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-4539669432543959212 | The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down | The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down - wikipedia The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down Jump to : navigation , search `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' Single by The Band from the album The Band A-side `` Up on Cripple Creek '' Released September 22 , 1969 Recorded 1969 Genre Roots rock , Southern rock , Americana Length 3 : 33 Label Capitol Songwriter ( s ) Robbie Robertson Producer ( s ) John Simon The Band also released a live album named for and featuring the song . `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' is a song written by Robbie Robertson and originally recorded by the Canadian - American roots rock group the Band in 1969 and released on their eponymous second album . Levon Helm provided the lead vocals . The song is a first - person narrative relating the economic and social distress experienced by the protagonist , a poor white Southerner , during the last year of the American Civil War , when George Stoneman was raiding southwest Virginia . Frequently appearing on lists of the best rock songs of all time , it has been cited as an early example of the genre known as roots rock . Joan Baez recorded a version of the song that became a top - five chart hit in late 1971 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Creation and recording 2 Reception 3 Joan Baez version 3.1 Chart performance 3.1. 1 Weekly singles charts 3.1. 2 Year - end charts 4 Other versions 5 Personnel on the Band version 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Creation and recording ( edit ) The song was written by Robbie Robertson . According to Rob Bowman 's liner notes to the 2000 reissue of the Band 's second album , The Band , it has been viewed as a concept album , with the songs focusing on peoples , places and traditions associated with an older version of Americana . The lyrics tell of the last days of the American Civil War , portraying the suffering of the protagonist , a poor white Southerner . Robertson stated that he had the music to the song in his head but at first had no idea what it was to be about . Then the concept came to him and he did research on the subject , relying heavily on the Dunning School theories of the period . Levon Helm , a native of Arkansas , stated that he assisted in the research for the lyrics . In his 1993 autobiography , This Wheel 's on Fire , Helm wrote , `` Robbie and I worked on ' The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down ' up in Woodstock . I remember taking him to the library so he could research the history and geography of the era and make General Robert E. Lee come out with all due respect . '' Dixie is the historical nickname for the states making up the Confederate States of America . The first lines of the lyrics refer to one of George Stoneman 's raids behind Confederate lines attacking the railroads of Danville , Virginia at the end of the Civil War in 1865 : Virgil Caine is the name , and I served on the Danville train , Till Stoneman 's cavalry came and tore up the tracks again ... The Band frequently performed the song in concert , and it is included on the group 's live albums Rock of Ages ( 1972 ) and Before the Flood ( 1974 ) . The song was included in the concert on Thanksgiving Day 1976 which was recorded in the documentary film about the concert , The Last Waltz , as well as the soundtrack album from the film . The last time the song was performed by Helm was in The Last Waltz ( 1976 ) . Helm refused to play the song afterwards . Although it has long been believed that the reason for Helm 's refusal to play the song was a dispute with Robertson over songwriting credits , according to Garth Hudson it was due to Helm 's dislike for Joan Baez 's version . Reception ( edit ) It was # 245 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest songs of all time . Pitchfork Media named it the forty - second best song of the Sixties . The song is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's `` 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll '' and Time magazine 's All - Time 100 . Ralph J. Gleason ( in the review in Rolling Stone ( U.S. edition only ) of October 1969 ) explains why this song has such an impact on listeners : Nothing I have read ... has brought home the overwhelming human sense of history that this song does . The only thing I can relate it to at all is The Red Badge of Courage . It 's a remarkable song , the rhythmic structure , the voice of Levon and the bass line with the drum accents and then the heavy close harmony of Levon , Richard and Rick in the theme , make it seem impossible that this is n't some traditional material handed down from father to son straight from that winter of 1865 to today . It has that ring of truth and the whole aura of authenticity . The lyrics of the song discuss the destruction of the Danville rail line that carried supplies for the Confederate army at Petersburg . The song has become a part of the ideology of Lost Cause of the Confederacy reflecting the perception of the South prostrate in defeat . Joan Baez version ( edit ) `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' Single by Joan Baez from the album Blessed Are ... B - side `` When Time Is Stolen '' Released August 1971 Genre Country Folk Length 3 : 23 Label Vanguard Songwriter ( s ) Robbie Robertson Producer ( s ) Norbert Putnam Joan Baez singles chronology `` Sweet Sir Galahad '' ( 1969 ) `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' ( 1971 ) `` Love Song to a Stranger '' ( 1971 ) `` Sweet Sir Galahad '' ( 1969 ) `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' ( 1971 ) `` Love Song to a Stranger '' ( 1971 ) The most successful version of the song was released by Joan Baez in 1971 . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US in October that year and spent five weeks atop the easy listening chart . Billboard ranked it as the No. 20 song for 1971 . The version reached number six in the pop charts in the UK in October 1971 . The song became a Gold record . Baez 's version was used during a pivotal scene in the 2017 film Three Billboards Outside Ebbing , Missouri and is included on the film 's soundtrack . The Baez recording had some changes in the lyrics . Baez later told Rolling Stone 's Kurt Loder that she initially learned the song by listening to the recording on the Band 's album , and had never seen the printed lyrics at the time she recorded it , and thus sang the lyrics as she had ( mis ) heard them . In more recent years in her concerts , Baez has performed the song as originally written by Robertson . Chart performance ( edit ) Weekly singles charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1971 ) Peak position Australia Go - Set 5 Canada RPM New Zealand ( Listener ) UK Singles Chart 6 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary U.S. Cashbox Top 100 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1971 ) Rank Canada 39 UK 83 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 20 U.S. Cash Box 21 Other versions ( edit ) Johnny Cash recorded the song on his 1975 album John R. Cash . Old - time musician Jimmy Arnold recorded the song on his album Southern Soul , which was composed of songs associated with the Southern side of the Civil War . A fairly large - scale orchestrated version of the song appears on the 1971 concept album California ' 99 by Jimmie Haskell , with lead vocal by Jimmy Witherspoon . Others to record versions include Don Rich , Steve Young , John Denver , the Allman Brothers Band , Derek Warfield . the Charlie Daniels Band , Big Country , the Dave Brockie Experience , Vikki Carr , Richie Havens , the Black Crowes , the Jerry Garcia Band , Sophie B. Hawkins , Legion of Mary , and the Zac Brown Band have included it on live albums . Glen Hansard ( of the Frames and the Swell Season ) , accompanied by Lisa Hannigan and John Smith , performed the song in July 2012 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover : Summer Break series . The 1972 song `` Am Tag als Conny Kramer starb '' ( `` On the Day That Conny Kramer Died '' ) , which uses the tune of the song , was a number - one hit in West Germany for singer Juliane Werding . The lyrics are about a young man dying because of his drug addiction . In 1986 , the German band Die Goldenen Zitronen made a parody version of this song with the title `` Am Tag als Thomas Anders starb '' ( `` On the Day That Thomas Anders Died '' ) . Personnel on the Band version ( edit ) Levon Helm -- lead vocals , drums Rick Danko -- bass guitar , backing vocals Garth Hudson -- melodica , slide trumpet Richard Manuel -- piano , backing vocals Robbie Robertson -- acoustic guitar See also ( edit ) List of anti-war songs List of number - one adult contemporary singles of 1971 ( U.S. ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Marcus , Greil ( 2010 - 10 - 19 ) . Bob Dylan by Greil Marcus : Writings 1968 - 2010 . PublicAffairs . pp. 73 -- . ISBN 9781586489199 . Retrieved July 4 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' . Rolling Stone . Archived from the original on 2008 - 06 - 21 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 09 . Jump up ^ Margolis , Lynne ( 2012 - 08 - 30 ) . `` No False Bones : The Legacy of Levon Helm '' . American Songwriter . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s : Part Four : # 60 - 21 '' , Pitchfork Media , August 17 , 2006 Jump up ^ `` InfoPlease Almanac '' . Infoplease.com . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 06 . Jump up ^ Cruz , Gilbert ( 2011 - 10 - 24 ) . `` 100 Greatest Popular Songs : TIME List of Best Music '' . Time . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 06 . ^ Jump up to : Prince , K. Michael ( 2004 - 01 - 01 ) . Rally ' round the Flag , Boys ! : South Carolina and the Confederate Flag . University of South Carolina Press . pp. 50 -- . ISBN 9781570035272 . Retrieved July 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bailey , Frankie Y. ; Green , Alice P. ( 2011 ) . Wicked Danville : Liquor and Lawlessness in a Southside Virginia City . The History Press . pp. 103 -- . ISBN 9781609490379 . Retrieved July 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wetta , Frank J. ; Novelli , Martin A. ( 2013 - 09 - 11 ) . The Long Reconstruction : The Post-Civil War South in History , Film , and Memory . Routledge . pp. 145 -- . ISBN 9781136331862 . Retrieved July 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits , 6th Edition , 1996 Jump up ^ The Last Waltz of The Band Neil Minturn - 2005 - Page 85 `` be more familiar to some in Joan Baez 's version . Hoskyns remarks of Baez 's version : `` Two years later , Joan Baez recorded a terrible version of ' Dixie ' that seemed to turn Robert E. Lee into a steamboat , but it made '' Jump up ^ Kurt Loder ( April 14 , 1983 ) . `` Joan Baez : The Rolling Stone Interview '' . Rolling Stone . No. 393 . Jump up ^ `` Go - Set National Top 40 '' . December 4 , 1971 . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` flavour of new zealand - search listener '' . Flavourofnz.co.nz . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 04 . Jump up ^ http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/11750/joan%20baez/ Jump up ^ `` Cash Box Top 100 10 / 02 / 71 '' . 50.6. 195.142. 1971 - 10 - 02 . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ http://www.uk-charts.top-source.info/top-100-1971.shtml Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Hits of 1971 / Top 100 Songs of 1971 '' . Musicoutfitters.com . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Cash Box YE Pop Singles - 1971 '' . 50.6. 195.142 . December 25 , 1971 . Archived from the original on June 26 , 2015 . Retrieved March 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Glen Hansard , Lisa Hannigan & John Smith cover The Band '' . Retrieved April 6 , 2013 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics The Band Rick Danko Levon Helm Garth Hudson Richard Manuel Robbie Robertson Richard Bell Randy Ciarlante Stan Szelest Jim Weider Studio albums Music from Big Pink The Band Stage Fright Cahoots Moondog Matinee Northern Lights -- Southern Cross Islands Jericho High On The Hog Jubilation with Bob Dylan Planet Waves The Basement Tapes Live albums Rock of Ages Before the Flood The Last Waltz ( 1978 album ) Live at Watkins Glen The Bootleg Series Vol. 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 The Last Waltz ( 2002 album ) Live at the Academy of Music 1971 Compilations The Best of The Band Anthology To Kingdom Come Across The Great Divide The Best of The Band , Vol. II Greatest Hits A Musical History The Bootleg Series Vol. 11 : The Basement Tapes Complete Films The Last Waltz Festival Express Singles `` Uh - Uh - Uh '' `` The Stones I Throw '' `` Go Go Liza Jane '' `` The Weight '' / `` I Shall Be Released '' `` Rag Mama Rag '' / `` The Unfaithful Servant '' `` Up on Cripple Creek '' / `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' `` Time to Kill '' / `` The Shape I 'm In '' `` Life Is a Carnival '' `` On a Night Like This '' ( with Bob Dylan ) `` Most Likely You Go Your Way ( And I 'll Go Mine ) '' ( with Bob Dylan ) `` Ophelia '' `` Atlantic City '' Other songs `` Tears of Rage '' `` We Can Talk '' `` Long Black Veil '' `` Chest Fever '' `` Lonesome Suzie `` This Wheel 's on Fire '' `` Across the Great Divide '' `` When You Awake '' `` Whispering Pines '' `` Jemima Surrender '' `` Look Out Cleveland '' `` King Harvest ( Has Surely Come ) '' `` Sleeping '' `` The W.S. Walcott Medicine Show '' `` Daniel and the Sacred Harp '' `` Stage Fright '' `` When I Paint My Masterpiece '' `` Do n't Do It '' `` Mystery Train '' `` Acadian Driftwood '' `` It Makes No Difference '' `` Georgia on My Mind '' `` Blind Willie McTell '' Related Discography Bob Dylan Bob Dylan World Tour 1966 Bob Dylan and The Band 1974 Tour Cate Brothers Ronnie Hawkins Big Pink List of Basement Tapes songs List of Basement Tapes songs ( 1975 ) No Reason to Cry John Simon This Wheel 's on Fire : Levon Helm and the Story of The Band Allen Toussaint Joan Baez Studio albums Joan Baez Joan Baez , Vol. 2 Joan Baez / 5 Farewell , Angelina Noël Joan Baptism : A Journey Through Our Time Any Day Now David 's Album I Live One Day at a Time Carry It On Blessed Are ... Come from the Shadows Where Are You Now , My Son ? Gracias a la Vida : Joan Baez canta en español Diamonds & Rust Gulf Winds Blowin ' Away Honest Lullaby Recently Speaking of Dreams Play Me Backwards Gone From Danger Dark Chords on a Big Guitar Day after Tomorrow Whistle Down the Wind Live albums Joan Baez in Concert Joan Baez in Concert , Part 2 From Every Stage Live Europe 83 Diamonds & Rust in the Bullring Ring Them Bells Live at Newport Bowery Songs Compilations Folksingers ' Round Harvard Square Portrait of Joan Baez The First 10 Years The Joan Baez Ballad Book Hits : Greatest and Others The Contemporary Ballad Book The Joan Baez Lovesong Album Best of Joan C. Baez The Joan Baez Country Music Album Joan Baez : Classics Brothers in Arms Rare , Live & Classic Notable songs `` Babe , I 'm Gonna Leave You '' `` Diamonds & Rust '' `` Farewell , Angelina '' `` Forever Young '' `` Here 's to You '' `` Honest Lullaby '' `` House of the Rising Sun '' `` It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue '' `` Joe Hill '' `` Lily of the West '' `` Love Is Just a Four - Letter Word '' `` Love Song to a Stranger '' `` Mary Hamilton '' `` The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down '' `` Reunion Hill '' `` Scarlet Tide '' `` Silver Dagger '' `` Speaking of Dreams '' `` Sweet Sir Galahad '' `` There but for Fortune '' `` We Shall Overcome '' `` What Have They Done to the Rain '' Related Discography List of Joan Baez concerts Albert Baez ( father ) Mimi Fariña ( sister ) David Harris ( husband ) Richard Fariña ( brother - in - law ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Night_They_Drove_Old_Dixie_Down&oldid=824227885 '' Categories : The Band songs 1969 songs 1971 singles Joan Baez songs Billboard Adult Contemporary number - one singles Songs about the United States Southern United States in fiction Songs written by Robbie Robertson Song recordings produced by John Simon ( record producer ) Capitol Records singles Songs about trains Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from March 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015 Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from March 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Brezhoneg Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Edit links This page was last edited on 6 February 2018 , at 02 : 20 . About Wikipedia | songfacts the night they drove old dixie down | [] | [] |
-3324189682305452969 | Alexa & Katie | Alexa & Katie - Wikipedia Alexa & Katie Jump to : navigation , search Alexa & Katie Genre Sitcom Created by Heather Wordham Starring Paris Berelc Isabel May Composer ( s ) Matt Mariano Zach Stretten - Carlson Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English No. of seasons No. of episodes 13 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Heather Wordham Matthew Carlson Cinematography Christian La Fountaine , ASC Camera setup Multi-camera Running time 23 -- 30 minutes Production company ( s ) Vanity Logo Productions Distributor Netflix Release Original network Netflix Original release March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) -- present External links Website Alexa & Katie is a Netflix original sitcom created by Heather Wordham . Matthew Carlson serves as showrunner . The first season premiered on Netflix on March 23 , 2018 , and consists of 13 episodes . In April 2018 , Netflix renewed the series for a second season . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring 3 Production 4 Episodes 5 References 6 External links Plot ( edit ) Lifelong best friends Alexa and Katie are eagerly anticipating the start of their freshman year of high school . The two friends confront a crisis when Alexa discovers that she is ill and starts undergoing treatment for cancer , which leaves them feeling like outsiders at a time when what seems to matter most is fitting in . Since Alexa has cancer her hair falls out and Katie shaves her head for Alexa . Both of them wear wigs so they can blend in . Cast ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Paris Berelc as Alexa Isabel May as Katie Tiffani Thiessen as Lori Eddie Shin as Dave Emery Kelly as Lucas Finn Carr as Jack Jolie Jenkins as Jennifer Recurring ( edit ) Kerri Medders as Gwenny Merit Leighton as Hannah Jack Griffo as Dylan Iman Benson as Reagan Production ( edit ) Alexa & Katie is the first multi-camera sitcom produced by Netflix . On April 9 , 2018 , Netflix renewed the series for a second season , with Wordham set to take over as showrunner . Episodes ( edit ) No . Title Directed by Written by Original release date `` Bad Hair Day '' Andy Cadiff Heather Wordham March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Alexa has cancer , however after the doctor clears her for school , she and her best friend Katie get ready to start their first day of high school . However due to Alexa 's chemo her hair begins to fall out , which leaves her distressed . She convices Katie to teepee her rival Gwenny 's house , but they then realize they accidentally teepee 'd their principal Trugly 's house . After being suspended for three days , Dave then finds out that Alexa knew she was teepee'ing Trugly , making Katie upset . After Jennifer returns Katie 's ski cap , which Alexa had borrowed when they teepee 'd Trugly 's house , Katie finds Alexa 's hair in the cap and realizes why Alexa wanted to get in trouble . After Katie confronts Alexa , Katie helps Alexa by shaving her hair off with Alexa . `` Wigs '' Andy Cadiff Heather Wordham March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) After the girls shaved their hair off , they go to a department store to buy wigs . The wig Katie wants to buy , however , costs $300 , more than she can afford . Not wanting to let Alexa know about her money troubles , she buys the wig anyway , along with a brightly colored one . Meanwhile , Dave struggles with seeing Alexa without any hair . `` Basketball '' Jeff Melman Matthew Carlson March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Alexa wants to try out for the basketball team and compete with her rival , but due to her chemo , she is n't allowed to . Katie tries out for her as a sign of support . Subsequently , a rumor starts to spread that someone in the grade has cancer . Lori starts to work from home to be closer to Alexa , but it does n't work out . During basketball try - outs , Katie 's wig falls off and her bald head is revealed , leading everyone to believe she is the one with cancer . `` Ungroundable '' Jeff Melman Nancy Cohen March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Alexa continually ropes Katie into doing bad things with her to prove to her that her mother wo n't ground her . Eventually , Lori comes to her senses and grounds Alexa , and for getting a bad grade on her math test , hires a tutor , which is Lucas 's friend Dylan . 5 `` The Play , Part 1 '' Jeff Melman Gary Murphy March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) As everyone thinks Katie is the one with cancer , she is left wondering if she is getting special treatment after she is given the lead in the school play . Jennifer asks Lucas to babysit Jack , however it proves harder than he thought . 6 `` Picture Day '' Victor Gonzalez Ray Lancon March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Alexa reveals she is the one with cancer , and everyone starts being very nice to her - even her rival , Gwenny . She continually plays pranks on Gwenny to get her to start being mean to her again , which ultimately works . Jennifer and Jack form a rivalry with Dave over football . 7 `` The Play , Part 2 '' Jeff Melman Todd Linden March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Katie starts to ignore Alexa more and more , as she becomes focused on the play . Lori gives Katie life lessons during rehearals , which annoys Jennifer . 8 `` Support Group '' Phill Lewis Erin Wagoner March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Katie starts to feel left out as Alexa , who is back in hospital , is receiving support from her fellow cancer patients . Lori stresses over her care , and bakes a load of cookies to try to bribe the hospital nurse into giving Alexa special treatment . 9 `` Winter Luau '' Trevor Kirschner Kamon Naddaf March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Due to her low immune system , Alexa is ordered to stay home , however she video - chats with Katie on an iPad to access her lessons . Jennifer gets upset when Jack asks Dave to go to his school career day instead of her . 10 `` Thanksgiving '' Trevor Kirschner Gary Murphy March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Alexa cooks Thanksgiving dinner , however it does n't take long for it to ruin . Meanwhile , Katie tries to reconnect with her father , but gets upset when he continues to treat her like a little girl . 11 `` Secret Sleepover '' Katy Garretson Nancy Cohen March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Dave and Lori take Lucas on a trip to pilot - school interviews , leaving Alexa home for the weekend , at Jennifer 's . However , she and Katie get up to no good while they are gone . Ryan asks Katie to the winter formal . 12 `` Winter Formal , Part 1 '' Andy Cadiff Blake J. Williger March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Jack takes a ' stray ' cat under his wing , which Dave develops an allergic reaction to . While Dylan and Alexa try to get closer , Lucas persistently interrupts the two and tries to break them apart . 13 `` Winter Formal , Part 2 '' Andy Cadiff Matthew Carlson March 23 , 2018 ( 2018 - 03 - 23 ) Alexa and Katie get ready for the Winter Formal . Alexa convices Katie to ask Ryan to the dance , and Hannah tells everyone . Eventaully , the news gets to Ryan , and he says yes before Katie can even ask him . On the day of the dance , they find out there is a flu outbreak , meaning Alexa ca n't go . However Katie get an idea which will allow Alexa to go ; wearing a medical mask . Upon entering the dance , Alexa finds everyone with masks , including Gwenny . The episode end with everyone dancing to Katy Perry 's `` Firework '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Vlada Gelda ( April 7 , 2017 ) . `` Netflix Orders High School - Set Teen Comedy Series Alexa & Katie '' . TV Line . Retrieved April 8 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Denise Petski ( January 29 , 2018 ) . `` ' Alexa & Katie ' Gets Premiere Date On Netflix ; First - Look Photos '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved January 29 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Nellie Andreeva ( April 7 , 2017 ) . `` Netflix Orders High - School Multi-Camera Comedy Series ' Alexa & Katie ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved April 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe ( April 9 , 2018 ) . `` ' Alexa & Katie ' Renewed For Second Season By Netflix '' . Variety . Retrieved April 9 , 2018 . 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6729735895023689815 | The Bells (poem) | The bells ( poem ) - wikipedia The bells ( poem ) First two pages of Poe 's handwritten manuscript for `` The Bells '' , 1848 Additional stanzas of Poe 's handwritten manuscript for `` The Bells '' , 1848 . `` The Bells '' is a heavily onomatopoeic poem by Edgar Allan Poe which was not published until after his death in 1849 . It is perhaps best known for the diacopic use of the word `` bells . '' The poem has four parts to it ; each part becomes darker and darker as the poem progresses from `` the jingling and the tinkling '' of the bells in part 1 to the `` moaning and the groaning '' of the bells in part 4 . Contents 1 Analysis 2 Critical response 3 Publication history 4 Adaptations 5 References 6 External links Analysis ( edit ) This poem can be interpreted in many different ways , the most basic of which is simply a reflection of the sounds that bells can make , and the emotions evoked from that sound . For example , `` From the bells bells bells bells / Bells bells bells ! '' brings to mind the clamoring of myriad church bells . Several deeper interpretations exist as well . One is that the poem is a representation of life from the nimbleness of youth to the pain of age . Growing despair is emphasized alongside the growing frenzy in the tone of the poem . Another is the passing of the seasons , from spring to winter . The passing of the seasons is often used as a metaphor for life itself . The poem also suggests a Poe theme of mourning over a lost wife , courted in sledge , married and then killed in a fire as the husband looks on . The tolling of the iron bells reflects the final madness of the grief - stricken husband . The sounds of the verses , specifically the repetitive `` bells , bells , bells , bells , bells , bells , bells , '' lie on a narrow line between sense and nonsense , causing a feeling of instability . Poe uses the word `` tintinnabulation '' , apparently a coinage of his own , based on the Latin word for `` bell '' , tintinnabulum . The series of `` bells '' echo the imagined sounds of the various bells , from the silver bells following the klip - klop of the horses , to the `` dong , ding - dong '' of the swinging golden and iron bells , to screeching `` whee - aaah '' of the brazen bells . The series are always four , followed by three , always beginning and ending on a stressed syllable . The meter changes to iambic in the lines with repeated `` bells , '' bringing the reader into their rhythm . Most of the poem is a more hurried trochaic tetrameter . The bells of which he writes are thought to be those he heard from Fordham University 's bell tower , since Poe resided in the same neighborhood as that university . He also frequently strolled about Fordham 's campus conversing with both the students and the Jesuits . Critical response ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( August 2008 ) According to Poe biographer Jeffrey Meyers , `` The Bells '' is often criticized for sounding mechanical and forced . Publication History ( edit ) Title page for publication of `` The Bells '' circa 1881 . Poe is believed to have written `` The Bells '' in May 1848 and submitted it three times to Sartain 's Union Magazine , a magazine run by John Sartain , until it was finally accepted . He was paid fifteen dollars for his work , though it was not published until after his death in the November 1849 issue . It was also published in the New York Tribune on the front page of its October 20 , 1849 issue as `` Poe 's Last Poem '' . Inspiration for the poem is often granted to Marie Louise Shew , a woman who had helped care for Poe 's wife Virginia as she lay dying . One day , as Shew was visiting Poe at his cottage in Fordham , New York , Poe needed to write a poem but had no inspiration . Shew allegedly heard ringing bells from afar and playfully suggested to start there , possibly even writing the first line of each stanza . Adaptations ( edit ) Sergei Rachmaninoff ( 1873 -- 1943 ) composed a choral symphony The Bells , Op. 35 , based on a Russian adaptation of the poem by Konstantin Balmont . The symphony follows classical sonata form : first movement , slow movement , scherzo , and finale , thus honoring the poem 's four sections . ( The work is sometimes performed in English , using not Poe 's original , but a translation of Balmont 's adaptation by Fanny S. Copeland . ) The Scottish composer Hugh S. Roberton ( 1874 -- 1947 ) published `` Hear the Tolling of the Bells '' ( 1909 ) , `` The Sledge Bells '' ( 1909 ) , and `` Hear the Sledges with the Bells '' ( 1919 ) based on Poe 's poem . Josef Holbrooke composed his `` The Bells , Prelude , Op. 50 '' on Poe 's poem , and American folksinger Phil Ochs composed a tune to the poem recorded on his album All the News That 's Fit to Sing . Eric Woolfson , musical partner to Alan Parsons in the Alan Parsons Project , has written two albums based on the writings of Poe . His second , Poe : More Tales of Mystery and Imagination includes a song entitled `` The Bells '' , for which he set Poe 's words to music . This album was also the basis for a musical stage production that was performed in England , Austria , and other European countries . Pink Floyd have referenced the poem in the last verse of their song `` Time '' on the album The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) . In 1993 Danish composer Poul Ruders wrote a piece `` The Bells '' for high soprano and ten instruments , using Poe 's text in its entirety although in Dutch . The piece was premiered in London , and has appeared on a CD from Bridge Records , New York . MC Lars , a Nerdcore Hip hop musician sang a complete version of the poem on his 2012 Edgar Allan Poe EP titled `` ( Rock ) The Bells '' . The song may be listened to freely on his Bandcamp page . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Silverman , Kenneth . Edgar A. Poe : Mournful and Never - ending Remembrance . New York City : Harper Perennial , 1991 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 092331 - 8 p. 403 Jump up ^ Rosenheim , Shawn James . The Cryptographic Imagination : Secret Writing from Edgar Poe to the Internet . The Johns Hopkins University Press , 1997 . p. 125 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 5332 - 6 Jump up ^ tintinnabulation , Oxford English Dictionary , Second edition , 1989 ; online version , December 2011 ; accessed 09 January 2012 . Earlier version first published in New English Dictionary , 1912 . Jump up ^ http://www.shmoop.com/bells-poe/rhyme-form-meter.html Jump up ^ Schroth , Raymond A. ( 2008 ) . Fordham : A History and Memoir . New York : Fordham University Press . pp. 22 -- 25 . ISBN 9780823229772 . Jump up ^ Meyers , Jeffrey . Edgar Allan Poe : His Life and Legacy . Cooper Square Press , 1992 . p. 223 . ISBN 0 - 8154 - 1038 - 7 ^ Jump up to : Sova , Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe : A to Z . New York : Checkmark Books , 2001 . p. 25 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4161 - X Jump up ^ E.A. Poe Society of Baltimore Jump up ^ AmericanSymphony.org Archived 2007 - 07 - 01 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Sova , Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe : A to Z . New York : Checkmark Books , 2001 . p. 212 . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4161 - X Jump up ^ The New Danes ( Streaming Audio ) . ( n.d. ) . Bridge . Retrieved October 5 , 2014 , from Music Online : Classical Music Library . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 07 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 20 . External links ( edit ) Works related to The Bells at Wikisource Scans from an 1881 edition with engraved illustrations by R. Riodan , Charles P. King , F.O.C. Darley , S.G. McCutcheon , A. Fredericks , and Granville Perkins The Bells with audio reading The Bells public domain audiobook at LibriVox Edgar Allan Poe Bibliography Poems `` Tamerlane '' ( 1827 ) `` Al Aaraaf '' ( 1829 ) `` Sonnet to Science '' ( 1829 ) `` To Helen '' ( 1831 ) `` The City in the Sea '' ( 1831 ) `` The Haunted Palace '' ( 1839 ) `` The Conqueror Worm '' ( 1843 ) `` Lenore '' ( 1843 ) `` Eulalie '' ( 1843 ) `` The Raven '' ( 1845 ) `` Ulalume '' ( 1847 ) `` A Dream Within a Dream '' ( 1849 ) `` Eldorado '' ( 1849 ) `` The Bells '' ( 1849 ) `` Annabel Lee '' ( 1849 ) '' Tales `` Metzengerstein '' ( 1832 ) `` Bon - Bon '' ( 1832 ) `` MS . Found in a Bottle '' ( 1833 ) `` Berenice '' ( 1835 ) `` Morella '' ( 1835 ) `` The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall '' ( 1835 ) `` Ligeia '' ( 1838 ) `` A Predicament '' ( 1838 ) `` The Devil in the Belfry '' ( 1839 ) `` The Man That Was Used Up '' ( 1839 ) `` The Fall of the House of Usher '' ( 1839 ) `` William Wilson '' ( 1839 ) `` The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion '' ( 1839 ) `` The Business Man '' ( 1840 ) `` The Man of the Crowd '' ( 1840 ) `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' ( 1841 ) `` A Descent into the Maelström '' ( 1841 ) `` Never Bet the Devil Your Head '' ( 1841 ) `` Eleonora '' ( 1841 ) `` The Oval Portrait '' ( 1842 ) `` The Masque of the Red Death '' ( 1842 ) `` The Mystery of Marie Rogêt '' ( 1842 ) `` The Pit and the Pendulum '' ( 1842 ) `` The Tell - Tale Heart '' ( 1843 ) `` The Gold - Bug '' ( 1843 ) `` The Black Cat '' ( 1843 ) `` The Spectacles '' ( 1844 ) `` A Tale of the Ragged Mountains '' ( 1844 ) `` The Premature Burial '' ( 1844 ) `` The Oblong Box '' ( 1844 ) `` The Angel of the Odd '' ( 1844 ) `` Thou Art the Man '' ( 1844 ) `` The Purloined Letter '' ( 1844 ) `` Some Words with a Mummy '' ( 1845 ) `` The Thousand - and - Second Tale of Scheherazade '' ( 1845 ) `` The Imp of the Perverse '' ( 1845 ) `` The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether '' ( 1845 ) `` The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar '' ( 1845 ) `` The Cask of Amontillado '' ( 1846 ) `` Hop - Frog '' ( 1849 ) Essays `` Maelzel 's Chess Player '' ( 1836 ) `` The Philosophy of Furniture '' ( 1840 ) `` Morning on the Wissahiccon '' ( 1844 ) `` The Philosophy of Composition '' ( 1846 ) `` The Poetic Principle '' ( 1846 ) Eureka : A Prose Poem ( 1848 ) Novels The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ( 1837 ) The Journal of Julius Rodman ( 1840 ) Collections Tamerlane and Other Poems ( 1827 ) Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque ( 1840 ) Play Politian ( 1835 ) Other The Conchologist 's First Book ( 1839 ) The Balloon - Hoax ( 1844 ) The Light - House ( 1849 ) Related Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe ( wife ) Eliza Poe ( mother ) David Poe Jr. ( father ) William Henry Poe ( brother ) Poe Museum Poe Cottage Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum National Historic Site The Penn magazine Death Edgar Award In popular culture film and television music Poe Toaster Tales of Mystery & Imagination Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bells_(poem)&oldid=848281193 '' Categories : 1849 poems Poetry by Edgar Allan Poe Poems published posthumously Works originally published in American magazines Works originally published in literary magazines Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2016 Articles to be expanded from August 2008 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Articles with LibriVox links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikisource Български Français Română Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 30 June 2018 , at 23 : 20 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | when did edgar allan poe's the bells take place | [] | [] |
-3632256782043892837 | M (James Bond) | M ( James Bond ) - wikipedia M ( James Bond ) James Bond character First appearance Casino Royale ( 1953 ) Created by Ian Fleming Portrayed by Bernard Lee ( 1962 -- 1979 ) John Huston ( 1967 ) David Niven ( 1967 ) Edward Fox ( 1983 ) Robert Brown ( 1983 -- 1989 ) Judi Dench ( 1995 -- 2012 ) Ralph Fiennes ( 2012 -- present ) Information Occupation Head of MI6 Nationality British M is a fictional character in Ian Fleming 's James Bond books and films ; the Head of the Secret Intelligence Service -- also known as MI6 -- and Bond 's superior . Fleming based the character on a number of people he knew who commanded sections of British intelligence . M has appeared in the novels by Fleming and seven continuation authors , as well as in twenty - four films . In the Eon Productions series of films , M has been portrayed by four actors : Bernard Lee , Robert Brown , Judi Dench and Ralph Fiennes , the incumbent ; in the two independent productions , M was played by John Huston , David Niven and Edward Fox . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 Novels 3 Films 3.1 Eon Productions films 3.1. 1 Bernard Lee : 1962 -- 1979 3.1. 2 Robert Brown : 1983 -- 1989 3.1. 3 Judi Dench : 1995 -- 2012 3.1. 4 Ralph Fiennes : 2012 -- present 3.2 Non-Eon films 3.2. 1 John Huston / David Niven : 1967 3.2. 2 Edward Fox : 1983 4 Comics 5 Outside the James Bond series 6 References 7 Bibliography Background ( edit ) Rear Admiral John Henry Godfrey , Fleming 's superior at the Naval Intelligence Division and a basis for M . Fleming based much of M 's character on Rear Admiral John Godfrey , who was Fleming 's superior at the Naval Intelligence Division during the Second World War . After Fleming 's death , Godfrey complained `` He turned me into that unsavoury character , M . '' Other possible inspirations include Lieutenant Colonel Sir Claude Dansey , the deputy head of MI6 and head of the wartime Z network , who achieved different interpretations of his character from those who knew him : Malcolm Muggeridge thought him `` the only professional in MI6 '' , while Hugh Trevor - Roper considered Dansey to be `` an utter shit , corrupt , incompetent , but with a certain low cunning '' . A further inspiration for M was Maxwell Knight , the head of MI5 , who signed his memos as `` M '' and whom Fleming knew well . The tradition of the head of MI6 signing their name with a single letter came from Mansfield Smith - Cumming , who would sign his initial `` C '' with green ink . Another possibility for the model of M was William Melville , an Irishman who became the head of the Secret Service Bureau , the forerunner to both MI5 and MI6 : Melville was referred to within government circles as M. Melville recruited Sidney Reilly into government service and foiled an assassination plot against Queen Victoria on her 1887 Golden Jubilee . Fleming 's biographer John Pearson also hypothesised that Fleming 's characterisation of M reflects memories of his mother : There is reason for thinking that a more telling lead to the real identity of M lies in the fact that as a boy Fleming often called his mother M ... While Fleming was young , his mother was certainly one of the few people he was frightened of , and her sternness toward him , her unexplained demands , and her remorseless insistence on success find a curious and constant echo in the way M handles that hard - ridden , hard - killing agent , 007 . John Pearson , The Life of Ian Fleming Novels ( edit ) Fleming 's third Bond novel , Moonraker , establishes M 's initials as `` M * * * * M * * * * * * * '' and his first name is subsequently revealed to be Miles . In the final novel of the series , The Man with the Golden Gun , M 's full identity is revealed as Vice Admiral Sir Miles Messervy KCMG , CB , DSO , OBE ; Messervy had been appointed to head of MI6 after his predecessor had been assassinated at his desk . A naval theme runs throughout Fleming 's description of M and his surroundings , and his character was described by journalist and Bond scholar Ben Macintyre as `` every inch the naval martinet '' . Macintyre also notes that in his study of Fleming 's work , Kingsley Amis outlined the way Fleming had described M 's voice , being : angry ( three times ) ; brutal , cold ( seven times ) ; curt , dry ( five times ) ; gruff ( seven times ) ; stern , testy ( five times ) . Over the course of twelve novels and two collections of short stories , Fleming provided a number of details relating to M 's background and character . In On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6,500 a year , ( £ 124,910 in 2018 pounds ) £ 1,500 of which comes from retired naval pay . Although his pay is good for the 1950s and 1960s , it is never explained how M received or can afford his membership at Blades , an upscale private club for gentlemen he frequents in London to gamble and dine . Blades has a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen and all must be able to show £ 100,000 ( £ 1,921,689 in 2018 pounds ) in cash or gilt - edged securities . Kingsley Amis noted in his study , The James Bond Dossier , that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling . As a personal favour to M , the staff at Blades keeps a supply of cheap red wine from Algeria on hand but does not include it on the wine list . M refers to it as `` Infuriator '' and tends only to drink it in moderate quantities unless he is in a very bad mood . The academic Paul Stock argues that M 's office is a metonym for England and a stable point from which Bond departs on a mission , whilst he sees M as being an iconic representative of England and Englishness . In the first post-Fleming book , Colonel Sun , M is kidnapped from Quarterdeck , his home , and Bond goes to great lengths to rescue him . The later continuation books , written by John Gardner , retain Sir Miles Messervy as M , who protects Bond from the new , less aggressive climate in the Secret Service , saying that at some point Britain will need `` a blunt instrument '' . In Gardner 's final novel , COLD , M is kidnapped and rescued by Bond and finishes the book by retiring from MI6 . Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson 's 1998 novel The Facts of Death continued Messervy 's retirement , where he still resides in Quarterdeck . The book also introduces a new M , Barbara Mawdsley . Films ( edit ) Eon productions films ( edit ) Bernard Lee : 1962 -- 1979 ( edit ) Bernard Lee , who played M from 1962 to 1979 M was played by Bernard Lee from the first Bond film , Dr. No , until Moonraker ( 1979 ) . In Dr. No , M refers to his record of reducing the number of operative casualties since taking the job , implying someone else held the job recently before him . The film also saw M refer to himself as head of MI7 ; Lee had originally said MI6 , but was overdubbed with the name MI7 prior to the film 's release . Earlier in the film , the department had been referred to as MI6 by a radio operator . A number of Bond scholars have noted that Lee 's interpretation of the character was in line with the original literary representation ; Cork and Stutz observed that Lee was `` very close to Fleming 's version of the character '' , while Rubin commented on the serious , efficient , no - nonsense authority figure . Smith and Lavington , meanwhile , remarked that Lee was `` the very incarnation of Fleming 's crusty admiral . '' Lee died of cancer in January 1981 , four months into the filming of For Your Eyes Only and before any of his scenes could be filmed . Out of respect , no new actor was hired to assume the role and , instead , the script was re-written so that the character is said to be on leave , with his lines given to either his Chief of Staff Bill Tanner or the Minister of Defence , Sir Frederick Gray . Later films referred to Lee 's tenure as head of the service , with a painting of him as M in MI6 's Scottish headquarters during the 1999 instalment The World Is Not Enough . Featured in Dr. No ( 1962 ) From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) Goldfinger ( 1964 ) Thunderball ( 1965 ) You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 ) Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) The Man with the Golden Gun ( 1974 ) The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) Moonraker ( 1979 ) The likeness of Lee was used in the 2005 James Bond video game adaptation of James Bond 007 : From Russia with Love for the role of M by EA Games . Robert Brown : 1983 -- 1989 ( edit ) Robert Brown , who played M from 1983 to 1989 After Lee 's death in 1981 , the producers hired actor Robert Brown to play M in Octopussy . Brown had previously played Admiral Hargreaves , Flag Officer Submarines , in the 1977 film , The Spy Who Loved Me . Bond scholars Steven Jay Rubin , John Cork , and Collin Stutz all consider Admiral Hargreaves would have been appointed to the role of M , rather than Brown playing a different character as M . Pfeiffer and Worrall considered that whilst Brown looks perfect , the role had been softened from that of Lee ; they also considered him `` far too avuncular '' , although in Licence to Kill they remarked that he came across as being very effective as he removed Bond 's double - 0 licence . Continuation author Raymond Benson agrees , noting that the M role was `` once again underwritten , and Brown is not allowed the opportunity to explore and reveal his character traits '' ; Benson also considered the character to be `` too nice '' . Featured in Octopussy ( 1983 ) A View to a Kill ( 1985 ) The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) Judi Dench : 1995 -- 2012 ( edit ) Judi Dench , who played M from 1995 to 2012 After the long period between Licence to Kill and GoldenEye , the producers brought in Dame Judi Dench to take over as the new M replacing Robert Brown . The character is based on Stella Rimington , the real - life head of MI5 between 1992 and 1996 . For GoldenEye , Dench 's M is cold , blunt and initially dislikes Bond , whom she calls a `` sexist , misogynist dinosaur , a relic of the Cold War . '' Tanner , her Chief of Staff , refers to her during the film as `` the Evil Queen of Numbers '' , given her reputation at that stage for relying on statistics and analysis rather than impulse and initiative . Following Pierce Brosnan 's departure from the role , Dench continued playing M for the 2006 film Casino Royale , which rebooted the series with Daniel Craig playing Bond . In this new continuity , M has worked for MI6 for some time , at one point muttering , `` Christ , I miss the Cold War '' . According to Skyfall , M was previously in charge of MI6 's operations in Hong Kong during the 1990s . Her ability to run MI6 has been questioned several times ; in Casino Royale , she is the subject of a review when Bond is caught shooting an unarmed prisoner and blowing up a foreign embassy on camera ; in Quantum of Solace , the Foreign Secretary orders her to personally withdraw Bond from the field in Bolivia and to stop any investigations into Dominic Greene 's eco-terrorist organisation ; and in Skyfall , she is the subject of a public inquiry when MI6 loses a computer hard drive containing the identities of undercover agents around the world . Skyfall marks Dench 's seventh and final appearance as M , where she is targeted by former MI6 agent Raoul Silva , whom she turned over to the Chinese in order to save six other agents . She is shot and killed in the film , making her the only M to die in the Eon Bond films . Dench 's M makes a cameo appearance in Spectre in a video will , giving Bond a final order to hunt down and terminate someone , which ultimately leads him to the film 's titular criminal organisation . There have also been brief references to M 's family : in GoldenEye , she responds to Tanner calling her the `` Evil Queen of Numbers '' by telling him that when she wants to hear sarcasm she will listen to her children . Quantum of Solace director Marc Forster suggested that Dench 's casting gave the character maternal overtones in her relationship with Bond , overtones made overt in Skyfall , in which Silva repeatedly refers to her as `` Mother '' and `` Mommy '' . In Skyfall she is revealed to be a widow . Featured in GoldenEye ( 1995 ) Tomorrow Never Dies ( 1997 ) The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 ) Die Another Day ( 2002 ) Casino Royale ( 2006 ) Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) Skyfall ( 2012 ) Spectre ( 2015 , cameo ) Dench also appeared in six James Bond video games : 007 : Everything or Nothing ( 2004 ) The World Is Not Enough - is a playable character GoldenEye : Rogue Agent ( 2004 ) Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) GoldenEye 007 ( 2010 ) James Bond 007 : Blood Stone ( 2010 ) 007 Legends ( 2012 ) Ralph Fiennes : 2012 -- Present ( edit ) Ralph Fiennes , the incumbent actor in the role After the death of Judi Dench 's M at the end of Skyfall , she is succeeded by Gareth Mallory , played by Ralph Fiennes . Mallory had been the Chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee prior to heading up MI6 , and is a former lieutenant colonel in the British Army . He served in Northern Ireland with the `` Hereford Regiment '' ( assumed by many commentators to mean the Special Air Service ) during the Troubles , where he had been held hostage by the Irish Republican Army for three months . In Spectre , the 00 Section of MI6 is briefly dismantled in addition to Mallory being demoted . He assists Bond in the field when it is revealed that the Nine Eyes initiative is part of Spectre 's plan for world domination . Featured in Skyfall ( 2012 ) Spectre ( 2015 ) Bond 25 ( 2019 ) Non-eon films ( edit ) John Huston / David Niven : 1967 ( edit ) The 1967 satire Casino Royale featured not one but two Ms. The first is played by John Huston , who also co-directed . In this film , M 's real name is McTarry and he is accidentally killed when , in order to get Bond out of retirement , he orders the military to fire mortars at Bond 's mansion when the retired spy refuses to return to duty . The first quarter of the film features Bond 's subsequent visit to McTarry Castle in Scotland , on a quest to return the only piece of M 's remains recovered after the attack -- his bright red toupée . Subsequently , Bond -- played by David Niven -- becomes the new M and proceeds to order that all MI6 agents , male and female , be renamed `` James Bond 007 '' in order to confuse the enemy . Edward Fox : 1983 ( edit ) Edward Fox played M in Never Say Never Again In 1983 's Never Say Never Again , Edward Fox played M as a bureaucrat , contemptuous of Bond -- far removed from the relationship shared between Bernard Lee 's M and Sean Connery 's Bond ; the academic Jeremy Black notes that the contempt felt for the 00 section by Fox 's M was reciprocated by Connery 's Bond . Fox 's M is also younger than any of the previous incarnations . The media historian James Chapman notes that whilst M considers Bond to be an out - dated relic , the Foreign Secretary orders the 00 section to be re-activated . Comics ( edit ) M appeared in every James Bond comic book released from 1962 to 1995 . With the relaunch of the series in 2015 by Dynamite Entertainment , M is once again Bond 's superior . In a notable departure from both the original novels and the movies , M is black instead of white , and his identity is revealed to be none other than Miles Messervy when he was referred to by his first name in Hammerhead . M is scheduled to have his own one - shot comic book in which his backstory is explored while dealing with his past that comes back to haunt him , delivered by creators Declan Shalvey and P.J. Holden . Outside the James Bond series ( edit ) Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill 's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen comic series establishes that the 1898 - era League ( led by Mina Harker ) was directed by Campion Bond ( James Bond 's grandfather ) , who served under a master called M . This M was later revealed to be none other than James Moriarty in disguise , using the League to win a gang war against Fu Manchu . After the death of Moriarty , Sherlock Holmes 's older brother Mycroft Holmes assumed the role of M. In the sequel volume The Black Dossier , set during a moribund and dystopian 1950s post-war Britain , the head of the British secret service , M , is Harry Lime , from Graham Greene 's The Third Man . In the final volume of Century , spanning from 1910 to 2009 , the M of 2009 is an elderly Emma Peel from The Avengers . In the 2003 film adaptation of the series , M is once again Moriarty , and played by Richard Roxburgh . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Macintyre , Ben ( 5 April 2008 ) . `` Bond -- the real Bond '' . The Times . p. 36 . ^ Jump up to : Macintyre 2008 , p. 78 . Jump up ^ Macintyre 2008 , p. 77 . Jump up ^ Sharrock , David ( 2 July 2007 ) . `` M : Britain 's first spymaster was an Irishman who played patriot game '' . The Times . p. 39 . Jump up ^ Macintyre 2008 , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Pearson 1966 , p. 235 . Jump up ^ West 2010 , p. 142 . ^ Jump up to : Macintyre 2008 , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Griswold 2006 , p. 47 . Jump up ^ Amis 1966 , p. 75 . ^ Jump up to : UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark , Gregory ( 2017 ) . `` The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain , 1209 to Present ( New Series ) '' . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 6 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Amis 1966 , p. 39 . Jump up ^ Comentale , Watt & Willman 2005 , p. 153 . Jump up ^ Lejeune 1979 , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Stock 2009 , p. 251 . Jump up ^ Lane & Simpson 2002 , p. 65 . Jump up ^ Lane & Simpson 2002 , p. 71 . Jump up ^ Simpson 2002 , p. 61 . Jump up ^ Simpson 2002 , p. 63 . Jump up ^ Lane & Simpson 2002 , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Rubin 2003 , p. 256 . Jump up ^ Smith & Lavington 2002 , p. 11 . ^ Jump up to : Cork & Stutz 2007 , p. 154 . Jump up ^ Rubin 2003 , p. 227 - 228 . Jump up ^ Smith & Lavington 2002 , p. 15 . Jump up ^ `` Obituary : Mr Bernard Lee '' . The Times . 19 January 1981 . p. 12 . Jump up ^ Pfeiffer & Worrall 1998 , p. 98 . Jump up ^ `` From Russia With Love Tech Info '' . CBS Interactive Inc . Archived from the original on 14 May 2012 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Cork & Stutz 2007 , p. 154 - 155 . Jump up ^ Rubin 2003 , p. 178 . Jump up ^ Pfeiffer & Worrall 1998 , p. 136 . Jump up ^ Pfeiffer & Worrall 1998 , p. 155 . Jump up ^ Pfeiffer & Worrall 1998 , p. 165 . Jump up ^ Benson 1988 , p. 236 - 137 . Jump up ^ Benson 1988 , p. 137 . Jump up ^ West 2010 , p. 45 . Jump up ^ Rimington 2008 , p. 244 . ^ Jump up to : Black 2005 , p. 100 . Jump up ^ Pfeiffer & Worrall 1998 , p. 174 . Jump up ^ McKay 2008 , p. 353 . Jump up ^ Miller , Henry K. ( 26 October 2012 ) . `` Film of the week : Skyfall '' . Sight & Sound . British Film Institute . Retrieved 30 October 2012 . Jump up ^ Jütting 2007 , p. 91 . Jump up ^ Simpson 2002 , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Nathan , Ian ( October 2008 ) . `` Quantum 's Leap '' . Empire . p. 87 . Jump up ^ James , Caryn ( 11 November 2012 ) . `` Skyfall : Bond Is Older , Wiser , Better '' . The Huffington Post . Retrieved 12 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing Review '' . James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing Xbox . IGN Entertainment . 18 February 2004 . Archived from the original on 25 April 2012 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` GoldenEye : Rogue Agent '' . GoldenEye : Rogue Agent PlayStation 2 . IGN Entertainment . 22 November 2004 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ East , Tom ( 4 November 2008 ) . `` Making Of Quantum Of Solace '' . Nintendo magazine . Future plc . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` E3 2010 : GoldenEye Reimagined for Wii '' . GoldenEye 007 Wii . IGN Entertainment . 15 June 2010 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` James Bond 007 : Blood Stone Review '' . James Bond 007 : Blood Stone Xbox 360 . IGN Entertainment . 2 November 2010 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Pande , Sophia ( 9 November 2012 ) . `` Skyfall '' . Nepali Times . Kathmandu . Retrieved 17 November 2012 . Jump up ^ French , Philip ( 28 October 2012 ) . `` Skyfall -- review '' . The Observer . London . p. 32 . Jump up ^ `` Casino Royale ( 1967 ) '' . Allrovi . Rovi Corporation . Archived from the original on 30 January 2012 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Rubin 2003 , p. 187 . Jump up ^ Rubin 2003 , p. 44 . Jump up ^ Chapman 2009 , p. 107 . Jump up ^ Rubin 2003 , p. 148 . Jump up ^ Benson 1988 , p. 341 . Jump up ^ Chapman 2009 , p. 186 . Jump up ^ James Bond # 1 Jump up ^ James Bond : Hammerhead # 4 Jump up ^ `` Dynamite to explore backstory of ' M ' in new comic '' . The Book Bond . November 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Morrison 2011 , p. 367 . Jump up ^ Vice magazine 2011 . Jump up ^ `` '' The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen : Century 1999 '' Review `` . The Comics Journal . 6 July 2012 . Retrieved 2 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Kerr , Philip ( 27 October 2003 ) . `` In a league of its own '' . New Statesman . Archived from the original on 6 September 2008 . Retrieved 30 January 2012 . Bibliography ( edit ) Amis , Kingsley ( 1966 ) . The James Bond Dossier . London : Pan Books . OCLC 752401390 . Benson , Raymond ( 1988 ) . The James Bond Bedside Companion . London : Boxtree Ltd . ISBN 1 - 85283 - 234 - 7 . Black , Jeremy ( 2005 ) . The politics of James Bond : from Fleming 's novel to the big screen . University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8032 - 6240 - 9 . Chapman , James ( 2009 ) . Licence to Thrill : A cultural history of the James Bond films . New York : I.B. Tauris . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84511 - 515 - 9 . Comentale , Edward P ; Watt , Stephen ; Willman , Skip ( 2005 ) . Ian Fleming & James Bond : the cultural politics of 007 . Indiana University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 253 - 21743 - 1 . Cork , John ; Stutz , Collin ( 2007 ) . James Bond encyclopedia . London : Dorling Kindersley . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4053 - 3427 - 3 . Griswold , John ( 2006 ) . Ian Fleming 's James Bond : annotations and chronologies for Ian Fleming 's Bond stories . AuthorHouse . ISBN 1 - 4259 - 3100 - 6 . Jütting , Kerstin ( 2007 ) . `` Grow Up , 007 ! '' -- James Bond over the decades : formula vs. innovation . GRIN Verlag . ISBN 978 - 3 - 638 - 85372 - 9 . Lane , Andy ; Simpson , Paul ( 2002 ) . The Bond Files : An Unofficial Guide to the World 's Greatest Secret Agent . London : Virgin Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7535 - 0712 - 4 . Lejeune , Anthony ( 1979 ) . The gentlemen 's clubs of London . London : Mayflower Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8317 - 3800 - 6 . Lindner , Christoph ( 2009 ) . The James Bond Phenomenon : a Critical Reader . Manchester University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7190 - 6541 - 5 . Macintyre , Ben ( 2008 ) . For Your Eyes Only . London : Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7475 - 9527 - 4 . McKay , Sinclair ( 2008 ) . The man with the golden touch : how the Bond films conquered the world . London : Aurum Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84513 - 355 - 9 . Morrison , Grant ( 2011 ) . Supergods . London : Random House . ISBN 978 - 0 - 224 - 08996 - 8 . Pearson , John ( 1966 ) . The Life of Ian Fleming . London : Pan Books . ISBN 0 - 330 - 02082 - X . Pfeiffer , Lee ; Worrall , Dave ( 1998 ) . The essential Bond . London : Boxtree Ltd . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7522 - 2477 - 0 . Rimington , Stella ( 2008 ) . Open secret : the autobiography of the former Director - General of MI5 . London : Arrow Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 09 - 943672 - 0 . Rubin , Steven Jay ( 2003 ) . The complete James Bond movie encyclopedia . New York : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0 - 07 - 141246 - 8 . Simpson , Paul ( 2002 ) . The rough guide to James Bond . Rough Guides . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84353 - 142 - 5 . Smith , Jim ; Lavington , Stephen ( 2002 ) . Bond films . London : Virgin Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7535 - 0709 - 4 . Stock , Paul ( 2009 ) . `` Dial ' M ' for metonym : Universal Exports , M 's office space and empire '' . In Lindner , Christoph . The James Bond Phenomenon : a Critical Reader . Manchester : Manchester University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7190 - 6541 - 5 . Vice magazine ( 2011 ) . The World According to Vice . Edinburgh : Canongate Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85786 - 024 - 8 . West , Nigel ( 2010 ) . Historical dictionary of Ian Fleming 's world of intelligence : fact and fiction . Lanham , Maryland : Scarecrow Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7524 - 2896 - 3 . hide James Bond characters James Bond as literary character and as film character Allies Miss Moneypenny Q Bill Tanner 00 Agents Felix Leiter Women Aki Anya Amasova Tracy Bond Tiffany Case Pussy Galore Jinx Johnson Wai Lin Vesper Lynd Camille Montes Honey Rider Tatiana Romanova Sévérine Natalya Simonova Stacey Sutton Kissy Suzuki Domino Vitali Villains and henchmen Julius No Rosa Klebb Ernst Stavro Blofeld Oddjob Auric Goldfinger Emilio Largo Mr. Wint and Mr. Kidd Francisco Scaramanga Karl Stromberg Jaws Hugo Drax Max Zorin Brad Whitaker Necros Alec Trevelyan Xenia Onatopp Le Chiffre Raoul Silva Organisations SPECTRE SMERSH The Union Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M_(James_Bond)&oldid=844380057 '' Categories : America 's Best Comics characters Characters in British novels of the 20th century James Bond characters Fictional SIS agents Fictional British admirals Fictional spymasters Fictional characters introduced in 1953 Fictional contract bridge players Hidden categories : Good articles Use British English from June 2011 Use dmy dates from June 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Scots Suomi Svenska ไทย 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2018 , at 15 : 05 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | what does m stand for in james bond films | [
