA and western blot used for the diagnosis of HIV is remarkably accurate, with very low false-positive and -negative rates as described above. The views of AIDS denialists are based on highly selective analysis of mostly outdated scientific papers; there is broad scientific consensus that HIV is the cause of AIDS. |
1941_40 | Fraudulent testing
There have been a number of cases of fraudulent tests being sold via mail order or the Internet to the general public. In 1997, a California man was indicted on mail fraud and wire charges for selling supposed home test kits. In 2004, the US Federal Trade Commission asked Federal Express and US Customs to confiscate shipments of the Discreet home HIV test kits, produced by Gregory Stephen Wong of Vancouver, BC. In February 2005, the US FDA issued a warning against using the rapid HIV test kits and other home use kits marketed by Globus Media of Montreal, Canada.
References
External links
Complete List of Donor Screening Assays for Infectious Agents and HIV Diagnostic Assays – FDA
Fact sheets from the National Aids Trust ("NAT") in the UK:
General information on HIV testing – Types of HIV test – Home testing
Bulk procurement of HIV test kits instructions from the World Health Organization
Infectious disease blood tests
HIV/AIDS |
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