"Fleming's third Bond novel, Moonraker, establishes M's initials as \"M**** M*******\"[7] and his first name is subsequently revealed to be Miles. In the final novel of the series, The Man with the Golden Gun, M's full identity is revealed as Vice Admiral Sir Miles Messervy KCMG, CB, DSO, OBE;[8] Messervy had been appointed to head of MI6 after his predecessor had been assassinated at his desk.[9]"
] | [
"Miles"
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-8731698916381484703 | Early centers of Christianity | Early centers of Christianity - wikipedia Early centers of Christianity Jump to : navigation , search Early Christianity ( generally considered the time period from its start to 325 ) , spread from the Eastern Mediterranean throughout the Roman Empire and beyond . Originally , this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish diaspora . The first followers of Christianity were Jews or proselytes , commonly referred to as Jewish Christians and God - fearers . The Apostolic sees claim to have been founded by one or more of the apostles of Jesus , who are said to have dispersed from Jerusalem sometime after the crucifixion of Jesus , c. 26 -- 36 , perhaps following the Great Commission . Early Christians gathered in small private homes , known as house churches , but a city 's whole Christian community would also be called a church -- the Greek noun ἐκκλησία literally means assembly , gathering , or congregation but is translated as church in most English translations of the New Testament . Many of these Early Christians were merchants and others who had practical reasons for traveling to northern Africa , Asia Minor , Arabia , Greece , and other places . Over 40 such communities were established by the year 100 , many in Anatolia , also known as Asia Minor , such as the Seven churches of Asia . By the end of the first century , Christianity had already spread to Rome and major cities in Armenia , Greece and Syria , serving as foundations for the expansive spread of Christianity , eventually throughout the world . Contents ( hide ) 1 Eastern Roman Empire 1.1 Jerusalem 1.2 Antioch 1.3 Alexandria 1.4 Asia Minor 1.5 Caesarea 1.6 Cyprus 1.7 Damascus 1.8 Greece 1.9 Libya 2 Western Roman Empire 2.1 Rome 2.2 Carthage 2.3 Southern Gaul 2.4 Italy outside Rome 2.4. 1 Aquileia 2.4. 2 Milan 2.4. 3 Syracuse and Calabria 2.5 Malta 2.6 Salona 2.7 Seville 2.8 Roman Britain 3 Outside the Roman Empire 3.1 Ethiopia 3.2 Armenia 3.3 Georgia 3.4 Mesopotamia and the Parthian Empire 3.5 Persia and Central Asia 3.6 Arabian Peninsula 3.7 Nubia 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Eastern Roman Empire ( edit ) See also : Eastern Christianity Jerusalem ( edit ) See also : Jerusalem in Christianity , Apostolic Age , and Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem The Cenacle on Mount Zion , claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and Pentecost . Bargil Pixner claims the original Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure . A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre based on a German documentary . The church is claimed to be at the site of Calvary and the Tomb of Jesus . Jerusalem was the first center of the church , according to the Book of Acts , and according to the Catholic Encyclopedia : the location of `` the first Christian church '' . The apostles lived and taught there for some time after Pentecost . Jesus ' brother James was a leader in the church , and his other kinsmen likely held leadership positions in the surrounding area after the destruction of the city until its rebuilding as Aelia Capitolina , c. 130 , when all Jews were banished from the city . In about 50 , Barnabas and Paul went to Jerusalem to meet with the `` pillars of the church '' : James , Peter , and John . Later called the Council of Jerusalem , this meeting , among other things , confirmed the legitimacy of the mission of Barnabas and Paul to the gentiles , and the gentile converts ' freedom from most Mosaic law , especially circumcision , which was repulsive to the Hellenic mind . Thus , the Apostolic Decree ( Acts 15 : 19 -- 21 ) may be a major act of differentiation of the Church from its Jewish roots , though the decree may simply parallel Jewish Noahide Law and thus be a commonality rather than a differential . In roughly the same time period Rabbinic Judaism made their circumcision requirement of Jewish boys even stricter . When Peter left Jerusalem after Herod Agrippa I tried to kill him , James appears as the principal authority . Clement of Alexandria ( c. 150 -- 215 ) called him Bishop of Jerusalem . A second - century church historian , Hegesippus , wrote that the Sanhedrin martyred him in 62 . In 66 , the Jews revolted against Rome . Rome besieged Jerusalem for four years , and the city fell in 70 . The city was destroyed , including the Temple , and the population was mostly killed or removed . According to a tradition recorded by Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis , the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the First Jewish Revolt ( see : Flight to Pella ). ; According to Epiphanius of Salamis , the Cenacle survived at least to Hadrian 's visit in 130 . A scattered population survived . The Sanhedrin relocated to Jamnia . Prophecies of the Second Temple 's destruction are found in the synoptics , specifically in the Olivet Discourse . In the 2nd century , Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as a pagan city called Aelia Capitolina , erecting statues of Jupiter and himself on the site of the former Jewish Temple , the Temple Mount . Bar Cochba led an unsuccessful revolt as a Messiah , but Christians refused to acknowledge him as such . When Bar Cochba was defeated , Hadrian barred Jews from the city , except for the day of Tisha B'Av , thus the subsequent Jerusalem bishops were gentiles ( `` uncircumcised '' ) for the first time . The general significance of Jerusalem to Christians entered a period of decline during the Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire , but resumed again with the pilgrimage of Helena ( the mother of Constantine the Great ) to the Holy Land c. 326 -- 28 . According to the church historian Socrates of Constantinople , Helena ( with the assistance of Bishop Macarius of Jerusalem ) claimed to have found the cross of Christ , after removing a Temple to Venus ( attributed to Hadrian ) that had been built over the site . ( For that reason she is seen as the patron saint of Archaeologists . ) Jerusalem had received special recognition in Canon VII of Nicaea in 325 . The traditional founding date for the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre ( which guards the Christian Holy places in the Holy Land ) is 313 which corresponds with the date of the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire . Jerusalem was later named as one of the Pentarchy , but this was never accepted by the church of Rome . See also East -- West Schism # Prospects for reconciliation . Antioch ( edit ) The Church of St Peter near Antakya , Turkey , said to be the spot where Saint Peter first preached the Gospel in Roman Antioch . See also : School of Antioch , Bishop of Antioch , and Antiochene Rite Antioch , a major center of Hellenistic Greece , and the third-most important city of the Roman Empire , then part of Syria Province , today a ruin near Antakya , Turkey , was where Christians were first so - called and also the location of the Incident at Antioch . It was the site of an early church , traditionally said to be founded by Peter who is considered the first bishop . The Gospel of Matthew and the Apostolic Constitutions may have been written there . The church father Ignatius of Antioch was its third bishop . The School of Antioch , founded in 270 , was one of two major centers of early church learning . The Curetonian Gospels and the Syriac Sinaiticus are two early ( pre-Peshitta ) New Testament text types associated with Syriac Christianity . It was one of the three whose bishops were recognized at the First Council of Nicaea ( 325 ) as exercising jurisdiction over the adjoining territories . Alexandria ( edit ) See also : Alexandrian school , Catechetical School of Alexandria , Bishop of Alexandria , Egypt ( Roman province ) § Christian Egypt , and Alexandrian Rite Alexandria , in the Nile delta , was established by Alexander the Great . Its famous libraries were a center of Hellenistic learning . The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament began there and the Alexandrian text - type is recognized by scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types . It had a significant Jewish population , of which Philo of Alexandria is probably its most known author . It produced superior scripture and notable church fathers , such as Clement , Origen , and Athanasius , also noteworthy were the nearby Desert Fathers . By the end of the era , Alexandria , Rome , and Antioch were accorded authority over nearby metropolitans . The Council of Nicaea in canon VI affirmed Alexandria 's traditional authority over Egypt , Libya , and Pentapolis ( North Africa ) ( the Diocese of Egypt ) and probably granted Alexandria the right to declare a universal date for the observance of Easter , see also Easter controversy . Some postulate , however , that Alexandria was not only a center of Christianity , but was also a center for Christian - based Gnostic sects . see also Gnosticism . Asia Minor ( edit ) Map of Western Anatolia showing the `` Seven Churches of Asia '' and the Greek island of Patmos . See also : History of Anatolia and Christianity in Turkey The tradition of John the Apostle was strong in Anatolia ( the near - east , part of modern Turkey , the western part was called the Roman province of Asia ) . The authorship of the Johannine works traditionally and plausibly occurred in Ephesus , c. 90 - 110 , although some scholars argue for an origin in Syria . According to the New Testament , the Apostle Paul was from Tarsus ( in south - central Anatolia ) and his missionary journeys were primarily in Anatolia . The Book of Revelation , believed to be authored by John of Patmos ( a Greek island about 30 miles off the Anatolian coast ) , mentions Seven churches of Asia . The First Epistle of Peter ( 1 : 1 -- 2 ) is addressed to Anatolian regions . On the southeast shore of the Black Sea , Pontus was a Greek colony mentioned three times in the New Testament . Inhabitants of Pontus were some of the very first converts to Christianity . Pliny , governor in 110 , in his letters , addressed Christians in Pontus . Of the extant letters of Ignatius of Antioch considered authentic , five of seven are to Anatolian cities , the sixth is to Polycarp . Smyrna was home to Polycarp , the bishop who reportedly knew the Apostle John personally , and probably also to his student Irenaeus . Papias of Hierapolis is also believed to have been a student of John the Apostle . In the 2nd century , Anatolia was home to Quartodecimanism , Montanism , Marcion of Sinope , and Melito of Sardis who recorded an early Christian Biblical canon . After the Crisis of the Third Century , Nicomedia became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 286 . The Synod of Ancyra was held in 314 . In 325 the emperor Constantine convoked the first Christian ecumenical council in Nicaea and in 330 moved the capital of the reunified empire to Byzantium ( also an early Christian center and just across the Bosphorus from Anatolia , later called Constantinople ) , referred to as the Byzantine Empire , which lasted till 1453 . The First seven Ecumenical Councils were held either in Western Anatolia or across the Bosphorus in Constantinople . Caesarea ( edit ) Remains of the ancient Roman aqueduct in Caesarea Maritima . See also : Caesarea Maritima § Christian hub , and Bishop of Caesarea Caesarea , on the seacoast just northwest of Jerusalem , at first Caesarea Maritima , then after 133 Caesarea Palaestina , was built by Herod the Great , c. 25 -- 13 BC , and was the capital of Iudaea Province ( 6 -- 132 ) and later Palaestina Prima . It was there that Peter baptized the centurion Cornelius , considered the first gentile convert . Paul sought refuge there , once staying at the house of Philip the Evangelist , and later being imprisoned there for two years ( estimated to be 57 -- 59 ) . The Apostolic Constitutions ( 7.46 ) state that the first Bishop of Caesarea was Zacchaeus the Publican but the Catholic Encyclopedia claims that : `` ... there is no record of any bishops of Caesarea until the second century . At the end of this century a council was held there to regulate the celebration of Easter . '' According to another Catholic Encyclopedia article , after Hadrian 's siege of Jerusalem ( c. 133 ) , Caesarea became the metropolitan see with the bishop of Jerusalem as one of its `` suffragans '' ( subordinates ) . Origen ( d. 254 ) compiled his Hexapla there and it held a famous library and theological school , St. Pamphilus ( d. 309 ) was a noted scholar - priest . St. Gregory the Wonder - Worker ( d. 270 ) , St. Basil the Great ( d. 379 ) , and St. Jerome ( d. 420 ) visited and studied at the library which was later destroyed , probably by the Persians in 614 or the Saracens around 637 . The first major church historian , Eusebius of Caesarea , was a bishop , c. 314 -- 339 . F.J.A. Hort and Adolf von Harnack have argued that the Nicene Creed originated in Caesarea . The Caesarean text - type is recognized by many textual scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types . Cyprus ( edit ) See also : Church of Cyprus St Paul 's Pillar in Paphos Paphos was the capital of the island of Cyprus during the Roman years and seat of a Roman commander . In 45 AD , the apostles Paul and Barnabas ( according to the Catholic Encyclopedia `` a native of the island '' ) came to Cyprus and reached Paphos preaching the Word of Christ , see also Acts 13 : 4 -- 13 . According to Acts , the apostles were persecuted by the Romans but eventually succeeded in convincing the Roman commander Sergius Paulus to renounce his old religion in favour of Christianity . Barnabas is traditionally identified as the founder of the Cypriot Orthodox Church . Damascus ( edit ) The Chapel of Saint Paul , said to be Bab Kisan where St. Paul escaped from Old Damascus See also : Syriac Orthodox Church and Christianity in Syria Damascus is the capital of Syria and claims to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world . According to the New Testament , the Apostle Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus . In the three accounts ( Acts 9 : 1 -- 20 , 22 : 1 -- 22 , 26 : 1 -- 24 ) , he is described as being led by those he was traveling with , blinded by the light , to Damascus where his sight was restored by a disciple called Ananias ( who , according to the Catholic Encyclopedia , is thought to have been the first Bishop of Damascus ) then he was baptized . Greece ( edit ) See also : Church of Greece Thessaloniki , the major northern Greek city where it is believed Christianity was founded by Paul , thus an Apostolic See , and the surrounding regions of Macedonia , Western and Eastern Thrace , and Epirus , which also extend into the neighboring Balkan states of Albania and Bulgaria , were early centers of Christianity . Of note are Paul 's Epistles to the Thessalonians and to Philippi , which is often considered the first contact of Christianity with Europe . The Apostolic Father Polycarp wrote a letter to the Philippians , c. 125 . Nicopolis was a city in the Roman province of Epirus Vetus , today a ruin on the northern part of the western Greek coast . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : `` St. Paul intended going there ( Titus 3 : 12 ) and it is possible that even then it numbered some Christians among its population ; Origen ( c. 185 -- 254 ) sojourned there for a while ( Eusebius , Church History VI. 16 ) . '' Ancient Corinth , today a ruin near modern Corinth in southern Greece , was an early center of Christianity . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : `` St. Paul preached successfully at Corinth , where he lived in the house of Aquila and Priscilla ( Acts 18 : 1 ) , where Silas and Timothy soon joined him . After his departure he was replaced by Apollo , who had been sent from Ephesus by Priscilla . The Apostle visited Corinth at least once more . He wrote to the Corinthians in 57 from Ephesus , and then from Macedonia in the same year , or in 58 . The famous letter of St. Clement of Rome to the Corinthian church ( about 96 ) exhibits the earliest evidence concerning the ecclesiastical primacy of the Roman Church . Besides St. Apollo , Lequien ( II , 155 ) mentions forty - three bishops : among them , St. Sosthenes ( ? ) , the disciple of St. Paul , St. Dionysius ; Paul , brother of St. Peter ... '' Athens , the capital and largest city in Greece , was visited by Paul . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : Paul `` came to Athens from Berœa of Macedonia , coming probably by water and landing in the Peiræevs , the harbour of Athens . This was about the year 53 . Having arrived at Athens , he at once sent for Silas and Timotheos who had remained behind in Berœa . While awaiting the coming of these he tarried in Athens , viewing the idolatrous city , and frequenting the synagogue ; for there were already Jews in Athens ... It seems that a Christian community was rapidly formed , although for a considerable time it did not possess a numerous membership . The commoner tradition names the Areopagite as the first head and bishop of the Christian Athenians . Another tradition , however , gives this honour to Hierotheos the Thesmothete . The successors of the first bishop were not all Athenians by lineage . They are catalogued as Narkissos , Publius , and Quadratus . Narkissos is stated to have come from Palestine , and Publius from Malta . In some lists Narkissos is omitted . Quadratus is revered for having contributed to early Christian literature by writing an apology , which he addressed to the Emperor Hadrian . This was on the occasion of Hadrian 's visit to Athens . Another Athenian who defended Christianity in writing at a somewhat later time was Aristeides . His apology was directed to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius . Athenagoras also wrote an apology . In the second century there must have been a considerable community of Christians in Athens , for Hygeinos , Bishop of Rome , is said to have written a letter to the community in the year 139 . '' Gortyn on Crete , was allied with Rome and was thus made capital of Roman Creta et Cyrenaica . St. Titus is believed to have been the first bishop . The city was sacked by the pirate Abu Hafs in 828 . Libya ( edit ) See also : Christianity in Libya Cyrene and the surrounding region of Cyrenaica or the North African `` Pentapolis '' , south of the Mediterranean from Greece , the northeastern part of modern Libya , was a Greek colony in North Africa later converted to a Roman province . In addition to Greeks and Romans , there was also a significant Jewish population , at least up to the Kitos War ( 115 -- 117 ) . According to Mark 15 : 21 , Simon of Cyrene carried Jesus ' cross . Cyrenians are also mentioned in Acts 2 : 10 , 6 : 9 , 11 : 20 , 13 : 1 . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : `` Lequien mentions six bishops of Cyrene , and according to Byzantine legend the first was St. Lucius ( Acts 13 : 1 ) ; St. Theodorus suffered martyrdom under Diocletian ; '' ( 284 -- 305 ) . Western Roman Empire ( edit ) See also : Western Christianity Rome ( edit ) St. Peter 's Basilica , believed to be the burial site of St. Peter , seen from the River Tiber See also : Bishop of Rome Exactly when Christians first appeared in Rome is difficult to determine ( see Godfearers , Proselytes , and History of the Jews in the Roman Empire for the historical background ) . The Acts of the Apostles claims that the Jewish Christian couple Priscilla and Aquila had recently come from Rome to Corinth when , in about the year 50 , Paul reached the latter city , indicating that belief in Jesus in Rome had preceded Paul . Historians consistently consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred in Rome under the reign of Nero in 64 , after the Great Fire of Rome which , according to Tacitus , the Emperor blamed on the Christians . In the second century Irenaeus of Lyons , reflecting the ancient view that the church could not be fully present anywhere without a bishop , recorded that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as bishop . However , Irenaeus does not say that either Peter or Paul was `` bishop '' of the Church in Rome and several historians have questioned whether Peter spent much time in Rome before his martyrdom . While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans to them from Corinth ( c. 58 ) he attests to a large Christian community already there and greets some fifty people in Rome by name , but not Peter whom he knew . There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul 's two - year stay there in Acts 28 , about 60 -- 62 . Most likely he did not spend any major time at Rome before 58 when Paul wrote to the Romans , and so it may have been only in the 60s and relatively shortly before his martyrdom that Peter came to the capital . Oscar Cullmann sharply rejected the claim that Peter began the papal succession , and concludes that while Peter was the original head of the apostles , Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession . A scene showing Christ Pantocrator from a Roman mosaic in the church of Santa Pudenziana in Rome , c. 410 AD The original seat of Roman imperial power soon became a center of church authority , grew in power decade by decade , and was recognized during the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils , when the seat of government had been transferred to Constantinople , as the `` head '' of the church . Rome and Alexandria , which by tradition held authority over sees outside their own province , were not yet referred to as patriarchates . The earliest Bishops of Rome were all Greek - speaking , the most notable of them being : Pope Clement I ( c. 88 -- 97 ) , author of an Epistle to the Church in Corinth ; Pope Telesphorus ( c. 126 -- 136 ) , probably the only martyr among them ; Pope Pius I ( c. 141 -- 154 ) , said by the Muratorian fragment to have been the brother of the author of the Shepherd of Hermas ; and Pope Anicetus ( c. 155 -- 160 ) , who received Saint Polycarp and discussed with him the dating of Easter . Pope Victor I ( 189 -- 198 ) was the first ecclesiastical writer known to have written in Latin ; however , his only extant works are his encyclicals , which would naturally have been issued in both Latin and Greek . Greek New Testament texts were translated into Latin early on , well before Jerome , and are classified as the Vetus Latina and Western text - type . During the 2nd century , Christians and semi-Christians of diverse views congregated in Rome , notably Marcion and Valentinius , and in the following century there were schisms connected with Hippolytus of Rome and Novatian . The Roman church survived various persecutions . Among the prominent Christians executed as a result of their refusal to perform acts of worship to the Roman gods as ordered by emperor Valerian in 258 were Cyprian , bishop of Carthage . The last and most severe of the imperial persecutions was that under Diocletian in 303 ; they ended in Rome , and the West in general , with the accession of Maxentius in 306 . Carthage ( edit ) See also : Bishop of Carthage and Councils of Carthage Carthage , in the Roman province of Africa , south of the Mediterranean from Rome , gave the early church the Latin fathers Tertullian ( c. 120 -- c. 220 ) and Cyprian ( d . 258 ) . Carthage fell to Islam in 698 . Southern gaul ( edit ) Amphithéâtre des Trois - Gaules , in Lyon . The pole in the arena is a memorial to the people killed during the persecution . See also : Christianity in Gaul The Mediterranean coast of France and the Rhone valley , then part of Roman Gallia Narbonensis , were early centers of Christianity . Major cities are Arles , Avignon , Vienne , Lyon , and Marseille ( the oldest city in France ) . The Persecution in Lyon occurred in 177 . The Apostolic Father Irenaeus from Smyrna of Anatolia was Bishop of Lyon near the end of the 2nd century and he claimed Saint Pothinus was his predecessor . The Council of Arles in 314 is considered a forerunner of the ecumenical councils . The Ephesine theory attributes the Gallican Rite to Lyon . Italy outside Rome ( edit ) Aquileia ( edit ) See also : Bishop of Aquileia The ancient Roman city of Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic Sea , today one of the main archaeological sites of Northern Italy , was an early center of Christianity said to be founded by Mark before his mission to Alexandria . Hermagoras of Aquileia is believed to be its first bishop . The Aquileian Rite is associated with Aquileia . Milan ( edit ) See also : Bishop of Milan It is believed that the Church of Milan in northwest Italy was founded by the apostle Barnabas in the 1st century . Gervasius and Protasius and others were martyred there . It has long maintained its own rite known as the Ambrosian Rite attributed to Ambrose ( born c. 330 ) who was bishop in 374 -- 397 and one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century . Duchesne argues that the Gallican Rite originated in Milan . Syracuse and Calabria ( edit ) See also : Bishop of Syracuse and Bishop of Reggio Calabria Syracuse was founded by Greek colonists in 734 or 733 BC , part of Magna Graecia . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : `` Syracuse claims to be the second Church founded by St. Peter , after that of Antioch . It also claims that St. Paul preached there ... In the times of St. Cyprian ( the middle of the third century ) , Christianity certainly flourished at Syracuse , and the catacombs clearly show that this was the case in the second century . '' Across the Strait of Messina , Calabria on the mainland was also probably an early center of Christianity . Malta ( edit ) See also : Christianity in Malta St Paul 's Islands near St. Paul 's Bay , traditionally identified as the place where St Paul was shipwrecked According to Acts , Paul was shipwrecked and ministered on an island which some scholars have identified as Malta ( an island just south of Sicily ) for three months during which time he is said to have been bitten by a poisonous viper and survived ( Acts 27 : 39 -- 42 ; Acts 28 : 1 -- 11 ) , an event usually dated c . AD 60 . Paul had been allowed passage from Caesarea Maritima to Rome by Porcius Festus , procurator of Iudaea Province , to stand trial before the Emperor . Many traditions are associated with this episode , and catacombs in Rabat testify to an Early Christian community on the islands . According to tradition , Publius , the Roman Governor of Malta at the time of Saint Paul 's shipwreck , became the first Bishop of Malta following his conversion to Christianity . After ruling the Maltese Church for thirty - one years , Publius was transferred to the See of Athens in 90 AD , where he was martyred in 125 AD . There is scant information about the continuity of Christianity in Malta in subsequent years , although tradition has it that there was a continuous line of bishops from the days of St. Paul to the time of Emperor Constantine . Salona ( edit ) See also : Religion in Croatia Salona , the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea , was an early center of Christianity and today is a ruin in modern Croatia . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia it was where : `` ... Titus the pupil of St. Paul preached , where the followers of Jesus Christ first shed their blood as martyrs , and where beautiful examples of basilicas and other early Christian sculpture have been discovered . '' According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on Dalmatia : `` Salona became the centre from which Christianity spread . In Pannonia St. Andronicus founded the See of Syrmium ( Mitrovica ) and later those of Siscia and Mursia . The cruel persecution under Diocletian , who was a Dalmatian by birth , left numerous traces in Old Dalmatia and Pannonia . St. Quirinus , Bishop of Siscia , died a martyr A.D. 303 . St. Jerome was born in Strido , a city on the border of Pannonia and Dalmatia . '' Seville ( edit ) See also : Bishop of Seville Seville was the capital of Hispania Baetica or the Roman province of southern Spain . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : `` ... the origin of the diocese goes back to Apostolic times , or at least to the first century of our era . St. Gerontius , Bishop of Italica ( about four miles from Hispalis or Seville ) , preached in Baetica in Apostolic times , and without doubt must have left a pastor of its own to Seville . It is certain that in 303 , when Sts . Justa and Rufina , the potters , suffered martyrdom for refusing to adore the idol Salambo , there was a Bishop of Seville , Sabinus , who assisted at the Council of Illiberis ( 287 ) . Before that time Marcellus had been bishop , as appears from a catalogue of the ancient prelates of Seville preserved in the ' Codex Emilianensis ' , a manuscript of the year 1000 , now in the Escorial . When Constantine brought peace to the Church ( 313 ) Evodius was Bishop of Seville ; he set himself to rebuild the ruined churches , among them he appears to have built the church of San Vicente , perhaps the first cathedral of Seville . '' Early Christianity also spread from the Iberian peninsula south across the Strait of Gibraltar into Roman Mauretania Tingitana , of note is Marcellus of Tangier who was martyred in 298 . Roman Britain ( edit ) See also : History of the Church of England § Roman and Sub-Roman Christianity in the British Isles Christianity reached Roman Britain by the third century of the Christian era , the first recorded martyrs in Britain being St. Alban of Verulamium and Julius and Aaron of Caerleon , during the reign of Diocletian ( 284 -- 305 ) . Gildas dated the faith 's arrival to the latter part of the reign of Tiberius , although stories connecting it with Joseph of Arimathea , Lucius , or Fagan are now generally considered pious forgeries . Restitutus , Bishop of London , is recorded as attending the 314 Council of Arles , along with the Bishop of Lincoln and Bishop of York . Christianisation intensified and evolved into Celtic Christianity after the Romans left Britain c. 410 . Outside the Roman Empire ( edit ) See also : History of Eastern Christianity in Asia and Church of the East Christianity was by no means confined to the Roman Empire during the early Christian period . Ethiopia ( edit ) New evidence suggests that Ethiopia was the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion . According to records written in the Ge'ez language , see also Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , the region today known as Ethiopia converted to Judaism during the time of the biblical Queen of Sheba and Solomon . According to the fourth century western historian Rufinius , it was Frumentius who brought Christianity to Ethiopia ( the city of Axum ) and served as its first bishop , probably shortly after 325 . Armenia ( edit ) Scholars have long asserted that Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion . It is said that Christianity became the official religion of Armenia in 301 , when it was still illegal in the Roman Empire . According to church tradition , the Armenian Apostolic Church was founded by Gregory the Illuminator of the late third -- early fourth centuries while they trace their origins to the missions of Bartholomew the Apostle and Thaddeus ( Jude the Apostle ) in the 1st century . Although it has long been claimed that Armenia was the first Christian kingdom , this has relied on a source by Agathangelos titled `` The History of the Armenians '' , which has recently been redated , casting some doubt . Georgia ( edit ) Christianity in Georgia ( ancient Iberia ) extends back to the 4th century , if not earlier . The Iberian king , Mirian III , converted to Christianity , probably in 326 . Mesopotamia and the Parthian Empire ( edit ) Edessa , which was held by Rome from 116 to 118 and 212 to 214 , but was mostly a client kingdom associated either with Rome or Persia , was an important Christian city . Shortly after 201 or even earlier , its royal house became Christian Edessa ( now Şanlıurfa ) in northwestern Mesopotamia was from apostolic times the principal center of Syriac - speaking Christianity . it was the capital of an independent kingdom from 132 BC to AD 216 , when it became tributary to Rome . Celebrated as an important centre of Greco - Syrian culture , Edessa was also noted for its Jewish community , with proselytes in the royal family . Strategically located on the main trade routes of the Fertile Crescent , it was easily accessible from Antioch , where the mission to the Gentiles was inaugurated . When early Christians were scattered abroad because of persecution , some found refuge at Edessa . Thus the Edessan church traced its origin to the apostolic age ( which may account for its rapid growth ) , and Christianity even became the state religion for a time . The Church of the East had its inception at a very early date in the buffer zone between the Parthian and Roman Empires in Upper Mesopotamia , known as the Assyrian Church of the East . The vicissitudes of its later growth were rooted in its minority status in a situation of international tension . The rulers of the Parthian Empire ( 250 BC -- AD 226 ) were on the whole tolerant in spirit , and with the older faiths of Babylonia and Assyria in a state of decay , the time was ripe for a new and vital faith . The rulers of the Second Persian empire ( 226 -- 640 ) also followed a policy of religious toleration to begin with , though later they gave Christians the same status as a subject race . However , these rulers also encouraged the revival of the ancient Persian dualistic faith of Zoroastrianism and established it as the state religion , with the result that the Christians were increasingly subjected to repressive measures . Nevertheless , it was not until Christianity became the state religion in the West ( 380 ) that enmity toward Rome was focused on the Eastern Christians . After the Muslim conquest in the 7th century , the caliphate tolerated other faiths but forbade proselytism and subjected Christians to heavy taxation . The missionary Addai evangelized Mesopotamia ( modern Iraq ) about the middle of the 2nd century . An ancient legend recorded by Eusebius ( AD 260 -- 340 ) and also found in the Doctrine of Addai ( c . AD 400 ) ( from information in the royal archives of Edessa ) describes how King Abgar V of Edessa communicated to Jesus , requesting he come and heal him , to which appeal he received a reply . It is said that after the resurrection , the Thomas sent Addai ( or Thaddaeus ) , to the king , with the result that the city was won to the Christian faith . In this mission he was accompanied by a disciple , Mari , and the two are regarded as co-founders of the church , according to the Liturgy of Addai and Mari ( c . AD 200 ) , which is still the normal liturgy of the Assyrian church . The Doctrine of Addai further states that Thomas was regarded as an apostle of the church in Edessa . Addai , who became the first bishop of Edessa , was succeeded by Aggai , then by Palut , who was ordained about 200 by Serapion of Antioch . Thence came to us in the 2nd century the famous Peshitta , or Syriac translation of the Old Testament ; also Tatian 's Diatessaron , which was compiled about 172 and in common use until St. Rabbula , Bishop of Edessa ( 412 -- 435 ) , forbade its use . This arrangement of the four Canonical gospels as a continuous narrative , whose original language may have been Syriac , Greek , or even Latin , circulated widely in Syriac - speaking Churches . A Christian council was held at Edessa as early as 197 . In 201 the city was devastated by a great flood , and the Christian church was destroyed . In 232 , the Syriac Acts were written supposedly on the event of the relics of the Apostle Thomas being handed to the church in Edessa . Under Roman domination many martyrs suffered at Edessa : Sts . Scharbîl and Barsamya , under Decius ; Sts . Gûrja , Schâmôna , Habib , and others under Diocletian . In the meanwhile Christian priests from Edessa had evangelized Eastern Mesopotamia and Persia , and established the first Churches in the kingdom of the Sasanians . Atillâtiâ , Bishop of Edessa , assisted at the First Council of Nicaea ( 325 ) . Persia and central Asia ( edit ) By the latter half of the 2nd century , Christianity had spread east throughout Media , Persia , Parthia , and Bactria . The twenty bishops and many presbyters were more of the order of itinerant missionaries , passing from place to place as Paul did and supplying their needs with such occupations as merchant or craftsman . By AD 280 the metropolis of Seleucia assumed the title of `` Catholicos '' and in A.D. 424 a council of the church at Seleucia elected the first patriarch to have jurisdiction over the whole church of the East . The seat of the Patriarchate was fixed at Seleucia - Ctesiphon , since this was an important point on the East - West trade routes which extended both to India and China , Java and Japan . Thus the shift of ecclesiastical authority was away from Edessa , which in A.D. 216 had become tributary to Rome . the establishment of an independent patriarchate with nine subordinate metropoli contributed to a more favourable attitude by the Persian government , which no longer had to fear an ecclesiastical alliance with the common enemy , Rome . By the time that Edessa was incorporated into the Persian Empire in 258 , the city of Arbela , situated on the Tigris in what is now Iraq , had taken on more and more the role that Edessa had played in the early years , as a centre from which Christianity spread to the rest of the Persian Empire . Bardaisan , writing about 196 , speaks of Christians throughout Media , Parthia and Bactria ( modern - day Afghanistan ) and , according to Tertullian ( c. 160 -- 230 ) , there were already a number of bishoprics within the Persian Empire by 220 . By 315 , the bishop of Seleucia -- Ctesiphon had assumed the title `` Catholicos '' . By this time , neither Edessa nor Arbela was the centre of the Church of the East anymore ; ecclesiastical authority had moved east to the heart of the Persian Empire . The twin cities of Seleucia - Ctesiphon , well - situated on the main trade routes between East and West , became , in the words of John Stewart , `` a magnificent centre for the missionary church that was entering on its great task of carrying the gospel to the far east '' . When Constantine converted to Christianity , and the Roman Empire which was previously violently anti-Christian became pro-Christian , the Persian Empire , suspecting a new `` enemy within '' , became violently anti-Christian . Within a few years , Shapur II ( 309 -- 379 ) inaugurated a twenty - year - long persecution of the church with the murder of Mar Shimun , the Catholicos of Seleucia - Ctesiphon , five bishops and 100 priests on Good Friday , 344 , after the Patriarch refused to collect a double tax from the Christians to help the Persian war effort against Rome . See also Christianity in Iran . Arabian peninsula ( edit ) See also : Ghassanids and Lakhmids To understand the penetration of the Arabian peninsula by the Christian gospel , it is helpful to distinguish between the Bedouin nomads of the interior , who were chiefly herdsmen and unreceptive to foreign control , and the inhabitants of the settled communities of the coastal areas and oases , who were either middlemen traders or farmers and were receptive to influences from abroad . Christianity apparently gained its strongest foothold in the ancient center of Semitic civilization in South - west Arabia or Yemen , ( sometimes known as Seba or Sheba , whose queen visited Solomon ) . Because of geographic proximity , acculturation with Ethiopia was always strong , and the royal family traces its ancestry to this queen . The presence of Arabians at Pentecost and Paul 's three - year sojourn in Arabia suggest a very early gospel witness . A 4th - century church history , states that the apostle Bartholomew preached in Arabia and that Himyarites were among his converts . The Al - Jubail Church in what is now Saudi Arabia was built in the 4th century . Arabia 's close relations with Ethiopia give significance to the conversion of the treasurer to the queen of Ethiopia , not to mention the tradition that the Apostle Matthew was assigned to this land . Eusebius says that `` one Pantaneous ( c . A.D. 190 ) was sent from Alexandria as a missionary to the nations of the East '' , including southwest Arabia , on his way to India . Nubia ( edit ) Christianity arrived early in Nubia . In the New Testament of the Christian Bible , a treasury official of `` Candace , queen of the Ethiopians '' returning from a trip to Jerusalem was baptised by Philip the Evangelist : Then the Angel of the Lord said to Philip , Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza , which is desert . And he arose and went : And behold , a man of Ethiopia , an Eunuch of great authority under Candace , Queen of E-thi - o'pi - ans , who had the charge of all her treasure , and had come to Jerusalem to worship . Ethiopia at that time meant any upper Nile region . Candace was the name and perhaps , title for the Meroë or Kushite queens . In the fourth century , bishop Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated Marcus as bishop of Philae before his death in 373 , showing that Christianity had permanently penetrated the region . John of Ephesus records that a Monophysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545 and another kingdom of Alodia converted around 569 . By the 7th century Makuria expanded becoming the dominant power in the region so strong enough to halt the southern expansion of Islam after the Arabs had taken Egypt . After several failed invasions the new rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola allowing for peaceful coexistence and trade . This treaty held for six hundred years allowing Arab traders introducing Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted Christianity . The last record of a bishop is at Qasr Ibrim in 1372 . See also ( edit ) Christianity in the 1st century Christianity in the 2nd century Christianity in the 3rd century Early Christian art and architecture Early Christianity History of Christianity History of early Christianity References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Paul , for example , greets a house church in Romans 16 : 5 . Jump up ^ ἐκκλησία . Liddell , Henry George ; Scott , Robert ; A Greek -- English Lexicon at the Perseus Project . Jump up ^ Bauer lexicon Jump up ^ Vidmar , The Catholic Church Through the Ages ( 2005 ) , pp. 19 -- 20 ^ Jump up to : Hitchcock , Geography of Religion ( 2004 ) , p. 281 , quote : `` By the year 100 , more than 40 Christian communities existed in cities around the Mediterranean , including two in North Africa , at Alexandria and Cyrene , and several in Italy . '' ^ Jump up to : Bokenkotter , A Concise History of the Catholic Church ( 2004 ) , p. 18 , quote : `` The story of how this tiny community of believers spread to many cities of the Roman Empire within less than a century is indeed a remarkable chapter in the history of humanity . '' Jump up ^ Bargil Pixner , The Church of the Apostles found on Mount Zion , Biblical Archaeology Review 16.3 May / June 1990 ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Jerusalem ( A.D. 71 -- 1099 ) : `` During the first Christian centuries the church at this place was the centre of Christianity in Jerusalem , `` Holy and glorious Sion , mother of all churches '' ( Intercession in `` St. James ' Liturgy '' , ed . Brightman , p. 54 ) . Saint Mark of syriac orthodox church is also known as last supper church and believe first christian church . `` ^ Jump up to : `` Jerusalem . '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 Jump up ^ St. James the Less Catholic Encyclopedia : `` Then we lose sight of James till St. Paul , three years after his conversion ( A.D. 37 ) , went up to Jerusalem ... On the same occasion , the `` pillars '' of the Church , James , Peter , and John `` gave to me ( Paul ) and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship ; that we should go unto the Gentiles , and they unto the circumcision '' ( Galatians 2 : 9 ) . '' Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia : Circumcision : In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature : `` Contact with Grecian life , especially at the games of the arena ( which involved nudity ) , made this distinction obnoxious to the Hellenists , or anti-nationalists ; and the consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by epispasm ( '' making themselves foreskins `` ; I Macc . i . 15 ; Josephus , `` Ant . '' xii. 5 , § 1 ; Assumptio Mosis , viii. ; I Cor . vii. 18 ; , Tosef. , Shab . xv. 9 ; Yeb . 72a , b ; Yer . Peah i . 16b ; Yeb . viii . 9a ) . All the more did the law - observing Jews defy the edict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision ( I Macc . i . 48 , 60 ; ii. 46 ) ; and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law , even at the risk of their lives , by themselves circumcising their sons. `` ; Hodges , Frederick , M. ( 2001 ) . `` The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome : Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos , Circumcision , Foreskin Restoration , and the Kynodesme '' ( PDF ) . The Bulletin of the History of Medicine . 75 ( Fall 2001 ) : 375 -- 405 . doi : 10.1353 / bhm. 2001.0119 . PMID 11568485 . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 24 . Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia : Baptism : `` According to rabbinical teachings , which dominated even during the existence of the Temple ( Pes . viii. 8 ) , Baptism , next to circumcision and sacrifice , was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism ( Yeb . 46b , 47b ; Ker . 9a ; ' Ab . Zarah 57a ; Shab . 135a ; Yer . Kid . iii. 14 , 64d ) . Circumcision , however , was much more important , and , like baptism , was called a `` seal '' ( Schlatter , `` Die Kirche Jerusalems '' , 1898 , p. 70 ) . But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity , and the sacrifices had ceased , Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life . The next ceremony , adopted shortly after the others , was the imposition of hands , which , it is known , was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi . Anointing with oil , which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism , and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews , was not a necessary condition . '' Jump up ^ `` peri'ah '' , ( Shab . xxx. 6 ) ^ Jump up to : `` James , St . '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 Jump up ^ Eusebius , Church History 3 , 5 , 3 ; Epiphanius , Panarion 29 , 7 , 7 - 8 ; 30 , 2 , 7 ; On Weights and Measures 15 . On the flight to Pella see : Jonathan Bourgel , `` ' The Jewish Christians ' Move from Jerusalem as a pragmatic choice '' , in : Dan Jaffe ( ed ) , Studies in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity , ( Leyden : Brill , 2010 ) , p. 107 - 138 ( https://www.academia.edu/4909339/THE_JEWISH_CHRISTIANS_MOVE_FROM_JERUSALEM_AS_A_PRAGMATIC_CHOICE ) . Jump up ^ P.H.R. van Houwelingen , `` Fleeing forward : The departure of Christians from Jerusalem to Pella '' , Westminster Theological Journal 65 ( 2003 ) , 181 - 200 . Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Jerusalem ( A.D. 71 -- 1099 ) : `` Epiphanius ( d . 403 ) says that when the Emperor Hadrian came to Jerusalem in 130 he found the Temple and the whole city destroyed save for a few houses , among them the one where the Apostles had received the Holy Ghost . This house , says Epiphanius , is `` in that part of Sion which was spared when the city was destroyed '' -- therefore in the `` upper part ( '' De mens. et pond. `` , cap . xiv ) . From the time of Cyril of Jerusalem , who speaks of `` the upper Church of the Apostles , where the Holy Ghost came down upon them '' ( Catech. , ii , 6 ; P.G. , XXXIII ) , there are abundant witnesses of the place . A great basilica was built over the spot in the fourth century ; the crusaders built another church when the older one had been destroyed by Hakim in 1010 . It is the famous Coenaculum or Cenacle -- now a Moslem shrine -- near the Gate of David , and supposed to be David 's tomb ( Nebi Daud ). `` ; Epiphanius ' Weights and Measures at tertullian. org. 14 : `` For this Hadrian ... '' Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia : Academies in Palestine Jump up ^ Harris , Stephen L. , Understanding the Bible . Palo Alto : Mayfield. 1985 . Jump up ^ It was still known as Aelia at the time of the First Council of Nicaea , which marks the end of the Early Christianity period ( Canon VII of the First Council of Nicaea ) . Jump up ^ Eusebius ' History of the Church Book IV , chapter V , verses 3 -- 4 Jump up ^ Socrates ' Church History at CCEL.org : Book I , Chapter XVII : The Emperor 's Mother Helena having come to Jerusalem , searches for and finds the Cross of Christ , and builds a Church . Jump up ^ Schaff 's Seven Ecumenical Councils : First Nicaea : Canon VII : `` Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia ( i.e. , Jerusalem ) should be honoured , let him , saving its due dignity to the Metropolis , have the next place of honour . '' ; `` It is very hard to determine just what was the `` precedence '' granted to the Bishop of Aelia , nor is it clear which is the metropolis referred to in the last clause . Most writers , including Hefele , Balsamon , Aristenus and Beveridge consider it to be Cæsarea ; while Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended , a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs ; others again suppose it is Antioch that is referred to . '' Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica `` Quinisext Council '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved February 14 , 2010 . `` The Western Church and the Pope were not represented at the council . Justinian , however , wanted the Pope as well as the Eastern bishops to sign the canons . Pope Sergius I ( 687 -- 701 ) refused to sign , and the canons were never fully accepted by the Western Church '' . Jump up ^ Quinisext Canon 36 from Schaff 's Seven Ecumenical Councils at ccel.org : `` we decree that the see of Constantinople shall have equal privileges with the see of Old Rome , and shall be highly regarded in ecclesiastical matters as that is , and shall be second after it . After Constantinople shall be ranked the See of Alexandria , then that of Antioch , and afterwards the See of Jerusalem . '' Jump up ^ Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 , article Antioch Jump up ^ Acts 11 : 26 Jump up ^ `` Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories ... The earliest bishops exercising such powers ... were those of Rome ( over the whole or part of Italy ) , Alexandria ( over Egypt and Libya ) , and Antioch ( over large parts of Asia Minor ) . These three were recognized by the Council of Nicaea ( 325 ) . '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 , article patriarch ( ecclesiastical ) Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia : Alexandria , Egypt -- Ancient Jump up ^ According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article Alexandria : `` An important seaport of Egypt , on the left bank of the Nile . It was founded by Alexander the Great to replace the small borough called Racondah or Rakhotis , 331 B.C. The Ptolemies , Alexander 's successors on the throne of Egypt , soon made it the intellectual and commercial metropolis of the world . Cæsar who visited it 46 B.C. left it to Queen Cleopatra , but when Octavius went there in 30 B.C. he transformed the Egyptian kingdom into a Roman province . Alexandria continued prosperous under the Roman rule but declined a little under that of Constantinople ... Christianity was brought to Alexandria by the Evangelist St. Mark . It was made illustrious by a lineage of learned doctors such as Pantænus , Clement of Alexandria , and Origen ; it has been governed by a series of great bishops amongst whom Athanasius and Cyril must be mentioned . '' Jump up ^ Philip Schaff 's History of the Christian Church , volume 3 , section 79 : `` The Time of the Easter Festival '' : `` ... this was the second main object of the first ecumenical council in 325 . The result of the transactions on this point , the particulars of which are not known to us , does not appear in the canons ( probably out of consideration for the numerous Quartodecimanians ) , but is doubtless preserved in the two circular letters of the council itself and the emperor Constantine . ( Socrates : Hist . Eccl . i . 9 ; Theodoret : H.E. i . 10 ; Eusebius : Vita Const ii. 17 . ) '' Jump up ^ Brown , Raymond E. ( 1997 ) . Introduction to the New Testament . New York : Anchor Bible . p. 334 . ISBN 0 - 385 - 24767 - 2 . Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Asia Minor : Spread of Christianity in Asia Minor : `` Asia Minor was certainly the first part of the Roman world to accept as a whole the principles and the spirit of the Christian religion , and it was not unnatural that the warmth of its conviction should eventually fire the neighbouring Armenia and make it , early in the fourth century , the first of the ancient states formally to accept the religion of Christ ( Eusebius , Hist . Eccl. , IX , viii , 2 ) . '' Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Caesarea Palaestinae , perhaps an oversight , what does the New Catholic Encyclopedia say ? ; the `` council '' is most likely a reference to Theophilus , bishop of Caesarea , see also Eusebius ' Church History Book V chapter 23 . Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Jerusalem ( A.D. 71 -- 1099 ) : `` As the rank of the various sees among themselves was gradually arranged according to the divisions of the empire , Caesarea became the metropolitan see ; the Bishop of Ælia ( Jerusalem as renamed by Hadrian ) was merely one of its suffragans . The bishops from the siege under Hadrian ( 135 ) to Constantine ( 312 ) were : '' . Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Caesarea Palaestinae Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : St. Barnabas Jump up ^ Philippi : Catholic Encyclopedia `` Philippi was the first European town in which St. Paul preached the Faith . He arrived there with Silas , Timothy , and Luke about the end of 52 A.D. , on the occasion of his second Apostolic voyage . '' Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Corinth Jump up ^ Acts 18 : 1 -- 2 ; The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ( Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 280290 - 3 ) , article Priscilla , St Jump up ^ `` Paul , St '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 Jump up ^ Pennington , p. 2 Jump up ^ St - Paul - Outside - the - Walls homepage Archived July 20 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva 's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96 . From then on , practising Jews paid the tax , Christians did not . Wylen , Stephen M. , The Jews in the Time of Jesus : An Introduction , Paulist Press ( 1995 ) , ISBN 0 - 8091 - 3610 - 4 , Pp 190 -- 192. ; Dunn , James D.G. , Jews and Christians : The Parting of the Ways , 70 to 135 , Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing ( 1999 ) , ISBN 0 - 8028 - 4498 - 7 , Pp 33 -- 34. ; Boatwright , Mary Taliaferro & Gargola , Daniel J & Talbert , Richard John Alexander , The Romans : From Village to Empire , Oxford University Press ( 2004 ) , ISBN 0 - 19 - 511875 - 8 , p. 426. ; ^ Jump up to : The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ( Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 280290 - 3 ) , article Rome ( early Christian ) Jump up ^ Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3. 2 : the `` ... Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles , Peter and Paul ; as also ( by pointing out ) the faith preached to men , which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops ... The blessed apostles , then , having founded and built up the Church , committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate . '' Jump up ^ `` Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3. 2 '' ... ( the ) Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles , Peter and Paul ; as also ( by pointing out ) the faith preached to men , which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops ... The blessed apostles , then , having founded and built up the Church , committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate . Jump up ^ Franzen 26 Jump up ^ chapter 16 Jump up ^ Brown , Raymond E. and Meier , John P. ( 1983 ) . Antioch and Rome : New Testament Cradles of Christianity . Paulist Press . As for Peter , we have no knowledge at all of when he came to Rome and what he did there before he was martyred . Certainly he was not the original missionary who brought Christianity to Rome ( and therefore not the founder of the church of Rome in that sense ) . There is no serious proof that he was the bishop ( or local ecclesiastical officer ) of the Roman church -- a claim not made till the third century . Most likely he did not spend any major time at Rome before 58 when Paul wrote to the Romans , and so it may have been only in the 60s and relatively shortly before his martyrdom that Peter came to the capital . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) ^ Jump up to : `` In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large . '' While Cullman believed the Matthew 16 : 18 text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious , he says it can not be used as `` warrant of the papal succession . '' -- `` Religion : Peter & the Rock . '' Time `` , December 7 , 1953 . Time.com Accessed October 8 , 2009 Jump up ^ Cullman , Oscar `` In the New Testament ( Jerusalem ) is the only church of which we hear that Peter stood at its head . Of other episcopates of Peter we know nothing certain . Concerning Antioch , indeed ... there is a tradition , first appearing in the course of the second century , according to which Peter was its bishop . The assertion that he was Bishop of Rome we first find at a much later time . From the second half of the second century we do possess texts that mention the apostolic foundation of Rome , and at this time , which is indeed rather late , this foundation is traced back to Peter and Paul , an assertion that can not be supported historically . Even here , however , nothing is said as yet of an episcopal office of Peter . '' Jump up ^ Schaff 's Seven Ecumenical Councils : The Seventh : Letter to Pope Hadrian : `` Therefore , O most holy Head ( Caput ) '' , `` And after this , may there be no further schism and separation in the one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church , of which Christ our true God is the Head . '' ; Pope Hadrian 's letter : `` the holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church your spiritual mother ... the head of all Churches '' ; Canon IV : `` For Peter the supreme head ( ἡ κερυφαία ἀκρότης ) of the Apostles '' ; Letter to the Emperor and Empress : `` Christ our God ( who is the head of the Church ) '' . Jump up ^ First Council of Nicaea , canon VI Jump up ^ `` Patriarch ( ecclesiastical ) . A title dating from the 6th cent. , for the bishops of the five chief sees of Christendom ... Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories ... The earliest bishops exercising such powers , though not so named , were those of Rome ( over the whole or part of Italy , Alexandria ( over Egypt and Libya ) , and Antioch ( over large parts of Asia Minor ) ) '' ( Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 , article Patriarch ( ecclesiastical ) ) . `` Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then , or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward , when they were so called '' ( ffoulkes , Dictionary of Christian Antiquities , quoted in Volume XIV of Philip Schaff 's The Seven Ecumenical Councils ) . Jump up ^ Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 , article `` Victor I , St '' Jump up ^ Candida Moss ( 2013 ) . The Myth of Persecution . HarperCollins . p. 153 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 210452 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Tertullian . '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 Jump up ^ `` Cyprian , St . '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Reggio di Calabria : `` Through a misinterpretation of Acts 27 : 13 , St. Paul was said to have preached the Gospel there , and to have consecrated his companion , St. Stephen , bishop ; it is probable , however , that it was evangelized at an early period . The first bishop known is Mark , legate of Pope Sylvester at the Council of Nicaea ( 325 ) . '' ^ Jump up to : Portella , Mario Alexis ; Woldegaber , O. Cist Abba Abraham Buruk ( 2012 - 01 - 01 ) . Pringle , Brendan , ed . Abyssinian Christianity : The First Christian Nation . Pismo Beach , California : BP Editing . ISBN 9780615652979 . Jump up ^ `` Ethiopia : The First Christian Nation ? '' . International Business Times . 2013 - 03 - 04 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 14 . Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia : Ethiopia Jump up ^ Armenian History , Chapter III ^ Jump up to : `` Georgia , Church of . '' Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 Jump up ^ von Harnack , Adolph ( 1905 ) . The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries . Williams & Norgate . p. 293 . there is no doubt that even before 190 A.D. Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that ( shortly after 201 or even earlier ? ) the royal house joined the church Jump up ^ Cross , F.L. , ed . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church . New York : Oxford University Press . 2005 , article Diatessaron Jump up ^ Eusebius of Caesarea , Historia Ecclesiastica , V , 23 Jump up ^ Chronicon Edessenum , ad . an . 201 Jump up ^ Christianity Encyclopædia Iranica ^ Jump up to : Mark Dickens : The Church of the East Jump up ^ `` We are Christians by the one name of the Messiah . As regards our customs our brethren abstain from everything that is contrary to their profession ... Parthian Christians do not take two wives ... Our Bactrian sisters do not practice promiscuity with strangers . Persians do not take their daughters to wife . Medes do not desert their dying relations or bury them alive . Christians in Edessa do not kill their wives or sisters who commit fornication but keep them apart and commit them to the judgement of God . Christians in Hatra do not stone thieves '' ( quoted in Mark Dickens : The Church of the East ) . Jump up ^ John Stewart , Nestorian Missionary Enterprise ( Edinburgh : T & T Clark , 1928 ) Jump up ^ Acts 8 : 26 -- 27 Bibliography ( edit ) Dunn , James D.G . Jews and Christians : The Parting of the Ways , AD 70 to 135 . Pp 33 -- 34 . Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing ( 1999 ) . ISBN 0 - 8028 - 4498 - 7 . Esler , Philip F. The Early Christian World . Routledge ( 2004 ) . ISBN 0 - 415 - 33312 - 1 . Pelikan , Jaroslav Jan . The Christian Tradition : The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition ( 100 -- 600 ) . University of Chicago Press ( 1975 ) . ISBN 0 - 226 - 65371 - 4 . Stark , Rodney. The Rise of Christianity . Harper Collins Pbk . Ed edition 1997 . ISBN 0 - 06 - 067701 - 5 Taylor , Joan E. Christians and the Holy Places : The Myth of Jewish - Christian Origins . Oxford University Press ( 1993 ) . ISBN 0 - 19 - 814785 - 6 . Thiede , Carsten Peter . The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity . Palgrabe Macmillan ( 2003 ) . ISBN 1 - 4039 - 6143 - 3 . 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6540649498553152590 | Tariffs in United States history | Tariffs in United States History - Wikipedia Tariffs in United States History Jump to : navigation , search This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( March 2018 ) An automated process has detected links on this page on the local or global blacklist . If the links are appropriate you may request whitelisting by following these instructions ; otherwise consider removing or replacing them with more appropriate links . ( To hide this tag , set the `` invisible '' field to `` true '' ) List of blacklisted links : ( show ) http://www.econlib.org/library/Taussig/tsgEnc1.html Triggered by \ beconlib \. org \ b on the local blacklist http://www.econlib.org/library/Taussig/tsgSTQtoc.html Triggered by \ beconlib \. org \ b on the local blacklist See also : Excise tax in the United States This article is part of a series on Taxation in the United States of America Federal taxation ( show ) Alternative minimum tax Capital gains tax Corporate tax Estate tax Excise tax Gift tax Income tax Payroll tax Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) Internal Revenue Code ( IRC ) IRS tax forms Revenue by state History Constitutional authority Taxpayer standing Court Protest Evasion State and local taxation ( show ) State income tax Property tax Sales tax Use tax Land value tax State tax levels Federal tax reform ( show ) Automated payment transaction tax 9 -- 9 -- 9 Competitive Tax Plan Efficient Taxation of Income FairTax Flat tax Hall -- Rabushka flat tax Kemp Commission Taxpayer Choice Act USA Tax Value added tax Border - adjustment tax United States portal The tariff history of the United States spans from colonial times to present . The first tariff law passed by the U.S. Congress , acting under the then recently ratified Constitution , was the Tariff of 1789 . Its purpose was to generate revenue for the federal government ( to run the government and to pay the interest on its debt ) , and also to act as a protective barrier around domestic industries . An Import tax was collected by treasury agents before goods could be landed at U.S. ports . Tariffs have historically served a key role in the nation 's foreign trade policy . They were the greatest ( approaching 95 % at times ) source of federal revenue until the Federal income tax began after 1913 . For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20 % on foreign imports . There are no tariffs for imports or shipments from one state to another . Since the 1940s , foreign trade policies have focused more on reciprocal tariffs and low tariff rates rather than using tariffs as a significant source of Federal tax revenue . Tariffs were the main source of revenue for the federal government from 1789 to 1914 . During this period , there was vigorous debate between the various political parties over the setting of tariff rates . In general Democrats favored a tariff that would pay the cost of government , but no higher . Whigs and Republicans favored higher tariffs to protect and encourage American industry and industrial workers . Since the early 20th century , however , U.S. tariffs have been very low and have been much less a matter of partisan debate . Prior to the American Civil War tariffs were generally low , but rose during its duration . At the end of the war in 1865 about 63 % of federal revenue was generated by excise taxes , which exceeded the 25.4 % generated by tariffs . In 1915 during World War I tariffs generated 30.1 % of revenues . Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal revenues . U.S. Historical Tariffs ( Customs ) Collections by Federal Government ( All dollar amounts are in millions of U.S. dollars ) Notes : Average Tariff Rate % = Customs Revenue / cost of Imports ( goods ) Tariffs -- often called Customs or duties on imports Sources : Historical Statistics of the United States ( Colonial Times to 1957 ) Historical Statistics of the United States ( Colonial Times to 1970 ) Bicentennial Edition Historical Statistics of the United States , Colonial Times to 1970 Historical Tables U.S. imports for consumption , duties collected , and ratio of duties to value , 1891 -- 2016 ; U.S. imports for consumption under tariff preference programs , 1976 -- 2016 U.S. Trade in Goods and Services - Balance of Payments ( BOP ) Basis , 1960 -- 2010 Contents ( hide ) 1 Historical trends 2 Colonial Era to 1789 3 Early National period , 1789 -- 1828 4 Second Party System , 1829 -- 1859 4.1 Walker Tariff 4.2 Low tariff of 1857 5 1860 -- 1912 5.1 Civil War 5.2 Reconstruction Era 5.3 Politics of protection 5.4 Farmers and wool 5.5 U.S. industrial output 5.6 Cleveland tariff policy 5.7 McKinley tariff policy 5.8 Tariff with Canada 6 1913 to present 6.1 Tariffs and Great Depression 6.2 Trade liberalization 6.3 Post World War II 6.4 1980s to present 7 Smuggling and Coast Guard 8 Tariffs and historical American politicians 8.1 George Washington 8.2 Thomas Jefferson 8.3 Henry Clay 8.4 Andrew Jackson 8.5 James Monroe 8.6 Abraham Lincoln 8.7 William McKinley 8.8 Theodore Roosevelt 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Historical trends ( edit ) Average tariff rates ( France , UK , US ) Average Tariff Rates in US ( 1821 -- 2016 ) U.S. Trade Balance and Trade Policies ( 1895 -- 2015 ) Average Tariff Rates for Selected Countries ( 1913 -- 2007 ) Trade policy , exports and growth in selected European countries Average Tariff Rates on manufactured products Average levels of duties ( 1875 and 1913 ) See also : List of tariffs in the United States , Protectionism in the United States , and Foreign trade of the United States According to Michael Lind , protectionism was America 's de facto policy from the passage of the Tariff of 1816 to World War II , `` switching to free trade only in 1945 , when most of its industrial competitors had been wiped out '' by the war. . It has been argued that one of the underlying motivations for the American Revolution itself was a desire to industrialize , and reverse the trade deficit with Britain , which had grown by a factor of ten in the space of a few decades , from £ 67,000 ( 1721 -- 30 ) to £ 739,000 ( 1761 -- 70 ) . According to Paul Bairoch , since the end of the 18th century , the United States has been `` the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism '' . In fact , the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945 . A very protectionist policy was adopted as soon as the presidency of George Washington by Alexander Hamilton , the first US Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 and author of the text Report on Manufactures which called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries , including bounties ( subsidies ) derived in part from those tariffs . This text was one of the references of the German economist Friedrich List ( 1789 -- 1846 ) . The United States has become the main opposition to free trade and this policy remained throughout the 19th century : the overall level of tariffs was very high ( close to 50 % in 1830 ) . The victory of the protectionist states of the North over the free trade southern states at the end of the Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) perpetuated this trend , even during periods of free trade in Europe ( 1860 -- 1880 ) . Hamilton explained that despite an initial `` increase of price '' caused by regulations that control foreign competition , once a `` domestic manufacture has attained to perfection ... it invariably becomes cheaper . '' George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789 , making it the Republic 's second ever piece of legislation . Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods , particularly war materials , was seen as an issue of national security . Washington and Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence . In the 19th century , statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton 's themes within the Whig Party under the name `` American System . '' The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln , who called himself a `` Henry Clay tariff Whig '' , strongly opposed free trade , and implemented a 44 - percent tariff during the Civil War -- in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort , and to protect favored industries . From 1871 to 1913 , `` the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent ( and ) gross national product ( GNP ) grew 4.3 percent annually , twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century , '' notes Alfred Eckes Jr. , chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan . In 1896 , the GOP platform pledged to `` renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection , as the bulwark of American industrial independence , and the foundation of development and prosperity . This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry . It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods ; it secures the American market for the American producer . It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman . '' Colonial era to 1789 ( edit ) In the colonial era , before 1775 , nearly every colony levied its own tariffs , usually with lower rates for British products . There were taxes on ships ( on a tonnage basis ) , import taxes on slaves , export taxes on tobacco , and import taxes on alcoholic beverages . The London government insisted on a policy of mercantilism whereby only British ships could trade in the colonies . In defiance , some American merchants engaged in smuggling . During the Revolution , the British blockade from 1775 to 1783 largely ended foreign trade . In the 1783 -- 89 Confederation Period , each state set up its own trade rules , often imposing tariffs or restrictions on neighboring states . The new Constitution , which went into effect in 1789 , banned interstate tariffs or trade restrictions , as well as state taxes on exports . Early national period , 1789 -- 1828 ( edit ) The framers of the United States Constitution gave the federal government authority to tax , stating that Congress has the power to `` ... lay and collect taxes , duties , imposts and excises , pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States . '' and also `` To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations , and among the several States , and with the Indian Tribes . '' Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U.S. Constitution , and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax - free . Responding to an urgent need for revenue and a trade imbalance with England that was fast destroying the infant American industries and draining the nation of its currency , the First United States Congress passed , and President George Washington signed , the Hamilton Tariff of 1789 , which authorized the collection of duties on imported goods . Customs duties as set by tariff rates up to 1860 were usually about 80 -- 95 % of all federal revenue . Having just fought a war over taxation ( among other things ) the U.S. Congress wanted a reliable source of income that was relatively unobtrusive and easy to collect . It also sought to protect the infant industries that had developed during the war but which were now threatened by cheaper imports , especially from England . Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first United States Secretary of the Treasury , Alexander Hamilton in 1789 to tax foreign imports and set up low excise taxes on whiskey and a few other products to provide the Federal Government with enough money to pay its operating expenses and to redeem at full value U.S. Federal debts and the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolutionary War . The Congress set low excise taxes on only a few goods , such as , whiskey , rum , tobacco , snuff and refined sugar . The tax on whiskey was highly controversial and set of massive protests by Western Farmers in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 , which was suppressed by General Washington at the head of an army . The whiskey excise tax collected so little and was so despised it was abolished by President Thomas Jefferson in 1802 . All tariffs were on a long list of goods ( dutiable goods ) with different customs rates and some goods on a `` free '' list . Congress spent enormous amounts of time figuring out these tariff import tax schedules . With tariffs providing the basic federal revenue , an embargo on trade , or an enemy blockade , would threaten havoc . This happened in connection with the American economic warfare against Britain in the 1807 -- 15 period . In 1807 imports dropped by more than half and some products became much more expensive or unobtainable . Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807 and the Non-Intercourse Act ( 1809 ) to punish British and French governments for their actions ; unfortunately their main effect was to reduce imports even more . The War of 1812 brought a similar set of problems as U.S. trade was again restricted by British naval blockades . The fiscal crisis was made much worse by the abolition of the First Bank of the U.S. , which was the national bank . It was reestablished right after the war . The lack of imported goods relatively quickly gave very strong incentives to start building several U.S. industries in the Northeast . Textiles and machinery especially grew . Many new industries were set up and run profitably during the wars and about half of them failed after hostilities ceased and normal imports resumed . Industry in the U.S. was advancing up the skill set , innovation knowledge and organization curve . The Tariff Act of 1789 imposed the first national source of revenue for the newly formed United States . The new U.S. Constitution ratified in 1789 , allowed only the federal government to levy uniform tariffs . Only the federal government could set tariff rates ( customs ) , so the old system of separate state rates disappeared . The new law taxed all imports at rates from 5 to 15 percent . These rates were primarily designed to generate revenue to pay the annual expenses of the federal government and the national debt and the debts the states had accumulated during the American War of Independence and to also promote manufactures and independence from foreign nations , especially for defense needs . Hamilton believed that all Revolutionary War debt should be paid in full to establish and keep U.S. financial credibility . In addition to income in his Report on Manufactures Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton proposed a far - reaching plan to use protective tariffs as a lever for rapid industrialization . In the late 18th century the industrial age was just starting and the United States had little or no textile industry -- the heart of the early Industrial Revolution . The British government having just lost the Revolutionary War tried to maintain their near monopoly on cheap and efficient textile manufacturing by prohibiting the export of textile machines , machine models or the emigration of people familiar with these machines . Clothing in the early United States was nearly all hand made by a very time consuming and expensive process -- just like it had been made for centuries before . The new textile manufacturing techniques in Britain were often over thirty times cheaper as well as being easier to use , more efficient and productive . Hamilton believed that a stiff tariff on imports would not only raise income but `` protect '' and help subsidize early efforts at setting up manufacturing facilities that could compete with British products . Samuel Slater in 1789 emigrated ( illegally since he was familiar with textile manufacturing ) from Britain . Looking for opportunities he heard of the failing attempts at making cotton mills in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Contacting the owners he promised to see if he could fix their mills -- they offered him a full partnership if he succeeded . Declaring their early attempts unworkable he proceeded from January 1790 to December 1790 to build the first operational textile manufacturing facility in the United States . The Industrial Revolution was off and running in the United States . Initially the cost of their textiles was slightly higher than the cost of equivalent British goods but the tariff helped protect their early start - up industry . The high protectionism tariffs Hamilton originally called for were not adopted until after the War of 1812 , when nationalists such as Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun saw the need for more federal income and more industry . In wartime , they declared , having a home industry was a necessity to avoid shortages . Likewise owners of the small new factories that were springing up in the northeast to mass - produce boots , hats , nails and other common items wanted higher tariffs that would significantly protect them for a time from more efficient British producers . A 10 % discount on the customs tax was offered on items imported in American ships , so that the American merchant marine would be supported . Once industrialization and mass production started , the demand for higher and higher tariffs came from manufacturers and factory workers . They believed that their businesses should be protected from the lower wages and more efficient factories of Britain and the rest of Europe . Nearly every northern Congressman was eager to logroll a higher tariff rate for his local industry . Senator Daniel Webster , formerly a spokesperson for Boston 's merchants who imported goods ( and wanted low tariffs ) , switched dramatically to represent the manufacturing interests in the Tariff of 1824 . Rates were especially high for bolts of cloth and for bar iron , of which Britain was a low - cost producer . The culmination came in the Tariff of 1828 , ridiculed by free traders as the `` Tariff of Abominations '' , with import custom duties averaging over 25 percent . Intense political opposition to higher tariffs came from Southern Democrats and plantation owners in South Carolina who had little manufacturing industry and imported some products with high tariffs . They would have to pay more for imports . They claimed their economic interest was being unfairly injured . They attempted to `` nullify '' the federal tariff and spoke of secession from the Union ( see the Nullification Crisis ) . President Andrew Jackson let it be known he would use the U.S. Army to enforce the law , and no state supported the South Carolina call for nullification . A compromise ended the crisis included a lowering of the average tariff rate over ten years to a rate of 15 % to 20 % . Second Party system , 1829 -- 1859 ( edit ) Main article : Second Party System Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the Whigs ( 1832 -- 1852 ) and ( after 1854 ) the Republicans wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern Democrats , which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs . Each party as it came into power voted to raise or lower tariffs under the constraints that the Federal Government always needed a certain level of revenues . The United States public debt was paid off in 1834 and President Andrew Jackson , a strong Southern Democrat , oversaw the cutting of the tariff rates roughly in half and eliminating nearly all federal excise taxes in about 1835 . Henry Clay and his Whig Party , envisioning a rapid modernization based on highly productive factories , sought a high tariff . Their key argument was that startup factories , or `` infant industries '' , would at first be less efficient than European ( British ) producers . Furthermore , American factory workers were paid higher wages than their European competitors . The arguments proved highly persuasive in industrial districts . Clay 's position was adopted in the 1828 and 1832 Tariff Acts . The Nullification Crisis forced a partial abandonment of the Whig position . When the Whigs won victories in the 1840 and 1842 elections , taking control of Congress , they re-instituted higher tariffs with the Tariff of 1842 . In examining these debates Moore finds that they were not precursors to Civil War . Instead they looked backward and continued the old debate whether foreign trade policy should embrace free trade or protectionism . Walker tariff ( edit ) The Democrats won in 1845 , electing James K. Polk as president . Polk succeeded in passing the Walker tariff of 1846 by uniting the rural and agricultural factions of the entire country for lower tariffs . They sought a level of a `` tariff for revenue only '' that would pay the cost of government but not show favoritism to one section or economic sector at the expense of another . The Walker Tariff actually increased trade with Britain and others and brought in more revenue to the federal treasury than the higher tariff . The average tariff on the Walker Tariff was about 25 % . While protectionists in Pennsylvania and neighboring states were angered , the South achieved its goal of setting low tariff rates before the Civil War . Low tariff of 1857 ( edit ) The Walker Tariff remained in place until 1857 , when a nonpartisan coalition lowered them again with the Tariff of 1857 to 18 % . This was in response to the British repeal of their protectionist `` Corn Laws '' . The Democrats in Congress , dominated by Southern Democrats , wrote and passed the tariff laws in the 1830s , 1840s , and 1850s , and kept reducing rates , so that the 1857 rates were down to about 15 % , a move that boosted trade so overwhelmingly that revenues actually increased , from just over $20 million in 1840 ( $0.5 billion in 2016 dollars ) , to more than $80 million by 1856 ( $1.7 billion ) . The South had almost no complaints but the low rates angered many Northern industrialists and factory workers , especially in Pennsylvania , who demanded protection for their growing iron industry . The Republican Party replaced the Whigs in 1854 and also favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth ; it was part of the 1860 Republican platform . The Morrill Tariff significantly raising tariff rates became possible only after the Southern Senators walked out of Congress when their states left the Union , leaving a Republican majority . It was signed by Democratic President James Buchanan in early March 1861 shortly before President Abraham Lincoln took office . Pennsylvania iron mills and New England woolen mills mobilized businessmen and workers to call for high tariffs , but Republican merchants wanted low tariffs . The high tariff advocates lost in 1857 , but stepped up their campaign by blaming the economic recession of 1857 on the lower rates . Economist Henry Charles Carey of Philadelphia was the most outspoken advocate , along with Horace Greeley and his influential newspaper , the New York Tribune . Increases were finally enacted in February 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress on the eve of the Civil War . Some historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue as a cause of the war , noting that few people in 1860 -- 61 said it was of central importance to them . Compromises were proposed in 1860 -- 61 to save the Union , but they did not involve the tariff . Arguably , the effects of a tariff enacted in March 1861 could have made little impact upon any delegation which met prior to its signing . It is indicative of the Northern industrial supported and anti-agrarian position of that 1861 Republican controlled congress . Some secessionist documents do mention a tariff issue , though not nearly as often as the preservation of the impactful economic institution of slavery . However , a few libertarian economists place more importance on the tariff issue . 1860 -- 1912 ( edit ) Civil War ( edit ) During the war far more revenue was needed , so the rates were raised again and again , along with many other taxes such as excise taxes on luxuries and income taxes on the rich . By far most of the wartime government revenue came from bonds and loans ( $2.6 billion ) , not taxes ( $357 million ) or tariffs ( $305 million ) . The Morrill Tariff took effect a few weeks before the war began on April 12 , 1861 , and was not collected in the South . The Confederate States of America ( CSA ) passed its own tariff of about 15 % on most items , including many items that previously were duty - free from the North . Previously tariffs between states were prohibited . The Confederates believed that they could finance their government by tariffs . The anticipated tariff revenue never appeared as the Union Navy blockaded their ports and the Union army restricted their trade with the Northern states . The Confederacy collected a mere $3.5 million in tariff revenue from the Civil War start to end and had to resort to inflation and confiscation instead for revenue . Reconstruction era ( edit ) Further information : Reconstruction Era § Revisionists and Beardians , 1930s -- 1940s Historian Howard K. Beale argued that high tariffs were needed during the Civil War , but were retained after the war for the benefit of Northern industrialists , who would otherwise lose markets and profits . To keep political control of Congress , Beale argued , Northern Industrialists worked through the Republican Party and supported Reconstruction policies that kept low - tariff Southern whites out of power . The Beale thesis was widely disseminated by the influential survey of Charles A. Beard , The Rise of American Civilization ( 1927 ) . In the late 1950s historians rejected the Beale - Beard thesis by showing that Northern businessmen were evenly divided on the tariff , and were not using Reconstruction policies to support it . Politics of protection ( edit ) The iron and steel industry , and the wool industry , were the well - organized interests groups that demanded ( and usually obtained ) high tariffs through support of the Republican Party . Industrial workers had much higher wages than their European counterparts , and they creditied it to the tariff and voted Republican . Democrats were divided on the issue , in large part because of pro-tariff elements in the Pennsylvania party who wanted to protect the growing iron industry , as well as pockets of high tariff support in nearby industrializing states . However President Grover Cleveland made low tariffs the centerpiece of Democratic Party policies in the late 1880s . His argument is that high tariffs were an unnecessary and unfair tax on consumers . The South and West generally supported low tariffs , and the industrial East high tariffs . Republican William McKinley was the outstanding spokesman for high tariffs , promising it would bring prosperity for all groups . After the Civil War , high tariffs remained as the Republican Party remained in office and the Southern Democrats were restricted from office . Advocates insisted that tariffs brought prosperity to the nation as a whole and no one was really injured . As industrialization proceeded apace throughout the Northeast , some Democrats , especially Pennsylvanians , became high tariff advocates . Farmers and wool ( edit ) The Republican high tariff advocates appealed to farmers with the theme that high - wage factory workers would pay premium prices for foodstuffs . This was the `` home market '' idea , and it won over most farmers in the Northeast , but it had little relevance to the southern and western farmers who exported most of their cotton , tobacco and wheat . In the late 1860s the wool manufacturers ( based near Boston and Philadelphia ) formed the first national lobby , and cut deals with wool - growing farmers in several states . Their challenge was that fastidious wool producers in Britain and Australia marketed a higher quality fleece than the careless Americans , and that British manufacturers had costs as low as the American mills . The result was a wool tariff that helped the farmers by a high rate on imported wool -- a tariff the American manufacturers had to pay -- together with a high tariff on finished woolens and worsted goods . U.S. industrial output ( edit ) Apart from wool and woolens , American industry and agriculture -- and industrial workers -- had become the most efficient in the world by the 1880s as they took the lead in the worldwide Industrial Revolution . They were not at risk from cheap imports . No other country had the industrial capacity , large market , the high efficiency and low costs , or the complex distribution system needed to compete in the vast American market . Indeed , it was the British who watched in stunned horror as cheaper American products flooded their home islands . Wailed the London Daily Mail in 1900 , `` We have lost to the American manufacturer electrical machinery , locomotives , steel rails , sugar - producing and agricultural machinery , and latterly even stationary engines , the pride and backbone of the British engineering industry . '' Nevertheless , some American manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff be maintained . The tariff represented a complex balance of forces . Railroads , for example , consumed vast quantities of steel . To the extent tariffs raised steel prices , they paid much more making possible the U.S steel industry 's massive investment to expand capacity and switch to the Bessemer process and later to the open hearth furnace . Between 1867 and 1900 U.S. steel production increased more than 500 times from 22,000 tons to 11,400,000 tons and Bessemer steel rails , first made in the U.S that would last 18 years under heavy traffic , would come to replace the old wrought iron rail that could only endure two years under light service . Taussig says that in 1881 , British steel rails sold for $31 a ton , and if Americans imported them they paid a $28 / ton tariff , giving $59 / ton for an imported ton of rails . American mills charged $61 a ton -- and made a huge profit , which was then reinvested into increased capacity , higher quality steels and more efficient production . By 1897 the American steel rail price had dropped to $19.60 per ton compared to the British price at $21.00 -- not including the $7.84 duty charge -- demonstrating that the tariff had performed its purpose of giving the industry time to become competitive . Then the U.S. steel industry became an exporter of steel rail to England selling below the British price and during WW I would become the largest supplier of steel to the allies . From 1915 through 1918 , the largest American steel company , U.S. Steel , alone delivered more steel each year than Germany and Austria - Hungary combined , totalling 99,700,000 tons during WW I . The Republicans became masters of negotiating exceedingly complex arrangements so that inside each of their congressional districts there were more satisfied `` winners '' than disgruntled `` losers '' . The tariff after 1880 was an ideological relic with no longer any economic rationale . Cleveland tariff policy ( edit ) Democratic President Grover Cleveland redefined the issue in 1887 , with his stunning attack on the tariff as inherently corrupt , opposed to true republicanism , and inefficient to boot : `` When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise ... it is plain that the exaction of more than ( minimal taxes ) is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice . '' The election of 1888 was fought primarily over the tariff issue , and Cleveland lost . Republican Congressman William McKinley argued , `` Free foreign trade gives our money , our manufactures , and our markets to other nations to the injury of our labor , our tradespeople , and our farmers . Protection keeps money , markets , and manufactures at home for the benefit of our own people . '' Democrats campaigned energetically against the high McKinley tariff of 1890 , and scored sweeping gains that year ; they restored Cleveland to the White House in 1892 . The severe depression that started in 1893 ripped apart the Democratic party . Cleveland and the pro-business Bourbon Democrats insisted on a much lower tariff . His problem was that Democratic electoral successes had brought in Democratic congressmen from industrial districts who were willing to raise rates to benefit their constituents . The Wilson - Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 did lower overall rates from 50 percent to 42 percent , but contained so many concessions to protectionism that Cleveland refused to sign it ( it became law anyway ) . McKinley tariff policy ( edit ) President Teddy Roosevelt watches GOP team pull apart on tariff issue McKinley campaigned heavily in 1896 on the high tariff as a positive solution to depression . Promising protection and prosperity to every economic sector , he won a smashing victory . The Republicans rushed through the Dingley tariff in 1897 , boosting rates back to the 50 percent level . Democrats responded that the high rates created government sponsored `` trusts '' ( monopolies ) and led to higher consumer prices . McKinley won reelection by an even bigger landslide and started talking about a post-tariff era of reciprocal trade agreements . Reciprocity went nowhere ; McKinley 's vision was a half century too early . The Republicans split bitterly on the Payne - Aldrich Tariff of 1909 . Republican President Theodore Roosevelt ( 1901 -- 1909 ) saw the tariff issue was ripping his party apart , so he postponed any consideration of it . The delicate balance flew apart on under Republican William Howard Taft . He campaigned for president in 1908 for tariff `` reform '' , which everyone assumed meant lower rates . The House lowered rates with the Payne Bill , then sent it to the Senate where Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich mobilized high - rate Senators . Aldrich was a New England businessman and a master of the complexities of the tariff , the Midwestern Republican insurgents were rhetoricians and lawyers who distrusted the special interests and assumed the tariff was `` sheer robbery '' at the expense of the ordinary consumer . Rural America believed that its superior morality deserved special protection , while the dastardly immorality of the trusts -- and cities generally -- merited financial punishment . Aldrich baited them . Did the insurgents want lower tariffs ? His wickedly clever Payne - Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909 lowered the protection on Midwestern farm products , while raising rates favorable to his Northeast . By 1913 with the new income tax generating revenue , the Democrats in Congress were able to reduce rates with the Underwood Tariff . The outbreak of war in 1914 made the impact of tariffs of much less importance compared to war contracts . When the Republicans returned to power the returned the rates to a high level in the Fordney -- McCumber Tariff of 1922 . The next raise came with the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 at the start of the Great Depression . Tariff with Canada ( edit ) The Canadian - American Reciprocity Treaty increased trade between 1855 and its ending in 1866 . When it ended Canada turned to tariffs . The National Policy was a Canadian economic program introduced by John A. Macdonald 's Conservative Party in 1879 after it returned to power . It had been an official policy , however , since 1876 . It was based on high tariffs to protect Canada 's manufacturing industry . Macdonald campaigned on the policy in the 1878 election , and handily beat the Liberal Party , which supported free trade . Efforts to restore free trade with Canada collapsed when Canada rejected a proposed reciprocity treaty in fear of American imperialism in the 1911 federal election . Taft negotiated a reciprocity agreement with Canada , that had the effect of sharply lowering tariffs . Democrats supported the plan but Midwestern Republicans bitterly opposed it . Barnstorming the country for his agreement , Taft undiplomatically pointed to the inevitable integration of the North American economy , and suggested that Canada should come to a `` parting of the ways '' with Britain . Canada 's Conservative Party , under the leadership of Robert Borden , now had an issue to regain power from the low - tariff Liberals ; after a surge of pro-imperial anti-Americanism , the Conservatives won . Ottawa rejected reciprocity , reasserted the National Policy and went to London first for new financial and trade deals . The Payne Aldrich Tariff of 1909 actually changed little and had slight economic impact one way or the other , but the political impact was enormous . The insurgents felt tricked and defeated and swore vengeance against Wall Street and its minions Taft and Aldrich . The insurgency led to a fatal split down the middle in 1912 as the GOP lost its balance wheel . 1913 to present ( edit ) Main article : Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act Woodrow Wilson made a drastic lowering of tariff rates a major priority for his presidency . The 1913 Underwood Tariff cut rates , but the coming of World War I in 1914 radically revised trade patterns . Reduced trade and , especially , the new revenues generated by the federal income tax ( bolstered by the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 ) made tariffs much less important in terms of economic impact and political rhetoric . The Wilson administration desired a ' revamping ' of the current banking system , `` ... so that the banks may be the instruments , not the masters , of business and of individual enterprise and initiative . '' . President Wilson achieved this in the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 . Working with the bullish Senator Aldrich and former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan , he perfected a way to centralize the banking system to allow Congress to closely allocate paper money production . The Federal Reserve Act , with the Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution , would create a trend of new forms of government funding . When the Republicans regained power after the war they restored the usual high rates , with the Fordney - McCumber Tariff of 1922 . When the Great Depression hit , international trade shrank drastically . The crisis baffled the GOP , and it tried to raise tariffs again with the Smoot - Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 . This time it backfired , as Canada , Britain , Germany , France and other industrial countries retaliated with their own tariffs and special , bilateral trade deals . American imports and exports both went into a tailspin . Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Dealers made promises about lowering tariffs on a reciprocal country - by - country basis ( which they did ) , hoping this would expand foreign trade ( which it did not . ) Frustrated , they gave much more attention to domestic remedies for the depression ; by 1936 the tariff issue had faded from politics , and the revenue it raised was small . In World War II both tariffs and reciprocity were insignificant compared to trade channeled through Lend Lease . Tariffs and Great Depression ( edit ) Many economists hold the opinion that the tariff act did not greatly worsen the great depression : Milton Friedman also held the opinion that the Smoot - Hawley tariff of 1930 did not cause the Great Depression . Douglas A. Irwin writes : `` most economists , both liberal and conservative , doubt that Smoot Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction . '' William Bernstein writes `` most economic historians now believe that only a minuscule part of that huge loss of both world GDP and the United States ' GDP can be ascribed to the tariff wars `` because trade was only nine percent of global output , not enough to account for the seventeen percent drop in GDP following the Crash . He thinks the damage done could not possibly have exceeded 2 percent of world GDP and tariff `` did n't even significantly deepen the Great Depression . '' ( A Splendid Exchange : How Trade Shaped the World ) Peter Temin , explains a tariff is an expansionary policy , like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers . He notes that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929 , they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff . He concludes that contrary the popular argument , contractionary effect of the tariff was small . ( Temin , P. 1989 . Lessons from the Great Depression , MIT Press , Cambridge , Mass ) Nobel laureate Maurice Allais , thinks that tariff was rather helpful in the face of deregulation of competition in the global labor market and excessively loose credit prior to the Crash which , according to him , caused the crisis Financial and banking sectors . He notes higher trade barriers were partly a means to protect domestic demand from deflation and external disturbances . He obserses domestic production in the major industrialized countries fell faster than international trade contracted ; if contraction of foreign trade had been the cause of the Depression , he argues , the opposite should have occurred . So , the decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 was a consequence of the Depression , not a cause . Most of the trade contraction took place between January 1930 and July 1932 , before the introduction of the majority of protectionist measures , excepting limited American measures applied in the summer of 1930 . It was the collapse of international liquidity that caused of the contraction of trade . Trade liberalization ( edit ) Tariffs up to the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 , were set by Congress after many months of testimony and negotiations . In 1934 , the U.S. Congress , in a rare delegation of authority , passed the Reciprocal Tariff Act of 1934 , which authorized the executive branch to negotiate bilateral tariff reduction agreements with other countries . The prevailing view then was that trade liberalization may help stimulate economic growth . However , no one country was willing to liberalize unilaterally . Between 1934 and 1945 , the executive branch negotiated over 32 bilateral trade liberalization agreements with other countries . The belief that low tariffs led to a more prosperous country are now the predominant belief with some exceptions . Multilateralism is embodied in the seven tariff reduction rounds that occurred between 1948 and 1994 . In each of these `` rounds '' , all General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) members came together to negotiate mutually agreeable trade liberalization packages and reciprocal tariff rates . In the Uruguay round in 1994 , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) was established to help establish uniform tariff rates . Presently only about 30 % of all import goods are subject to tariffs in the United States , the rest are on the free list . The `` average '' tariffs now charged by the United States are at a historic low . The list of negotiated tariffs are listed on the Harmonized Tariff Schedule as put out by the United States International Trade Commission . Post World War II ( edit ) After the war the U.S. promoted the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) established in 1947 , to minimize tariffs and other restrictions , and to liberalize trade among all capitalist countries . In 1995 GATT became the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) ; with the collapse of Communism its open markets / low tariff ideology became dominant worldwide in the 1990s . American industry and labor prospered after World War II , but hard times set in after 1970 . For the first time there was stiff competition from low - cost producers around the globe . Many rust belt industries faded or collapsed , especially the manufacture of steel , TV sets , shoes , toys , textiles and clothing . Toyota and Nissan threatened the giant domestic auto industry . In the late 1970s Detroit and the auto workers union combined to fight for protection . They obtained not high tariffs , but a voluntary restriction of imports from the Japanese government . Quotas were two - country diplomatic agreements that had the same protective effect as high tariffs , but did not invite retaliation from third countries . By limiting the number of Japanese automobiles that could be imported , quotas inadvertently helped Japanese companies push into larger , and more expensive market segments . The Japanese producers , limited by the number of cars they could export to America , opted to increase the value of their exports to maintain revenue growth . This action threatened the American producers ' historical hold on the mid - and large - size car markets . The Chicken tax was a 1964 response by President Lyndon B. Johnson to tariffs placed by Germany ( then West Germany ) on importation of US chicken . Beginning in 1962 , during the President Kennedy administration , the US accused Europe of unfairly restricting imports of American poultry at the request of West German chicken farmers . Diplomacy failed , and in January 1964 , two months after taking office , President Johnson retaliated by imposing a 25 percent tax on all imported light trucks . This directly affected the German built Volkswagen vans . Officially it was explained that the light trucks tax would offset the dollar amount of imports of Volkswagen vans from West Germany with the lost American sales of chickens to Europe . But audio tapes from the Johnson White House reveal that in January 1964 , President Johnson was attempting to convince United Auto Workers 's president Walter Reuther , not to initiate a strike just prior the 1964 election and to support the president 's civil rights platform . Reuther in turn wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen 's increased shipments to the United States . 1980s to present ( edit ) See also : Trump tariffs China gained entry to the WTO as Most favoured nation in early 2000s . During the Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations Republicans abandoned protectionist policies , and came out against quotas and in favor of the GATT / WTO policy of minimal economic barriers to global trade . Free trade with Canada came about as a result of the Canada - U.S. Free Trade Agreement of 1987 , which led in 1994 to the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . It was based on Reagan 's plan to enlarge the scope of the market for American firms to include Canada and Mexico . President Bill Clinton , with strong Republican support in 1993 , pushed NAFTA through Congress over the vehement objection of labor unions . Likewise , in 2000 Clinton worked with Republicans to give China entry into WTO and `` most favored nation '' trading status ( i.e. , the same low tariffs promised to any other WTO member ) . NAFTA and WTO advocates promoted an optimistic vision of the future , with prosperity to be based on intellectuals skills and managerial know - how more than on routine hand labor . They promised that free trade meant lower prices for consumers . Opposition to liberalized trade came increasingly from labor unions , who argued that this system also meant lower wages and fewer jobs for American workers who could not compete against wages of less than a dollar an hour . The shrinking size and diminished political clout of these unions repeatedly left them on the losing side . Despite overall decreases in international tariffs , some tariffs have been more resistant to change . For example , due partially to tariff pressure from the European Common Agricultural Policy , US agricultural subsidies have seen little decrease over the past few decades , even in the face of recent pressure from the WTO during the latest Doha talks . Smuggling and coast guard ( edit ) Main article : History of the United States Coast Guard Historically , high tariffs have led to high rates of smuggling . The United States Revenue Cutter Service was established by Secretary Hamilton in 1790 as an armed maritime law and custom enforcement service . Today it remains the primary maritime law enforcement force in the United States . The U.S. Customs and Border Protection ( CBP ) is a federal law enforcement agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security charged with regulating and facilitating international trade , collecting customs ( import duties or tariffs approved by the U.S. Congress ) , and enforcing U.S. regulations , including trade , customs and immigration . They man most border crossing stations and ports . When shipments of goods arrive at a border crossing or port , customs officers inspect the contents and charge a tax according to the tariff formula for that product . Usually the goods can not continue on their way until the custom duty is paid . Custom duties are one the easiest taxes to collect , and the cost of collection is small . Tariffs and historical American politicians ( edit ) In 1896 , the GOP platform pledged to `` renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection , as the bulwark of American industrial independence , and the foundation of development and prosperity . This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry . It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods ; it secures the American market for the American producer . It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman . '' George Washington ( edit ) One of the first acts of Congress Washington signed was a tariff among whose stated purpose was `` the encouragement and protection of manufactures . '' In his 1790 State of the Union Address , Washington justified his tariff policy for national security reasons : A free people ought not only to be armed , but disciplined ; to which end a uniform and well - digested plan is requisite ; and their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as tend to render them independent of others for essential , particularly military , supplies Thomas Jefferson ( edit ) As President Thomas Jefferson wrote in explaining why his views had evolved to favor more protectionist policies : `` In so complicated a science as political economy , no one axiom can be laid down as wise and expedient for all times and circumstances , and for their contraries . '' After the War of 1812 , Jefferson 's position began to resemble that of Washington , some level of protection was necessary to secure the nation 's political independence . He said : experience has taught me that manufactures are now as necessary to our independence as to our comfort : and if those who quote me as of a different opinion will keep pace with me in purchasing nothing foreign where an equivalent of domestic fabric can be obtained , without regard to difference of price Henry Clay ( edit ) In 1832 , then the United States Senator from Kentucky , Henry Clay said about his disdain for `` free traders '' ( 9 ) that `` it is not free trade that they are recommending to our acceptance . It is in effect , the British colonial system that we are invited to adopt ; and , if their policy prevail , it will lead substantially to the re-colonization of these States , under the commercial dominion of Great Britain . '' Clay said : When gentlemen have succeeded in their design of an immediate or gradual destruction of the American System , what is their substitute ? Free trade ! Free trade ! The call for free trade is as unavailing as the cry of a spoiled child , in its nurse 's arms , for the moon , or the stars that glitter in the firmament of heaven . It never has existed ; it never will exist . Trade implies , at least two parties . To be free , it should be fair , equal and reciprocal . Clay explained that `` equal and reciprocal '' free trade `` never has existed ; ( and ) it never will exist . '' He warned against practicing `` romantic trade philanthropy ... which invokes us to continue to purchase the produce of foreign industry , without regard to the state or prosperity of our own . '' Clay made clear that he was `` utterly and irreconcilably opposed '' to trade which would `` throw wide open our ports to foreign productions '' without reciprocation . Andrew Jackson ( edit ) Henry Clay 's longtime rival and political opponent , President Andrew Jackson , in explaining his support for a tariff , wrote : We have been too long subject to the policy of the British merchants . It is time we should become a little more Americanized , and , instead of feeding the paupers and laborers of Europe , feed our own , or else , in a short time , by continuing our present policy , we shall all be paupers ourselves . James Monroe ( edit ) In 1822 , President James Monroe observed that `` whatever may be the abstract doctrine in favor of unrestricted commerce , '' the conditions necessary for its success -- reciprocity and international peace -- `` has never occurred and can not be expected . '' Monroe said , `` strong reasons ... impose on us the obligation to cherish and sustain our manufactures . '' Abraham Lincoln ( edit ) President Abraham Lincoln declared , `` Give us a protective tariff and we will have the greatest nation on earth . '' Lincoln warned that `` the abandonment of the protective policy by the American Government ... must produce want and ruin among our people . '' Lincoln similarly said that , `` if a duty amount to full protection be levied upon an article '' that could be produced domestically , `` at no distant day , in consequence of such duty , '' the domestic article `` will be sold to our people cheaper than before . '' Additionally , Lincoln argued that based on economies of scale , any temporary increase in costs resulting from a tariff would eventually decrease as the domestic manufacturer produced more . Lincoln did not see a tariff as a tax on low - income Americans because it would only burden the consumer according to the amount the consumer consumed . By the tariff system , the whole revenue is paid by the consumers of foreign goods ... the burthen of revenue falls almost entirely on the wealthy and luxurious few , while the substantial and laboring many who live at home , and upon home products , go entirely free . Lincoln argued that a tariff system was less intrusive than domestic taxation : The tariff is the cheaper system , because the duties , being collected in large parcels at a few commercial points , will require comparatively few officers in their collection ; while by the direct tax system , the land must be literally covered with assessors and collectors , going forth like swarms of Egyptian locusts , devouring every blade of grass and other green thing . William McKinley ( edit ) President William McKinley stated the United States ' stance under the Republican Party as : Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave . Protection is but the law of nature , the law of self - preservation , of self - development , of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man . ( It is said ) that protection is immoral ... Why , if protection builds up and elevates 63,000,000 ( the U.S. population ) of people , the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world . We can not take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere . Well , they say , ' Buy where you can buy the cheapest ' ... Of course , that applies to labor as to everything else . Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that , and it is the protection maxim : ' Buy where you can pay the easiest . ' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards . ( Free trade ) destroys the dignity and independence of American labor ... It will take away from the people of this country who work for a living -- and the majority of them live by the sweat of their faces -- it will take from them heart and home and hope . It will be self - destruction . He also rejected the `` cheaper is better '' argument outright : They ( free traders ) say , ' Buy where you can buy the cheapest . ' That is one of their maxims ... Of course , that applies to labor as to everything else . Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that , and it is the protection maxim : ' Buy where you can pay the easiest . ' And that spot of earth is where labor wins its highest rewards . They say , if you had not the Protective Tariff things would be a little cheaper . Well , whether a thing is cheap or whether it is dear depends on what we can earn by our daily labor . Free trade cheapens the product by cheapening the producer . Protection cheapens the product by elevating the producer . The protective tariff policy of the Republicans ... has made the lives of the masses of our countrymen sweeter and brighter , and has entered the homes of America carrying comfort and cheer and courage . It gives a premium to human energy , and awakens the noblest aspiration in the breasts of men . Our own experience shows that it is the best for our citizenship and our civilization and that it opens up a higher and better destiny for our people . Theodore Roosevelt ( edit ) President Theodore Roosevelt believed that America 's economic growth was due to the protective tariffs , which helped her industrialize . He acknowledged this in his State of the Union address from 1902 : The country has acquiesced in the wisdom of the protective - tariff principle . It is exceedingly undesirable that this system should be destroyed or that there should be violent and radical changes therein . Our past experience shows that great prosperity in this country has always come under a protective tariff . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kennedy , David M. ; Cohen , Lizabeth ; Piehl , Mel ( 2017 ) . The Brief American Pageant : A History of the Republic , Volume I : To 1877 ( 9th ed . ) . Boston , Massachusetts : Cengage Learning . p. 143 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 285 - 19330 - 4 . 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Receipts , Income taxes ; Payroll taxes , Excise ; Y342 339 ( 1940 1970 ) Receipts ; Y - 352 357 ( 1789 -- 1939 ) Government Receipts : Total ( 1789 -- 1970 ) , Customs ( 1789 -- 1970 ) , Y 358 373 Excise tax ( 1863 -- 1970 ) Income Tax ( 1916 -- 1970 ) ; Series U 1 -- 25 Balance of International Payments Imports ( 1790 -- 1970 ) ( 6 ) Accessed 5 Aug 2011 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Bicentennial Edition Historical Statistics of the United States , Colonial Times to 1970 ( 3 ) Jump up ^ Whitehouse Historical Tables 1940 -- 2016 ; Table 1.1 Tot . 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Irwin , `` The Aftermath of Hamilton 's ' Report on Manufactures ' '' , Journal of Economic History , Sept 2004 , Vol. 64 , Issue 3 , pp. 800 -- 21 Jump up ^ Barbara M. Tucker , and Kenneth H. Tucker , Industrializing Antebellum America : The Rise of Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in the Early Republic ( 2008 ) Jump up ^ Taussig , The Tariff History of the United States ( 8th edition ( 1931 ) , ch. 1 Jump up ^ Taussig , The Tariff History of the United States ( 8th edition ( 1931 ) , ch. 2 Jump up ^ Taussig , Tariff History pp. 109 -- 24 Jump up ^ John A. Moore , `` The Grossest and Most Unjust Species of Favoritism : Competing Views of Republican Political Economy : The Tariff Debates of 1841 and 1842 '' , Essays in Economic & Business History ( 2011 ) 29 : 59 -- 73 . Jump up ^ Taussig , Tariff History pp. 124 -- 54 Jump up ^ Scott C. James and David E. Lake , `` The second face of hegemony : Britain 's repeal of the Corn Laws and the American Walker Tariff of 1846 '' , International Organization , Winter 1989 , Vol. 43 , Issue 1 , pp. 1 -- 28 Jump up ^ http://www.usgovernmentrevenue.com/revenue_chart_1840_1861USm_16s1li111mcn_F0f Jump up ^ Taussig , The Tariff History of the United States ( 1931 ) , pp. 123 -- 61 Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter , `` The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War '' , The American Historical Review ( 1938 ) 44 # 1 pp. 50 -- 55 full text in JSTOR Jump up ^ Robert Gray Gunderson , Old Gentlemen 's Convention : The Washington Peace Conference of 1861 ( 1961 ) Jump up ^ Mark Thornton and Robert B. Ekelund , Jr. , Tariffs , Blockades , and Inflation : The Economics of the Civil War ( 2004 ) Jump up ^ Taussig , The Tariff History of the United States ( 1931 ) , pp. 155 -- 70 Jump up ^ Dewey , Financial History ( 1915 ) p. 299 Jump up ^ Paul Studenski ; Herman Edward Krooss ( 2003 ) . Financial History of the United States . Beard Books . p. 157 . Jump up ^ Howard K. Beale `` The Tariff and Reconstruction , '' American Historical Review ( 1930 ) 35 # 2 pp. 276 -- 94 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Hugh Tulloch ( 1999 ) . The Debate On the American Civil War Era . Manchester UP . p. 226 . Jump up ^ Stanley Coben , `` Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction : A Re-Examination . '' Mississippi Valley Historical Review ( 1959 ) : 67 -- 90 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Thomas J. Pressly , `` Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction ( review ) '' Civil War History ( 1961 ) 7 # 1 pp. 91 -- 92 online Jump up ^ Paul H. Tedesco , Patriotism , Protection , and Prosperity : James Moore Swank , the American Iron and Steel Association , and the Tariff , 1873 -- 1913 ( Garland , 1985 . ) Jump up ^ John Ashworth ( 1987 ) . ' Agrarians ' and ' Aristocrats ' : Party Political Ideology in the United States , 1837 -- 1846 . Cambridge University Press . p. 252 . Jump up ^ Joanne R. Reitano , The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age : The Great Debate of 1888 ( Penn State Press , 1994 ) Jump up ^ H. Wayne Morgan , William McKinley and His America ( 1965 ) Jump up ^ F.W. Taussig , `` The McKinley Tariff Act . '' The Economic Journal ( 1891 ) 1 # 2 pp : 326 -- 50 . in JSTOR ^ Jump up to : Tom E. Terrill , The Tariff , Politics , and American Foreign Policy 1874 -- 1901 ( 1973 ) Jump up ^ Douglas A. Fisher , Steel Serves the Nation , U.S. Steel , 1951 , p. 15 Jump up ^ Frank William Taussig ( 1931 ) . The Tariff History of the United States . pp. 192 , 293 . Jump up ^ F.W. Taussig , The Tariff History Of The United States , 1909 edition , p. 259 Jump up ^ Douglas A. Fisher , Steel Serves the Nation , U.S. Steel , 1951 , p. 48 Jump up ^ Springer , ed. , William M. ( 1892 ) . Tariff reform , the paramount issue : Speeches and writings on the questions involved in the presidential contest of 1892 . p. 391 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ H. Wayne Morgan , From Hayes to McKinley : National Party Politics , 1877 -- 1896 ( 1969 ) Jump up ^ Festus P. Summers , William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform , a Biography ( 1953 ) Jump up ^ Harold U. Faulkner , Politics , Reform , and Expansion , 1890 -- 1900 ( 1959 ) Jump up ^ David W. Detzer , `` Businessmen , Reformers , and Tariff Revision : The Payne - Aldrich Tariff of 1909 '' , Historian , ( 1973 ) 35 # 2 pp. 196 -- 204 , online Jump up ^ Stanley D. Solvick , `` William Howard Taft and the Payne - Aldrich Tariff , '' Mississippi Valley Historical Review ( 1963 ) 50 # 3 pp. 424 -- 42 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Paolo Enrico Coletta , The Presidency of William Howard Taft ( 1973 ) Jump up ^ Woodrow Wilson : `` Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Banking System , '' June 23 , 1913 . Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley , The American Presidency Project . http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=65369 . Jump up ^ Broz , J.L. ( 1999 ) . `` Origins of the Federal Reserve System : International Incentives and the Domestic Free - rider Problem '' . International Organization . 5353 ( 1 ) : 39 -- 46 . doi : 10.1162 / 002081899550805 . Jump up ^ Edward S. Kaplan , American Trade Policy : 1923 -- 1995 ( 1996 ) Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=MIDsnT3Ze0YC&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=squLnSDrJ4EC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=peter+temin+smoot+hawley+Lessons+from+the+Great+Depression&source=bl&ots=3UxaSTyk3l&sig=7W_1IiDXMSCW2ATteQy8bjJ5smQ&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx376g48fUAhWFfxoKHZgjDE8Q6AEIRzAF#v=onepage&q=peter%20temin%20smoot%20hawley%20Lessons%20from%20the%20Great%20Depression&f=false Jump up ^ Maurice Allais ( 5 -- 11 December 2009 ) . `` Lettre aux français : contre les tabous indiscutés '' ( pdf ) ( in French ) . Marianne . p. 38 . Jump up ^ Harmonized Tariff Schedule ( 7 ) Accessed 12 Jul 2011 Jump up ^ John H. Barton , Judith L. Goldstein , Timothy E. Josling , and Richard H. Steinberg , The Evolution of the Trade Regime : Politics , Law , and Economics of the GATT and the WTO ( 2008 ) Jump up ^ `` Light Trucks Increase Profits But Foul Air More than Cars '' . The New York Times , Keith Bradsher , November 30 , 1997 . November 30 , 1997 . Jump up ^ Gary Chaison ( 2005 ) . Unions in America . SAGE . p. 151 . Jump up ^ Kenneth F. Warren ( 2008 ) . Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns , Elections , and Electoral Behavior . Sage Publications . p. 358 . Jump up ^ Barton , et al . The Evolution of the Trade Regime : Politics , Law , and Economics of the GATT and the WTO ( 2008 ) Jump up ^ Congressional Research Service report ( 8 ) Jump up ^ `` George Washington : First Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union '' . www.presidency.ucsb.edu . Retrieved January 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jefferson , Thomas ( Jan 9 , 1816 ) . `` Letter to Benjamin Austin , Jan 9 , 1816 '' . Boston Independent Chronicle . Jump up ^ `` Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln . Volume 1 '' . quod.lib.umich.edu . Retrieved January 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Halstead , Murat ; Munson , Augustus J. ( January 1 , 1901 ) . Life and distinguished services of William McKinley : our martyr President . Memorial Association . Jump up ^ William McKinley speech , Oct. 4 , 1892 in Boston , MA William McKinley Papers ( Library of Congress ) Jump up ^ McKinley , William ( January 1 , 1893 ) . Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley : From His Election to Congress to the Present Time . D. Appleton . Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe5gk4hoJXAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Jump up ^ `` Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt -- Speeches of Theodore Roosevelt -- Teddy Roosevelt '' . www.theodore-roosevelt.com . Retrieved January 4 , 2017 . Further reading ( edit ) Bils , Mark . `` Tariff protection and production in the early US cotton textile industry . '' Journal of Economic History ( 1984 ) 44 # 4 pp. 1033 -- 45 . Cohen , Andrew Wender . Contraband : Smuggling and the Birth of the American Century . WW Norton & Company , 2015 . Dewey , Davis Rich . Financial History of the United States ( 5th ed. 1915 ) online full text Doran , Charles F. and Gregory P. Marchildon . The NAFTA Puzzle : Political Parties and Trade in North America ( 1994 ) Eckes , Alfred . Opening America 's Market : U.S. Foreign Trade Policy since 1776 ( 1995 ) Elliott , Orrin Leslie . The Tariff Controversy in the United States 1789 -- 1833 : With a Summary of the Period Before the Adoption of the Constitution ( 1892 ) online Hawke , Gary R . `` The United States tariff and industrial protection in the late nineteenth century . '' Economic History Review ( 1975 ) 28 # 1 pp. 84 -- 99 . Hill , William . `` Colonial Tariffs , '' Quarterly Journal of Economics ( 1892 ) 7 # 1 pp. 78 -- 100 in JSTOR Hofstadter , Richard . `` The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War '' , The American Historical Review Vol. 44 , No. 1 ( Oct. , 1938 ) , pp. 50 -- 55 full text in JSTOR Irwin , Douglas A. `` Antebellum Tariff Politics : Regional Coalitions and Shifting Economic Interests '' , Journal of Law and Economics , 51 ( Nov. 2008 ) , 715 -- 42 . Lake , David A. `` International economic structures and American foreign economic policy , 1887 -- 1934 . '' World Politics ( 1983 ) 35 # 4 pp. 517 -- 43 . online Kaplan , Edward S. ; Prelude to Trade Wars : American Tariff Policy , 1890 -- 1922 Greenwood Press 1994 Kaplan , Edward S. American Trade Policy : 1923 -- 1995 ( 1996 ) , online review Narton , John H. Judith L. Goldstein , Timothy E. Josling , and Richard H. Steinberg , The Evolution of the Trade Regime : Politics , Law , and Economics of the GATT and the WTO ( 2008 ) Schattsneider , E.E. Politics , Pressures and the Tariff ( 1935 ) . Passage of Hawley - Smoot tariff Smith , Mark A . The Tariff on Wool 1926 Stanwood , Edward ( 1903 ) . American tariff controversies in the nineteenth century . Houghton , Mifflin . detailed political narrative ; full text online Studenski , Paul & Herman Edward Krooss ( 2003 ) . Financial History of the United States . Beard Books . Summers ; Festus P. William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform , a Biography ( 1953 ) on 1890s Taussig , F.W. Some Aspects of the Tariff Question : An Examination of the Development of American Industries Under Protection ( 1931 ) online Taussig , F.W. The Tariff History of the United States . 8th edition ( 1931 ) ; 5th edition 1910 is online , the standard scholarly history ; it collects articles he wrote in the journals another copy Taussig , F.W. `` Tariff '' , Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th edition , 1911 ) vol. 26 ; online Taussig , Frank William . The history of the present tariff , 1860 -- 1883 ( 1885 ) online Taussig , Frank W . `` The Tariff , 1830 -- 1860 . '' Quarterly Journal of Economics ( 1888 ) 2 # 3 pp. 314 -- 46 . in JSTOR Taylor , George Rogers , ed . The Great Tariff Debate , 1820 -- 1830 ( 1953 ) , excerpts from primary and secondary sources Terrill , Tom E. The Tariff , Politics , and American Foreign Policy 1874 -- 1901 ( 1973 ) . Turney , Elaine C. Prange , and Cynthia Clark Northrup . Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History : An Encyclopedia ( 3 vol 2003 ) ; primary sources in vol 3 Wolman , Paul . Most Favored Nation : The Republican Revisionists and U.S. Tariff Policy , 1897 -- 1912 ( 1992 ) External links ( edit ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Hamilton tariff 1789 lesson plan on tariffs in US history from Northern Illinois University Campaign Songs as Propaganda : Free Trade vs. Protectionism -- In Whose Interest ? from Northern Illinois University ( hide ) Tax Acts of the United States Internal Revenue 1861 1862 1864 1913 1916 1917 1918 1921 1924 1926 1928 1932 1934 1935 1936 1940 1940 ( 2nd ) 1941 1942 1943 1943 1944 1945 1948 1950 1950 1951 1954 1954 Code 1962 1964 1968 1969 1971 1976 1977 1978 1981 1982 Gas Tax 1984 COBRA 1986 1986 Code 2008 Crisis 2012 2017 Tariffs 1789 : Hamilton I 1790 : Hamilton II 1792 : Hamilton III 1816 : Dallas 1824 : Sectional 1828 : `` Abominations '' 1832 1833 : Compromise 1842 : Black 1846 : Walker 1857 1861 : Morrill 1872 1875 1883 : Mongrel 1890 : McKinley 1894 : Wilson -- Gorman 1897 : Dingley 1909 : Payne -- Aldrich 1913 : Underwood 1921 : Emergency 1922 : Fordney -- McCumber 1930 : Smoot -- Hawley 1934 : Reciprocal 1948 : GATT 1962 1974 / 75 1979 1984 1988 : Canada FT 1993 : NAFTA 1994 : WTO 2002 : Steel 2018 : Trump Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tariffs_in_United_States_history&oldid=834133119 '' Categories : Economic history of the United States History of taxation in the United States History of international trade Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty Wikipedia articles in need of updating from March 2018 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating Tagged pages containing blacklisted links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 4 April 2018 , at 03 : 11 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who supported tariffs to protect american industries from foreign competition | [] | [] |
3688626838286111674 | Super Bowl XXXVII | Super Bowl XXXVII - wikipedia Super Bowl XXXVII Super Bowl XXXVII Oakland Raiders ( 1 ) ( AFC ) ( 11 -- 5 ) Tampa Bay Buccaneers ( 2 ) ( NFC ) ( 12 -- 4 ) 21 48 Head coach : Bill Callahan Head coach : Jon Gruden Total OAK 0 6 12 21 TB 17 14 14 48 Date January 26 , 2003 ( 2003 - 01 - 26 ) Stadium Qualcomm Stadium , San Diego , California MVP Dexter Jackson , safety Favorite Raiders by 4 Referee Bill Carollo Attendance 67,603 Future Hall of Famers Raiders : Al Davis ( owner / general manager ) , Tim Brown , Jerry Rice , Rod Woodson Buccaneers : Derrick Brooks , Warren Sapp Ceremonies National anthem Dixie Chicks Coin toss 1972 Miami Dolphins : Don Shula , Bob Griese , Larry Csonka , Larry Little , Jim Langer , Nick Buoniconti , Paul Warfield Halftime show Shania Twain , No Doubt , and Sting TV in the United States Network ABC Announcers Al Michaels , John Madden , Melissa Stark and Lynn Swann Nielsen ratings 40.7 ( est . 88.6 million viewers ) Market share 61 Cost of 30 - second commercial $2.1 million ← XXXVI Super Bowl XXXVIII → Super Bowl XXXVII was an American football game between the American Football Conference ( AFC ) champion Oakland Raiders and the National Football Conference ( NFC ) champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers to decide the National Football League ( NFL ) champion for the 2002 season . The Buccaneers defeated the Raiders by the score of 48 -- 21 , tied with Super Bowl XXXV for the seventh largest Super Bowl margin of victory , and winning their first ever Super Bowl . The game , played on January 26 , 2003 at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego , California , was the sixth Super Bowl to be held a week after the conference championship games ( XVII , XXV , XXVIII , XXXIV , and XXXVI ) . It was also the last Super Bowl played in the month of January . This was the first Super Bowl in which the league 's number one - ranked offense ( Raiders ) faced the league 's number one - ranked defense ( Buccaneers ) . The game sometimes is referred to as the `` Gruden Bowl '' , because the primary storyline surrounding the game revolved around Jon Gruden . Gruden was the Raiders ' head coach from 1998 to 2001 , and then became the Buccaneers coach in 2002 . Tampa Bay , `` Gruden 's new team '' , made their first Super Bowl appearance in team history after posting a 12 -- 4 regular season record . Oakland , `` Gruden 's old team '' , advanced to their fifth Super Bowl after an 11 -- 5 regular season . Super Bowl XXXVII is also referred to as the `` Pirate Bowl '' , due to both teams ' pirate - themed names . The Raiders came into the game as four - point favorites . However , the Tampa Bay defense dominated the contest . Oakland quarterback Rich Gannon threw a Super Bowl record five interceptions , three of which were returned for touchdowns . The Buccaneers also sacked Gannon five times , and scored 34 consecutive points to build a 34 -- 3 lead late in the third quarter . Tampa Bay safety Dexter Jackson , who had two of those interceptions and returned them for 34 yards , was named Super Bowl MVP. Jackson became only the second safety and third defensive back named Super Bowl MVP . Contents 1 Background 1.1 Jon Gruden helps rebuild the Raiders 1.2 Gruden is `` traded '' to the Buccaneers 1.3 The Raiders win without Gruden 1.4 Playoffs 1.5 Super Bowl pregame news 2 Broadcasting 3 Entertainment 3.1 Pregame ceremonies 3.2 Halftime show 3.3 Post-game ceremonies 4 Game summary 4.1 First Quarter 4.2 Second Quarter 4.3 Third Quarter 4.4 Fourth Quarter 4.5 Box score 4.6 Statistical overview 5 Final statistics 5.1 Statistical comparison 5.2 Individual leaders 6 Starting lineups 7 Post-game riots 8 Aftermath 9 Officials 10 Notes and references 11 External links Background ( edit ) Super Bowl XXXVII was originally awarded to San Francisco on October 15 , 1997 by the NFL owners at a league meeting in Washington , D.C. The 49ers had recently announced plans for a new stadium , and were awarded the Super Bowl contingent on its completion . However , the stadium plans had stalled by the fall of 1998 and the NFL reopened the bidding for the game . San Diego , which had lost out on Super Bowl XXXVI , announced its interest . The city was awarded the game during the May 26 , 1999 meeting at Atlanta . Miami was the only other city in consideration . It was the last Super Bowl played in California until Super Bowl 50 at Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara . It was the also the final Super Bowl at Qualcomm Stadium before the Chargers relocated to Los Angeles in 2017 . Later in 2003 , California would host the Stanley Cup Finals with the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim hosting games 3 , 4 , and 6 , making it only the second time that the same state hosted both the Super Bowl and the Stanley Cup Finals in the same year , following California itself ten years earlier , when the Los Angeles Kings went to the Finals four months after Pasadena hosted Super Bowl XXVII . It was then succeeded by itself again in 2016 when Super Bowl 50 took place in San Francisco and the San Jose Sharks made the Stanley Cup Finals . Jon Gruden helps rebuild the Raiders ( edit ) After moving back to Oakland , California in 1995 , the Raiders suffered sub-par seasons , including a 4 -- 12 record in 1997 . Under Gruden 's leadership , the Raiders improved to 8 -- 8 in both 1998 and 1999 . The team was further boosted in 1999 with the signing of veteran quarterback Rich Gannon . With Gannon as quarterback , the team jumped to the fifth - best offense in the league . The Raiders won the AFC West in 2000 with a 12 -- 4 record and the best rushing offense in the league . However , they lost the AFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl XXXV champion Baltimore Ravens , 16 -- 3 . After signing veteran Pro Bowl wide receiver Jerry Rice and defensive tackle Trace Armstrong , the team repeated as AFC West champions in 2001 , but were eliminated in the AFC Divisional Game by the eventual Super Bowl XXXVI champion New England Patriots in what became known as the `` Tuck Rule Game '' , in which a potential game - ending fumble recovery by the Raiders was overturned by instant replay . Gruden is `` traded '' to the Buccaneers ( edit ) Further information : 2002 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season Raiders owner Al Davis was known to have the lowest salaries for coaches in the league , and Gruden was no exception . Instead of paying a high salary for Gruden , Davis opted to trade the rights for Gruden to the Buccaneers in exchange for four draft picks , in a deal similar to what Patriots owner Robert Kraft made with the New York Jets to get head coach Bill Belichick in 2000 . The Buccaneers ended up giving two first - round picks , two second - round picks and $8 million to the Raiders to get Gruden . Tampa Bay was desperate to have someone rebuild their offense so it would complement their powerful defense in an attempt to win the Super Bowl . For most of their history , the Buccaneers were regarded as losers , making the playoffs only three times in their first 20 seasons . But that changed when the team hired Tony Dungy as head coach in 1996 . Dungy , along with his defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin , rebuilt the defense around a core group of players , such as defensive lineman Warren Sapp , linebacker Derrick Brooks , and defensive backs Ronde Barber and John Lynch . By 1997 , Tampa Bay ranked 3rd in the league in total yards allowed , 2nd in 1998 , and 3rd in 2000 . With one of the best defenses in the league , Dungy helped guide the Buccaneers to four playoff appearances in his six years as the team 's head coach . But the team always had one of the worst offenses in the league , and this was a major factor in their playoff losses . Thus , Dungy was fired and replaced by Gruden . Still , even Gruden had trouble getting the offense in sync during his first year as Tampa Bay 's head coach . In 2002 , the Buccaneers ranked 25th in the league in total yards gained ( 5,222 ) . Quarterback Brad Johnson made the Pro Bowl , completing 281 out of 451 passes for 3,049 yards , 22 touchdowns , and only 6 interceptions . Running back Michael Pittman led the team in rushing with 718 yards and one touchdown , and caught 59 passes for 477 yards . Pro Bowl fullback Mike Alstott had 548 rushing yards and 5 touchdowns , and also had 35 receptions for 242 yards and 2 touchdowns . Wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson led the team with 76 receptions for 1,088 yards and 5 touchdowns , while wide receiver Keenan McCardell had 61 receptions for 670 yards and 6 touchdowns . However , the Buccaneers ' defense was still the strength of the team , leading the NFL in total defense ( 252.8 yards per game ) , pass defense ( 155.6 yards per game ) , points allowed ( 12.3 points per game ) , passing touchdowns allowed ( 10 ) , interceptions ( 31 ) , and opponent passer rating ( 48.4 ) . Brooks , Lynch , Sapp , and defensive end Simeon Rice all had Pro Bowl years . Brooks led the team with 87 tackles and excelled at pass coverage , recording 5 interceptions , 218 return yards , and 2 touchdowns , plus 1 fumble return and 1 on a lateral from Sapp after a Sapp interception for a total of 4 touchdowns ( an NFL record for a linebacker ) . The defense as a whole had nine total touchdowns during the regular season and playoffs . Rice led the team with 15.5 sacks . Sapp recorded 7.5 sacks and 2 interceptions . Cornerback Brian Kelly was also a big asset , leading the team with 8 interceptions . The Raiders win without Gruden ( edit ) Further information : 2002 Oakland Raiders season Despite the loss of Gruden in 2002 , the Raiders under their new coach Bill Callahan still managed to earn a share of the AFC 's best record at 11 -- 5 . The offense led the league in total passing yards ( 4,689 ) and ranked second in total yards gained ( 6,451 ) . Gannon had a Pro Bowl season , completing 418 out of 618 passes for 4,689 yards , 26 touchdowns , and with 10 interceptions . His 418 completions and his 10 games with over 300 passing yards were both NFL records . He also ran 50 times for 156 yards and 3 touchdowns . Rice , who was already the NFL 's all - time leader in nearly every receiving record after 17 seasons , had a Pro Bowl season for the 13th time in his career with 92 receptions for 1,211 yards and 7 touchdowns . Gannon 's other weapons in passing game were 15 - year veteran receiver Tim Brown ( 81 receptions for 930 yards and 2 touchdowns ) and young receiver Jerry Porter ( 51 receptions for 688 yards and 9 touchdowns ) . Multi-talented running back Charlie Garner was the team 's leading rusher with 962 yards and 7 touchdowns , while also leading all NFL running backs in receiving with 91 receptions for 941 yards and another 4 touchdowns . Running back Tyrone Wheatley was also a big contributor with 419 rushing yards and 71 receiving yards , while fullback Zack Crockett provided both of them with solid blocking and scored 8 touchdowns . Up front , their offensive line was led by 2 Pro Bowlers , guard Lincoln Kennedy and center Barret Robbins . The Raiders ' weakness was primarily on their defense , which ranked 25th in the league in passing yards allowed ( 3,787 ) and 12th in total yards ( 5,240 ) . But veteran Pro Bowl safety Rod Woodson recorded 8 interceptions ( which led the league ) for 225 yards and 2 touchdowns . Up front , their line was anchored by defensive tackle Rod Coleman , who led the team with 11 sacks . Behind him , the team had a solid veteran linebacker , Bill Romanowski , who was playing in his 5th Super Bowl ( after winning 2 championships with the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowls XXIII and XXIV , and 2 while playing for the Denver Broncos in Super Bowls XXXII and XXXIII ) . Defensive back Tory James was also a big contributor with 4 interceptions . Playoffs ( edit ) Further information : 2002 -- 03 NFL playoffs The second - seeded Buccaneers defeated the fourth - seeded San Francisco 49ers , 31 -- 6 , and the top - seeded Philadelphia Eagles on the road , 27 -- 10 , in the playoffs , to make the Super Bowl for the first time in franchise history . Meanwhile , the top - seeded Raiders were victorious against the fourth - seeded New York Jets , 30 -- 10 , and the second - seeded Tennessee Titans , 41 -- 24 . The Raiders won against the Titans through Gannon 's pass - oriented offense . Super Bowl pre-game News ( edit ) The Raiders entered the game favored to win in their first Super Bowl in 19 years . They were also the first franchise to appear in the Super Bowl in four decades ( 1960s , 1970s , 1980s , 2000s ; the 1990s was the only decade that they did not appear in the Super Bowl ) . However , much of the media hype surrounded the Gruden trade prior to the season . This forced league commissioner Paul Tagliabue to issue a statement that he might ban all future trades for coaches involving draft choices because it might compromise the draft . A distraction for the Raiders was that starting center Barret Robbins went missing for most of the week leading up to the Super Bowl , and ended up in a San Diego hospital the night before the game after suffering a manic episode . Backup Adam Treu ( a former Pro Bowl - er ) replaced Robbins . Broadcasting ( edit ) The game was broadcast in the United States by ABC with Al Michaels handling the play - by - play duties and color commentator John Madden , who became the first person to announce Super Bowls on different networks in consecutive years , having called Super Bowl XXXVI on Fox and then moving to ABC after Pat Summerall retired . The NFC improved to 6 -- 0 on Super Bowls broadcast on ABC . Melissa Stark and Lynn Swann served as sideline reporters . Chris Berman from Disney - owned corporate sibling ESPN hosted all the events . Berman was joined by fellow ESPN analyst Steve Young , Baltimore Ravens head coach Brian Billick , and New York Giants defensive end Michael Strahan . The Super Bowl was the first of three major professional sports championship series ABC broadcast in 2003 , as they would also broadcast the Stanley Cup Finals and the NBA Finals . Both the Super Bowl and the Stanley Cup Finals were hosted by Berman ( who co-hosted the Stanley Cup Finals with John Saunders ) and took place in the state of California . The state of California had representation in both finals series . Gary Thorne , Bill Clement , and John Davidson mentioned all of these when they called the Stanley Cup Finals . Memorable television commercials that aired during the game included the `` Terry Tate : Office Linebacker '' Reebok ad and the Budweiser Zebra Referee . ADBOWL ranked FedEx 's `` Castaway '' as the best commercial of the year . NBC provided counter-programming against the halftime show , airing a live segment of `` Weekend Update '' from the comedy -- variety show Saturday Night Live featuring Jimmy Fallon and Tina Fey . Entertainment ( edit ) Pre-game ceremonies ( edit ) Before the game , a show called `` Santana and Friends '' performed on the field . Carlos Santana was joined by Beyoncé and Michelle Branch and sang truncated versions of `` Oye Como Va '' , `` The Game of Love '' , and `` Foo Foo . '' ABC also aired a pre-game parking lot performance featuring Bonnie Raitt , Goo Goo Dolls and Michael Bublé prior to the Santana and Friends segment . In a nod to what the New England Patriots did the previous year in Super Bowl XXXVI , both teams were introduced as a team , rather than individually by offensive and defensive starters , after highlights of their seasons were simulcast on the video boards in the stadium and on television . This has become a regular tradition starting with this Super Bowl . Celine Dion then sang `` God Bless America '' which is sung for the only time in the Super Bowl , and later the Dixie Chicks sang the national anthem , `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' . F / A-18 Super Hornets of the United States Navy performed a flyover . To honor the 30th anniversary of the 17 -- 0 undefeated , perfect season of the 1972 Miami Dolphins , the following members of that team appeared during the coin toss ceremony : Don Shula , Bob Griese , Larry Csonka , Larry Little , Jim Langer , Nick Buoniconti , Paul Warfield . Halftime show ( edit ) Shania Twain , No Doubt , and Sting were featured during the halftime show , which was sponsored by AT&T Wireless . Twain sang her hits `` Man ! I Feel Like a Woman ! '' and `` Up ! '' . No Doubt then sang their hit `` Just a Girl '' with lead singer Gwen Stefani ad - libbing lines like `` I 'm just a girl at the Super Bowl ! '' The show concluded with Sting performing `` Message in a Bottle '' , with Stefani joining in midway through . Postgame ceremonies ( edit ) Bon Jovi appeared as part of the post-game ceremonies , performing `` It 's My Life '' prior to the Vince Lombardi Trophy presentation and `` Everyday '' afterwards ( most of the latter performance was not shown on ABC because the network cut to commercials ) . Game Summary ( edit ) First quarter ( edit ) The Raiders had a great chance to score a touchdown early in the game after cornerback Charles Woodson intercepted Buccaneers quarterback Brad Johnson 's pass on the third play of the game and returned it 12 yards to the Tampa Bay 36 - yard line . However , six plays later , Tampa Bay defensive end Simeon Rice sacked Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon on third down , forcing Oakland to settle for kicker Sebastian Janikowski 's 40 - yard field goal to give them a 3 -- 0 lead . Buccaneers kick returner Aaron Stecker returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to the 29 - yard line , then appeared to fumble the ball . Although the officials initially ruled that the ball was recovered by Oakland 's Eric Johnson , the play was reviewed by instant replay and the fumble was overturned , and thus Tampa Bay retained possession . It showed that both of Stecker 's knees were down and the ball did n't come loose until it hit the ground . Gruden and Stecker appeared upset at having to use a challenge so early in a game , when they both believed Stecker was clearly down . On the first play of the drive , Brad Johnson completed an 11 - yard pass to wide receiver Joe Jurevicius . Johnson 's next 2 passes were incomplete , but he then completed a 23 - yard pass to Jurevicius on third down to advance the ball to the Oakland 37 - yard line . Running back Michael Pittman then rushed for a 23 - yard gain to the 13 - yard line . However , on the next 3 plays , the Raiders defense limited the Buccaneers to a pair of incompletions and a 1 - yard run . Argentine kicker Martín Gramática then made a 31 - yard field goal to tie the game , 3 -- 3 . Second quarter ( edit ) Later in the half , a 17 - yard punt return by Raiders defensive back Darrien Gordon gave Oakland the ball at their own 49 - yard line . Gannon then threw an 8 - yard pass to running back Charlie Garner to reach the Tampa Bay 43 - yard line . However , on third down , Buccaneers safety Dexter Jackson intercepted Gannon 's pass at the 40 - yard line and returned it 9 - yards to near midfield . Then nine plays after the turnover , Gramatica kicked his second field goal from 43 yards to give Tampa Bay a 6 -- 3 lead . Jackson intercepted another pass on the Raiders ' next drive and returned it 25 yards to Oakland 's 45 - yard line , making Jackson the first player ever to record two interceptions in the first half of the Super Bowl . However , the Buccaneers were unable to take advantage of the turnover and were forced to punt . Tampa Bay got a big assist from their punter Tom Tupa , who managed to pin Oakland all the way back at their own 11 - yard line . The Raiders could not move the ball either , losing 1 yard on 3 plays with their ensuing drive . Tampa Bay punt returner Karl Williams then returned Shane Lechler 's punt 25 yards , giving the Buccaneers great field position at Oakland 's 27 - yard line . Aided with Pittman 's gains of 6 and 19 yards , the Buccaneers scored their first touchdown on a 2 - yard run from fullback Mike Alstott , increasing their lead to 13 -- 3 . Then with 3 : 45 left in the half , Tampa Bay drove 77 yards , assisted by a pair of catches by Alstott for 28 total yards . Johnson finished the drive with a 5 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Keenan McCardell to give the Buccaneers a 20 -- 3 halftime lead . Third quarter ( edit ) Tampa Bay continued to dominate the game for most of the third quarter . The Buccaneers forced the Raiders to punt on the opening drive of the second half . Next , Tampa Bay marched 89 yards on a 14 - play drive that took 7 : 52 off the clock , and ended with Johnson 's 8 - yard touchdown pass to McCardell to increase their lead to 27 -- 3 . Then on the second play of Oakland 's ensuing drive , Buccaneers defensive back Dwight Smith intercepted Gannon 's pass and returned it 44 yards for a touchdown , making the score 34 -- 3 . After giving up 34 consecutive points , Oakland finally managed to drive 82 yards down the field and score on a 39 - yard touchdown pass from Gannon to wide receiver Jerry Porter . Although he was initially ruled as being out of bounds when he caught the ball , it was determined that Porter had both feet in the end zone . The two - point conversion failed , so the Raiders were still down 34 -- 9 . Fourth quarter ( edit ) The Raiders ' touchdown seemed to fire up their defense , who forced the Buccaneers to a fourth down on their ensuing possession . Oakland linebacker Tim Johnson then blocked Tupa 's punt , and linebacker Eric Johnson returned the ball 13 yards for a touchdown . Another two - point conversion for Oakland failed , but Tampa Bay 's lead was cut to 34 -- 15 . Tampa Bay responded by moving the ball to the Oakland 9 - yard line on their ensuing drive , featuring a 24 - yard run by Pittman , but they came up empty after Tupa fumbled the snap on a field goal attempt . A few plays later , Gannon threw a 48 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Jerry Rice with 6 : 06 left in the game , cutting the Raiders deficit to 34 -- 21 . The two - point conversion failed when Jerry Porter caught the ball but landed out of bounds . Though there was contact with a defender , the officials deemed the contact incidental rather than a force - out , and therefore that part of the play was non-reviewable . In an attempt to prevent a Raiders comeback , the Buccaneers managed to run the clock down to 2 : 44 on their ensuing drive before being forced to punt . Then on third and 18 from the Oakland 29 - yard line , Tampa Bay linebacker Derrick Brooks intercepted a pass from Gannon and returned it 44 yards for a touchdown , giving the Buccaneers a 41 -- 21 lead with only 1 : 18 left , and leading Buccaneers radio announcer Gene Deckerhoff to make his famous call of `` The dagger 's in , we 're gon na win the Super Bowl ! '' . A few plays later , with the Raiders now playing for pride , Dwight Smith intercepted a tipped pass and returned it 50 yards for a touchdown with only two seconds remaining . Gramatica kicked the extra point , and the Buccaneers were up 48 -- 21 . Raiders defensive tackle Chris Cooper returned Gramatica 's kickoff 6 yards before being tackled by Jack Golden , ending the game . The Buccaneers won their first - ever Super Bowl with a 48 - 21 victory . Gannon said after the game that his performance was `` nightmarish '' . Box score ( edit ) Super Bowl XXXVII : Tampa Bay Buccaneers 48 , Oakland Raiders 21 Total Raiders ( AFC ) 0 6 12 21 Buccaneers ( NFC ) 17 14 14 48 at Qualcomm Stadium , San Diego , California Date : January 26 , 2003 Game time : 3 : 26 p.m. PST Game weather : 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , sunny Super Bowl XXXVII Box Score hide Scoring summary Quarter Time Drive Team Scoring information Score Plays Yards TOP OAK TB 10 : 40 7 14 2 : 55 OAK 40 - yard field goal by Sebastian Janikowski 0 7 : 51 9 58 2 : 49 TB 31 - yard field goal by Martín Gramática 11 : 16 9 26 3 : 53 TB 43 - yard field goal by Martín Gramática 6 6 : 24 27 2 : 02 TB Mike Alstott 2 - yard touchdown run , Martín Gramática kick good 13 0 : 30 10 77 3 : 15 TB Keenan McCardell 5 - yard touchdown reception from Brad Johnson , Martín Gramática kick good 20 5 : 30 14 89 7 : 52 TB Keenan McCardell 8 - yard touchdown reception from Brad Johnson , Martín Gramática kick good 27 4 : 47 -- -- -- TB Interception returned 44 yards for touchdown by Dwight Smith , Martín Gramática kick good 34 2 : 14 8 82 2 : 33 OAK Jerry Porter 39 - yard touchdown reception from Rich Gannon , 2 - point pass no good 9 34 14 : 16 -- -- -- OAK Eric Johnson 13 - yard punt block return for a touchdown , 2 - point pass no good 15 34 6 : 06 8 78 2 : 56 OAK Jerry Rice 48 - yard touchdown reception from Rich Gannon , 2 - point pass no good 21 34 1 : 18 -- -- -- TB Interception returned 44 yards for touchdown by Derrick Brooks , Martín Gramática kick good 21 41 0 : 02 -- -- -- TB Interception returned 50 yards for touchdown by Dwight Smith , Martín Gramática kick good 21 48 `` TOP '' = time of possession . For other American football terms , see Glossary of American football . 21 48 Statistical overview ( edit ) Tampa Bay dominated Oakland , outgaining them in total yards ( 365 to 269 ) , rushing yards ( 150 to 19 ) , first downs ( 24 to 11 ) , offensive plays ( 76 to 60 ) , and forced turnovers ( 5 to 1 ) . As many sports fans and writers predicted , Gruden 's prior knowledge of the Raiders was a major factor . The most damaging piece of evidence is NFL Films footage of Tampa Bay defensive back John Lynch telling his teammates during the game that almost all of the plays ran by Oakland 's offense were plays that Gruden ( who that week even played the part of `` Rich Gannon '' by playing QB with the scout - team offense ) specifically told them to look out for . Better still for the Buccaneers was that Oakland had n't changed their audible - calling signals that Gruden himself had installed , thus tipping off plays repeatedly . Johnson finished the game with 18 out of 34 completions for 215 yards and 2 touchdowns , with 1 interception , along with 10 rushing yards . Pittman was the top rusher of the game with 129 yards . Alstott was the game 's second leading rusher with 15 yards and a touchdown , and had 5 receptions for 43 yards . Wide receiver Keyshawn Johnson was the Buccaneers ' leading receiver with 6 catches for 69 yards . Smith recorded 2 interceptions , 94 return yards , and 2 touchdowns . He also added another 23 yards on a kickoff return . Gannon finished the game 24 out of 44 for 272 yards and 2 touchdowns , but was intercepted a Super Bowl record 5 times . Garner was their leading rusher , but with only 10 yards , and caught 7 passes for 51 yards . Rice was the Raiders ' leading receiver of the game with 5 catches for 77 yards and a touchdown . He became the first player to score touchdowns with two teams in Super Bowls ( Ricky Proehl and Muhsin Muhammad have since joined him ) . Wide receiver Marcus Knight returned 8 kickoffs for 143 yards . Jerry Rice and Bill Romanowski joined Gene Upshaw as the only players to appear in Super Bowls in three decades . Rice played in Super Bowls XXIII , XXIV , and XXIX . Romanowski played in Super Bowls XXIII , XXIV , XXXII , and XXXIII ; the Raiders ' loss prevented Romanowski from joining Charles Haley as the only NFL players at that time to earn 5 Super Bowl rings ( Haley was also with the 49ers for Super Bowls XXIII and XXIV , and later earned rings when the Dallas Cowboys won Super Bowls XXVII , XXVIII , and XXX ) . The Raiders became the first team to appear in Super Bowls under four head coaches . John Rauch coached them in Super Bowl II , John Madden ( who himself called Super Bowl XXXVII on ABC ) , coached them in Super Bowl XI and Tom Flores coached them in Super Bowl XV and XVIII . The teams combined for the most second half points in a Super Bowl with 46 ( 28 for Tampa Bay and 18 for Oakland ) and the third most total points in a game with 69 , tying Dallas and Buffalo who combined for 69 points in Super Bowl XXVII . Final statistics ( edit ) Sources : NFL.com Super Bowl XXXVII , Super Bowl XXXVII Play Finder TB , Super Bowl XXXVII Play Finder Oak , Super Bowl XXXVII Play by Play Statistical comparison ( edit ) Oakland Raiders Tampa Bay Buccaneers First downs 11 24 First downs rushing 6 First downs passing 9 15 First downs penalty Third down efficiency 7 / 16 6 / 15 Fourth down efficiency 0 / 0 0 / 1 Net yards rushing 19 150 Rushing attempts 11 42 Yards per rush 1.7 3.6 Passing -- Completions - attempts 24 / 44 18 / 34 Times sacked - total yards 5 -- 22 0 - 0 Interceptions thrown 5 Net yards passing 250 215 Total net yards 269 365 Punt returns - total yards 3 -- 29 1 -- 25 Kickoff returns - total yards 9 -- 149 4 -- 90 Interceptions - total return yards 1 -- 12 5 -- 172 Punts - average yardage 5 -- 39.0 5 -- 31.0 Fumbles - lost 1 -- 0 1 -- 0 Penalties - yards 7 -- 51 5 -- 41 Time of possession 22 : 46 37 : 14 Turnovers 5 Individual leaders ( edit ) Raiders Passing C / ATT Yds TD INT Rating Rich Gannon 24 / 44 272 5 48.9 Raiders Rushing Car Yds TD LG Yds / Car Charlie Garner 7 10 0 1.43 Zack Crockett 6 0 3.00 Rich Gannon 0 1.00 Raiders Receiving Rec Yds TD LG Target Charlie Garner 7 51 0 9 11 Jerry Rice 5 77 48t 8 Doug Jolley 5 59 0 25 7 Jerry Porter 62 39t 9 Tim Brown 9 0 9 Jon Ritchie 7 0 7 Tyrone Wheatley 7 0 7 Marcus Knight 0 0 0 0 Buccaneers Passing C / ATT Yds TD INT Rating Brad Johnson 18 / 34 215 79.9 Buccaneers Rushing Car Yds TD LG Yds / Car Michael Pittman 29 124 0 24 4.28 Mike Alstott 10 15 5 1.50 Brad Johnson 10 0 10 10.00 Aaron Stecker 0 1.00 Tom Tupa 0 0 0 0.00 Buccaneers Receiving Rec Yds TD LG Target Keyshawn Johnson 6 69 0 18 11 Mike Alstott 5 43 0 16 8 Joe Jurevicius 78 0 33 Keenan McCardell 13 8t Ken Dilger 12 0 12 Rickey Dudley 0 0 0 0 Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted Starting lineups ( edit ) Source : Hall of Fame ‡ Oakland Position Position Tampa Bay Offense Tim Brown ‡ WR Keyshawn Johnson Barry Sims LT Roman Oben Frank Middleton LG Kerry Jenkins Adam Treu Jeff Christy Mo Collins RG Cosey Coleman Lincoln Kennedy RT Kenyatta Walker Doug Jolley TE Ken Dilger Jerry Rice ‡ WR Keenan McCardell Rich Gannon QB Brad Johnson Jerry Porter WR FB Mike Alstott Charlie Garner RB Michael Pittman Defense DeLawrence Grant DE LE Greg Spires Sam Adams DT Warren Sapp ‡ John Parrella DT NT Chuck Darby Regan Upshaw DE RE Simeon Rice Bill Romanowski LLB SLB Dwight Smith Napoleon Harris MLB Shelton Quarles Eric Barton RLB WLB Derrick Brooks ‡ Charles Woodson LCB Brian Kelly Tory James RCB Ronde Barber Anthony Dorsett SS John Lynch Rod Woodson ‡ FS Dexter Jackson Postgame riots ( edit ) In Oakland , after the Raiders ' loss , riots broke out on the streets of East Oakland . Twelve cars were set on fire and four hundred police officers had to be sent to the streets . Aftermath ( edit ) The Tampa Tribune published a book by several staff writers called Pewter Power , about the Buccaneers ' winning season . Both teams entered a period of decline after the Super Bowl . Neither made the playoffs the next season as Tampa Bay finished 7 -- 9 and Oakland finished 4 -- 12 . Furthermore , Tampa Bay finished 5 -- 11 in 2004 , becoming the first Super Bowl winning team to follow up with consecutive losing seasons . To date , the Buccaneers have yet to win another postseason game , while the Raiders went 14 seasons without having a winning season and / or qualifying the playoffs , and have also not won a playoff game since . Officials ( edit ) Referee : Bill Carollo # 63 second Super Bowl ( XXXI as side judge ) Umpire : Ed Coukart # 71 second Super Bowl ( originally alternate for XXXII , but entered game when Jim Quirk was injured ) Head Linesman : Dale Williams # 8 third Super Bowl ( XX , XXVI ) Line Judge : Mark Steinkerchner # 84 first Super Bowl Side Judge : Rick Patterson # 15 first Super Bowl Field Judge : Tom Sifferman # 118 first Super Bowl Back Judge : Don Carey # 126 first Super Bowl Replay Official : Rex Stuart Video Operator : Mike Wimmer Notes and references ( edit ) Jump up ^ DiNitto , Marcus ( January 25 , 2015 ) . `` Super Bowl Betting History -- Underdogs on Recent Roll '' . Sporting News . Retrieved February 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl History '' . Vegas Insider . Retrieved February 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl XXXVII Box Score : Tampa Bay 48 , Oakland 21 '' . NFL.com . National Football League . January 27 , 2003 . Retrieved March 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Historical Super Bowl Nielsen TV Ratings , 1967 -- 2009 -- Ratings '' . TVbytheNumbers . Retrieved October 9 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` mcubed.net : NFL : Super bowl scores sorted by margin of victory '' . mcubed.net . Retrieved February 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Martzke , Rudy ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` Gruden Bowl keeps fans glued to TVs '' . USA Today . USATODAY.com . Jump up ^ White , Joseph ( October 16 , 1997 ) . `` 2003 Super Bowl to San Francisco ; Cleveland waits for team '' . Spartanburg Herald - Journal . p. 18 . Retrieved January 24 , 2017 -- via Google News . Jump up ^ `` New Orleans to host 2002 Super Bowl '' . Daily News . October 29 , 1998 . p. 8 . Retrieved January 24 , 2017 -- via Google News . Jump up ^ `` NFL -- Owners Meeting '' . The Orlando Sentinel . May 27 , 1999 . p. 38 . Retrieved January 24 , 2017 -- via Newspapers.com . ^ Jump up to : NHL on ABC : Game 7 of the 2003 Stanley Cup Finals ( television ) . ABC Sports . June 9 , 2003 . Thorne , Clement , and J.D. talked about Berman 's role in hosting both the Super Bowl and the Stanley Cup Finals on ABC in 2003 and about the role the state of California played during championship series during the Stanley Cup Finals , as Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim hosted the Stanley Cup Finals , and involved the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim ( now Anaheim Ducks ) taking on the New Jersey Devils . Jump up ^ `` Buccaneers get their first shot at the NFL treasure '' . Sydney Morning Herald . Associated Press . January 21 , 2003 . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Gannon leads Raiders in rout of Jets '' . ESPN . Associated Press . January 12 , 2003 . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Clayton , John . `` Raiders pass their way to San Diego '' . ESPN . Archived from the original on March 21 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Stroud , Rick ( January 17 , 2003 ) . `` NFL nixes draft picks for coaches '' . St. Petersburg Times . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Phil . `` When Barret Robbins disappeared before Super Bowl '' . SI.com . Retrieved 2016 - 11 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Highlights of ABC 's pre - and postgame shows '' . ESPN . January 15 , 2003 . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Fred ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` In their fashion , Bucs fans laugh '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Vivinetto , Gina ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` Super Bowl XXXVII : Superstars belt out favorites , or lip synch them '' . St. Petersburg Times . ^ Jump up to : George , Thomas ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` Bucs steal the treasure '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Tampa Bay Buccaneers 48 vs. Oakland Raiders 21 '' . pro-football - reference . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Cunningham , Michael ; Skolnick , Ethan J. ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` Treu Gets The Call In Robbins ' Absence '' . South Florida Sun - Sentinel . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Bucs stop here -- with a Super Bowl title '' . USA Today . January 26 , 2003 . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl Game - Time Temperatures '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved March 10 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Pompei , Dan ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` The best - laid plans : an inside look at how coach Jon Gruden and the Bucs prepared themselves to be Super Bowl champions '' . The Sporting News . Archived from the original on August 19 , 2003 . Jump up ^ `` Super Bowl XXXVII -- National Football League Game Summary '' ( PDF ) . National Football League . January 26 , 2003 . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Martin , Glen ; Asimov , Nanette ; et al. ( January 27 , 2003 ) . `` Raider Rage : Oakland police no match for street mayhem '' . San Francisco Chronicle . p . A1 . Archived from the original on February 10 , 2003 . External links ( edit ) Super Bowl XXXVII : NFL Full Game on YouTube Super Bowl official website Play - by - play on USAToday.com 2006 NFL Record and Fact Book . Time Inc . Home Entertainment . ISBN 1 - 933405 - 32 - 5 . The Sporting News : History of the Super Bowl ( Last accessed December 4 , 2005 ) https://www.pro-football-reference.com -- Large online database of NFL data and statistics Super Bowl play - by - plays from USA Today ( Last accessed September 28 , 2005 ) Super Bowl NFL NFC Championship AFC Championship Football Games 1960s I ( 1967 ) II ( 1968 ) III ( 1969 ) 1970s IV ( 1970 ) V ( 1971 ) VI ( 1972 ) VII ( 1973 ) VIII ( 1974 ) IX ( 1975 ) X ( 1976 ) XI ( 1977 ) XII ( 1978 ) XIII ( 1979 ) 1980s XIV ( 1980 ) XV ( 1981 ) XVI ( 1982 ) XVII ( 1983 ) XVIII ( 1984 ) XIX ( 1985 ) XX ( 1986 ) XXI ( 1987 ) XXII ( 1988 ) XXIII ( 1989 ) 1990s XXIV ( 1990 ) XXV ( 1991 ) XXVI ( 1992 ) XXVII ( 1993 ) XXVIII ( 1994 ) XXIX ( 1995 ) XXX ( 1996 ) XXXI ( 1997 ) XXXII ( 1998 ) XXXIII ( 1999 ) 2000s XXXIV ( 2000 ) XXXV ( 2001 ) XXXVI ( 2002 ) XXXVII ( 2003 ) XXXVIII ( 2004 ) XXXIX ( 2005 ) XL ( 2006 ) XLI ( 2007 ) XLII ( 2008 ) XLIII ( 2009 ) 2010s XLIV ( 2010 ) XLV ( 2011 ) XLVI ( 2012 ) XLVII ( 2013 ) XLVIII ( 2014 ) XLIX ( 2015 ) 50 ( 2016 ) LI ( 2017 ) LII ( 2018 ) LIII ( 2019 ) 2020s LIV ( 2020 ) LV ( 2021 ) LVI ( 2022 ) LVII ( 2023 ) LVIII ( 2024 ) People Champions Pre-Super Bowl NFL champions Head coaches Active head coach history Quarterbacks Officials Awards , trophies , records Super Bowl ring Vince Lombardi Trophy Most Valuable Players Records Broadcast and production National anthem Halftime Commercials USA Today Ad Meter Adbowl List Broadcast Network broadcasters Counterprogramming Lead - out programming Television ratings Portal Super Bowl Sunday Curse Tampa Bay Buccaneers Super Bowl XXXVII champions 7 Martín Gramática 9 Tom Tupa 10 Shaun King 11 Rob Johnson 14 Brad Johnson 19 Keyshawn Johnson 20 Ronde Barber 23 Jermaine Phillips 25 Brian Kelly 26 Dwight Smith 27 Aaron Stecker 30 Darian Barnes 31 Tim Wansley 32 Michael Pittman 34 Dexter Jackson ( MVP ) 35 Corey Ivy 36 Travis Stephens 38 John Howell 40 Mike Alstott 41 Daniel Wilcox 43 Jameel Cook 45 Mike Solwold 47 John Lynch 51 Alshermond Singleton 52 Nate Webster 53 Shelton Quarles 54 Idris Price 55 Derrick Brooks 56 Ryan Nece 58 Jack Golden 59 Justin Smith 60 Cosey Coleman 62 Jeff Christy 64 Dan Goodspeed 65 Russ Hochstein 66 Ryan Benjamin 67 Kenyatta Walker 68 Morris Unutoa 71 Kerry Jenkins 72 Roman Oben 74 Cornell Green 75 Lomas Brown 77 Todd Washington 80 Todd Yoder 81 Charles Lee 81 Marco Battaglia 83 Joe Jurevicius 84 Reggie Barlow 85 Ken Dilger 86 Karl Williams 87 Keenan McCardell 88 Rickey Dudley 89 Casey Crawford 90 Buck Gurley 91 Chuck Darby 92 Anthony McFarland 93 DeVone Claybrooks 94 Greg Spires 95 Ron Warner 96 Ellis Wyms 97 Simeon Rice 98 Corey Smith 99 Warren Sapp -- Onome Ojo -- T.T. Toliver Head coach : Jon Gruden Coaches : Joe Barry Jeremy Bates Richard Bisaccia Michael Christianson Jay Gruden Monte Kiffin Richard Mann Rod Marinelli Raheem Morris Bill Muir Johnny Parker Stan Parrish Mike Tomlin Art Valero Kirby Wilson Tampa Bay Buccaneers Founded in 1976 Based and headquartered in Tampa , Florida Franchise Franchise Seasons History Coaches Players Expansion draft First - round draft picks Draft history Starting quarterbacks Broadcasters Stadiums Tampa Stadium Raymond James Stadium Culture and lore Hugh Culverhouse Malcolm Glazer Tampa 2 Captain Fear Cheerleaders Snow Bowl A Triumph of the Heart : The Ricky Bell Story Rivalries Carolina Panthers New Orleans Saints Miami Dolphins Wild card berths ( 3 ) 1997 2000 2001 Division championships ( 6 ) 1979 1981 1999 2002 2005 2007 Conference championships ( 1 ) 2002 League championships ( 1 ) 2002 ( XXXVII ) Hall of Famers Lee Roy Selmon Steve Young Randall McDaniel Warren Sapp Derrick Brooks Tim Brown Ron Wolf Retired numbers 55 63 99 Current league affiliations League : National Football League Conference : National Football Conference Division : South Division Seasons ( 43 ) 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Championship seasons in bold Oakland Raiders Founded in 1960 Played in Los Angeles ( 1982 -- 1994 ) Based in Oakland , California Headquartered in Alameda , California Franchise History in Los Angeles relocation to Las Vegas Seasons Players First - round draft picks Starting quarterbacks Head coaches Stadiums Kezar Stadium Candlestick Park Frank Youell Field Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Las Vegas Stadium Key personnel Owner / CEO : Mark Davis President : Marc Badain General manager : Reggie McKenzie Head coach : Jon Gruden Culture Oakland Raiderettes Raider Nation The Autumn Wind Mount Davis Ricky 's Sports Theatre and Grill Straight Outta L.A. 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-6856103219192111668 | Make Me Smile (Come Up and See Me) | Make Me Smile ( Come up and See Me ) - wikipedia Make Me Smile ( Come up and See Me ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' Artwork for Scandinavian vinyl release Single by Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel from the album The Best Years of Our Lives B - side `` Another Journey '' Released 31 January 1975 Format 7 - inch single Recorded Genre Glam rock Length 4 : 01 Label EMI Songwriter ( s ) Steve Harley Producer ( s ) Steve Harley Alan Parsons Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel singles chronology `` Big Big Deal '' ( 1974 ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( 1975 ) `` Mr. Raffles ( Man , It Was Mean ) '' ( 1975 ) Audio sample file help `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' is a song by British rock band Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel , released as the lead single from the band 's 1975 album The Best Years of Our Lives . It was written by Harley , and produced by Harley and Alan Parsons . In February 1975 , the song reached the number - one spot on the UK chart and received a UK Silver certification . It spent nine weeks in the Top 50 , and as of 2015 , has sold over 1.5 million copies worldwide . More than 120 cover versions of the song have been recorded by other artists , most notably by Duran Duran and Erasure , although Harley has stated his favourite cover version is by The Wedding Present . Contents 1 Original version 1.1 Writing and composition 1.2 Recording 1.3 Release 1.4 Top Gear 1.5 Promotion 1.6 Critical reception 1.7 Track listing 1.8 Chart performance 1.9 Personnel 2 Duran Duran version 3 Erasure version 4 Other cover versions 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links Original version ( edit ) Writing and composition ( edit ) The song was the first single to be released under the name `` Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel '' , as opposed to simply `` Cockney Rebel '' . In July 1974 , the original Cockney Rebel disbanded , and Harley then assembled a new line - up later in the year . `` Make Me Smile '' described Harley 's feelings on the band 's split . For many years , it was believed that Harley purposely chose to disband the original line - up and embark on a new career path . However , years later , Harley began to reveal the truth behind the band 's split . Between May and July 1974 , Cockney Rebel embarked on a major British tour to promote their second studio album The Psychomodo . As the tour progressed , the band began facing growing tensions , which ultimately led to their split at the end of the tour in late July . On 18 July , the band received a ' Gold Award ' for outstanding new act of 1974 , and a week later they had split up over their disagreements . Jean - Paul Crocker , Milton Reame - James and Paul Jeffreys had approached Harley , insisting they could also write material for the group . Harley , the band 's sole songwriter , felt this was unfair as he had been the one to originally hire the musicians for his group , and explained the deal to them at the time . After the band split , only the original line - up 's drummer , Stuart Elliott , would join the new line - up . In a television interview recorded in 2002 , Harley described how the lyrics were vindictively directed at the former band members who , he felt , had abandoned him . On The One Show in October 2010 , Harley called the lyric `` a finger - pointing piece of vengeful poetry . It 's getting off my chest how I felt about the guys splitting up a perfectly workable machine . I wrote it saying ' Look , you 'll learn how well we 're doing here , we 're doing well , why are you doing this ? ' '' He elaborated : `` Three of them came to me in a little posse with several ultimatums . They wanted to write songs for the third album , and I said ' Well you know I started the band , and I auditioned you , and I told you the deal at the time . We 're not moving the goal posts here . ' They knew this , and they came to me demanding that they could write songs too , and I just said ' Well go and do it then ' . '' Harley began writing the song only days after the band 's split . The original vision for the song was vastly different to the one that was recorded . Harley had written the piece as a slow blues track with a dark mood . In January 2012 , he told Uncut magazine that the first verse was probably written at four in the morning after a bottle of brandy , feeling sorry for himself . On The One Show Harley added , `` I was in distress , there 's no doubt at all , out of adversity I had to talk about it , I had to write about it . I had to say these things , I had to get it off my chest . '' In One Thousand UK Number One Hits by Jon Kutner and Spencer Leigh , Harley recalled the end of Cockney Rebel version 1 : `` We split up because they wanted to take my leadership away . They wanted to dilute it and `` Make Me Smile '' is saying ' Come back one day and I 'll laugh . ' It was arrogant but I knew they were wrong - they did n't understand the group like I did . '' Recording ( edit ) The new line - up of the band recorded The Best Years of Our Lives album in November -- December 1974 at Abbey Road Studios in London . On a day in November , Harley arrived at the studio and played the band the original slow blues version of the song for them to rehearse . Harley recalled to Uncut in 2012 : `` It was a little dirgy , slower and a little pedestrian , very on the beat '' . After producer Alan Parsons heard the song , he suggested speeding the song 's tempo up , as he felt it would suit the song better . Harley then developed the song further , introducing tacits , dead stops and gaps into it . Harley recalled in 2014 : `` Alan was great , he did n't try to dissuade me , he just said , ' Do it ' . '' On The One Show , Harley added : `` Suddenly it was swinging , and bopping , and ooh - la - la . We saw a hit record being built here , there was no doubt . '' In a 2015 interview for Songwriting Magazine , Parsons recalled : `` I think a good producer can transform a song . If you make a small change compositionally that really makes a song gel then you can say production is part of songwriting . For example I remember on Steve Harley 's `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) '' he was phrasing the chorus completely differently and I suggested that he made it more rhythmic and I think that is part of the hook of the whole record , so I take a bit of credit for that -- although I did n't get paid for it . '' A saxophone solo was originally planned for the song 's instrumental break . However , after hearing Harley 's idea for the solo , guitarist Jim Cregan began to play the idea on the guitar . Harley recalled in 2014 : `` The guitar solo was over a completely new chord sequence . The middle - eight is totally separate from the rest of the song , with no lyrics , so it 's an instrumental break that 's a little bit left field . We took ages getting the solo right . Some of the guys who play the guitar for me now have a lot of problems with it . It 's a tough solo to play properly . It was a composite of three separate takes . '' A number of backing singers contributed to the song , including future chart - topper Tina Charles , as well as Yvonne Keeley , Linda Lewis and Liza Strike . When the song was near completion , Harley played an early mix of the song to Bob Mercer , who was the head of A&R at EMI . Mercer was so blown away by what he heard that he immediately pronounced the song as a number - one hit . Harley remembered : `` We were all drinking Martini , it was late at night , and we were completely knackered . Bob came in and was absolutely blown away . I asked him what he thought and he said simply , `` Number one '' . By the time the song was finished , Harley and the band felt confident the song was a hit single . He recalled : `` We certainly smelled something cooking that was very special . We had a huge chorus on there . Once they 'd ( the backing vocalists ) had done their bit I came up with The Beatles bit - ' Ooh - la - la - la ' - kind of from their `` Rubber Soul '' period . I made the song really hooky because the lyrics are quite dark and cynical , frankly . '' Release ( edit ) The single was released by EMI Records on 7 '' vinyl in the UK , Ireland , Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Portugal , Spain , Yugoslavia , Scandinavia , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , and Japan . Each release , except in the UK , Ireland , Australia and New Zealand , featured a different picture sleeve , usually featuring a photograph of Harley , or the band . The song 's B - Side was the non-album track `` Another Journey '' , which was written by Harley . `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' became Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel 's biggest selling hit , selling over one million copies globally . It was also the band 's only number - one hit in their home country , topping both the UK Singles Chart and the Irish Singles Chart in February 1975 . In addition to this , it was the band 's only chart entry in America , reaching No. 96 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1976 . `` Make Me Smile '' has been reissued a number of times in the UK . In October 1980 , EMI re-issued it on 7 '' vinyl by EMI , with `` Sebastian '' as the B - Side , to promote the compilation album The Best of Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel . In 1983 , it was issued again on 7 '' vinyl , by the Old Gold label , with `` Judy Teen '' as the B - Side . Both re-issues failed to chart . In 1992 , the song was released by EMI as a CD single and 7 '' vinyl . The re-issue reached No. 46 in the UK , and remained in the Top 100 for two weeks . In 1995 , the song was re-issued again on 7 '' vinyl and CD after it was used in a Carlsberg TV advertisement . This release reached No. 33 in the UK , spending three weeks in the chart . In June 2005 , a newly recorded 2005 version of the track was released , dubbed as the `` 30th Anniversary Re-mix '' of the song . The new version was released as a single on 7 '' vinyl and CD . The single reached No. 55 , spending two weeks on the chart . Following a request on Top Gear to download the song , `` Make Me Smile '' re-entered the UK charts at No. 72 in early February 2015 . The song has been used in the soundtracks of the films Rik Mayall Presents Dancing Queen ( 1993 ) , The Full Monty ( 1997 ) , Velvet Goldmine ( 1998 ) , Best - The George Best Story ( 2000 ) , Saving Grace ( 2000 ) , and Blackball ( 2003 ) . It was also used in a 2006 Marks & Spencer advertisement and during the opening of episode 3 of Phoenix Nights series 1 ( 2001 ) . The song also featured in adverts for Furniture Village . The song was also featured in the UK 's first broadcast advert for Viagra Connect drug for erectile dysfunction in 2018 . The song was later included as a playable song in Lego Rock Band ( 2009 ) for the seventh generation of games consoles . Top Gear ( edit ) In late 2014 , Harley received a speeding fine of £ 1,000 , and six points on his licence , after being caught by a speed camera doing 70 miles per hour on the M25 in Kent , in an area where the limit had been temporarily reduced to 40 mph . In January 2015 , this incident was discussed on the BBC television series Top Gear . The show 's presenters Jeremy Clarkson , Richard Hammond and James May urged viewers to download the song in a bid to help him pay the fine . Clarkson had commented , `` He 's making a meagre living out of , let 's be honest , one hit single . Everybody loves that song - you ca n't trust someone who does n't like that song . '' Hammond added , `` Imagine if everybody did it - he would wake up tomorrow and think ' I 'm number one , where did that come from ? ' It would cheer him up . '' The campaign , dubbed the `` Make Me Smile Foundation '' by Clarkson , saw Harley respond with a message via Twitter : `` Thanks Jeremy Clarkson for kicking off the Make Me Smile Foundation , more than happy to subsidise the poor sods who drive down Swanley Way ! '' Additionally , Harley posted a YouTube video where he performed a forty - second version of the song acoustically , with a new set of lyrics relating to the speeding fine . In late January 2015 , the song entered the Top 30 on iTunes , the Top 15 on Amazon. co. uk 's Top 100 Bestsellers , and the number one best - seller under the Rock category on the same website . On 27 January , the song entered at No. 25 on the official UK mid-week chart , and No. 72 on the overall chart for the week . Promotion ( edit ) Upon its original release , the band performed the song on UK music show Top of the Pops . The performance on the show featured mimed instrumental backing , with Harley performing a live vocal . On the show , Harley was suffering from jet - lag , and subsequently forgot the lyrics to the majority of the second and third verses . According to the EMI producer of the single , Tony Clark , it was Marc Bolan who made the phone call to Top of the Pops , and had Harley in the BBC studio that same evening of the recording . The band also performed the song on the Russell Harty Show while it was at number one . Critical reception ( edit ) In a retrospective review of The Best Years of Our Lives , Donald A. Guarisco of AllMusic described the song as a `` romantic pop tune '' and a `` most impressive hit '' , adding that it `` pairs Harley 's clever wordplay with a clever pop tune that boasts an inventive stop - start arrangement and a lovely flamenco - styled acoustic guitar solo '' . Guarisco also spoke of the song in a retrospective review of the 1975 American compilation album A Closer Look . He described it as a `` catchy acoustic love song with a memorable flamenco guitar solo '' . In a review of the 1987 compilation Greatest Hits he noted `` Songs like ' Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) ' still sound fresh today thanks to their ability to mix insistent pop hooks into their mix of unconventional sounds and oblique lyrics '' . George Starostin reviewed The Best Years of Our Lives album for his website , and described the song as `` an excellent mid-tempo pop - rocker with a glammy multi-vocal chorus and great use of the stop - and - start structure ( as well as Beatlesque ooh - la - la - las all over the place ) '' . He added : `` It 's shorter , catchier and more concise than anything else on here , certainly chart - oriented at heart , but smart enough so as not to linger in the charts for too long '' . Track listing ( edit ) 7 '' Single `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 55 `` Another Journey '' - 2 : 47 7 '' Single ( 1982 UK reissue ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 55 `` Sebastian '' 7 '' Single ( 1983 UK reissue ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 58 `` Judy Teen '' - 3 : 41 7 '' Single ( 1992 UK reissue ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 59 `` Mr. Soft '' - 3 : 19 CD Single ( 1992 UK reissue ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 59 `` Mr. Soft '' - 3 : 19 `` Spaced Out '' - 3 : 02 `` ( Love ) Compared with You '' - 4 : 19 7 '' Single ( 1995 UK reissue ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 59 `` Mr. Soft '' - 3 : 17 CD Single ( 1995 UK reissue ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' - 3 : 59 `` Mr. Soft '' - 3 : 17 `` ( I Believe ) Love 's a Prima Donna '' - 4 : 07 `` Another Journey '' - 2 : 48 7 '' Single ( 2005 UK 30th Anniversary Re-mix ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) 30th Anniversary Re-mix '' - 4 : 29 `` Judy Teen ( Live ) '' - 3 : 16 CD Single ( 2005 UK 30th Anniversary Re-mix ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) 30th Anniversary Re-mix '' - 4 : 29 `` Judy Teen ( Live ) '' - 3 : 16 `` The Quality Of Mercy ( Taster ) '' - 1 : 58 Chart performance ( edit ) Chart ( 1975 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) 17 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 7 France Germany ( Official German Charts ) 20 Ireland ( IRMA ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 5 South Africa 15 UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) Chart ( 1976 ) Peak position US Billboard Hot 100 96 Chart ( 1992 ) Peak position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 46 Chart ( 1995 ) Peak position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 33 Chart ( 2005 ) Peak position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 55 Chart ( 2015 ) Peak position UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 72 Personnel ( edit ) Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel : Steve Harley -- vocals Jim Cregan -- guitar , backing vocals Duncan Mackay -- keyboards George Ford -- bass , backing vocals Stuart Elliott -- drums Additional personnel Tina Charles , Martin Jay , Yvonne Keeley , Linda Lewis , Liza Strike -- backing vocals Steve Harley , Alan Parsons - producers Alan Parsons - mixing , engineer Gary Edwards , Peter James -- tape operators Chris Blair - mastering Duran Duran version ( edit ) `` Come Up and See Me ( Make Me Smile ) '' B - side label of `` The Reflex '' UK vinyl release Single by Duran Duran A-side `` The Reflex '' Released 16 April 1984 ( 1984 - 04 - 16 ) Recorded 16 November 1982 Venue Hammersmith Odeon , London Genre Rock Length 4 : 54 Label EMI Songwriter ( s ) Steve Harley A live cover version of `` Make Me Smile '' was released as the B - side to Duran Duran 's 1984 number one single `` The Reflex '' . On the label and sleeve , the song 's original title was reversed and listed as `` Come Up and See Me ( Make Me Smile ) '' . The band frequently covered the song during their early 1980s concerts , and this recording was made during a 16 November 1982 ( 1982 - 11 - 16 ) live performance for the BBC College Concert series . The entire concert was released on the live CD / DVD Live at Hammersmith ' 82 ! in September 2009 . After dropping the song from their set list for over twenty years , the reunited Duran Duran brought the song back as a surprise encore at their 28 May 2005 homecoming gig at the Birmingham Football Ground to an audience of 25,000 fans . Harley was invited to perform with them , but was unable to attend . The Duran Duran version of the song appeared on the soundtrack to the movie Threesome ( 1994 ) , and as a bonus track on the double CD single for `` Perfect Day '' , from their 1995 covers album Thank You . Track Listing 7 '' single ( UK : EMI / DURAN2 ) Side one No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` The Reflex '' Duran Duran 4 : 20 Side two No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Come Up and See Me ( Make Me Smile ) '' ( live ) Steve Harley 4 : 54 Erasure version ( edit ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' Single by Erasure from the album Other People 's Songs B - side `` Oh L'amour '' `` Walking in the Rain '' `` When Will I See You Again '' `` Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' Released 7 April 2003 ( 2003 - 04 - 07 ) Format CD single DVD single Recorded 2002 Genre Synthpop Length 3 : 58 Label Mute Songwriter ( s ) Steve Harley Producer ( s ) Gareth Jones Erasure Erasure singles chronology `` Solsbury Hill '' ( 2003 ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( 2003 ) `` Oh L'amour ( August Mix ) '' ( 2003 ) British pop duo Erasure included `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' on their cover versions album Other People 's Songs . After the UK Top 10 success of their previous single `` Solsbury Hill '' , Erasure charted well again when `` Make Me Smile '' hit number fourteen . A live performance recorded in Copenhagen on 9 June 2003 ( 2003 - 06 - 09 ) is included on the DVD The Erasure Show - Live in Cologne . The music video sees Erasure members Vince Clarke and Andy Bell in the midst of computer - generated special effects and graphics . The statue in the video also appears in their 2005 video for `` Breathe '' . Erasure 's version appeared in the first episode of season one of the television show My Name Is Earl in 2005 . Track Listing CD single UK : Mute / CDMUTE292 No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( Dave Bascombe Edit Mix ) Steve Harley 3 : 27 2 . `` Oh L'amour '' ( Acoustic , recorded live at the Sirius National Broadcast Studios in New York on 14 January 2003 ( 2003 - 01 - 14 ) ) Vince Clarke , Andy Bell 3 : 28 3 . `` Walking in the Rain '' ( 37b Remix ) Barry Mann , Cynthia Weil , Phil Spector 2 : 48 UK : Mute / LCDMUTE292 No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( Dan Frampton Radio Mix ) Harley 3 : 32 2 . `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( Manhattan Clique Extended Remix ) Harley 7 : 30 3 . `` When Will I See You Again '' ( 37b Remix ) Gamble and Huff 2 : 26 DVD single UK : Mute / DVDMUTE292 Audio tracks No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( Album version ) Harley 3 : 56 2 . `` Ca n't Help Falling in Love '' ( Acoustic , recorded live at the Sirius National Broadcast Studios in New York on 14 January 2003 ( 2003 - 01 - 14 ) ) George David Weiss , Hugo Peretti , Luigi Creatore 3 : 12 Video tracks No . Title Writer ( s ) Length 3 . `` Solsbury Hill '' ( Music video , directed by Vince Clarke ) Peter Gabriel 4 : 20 Other cover versions ( edit ) Suzi Quatro covered the song on her Aggro - Phobia album in 1977 . Australian group , Nick Barker & the Reptiles ' version reached the top 30 on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Singles Chart in November 1989 . A version by The Wedding Present peaked in the UK Singles Chart at number 25 in 1990 , as a track on the 3 Songs EP . Steve Harley was very positive about this version , saying , `` There are 120 cover versions of ' Make Me Smile ' , but only the Wedding Present have done it differently . They did a punk version and made it kick . They understood the venom in the lyrics . '' Robbie Williams recorded a medley of `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) '' , `` You Can Leave Your Hat On '' and `` Land of 1000 Dances '' as a B - side to `` Let Me Entertain You '' in 1998 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley And Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) / Another Journey - EMI - UK - EMI 2263 '' . 45cat.com . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Certified Awards '' . British Phonographic Industry . ^ Jump up to : Copsey , Rob ( 19 February 2015 ) . `` Steve Harley 's Make Me Smile turns 40 : ' It sounds fresh to this day ' '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 23 September 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Kutner , Jon ; Leigh , Spencer . 1000 UK Number One Hits . Omnibus Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84449 - 283 - 1 . Jump up ^ Barton 2014 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ `` The Great Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel Story '' . Steveharley.www.50megs.com . Archived from the original on 2 January 2013 . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ( Come Up And See Me ) Make Me Smile - Steve Harley Interview '' . YouTube . 2010 - 10 - 26 . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ Stephanie Alcantara in association with FosterCraig . `` pro-music / making music '' . Archived from the original on 25 October 2005 . Retrieved 12 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) by Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel Songfacts '' . Retrieved 13 August 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` Interview : Steve Harley '' . The One Show . 26 October 2010 . BBC . BBC One . ^ Jump up to : Watts , Peter ( January 2012 ) . `` The Making of ... Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' . Uncut : 24 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) - Songs From The Shed Session '' . YouTube . 9 January 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Interview : Alan Parsons '' . Songwriting Magazine . 2015 - 10 - 11 . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 12 . Jump up ^ Barton 2014 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Roberts , David , ed. ( 2001 ) . British Hit Singles ( 14th ed . ) . London , England : Guinness World Records Limited . p. 45 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85112 - 156 - 7 . Jump up ^ Barton 2014 , pp. 11 & 12 . Jump up ^ Barton 2014 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley And Cockney Rebel Discography - All Countries - 45cat '' . 45cat.com . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley And Cockney Rebel * - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) '' . Discogs.com . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` 1975 - 76 '' . harleyfanzone.com . Archived from the original on 18 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 45cat - Steve Harley And Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) / Another Journey - EMI - UK - EMI 2263 '' . 45cat.com . Jump up ^ Murrells , Joseph ( 1978 ) . The Book of Golden Discs ( 2nd ed . ) . London : Barrie and Jenkins Ltd . pp. 358 -- 359 . ISBN 0 - 214 - 20512 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Awards - AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley And Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) / Sebastian - EMI - UK - EMI 5112 '' . 45cat.com. 2015 - 10 - 18 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) / Judy Teen '' . Discogs.com . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : `` Steve Harley : Artist Chart History '' . Official Charts Company . Jump up ^ Green , Harriet ( 1 December 1995 ) . `` NEWS : KHBB unveils Carlsberg Xmas ad '' . Campaign . London , England : Haymarket Media Group . Retrieved 24 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Come Up And See Me ) 30th Anniversary Re-mix '' . Discogs.com . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 - Official Charts Company '' . www.officialcharts.com . ^ Jump up to : McGeorge , Alistair ( 26 January 2015 ) . `` Top Gear presenters give pop classic new lease of life to help Steve Harley pay speeding fine '' . Daily Mirror . Retrieved 23 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley , Make Me Smile - Driving Penalty '' . YouTube . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Moss , Liv ( 27 January 2015 ) . `` Steve Harley 's Make Me Smile re-enters Top 40 ... thanks to Top Gear '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 24 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Come Up & See '' . YouTube . 28 January 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Make Me Smile ( Russell Harty Show 1975 '' . YouTube . 1975 - 04 - 14 . Retrieved 2016 - 07 - 25 . Jump up ^ Donald A. Guarisco . `` The Best Years of Our Lives - Steve Harley , Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Songs , Reviews , Credits , Awards - AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ Donald A. Guarisco . `` A Closer Look - Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Songs , Reviews , Credits , Awards - AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ Donald A. Guarisco . `` Greatest Hits ( EMI ) - Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Songs , Reviews , Credits , Awards - AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley / Cockney Rebel '' . rinet.ru . Jump up ^ Kent , David ( 1993 ) . Australian Chart Book 1970 -- 1992 . St. Ives , New South Wales , Australia : Australian Chart Books . p. 133 . ISBN 0 - 646 - 11917 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel -- Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Jump up ^ `` Songs from the Year 1975 '' . tsort.info . Jump up ^ `` Musicline.de -- Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel Single - Chartverfolgung '' ( in German ) . Media Control Charts . PhonoNet GmbH . Jump up ^ `` The Irish Charts -- Search Results -- Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' . Irish Singles Chart . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel -- Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Jump up ^ `` South African Rock Lists Website - SA Charts 1969 - 1989 Acts ( H ) '' . rock.co.za . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Jump up ^ `` Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - Awards - AllMusic '' . AllMusic . Jump up ^ Steve Harley - 2005 Diary Archive Archived 15 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Erasure : Artist Chart History -- Official Charts Company '' . Jump up ^ Strong , Martin C. ( 2000 ) . The Great Rock Discography ( 5th ed . ) . Edinburgh : Mojo Books . pp. 785 -- 6 . ISBN 1 - 84195 - 017 - 3 . Jump up ^ `` Discography Nick Barker & the Reptiles '' . Australian charts portal . Hung Medien . Retrieved 22 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Wedding Present : Artist Chart History -- Official Charts Company '' . Bibliography ( edit ) Barton , Geoff ( 2014 ) . The Best Years of Our Lives -- Definitive Edition ( booklet ) . Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel . London , England : Parlophone Records . EMCDX 3068 . External links ( edit ) Top of the Pops performance by Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Steve Harley / Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel Steve Harley Barry Wickens Robbie Gladwell James Lascelles Kuma Harada Adam Houghton Jean - Paul Crocker Paul Jeffreys Milton Reame - James Jim Cregan George Ford Duncan Mackay Stuart Elliott Lincoln Anderson Studio albums ( Cockney Rebel ) The Human Menagerie ( 1973 ) The Psychomodo ( 1974 ) Studio albums ( Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel ) The Best Years of Our Lives ( 1975 ) Timeless Flight ( 1976 ) Love 's a Prima Donna ( 1976 ) The Quality of Mercy ( 2005 ) Studio albums ( Steve Harley ) Hobo with a Grin ( 1978 ) The Candidate ( 1979 ) Yes You Can ( 1992 ) Poetic Justice ( 1996 ) Stranger Comes to Town ( 2010 ) Live albums Face to Face : A Live Recording ( 1977 ) Stripped to the Bare Bones ( 1999 ) Acoustic and Pure : Live ( 2003 ) Anytime ! ( A Live Set ) ( as The Steve Harley Band , 2004 ) Birmingham ( Live with Orchestra & Choir ) ( 2013 ) Compilations A Closer Look ( 1975 ) The Best of Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel ( 1980 ) The Collection ( 1983 ) Greatest Hits ( 1987 ) Mr Soft ( 1988 ) Live at the BBC ( 1995 ) More Than Somewhat -- The Very Best of Steve Harley ( 1998 ) The Cream of Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel ( 1999 ) Best of the ' 70s ( 2000 ) The Cockney Rebel - A Steve Harley Anthology ( 2006 ) The Best of Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel ( 2008 ) Cavaliers : An Anthology 1973 - 1974 ( 2012 ) Original Album Series ( 2014 ) Singles ( Cockney Rebel ) `` Sebastian '' `` Judy Teen '' `` Hideaway '' `` Psychomodo '' `` Mr. Soft '' `` Tumbling Down '' Singles ( Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel ) `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' `` Mr. Raffles ( Man , It Was Mean ) '' `` Black or White '' `` White , White Dove '' `` Here Comes the Sun '' `` ( I Believe ) Love 's a Prima Donna '' `` ( Love ) Compared with You '' `` The Best Years of Our Lives ( live ) '' `` I Ca n't Even Touch You '' `` Irresistible '' `` The Last Goodbye '' Singles ( Steve Harley ) `` Big Big Deal '' `` Roll the Dice '' `` Someone 's Coming '' `` Freedom 's Prisoner '' `` Ballerina ( Prima Donna ) '' `` Heartbeat Like Thunder '' `` Irresistible '' `` The Phantom of the Opera '' ( with Sarah Brightman ) `` Whatever You Believe '' ( as Anderson , Harley & Batt ) `` When I 'm with You '' `` Star for a Week ( Dino ) '' `` A Friend for Life '' `` Faith & Virtue '' `` For Sale . Baby Shoes . Never Worn '' `` Ordinary People '' Video Live from London ( 1985 ) The Come Back , All is Forgiven Tour : Live ( 1989 ) Live at the Isle of Wight Festival ( 2005 ) Birmingham ( Live with Orchestra & Choir ) ( 2013 ) Related articles Discography List of songs recorded by Steve Harley The Alan Parsons Project Erasure Andy Bell Vince Clarke Albums Wonderland The Circus The Innocents Wild ! Chorus I Say I Say I Say Erasure Cowboy Loveboat Other People 's Songs Nightbird Union Street Light at the End of the World Tomorrow 's World Snow Globe The Violet Flame World Be Gone EPs Crackers International Am I Right ? EP Abba-esque I Love Saturday EP Rain : Plus Moon and the Sky : Plus Boy EP Storm Chaser Pop ! Remixed Erasure. Club Phantom Bride EP Compilations The Two Ring Circus Pop ! The First 20 Hits Hits ! The Very Best of Erasure Pop ! Remixed Total Pop ! The First 40 Hits Pop2 ! The Second 20 Hits 10 Great Songs Always : The Very Best of Erasure Live album Acoustic Live Live at the Royal Albert Hall World Be Live Box sets EBX From Moscow to Mars Singles `` Who Needs Love Like That '' `` Heavenly Action '' `` Oh L'amour '' `` Sometimes '' `` It Does n't Have to Be '' `` Victim of Love '' `` The Circus '' `` Ship of Fools '' `` Chains of Love '' `` A Little Respect '' `` Stop ! '' `` Drama ! '' `` You Surround Me '' `` Blue Savannah '' `` Star '' `` Chorus '' `` Love to Hate You '' `` Am I Right ? '' `` Breath of Life '' `` Take a Chance on Me '' `` Always '' `` Run to the Sun '' `` I Love Saturday '' `` Stay with Me '' `` Fingers & Thumbs ( Cold Summer 's Day ) '' `` Rock Me Gently '' `` In My Arms '' `` Do n't Say Your Love Is Killing Me '' `` Rain '' `` Freedom '' `` Moon & the Sky '' `` Solsbury Hill '' `` Make Me Smile ( Come Up and See Me ) '' `` Breathe '' `` Do n't Say You Love Me '' `` Here I Go Impossible Again '' `` All This Time Still Falling Out of Love '' `` Boy '' `` I Could Fall in Love with You '' `` Sunday Girl '' `` Storm in a Teacup '' `` Phantom Bride '' `` When I Start To ( Break It All Down ) '' `` Be with You '' `` Fill Us with Fire '' `` Gaudete '' Video Live at the Seaside Innocents Wild ! Abba-esque Pop ! The First 20 Hits Hits ! the Videos The Erasure Show - Live in Cologne Live at the Royal Albert Hall Related articles Discography Yazoo Depeche Mode The Assembly Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Make_Me_Smile_(Come_Up_and_See_Me)&oldid=855873991 '' Categories : 1975 songs 1990 singles 1995 singles 2003 singles 2005 singles Erasure songs Duran Duran songs UK Singles Chart number - one singles Irish Singles Chart number - one singles Mute Records singles 1975 singles Songs written by Steve Harley Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from March 2012 Use British English from March 2012 Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Germany Singlechart usages for Ireland2 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for UKsinglesbyname Singlechart making named ref Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Norsk Norsk nynorsk Edit links This page was last edited on 21 August 2018 , at 11 : 51 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who sang the song come up and see me sometime | [
"\"Make Me Smile (Come Up and See Me)\" is a song by British rock band Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel, released as the lead single from the band's 1975 album The Best Years of Our Lives. It was written by Harley, and produced by Harley and Alan Parsons. In February 1975, the song reached the number-one spot on the UK chart and received a UK Silver certification.[2] It spent nine weeks in the Top 50, and as of 2015, has sold over 1.5 million copies worldwide.[3]\n"
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"British rock band Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel"
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911207644198934414 | The Streak (wrestling) | The Streak ( Wrestling ) - wikipedia The Streak ( Wrestling ) The Undertaker The Streak was a series of 21 straight victories for professional wrestler The Undertaker ( Mark Calaway ) at WWE 's premier annual event , WrestleMania . It began at WrestleMania VII in 1991 when he beat Jimmy Snuka , with the final win coming against CM Punk at WrestleMania 29 in 2013 ; The Undertaker was absent from WrestleMania X ( 1994 ) and WrestleMania 2000 , owing to injury . Overall , he defeated 18 men during The Streak , which included three bouts with Triple H and two each opposite Kane and Shawn Michaels , as well as a handicap match against A-Train and Big Show at WrestleMania XIX . Although part of professional wrestling storyline , this run of victories was described by sports news publication The 42 as the `` greatest winning streak in sport '' , while Sky Sports likened it to that of boxer Floyd Mayweather . The Streak became the cornerstone of WrestleMania , with a potential win over The Undertaker at the event being described as a greater honor than winning the WWE Championship . For years , debate had revolved around who , if anybody , should break The Streak , with prominent wrestlers giving comment . At WrestleMania XXX in 2014 , The Undertaker lost to Brock Lesnar . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 1.1 WrestleMania 1.2 The Undertaker 2 Match statistics 3 The Streak 3.1 WrestleMania VII ( 1 -- 0 ) 3.2 WrestleMania VIII ( 2 -- 0 ) 3.3 WrestleMania IX ( 3 -- 0 ) 3.4 WrestleMania XI ( 4 -- 0 ) 3.5 WrestleMania XII ( 5 -- 0 ) 3.6 WrestleMania 13 ( 6 -- 0 ) 3.7 WrestleMania XIV ( 7 -- 0 ) 3.8 WrestleMania XV ( 8 -- 0 ) 3.9 WrestleMania X-Seven ( 9 -- 0 ) 3.10 WrestleMania X8 ( 10 -- 0 ) 3.11 WrestleMania XIX ( 11 -- 0 ) 3.12 WrestleMania XX ( 12 -- 0 ) 3.13 WrestleMania 21 ( 13 -- 0 ) 3.14 WrestleMania 22 ( 14 -- 0 ) 3.15 WrestleMania 23 ( 15 -- 0 ) 3.16 WrestleMania XXIV ( 16 -- 0 ) 3.17 WrestleMania XXV ( 17 -- 0 ) 3.18 WrestleMania XXVI ( 18 -- 0 ) 3.19 WrestleMania XXVII ( 19 -- 0 ) 3.20 WrestleMania XXVIII ( 20 -- 0 ) 3.21 WrestleMania 29 ( 21 -- 0 ) 4 End of The Streak and aftermath 5 Media 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Background ( edit ) The current official WrestleMania logo WrestleMania ( edit ) WrestleMania is the premier annual event of the largest professional wrestling promotion in the United States , WWE . Formed as a counter to Jim Crockett Promotions ' successful Starrcade event , WrestleMania I was broadcast to one million nationwide via closed - circuit television and pay - per - view . WrestleMania 's widespread success helped transform the sport of professional wrestling and made WWE the most successful wrestling promotion in the world , prompting WWE to promote the event as the `` Super Bowl of sports entertainment '' . The Undertaker ( edit ) Born Mark William Calaway on March 24 , 1965 in Houston , Texas , The Undertaker is an American professional wrestler . He is currently signed to WWE , where he has worked since 1990 , making him the company 's longest - tenured in - ring performer . Calaway began his wrestling career with World Class Championship Wrestling ( WCCW ) in 1984 . After wrestling for World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) as `` Mean '' Mark Callous from 1989 to 1990 , he signed with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , later WWE ) in 1990 . In WWE , The Undertaker is a seven - time world champion , having won the WWF / E Championship four times and the World Heavyweight Championship three times , as well as the winner of the 2007 Royal Rumble . He is recognized as the fourth youngest WWF / E Champion in history , having won the title aged 26 years , 8 months , and 3 days . Match statistics ( edit ) Undefeated WrestleMania streak of The Undertaker Streak Date Match time Venue Note 1 -- 0 Jimmy Snuka 000000001991 - 03 - 24 - 0000 March 24 , 1991 WrestleMania VII 4 : 20 Pinfall Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena Los Angeles , California This marked the first victory of The Streak 2 -- 0 Jake Roberts 000000001992 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 1992 WrestleMania VIII 6 : 36 Pinfall Hoosier Dome Indianapolis , Indiana 3 -- 0 Giant González 000000001993 - 04 - 04 - 0000 April 4 , 1993 WrestleMania IX 7 : 33 Disqualification Caesars Palace Las Vegas , Nevada 4 -- 0 King Kong Bundy 000000001995 - 04 - 02 - 0000 April 2 , 1995 WrestleMania XI 6 : 36 Pinfall Hartford Civic Center Hartford , Connecticut 5 -- 0 Diesel 000000001996 - 03 - 31 - 0000 March 31 , 1996 WrestleMania XII 16 : 46 Pinfall Arrowhead Pond Anaheim , California 6 -- 0 Sycho Sid 000000001997 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 1997 WrestleMania 13 21 : 19 Pinfall Rosemont Horizon Rosemont , Illinois This was for the WWF Championship 7 -- 0 Kane 000000001998 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1998 WrestleMania XIV 16 : 58 Pinfall Fleet Center Boston , Massachusetts 8 -- 0 Big Boss Man 000000001999 - 03 - 28 - 0000 March 28 , 1999 WrestleMania XV 9 : 48 Pinfall First Union Center Philadelphia , Pennsylvania This was a Hell in a Cell match 9 -- 0 Triple H 000000002001 - 04 - 01 - 0000 April 1 , 2001 WrestleMania X-Seven 18 : 17 Pinfall Reliant Astrodome Houston , Texas 10 -- 0 Ric Flair 000000002002 - 03 - 17 - 0000 March 17 , 2002 WrestleMania X8 18 : 47 Pinfall SkyDome Toronto , Ontario , Canada This was a no disqualification match 11 -- 0 A-Train and Big Show 000000002003 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 2003 WrestleMania XIX 9 : 45 Pinfall Safeco Field Seattle , Washington This was a 2 - on - 1 handicap match 12 -- 0 Kane 000000002004 - 03 - 14 - 0000 March 14 , 2004 WrestleMania XX 7 : 45 Pinfall Madison Square Garden New York City , New York 13 -- 0 Randy Orton 000000002005 - 04 - 03 - 0000 April 3 , 2005 WrestleMania 21 14 : 14 Pinfall Staples Center Los Angeles , California The first time the Undertaker was challenged explicitly to end The Streak . This was also where The Streak was given its name . 14 -- 0 Mark Henry 000000002006 - 04 - 02 - 0000 April 2 , 2006 WrestleMania 22 9 : 26 Casket Allstate Arena Rosemont , Illinois This was a casket match 15 -- 0 Batista 000000002007 - 04 - 01 - 0000 April 1 , 2007 WrestleMania 23 15 : 47 Pinfall Ford Field Detroit , Michigan This was for the World Heavyweight Championship 16 -- 0 Edge 000000002008 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 2008 WrestleMania XXIV 24 : 03 Submission Citrus Bowl Orlando , Florida This was for the World Heavyweight Championship 17 -- 0 Shawn Michaels 000000002009 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 2009 WrestleMania XXV 30 : 44 Pinfall Reliant Stadium Houston , Texas 18 -- 0 Shawn Michaels 000000002010 - 03 - 28 - 0000 March 28 , 2010 WrestleMania XXVI 23 : 59 Pinfall University of Phoenix Stadium Glendale , Arizona This was a streak vs. career match 19 -- 0 Triple H 000000002011 - 04 - 03 - 0000 April 3 , 2011 WrestleMania XXVII 29 : 24 Submission Georgia Dome Atlanta , Georgia This was a No Holds Barred match 20 -- 0 Triple H 000000002012 - 04 - 01 - 0000 April 1 , 2012 WrestleMania XXVIII 30 : 50 Pinfall Sun Life Stadium Miami Gardens , Florida This was a Hell in a Cell match with Shawn Michaels as special guest referee 21 -- 0 CM Punk 000000002013 - 04 - 07 - 0000 April 7 , 2013 WrestleMania 29 22 : 07 Pinfall MetLife Stadium East Rutherford , New Jersey This marked the final victory of The Streak before it was broken by Brock Lesnar at the following year 's WrestleMania XXX The Streak ( edit ) WrestleMania VII ( 1 -- 0 ) ( edit ) I looked forward to that , brother , when Vince Jr. told me to wrestle The Undertaker . Brother , I loved it . I loved it . I said , `` Why not ? '' . Here 's a kid that 's blowing up . He looks the part . He looked good . It was a pleasure for me to go in there and work with him . -- Jimmy Snuka in 2013 Early into Undertaker 's career , he would smash various jobbers and other established stars in squash matches . This led to a feud with Jimmy `` Superfly '' Snuka . The match ended when Snuka 's attempted springboard maneuver was countered as The Undertaker caught him , and he then hit the Tombstone Piledriver before pinning Snuka . WrestleMania viii ( 2 -- 0 ) ( edit ) In mid-1991 , Taker would be allying himself with Jake `` The Snake '' Roberts in his feud with the Ultimate Warrior . During the 1992 Royal Rumble , however , Taker turned face and defended Randy Savage 's manager and wife , Miss Elizabeth , from Roberts 's attack . When berated by Roberts on whose side he was on , Taker retorted `` Not yours '' . The feud would culminate in a match at Wrestlemania . After delivering his finishing move , the DDT , to The Undertaker for the second time , Jake Roberts went to the outside to attack Undertaker 's manager Paul Bearer . The Undertaker then delivered a Tombstone Piledriver to Roberts , before rolling him inside the ring and pinning him . WrestleMania ix ( 3 -- 0 ) ( edit ) During the Royal Rumble 1993 , Undertaker , who had now been feuding with Harvey Wippleman , began engaging in matches with the wrestlers managed by Wippleman . During the Royal Rumble , Wippleman introduced the Giant Gonzales , who would illegally enter the match to eliminate the Undertaker . This would set up a match against the two at Wrestlemania . Giant González was disqualified when he covered The Undertaker 's face with a cloth covered in chloroform . This was the only DQ victory in the Undertaker 's streak , as all other wins were obtained by pinfall , submission , or casket . WrestleMania xi ( 4 -- 0 ) ( edit ) Throughout 1994 , Undertaker would be sidelined through injury , and during this time , Million Dollar Man , Ted DiBiase Sr. , would introduce his own Undertaker , prompting a feud between the two . King Kong Bundy , who was being managed by DiBiase , would step up to face the Undertaker at Wrestlemania in 1995 . The match , refereed by baseball umpire Larry Young , finished when The Undertaker first bodyslammed and then delivered a flying clothesline to King Kong Bundy before pinning him . WrestleMania xii ( 5 -- 0 ) ( edit ) On the Royal Rumble of 1996 , Undertaker faced then - WWF champion , Bret Hart for the title , but an interference by Diesel costs him the match . As revenge , Taker would then cost Diesel his opportunity for the title at In Your House : Rage in the Cage . The two would settle their feud at Wrestlemania , which would be Diesel 's final Wrestlemania match before departing to WCW a month later . Diesel lost to The Undertaker via Tombstone Piledriver . WrestleMania 13 ( 6 -- 0 ) ( edit ) In 1997 , Shawn Michaels vacated the WWF Championship , leaving the new holder to be decided in a four - way elimination match between Undertaker , Bret Hart , Vader and `` Stone Cold '' Steve Austin . Bret won the match and the title but then lost it to Sid in a match the next night on Monday Night Raw . While Hart and Austin would continue their feud , Undertaker was left free to challenge Sid for the title at Wrestlemania . In a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship , the finish came when Bret Hart distracted Sid long enough for The Undertaker to take advantage and deliver a Tombstone Piledriver . WrestleMania xiv ( 7 -- 0 ) ( edit ) Getting to work with The Undertaker right off the bat was a tremendous opportunity . It was an opportunity to be a career - maker , and fortunately I was able to take advantage of that . -- Kane in 2010 At Summerslam 1997 , Undertaker dropped the WWF title to Hart after an accidental attack by Shawn Michaels , setting up a Hell in a Cell match between the two . During the match , Kane was brought by Paul Bearer to cost Taker the match . After being defeated by Michaels at the Royal Rumble 1998 in a casket match thanks to Kane , Undertaker would challenge his brother to a match at Wrestlemania . After Kane had kicked out of two Tombstone Piledrivers , The Undertaker delivered a third to pick up the win over his ( storyline ) brother . WrestleMania xv ( 8 -- 0 ) ( edit ) Mid-1998 would see the creation of Undertaker 's Ministry of Darkness , as it would reignite his pursuit for the WWF title . In his way , however , he opted to switch targets , and aimed to take control of the entire WWF corporation instead . Feuding with The Corporation , Undertaker faced the stable 's enforcer , Big Boss Man . The first WrestleMania match to take place inside a Hell in a Cell ended when Undertaker delivered a Tombstone Piledriver to Big Boss man , who was then hanged from a noose by The Brood . This bout was during the `` Ministry of Darkness '' era . WrestleMania x-seven ( 9 -- 0 ) ( edit ) Returning with his `` American Badass '' character in 2000 after an injury the previous year , Undertaker reignited his feud with Vince McMahon , who now allied themselves with Triple H to form the McMahon - Helmsley Faction . Undertaker would find Hunter 's statement of having `` already beaten everyone in the business '' as arrogant as the two never met in a one - on - one match before . Following various brawls between their respective allies , Undertaker would have Kane hold Stephanie McMahon hostage unless then - commissioner , William Regal , give them matches against Triple H and the Big Show respectively . Following a match involving a brawl through the crowd , The Undertaker finally pinned Triple H after using the Last Ride . This bout marked The Undertaker 's first WrestleMania appearance under his `` American Badass '' biker persona . WrestleMania x8 ( 10 -- 0 ) ( edit ) During No Way Out 2002 , Undertaker would face The Rock after the two had been feuding , but he would lose the match thanks to Ric Flair 's interference , sparking a feud between the two which led to a match at Wrestlamania . The Undertaker delivering a Tombstone Piledriver to Ric Flair Fought under No Disqualification rules , The Undertaker beat Ric Flair after delivering a Tombstone Piledriver , despite interference from Arn Anderson . WrestleMania XIX ( 11 -- 0 ) ( edit ) In late - 2002 , Big Show kayfabe injured Taker , but Taker would make his return at the 2003 Royal Rumble to engage Show . Though Taker came out victorious at No Way Out in their submissions match , A-Train would attack Taker , while Nathan Jones would aid Taker . Just prior to their match , however , Jones would be attacked by their opponents at Wrestlemania , turning the tag team match into a handicap match instead . Jones helped Undertaker win by delivering kicks to both Big Show and A-Train , and allowing The Undertaker to hit a Tombstone Piledriver on A-Train to get the pinfall win . This bout at WrestleMania XIX would be the last match Undertaker would have under the `` American Badass '' persona . WrestleMania xx ( 12 -- 0 ) ( edit ) Survivor Series 2003 spelled the end of Undertaker 's Big Evil persona , as he would lose his Buried Alive Match against Vince McMahon due to interference from Kane . Reverting to his Deadman persona , The Undertaker would haunt Kane throughout various matches in vignettes , resulting in his eventual return at Wrestlemania . The Undertaker later defeated Kane for the second time at WrestleMania by executing a Tombstone Piledriver . WrestleMania 21 ( 13 -- 0 ) ( edit ) As part of his `` Legend Killer '' gimmick , Randy Orton began seeking out the Undertaker , hoping to be the one to finally end the deadman 's legendary streak . Orton would go as far as attacking his on - screen girlfriend , Stacy Keibler , and WWE Legend , Jake `` The Snake '' Roberts and was able to eventually get Undertaker to accept the challenge . The finish to the match came when Randy Orton attempted to execute a Tombstone Piledriver , only for it to be reversed by The Undertaker into one of his own . This match marked the first time an opponent of the Undertaker 's wanted to face him at WrestleMania explicitly to end his undefeated streak , as opposed to having a primary grudge with him . WrestleMania 22 ( 14 -- 0 ) ( edit ) During 2006 , Undertaker began his pursuit for the World Heavyweight Championship , held by Kurt Angle at the time . In No Way Out , Mark Henry would cost Undertaker the match . As a result , the Undertaker then challenged Henry to a Casket Match . The Undertaker won the casket match when he put Mark Henry inside the casket . WrestleMania 23 ( 15 -- 0 ) ( edit ) When we get in the ring together , I think it 's magic . I think we always have the same goal , and that 's just to give a heck of a competitive match . It 's not easy with us both being babyfaces , but as long as we 're competitive and we 're physical and give the crowd their money 's worth and take them on a ride , then it 's going to work . It 's like a dream come true . Him being such a large man and so athletic , he 's the perfect opponent for me . -- Batista in 2007 Having won the 2007 Royal Rumble , The Undertaker earned the opportunity to select his opponent for WrestleMania 23 . With the option to wrestle WWE Champion John Cena , ECW Champion Bobby Lashley , or World Heavyweight Champion Batista , The Undertaker chose Batista . Undertaker used his signature moves Snake Eyes , Old School , and a flying clothesline early on , before executing a suicide dive to Batista , who then retaliated by performing a running powerslam through the ECW broadcast table . Batista put Undertaker back in the ring and attempted a pin to no avail as Undertaker kicked out , who then did the Last Ride and a chokeslam , but was unable to score a pin from either move . Batista then hit a spear and his finishing move the Batista Bomb , but Undertaker stunned everybody by kicking out . Batista tried another , but was countered and Undertaker hit a Tombstone Piledriver on Batista to win the World Heavyweight Championship . WrestleMania xxiv ( 16 -- 0 ) ( edit ) Though he successfully defended his title against Batista in a Steel Cage Match at Smackdown , the Undertaker would fall victim to a returning Mark Henry 's attack . Edge would then cash in his Money in the Bank briefcase to win the title from the beaten champion . Though Batista would defeat Edge for the title , the trio would have a Triple Threat match at Armageddon for the title , which Edge won . Undertaker would then prevail at Smackdown 's Elimination Chamber at No Way Out 2008 to become the number one contender for Edge 's title at Wrestlemania . Although The Undertaker entered the event undefeated to much acclaim , Edge had also never lost a singles match at WrestleMania . Edge described the match as `` the biggest match of my career , bar none . The main event , against Undertaker for the world title , it does n't get any better '' . The match was full of reversals by Edge , who was defending his World Heavyweight Championship , including Undertaker 's signature moves Old School , the big boot , the Last Ride , and the Tombstone Piledriver , while hitting big moves of his own such as the ' Impaler DDT and the Edge - o - matic . The end of the match came when , despite Edge using a camera as a weapon , and interference from La Familia members The Edgeheads ( Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder ) , Undertaker locked in the Hell 's Gate after being hit with Edge 's finisher , the spear . Edge would submit , and for the second year in a row , The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania . Edge later revealed in a podcast , that the original plan for the match was to be `` Streak vs Streak '' , as he was originally slated to win Wrestlemania 23 's Money in the Bank Ladder Match , but booking eventually shifted the win to Mr. Kennedy instead . WrestleMania XXV ( 17 -- 0 ) ( edit ) What more could you ask for as a wrestling fan ? -- Jim Ross at WrestleMania XXV After defeating Vladimir Kozlov on March 2 , 2009 , Shawn Michaels earned the right to challenge The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV . The Undertaker after defeating Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania XXV During the match , Undertaker attempted his signature suicide dive , but Michaels pulled a cameraman in the way , leaving Undertaker to land awkwardly on his neck ; the spot was said to have `` added more drama and emotion to the match , and gave it an element of realism '' . The finish , described as `` emotionally charged '' , involved Undertaker using all four of his recognized finishers ( Tombstone Piledriver , Last Ride , chokeslam , Hell 's Gate ) without managing to finish the match on any occasion ; Undertaker 's `` wide eyed look of sadness and desperation on his face '' after Michaels kicked out of the Tombstone Piledriver was described as a `` snapshot of the heart and passion that was on display at the spectacle '' . Michaels made a comeback , and eventually hit Sweet Chin Music , but Undertaker kicked out . Soon after , Michaels attempted a top - rope moonsault , but was caught by Undertaker , who executed a second Tombstone Piledriver and finally won the match . The match was described as `` show - stealing '' and an `` instant classic '' , and was eventually hailed by many as the greatest bout in WrestleMania history . WrestleMania XXVI ( 18 -- 0 ) ( edit ) The Undertaker initially rejected a rematch with Shawn Michaels , saying `` a rematch at this year 's WrestleMania will only result in more bitter disappointment for yourself . Shawn , I 've got nothing to prove to you . My answer is ' No ' '' , before Michaels retaliated by saying `` I 'll see you at WrestleMania . Your streak , your title , your soul will be mine '' . At Elimination Chamber , Michaels cost Undertaker his World Heavyweight Championship , coming out from under the ring and connecting with Sweet Chin Music and allowing Chris Jericho to pin him . Towards the end , Michaels hit Sweet Chin Music on the outside , leaving Undertaker lay on the broadcast table , before performing a top - rope moonsault , breaking the table . At the end of a 24 - minute match , after kicking out of a Tombstone Piledriver , Michaels slapped The Undertaker , leading to Undertaker executing a jumping Tombstone Piledriver on Michaels . As a result of the loss per the pre-match stipulations , Michaels retired from professional wrestling , a moment described as `` the end of an era '' . WrestleMania XXVII ( 19 -- 0 ) ( edit ) In the lead - up to WrestleMania XXVII , Triple H vowed to do what his best friend , Shawn Michaels , could not : end The Streak . After a near - 30 minute bout , in a match contested under No Holds Barred rules , and after both men kicked out of each other 's finishing move , The Undertaker was triumphant when he locked in the Hell 's Gate on Triple H ; Triple H attempted to use a sledgehammer while in the hold , but was unable to do so before tapping out . Although victorious , it was the first time that The Undertaker legitimately could not walk out of the arena , and had to be stretchered to the back by paramedics . WrestleMania XXVIII ( 20 -- 0 ) ( edit ) The Undertaker made the challenge , as he wanted to redeem himself against Triple H from the previous year 's WrestleMania , where he had to be stretchered out of the arena . Triple H initially rejected before accepting . Contested inside a Hell in a Cell , and refereed by Shawn Michaels , the match , billed as the `` End of an Era '' began with both men brawling in and around the ring . Shortly afterwards , with the steel steps inside the ring , Triple H hit a spinebuster on Undertaker , who then managed to lock in the Hell 's Gate , which was countered when Triple H lifted him up and slammed him on the steel steps . The match was littered with weapon shots , including 16 consecutive chair shots by Triple H , followed by a sledgehammer shot to the skull , all the while Undertaker instructed Michaels not to stop the match . When being checked on by Michaels , Undertaker locked him in the Hell 's Gate , leaving him out cold . Replacement referee Charles Robinson ran down to the ring after Undertaker hit a chokeslam on Triple H , but could only make a two - count , and was then on the receiving end of a chokeslam himself . Michaels recovered and hit Undertaker with Sweet Chin Music followed by a Triple H Pedigree , but this was n't enough for the three count . Both men traded finishing moves for near - falls , before Undertaker delivered his own series of chair shots for another two count . Undertaker won shortly afterwards with a Tombstone Piledriver . It was praised as one of the greatest Hell in a Cell matches of all time , while Triple H thought it was one of his favorite matches of his career . WrestleMania 29 ( 21 -- 0 ) ( edit ) In a controversial angle the week before WrestleMania 29 , CM Punk 's manager Paul Heyman , dressed as , and using the mannerisms of , the recently deceased Paul Bearer , came out to confront The Undertaker whilst flanked by Undertaker 's signature druids . As Undertaker attempted to assault them , Punk , in disguise as a druid , assaulted Undertaker before pouring the ashes of an urn , purporting to be those of Bearer 's , over Undertaker . During the 22 minute match Punk delivered a Macho Man elbow drop from the top rope onto The Undertaker , who was draped on the Spanish broadcast table . Undertaker survived this , and , after Punk hit The Undertaker with the urn containing the alleged ashes of Paul Bearer , Undertaker reversed CM Punk 's GTS finishing move and hit a Tombstone Piledriver on Punk to mark the final victory in The Streak . End of the Streak and aftermath ( edit ) Brock Lesnar wore merchandise celebrating the end of The Streak On October 23 , 2010 , after losing his UFC Heavyweight Championship to Cain Velasquez at UFC 121 , Brock Lesnar was confronted by The Undertaker , who asked , `` you wan na do it ? '' The incident led to speculation about a WrestleMania match between the two , and was described by Fox Sports as the `` genesis '' of their feud . On the February 24 , 2014 episode of Raw , Undertaker appeared for the first time since The Shield performed a powerbomb on him through a broadcast table ten months earlier , to challenge Lesnar to a match at WrestleMania XXX , scheduled for April 6 at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans . Undertaker went into the match as the massive odds - on favorite , but after one kimura lock and three F - 5s , Lesnar pinned The Undertaker in 25 minutes and 12 seconds to end the undefeated WrestleMania streak , silencing and shocking the entire crowd in the process . Undertaker was legitimately hospitalized afterwards with a severe concussion suffered early in the match . Lesnar 's music was not played for a few minutes while WWE cameramen continued to highlight the reaction of a stunned crowd , while his manager Paul Heyman thereafter began using the victory to further promote his client and referred to himself as `` the one behind the one in 21 and 1 '' . The result was described by Sports Illustrated as being `` the most shocking result since the Montreal Screwjob '' . A great number of fans objected to the outcome ; Justin Henry of WrestleCrap gave an impassioned defence of the decision , arguing that it elicited an emotional response that reduced him and other viewers `` to the most base - ishness of our fanhood '' . Quizzed by Stone Cold Steve Austin about his decision to terminate The Streak , Vince McMahon said it was done to make a big deal of Lesnar and that there were no other viable candidates for the role . He added that The Undertaker was shocked by the decision , but willingly participated since he wanted to give back to the business . Taking exception to Lesnar 's boasting about ending The Streak , The Undertaker cost him a WWE World Heavyweight Championship victory at Battleground in July 2015 , instigating a rematch between the two at the next month 's SummerSlam . At that event on August 23 , after a distraction and a low blow , Undertaker gained his first televised singles victory over Lesnar when the latter passed out to Hell 's Gate . A Hell in a Cell match between the pair at October 's Hell in a Cell , billed as their final meeting , was won by Lesnar after a low blow and an F - 5 . Following the Undertaker 's WrestleMania XXX loss to Lesnar , he had further matches at the annual event against Bray Wyatt ( WrestleMania 31 ) , Shane McMahon ( WrestleMania 32 ) , Roman Reigns ( WrestleMania 33 ) and John Cena ( WrestleMania 34 ) , winning all but the Reigns encounter . Media ( edit ) WWE has released various DVDs covering The Streak , including a four - disc set to mark the 20 -- 0 milestone in 2012 . An updated version including the final victory over CM Punk , as well as the loss to Brock Lesnar , was issued in 2015 . Video game WWE 2K14 features The Streak mode , in which players can attempt to defend The Streak as The Undertaker . Alternatively , they can try to break it as any other wrestler in the game . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Along with WWE , multiple news outlets have dubbed this run of victories as `` The Streak '' . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Undertaker '' . WWE . Retrieved February 21 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Bishop , Matt ; Nowell , Nolan ( 31 March 2013 ) . `` Debate : Should CM Punk end The Streak ? '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Hopkinson , Paul ( 27 October 2010 ) . `` Brock Lesnar vs. Cain Velasquez Fight Overshadowed By Undertaker ? '' . CBS News . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Caldwell , James ( 3 April 2011 ) . `` The Undertaker vs. Triple H with The Streak on the line '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Knight , Michael ( 10 October 2012 ) . `` Who Will End the Undertaker 's Streak at Wrestlemania ? '' . www.vice.com/ . Vice . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Nissim , Mayer ( 23 March 2014 ) . `` The Undertaker 's WrestleMania streak : Should it end ? '' . www.digitalspy.com/ . Digital Spy . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Shoemaker , David ( August 14 , 2014 ) . `` What 's at Stake When John Cena Wrestles Brock Lesnar at ' SummerSlam ' '' . Grantland . Retrieved February 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Woodward , Buck ( January 29 , 2011 ) . `` Undertaker , Royal Rumble , Vickie Guerrero and more '' . PWInsider . Retrieved February 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The greatest winning streak in sport is still going strong '' . The 42 . 8 April 2013 . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Undertaker 's Show of Shows victims '' . Wayback Machine . Sky Sports . 1 April 2014 . Archived from the original on December 26 , 2014 . Retrieved 26 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Fordy , Tom ( November 22 , 2015 ) . `` Why the Undertaker is the world 's greatest sportsman '' . The Telegraph . Retrieved January 23 , 2016 . In the last decade , the Undertaker 's infamous streak became the cornerstone of the ( WrestleMania ) event , bigger than any championship or accolade on the line . Jump up ^ Oliver , Henry Tiger ( March 26 , 2014 ) . `` Why Brock Lesnar wo n't break The Undertaker 's WrestleMania win streak '' . The Oklahoman . Retrieved March 16 , 2015 . The Streak is not just a WrestleMania match . It is THE WrestleMania match . It 's as daunting an adversary as The Undertaker himself . To defeat The Streak is an accomplishment greater than winning the prestigious WWE World Heavyweight Championship . Jump up ^ FSM staff ( March 19 , 2015 ) . `` The Greatest WrestleMania Matches of All - Time : The Undertaker vs. Shawn Michaels ( WrestleMania XXV ) '' . Fighting Spirit Magazine . Uncooked Media ( 117 ) : 40 . The Undertaker 's positioning was perfect as he caught Michaels mid - ( moonsault ) and delivered an apocalyptic Tombstone to deny his opponent the grandest prize in WWE : the scalp of The Undertaker at WrestleMania . Jump up ^ `` Steve Austin interview '' . www.powerslamonline.co.uk. Power Slam. 1 April 2014 . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Krotchsen , Billy ( 12 April 2013 ) . `` Bret Hart discusses who he thinks should end Undertaker 's streak '' . www.pwinsider.com/ . PWInsider . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ McNichol , Rob ; Ross , Joel ( 10 June 2011 ) . `` Kurt Angle : The streak could have been mine '' . www.thesun.co.uk/ . The Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ Giannini , Alex ( 23 August 2012 ) . `` Seven Superstars Sheamus wants to fight '' . www.wwe.com/ . WWE Official Website . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The Home of the Jets and the Giants Will Become Body Slam Central for a Night '' . The New York Times . 6 April 2013 . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Powers , Kevin ( 9 August 2013 ) . `` 10 youngest WWE Champions ever '' . www.wwe.com/ . WWE Official Website . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` WrestleMania Cards '' . www.profightdb.com/ . The Internet Wrestling Database . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jimmy Snuka interview , talks Undertaker '' . Wayback Machine . Wrestling Observer Newsletter. 25 January 2013 . Archived from the original on December 28 , 2014 . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 20 February 2012 ) . `` The Streak : Superfly first to fall '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 20 February 2012 ) . `` Undertaker stomps a Snake '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 21 February 2012 ) . `` Slaying a giant '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 21 February 2012 ) . `` DiBiase ca n't lead Bundy to win '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 21 February 2012 ) . `` Nash lays down on way out '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 20 February 2012 ) . `` Sid drops the belt '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Eck , Kevin ( 2 September 2010 ) . `` Kane keeps his dark side inside the ring '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 22 February 2012 ) . `` Brother versus brother '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 23 February 2012 ) . `` Bossman hangs '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 24 February 2012 ) . `` The first battle with Triple H '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 24 February 2012 ) . `` Wooo ! A battle with the Nature Boy '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 26 February 2012 ) . `` Two is not better than one '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 27 February 2012 ) . `` Again , Kane is not able '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 27 February 2012 ) . `` The Legend Killer gets Tombstoned '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Van Der Greind , Blaine ( 2 March 2012 ) . `` Finishing the World 's Strongest Man '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Eck , Kevin ( 7 October 2007 ) . `` Q&A with Batista '' . The Baltimore Sun . 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Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Wahlers , Dan ( 9 April 2009 ) . `` Dan Wahlers talks Undertaker vs. Shawn Michaels '' . Wayback Machine . Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Archived from the original on December 28 , 2014 . Retrieved 28 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 2 March 2009 ) . `` Undertaker 's WrestleMania opponent determined on Raw tonight '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Rehal , Sumit ( 5 April 2014 ) . `` Top ten WrestleMania matches of all time '' . The Independent . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Eck , Kevin ( 5 April 2009 ) . `` Shawn Michaels vs. The Undertaker '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ( 6 April 2009 ) . `` Wrestlemania 25 : HBK - Undertaker steals the show '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Winning the Royal Rumble is your only chance at salvation '' . www.cagematch.net/ . Cagematch. 18 January 2010 . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 21 February 2010 ) . `` Complete coverage of Raw & Smackdown Elimination Chamber matches -- Sheamus and Undertaker defend titles '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Simmons , Bill ( 30 March 2010 ) . `` WrestleMania XXVI -- Bill Simmons ' diary '' . ESPN . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ; Tylwalk , Nick ( 29 March 2010 ) . `` Undertaker ends Shawn Michaels ' career in thrilling rematch to cap off Wrestlemania XXVI '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 28 March 2010 ) . `` WrestleMania 26 Results -- The Undertaker vs. Shawn Michaels Report '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ; Tylwalk , Nick ( 29 March 2010 ) . `` Undertaker ends Shawn Michaels ' career in thrilling rematch to cap off Wrestlemania XXVI '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Eck , Kevin ( 30 March 2010 ) . `` Shawn Michaels says goodbye on Raw '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Xamin , Mark ( 30 March 2010 ) . `` HBK 's retirement the end of an era '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Scherer , Dave ( 30 March 2010 ) . `` Looking at Shawn Michaels ' retirement '' . www.pwinsider.com/ . PWInsider . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ McKinley , Shane ( 28 March 2011 ) . `` Triple H vs. Undertaker preview special '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Meltzer , Dave ( 3 April 2011 ) . `` WrestleMania 27 live coverage from the Georgia Dome '' . Wayback Machine . Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2011 . Retrieved 7 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Plummer , Dale ; Tylwalk , Nick ( 29 March 2012 ) . `` Highs of Taker - HHH , Cena - Rock and Punk - Jericho overcome plenty of lows at WrestleMania XXVIII '' . slam.canoe.ca/ . Canoe . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Keller , Wade ( 2 April 2012 ) . `` Keller 's WWE WrestleMania 28 Take : '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 1 April 2012 ) . `` Caldwell 's WWE WrestleMania 28 PPV Report '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Nissim , Mayer ( 25 October 2013 ) . `` WWE Hell in a Cell : 5 best - ever bouts '' . www.digitalspy.com/ . Digital Spy . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Triple H says Undertaker clash at WrestleMania 28 was one of his best '' . Wayback Machine . Sky Sports . 23 October 2014 . Archived from the original on October 27 , 2014 . Retrieved 27 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Ocal , Arda ( 2 April 2013 ) . `` Pre-WrestleMania Raw highlighted by Paul Bearer imposter , urn 's ashes '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Graham , Bryan ( 9 April 2013 ) . `` 80,676 WrestleMania Fans Ca n't Be Wrong '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 7 April 2013 ) . `` Taker - Punk result -- did Punk break The Streak ? '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Eck , Kevin ( 25 October 2010 ) . `` Is Brock Lesnar going to wrestle The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVII ? '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` UFC interview provided spark to Brock Lesnar - Undertaker feud '' . Fox Sports . August 21 , 2015 . Retrieved November 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Oster , Alex ( 25 February 2014 ) . `` The Undertaker returns on Monday Night Raw , upstaging Hulk Hogan '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Smith , Chris ( 7 April 2014 ) . `` Gamblers Knew The Undertaker Would Lose At WrestleMania 30 '' . Forbes . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Hooton , Christopher ( 7 April 2014 ) . `` Undertaker 's streak ends at WrestleMania 30 '' . The Independent . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 6 April 2014 ) . `` The Undertaker 's Streak is over '' . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Butterly , Amelia ( 8 April 2014 ) . `` WWE WrestleMania star The Undertaker has head injury '' . BBC . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Undertaker concush Jump up ^ Shoemaker , David ( 23 July 2014 ) . `` The Mouth of the WWE '' . Grantland . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Sin , Ben ( 6 April 2014 ) . `` WWE Stars React to the End of the Undertaker 's Streak '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Henry , Justin ( January 12 , 2015 ) . `` The End of the Streak is Not WrestleCrap '' . WrestleCrap . Retrieved April 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( December 2 , 2014 ) . `` Austin / McMahon podcast '' . PWTorch . Retrieved April 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James . `` CALDWELL 'S WWE RAW RESULTS 7 / 20 : Complete `` virtual - time '' coverage of live Raw - Battleground fall - out , Taker - Lesnar pullapart , big six - man tag main event , Divas , more `` . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved July 21 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Pappolla , Ryan . `` The Undertaker vs. Brock Lesnar '' . WWE . Retrieved 21 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James . `` CALDWELL 'S SUMMERSLAM REPORT 8 / 23 : Complete `` virtual - time '' coverage of Lesnar vs. Taker , Title vs. Title , more matches `` . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 23 August 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Matches featuring both The Undertaker and Brock Lesnar '' . www.profightdb.com . The Internet Wrestling Database . Retrieved 28 March 2016 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James . `` 10 / 25 Live HIAC PPV Report -- CALDWELL 'S Live Coverage '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 26 October 2015 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( March 29 , 2015 ) . `` CALDWELL 'S WM31 PPV RESULTS 3 / 29 : Complete `` virtual - time '' coverage of WWE World Title match , Taker 's return , Sting vs. Triple H , Cena vs. Rusev , Rock / UFC surprise , more `` . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved March 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James . `` 4 / 3 WrestleMania 32 PPV Results -- CALDWELL 'S Complete Live Report on Mainland PPV '' . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Burdick , Michael . `` Roman Reigns def . The Undertaker '' . WWE . Retrieved April 2 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Benigno , Anthony . `` The Undertaker def . John Cena '' . WWE . Retrieved April 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Caldwell , James ( 10 April 2012 ) . `` More details on WWE 's `` Streak '' DVD `` . www.pwtorch.com/ . Pro Wrestling Torch . Retrieved 24 December 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Tuesday Update '' . Wayback Machine . Wrestling Observer Newsletter. 20 October 2015 . Archived from the original on October 21 , 2015 . Retrieved 21 October 2015 . 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-4386318061740270962 | List of Arrow characters | List of Arrow characters - wikipedia List of Arrow characters Jump to : navigation , search The main cast featured in a promotional image for the second season . From left to right , Laurel ( Cassidy ) , Slade ( Bennett ) , Felicity ( Rickards ) , Oliver ( Amell ) , John ( Ramsey ) , Thea ( Holland ) , and Roy ( Haynes ) . Arrow is an American television series developed by Greg Berlanti , Marc Guggenheim , and Andrew Kreisberg , based on the DC Comics character Green Arrow . Many of the other characters appearing in the series are also based on DC Comics characters . The series premiered on October 10 , 2012 in the United States on The CW television network , and is currently in its sixth season . Arrow follows the story of billionaire playboy Oliver Queen ( Stephen Amell ) . He is discovered after being stranded for five years on an isolated island . When he returns home , Queen secretly becomes a bow - and - arrow - wielding vigilante in order to honor his father 's legacy and atone for his family 's sins . Throughout the series , he is joined by others in his quest to protect Starling City . The characters that eventually aid Queen 's vigilante efforts include : former soldier John Diggle ( David Ramsey ) , I.T. expert and skilled hacker Felicity Smoak ( Emily Bett Rickards ) , former assassin Sara Lance ( Caity Lotz ) , aspiring vigilante Roy Harper ( Colton Haynes ) , Oliver 's sister Thea / Speedy ( Willa Holland ) , and attorney - turned - vigilante Laurel Lance ( Katie Cassidy ) . The group also receives support from Quentin Lance ( Paul Blackthorne ) who works at the police department . During the first five seasons of the shows , characters from Oliver 's past appear in a separate story arc based on Oliver 's flashbacks , which highlight parallels from Oliver 's history that shape events in the main story . The following is a list of characters who have appeared in the television series . Many are named after ( or based on ) DC Comics characters . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Main characters 2.1 Oliver Queen / Green Arrow 2.2 Laurel Lance / Black Canary / Black Siren 2.3 Tommy Merlyn 2.4 John Diggle / Spartan 2.5 Thea Queen / Speedy 2.6 Moira Queen 2.7 Quentin Lance 2.8 Felicity Smoak / Overwatch 2.9 Roy Harper / Arsenal 2.10 Slade Wilson / Deathstroke 2.11 Malcolm Merlyn / Dark Archer 2.12 Curtis Holt / Mister Terrific 2.13 Adrian Chase / Prometheus 2.14 Rene Ramirez / Wild Dog 2.15 Dinah Drake / Black Canary 3 Recurring characters 3.1 Introduced in season one 3.2 Introduced in season two 3.3 Introduced in season three 3.4 Introduced in season four 3.5 Introduced in season five 3.6 Introduced in season six 4 Guest stars 4.1 Introduced in season one 4.2 Introduced in season two 4.3 Introduced in season three 4.4 Introduced in season four 4.5 Introduced in season five 4.6 Introduced in season six 5 See also 6 References Overview ( edit ) Character Portrayed by First appearance Seasons 5 6 Main characters Oliver Queen / Green Arrow Stephen Amell `` Pilot '' Main Laurel Lance / Black Canary ( Earth - 1 ) Laurel Lance / Black Siren ( Earth - 2 ) Katie Cassidy Main Guest Does not appear `` What We Leave Behind '' Does not appear Recurring Main Tommy Merlyn Colin Donnell `` Pilot '' Main Guest Does not appear John Diggle / Spartan David Ramsey Main Thea Queen / Speedy Willa Holland Main Moira Queen Susanna Thompson Main Guest Does not appear Guest Does not appear Quentin Lance Paul Blackthorne Main Felicity Smoak / Overwatch Emily Bett Rickards `` Lone Gunmen '' Recurring Main Roy Harper / Arsenal Colton Haynes `` Dodger '' Recurring Main Guest Does not appear Guest Slade Wilson / Deathstroke Manu Bennett `` Betrayal '' Recurring Main Guest Does not appear Guest Malcolm Merlyn / Dark Archer John Barrowman `` An Innocent Man '' Recurring Main Recurring Does not appear Curtis Holt / Mister Terrific Echo Kellum `` The Candidate '' Does not appear Recurring Main Adrian Chase / Prometheus Josh Segarra `` A Matter of Trust '' Does not appear Main Does not appear Rene Ramirez / Wild Dog Rick Gonzalez `` Legacy '' Does not appear Recurring Main Dinah Drake / Black Canary Juliana Harkavy `` Who Are You ? '' Does not appear Recurring Main Recurring characters Walter Steele Colin Salmon `` Pilot '' Recurring Does not appear Joanna De La Vega Annie Ilonzeh Recurring Guest Does not appear Lucas Hilton Roger Cross Recurring Guest Does not appear Sara Lance / The Canary / White Canary Jacqueline MacInnes Wood Guest Does not appear Caity Lotz `` City of Heroes '' Does not appear Recurring Guest Chien Na Wei / China White Kelly Hu `` Honor Thy Father '' Recurring Guest Does not appear Guest Does not appear Yao Fei Gulong Byron Mann `` Lone Gunmen '' Recurring Does not appear Guest Does not appear Carly Diggle Christie Laing Recurring Does not appear Edward Fyers Sebastian Dunn `` Damaged '' Recurring Does not appear Bill `` Billy '' Wintergreen Jeffrey C. Robinson Recurring Does not appear Kate Spencer Chelah Horsdal Guest Recurring Does not appear McKenna Hall Janina Gavankar `` Vertigo '' Recurring Does not appear Frank Pike Adrian Holmes `` Betrayal '' Guest Recurring Guest Recurring Guest Shado Celina Jade `` The Odyssey '' Recurring Does not appear Guest Does not appear Guest Frank Chen Chin Han `` Dodger '' Recurring Does not appear Lyla Michaels / Harbinger Audrey Marie Anderson `` Unfinished Business '' Guest Recurring Guest Isabel Rochev / Ravager Summer Glau `` City of Heroes '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Adam Donner Dylan Bruce Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Sebastian Blood / Brother Blood Kevin Alejandro `` Identities '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Jean Loring Teryl Rothery `` Broken Dolls '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Guest Sin Bex Taylor - Klaus Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Daily Jesse Hutch `` Crucible '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Anatoli Knyazev David Nykl Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Recurring Guest Dr. Anthony Ivo Dylan Neal `` League of Assassins '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Amanda Waller / Mockingbird Cynthia Addai - Robinson `` Keep Your Enemies Closer '' Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Nyssa al Ghul Katrina Law `` Heir to the Demon '' Does not appear Guest Recurring Guest Does not appear Maseo Yamashiro / Sarab Karl Yune `` The Calm '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Tatsu Yamashiro / Katana Rila Fukushima Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Ted Grant / Wildcat J.R. Ramirez Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Ray Palmer / The Atom Brandon Routh Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Sara Diggle Unknown Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Akio Yamashiro Brandon Nomura Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Ra 's al Ghul Matt Nable `` The Magician '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Donna Smoak Charlotte Ross `` The Secret Origin of Felicity Smoak '' Does not appear Guest Recurring Does not appear Guest Chase Austin Butler `` Draw Back Your Bow '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Matthew Schrieve Marc Singer `` The Return '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Andy Diggle Eugene Byrd Does not appear Guest Recurring Does not appear Michael Amar / Murmur Adrian Glynn McMorran `` The Offer '' Does not appear Guest Recurring Does not appear Damien Dahrk Neal McDonough `` Green Arrow '' Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Baron Reiter Jimmy Akingbola `` The Candidate '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Taiana Venediktov Elysia Rotaru Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Lonnie Machin / Anarky Alexander Calvert Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Conklin Ryan Robbins `` Restoration '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Alex Davis Parker Young `` Haunted '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear William Clayton Jack Moore `` Legends of Yesterday '' Does not appear Guest Recurring Ruvé Adams Janet Kidder `` Dark Waters '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Paul Holt Chernier Hundal Does not appear Recurring Guest Does not appear Noah Kuttler / Calculator Tom Amandes `` Unchained '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Guest Evelyn Sharp / Artemis Madison McLaughlin `` Canary Cry '' Does not appear Guest Recurring Does not appear Tobias Church Chad L. Coleman `` Legacy '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Billy Malone Tyler Ritter Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Viktor Mike Dopud Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Rory Regan / Ragman Joe Dinicol `` The Recruits '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Susan Williams Carly Pope `` A Matter of Trust '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Konstantin Kovar Dolph Lundgren `` So It Begins '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Ishmael Gregor David Meunier Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Vincent Sobel / Vigilante Clayton Chitty `` Vigilante '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Johann Urb `` Deathstroke Returns '' Does not appear Guest Talia Al Ghul Lexa Doig `` Who Are You ? '' Does not appear Recurring Does not appear Alena Kacey Rohl `` Second Chances '' Does not appear Recurring Guest Cayden James Michael Emerson `` Dangerous Liaisons '' Does not appear Guest Recurring Samanda Watson Sydelle Noel `` Tribute '' Does not appear Recurring Main characters ( edit ) Oliver Queen / Green Arrow ( edit ) Main article : Oliver Queen ( Arrow ) Stephen Amell Oliver Jonas `` Ollie '' Queen ( portrayed by Stephen Amell ) is the main protagonist of the series . He is based on the DC Comics character of the same name . In season one , Oliver returns to Starling City after being presumed dead for five years , shipwrecked on the remote island of Lian Yu following the loss of his family yacht . He lives a dual life -- rich playboy by day and vigilante by night , targeting individuals whose names appear in a notebook given to him by his now - deceased father , Robert Queen . He struggles to find a balance between his quest and reconnecting with his family ( his sister Thea Queen and mother Moira Queen ) and friends ( best friend Tommy Merlyn and ex-girlfriend Laurel Lance ) . In flashbacks set five years earlier , Oliver , Robert , and Sara Lance are aboard the Queen 's Gambit when bad weather causes it to sink . During the shipwreck , Sara is sucked out to sea . Oliver and his father escape on a life raft but Robert shoots himself to increase Oliver 's chances of survival , asking Oliver to `` right his wrongs '' . Oliver eventually lands the raft on an island called Lian Yu . He soon discovers that he is not alone on the island as he is hunted by a mercenary group . With the help of allies , Slade Wilson , Yao Fei , and Shado , he begins to learn the skills needed to survive . During season one , John Diggle and Felicity Smoak both become involved in his crusade . The vigilante team ultimately realizes the list of names is connected to a larger conspiracy called `` The Undertaking '' , a scheme orchestrated by Malcolm Merlyn to destroy the poor and crime - ridden neighborhood of the Glades . Oliver fights and supposedly kills Malcolm but The Undertaking succeeds , leaving the Glades largely destroyed and 503 dead including Tommy Merlyn . In season two , Oliver returns to Starling City after spending time at Lian Yu to work through his grief . He now goes by the alias `` Arrow '' and , in honor of Tommy , vows never to kill again . He fights criminals who take advantage of the Glades after its destruction , while trying to redeem himself as a hero , but is challenged when those closest to him are endangered . He co-administers Queen Consolidated with Isabel Rochev and becomes friends with Alderman Sebastian Blood . Oliver finds himself investigating a larger plot orchestrated by Slade Wilson , involving `` Mirakuru '' , a strength - enhancing drug . It is Slade 's intention to destroy everything and everyone Oliver cares for . Sebastian and Isabel are also working for Slade and help bankrupt Oliver , causing him to lose his home and business . Oliver gets help from Sara Lance , now the vigilante `` Canary '' , and takes Thea 's boyfriend , Roy Harper , as a protégé . After Felicity injects Slade with the Mirakuru cure , Oliver defeats Slade and locks him in an underground prison on Lian Yu . In flashbacks , Oliver is hunted by Dr. Ivo 's armed crew who seek the Mirakuru and he accidentally causes the death of Shado , his lover on the island . Slade also loved Shado , which explains his vendetta against Oliver . A flashback before the shipwreck reveals that Oliver impregnated a college classmate named Samantha Clayton , and Moira paid Samantha to tell Oliver the child died and to move to Central City , leaving him unaware of his impending fatherhood . In season three , Oliver has become a public hero to the citizens of Starling City and has taken Roy on as a full sidekick . He lives in his foundry safe - house , having lost his mansion . Oliver is faced with the moral question of whether he can be Oliver Queen and live his life while the city needs the Arrow . This is further challenged when he realizes he is in love with Felicity . She has caught the attention of Ray Palmer , the new head of Queen Consolidated . After Thea returns to Starling City , they decide to reopen their nightclub together . Oliver is also inadvertently embroiled in a conflict with Raʾs al Ghul due to Malcolm 's manipulations . During a fight with Raʾs , he suffers a mortal wound and nearly dies , but is saved by Maseo and Tatsu Yamashiro . Raʾs demands that Oliver become his heir because he is the only man to survive a death match against him , fulfilling a prophecy of the League of Assassins . When Oliver rejects the offer , Raʾs tries to force him by killing people while posing as the Arrow . When Raʾs nearly kills Thea , Oliver chooses to join the League , abandoning his former identity to become Al Sah - him ( Arabic : سهم ; `` Arrow '' ) ; he pretends to be a darker and crueler version of himself in order to get closer to Raʾs and destroy the League from within . Raʾs has Oliver marry his daughter , Nyssa al Ghul , to keep his bloodline in charge of the League . Oliver later kills Raʾs and inherits the mantle but immediately passes it to Malcolm . He decides to retire from being the Arrow and live with Felicity , knowing that Laurel , Diggle , Ray , and Thea will protect the city in his absence . The season flashbacks explore Oliver 's time in Hong Kong where , after witnessing his combat capabilities on the island , Amanda Waller forces him to become an A.R.G.U.S. agent using the Yamashiros as his handlers . It is revealed that Oliver returned to Starling City while on a mission where he discovered Thea 's drug problems , witnessed the start of the relationship between Laurel and Tommy , and saw Felicity two years before they eventually met . In season four , Oliver is called from retirement to help Laurel and Thea stop a group known as `` The Ghosts '' led by Damien Darhk , leader of H.I.V.E. Oliver now goes by the name `` Green Arrow '' , ostensibly a new vigilante following in the footsteps of the Arrow , who Star City ( formerly Starling City ) believes to have died . He plans to propose to Felicity and run for mayor . While on a mission with Barry Allen in Central City , Oliver meets Samantha Clayton 's son , William , and ultimately learns that he is William 's father . Samantha refuses to grant Oliver full access because of his playboy past and her ill feelings toward his mother . The revelations of his fatherhood complicates Oliver 's relationship with Felicity and his duty as Green Arrow , and threatens to jeopardize his mayoral campaign . When a H.I.V.E. attack leaves Felicity permanently paraplegic , Oliver 's fight with Darhk becomes a vendetta . Oliver also discovers that Thea is dying because the Pit 's restorative effect on her is waning ; Nyssa offers a cure in exchange for killing Malcolm . In a fight , Oliver cuts off Malcolm 's left hand and gives the Demon 's Head ring to Nyssa in exchange for the cure . Nyssa disbands the League of Assassins , causing Malcolm to seek vengeance against Oliver . As a result , Darhk kidnaps William , Oliver 's relationship with Felicity becomes estranged , and Oliver is forced to resign from his mayoral campaign . After Darhk is successfully prosecuted , Malcolm , with help from Andy Diggle , aids Darhk 's escape by restoring his magic , and fatally stabs Laurel with Oliver 's arrow . Laurel dies of her injuries moments after admitting that she still loves Oliver , who is devastated . During his quest to stop Darhk , Oliver learns that the pure forces of light can counter Darhk 's powers and that H.I.V.E. plans to rule a post-apocalyptic world . At the end of the season Oliver stops Darhk 's plan to destroy the world and kills him . With the death of the previous mayor , Ruve Adams , Oliver becomes acting mayor of Star City . The season 's flashbacks explore Oliver 's training with A.R.G.U.S. and his infiltration of the Shadowspire organization on Lian Yu . In season five , Oliver initially returns to killing because he blames himself for Laurel 's death . He later recruits a team of vigilantes to help balance his double life as Green Arrow and Star City 's mayor . In the process , he meets metahuman vigilante Dinah Drake , and sees her as a candidate to succeed Laurel as Black Canary , inspired to continue Laurel 's legacy after encountering her evil Earth - 2 counterpart . Oliver is stalked by a mysterious archer , Prometheus , who seeks vengeance for the death of his father by `` The Hood '' . The season 's flashbacks examine Oliver 's time in Russia , where he joins the Bratva ( Russian mafia ) as part of an assassination plot against Konstantin Kovar and explores the criminal fraternity in the process . One of Raʾs al Ghul 's children , Talia al Ghul , trains Oliver and gives him green garb based on the League of Assassin 's uniforms . In the present , Talia seeks vengeance against Oliver for killing her father and allies with Prometheus , who was another of her students . After a series of battles with Prometheus , leading to the abductions of Oliver 's family and friends , including Samantha and William , Oliver defeats his enemy at Lian Yu , though Prometheus kills himself afterward . William also learns of his relation to Oliver and discovers his father 's secrets . In season six , despite Oliver 's victory , the final battle with Prometheus resulted in Samantha 's death and Thea 's coma . Oliver now struggles to raise William himself , whom he has now acknowledged publicly of his relation to him . However , William blames his father for his mother 's death and keeping his distance from him . Oliver also tries to rekindle his romance with Felicity , and hopes that William would accept her . Oliver 's secrets are also at risk when a photo of him unmasked is leaked by an unknown party and is broadcast throughout the media , putting both his career and family in danger . Oliver later appoints Diggle to the Green Arrow mantle in order to be more spend more time with his son . But , after Diggle is injured on a mission , Oliver decides to temporary take up the Green Arrow mantle again until Diggle recovered . During the events of Crisis on Eartn X , Oliver encounters his Earth X doppelgänger , the Dark Arrow , and after the events , Oliver and Felicity officially marry each other . A villainous parallel universe doppelgänger of Oliver , Dark Arrow from Earth - X , is introduced in season six , during the crossover event `` Crisis on Earth - X '' . He is the Führer of the Nazi - ruled Earth and married to Overgirl , Supergirl 's doppelgänger . He is enemies with General Winn Schott ( Supergirl 's friend Winn Schott 's doppelgänger ) , who is the resistance movement leader of the Freedom Fighters and heroes include Earth - X 's Guardian / James Olsen ( Supergirl 's friend James Olsen 's doppelgänger ) , Citizen Cold / Leonard Snart ( Leonard Snart 's Earth - X 's doppelgänger ) , and The Ray / Ray Terrill ( Earth - 1 's displaced superhero ) . This Oliver is also the leader of Earth - X 's supervillain team New Reichsmen , in which his wife , Tommy Merlyn 's doppelgänger as Prometheus , and a time remnant version of Eobard Thawne , Barry Allen 's archenemy , are also members . During the final battle with the Green Arrow and his allies , though both archers are equally matched in skills , the Dark Arrow was later killed by Green Arrow after being distracted from his wife 's explosive death , giving Oliver the chance to fire an arrow into his doppelgänger 's chest . Laurel Lance / Black Canary / Black Siren ( edit ) Further information : Black Canary Katie Cassidy Dinah Laurel Lance ( portrayed by Katie Cassidy ) is an assistant district attorney and Oliver Queen 's ex-girlfriend . She is based on the DC Comics character of the same name . In season one , she is a lawyer for legal aid firm CNRI and Tommy Merlyn 's girlfriend . When Oliver returns , she blames him for the death of her sister , Sara . She gradually comes to accept him upon learning of his suffering on Lian Yu , and remembering her sister 's rebellious faults . This puts Laurel at odds with her father , Quentin . She occasionally works with the Hood / Arrow -- unaware that he is Oliver -- with cases the courts are unwilling to move on . Oliver and Laurel eventually rekindle their relationship after Tommy breaks up with her . Tommy dies saving Laurel when CNRI is destroyed along with much of the Glades . In season two , Laurel is hired as an assistant district attorney , assigned to prosecute Moira Queen . Because of guilt over Tommy 's death , she and Oliver decide to remain friends , and Laurel begins taking drugs and drinking while pushing friends and family away . Laurel eventually chooses sobriety after an argument with Oliver . Inspired by Sara 's vigilante alter - ego , Canary , she regains her job as assistant district attorney . Learning from Slade Wilson that Oliver is the Arrow , Laurel confronts Oliver and decides to keep his secret , also deducing Sara 's secret . In season three , Laurel works to prosecute the criminals Oliver catches . Sara returns to Starling City and is killed in front of Laurel , who makes an amateurish attempt to replace her as the Canary . Oliver refuses to train her , so Laurel seeks former boxer and vigilante Ted Grant / Wildcat 's help with combat training . Laurel does not tell Quentin about Sara 's death until a near - death experience , resulting in their estrangement . She wears Sara 's Canary jacket and eventually becomes the `` Black Canary '' , partnering with Roy Harper . She learns that Malcolm is directly responsible for Sara 's murder and tries to avenge Sara and Tommy 's deaths . Nyssa saves her from Malcolm and furthers her training . Laurel gradually becomes a skilled combatant and Cisco Ramon provides her with an ultrasonic collar using components from both Sara 's and Hartley Rathaway 's weapons , improving Laurel 's tactics with sonic weaponry . This collar , dubbed the `` Canary Cry '' , becomes her primary weapon used to disorient enemies with an overwhelming scream , while Team Arrow use ear - pieces to shield them from the effect . After Raʾs al Ghul 's defeat and Oliver 's retirement , Laurel remains on Team Arrow defending Starling City . In season four , Laurel and Thea realize they are outmatched against H.I.V.E. and they bring Oliver back . Laurel hopes to revive Sara in the same way Thea was resurrected ; with help from Oliver and John Constantine , Laurel retrieves Sara 's soul from the afterlife . Laurel discovers that Damien Darhk is extorting her father to work with H.I.V.E. Laurel is further frustrated at Oliver when she learns that he cheated on her , resulting in his having a son named William , but has no ill feelings towards William 's mother , Samantha . During Darhk 's attempted breakout , Laurel is stabbed with an arrow by Darhk as revenge against her father 's betrayal . She later dies after making Oliver keep a promise to not let her be the last Canary , and confessing that she still loves him . Evelyn Sharp begins masquerading as Black Canary ; her actions brand Black Canary as a criminal . Oliver saves Laurel 's image by revealing her secret to the public . Laurel is later avenged when Oliver kills Darhk . In season five , when Oliver , John , Thea , Sara , and Ray are abducted by the Dominators , they are placed in a shared hallucination where Laurel is alive ; seeing `` Laurel '' allows Oliver and Sara to move on from her death . In the mid-season finale , Oliver discovers Laurel seemingly alive and well , but Felicity discovers she is actually Laurel 's Earth - 2 counterpart -- Laurel Lance / `` Black Siren '' , previously introduced in The Flash -- and is working with Prometheus . Oliver hopes to help this Laurel find redemption , believing it to be the only way to forgive himself for Earth - 1 Laurel 's death . This Laurel was in love with Oliver on Earth - 2 , until his death 10 years ago ; she moved to Central City to start a new life , only to become Black Siren when affected by Harrison Wells ' particle accelerator , and then fell under Zoom 's influence . Encountering Earth - 2 Laurel also motivates Oliver to keep his promise to Earth - 1 Laurel . Earth - 2 Laurel works with Evelyn to kidnap the members of Team Arrow including Quentin . Laurel reveals to Quentin that , while she helps Adrian out of gratitude for freeing her from A.R.G.U.S. , she is sentimental towards him as he is her father 's Earth - 1 counterpart . After the destruction of Lian Yu at the end of the season , Laurel 's fate is unknown . In season six , the Earth - 2 Laurel survived the Lian Yu explosions but was injured by Quentin and left for dead , but a mysterious figure subsequently found and rescued her from the island . Actress Katie Cassidy is again be a series regular during season six , portraying Laurel Lance / Black Siren , after appearing as the character in four guest appearances in season five . Tommy Merlyn ( edit ) Colin Donnell Thomas `` Tommy '' Merlyn ( portrayed by Colin Donnell ) is Oliver 's best friend and the son of Malcolm Merlyn . He shares his surname with the DC Comics character Merlyn . A version of Tommy was introduced as a former friend - turned - enemy of the titular character in the Green Arrow comics in The New 52 . In season one , Tommy is a spoiled playboy who lives off the financial support of his father . After his father cuts him off , Tommy manages Oliver 's nightclub , Verdant , and dates Laurel . He learns Oliver 's secret when Oliver , as the vigilante , saves Malcolm from assassins . Oliver and Tommy 's relationship becomes strained with Tommy seeing Oliver as a killer . Tommy later breaks up with Laurel thinking that she belongs with Oliver . Tommy is killed rescuing Laurel from a collapsing building damaged by Malcolm 's earthquake machine during the Undertaking . In season two , Oliver vows never to kill again in Tommy 's memory . During Oliver 's fight with Cyrus Gold , he sees an image of Tommy , who calls him a hero and urges him to defeat his enemy . It is also revealed that he is the paternal half - brother of Thea Queen . In season three , Tommy appears twice in flashbacks . In `` Sara '' , he travels to Hong Kong looking for Oliver , but fails to find him . In `` The Return '' , the episode shows him throwing himself a birthday party , trying to stop Thea from using drugs , and growing closer to Laurel . In season five , Tommy appears as a ghost in the Dominators 's dream world as Oliver leaves it . In season six , Earth - X 's version of Tommy Merlyn is revealed to be Earth - X 's version of Prometheus , introduced in Supergirl . Like his doppelgänger , he is friends with the Oliver Queen of his world , who is Dark Arrow . Merlyn is a member of the New Reichsmen with Dark Arrow , Overgirl , and the Reverse - Flash , and his parents are alive on Earth - X . After Sara Lance and Alex Danvers capture him , Merlyn cruelly taunts Oliver over his attachment to his deceased doppelgänger , and kills himself via cyanide capsule , leading Oliver later sees Tommy 's doppelgänger as a perversion to him . John Diggle / Spartan ( edit ) David Ramsey John Thomas Diggle , Sr. , ( portrayed by David Ramsey ) is a decorated former United States Army Special Forces soldier , honorably discharged with the rank of master sergeant , and Oliver 's friend and partner . While John Diggle was originally a character created for the show , his popularity led to a character of the same name modeled after Ramsey 's appearance to be created for the Green Arrow comics in The New 52 . While elements from the Arrow TV series were removed after issue 40 , John appeared again following the relaunching of the series as part of DC Rebirth . During season one , John is hired as Oliver 's bodyguard and becomes his confidant in his mission to save Starling City . John tries to help Oliver balance his normal life and vigilante life , and occasionally helps him in the field . John provides Oliver with medical assistance , limiting his need for hospital treatment . Already a skilled fighter , John receives additional training from Oliver . John has a grudge against Floyd Lawton / Deadshot who killed his brother , Andy . John dates his brother 's widow , Carly , and is a father figure to her son , A.J. , during this season . In season two , John and Felicity continue to help Oliver with his crusade and John continues to be Oliver 's adviser and field partner , along with Sara and Roy . John has a relationship with his ex-wife Lyla Michaels , is an unofficial member of A.R.G.U.S. , and is a member of the Suicide Squad under the codename `` Freelancer '' . He also develops an uneasy alliance with Amanda Waller who occasionally asks him for field assistance with A.R.G.U.S. missions . It is revealed that Lyla is pregnant with John 's child . In season three , John continues to help Oliver and his team , but has to devote more of his time to his new baby with Lyla , whom he names Sara after Sara Lance is killed . After Lyla is seriously injured in an attack , they decide to remarry . When Oliver is presumed dead at Raʾs al Ghul 's hands , John leads Felicity , Roy , and Laurel until his friend 's return . After Oliver 's return , John accompanies him to Nanda Parbat to help him free Malcolm , but the two are captured . John and Lyla marry after a near - death experience with the Suicide Squad , when Deadshot sacrifices himself for them . John and Lyla decide to quit Team Arrow and A.R.G.U.S. for their daughter 's sake . After Oliver leaves the team to join the League of Assassins as part of a deal to revive a deceased Thea , John becomes the team leader , though he is not yet ready to forgive Oliver for kidnapping Lyla as part of a deception to gain acceptance by the League . In season four , John , going by the codename `` Spartan '' , discovers that the organization that targets Star City is H.I.V.E. , who have hired Lawton to murder John 's brother , Andy . John eventually forgives Oliver after their fight with a H.I.V.E. metahuman operative named Jeremy Tell . With Quentin Lance 's help , John learns that Damien Darhk had Andy murdered , and that he was a drug cartel leader and Darhk 's territorial rival prior to his death . However , John discovers that Darhk actually faked Andy 's death and recruited him as a H.I.V.E. soldier , leading John and his brother to become enemies . Guilt - ridden over his brother 's role in causing Laurel 's death , John seeks revenge against Andy and Darhk . John kills his brother after Andy nearly causes Lyla and Sara to be killed . He initially lies to Lyla , saying that he killed Andy in self - defense , but Oliver encourages John to admit the truth to his wife . John rejoins the US Army after confiding to his wife and Darhk 's defeat . In season five , John is betrayed by his commanding officer , J.G. Walker , following a failed attempt to sell nuclear weapons . John is framed for Walker 's crimes ; Oliver and Lyla break him out of state prison , and John stays at H.I.V.E. 's former base until his innocence can be proven . John remains guilty about killing Andy and continues to serve as Spartan to redeem himself . Due to the events of The Flash episode `` Flashpoint '' , John 's family history is altered : his daughter Sara has been erased from existence and replaced by John `` J.J. '' Diggle , Jr. , as a result of a timeline change caused by Eobard Thawne , correcting the Flashpoint reality created by Barry . John eventually learns of the alteration of his life , his daughter 's erasure and his son 's status as a time aberration , and despite the hurt caused by these circumstances , he chooses to forgive Barry . Lyla , however , distrusts and possibly hates Barry for this . Felicity is able to prove John 's innocence by restoring the digital files that Walker had destroyed . However , Andy 's betrayal and death at John 's hands has taken a toll on him ; he struggles to control his rage and occasionally pulverizes criminals to vent it , fueling Oliver 's concern over his erratic behavior . John later befriends Oliver 's chosen successor to Laurel 's mantle , Dinah Drake , a Central City detective , and encourages her to set down roots in Star City . By the end of season five , John 's fate is unknown due to the destruction of Lian Yu caused by Adrian Chase . In season six , John is revealed to have survived the explosion by taking shelter in the plane like the others . However , he was wounded by bomb shrapnel and suffers a degenerative nerve injury that affects his motor control that requires taking daily medications , resulting him to develop a drug dependency . When Oliver decides to retire from being the Green Arrow , he appoints John as his successor , not knowing that John is not in condition to remain in action until later . Oliver returns to vigilantism until John is fully recovered from his injury . Thea Queen / Speedy ( edit ) Main article : Thea Queen Willa Holland Thea Dearden Queen ( portrayed by Willa Holland ) is the daughter of Moira Queen and Malcolm Merlyn , though both Malcolm and Thea were unaware of their relation to each other until season two , and the younger half - sister to Oliver Queen and Tommy Merlyn . Her brother 's nickname for her and later hero persona ( `` Speedy '' ) , her middle name of Dearden and the alias `` Mia '' she used during her time at Corto Maltese , are Easter egg connections to one of Green Arrow 's sidekicks in the comics . In season one , Thea is battling a drug and alcohol problem which she used to fill the pain of losing her brother . After court - ordered community service from taking `` Vertigo '' , she grows to be more responsible . Thea 's addiction with Vertigo causes a bitter animosity between Oliver 's vigilante alter - ego and the drug 's creator , The Count . She also falls in love with Roy Harper , a lifelong street criminal who she meets when he steals her purse . Though he initially has no romantic interest in Thea despite an obvious physical attraction to her , mainly out of resentment of her wealth , Roy later begins to genuinely fall in love with her . In season two , Thea runs the Verdant nightclub in Oliver and Tommy 's absences and continues seeing Roy , but is frustrated by Roy 's need to save people , though she gradually comes to accept it . She is the subject of exclusion as most characters keep secrets from her including her true paternity which she eventually discovers when Slade Wilson abducts her . She breaks up with Roy when he cheats on her , though he only does this to keep her away from him during his Mirakuru problem . Despite reconciling with Roy after having learned of his illness , she breaks up with him again after discovering his allegiance to the Arrow . After her mother 's death , she decides to leave Starling City . Malcolm comes to save her and convinces her to leave with him . In season three , Thea is in Corto Maltese receiving combat training from Malcolm , though she soon decides to return to Starling with Oliver . She reopens her nightclub after Malcolm secretly buys the foundry from Queen Consolidated for her . She learns Oliver 's secret identity as the Arrow when he shows her his hideout under the nightclub and begins to distrust Malcolm after learning that he already knew Oliver 's secret . After Thea is told that her father used her as a pawn against both Oliver and Raʾs al Ghul by drugging and manipulating her into killing Sara Lance , she arranges for him to be captured by the League in retaliation . She reconciles with Roy but is nearly killed by Raʾs and brought back to life in the Lazarus Pit in exchange for Oliver joining the League of Assassins . Thea blames herself for letting her brother join the League . Roy breaks up with her when he leaves Starling City after faking his death , hoping that Thea can make a life of her own without him . He also leaves her his red costume which she wears to become a vigilante herself as his successor . In season four , Thea works with Oliver and his friends in the fight against the terrorist organization H.I.V.E. as `` Speedy '' . Despite the enjoyment of being a vigilante , Thea 's behavior becomes increasingly volatile and reckless when in the field , which Oliver realizes is a side effect of being in the Lazarus Pit . Thea helps Laurel to bring Sara back from death in hopes of making amends towards the Lance family . Because of this , Thea becomes telepathically linked with Sara for a period after her resurrection in the Lazarus Pit . It is also revealed that Thea 's Lazarus Pit side effect is able to counteract Damien Darhk 's life force drain , temporarily relieving her bloodlust . Thea begins to die as the Pit 's restorative effect wanes . With Tatsu Yamashiro 's help , Nyssa al Ghul gives Oliver the `` Lotus '' , an elixir used by the Crescent Order that permanently reverses the effects of the Lazarus Pit , saving her life . Thea learns that Oliver is William 's father , and that her mother had known and kept it a secret from them all . Thea meets William after Darhk kidnaps him , but she and Oliver are unable to acknowledge their relation to William due to their mother 's actions and for the boy 's safety . Darhk 's wife , Ruvé Adams , eventually brainwashes Thea 's new boyfriend , Alex Davis , into kidnapping her to a miniaturized H.I.V.E. facility built from stolen technology belonging to Ray Palmer . In season five , Thea now works as Oliver 's mayoral chief - of - staff , and is adamant about retiring from being a vigilante after Oliver kills a number of Tobias Church 's thugs . She hires Quentin as deputy mayor and helps him beat his alcoholism . However , while working to help her brother politically she makes some ruthless decisions , including ruining the career of Oliver 's new love interest , reporter Susan Williams . Felicity is able to restore Susan 's credibility , and Thea , realizing she has gone too far , resigns from her position soon afterward , despite Oliver asking her to stay . She occasionally resumes her vigilante role when needed . She is abducted by Adrian Chase and brought to Lian Yu with the others on the team , and was on the island when Chase sets off the massive explosions at the end of the final episode . In season six , Thea is in the hospital , still in a coma five months after being critically injured in the destruction of Lian Yu . She later recovered during Thanksgiving Day and is greeted by her family and friends , including William , whom she finally acknowledged and begin to have a relationship with her nephew . Moira Queen ( edit ) Susanna Thompson Moira Queen ( portrayed by Susanna Thompson ) is the mother of Oliver and Thea , the former acting CEO of Queen Consolidated , mayoral candidate and wife of Robert Queen and later Walter Steele . She also had a brief affair with Malcolm Merlyn after his wife 's death , which resulted in Thea 's birth . She is based on the minor DC Comics character of the same name . In season one , Moira is involved in `` The Undertaking '' , a criminal conspiracy orchestrated by Malcolm to destroy the Glades , with him forcing Moira to handle all interference and supply him with the resources needed . Her involvement causes her to keep many secrets from her family which , when revealed , causes Walter to divorce her and her kids to become distant . Moira eventually confesses her involvement and Malcolm 's , which results in her arrest . In season two , Moira is put on trial but she is acquitted as Malcolm returns , alive . She makes Malcolm go on the run by informing Raʾs al Ghul of his survival . Moira eventually becomes a mayoral candidate against Sebastian Blood on Walter 's advice , but the secret of Thea 's parentage is revealed , causing a rift between Moira and her children . It is revealed that she had been aware of Oliver 's secret identity as the Arrow since the night of her arrest . She is murdered by Slade Wilson as part of his revenge plot against Oliver . In a flashback , Moira paid Samantha Clayton to tell Oliver she lost their baby and to move away to Central City . In season three , Moira 's voice is briefly heard when Oliver calls home from Hong Kong . In season four , Samantha reveals she never cashed Moira 's check , and the attempted bribe resulted in Samantha hating Moira ; as a result , Samantha denied Moira access to her grandson , William . Oliver is hurt when he finds out , and angry with Moira for the deception . In season five , Moira is seen as a figment of Oliver 's Dominators - induced hallucination . Quentin Lance ( edit ) Paul Blackthorne Quentin Larry Lance ( portrayed by Paul Blackthorne ) is a deputy mayor , former police detective and captain , the father of Laurel and Sara , and former husband of Dinah Lance . He is based on the DC Comics character Larry Lance , husband to Dinah Drake Lance and father to Dinah Laurel Lance . In season one , Quentin resents Oliver for causing Sara 's death , becoming an alcoholic who throws himself into his work to avoid the pain . After Oliver returns , he openly shows his hatred of him and also hates the Arrow for being against everything Quentin believes in . Quentin attempts numerous times to arrest him , one time using Laurel , which causes her to be distant for a time . He works with the Arrow from time to time and eventually comes to accept him . In season two , Quentin is demoted to officer ; an ally to the Arrow , Quentin becomes his informant and occasional field partner on cases . He struggles to recover from his alcoholism and repair the relationships with his family . After Quentin discovers Sara is alive and the vigilante `` Canary '' , he helps her adjust to life in Starling City . He helps Laurel cope with her pain over losing Tommy , and seeks to rekindle his relationship with Dinah , but she has moved on after their divorce . Quentin later regains his detective title . Following a battle with Slade 's forces , Quentin passes out from internal bleeding and falls into a coma . In season three , Quentin is in recovery , with frequent chest pains , and has been promoted to captain ; he uses this authority to disband the anti-vigilante task force . His condition is strained due to assisting the Arrow in the field , and he relies on his new political connections and his subordinates to continue serving the city . Although Laurel kept the information from him , he ultimately learns the truth about Sara 's death and Laurel becoming her vigilante successor . Quentin becomes estranged from Laurel and relapses in his alcoholism . He blames the Arrow for Sara 's death and is determined to bring him to justice ; he learns of Oliver 's secret identity from Raʾs al Ghul . Quentin supports Team Arrow when Raʾs plans to unleash the bio-weapon on Starling . In season four , Quentin is forced to work with H.I.V.E. after Darhk threatens the lives of his family . Oliver discovers this and persuades Lance to become a double agent and report information on Darhk . Darhk gradually becomes suspicious of Quentin , who discovers the source of Darhk 's supernatural powers : an ancient artifact . With this information , Mari McCabe destroys Darhk 's idol , leaving him powerless . Quentin publicly admits in court his association with H.I.V.E. under Darhk 's duress , determined to see justice served , despite endangering his career . He reconciles with Laurel and reunites with Sara after she is brought back from the dead . Quentin begins seeing Donna Smoak , Felicity 's mother . After Darhk murders Laurel , Quentin seeks to bring her back the same way Sara returned , only to learn from Nyssa that the Lazarus Pit was destroyed shortly after Sara 's return . With Donna 's support , Quentin copes with his loss without succumbing to alcoholism . After saving the city with Oliver , Quentin is fired and decides to leave Star City with Donna . By season five , Quentin has broken up with Donna and , now having no one left , returns to Star City and falls back into alcoholism . With encouragement from Oliver , Quentin begins reforming Star City 's police force as deputy mayor , working with the Green Arrow to reduce the city 's rising crime rate . Quentin also formed the Anti-Crime Unit to combat serious crimes prior to his dismissal from the police , and leads them under his new position when needed , though this puts him at odds with his former colleagues . However , after Evelyn Sharp 's fight with Prometheus , Felicity discovers that the shurikens Prometheus used were made from Oliver 's old arrow heads stolen from the police evidence lockup , and Quentin finds cuts on him that implicate him and raise doubts of his sanity . Quentin eventually learns that Adrian Chase is Prometheus and responsible for attempting to frame him . Thea convinces Quentin to seek help at rehab after realizing how much Laurel 's death is affecting him , and holds the position of deputy mayor for when he recovers . After resuming his position , Quentin befriends one of Oliver 's protégés , Rene Ramirez , after Quentin learns of his past encounter with a young Rene when Quentin was a beat officer , and offers Rene a job as his assistant . He also befriends Oliver 's chosen successor for the Black Canary mantle , Dinah Drake . When Dinah expresses her hesitance at accepting Laurel 's mantle , Quentin gives Dinah his blessing , saying it is what Laurel would want . Quentin later encounters the Earth - 2 Laurel and is disturbed to see what his own daughter could have potentially become . By the end of season five , Quentin 's fate is unknown due to the destruction of Lian Yu caused by Adrian Chase . At the beginning of season six , it 's revealed that Quentin survived the explosion by taking shelter in the plane like the others , but was left emotionally scarred following his encounter with Laurel 's doppelgänger . During the `` Crisis on Earth - X '' crossover , Quentin 's Earth - X doppelgänger is a Sturmbannführer of the Nazi 's paramilitary rank . This Quentin also killed his daughter after discovering that she was bisexual . Felicity Smoak / Overwatch ( edit ) Further information : Felicity Smoak Emily Bett Rickards Felicity Megan Smoak ( portrayed by Emily Bett Rickards ) is an I.T. expert , a partner ( and eventual love interest and later wife ) of Oliver Queen . Felicity is a MIT graduate with a master 's degree in cyber security and computer sciences , and ranked second in the National Information Technology Competition at age 19 . Felicity was raised by her mother , Donna Smoak , who left her father Noah Kuttler when Felicity was seven years old due to his life as a criminal . During season one , she is initially an employee of Queen Consolidated , asked by Walter to investigate the list and by Oliver for occasional favors . She learns Oliver 's secret when he is shot and has her take him to his lair where she and John patch him up . She stays on as Oliver 's computer expert in hopes of finding Walter Steele by helping Oliver , and becomes one of Oliver 's confidants . Felicity chooses to remain at Oliver 's side after Walter is rescued . In season two , she continues to serve as Oliver 's partner , upgrades his safehouse , and has a custom bow made for him . Felicity also helps in the field as a decoy or to field - hack a computer , but sometimes gets herself in deeper trouble . Felicity and Oliver also start to develop romantic feelings towards each other despite the fact that he is in a relationship with Sara Lance at the time . In season three , Felicity continues to be Oliver 's tech support but has been forced to work for another company after losing her Queen Consolidated job . She eventually returns to work at Queen Consolidated ( renamed Palmer Technologies ) under new CEO Ray Palmer as his vice president . Felicity becomes conflicted by her feelings towards both Oliver and Ray . While Ray and Felicity become a couple , many people , including her mother , see that Felicity is in love with Oliver . Felicity finally admits her love to Oliver and the two consummate their relationship . However , Oliver 's decision to join the League of Assassins causes a rift between them . At the end of the season , Oliver retires from being the Arrow and he and Felicity leave Starling City to start a new life . In flashbacks , it is revealed that she was a part of the cybergoth subculture and a member of a hacktivist group on her college campus . In season four , Felicity becomes Palmer Technologies ' acting CEO after Ray 's presumed death ; she becomes friends with one of its scientists , Curtis Holt . After living in Ivy Town for several months , she and Oliver return to Star City to help with the ' Ghost ' problem . Felicity is the first person -- before Laurel and Sara -- to find out that her mother is dating their father . She and Oliver become engaged , but are attacked by H.I.V.E , resulting in Felicity being shot and left permanently paralyzed from the waist down . After coming to terms with her paralysis and her rebellious past , Felicity is given the codename `` Overwatch '' by Oliver . Felicity is reunited with her father after eighteen years , but learning that he is cyber-criminal mastermind the Calculator , Felicity has Quentin arrest him . With Curtis 's help , Felicity 's mobility is restored after a chip is surgically implanted in her spine . She learns of that Oliver has been lying to her about his secret child with Samantha Clayton , leading to her breaking off their romantic relationship . Later , after an encounter with the villain `` Cupid '' , Felicity leaves the team until Laurel 's death motivates her to return . Felicity decides to dedicate Palmer Technologies ' innovations to help people , which causes her to lose her position as CEO . The season ends with Felicity and Oliver the only ones remaining in the destroyed lair . In season five , Felicity continues to assist Oliver , and convinces him to build a new team , recruiting Curtis Holt , Rene Ramirez , Evelyn Sharp , Rory Regan , and Dinah Drake . She also dates police detective Billy Malone . When Billy is killed by Oliver in an accident planned by Prometheus , she seeks revenge and joins a hacker group called Helix . When Prometheus traps both Felicity and Oliver under their lair , the pair begin to reconcile after Oliver admits he trusts her but not himself . Felicity comes to understand the complexity of the decisions Oliver has made , and apologizes to him for her own hypocrisy . By the end of season five , Felicity 's fate is unknown due to the destruction of Lian Yu caused by Adrian Chase . In season six , Felicity , having survived the explosion by taking shelter in the plane like the others , remains on the team . She and Oliver rekindle their relationship . She and Curtis also begin partnership in starting their own company . After the events of `` Crisis on Earth - X '' , Felicity and Oliver marry each other . A parallel universe doppelgänger of Felicity from Earth - X is also introduced , a concentration camp prisoner , during the `` Crisis on Earth - X '' crossover ; Oliver saves this Felicity when he was stranded in Earth - X with other heroes . Felicity learns that she has a lookalike and that her facsimile is romantically involves with the Führer 's before escaping from a Nazi facility . A character by the same name appeared in the comics as Ronnie Raymond 's step - mother who runs a software company . A version based on Rickards ' portrayal was introduced in the DC Comics universe in Green Arrow ( vol. 5 ) # 35 . Roy Harper / Arsenal ( edit ) Further information : Roy Harper ( comics ) Colton Haynes Roy William Harper Jr. ( portrayed by Colton Haynes ) is a former street criminal , Thea 's boyfriend and a supporter of the Arrow . He is based on the DC Comics character of the same name . In season one , Roy is a small - time criminal who falls in love with Thea after robbing her , and is arrested multiple times by Quentin Lance . He does not see any other way to live until the Arrow saves him from a kidnapping , after which Roy attempts to find the Arrow to help him . Roy later works as a waiter at Verdant . In season two , Roy often goes out to clean up the streets , until the Arrow convinces him to gather intelligence instead . After being injected with Mirakuru , Roy gains super strength but slowly loses his sanity . The Arrow reveals his identity when Oliver convinces Roy to stop Bronze Tiger . Roy trains with Oliver in order to control his strength , but is forced to break up with Thea . Slade kidnaps Roy to use his blood to create his army , leaving Roy completely insane and causing him to go on a rampage , killing a cop . Roy takes part in the season finale 's battle , with his own mask , but he is slightly amnesiac , not remembering anything after breaking up with Thea . In season three , Roy is Oliver 's partner and participates with him in the field . He takes on the alter - ego `` Arsenal '' , though the media also refers to him as `` Red Arrow '' . Thea makes Roy her assistant manager at Verdant , and they eventually get back together . Sara 's murder brings the repressed memories of his ramage to the surface and Roy supports the family of the police officer he killed . When Oliver is presumed dead , Roy takes his place as the team 's head archer , often teaming with Laurel on missions . After Quentin Lance resumes his manhunt against Arrow , Roy subsequently impersonates Oliver 's alter - ego and fakes his own death , leaving Starling City to assume that Arrow is dead so that Oliver can be free . Roy passes on his Arsenal suit to Thea after leaving town . In season four , after building a new life in Hub City , Roy returns to his vigilante role after the Calculator extorts him to steal technological components and Thea is out of commission . In season five , Roy appears as a hologram when Oliver is about to leave the Dominators ' simulated dream world . Slade Wilson / Deathstroke ( edit ) Further information : Deathstroke Manu Bennett Slade Wilson ( portrayed by Manu Bennett ) is one of the world 's deadliest assassins and mercenaries , a former Australian Secret Intelligence Service ( ASIS ) operative , and the mentor - turned - archenemy of Oliver Queen . He is based on the DC Comics character of the same name and is the main antagonist of season two . In season one flashbacks , Slade is a combat mentor to Oliver on Lian Yu and teaches him to fight Edward Fyers and his mercenaries in their attempts to escape the island and stop Fyers ' plans . Though Slade openly doubts Oliver 's abilities to survive or fight , often giving him demeaning nicknames , the two become close friends and fight together well . He also becomes romantically drawn to Shado . In season two flashbacks , he is severely wounded by Dr. Ivo 's mortar attacks and Oliver injects him with Mirakuru , a strength - enhancing serum left on the island in WWII by Japan , in order to save his life . When Shado is killed , Slade blames Oliver for her death and turns on him . In the present , Slade is alive , now operating as the mercenary `` Deathstroke '' , and plots to destroy Starling City with an army of Mirakuru soldiers working with Sebastian Blood and Isabel Rochev . He undermines Oliver 's life by causing him to lose his money and his business , revealing some of Oliver 's secrets to Laurel and Thea and killing Moira before unleashing his army on the city . Oliver defeats him when Felicity injects him with the Mirakuru cure and he is imprisoned in an A.R.G.U.S. supermax prison on Lian Yu . In season three , having been temporarily released by Malcolm Merlyn , Slade attempts to imprison Oliver and Thea in the supermax and return to Starling but the two are able to beat him . In season five , Deathstroke appears in a hallucination created by the Dominators , where he serves as a countermeasure to prevent Oliver and his friends from escaping . Bennett did not portray the character in the episode . Bennett would later reprise the role for the final two episodes of the season , appearing in a cameo in `` Missing '' and appearing as a major character in the finale . By the time of the season five finale , Slade is revealed to have completely recovered from the effects of the Mirakuru and willingly helps Oliver in his quest to rescue his team and son from Adrian Chase . Slade 's fate is unknown due to Lian Yu 's destruction . In season six , Slade , having survived the explosion , returns to Star City to see Oliver and thank him for giving him information about where to find his son . Malcolm Merlyn / Dark archer ( edit ) Further information : Merlyn ( DC Comics ) John Barrowman Malcolm Merlyn ( portrayed by John Barrowman ) , born Arthur King , is a wealthy businessman , member of the League of Assassins , father of Tommy and Thea and one of the main antagonists of the series . During season one , Malcolm plots the Undertaking , the destruction of the Glades using an earthquake device , after his wife Rebecca was murdered there . When Robert Queen earlier threatened the Undertaking , Malcolm arranged to destroy Robert 's ship , Queen 's Gambit , resulting in Robert 's death and indirectly leading to Oliver and Sara becoming the Arrow and the Canary . In the main story of season one , he uses Moira to gain access to the resources needed for the Undertaking . He tries to reshape Tommy into a better person by cutting him off which works but causes tensions between them . When the Arrow interferes with his plan , Malcolm becomes a vigilante called `` Dark Archer '' to oppose him and proves to be far more skilled . He suspects Oliver to be the Arrow and is proven right after defeating him a second time . In the season finale , Malcolm is seemingly killed by Oliver though he manages to destroy much of the Glades , inadvertently kills Tommy , and is publicly exposed for his crime by Moira . In season two , Malcolm returns to suborn the jury in Moira 's trial to find her innocent of the Undertaking . He discovers that he is Thea 's biological father , following Adam Donner 's discovery of Malcolm 's affair with Moira . In an attempt to keep Malcolm from Thea , Moira informs Raʾs al Ghul of his survival , forcing Malcolm to flee Starling City . During Slade 's attack on the city , Malcolm returns to save Thea from the Mirakuru soldiers and convinces her to leave Starling with him . In season three , Malcolm is revealed to have trained Thea to be a warrior in Corto Maltese . Despite being both the League 's target and a fugitive of the law , Malcolm secretly returns to Starling City , using personal wealth and resources following the loss of his company . Under an alias , Malcolm purchases the foundry from Queen Consolidated , the site of Thea 's nightclub , Verdant . It is revealed that his name in the League of Assassins is `` Al Sa - Her '' ( Arabic : الساحر ) , which translates to `` The Magician '' . He continues to train Thea until she can defeat him in combat . Malcolm plots the death of Raʾs to eliminate his blood debt , and manipulates Thea into killing Sara so that Oliver will take the fall for her murder and challenge Raʾs to a duel ; this plan fails and almost gets Oliver killed . Malcolm learns that crime lord Danny Brickwell was responsible for the murder of his wife , but Oliver persuades him to choose justice over vengeance for Thea 's sake , allowing Brickwell to be tried for his crimes . Malcolm trains Oliver in swordplay in preparation of battling Raʾs together . When Oliver tells Thea that Malcolm brainwashed her into killing Sara , she betrays Malcolm to the League ; he is captured and tortured , but freed from Nanda Parbat when Oliver takes the place of Raʾs . After Thea is killed by Raʾs , Malcolm accompanies Oliver to Nanda Parbat to revive her but Oliver is forced to join the League . Malcolm secretly works with Oliver to cripple the League from within and stop the plan of Raʾs to unleash the Alpha / Omega bio-weapon on Starling City . Malcolm leads Team Arrow to save the city until Oliver 's return . After Raʾs is killed by Oliver in a final sword fight , he passes leadership of the League to Malcolm , which Nyssa suspects had been Malcolm 's scheme all along . Despite their renewed animosity , both Malcolm and Oliver harbor deep respect for each other : Malcolm regards Oliver as a surrogate son and Oliver himself remembers the man Malcolm was before the death of his wife . In season four , Malcolm helps Laurel resurrect Sara in order to settle his family 's blood debt with Laurel , and helps Thea control her bloodlust . He provides information to Oliver and Barry Allen about Vandal Savage . To keep Darhk from learning Oliver 's secret , Malcolm masquerades as Green Arrow . However , despite occasionally helping Oliver , Malcolm remains an amoral man and is despised by Oliver 's team and their allies . Malcolm 's aid to Oliver is either for protecting Thea or for his own agendas . Malcolm ultimately loses both his left hand and his power after Nyssa wins the League 's leadership with Oliver 's help , leading Malcolm to align himself with Darhk for revenge against Oliver . In the process , Malcolm reveals Oliver 's secrets to Darhk . As a result , Darhk makes Malcolm a H.I.V.E. member and provides a cybernetic prosthesis . In order to protect himself and Thea from Damien 's plans , Malcolm steals Damien 's idol , working with Andy Diggle , which results in Laurel 's death . Malcolm remains a leader to disbanded remnants of the League . Malcolm allies with Team Arrow again when Darhk tries to destroy the world without the means to survive it . In season five , an illusion of Malcolm appears in the Dominators ' dream world and opposes Oliver , Thea , John , Ray and Sara when they try to leave , but is swiftly killed by Thea . Malcolm appears in flashbacks working with Konstantin Kovar , giving him sarin gas in exchange for the means to acquire information on Unidac Industries to build the earthquake device . Malcolm returns in the penultimate episode of season five , offering Oliver his assistance in saving his friends , most importantly Thea . After Malcolm frees Thea , Felicity , Curtis and Samantha , Thea accidentally steps on a landmine . As Captain Boomerang approaches them , Malcolm takes Thea 's place , telling the others to run . As they run , the landmine is seen exploding in the distance , presumably killing Malcolm and Captain Boomerang . Malcolm Merlyn is based on the DC Comics character of the same birth name and is the main antagonist of season one . Curtis Holt / mister Terrific ( edit ) Further information : Mister Terrific ( Michael Holt ) Echo Kellum Curtis Holt ( portrayed by Echo Kellum ) is a technological savant , inventor , and bronze - medal - winning Olympic decathlete , who works with Felicity at Palmer Technologies . In season four , he helps her rescue Ray Palmer from Damien Darhk . He later learns Oliver 's secret identity and helps them defeat Brie Larvan . He then helps Felicity and Noah shut down Rubicon to stop H.I.V.E. He officially joins the team in season five as part of Oliver 's efforts to expand and accept help after Diggle and Thea retired . While in the field , Curtis adopts a costume similar to his comic counterpart , including his ' Fair Play ' jacket and T - shaped mask . He alternates between field work and tech support depending on the crisis , such as helping Felicity devise a means of translating the extraterrestrial technology during the Dominators ' invasion . In the mid-season finale , `` What We Leave Behind '' , Curtis is hospitalized after he is shot with a tuberculosis vaccine by new villain Prometheus , aided by the treachery of apparent teammate Evelyn Sharp . Curtis 's husband Paul leaves him after discovering his vigilante activities , and they eventually divorce . At the end of season five , Curtis ' fate is unknown due to the destruction of Lian Yu caused by Adrian Chase . In season six , Curtis has survived the explosion by taking shelter in the plane with the others and is working with the team using his upgraded T spheres and other tech . He is revealed , that after leaving Palmer Technologies last year , he started an online business , which prompts Felicity propose partnership with him to form their own company . He based on the DC Comics character Mister Terrific Adrian Chase / Prometheus ( edit ) Josh Segarra Adrian Chase ( portrayed by Josh Segarra ) is the new Star City district attorney in season five who helps Mayor Oliver Queen clean up the streets through the justice system . Chase is also Prometheus , a ruthless and mysterious hooded archer who kills , and has a grudge against Oliver Queen / Green Arrow . He wears a black uniform almost identical to the Green Arrow 's . Prometheus is aware of Oliver 's identity , having deduced that the Green Arrow was the presumably - deceased Hood / Arrow , and begins a killing spree of innocent people with arrows and shurikens made from Oliver 's discarded bolts . Prometheus has no tolerance for anyone else targeting Green Arrow and kills Tobias Church when he ignores a warning to leave Green Arrow alone . He also targets those close to Oliver by framing Quentin Lance , manipulating Evelyn Sharp into betraying Oliver , staging Billy Malone in his uniform to be killed by Oliver , and sends Laurel Lance 's interdimensional doppelgänger Black Siren to tarnish Oliver 's memories of her . Prometheus is the illegitimate son of Justin Claybourne , a pharmaceutical owner on the List who was killed by Oliver during his first year as the Hood . It is eventually revealed that Adrian 's birth name is Simon Morrison , and that he was taught by Talia al Ghul to gain a skillset to match Oliver 's . Despite seeking revenge against Oliver , Adrian was never close to his father who realized that Adrian is psychopathic and wanted nothing to do with him . After Adrian and his allies kidnap Oliver 's friends and family to Lian Yu , Oliver 's party ultimately beats Adrian 's . Unwilling to accept defeat , Adrian kills himself , detonating the bombs throughout the island in an attempt to kill Oliver 's loved ones ; though most of them survived , but he succeeded in killing Oliver 's son 's mother Samantha Clayton . On why Adrian is not Vigilante , as in the comics , Guggenheim stated , We knew we were going to do Vigilante this year , we knew who the character of Prometheus was , we knew that the character of Prometheus was the son of one of Oliver 's early kills in season one , we knew that he was going to be someone who was going to indoctrinate himself into Oliver 's good graces in the mayor 's office and eventually betray him . One morning ... it occurred to me that if we called this character Adrian Chase , and we made him a district attorney , everyone would be so focused on when he becomes Vigilante that they would n't be expecting that he really was Prometheus . He is based on the DC Comics characters Adrian Chase and Prometheus and is the main antagonist of season five . Rene Ramirez / Wild Dog ( edit ) Main article : Wild Dog ( comics ) Rick Gonzalez Rene Ramirez ( portrayed by Rick Gonzalez ) is a vigilante in Star City whose reckless and cocksure actions prompt the Green Arrow to guide him . His vigilante attire consists of normal clothes , with a hockey mask to hide his identity ; the red dog image on the shirt of his uniform , led to his gaining the moniker of `` Wild Dog '' . Prior to becoming a vigilante , Rene kills a criminal in defense of his family , which led to his wife 's death during the altercation ; his daughter was put in a foster care due to the community deeming him unfit as he succumbs to alcohol blackouts . With Curtis Holt 's help , Rene seeks legal actions to get his daughter back . He later becomes Quentin Lance 's assistant to help him reform Star City politically and they become friends . Gonzalez has been promoted to the main cast for the sixth season , his character having survived the explosions on Lian Yu . He is based on the DC Comics character Wild Dog . Dinah Drake / Black Canary ( edit ) Main article : Black Canary Dinah Drake ( portrayed by Juliana Harkavy ) is a detective , formerly of the Central City Police Department . She went undercover in a drug ring with the alias `` Tina Boland '' , only for her partner to be murdered after they were both revealed to be cops . After the particle accelerator explosion , she receives the ability to produce sonic waves with her scream and hunts down the leader of the drug ring to get revenge for her partner 's death . Oliver and his team seek to recruit Drake as a candidate to succeed Laurel Lance as Black Canary . Dinah joined the Star City Police Department after she settled in the city . Harkavy has been promoted to the main cast for the sixth season , her character having survived the explosions on Lian Yu . She is based on the DC Comics character Black Canary . Recurring characters ( edit ) The following is a list of recurring actors who portrayed significant characters in multiple episodes , sometimes across multiple seasons . The characters are listed in alphabetical order by actor and grouped by the season in which they first appeared . Introduced in season one ( edit ) Audrey Marie Anderson portrays Lyla Michaels , an A.R.G.U.S. agent and John Diggle 's wife who served with him in Afghanistan where they first met . Within A.R.G.U.S. she uses the codename `` Harbinger '' and is the field leader of the Suicide Squad . Lyla and John also have a child , born in season three , who they name Sara in honor of Sara Lance ( The child is later changed to a son named John Jr. following the events of `` Flashpoint '' ) . Lyla and Sara are kidnapped by Oliver when he masquerades as a devoted League of Assassins member called Al Sah - Him . Though this strains the friendship between John and Oliver when the truth comes out , Lyla understands that it was necessary in his battle to destroy Raʾs al Ghul and the League . In season four , after Amanda Waller 's death , Lyla becomes her successor as leader of A.R.G.U.S. and works to reform the organization . While she primarily aids Team Arrow , Lyla occasionally makes appearances in The Flash to aid Team Flash when A.R.G.U.S. faces metahuman threats . However , due to the events of The Flash episode `` Flashpoint '' , Lyla learns of the alteration of her life with her husband , leading her to distrust the Flash . Jessica De Gouw portrays Helena Bertinelli / Huntress , a vigilante who seeks revenge against her mob boss father and his associates for murdering her fiancé . Oliver makes a connection with her and tries to help her . They develop feelings for each other until Helena realizes Oliver still has feelings for Laurel , causing a rift . Helena 's revenge is thwarted by Oliver , who puts her father in jail , making an enemy of her . Sebastian Dunn portrays Edward Fyers , a mercenary on Lian Yu seen during the season one flashbacks . He is killed in battle on the island . In season three , it is revealed that Fyers worked for Amanda Waller . Adrian Holmes portrays Franklin `` Frank '' Pike , a police lieutenant and Quentin Lance 's superior . By the fifth season , Pike has been promoted to captain of police . Kelly Hu portrays Chien Na Wei / China White , a Chinese Triad leader who seeks revenge against Arrow for defeating her in combat during their first encounter . However , Oliver actually met her in Hong Kong two years prior , shown during the season three flashbacks . He helps capture her when she comes to Starling City . In season five , she escaped from prison with Carrie Cutter and Liza Warner but is later recaptured by Green Arrow and his team ; she knows that that the Green Arrow is really her nemesis , the Arrow . Celina Jade portrays Shado , the daughter of Yao Fei . She helps train Oliver in archery and martial arts while on Lian Yu in the season one flashbacks ; they become lovers . She is killed by Ivo during the season two flashbacks . Slade , who had secretly been in love with her , blames Oliver for her death and vows revenge . She later appears in Slade 's hallucinations in the present time . Jade also portrayed Shado 's twin sister , Mei , who Oliver meets in Hong Kong during a season three flashback . She also appears as a hallucination in season four during Oliver 's second stay on Lian Yu . Alex Kingston portrays Dinah Lance , mother of Laurel and Sara , and former wife of Quentin . Dinah is a European history professor . Prior to Sara 's disappearance , Dinah learned of her youngest daughter 's relationship with Oliver , and is guilt - ridden for failing to stop her after the incident . After Sara 's presumed death , Dinah 's marriage with Quentin deteriorates and they divorce . She then leaves her family to find her daughter , correctly believing that she is alive . Dinah remarries after settling in Central City . Despite separating herself from Quentin after Sara 's return , Dinah remains close to him and their daughters , and encourages Quentin to move on from their past . Byron Mann portrays Yao Fei Gulong , a skilled former Chinese general who assists Oliver on Lian Yu during season one . Yao Fei was framed for the massacre of a Chinese village by his superiors and sent to Lian Yu as punishment . He was found there by Edward Fyers who used Yao Fei 's daughter Shado as leverage to extort his help bringing down a commercial airliner . During an escape attempt Yao Fei encountered Oliver who he sheltered and taught survival skills , and brought him to Slade Wilson and Shado to teach him combat and archery , respectively . Yao Fei is killed by Fyers in the season one finale . In the season five flashbacks it is revealed that Yao Fei was taught by Talia al Ghul . The character 's name was derived from a DC Comics superhero character . Michael Rowe portrays Floyd Lawton / Deadshot , a mercenary who killed Andy Diggle under H.I.V.E. 's orders . Lawton is also a member of the Suicide Squad , although he is killed on a mission in season three . In season four it is revealed that Lawton did not kill Andy , but was used by H.I.V.E. to fake Andy 's death . Colin Salmon portrays Walter Steele , Moira 's husband , Oliver 's step - father , and Felicity 's former employer . He was president of Queen Consolidated until he disappeared in episode 9 , but was found alive in episode 21 . He and Moira separate at the end of season one , and he returns in season two to help her run for mayor . It is revealed that Moira had confided in Walter about Thea 's true paternity at some point after they marry . He is currently the chief financial officer of Starling National Bank . Jamey Sheridan portrays Robert Queen , Moira 's late husband , Oliver 's father , and Thea 's legal father . Despite his marriage to Moira , Robert was not a faithful husband , having many illicit affairs outside of his marriage including with his company 's intern , Isabel Rochev . Robert is secretly aware that Thea is Malcolm Merlyn 's biological daughter , but accepted her and also acted as a surrogate father to Malcolm 's son , Tommy . As a young man , Robert gained his wealth through corrupted means including killing a local councilman , Henry Goodwin ; he gradually become remorseful of his greed , leading him to join Malcolm 's secret society , Tempest , to improve Starling City 's condition in hope of making amends . He and Oliver were both lost at sea when Malcolm sabotaged the Queen 's Gambit . Robert sacrifices his life by killing himself , increasing Oliver 's chances of survival and returning home to Starling City to right Robert 's wrongs . Introduced in season two ( edit ) Cynthia Addai - Robinson portrays Amanda Waller , leader of A.R.G.U.S. and commander of the Suicide Squad . In season two , Waller often forces John Diggle to work for her on missions other A.R.G.U.S. agents are unwilling to perform . She tries to have Starling City destroyed during Slade Wilson 's attack to contain the Mirakuru soldiers , only to be stopped by John and Lyla . She has used the codename `` Mockingbird '' . She is killed after the Shadowspire soldiers infiltrate A.R.G.U.S. in season four . In the season three flashbacks , she rescues Oliver from Lian Yu after witnessing his progressive skills in combat , and forces him to work for her and , in the process , furthers his trainings two years prior to his return to Starling City . Kevin Alejandro portrays Sebastian Blood / Brother Blood , a savvy politician who is working with Slade Wilson , a friend of Oliver Queen and romantic interest of Laurel Lance . He is a city alderman who is running for mayor to create his vision of Starling City . He leads a double life as a criminal , wearing a skull mask based on the nightmares he had of his late - father , called `` Brother Blood '' . Seemingly benign , over the course of season two Sebastian is gradually revealed to be narcissistic and directly responsible for the murders of his parents . When Oliver and Laurel are close to discovering his secret , he misdirects them by having Laurel kill a decoy in the skull mask . Laurel uncovers his secret and Oliver tries to reason with Sebastian . Sebastian is betrayed by Slade , causing him to give the Mirakuru cure to Oliver , for which he is killed by Isabel Rochev . Summer Glau portrays Isabel Rochev , a senior executive at Stellmoor International who acquires half of Queen Consolidated in the second - season premiere . She later secures full control of the company in a hostile takeover . It is revealed she was Oliver 's father 's mistress during her internship and had been working with Slade to get revenge . Like Oliver , Isabel was also trained by Slade in martial arts , but she was later injected with the same Mirakuru drug that was given to Slade . In the season two finale Isabel is killed by Nyssa al Ghul . The character shares her name with the DC Comics villain `` The Queen '' , who , in the comics , became CEO of Queen Industries following the death of founder Robert Queen . Grant Gustin portrays Barry Allen / Flash , a young crime scene investigator from the Central City Police Department . Oliver first meets Barry when the latter arrives to personally investigate a superhuman - related crime in Starling City . Barry discovers that Oliver is his vigilante idol , the Arrow , saves Oliver 's life and helps him to begin uncovering the Mirakuru plot orchestrated by Slade Wilson . Ultimately , both Barry and Oliver become good friends and they occasionally offer each other advice and support . Barry later gains the power of super-speed , and is inspired by Oliver 's example to become a hero known as the `` Flash '' . He occasionally joins Oliver on missions and remains a trusted friend and ally . Gustin stars as the character on The Flash . Katrina Law portrays Nyssa al Ghul , the daughter of Raʾs al Ghul . Nyssa is said to have encountered a dying Sara on Lian Yu after Oliver and Slade 's fight on the Amazo , and brought Sara to the League where they became lovers , though her father never approved of their relationship . In season two , when Sara leaves the League , Nyssa works to force her return , threatening her family , but ultimately accepts her departure and later helps Oliver fight Slade 's army when Sara decides to return to the League . In season three , when Sara is murdered , Nyssa goes on a vengeance quest to kill Malcolm , correctly assuming he is her killer though he claims otherwise . She befriends Sara 's sister , Laurel , but her animosity with Oliver intensifies because he is unwilling to let her execute Malcolm . Nyssa feels betrayed when Raʾs declares Oliver his successor and releases Malcolm , and she leaves Nanda Parbat for Starling City and begins training Laurel . Nyssa is later captured by Oliver , Maseo Yamashiro and a team of assassins to bring her back to Nanda Parbat by force , for stealing the Alpha / Omega virus from the League . Instead of having Oliver kill Nyssa for her betrayal , Raʾs decides that the two should marry , to her evident dismay . However , Nyssa aligns herself with Oliver and his team to save Starling City , defying her father . She later returns to the League under Malcolm 's leadership and bows to him despite making it clear that she intends to kill him one day . In season four Nyssa begs Laurel not to use the Lazarus Pit to bring Sara back to life , knowing Sara will return different . When Laurel does so regardlessly , Nyssa retaliates by using a potion Raʾs Al Ghul left to destroy the Pit . Nyssa later escapes and tries to manipulate Oliver into killing Malcolm by leveraging him with the cure to Thea 's condition , though this results in war between her and Malcolm . Eventually Nyssa succeeds when Oliver defeats Malcolm without killing him and Nyssa disbands the League to spite Malcolm and regain Team Arrow 's trust . She later returns to attend Laurel 's funeral . Caity Lotz portrays Sara Lance / Canary / White Canary , Laurel 's sister with whom Oliver had an affair . Sara , along with Laurel and their mother Dinah , is based on the DC Comics superheroine Black Canary . She was believed to have drowned with the sinking Queen 's Gambit , but she resurfaces in season two as another vigilante , the `` Canary '' , who is connected to the League of Assassins . She was originally portrayed by Jacqueline MacInnes Wood in the pilot . According to Kreisberg , she is `` the beginning of the Black Canary story '' . She eventually wins her freedom from the League and returns to Starling City , to become part of Oliver 's team in addition to working as a bartender at his nightclub . She breaks with Oliver over a dispute concerning Roy , and rejoins the League in order win their backing against Slade Wilson 's army . She returns to Starling City on a mission for the League , but is killed by a mysterious archer . It is revealed that Thea killed Sara while drugged and controlled by Malcolm , as part of a plot to force Oliver into combat with Raʾs al Ghul . Lotz dubs Cassidy 's lines when Laurel impersonates Sara as the Canary , and later appears as a hallucination of Laurel 's . In season four , Laurel , Thea , and Malcolm resurrect Sara using the Lazarus Pit , but she returns mentally fractured until Oliver brings in his old friend , John Constantine , to help restore her soul . However , Sara 's behavior remains volatile and she suffers an insatiable bloodlust , which prompts her to seek solitude away from home . Dylan Neal portrays Dr. Anthony Ivo during flashbacks in season two . He is the first character in the series who tells Oliver , Slade and Shado about the `` Mirakuru '' ; he later murders Shado . After one of his hands has been cut off by Slade , he is killed by Oliver on Lian Yu . David Nykl portrays Anatoli Knyazev , based on the character KGBeast . Anatoli was kidnapped by Dr. Ivo and is brought to Lian Yu where he meets Oliver Queen and becomes a friend and is instrumental in Slade 's defeat on the island . Sometime between the flashbacks and the present , Anatoli makes Oliver a Bratva captain and continues to assist him in the present . Danielle Panabaker portrays Caitlin Snow / Killer Frost , a bioengineering expert from S.T.A.R. Labs and a metahuman with cryokinetic abilities . Caitlin helps Felicity in recreating the Mirakuru antidote , and occasionally helps Team Arrow on missions . Panabaker stars as the character on The Flash . Graham Shiels portrays Cyrus Gold , an acolye of Brother Blood who is the first to survive injection with Mirakuru in the present day . Oliver defeats him in the episode `` Three Ghosts '' . Bex Taylor - Klaus portrays Cindy a.k.a. `` Sin '' , a wayward youth who Sara takes under her wing in Starling City after Cindy 's father is killed on Lian Yu . Cindy later befriends Roy Harper and Thea Queen . Carlos Valdes portrays Cisco Ramon / Vibe , a mechanical engineering genius at S.T.A.R. Labs with known metahuman abilities to detect anomalies within reality and sonic manipulation . Cisco helps upgrade the arsenals of Oliver , Laurel , and Sara , aids Ray with his Atom suit , and designs a new safe house for Oliver . Valdes stars as the character on The Flash . Introduced in season three ( edit ) Eugene Byrd portrays Andrew `` Andy '' Diggle , the brother of John Diggle who is first seen as a bodyguard in a season three flashback , but was previously known to have been killed by the H.I.V.E. organization , which hired Floyd Lawton as their hitman . However , Andy led a double life in the military as a drug lord associated with the Shadowspire organization in Afghanistan ; H.I.V.E. faked Andy 's death and he eventually became one of Damien Darhk 's `` Ghosts '' . John suspects that Andy joined H.I.V.E. of his own free will , and tries to reconcile with his brother while saving him from damnation . Andy later helps John and Lyla stop Shadowspire from obtaining a weapon from A.R.G.U.S and is welcomed back into the family by John , but this proved to be a facade to get closer to Team Arrow . Later , he works with Malcolm Merlyn to get Darhk out of prison , and restore Darhk 's powers . Andy 's actions result in Laurel 's death at Darhk 's hands . As a result , John pursues and kills Andy to protect the rest of his family . Rila Fukushima portrays Tatsu Yamashiro / Katana , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . She is a mentor to Oliver during his time in Hong Kong . Devon Aoki was originally cast in the role but left due to a scheduling conflict . She is the wife of Maseo Yamashiro . In the present day , her relationship with her husband is estranged after the death of their son and she joins the Crescent Order after returning to Japan . She nurses Oliver back to health after he is nearly killed by Raʾs al Ghul . Tatsu supports Team Arrow during their war with the League of Assassins . After a short sword - fight with her husband , she kills Maseo and mourns him . She later helps Nyssa and Oliver in curing Thea from the effects of the Lazarus Pit . Vinnie Jones portrays Danny `` Brick '' Brickwell , a gang leader in Starling City . He earns the nickname `` Brick '' from being shot multiple times , without ever being put down . Brick organizes the takeover of the Glades in Oliver 's absence and is later revealed to have killed Malcolm 's wife , Rebecca , and thus is the indirect catalyst for the events of the series . Damien Darhk extorts Brick into joining H.I.V.E. after they escape from prison . Matt Nable portrays Raʾs al Ghul ( Arabic : رأس الغول ; `` The Demon 's Head '' ) , the main antagonist of the third season and leader of the League of Assassins who has lived for at least two centuries ( having been born some decades before 1854 ) due to the use of the Lazarus Pit , a pool which can heal wounds and bring the dead back to life . He is the father of Nyssa al Ghul . Raʾs has never acknowledged Sara as a member of the League and disapproves of Nyssa 's relationship with her . Oliver claims to have killed Sara and challenges Raʾs to a trial by combat which Raʾs easily wins , nearly killing Oliver by stabbing him through the chest . Raʾs wants to make Oliver his heir -- the new Raʾs al Ghul -- because Oliver is the only man to survive a death match against him , fulfilling a League prophecy regarding his destined successor . Raʾs become fixated with Oliver , neglecting other candidates , and becomes estranged with his daughter . When Oliver refuses his offer , Raʾs orders the League to kill the people of Starling City ; he stabs Thea and leaves her near death , with a cure via the Lazarus Pit available only if Oliver agrees to become his heir . Oliver accedes , and Raʾs names him `` Al Sah - Him '' . After Oliver captures Nyssa , Raʾs forces an engagement between them . He also orders Oliver to unleash the Alpha / Omega bioweapon on Starling City , oblivious that Oliver was working with Malcolm and Nyssa to take down the League from the inside . In the season finale , Oliver kills Raʾs . Malcolm becomes Raʾs successor of the League 's leadership , and thus its prophecy is fulfilled as Malcolm survived an assault by Raʾs during his captivity . J.R. Ramirez portrays Ted Grant / Wildcat , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Grant is a former boxer who runs a gym for underprivileged youth . He provides Laurel with combat training , and in the process becomes Laurel 's friend and confidant . He is also a former low - profile vigilante who watched over the Glades . Charlotte Ross portrays Donna Smoak , Felicity 's mother , and a former cocktail waitress from Las Vegas . Donna was previously married to cyber-criminal Noah Kuttler which led to Felicity 's conception prior to leaving him ; Donna claimed that Noah abandoned them , resulting in an estranged relationship with Felicity until they reconcile seventeen years later . Donna meets and dates Quentin Lance , but remains bitter over Noah and his criminal past . She helps Quentin to cope with the loss of his eldest daughter , Laurel . As of the season five premiere , Donna and Quentin have split up . Brandon Routh portrays Ray Palmer / Atom , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Ray is a scientist , inventor , minister and businessman who succeeds Isabel Rochev as CEO of Queen Consolidated after her crimes are posthumously exposed . Ray seeks to make improvements to Starling City after it survived terrorist attacks , and has the intention of renaming it `` Star City '' , involving himself with the city 's legislative body . After his fiancée , Anna Loring , is killed by one of Slade Wilson 's Mirakuru soldiers , Ray uses the company 's research and technical inventions to develop a suit powered by white dwarf matter , which , in his theory , can alter the wearer 's size down to the subatomic level . Ray seeks to use it to become a high - tech vigilante , named `` Atom '' . He renames Queen Consolidated `` Palmer Technologies '' and makes Felicity his Vice President . Ray and Felicity become lovers until Ray realizes that she is in love with Oliver . Ray assists Team Arrow 's fight against Raʾs al Ghul to stop him unleashing the Alpha / Omega bioweapon . In the season finale Ray is working on the suit with the intention of giving it the power to shrink but a malfunction causes the entire top floor of Palmer Technologies to blow up . It is revealed later that Ray is alive but was being held captive by Darhk until he is freed by Team Arrow to join their fight against H.I.V.E. Karl Yune portrays Maseo Yamashiro , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . He was Oliver 's handler , and later good friend , during his time in Hong Kong . He becomes estranged from his wife , Tatsu Yamashiro , after the death of their son , Akio , and joins the League of Assassins as `` Sarab '' . However he remains loyal to Oliver and covertly ensures his survival after his duel with Raʾs al Ghul , and still loves Tatsu . Despite this he is loyal to Raʾs and becomes a key leader in the League 's mission to force Oliver to take Raʾs place , going as far as to kill the Starling City mayor to frame him . He is eventually killed by Tatsu after a sword - fight . Introduced in season four ( edit ) Tom Amandes portrays Noah Kuttler / Calculator , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Kuttler is Felicity 's long - lost father , who is a career cyber-criminal whom Donna Smoak divorced from eighteen years previously . He has advanced computer science and hacking skills which surpasses his daughter 's , which he uses to blackmail Roy Harper out of hiding . Kuttler is ultimately arrested by Donna 's current romantic partner , Quentin Lance , after Felicity turns her father in . After escaping from prison , Kuttler finds himself being targeted by H.I.V.E. due to their awareness that he possibly can thwart their plans for world domination with his computer skills ; he helps his daughter in stopping H.I.V.E. after Felicity and her friends save him , but leaves Star City once more at Donna 's insistence . Jimmy Akingbola portrays Baron Reiter , based on the DC Comics character Baron Blitzkrieg . He is the leader of Shadowspire in the series flashbacks , when he was searching for magical artifacts on Lian Yu , specifically the idol that Damien Darhk later possesses . He is eventually killed by Oliver when Taiana gains control of the idol 's powers and weaken him long enough for Oliver to hurl a knife into Reiter 's back , killing him . Janet Kidder portrays Ruvé Adams , the wife of Damien Darhk , who shares his ambitions and campaigns against Oliver for mayor of Star City . She wins the election and becomes mayor after Oliver drops out of the race . She is held captive by Lonnie Machin , who stabs her in the chest with an arrow . Unable to move , she is crushed by falling debris from the destruction of Darhk 's nuclear bomb shelter . Before she dies , she asks Oliver to save her daughter . Neal McDonough portrays Damien Darhk , a former member of the League of Assassins and a friend - turned - adversary to Raʾs al Ghul . He is the main antagonist of the fourth season . Years ago , Darhk left the League after being denied its leadership , taking a sample of the Lazarus Pit and several League members with him after Raʾs failed orders to execute him . He leads his own clandestine group , H.I.V.E. , and plots to start a nuclear holocaust in order to rule a post-apocalyptic world in a plan known as `` Genesis '' . According to Raʾs , Darhk also orchestrated Bronze Tiger 's plot to steal Malcolm 's prototype earthquake machine and Mark Shaw 's attempt to acquire the A.R.G.U.S. file . In season four , he is introduced as the main antagonist , a formidable hand - to - hand combatant with mystical abilities -- he can remotely manipulate objects and people , and can drain the life force from a person through physical contact . Darhk becomes enemies of Green Arrow and Oliver , believing the two are working together and not the same man ( although he does express suspicions ) . Darhk also kidnapped Ray Palmer to steal his technology for Genesis . He ultimately deduces the true identities of the entire Arrow team . Despite being a sadistic terrorist leader , Darhk is also a loving father and husband ; his wife , Ruvé Adams , also shares her spouse 's cruelty and is supportive of his endeavors . Through Malcolm , Darhk learns that Oliver has fathered a son and uses him as a means to scuttle Oliver 's mayoral campaign . Quentin and Mari McCabe discover that a mystical idol in Darhk 's possession is the source of his supernatural powers , and Mari destroys it , leaving Darhk powerless and imprisoned . He later escapes with the assistance of Malcolm and Andy , regaining his powers from his rebuilt idol in the process , and kills Quentin 's daughter , Laurel , in retaliation for his imprisonment . Following the destruction of Genesis and his wife 's death , Darhk attempts to destroy all of Star City , but the idol is destroyed once more , nullifying his powers . Darhk fights Oliver but is overpowered , and taunts Oliver stating he spared Slade Wilson when he killed his mother . Oliver reminds Darhk of his crimes and kills him . Jack Moore portrays William Clayton , Oliver 's son . William learns of his relation to Oliver and discovers his father 's secrets at the end of season five . In season six , William 's faith with superheroes shattered after Oliver 's failure of saving his mother from Prometheus . Oliver now acknowledged William publicly and thus his part of the Queen family , but William struggles to accept Oliver as his father but it is improving , and he has not yet taking his father 's surname despite the revelation of his lineage . Ryan Robbins portrays Conklin , a member of Shadowspire in the series flashbacks . Conklin is highly suspicious of Oliver and his presence on Lian Yu , and regularly tries to convince his boss , Reiter , not to trust Oliver . He is later killed by Oliver when the two are left alone in a room and fight in hand - to - hand combat . In `` Taken '' , a primordial energy takes the form of Conklin and stands at the entrance of the cave , speaking in tongues , but disappears when it notices the spell tattoo on Oliver 's chest and deemed him worthy to pass . Elysia Rotaru portrays Taiana Venediktov , a woman whose life Oliver saves in the flashbacks , faking her death to protect her from Shadowspire . Oliver kills her brother , who Conklin had sent to attack him , and initially tries to hide it from Taiana . After they get caught by Conklin , Oliver is tortured , and they are both imprisoned . While Taiana is taking care of his wounds -- and after Shado appears in his dreams , telling Oliver to do the right thing -- he confesses . She later helps Oliver escape as they manage to steal the idol from Reiter , but the idol 's power begins to corrupt Taiana . Realizing she can not control it , she asks Oliver to kill her , and he does . Parker Young portrays Alex Davis , an employee of Oliver 's mayoral campaign and love interest for Thea . When Oliver drops out of the mayoral race , he starts to work for Ruvé Adams and it is later revealed that he is being controlled by her . Alex is killed by Lonnie Machin when he stumbles into a fight between Thea and Lonnie , due to Lonnie believing that Alex is clouding Thea 's mind . Alexander Calvert portrays Lonnie Machin / Anarky , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Lonnie is a deranged freelancing criminal who is willing to do whatever it takes to impress a potential employer . After his face was disfigured and burned by Thea , he becomes a rogue terrorist and plans on getting his revenge on Darhk for betraying him . Madison McLaughlin portrays Evelyn Crawford Sharp / Artemis , based on the DC Comics character Starling . She takes up the mantle of the Black Canary following Laurel 's death , eventually settling on the name Artemis . She becomes one of the new recruits of Team Arrow despite her moral ambiguity , but ultimately betrays the team to Prometheus after learning about the List and Oliver 's former identity as the Arrow . Chenier Hundal portrays Paul Holt , the husband of Curtis Holt until their divorce in season 5 and Felicity Smoak 's physiotherapist . Introduced in season five ( edit ) Chad Coleman portrays Tobias `` Charon '' Church , an imposing gangster looking to unite the various criminal enterprises in Star City under his own singular command . Church sought to eliminate Green Arrow to proceed with his plan to use Star City 's docks to ship drugs and weapons between the other city 's major crime families with ease , having frequent encounters with him . After capturing and torturing the Green Arrow 's sidekick , Rene Ramirez / Wild Dog , Church learns his identity is Oliver Queen , but is defeated by him . While being transferred to Iron Heights prison , Church is murdered by Prometheus for ignoring his warnings to not target Green Arrow . Tyler Ritter portrays Detective Billy Malone , a new member of the Star City Police Department and Felicity 's new boyfriend . He is inadvertently killed by Oliver due to a trap set by Prometheus . Joe Dinicol portrays Rory Regan / Ragman , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Regan arrives `` fresh from a personal tragedy '' hoping to find answers in Star City , where he ultimately crosses paths with Green Arrow . Carly Pope portrays Susan Williams , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Susan is a reporter from Coast City for Channel 52 news , who becomes interested in Oliver and the Green Arrow . She later becomes his love interest . David Meunier portrays Ishmael Gregor , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Gregor is the Pakhan ( `` Godfather '' ) of the Bratva ( Russian mafia ) , who takes a special interest in Oliver Queen . Dolph Lundgren portrays Konstantin Kovar , a member of the Russian government who appears in the season 's flashbacks . Oliver seeks to kill him to fulfill Taiana 's last request . A character of the same name appears in DC Comics as the father of the superhero Red Star . Johann Urb portrays Vincent Sobel / Vigilante , while Mick Wingert voices the character when masked . Despite belief that Josh Segarra voiced the character , thus implying that Segarra 's character Adrian Chase was also Vigilante , it was revealed that Chase was instead Prometheus . As such , Guggenheim indicated that the reveal of who Vigilante actually was would `` probably '' not be seen in season five and that Vigilante 's identity was someone already seen before . Sobel was originally portrayed by Clayton Chitty in season 5 . Lexa Doig portrays Talia al Ghul , based on the DC Comics character of the same name , a worldly and cultured elite warrior . Milli Wilkinson previously portrayed a younger version of the character on Legends of Tomorrow . Talia is Raʾs al Ghul 's daughter and Nyssa al Ghul 's eldest sister ; she trained one of Oliver 's mentors , Yao Fei Gulong , before training Oliver herself in Russia . She seeks revenge against Oliver for her father 's death by aligning herself with Adrian Chase . Talia is also enemies with Nyssa after the former left their family , and their feud is intensified after knowing Nyssa 's role of their father 's death . Talia also controls a League of Assassins remnant . Kacey Rohl portrays Alena , a member of the Helix hacking organization who attempts to recruit Felicity to their ranks after helping her clear Diggle 's name . Introduced in season six ( edit ) Sydelle Noel portrays Samandra Watson , an FBI agent investigating the vigilantes of Star City . Watson first arrives in Star City after a leaked photo of Oliver Queen as the Green Arrow is exposed to the media . Although the photo was proven to be a fake , Watson remains suspicious of Oliver Queen and chooses to stay behind in Star City to look further into Team Arrow as a whole . Michael Emerson portrays Cayden James , the former leader of the hacktivist organization Helix . Once incarcerated by A.R.G.U.S. , James is broken out of custody by Helix members with the aid of Felicity Smoak . Later , James reemerges in Star City after rescuing an injured Black Siren from Lian Yu . With Black Siren now under his employment , James and his followers Ricardo Diaz , Vincent Sobel , Anatoly Knyazev , and Boots are in the process of working on their latest unknown project known as Arclight and it is later revealed that Oliver as the Green Arrow played a role in the death of James ' son . Kirk Acevedo portrays Ricardo Diaz , a drug lord recently released from incarceration who leads a team street criminals and scientists in the development of an experimental steroid used by John Diggle to work around his tremors . He later sides with Cayden James . Guest stars ( edit ) The following is a supplementary list of guest stars , some recurring , who appear in lesser roles . The characters are listed , in alphabetical order by actor , by the season in which they first appeared . Introduced in season one ( edit ) Ben Browder portrays Ted Gaynor , Diggle 's former military commander who turns rogue and starts robbing cash from truck transfers only to be killed by the Arrow . Gaynor returns in flashbacks where his military history with Diggle is shown . Roger Cross portrays Detective Lucas Hilton , Quentin Lance 's partner who helps him primarily when he is a detective in season one . He is killed by Cyrus Gold . Andrew Dunbar portrays Garfield Lynns , a former firefighter who is killing other firefighters as revenge for being abandoned in a fire . Seth Gabel portrays The Count / Count Vertigo , dealer of the deadly drug known as Vertigo . Having already hated The Count for Thea 's Vertigo addiction , Oliver kills the drug lord in season two when The Count is holding Felicity hostage . Kathleen Gati portrays Raisa , a long - serving domestic worker in the Queen mansion when the series begins ; she has been close to Oliver since his childhood . She returns in the sixth season to help take care of William , Oliver 's son . Janina Gavankar portrays McKenna Hall , a vice cop who dates Oliver . Currie Graham portrays Derek Reston , leader of the gang consisting of his family members . Chelah Horsdal portrays Kate Spencer , the district attorney . She is killed in season two during Slade Wilson 's rampage on Starling City . Annie Ilonzeh portrays Joanna De La Vega , Laurel 's friend and co-worker at legal aid firm CNRI . Christie Laing portrays Carly Diggle , a love interest of John Diggle and widow of his brother , Andy . Eugene Lipinski portrays Alexi Leonov , a Russian Bratva member . He is killed by Slade Wilson in season two . Brian Markinson portrays Adam Hunt , a corrupt businessman who is the first person on `` The List '' stopped by Oliver . He was blackmailed into involvement with the Undertaking . Hunt is later killed by Malcolm Merlyn . Jeffrey Nordling portrays Frank Bertinelli , Helena 's mob boss father . He is killed in the episode `` Birds of Prey '' , but not by Helena . Tahmoh Penikett portrays Nick Salvati , the right - hand man of Frank Bertinelli . J. August Richards portrays Mr. Blank in the episode `` Home Invasion '' . Mr. Blank is an assassin hired to kill Laurel and a witness for a court case . Originally , the character would have been Onomatopoeia , but the producers found that the character could not be adapted for TV . Jeffrey Robinson portrays Billy Wintergreen , Slade Wilson 's partner in the ASIS , who betrays him and joins Fyers . He is later killed by Slade . Introduced in season two ( edit ) Dylan Bruce portrays Adam Donner , an assistant district attorney who becomes Laurel 's boss in season two . Adam is fired later in the season . Michael Eklund portrays Barton Mathis / Dollmaker , a misogynistic serial killer and an enemy of Quentin Lance , later killed by Sara Lance . Anna Hopkins portrays Samantha Clayton , the mother of Oliver 's son , William . Oliver dated Samantha while in his relationship with Laurel , and she became pregnant . Moira bribed her to tell Oliver that she miscarried , and she moved to Central City , where she had their son . Oliver did not find out about William 's existence for about a decade . A year after Oliver learned of his fatherhood , Samantha and William are abducted by Adrian Chase and his allies . After the Lian Yu explosion , Samantha was badly injured and later died in Oliver 's arms , asking him to look out for her son . Jimmy Jean - Louis portrays `` The Captain '' , an unnamed man who is the captain of the ship Amazo . Robert Knepper portrays William Tockman / Clock King . Nicholas Lea portrays Mark Francis , an associate of Walter Steele . Sean Maher portrays Mark Scheffer / Shrapnel , a former toy - shop owner who becomes a psychotic serial bomber and later a member of the Suicide Squad . He was killed during the first mission . Teryl Rothery portrays Jean Loring , Moira 's attorney for her murder trial . Michael Jai White portrays Ben Turner / Bronze Tiger , an assassin who uses metal claws as weapons and subsequently becomes a member of the Suicide Squad . Introduced in season three ( edit ) Austin Butler portrays Chase , a DJ who becomes Thea 's romantic interest . It is revealed that he is a spy for the League of Assassins , and he commits suicide rather than be captured . David Cubitt portrays Mark Shaw , based on the DC Comics character , Manhunter . Shaw is an A.R.G.U.S. operative in Corto Maltese who crosses paths with Diggle , and will eventually be known as `` Manhunter '' . Steven Culp portrays Senator Cray , the target of a rescue mission by the Suicide Squad . He works against his rescuers , since he had engineered a hostage crisis to bolster his presidential ambitions . Nolan Funk portrays Cooper Seldon , Felicity 's boyfriend during her time at MIT , and leader of the hackivist - turned - terrorist organization `` Brother Eye '' . He escapes in Darhk 's prison riot and joins H.I.V.E. as their hacker . Amy Gumenick portrays Carrie Cutter / Cupid , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Carrie is a lethal villain with a dangerously obsessive crush on the Arrow but is later enrolled into the Suicide Squad , where she forms a crush on Floyd Lawton / Deadshot . Doug Jones portrays Jake Simmons / Deathbolt , a metahuman from Opal City who receives his powers through unknown means , with the ability to harness and weaponize plasma energy . Adrian Glynn McMorran portrays Michael Amar / Murmur , a man whose mouth is sewn shut , who enacts a deadly revenge scheme on the Starling City police for imprisoning him in Iron Heights Penitentiary on a false confession . He escapes in Darhk 's prison riot and joins H.I.V.E. but is captured and returned to prison . Marc Singer portrays US Army General Matthew Shrieve , who is introduced in a flashback at the end of the episode `` The Return '' . Shrieve presents himself as a more reasonable counterpart to Amanda Waller , allowing Oliver and the Yamashiros to go free after their mission in Hong Kong is completed ; he is later revealed to be the one who ordered their deaths , betraying and framing Waller as he plots to use the virus they acquired to cripple China , which he sees as a growing threat to America . Shrieve is also responsible for causing Akio 's death and in vengeance he is brutally tortured by Oliver before being executed by Maseo . Peter Stormare portrays Werner Zytle / Vertigo based on the DC Comics character Count Vertigo that appears in The New 52 . Werner is the new purveyor of the drug Vertigo , after the death of The Count in season two . Zytle seeks to kill Arrow in a bid to raise his profile as a crime lord , but is defeated after encountering the Canary sisters ; he becomes their enemy and seeks reprisal against the Canaries . Nick E. Tarabay portrays Digger Harkness / Captain Boomerang , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Harkness is a former ASIS operative and Suicide Squad member who is highly skilled in martial arts and espionage , whose weapons of choice are custom - made boomerangs . Matt Ward portrays Simon Lacroix / Komodo , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Lacroix is a mercenary archer who uses the name Komodo and was originally suspected of killing Sara Lance / Canary . Introduced in season four ( edit ) JR Bourne portrays Jeremy Tell / Double Down , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . He is a metahuman who can turn his playing card tattoos into weapons . Casper Crump portrays Vandal Savage , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Savage is a 6,000 - year - old immortal , who has manipulated leaders throughout history in an attempt to gain dominion over the entire world . He becomes a main antagonist in the first season of Legends of Tomorrow . Megalyn Echikunwoke portrays Mari McCabe / Vixen , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Born in Africa but raised in the United States , Mari is orphaned at a young age and inherits her family 's mystical Tantu Totem , which allows her to access the powers of the animal kingdom , and becomes a Detroit - based superpowered vigilante . Mari is a friend and ally to both Oliver and Barry Allen . Echikunwoke reprises her role from the animated Arrowverse series Vixen . Falk Hentschel portrays Carter Hall / Hawkman , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . Hall is the latest reincarnation of an Egyptian prince who is fated to reincarnate throughout time along with his soulmate , Kendra Saunders / Hawkgirl . Carter stars as the character on Legends of Tomorrow . Peter Francis James portrays Dr. Aldus Boardman , a classics professor at St. Roch University , who is an expert on the story of Vandal Savage , and of Hawkman and Hawkgirl . Emily Kinney portrays Brie Larvan , a female version of Bug - Eyed Bandit , a narcissistic technical genius and killer who becomes a rival to Felicity Smoak , reprising the role from The Flash . Ciara Renée portrays Kendra Saunders / Hawkgirl , a young woman who is just beginning to learn that she has been repeatedly reincarnated over the centuries . When provoked , her ancient warrior persona manifests itself , along with wings that grow out of her back , earning her the name Hawkgirl . Renée stars as the character on Legends of Tomorrow . Jeri Ryan portrays Jessica Danforth , a friend of the Queen family , and mayoral candidate for Star City , who drops out of the race after her daughter 's kidnapping . Matt Ryan reprises his role as John Constantine from Constantine , an enigmatic and irreverent former con man , who is now a reluctant supernatural detective . Ryan appears in the season 's fifth episode per a `` one - time - only - deal '' . Constantine is an associate of Oliver 's -- they met on Lian Yu -- and plays a pivotal role in completing Sara Lance 's resurrection . Rutina Wesley portrays Liza Warner , based on the DC Comics character `` Lady Cop '' . Warner is a member of the anti-vigilante task force which has gone rogue . Gabriella Wright portrays Esrin Fortuna , an immortal shaman Oliver consults on John Constantine 's recommendation to learn about Darhk 's powers . Introduced in season five ( edit ) Melissa Benoist portrays Kara Danvers / Supergirl , reprising her role from the series Supergirl . Supergirl is Barry Allen 's friend and ally from another universe , whom Oliver also ultimately befriends during an alien invasion crisis . In season six , Benoist portrays Kara 's Earth - X doppelgänger , Overgirl , who is Oliver 's doppelgänger 's Kryptonian bride . Garry Chalk portrays J.G. Walker , a corrupt US Army general who frames Diggle to conceal his own illegal arms dealing , which is ultimately exposed . Amy Pemberton voices Gideon , the on - board navigational assistant of the Waverider . Pemberton stars as the character on Legends of Tomorrow . Cody Runnels portrays Derek Sampson , a drug dealer terrorizing Star City . Patrick Sabongui portrays David Singh , the Central City Police Captain who provided the Green Arrow and his team with information that lead to the location of Dinah Drake . Sabongui reprises his role from The Flash . Wil Traval portrays Christopher Chance / Human Target , based on the DC Comics character of the same name , who is hired by Oliver to serve as his body double when he is mayor . Nick Zano portrays Nate Heywood / Steel , a historian - turned - metahuman superhero who can transform himself into a steel - like form . Zano stars as the character on Legends of Tomorrow . Introduced in season six ( edit ) Tom Cavanagh portrays Dr. Harrison `` Harry '' Wells , a renowned scientist from Earth - 2 and an ally of Team Flash . Wells is also a parallel universe counterpart of Earth - 1 's Dr. Harrison Wells , who was murdered by Eobard Thawne . Cavanagh also portrays Eobard Thawne / Reverse Flash . Franz Drameh as Jefferson `` Jax '' Jackson / Firestorm : A former high school athlete turned auto mechanic who is one half of the hero known as Firestorm with Martin Stein . Drameh reprises his role from Legends of Tomorrow . Victor Garber as Martin Stein / Firestorm : A nuclear physicist focused on transmutation who is second half of the hero known as Firestorm with Jefferson Jackson . Garber reprises his role from Legends of Tomorrow . Liam Hall portrays Joe Wilson , the son of Slade Wilson and a former ASIS operative who is the leader of a Russian gang known as the Jackals which specializes in the collection of powerful weapons . Chyler Leigh portrays Alex Danvers , the adoptive sister of Kara Danvers . Leigh reprises her role from Supergirl . Candice Patton portrays Iris West , a member of the S.T.A.R. Labs team and the wife of Barry Allen . Patton reprises her role from The Flash . Dominic Purcell portrays Mick Rory / Heat Wave , an arsonist , career criminal , and accomplice of Leonard Snart who , in contrast to his partner , uses a heat gun capable of burning almost anything . Purcell reprises his role from Legends of Tomorrow . See also ( edit ) List of The Flash characters List of Legends of Tomorrow characters List of Supergirl characters List of Arrowverse actors References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Campbell , Evan ( March 27 , 2017 ) . `` KATIE CASSIDY RETURNING TO ARROW AS A SERIES REGULAR IN SEASON 6 '' . IGN . Retrieved March 27 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Agard , Chancellor ( March 27 , 2017 ) . `` Arrow : Katie Cassidy returning as series regular for season 6 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved May 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Green Arrow ( vol. 5 ) # 0 ( November 2012 ) Jump up ^ Sydney Bucksbaum ( November 12 , 2014 ) . `` Tommy Merlyn Is Returning to Arrow -- But There 's a Twist ! '' . Eonline.com . Retrieved June 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lemire , Jeff ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) . Green Arrow v5 , # 24 ( October 2013 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Percy , Benjamin ( w ) , Schmidt , Otto ( a ) . Green Arrow v6 , # 2 ( July 2016 ) , DC Comics Jump up ^ Guggenheim , Marc ( November 12 , 2015 ) . `` @ SmoaknArrow @ ARROWwriters Yes '' . Twitter . Retrieved December 1 , 2015 . Smoak & Arrow : ( I ) s `` Spartan '' officially Diggle 's codename now ? / Marc Guggenheim : Yes . Jump up ^ `` Arrow 's Willa Holland could become his sidekick '' . Scifinow.co.uk . September 17 , 2012 . Retrieved August 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Almalvez , Laurence ( July 18 , 2015 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Team on Green Lantern Rumors and Season 4 Surprises '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Russ ( July 23 , 2015 ) . `` Marc Guggenheim Talks Arrow , Vixen , Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the Overwatch Sequel '' . Comicbook.com . Retrieved July 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( September 29 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow : Susanna Thompson returning for 100th episode '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved September 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( January 27 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow reveals Felicity 's codename '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 28 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Stoute , Scott ( September 13 , 2012 ) . `` 11 Confirmed DC Comic Characters Appearing in CW 's ' Arrow ' '' . ScreenRant . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Sacks , Ethan ( July 4 , 2014 ) . `` Producers for CW show ' Arrow ' tapped to write super hero 's comic book adventures '' . New York Daily News . Retrieved July 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Arrow EP Andrew Kreisberg Talks Deathstroke ; Slade Wilson & Oliver Queen 's Blossoming Bromance '' . Access Hollywood . February 20 , 2013 . Retrieved August 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( July 17 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow casts Mr. Terrific for season 4 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` '' What We Leave Behind '' -- Arrow S05E09 Review `` . TV.com . December 8 , 2016 . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( June 16 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Josh Segarra Cast As Adrian Chase , Vigilante , For Season 5 '' . Deadline . Retrieved June 29 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Abrams , Natalie ( March 1 , 2017 ) . `` Arrow unveils Prometheus ' identity -- what 's next ? '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Mason , Harvy ( October 6 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Season 5 Episode 2 Spoilers : ' The Recruits ' To Introduce New Green Vigilantes ; Who Is Prometheus ? '' . parentherald.com . Retrieved January 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( June 15 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow taps Rick Gonzalez as DC Comics vigilante Wild Dog '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved June 15 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Nemetz , Dave ( April 13 , 2017 ) . `` Arrow Promotes Rick Gonzalez and Juliana Harkavy for Season 6 '' . TVLine . Retrieved April 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Bryant , Jacob ( November 1 , 2016 ) . `` ' The Walking Dead ' Actress Juliana Harkavy Joining ' Arrow ' ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved November 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Damore , Megan ( February 1 , 2017 ) . `` ARROW : TINA BOLAND 'S REAL NAME WILL BE FAMILIAR TO DC COMICS FANS '' . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved February 1 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Ching , Albert ( February 21 , 2014 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : Amanda Waller Unleashes the Suicide Squad on `` Arrow '' `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Babos , John ( March 19 , 2014 ) . `` CW Arrow Spoilers & Recap : Suicide Squad Makes TV Debut In Season 2 Episode 16 With Harley Quinn & Deathstroke ( CW Arrow S02 E16 News & Review ) '' . Inside Pulse . Retrieved March 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( August 21 , 2012 ) . `` The CW 's ' Arrow ' casts The Huntress -- EXCLUSIVE '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Arrow : New Photos Showcase Deathstroke , Eddie Fyers , John Barrowman '' . Comicbook.com . October 19 , 2012 . Retrieved August 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ben Sokolowski & Beth Schwartz ( writers ) Nick Copus ( director ) ( October 16 , 2013 ) . `` Identity '' . Arrow ( TV series ) . Season 2 . Episode 2 . The CW . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( March 5 , 2013 ) . `` Arrow Exclusive : Celina Jade on Shado 's New Partnership with Oliver '' . TV Guide . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( January 22 , 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' scoop : ' ER ' actress is Laurel 's mom -- EXCLUSIVE '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( August 9 , 2012 ) . `` Odette Annable To Recur On CBS 's ' Golden Boy ' , Byron Mann On CW 's ' Arrow ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved August 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Guggenheim , Marc ( January 21 , 2013 ) . `` @ OwenDanes `` Is Yao Fei in Arrow the same Yao Fei from The Great Ten ? '' Intentionally the same name , but not the exact same character `` . Twitter . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 7 , 2012 ) . `` ' Arrow ' & CBS 's Ben Falcone Add To Casts '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved August 13 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 2 , 2012 ) . `` ' The River 's Paul Blackthorne Joins ' Arrow ' , Jamey Sheridan Set To Play Arrow 's Dad '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved October 28 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sunu , Steve ( September 4 , 2013 ) . `` Cynthia Addai - Robinson Cast As `` Arrow 's '' Amanda Waller `` . comicbookresources.com . Retrieved November 14 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Lang , Derrick ( July 20 , 2013 ) . `` Bronze Tiger , Brother Blood coming to ' Arrow ' '' . Yahoo TV . Retrieved October 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Davis , Lauren ( September 22 , 2013 ) . `` Summer Glau is ready for boardroom battle in latest Arrow images '' . io9.com . Retrieved October 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Wickline , Dan ( July 11 , 2013 ) . `` Who Is Isabel Rochev , Summer Glau 's New Role On Arrow ? '' . Bleeding Cool . Retrieved October 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( September 13 , 2013 ) . `` ' Glee ' Star Set as CW 's Flash '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved September 13 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( November 19 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive : Arrow Casts Spartacus Alum as Daughter of Ra 's al Ghul '' . TV Guide . Retrieved November 20 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( November 6 , 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Caity Lotz on Black Canary 's Secret , Oliver 's Dilemma and the Deadly League '' . Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved November 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Prudom , Laura ( July 30 , 2013 ) . `` Black Canary On ' Arrow ' : CW President Mark Pedowitz Shares More On The Superhero 's Origin Story '' . Huffington Post . Retrieved October 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Yeoman , Kevin ( 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Black Canary Revealed -- What Did You Think ? '' . Retrieved February 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ; Nededog , Jethro ( July 18 , 2013 ) . `` CW 's ' Arrow ' Casts ' The Pact 's ' Caity Lotz as Black Canary ( Exclusive ) '' . The Wrap . Retrieved July 22 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( July 19 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive : Arrow Boss Sets the Record Straight on Black Canary Casting '' . TVGuide.com . Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick , Kevin ( September 26 , 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Season 2 Exclusive : ' Percy Jackson ' Star Dylan Neal Joins as DC 's Dr. Anthony Ivo ! '' . ScreenCrush . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Russ ( October 22 , 2013 ) . `` Arrow Adds Another Familiar DC Comics Villain '' . Comicbook.com . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Abrams , Natalie ( March 17 , 2014 ) . `` Arrow Scoop : Which Flash Characters Are Heading to Starling City ? '' . TV Guide . Retrieved March 17 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Shaw - Williams , Hannah ( November 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Season 2 to Feature Cyrus Gold & Possibly Solomon Grundy '' . Retrieved December 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( August 15 , 2013 ) . `` Arrow Scoop : Breakout Killing Co-Star Commits to ' Sin ' - ful Season 2 Arc '' . tvline . Retrieved October 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Arrow ' is resurrecting another character this season '' . Hitfix . November 17 , 2015 . Retrieved September 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Russ . `` Arrow : Easter Eggs and DC Comics References In `` The Return '' `` . Comicbook.com . Retrieved February 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Rila Fukushima Joins ' Arrow ' , Riley Voelkel Cast In ' Point Of Honor ' '' . Deadline . August 27 , 2014 . Retrieved August 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Devon Aoki Joins CW 's ' Arrow ' ; Syfy 's ' Ascension ' Rounds Out Cast '' . Deadline . July 1 , 2014 . Retrieved July 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Swift , Andy ( July 1 , 2014 ) . `` Arrow Recruits Sin City 's Devon Aoki for ' Deadly ' Season 3 Role '' . TV Line . Retrieved July 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Prudom , Laura ( October 20 , 2014 ) . `` Arrow ' Casts Vinnie Jones as Comicbook Villain Brick ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved October 20 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( September 3 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Finds Ra 's al Ghul '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved September 3 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( July 29 , 2014 ) . `` J.R. Ramirez To Play Wildcat On ' Arrow ' Season 3 '' . Deadline . Retrieved July 29 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 1 , 2014 ) . `` Arrow Casts NYPD Blue Alum as Felicity 's Mom '' . TV Guide . Retrieved August 1 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Guggenheim , Marc . `` Okay , Internet , Felicity 's mom 's name is Donna . @ charlotteross @ EmilyBett '' . Twitter . Retrieved August 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( July 7 , 2014 ) . `` Arrow Targets Brandon Routh to Play Major DC Comics Superhero in Season 3 '' . TV Line . Retrieved July 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Philiana Ng . `` ' Arrow ' Season 3 : Boss Tackles 10 Big Questions - The Hollywood Reporter '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ `` Arrow Season 3 Scoop : Meet Oliver 's Hong Kong Handler '' . TV Line . July 2 , 2014 . Retrieved July 2 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt Webb ( November 24 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow Casts Everwood 's Tom Amandes as DC Comics Villain The Calculator '' . TVLine . Retrieved November 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( July 22 , 2015 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Cast DC Villain Baron Blitzkrieg for Season 4 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( July 22 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow boss explains Baron Reiter casting '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved July 23 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Prudom , Laura ( July 31 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow Taps Falling Skies Alum as New Foe for Oliver Queen '' . Variety . Retrieved July 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Gennis , Sadie ( February 17 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow Video : Oliver Prepares to Take Down Damien Darhk 's Wife - Today 's News : Our Take '' . TVGuide.com . Retrieved April 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( July 10 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow Season 4 : Neal McDonough Joins Cast as the Infamous Damien Darhk '' . TV Line . Jump up ^ Bucksbaum , Sydney ( July 22 , 2017 ) . `` DC TV Watch at Comic - Con : All the Highlights From ' Supergirl , ' ' Black Lightning , ' ' Arrow ' and More '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved July 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 10 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow casts Oliver 's new love interest '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( November 25 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow 's David Ramsey shares his theories on who 's in the grave '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 25 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( August 10 , 2015 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : ' Arrow ' Lands ' Enlisted ' Star as Thea 's New Love Interest for Season 4 '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved August 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ching , Albert ( July 17 , 2015 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : `` Arrow '' Casts Its Anarky For Season 4 `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved July 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Prudom , Laura ( June 21 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Adds Artemis for Season 5 ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved June 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Arrow ' : Season 4 , Episode 9 -- ' Dark Waters ' '' . Access Hollywood . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2016 . Echo Kellum as Curtis Holt , Chenier Hundal as Paul and Emily Bett Rickards as Felicity Smoak Jump up ^ `` The Candidate '' . Arrow . Jump up ^ `` Taken '' . Arrow . Jump up ^ Schwartz , Terri ( June 21 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow : Season 5 Casts The Walking Dead Alum Chad L. Coleman '' . IGN . Retrieved June 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( October 5 , 2016 ) . `` ARROW : `` LEGACY '' REVIEW `` . IGN . Retrieved October 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bucksbaum , Sydney ( June 28 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Tyler Ritter to Recur ( Exclusive ) '' . Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved June 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( July 23 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow books Blindspot star as Ragman -- exclusive '' . Entertainment Weekly . Jump up ^ Gelman , Vlada ( June 29 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow Casts Popular Alum Carly Pope as Coast City Reporter in Season 5 '' . TV Line . Retrieved June 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( August 30 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : David Meunier Cast As Ishmael Gregor In Season 5 '' . Deadline . Retrieved August 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 11 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow adds Dolph Lundgren as new villain '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bucksbaum , Sydney ( 10 November 2017 ) . `` Vigilante Is Black Canary 's Ex On ' Arrow ' & The Consequences Are Already Heartbreaking '' . Bustle . Retrieved 11 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Francisco , Eric ( November 17 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Fans Are Pretty Sure They Know Vigilante 's Identity '' . Inverse . Retrieved March 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( March 1 , 2017 ) . `` ARROW : `` FIGHTING FIRE WITH FIRE '' REVIEW `` . IGN . Retrieved March 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick , Kevin ( March 1 , 2017 ) . `` Review : ' Arrow ' Drops the Bombshell Prometheus Reveal in ' Fighting Fire With Fire ' '' . Screen Crush . Retrieved March 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( March 3 , 2017 ) . `` Spoiler Room : Scoop on Once Upon a Time , Arrow , Supergirl , and more '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved March 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Abrams ( 9 November 2017 ) . `` ' Arrow ' finally unmasks Vigilante '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 11 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt Webb ( November 2 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow Casts Talia al Ghul With Continuum / Andromeda 's Lexa Doig '' . TV Line . Retrieved November 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ratcliffe , Amy ( March 27 , 2016 ) . `` WonderCon : Legends of Tomorrow Footage Reveals Jonah Hex , Talia al Ghul and More '' . IGN . Retrieved March 28 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Arrant , Chris ( April 1 , 2016 ) . `` Major BATMAN Character Debuts in DC 'S LEGENDS OF TOMORROW '' . Newsarama . Retrieved April 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Jacob Bryant ( March 15 , 2017 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Exclusive Clip : Felicity Tours Helix 's Base '' . Variety . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 05 . Jump up ^ Otterson , Joe ( August 4 , 2017 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Adds Sydelle Noel for Season 6 ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved August 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ http://tvline.com/gallery/fall-tv-2017-season-premiere-spoilers/ Jump up ^ N'Duka , Amanda ( July 23 , 2017 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : ' Lost ' Star Michael Emerson To Recur In Season 6 ; David Nykl Returns , Watch Trailer -- Comic - Con '' . Deadline . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 30 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ; Petski , Denise ( August 15 , 2017 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Kirk Acevedo Cast As Ricardo Diaz ( Richard Dragon ) In Season 6 '' . Deadline.com . Jump up ^ Goldman , Eric ( November 7 , 2012 ) . `` Arrow Exclusive : Farscape and Stargate SG - 1 's Ben Browder to Play DC Comics Character Ted Gaynor '' . IGN . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( May 10 , 2013 ) . `` Arrow Finale Scoop : Will Oliver Be Able to Take Down the Dark Archer ? '' . TV Guide . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( October 31 , 2012 ) . `` Firefly coming to ' Arrow ' -- Exclusive '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Stoute , Scott . `` ' Arrow ' Casts ' Fringe ' Alum Seth Gabel as Count Vertigo '' . ScreenRant . Retrieved August 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Arrow : Pilot ( Series Premiere ) '' . Paley Center for Media . Retrieved October 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Cushman , Dustin ( July 24 , 2017 ) . `` Kathleen Gati to reprise Raisa on CW 's Arrow '' . sheknows.com . Retrieved October 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ MacKenzie , Carina Adly ( November 16 , 2012 ) . `` ' Arrow ' casts ' True Blood 's ' Janina Gavankar in major recurring role '' . Zap2It . Retrieved March 16 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Perry , Spencer ( October 26 , 2012 ) . `` Arrow 's Royal Flush Gang Revealed '' . Superhero Hype . Retrieved December 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Russ ( November 20 , 2013 ) . `` Tonight 's Arrow to Feature Kate Spencer '' . comicbook.com . Jump up ^ Jeffery , Morgan ( March 13 , 2012 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : CW superhero drama adds ' Charlie 's Angels ' star Annie Ilonzeh '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved August 18 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ilonzeh , Annie ( July 25 , 2012 ) . `` Joanna De La Vega . # Arrow # Lawyer # Swag # Tired # Canada # Vancouver # SunnyDay '' . Twitter . Retrieved August 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Morgan , Jeffrey ( January 28 , 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Ben Browder battles our hero in ' Trust But Verify ' '' . digitalspy.com . Jump up ^ West , Brian ( March 4 , 2014 ) . `` WPR Previews the Upcoming Suicide Squad Episode of Arrow '' . WatchPlayRead . Retrieved March 20 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Sullivan , Brian Ford ( July 11 , 2012 ) . `` The Futon 's First Look : `` Arrow '' ( The CW ) `` . Retrieved March 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Masters , Megan ( September 14 , 2012 ) . `` TVLine Items : Smash Adds Law & Order Vet , USA Orders Pilot From Numb3rs Creators and More ! '' . TV Line . Retrieved September 14 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( September 18 , 2012 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Enlists ' Battlestar Galactica 's ' Tahmoh Penikett '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Arrow : Exclusive First Look at Deathstroke '' . IGN . October 12 , 2013 . Retrieved October 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Hughes , Jason ( November 8 , 2012 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Deathstroke Makes His Much - Anticipated Debut in the Latest Flashback ( VIDEO ) '' . Entertainment / TV . Huffington Post . Retrieved November 22 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt ( August 2 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive : Arrow Targets Orphan Black Star '' . TV Line . Retrieved October 9 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( October 24 , 2013 ) . `` Everyone Loves A Pretty Doll '' . IGN . Retrieved October 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( December 2 , 2014 ) . `` ' The Flash ' drops a big ' Arrow ' bombshell '' . Retrieved November 30 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Gallaway , Lauren ( December 2 , 2015 ) . `` '' ARROW '' RECAP : EPIC `` THE FLASH '' CROSSOVER CONCLUDES WITH TIME TRAVEL AND TEAMWORK `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved December 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Phegley , Kiel ( October 3 , 2013 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : `` ARROW '' CASTS JIMMY JEAN - LOUIS AS AMAZO - LINKED `` CAPTAIN '' `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved October 3 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Brown , Laurel ( December 11 , 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Robert Knepper cast as bad guy ' Clock King ' '' . Zap2It . Retrieved February 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Gelman , Vlada ( November 15 , 2013 ) . `` Arrow Exclusive : X-Files Vet Nicholas Lea to Send ( Spoiler ) on a Surprising Journey '' . TVLine . Retrieved November 19 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( October 23 , 2013 ) . `` Arrow 's Books `` Firefly '' Star Sean Maher in Villainous Role ( Exclusive ) `` . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved October 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Jeffery , Morgan ( August 13 , 2013 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : Teryl Rothery to play The Atom 's love interest in season two '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved March 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( September 5 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' : ' Carrie Diaries ' Star to Romance Thea in Season 3 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved September 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( August 8 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Enlists ' Medium ' Star for DC Role in Season 3 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 8 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Ng , Philiana ( January 28 , 2015 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : ' Arrow ' Is Plotting Another Suicide Squad Episode -- and Your Favorites Are Back ! '' . Entertainment Tonight . Retrieved January 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ( # 317 ) `` Suicidal Tendencies '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved March 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( August 28 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Books ' Glee ' Alum for Season 3 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved August 28 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( August 29 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' casts ' Supernatural ' alum as lethal lovestruck fan '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 29 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Goldman , Eric ( February 18 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow : Doug Jones To Play DC Comics Villain Deathbolt '' . IGN . Retrieved February 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ( # 316 ) `` The Offer '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Blake , Emily . `` Marc Singer joins ' Arrow ' '' . Entertainment Weekly . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved December 15 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( July 3 , 2014 ) . `` Exclusive : Arrow Taps Peter Stormare as New Count Vertigo '' . TV Guide . Retrieved July 3 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Hibberd , James ( September 16 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' casts ' Spartacus ' actor as Captain Boomerang '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved September 16 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 19 , 2014 ) . `` ' Arrow ' casts DC Comics villain Komodo '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ge , Linda ( July 23 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow Adds Teen Wolf JR Bourne As DC Villain Double Down ( Exclusive ) '' . The Wrap . Jump up ^ Roots , Kimberly ( August 4 , 2015 ) . `` Legends of Tomorrow Casts Season 1 Big Bad Vandal Savage '' . TVLine . Retrieved August 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Holbrook , Damian ( December 18 , 2015 ) . `` Exclusive : An Animated Vixen Comes to Life On Arrow '' . TV Insider . Retrieved December 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( August 3 , 2015 ) . `` Falk Hentschel To Play Hawkman In ' Legends Of Tomorrow ' '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Russ ( September 24 , 2015 ) . `` EXCLUSIVE : Legends of Tomorrow Casts Peter Francis James As Key Part of Hawkman / Hawkgirl Story '' . Cominbook.com . Retrieved September 24 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ( # 417 ) `` Beacon of Hope '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved March 24 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 30 , 2015 ) . `` The Arrow / Flash Spinoff Casts Ciara Renée As Hawkgirl '' . Deadline . Retrieved April 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Gerding , Stephen ( November 13 , 2015 ) . `` '' ARROW `` / '' FLASH '' CROSSOVER UNVEILS HERO - FILLED PLOT `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved November 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lash , Jolie ( July 23 , 2015 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Casting Exclusive : Jeri Ryan To Guest Star On CW Drama '' . Access Hollywood . Retrieved July 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ching , Albert ( September 4 , 2015 ) . `` 22 HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE `` ARROW '' SEASON 4 TRAILER `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved September 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Holbrook , Damian ( August 11 , 2015 ) . `` Constantine 's Matt Ryan Conjures Up Magical Return on Arrow '' . TV Insider . Retrieved August 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( August 11 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow scoop : Get details on Rutina Wesley 's role '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved August 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Trumbore , Dave ( May 4 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Recap : `` Genesis '' -- Things Get Magical Under the Dome `` . Collider . Retrieved May 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Supergirl Is the Common Thread in `` Flash , '' `` Arrow '' & `` Legends Of Tomorrow '' Crossover `` . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved July 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Webb , Matt ( February 8 , 2017 ) . `` ' Arrow ' Recap Season 5 Episode 12 -- ( Spoiler ) Quits Team Arrow '' . TVLine . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 05 . ^ Jump up to : Somosot , Janice ( December 1 , 2016 ) . `` ' Arrow ' 100th Episode Features A Shared Hallucination Between Oliver , Thea , Diggle , Ray & Sara '' . International Business Times Philippines . Retrieved December 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt Webb ( July 2 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow to Host ' Rematch ' With WWE Alum Cody Rhodes FKA Stardust '' . TV Line . Retrieved July 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gerding , Stephen ( October 12 , 2016 ) . `` CODY RHODES HAS A BLOODY WARNING FOR ARROW '' . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved October 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Cite error : The named reference Sabongui was invoked but never defined ( see the help page ) . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( August 18 , 2016 ) . `` Arrow Takes Aim at Jessica Jones Cop Wil Traval for Human Target Role '' . TV Line . Retrieved August 18 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Beedle , Tim ( May 7 , 2015 ) . `` Breaking News : DC 's Legends of Tomorrow , a New Arrow and Flash Spinoff Series , is Coming to The CW '' . DC Comics . Archived from the original on May 9 , 2015 . Retrieved May 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Cite error : The named reference Drameh was invoked but never defined ( see the help page ) . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( February 26 , 2015 ) . `` Arrow / Flash Superhero Team - Up Spinoff In Works At CW ; Brandon Routh , Victor Garber , Wentworth Miller , Caity Lotz Star '' . Deadline . Archived from the original on February 27 , 2015 . Retrieved February 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Burlingame , Russ ( September 13 , 2015 ) . `` Legends of Tomorrow 's Phil Klemmer on Fighting Nazis , Killing Characters and The Time Masters ' Secret Agenda '' . ComicBook.com . 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"Jamey Sheridan portrays Robert Queen, Moira's late husband, Oliver's father, and Thea's legal father. Despite his marriage to Moira, Robert was not a faithful husband, having many illicit affairs outside of his marriage including with his company's intern, Isabel Rochev. Robert is secretly aware that Thea is Malcolm Merlyn's biological daughter, but accepted her and also acted as a surrogate father to Malcolm's son, Tommy. As a young man, Robert gained his wealth through corrupted means including killing a local councilman, Henry Goodwin; he gradually become remorseful of his greed, leading him to join Malcolm's secret society, Tempest, to improve Starling City's condition in hope of making amends. He and Oliver were both lost at sea when Malcolm sabotaged the Queen's Gambit. Robert sacrifices his life by killing himself, increasing Oliver's chances of survival and returning home to Starling City to right Robert's wrongs.[35]"
] | [
"Jamey Sheridan"
] |
6243867540366432070 | Stonehenge | Stonehenge - wikipedia Stonehenge Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Stonehenge ( disambiguation ) . Stonehenge Stonehenge in 2007 Map of Wiltshire showing the location of Stonehenge Location Wiltshire , England Coordinates 51 ° 10 ′ 43.84 '' N 1 ° 49 ′ 34.28 '' W / 51.1788444 ° N 1.8261889 ° W / 51.1788444 ; - 1.8261889 Coordinates : 51 ° 10 ′ 43.84 '' N 1 ° 49 ′ 34.28 '' W / 51.1788444 ° N 1.8261889 ° W / 51.1788444 ; - 1.8261889 Type Monument Height Each standing stone was around 13 foot ( 4.1 metres ) high History Material sarsen , bluestone Founded Bronze Age UNESCO World Heritage Site Official name Stonehenge , Avebury and Associated Sites Type Cultural Criteria i , ii , iii Designated 1986 ( 10th session ) Reference no . 373 Region Europe and North America Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire , England , 2 miles ( 3 km ) west of Amesbury and 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Salisbury . It consists of a ring of standing stones , with each standing stone around 13 ft ( 4.1 metres ) high , 6 ft 11 in ( 2.1 metres ) wide and weighing around 25 tons . The stones are set within earthworks in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England , including several hundred burial mounds . Archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC . The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch , which constitute the earliest phase of the monument , have been dated to about 3100 BC . Radiocarbon dating suggests that the first bluestones were raised between 2400 and 2200 BC , although they may have been at the site as early as 3000 BC . One of the most famous landmarks in the UK , Stonehenge is regarded as a British cultural icon . It has been a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument since 1882 when legislation to protect historic monuments was first successfully introduced in Britain . The site and its surroundings were added to UNESCO 's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 . Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage ; the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust . Stonehenge could have been a burial ground from its earliest beginnings . Deposits containing human bone date from as early as 3000 BC , when the ditch and bank were first dug , and continued for at least another five hundred years . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Early history 2.1 Before the monument ( 8000 BC forward ) 2.2 Stonehenge 1 ( ca . 3100 BC ) 2.3 Stonehenge 2 ( ca . 3000 BC ) 2.4 Stonehenge 3 I ( ca . 2,600 BC ) 2.5 Stonehenge 3 II ( 2600 BC to 2400 BC ) 2.6 Stonehenge 3 III ( 2400 BC to 2280 BC ) 2.7 Stonehenge 3 IV ( 2280 BC to 1930 BC ) 2.8 Stonehenge 3 V ( 1930 BC to 1600 BC ) 2.9 After the monument ( 1600 BC on ) 3 Function and construction 4 Modern history 4.1 Folklore 4.1. 1 `` Heel Stone '' , `` Friar 's Heel '' , or `` Sun - Stone '' 4.1. 2 Arthurian legend 4.2 Sixteenth century to present 4.2. 1 Neopaganism 4.2. 2 Setting and access 4.2. 3 Stonehenge Roundtable Access 4.3 Archaeological research and restoration 4.3. 1 1600 -- 1900 4.3. 2 1900 -- 2000 4.3. 3 2000s 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Videography 10 External links Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary cites Ælfric 's tenth - century glossary , in which henge - cliff is given the meaning `` precipice '' , or stone , thus the stanenges or Stanheng `` not far from Salisbury '' recorded by eleventh - century writers are `` supported stones '' . William Stukeley in 1740 notes , `` Pendulous rocks are now called henges in Yorkshire ... I doubt not , Stonehenge in Saxon signifies the hanging stones . '' Christopher Chippindale 's Stonehenge Complete gives the derivation of the name Stonehenge as coming from the Old English words stān meaning `` stone '' , and either hencg meaning `` hinge '' ( because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones ) or hen ( c ) en meaning `` hang '' or `` gallows '' or `` instrument of torture '' ( though elsewhere in his book , Chippindale cites the `` suspended stones '' etymology ) . Like Stonehenge 's trilithons , medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them , rather than the inverted L - shape more familiar today . The `` henge '' portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as henges . Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch . As often happens in archaeological terminology , this is a holdover from antiquarian use , and Stonehenge is not truly a henge site as its bank is inside its ditch . Despite being contemporary with true Neolithic henges and stone circles , Stonehenge is in many ways atypical -- for example , at more than 7.3 metres ( 24 ft ) tall , its extant trilithons supporting lintels held in place with mortise and tenon joints , make it unique . Early History Plan of Stonehenge in 2004 . After Cleal et al. and Pitts . Italicised numbers in the text refer to the labels on this plan . Trilithon lintels omitted for clarity . Holes that no longer , or never , contained stones are shown as open circles . Stones visible today are shown coloured Mike Parker Pearson , leader of the Stonehenge Riverside Project based at Durrington Walls , noted that Stonehenge appears to have been associated with burial from the earliest period of its existence : Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge 's sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument 's use and demonstrates that it was still very much a domain of the dead . -- Mike Parker Pearson Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1500 years . There is evidence of large - scale construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscape 's time frame to 6500 years . Dating and understanding the various phases of activity is complicated by disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing , poor quality early excavation records , and a lack of accurate , scientifically verified dates . The modern phasing most generally agreed to by archaeologists is detailed below . Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan , right . Before the monument ( 8000 BC forward ) Archaeologists have found four , or possibly five , large Mesolithic postholes ( one may have been a natural tree throw ) , which date to around 8000 BC , beneath the nearby modern tourist car - park . These held pine posts around 0.75 metres ( 2 ft 6 in ) in diameter , which were erected and eventually rotted in situ . Three of the posts ( and possibly four ) were in an east - west alignment which may have had ritual significance ; no parallels are known from Britain at the time but similar sites have been found in Scandinavia . A settlement that may have been contemporaneous with the posts has been found at Blick Mead , a reliable year round spring 1 mile ( 1.6 km ) from Stonehenge . Salisbury Plain was then still wooded but 4,000 years later , during the earlier Neolithic , people built a causewayed enclosure at Robin Hood 's Ball and long barrow tombs in the surrounding landscape . In approximately 3500 BC , a Stonehenge Cursus was built 700 metres ( 2,300 ft ) north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the trees and develop the area . A number of other adjacent stone and wooden structures and burial mounds , previously overlooked , may date as far back as 4000 BC . Charcoal from the ' Blick Mead ' camp 2.4 kilometres ( 1.5 mi ) from Stonehenge ( near the Vespasian 's Camp site ) has been dated to 4000 BC . The University of Buckingham 's Humanities Research Institute believes that the community who built Stonehenge lived here over a period of several millennia , making it potentially `` one of the pivotal places in the history of the Stonehenge landscape . '' Stonehenge 1 ( ca . 3100 BC ) Stonehenge 1 . After Cleal et al . The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure made of Late Cretaceous ( Santonian Age ) Seaford Chalk , measuring about 110 metres ( 360 ft ) in diameter , with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south . It stood in open grassland on a slightly sloping spot . The builders placed the bones of deer and oxen in the bottom of the ditch , as well as some worked flint tools . The bones were considerably older than the antler picks used to dig the ditch , and the people who buried them had looked after them for some time prior to burial . The ditch was continuous but had been dug in sections , like the ditches of the earlier causewayed enclosures in the area . The chalk dug from the ditch was piled up to form the bank . This first stage is dated to around 3100 BC , after which the ditch began to silt up naturally . Within the outer edge of the enclosed area is a circle of 56 pits , each about a metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) in diameter , known as the Aubrey holes after John Aubrey , the seventeenth - century antiquarian who was thought to have first identified them . The pits may have contained standing timbers creating a timber circle , although there is no excavated evidence of them . A recent excavation has suggested that the Aubrey Holes may have originally been used to erect a bluestone circle . If this were the case , it would advance the earliest known stone structure at the monument by some 500 years . A small outer bank beyond the ditch could also date to this period . In 2013 a team of archaeologists , led by Mike Parker Pearson , excavated more than 50,000 cremated bones of 63 individuals buried at Stonehenge . These remains had originally been buried individually in the Aubrey holes , exhumed during a previous excavation conducted by William Hawley in 1920 , been considered unimportant by him , and subsequently re-interred together in one hole , Aubrey Hole 7 , in 1935 . Physical and chemical analysis of the remains has shown that the cremated were almost equally men and women , and included some children . As there was evidence of the underlying chalk beneath the graves being crushed by substantial weight , the team concluded that the first bluestones brought from Wales were probably used as grave markers . Radiocarbon dating of the remains has put the date of the site 500 years earlier than previously estimated , to around 3000 BC . Analysis of animal teeth found at nearby Durrington Walls , thought to be the ' builders camp ' , suggests that as many as 4,000 people gathered at the site for the mid-winter and mid-summer festivals ; the evidence showed that the animals had been slaughtered around 9 months or 15 months after their spring birth . Strontium isotope analysis of the animal teeth showed that some had been brought from as far afield as the Scottish Highlands for the celebrations . Stonehenge 2 ( ca . 3000 BC ) Evidence of the second phase is no longer visible . The number of postholes dating to the early 3rd millennium BC suggest that some form of timber structure was built within the enclosure during this period . Further standing timbers were placed at the northeast entrance , and a parallel alignment of posts ran inwards from the southern entrance . The postholes are smaller than the Aubrey Holes , being only around 0.4 metres ( 16 in ) in diameter , and are much less regularly spaced . The bank was purposely reduced in height and the ditch continued to silt up . At least twenty - five of the Aubrey Holes are known to have contained later , intrusive , cremation burials dating to the two centuries after the monument 's inception . It seems that whatever the holes ' initial function , it changed to become a funerary one during Phase 2 . Thirty further cremations were placed in the enclosure 's ditch and at other points within the monument , mostly in the eastern half . Stonehenge is therefore interpreted as functioning as an enclosed cremation cemetery at this time , the earliest known cremation cemetery in the British Isles . Fragments of unburnt human bone have also been found in the ditch - fill . Dating evidence is provided by the late Neolithic grooved ware pottery that has been found in connection with the features from this phase . Stonehenge 3 I ( ca . 2,600 BC ) Graffiti on the sarsen stones include ancient carvings of a dagger and an axe Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC , the builders abandoned timber in favour of stone and dug two concentric arrays of holes ( the Q and R Holes ) in the centre of the site . These stone sockets are only partly known ( hence on present evidence are sometimes described as forming ' crescents ' ) ; however , they could be the remains of a double ring . Again , there is little firm dating evidence for this phase . The holes held up to 80 standing stones ( shown blue on the plan ) , only 43 of which can be traced today . It is generally accepted that the bluestones ( some of which are made of dolerite , an igneous rock ) , were transported by the builders from the Preseli Hills , 150 miles ( 240 km ) away in modern - day Pembrokeshire in Wales . Another theory is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier although there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England . The long distance human transport theory was bolstered in 2011 by the discovery of a megalithic bluestone quarry at Craig Rhos - y - felin , near Crymych in Pembrokeshire , which is the most likely place for some of the stones to have been obtained . Other standing stones may well have been small sarsens ( sandstone ) , used later as lintels . The stones , which weighed about two tons , could have been moved by lifting and carrying them on rows of poles and rectangular frameworks of poles , as recorded in China , Japan and India . It is not known whether the stones were taken directly from their quarries to Salisbury Plain or were the result of the removal of a venerated stone circle from Preseli to Salisbury Plain to `` merge two sacred centres into one , to unify two politically separate regions , or to legitimise the ancestral identity of migrants moving from one region to another '' . Each monolith measures around 2 metres ( 6.6 ft ) in height , between 1 and 1.5 m ( 3.3 and 4.9 ft ) wide and around 0.8 metres ( 2.6 ft ) thick . What was to become known as the Altar Stone is almost certainly derived from the Senni Beds , perhaps from 50 miles ( 80 kilometres ) east of Mynydd Preseli in the Brecon Beacons . The north - eastern entrance was widened at this time , with the result that it precisely matched the direction of the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset of the period . This phase of the monument was abandoned unfinished , however ; the small standing stones were apparently removed and the Q and R holes purposefully backfilled . Even so , the monument appears to have eclipsed the site at Avebury in importance towards the end of this phase . The Heelstone , a Tertiary sandstone , may also have been erected outside the north - eastern entrance during this period . It can not be accurately dated and may have been installed at any time during phase 3 . At first it was accompanied by a second stone , which is no longer visible . Two , or possibly three , large portal stones were set up just inside the north - eastern entrance , of which only one , the fallen Slaughter Stone , 4.9 metres ( 16 ft ) long , now remains . Other features , loosely dated to phase 3 , include the four Station Stones , two of which stood atop mounds . The mounds are known as `` barrows '' although they do not contain burials . Stonehenge Avenue , a parallel pair of ditches and banks leading 2 miles ( 3 km ) to the River Avon , was also added . Two ditches similar to Heelstone Ditch circling the Heelstone ( which was by then reduced to a single monolith ) were later dug around the Station Stones . Stonehenge 3 ii ( 2600 BC to 2400 BC ) Plan of the central stone structure today ; after Johnson 2008 During the next major phase of activity , 30 enormous Oligocene - Miocene sarsen stones ( shown grey on the plan ) were brought to the site . They may have come from a quarry around 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Stonehenge on the Marlborough Downs , or they may have been collected from a `` litter '' of sarsens on the chalk downs , closer to hand . The stones were dressed and fashioned with mortise and tenon joints before 30 were erected as a 33 metres ( 108 ft ) diameter circle of standing stones , with a ring of 30 lintel stones resting on top . The lintels were fitted to one another using another woodworking method , the tongue and groove joint . Each standing stone was around 4.1 metres ( 13 ft ) high , 2.1 metres ( 6 ft 11 in ) wide and weighed around 25 tons . Each had clearly been worked with the final visual effect in mind ; the orthostats widen slightly towards the top in order that their perspective remains constant when viewed from the ground , while the lintel stones curve slightly to continue the circular appearance of the earlier monument . The inward - facing surfaces of the stones are smoother and more finely worked than the outer surfaces . The average thickness of the stones is 1.1 metres ( 3 ft 7 in ) and the average distance between them is 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) . A total of 75 stones would have been needed to complete the circle ( 60 stones ) and the trilithon horseshoe ( 15 stones ) . It was thought the ring might have been left incomplete , but an exceptionally dry summer in 2013 revealed patches of parched grass which may correspond to the location of removed sarsens . The lintel stones are each around 3.2 metres ( 10 ft ) long , 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) wide and 0.8 metres ( 2 ft 7 in ) thick . The tops of the lintels are 4.9 metres ( 16 ft ) above the ground . Within this circle stood five trilithons of dressed sarsen stone arranged in a horseshoe shape 13.7 metres ( 45 ft ) across with its open end facing north east . These huge stones , ten uprights and five lintels , weigh up to 50 tons each . They were linked using complex jointing . They are arranged symmetrically . The smallest pair of trilithons were around 6 metres ( 20 ft ) tall , the next pair a little higher , and the largest , single trilithon in the south west corner would have been 7.3 metres ( 24 ft ) tall . Only one upright from the Great Trilithon still stands , of which 6.7 metres ( 22 ft ) is visible and a further 2.4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) is below ground . The images of a ' dagger ' and 14 ' axeheads ' have been carved on one of the sarsens , known as stone 53 ; further carvings of axeheads have been seen on the outer faces of stones 3 , 4 , and 5 . The carvings are difficult to date , but are morphologically similar to late Bronze Age weapons . early 21st - century laser scanning of the carvings supports this interpretation . The pair of trilithons in the north east are smallest , measuring around 6 metres ( 20 ft ) in height ; the largest , which is in the south west of the horseshoe , is almost 7.5 metres ( 25 ft ) tall . This ambitious phase has been radiocarbon dated to between 2600 and 2400 BC , slightly earlier than the Stonehenge Archer , discovered in the outer ditch of the monument in 1978 , and the two sets of burials , known as the Amesbury Archer and the Boscombe Bowmen , discovered 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the west . At about the same time , a large timber circle and a second avenue were constructed 2 miles ( 3 km ) away at Durrington Walls overlooking the River Avon . The timber circle was oriented towards the rising sun on the midwinter solstice , opposing the solar alignments at Stonehenge . The avenue was aligned with the setting sun on the summer solstice and led from the river to the timber circle . Evidence of huge fires on the banks of the Avon between the two avenues also suggests that both circles were linked . They were perhaps used as a procession route on the longest and shortest days of the year . Parker Pearson speculates that the wooden circle at Durrington Walls was the centre of a ' land of the living ' , whilst the stone circle represented a ' land of the dead ' , with the Avon serving as a journey between the two . Stonehenge 3 III ( 2400 BC to 2280 BC ) Later in the Bronze Age , although the exact details of activities during this period are still unclear , the bluestones appear to have been re-erected . They were placed within the outer sarsen circle and may have been trimmed in some way . Like the sarsens , a few have timber - working style cuts in them suggesting that , during this phase , they may have been linked with lintels and were part of a larger structure . Stonehenge 3 IV ( 2280 BC to 1930 BC ) This phase saw further rearrangement of the bluestones . They were arranged in a circle between the two rings of sarsens and in an oval at the centre of the inner ring . Some archaeologists argue that some of these bluestones were from a second group brought from Wales . All the stones formed well - spaced uprights without any of the linking lintels inferred in Stonehenge 3 III . The Altar Stone may have been moved within the oval at this time and re-erected vertically . Although this would seem the most impressive phase of work , Stonehenge 3 IV was rather shabbily built compared to its immediate predecessors , as the newly re-installed bluestones were not well - founded and began to fall over . However , only minor changes were made after this phase . Stonehenge 3 V. ( 1930 BC to 1600 BC ) Soon afterwards , the north eastern section of the Phase 3 IV bluestone circle was removed , creating a horseshoe - shaped setting ( the Bluestone Horseshoe ) which mirrored the shape of the central sarsen Trilithons . This phase is contemporary with the Seahenge site in Norfolk . After the monument ( 1600 BC on ) Computer rendering of the overall site The Y and Z Holes are the last known construction at Stonehenge , built about 1600 BC , and the last usage of it was probably during the Iron Age . Roman coins and medieval artefacts have all been found in or around the monument but it is unknown if the monument was in continuous use throughout British prehistory and beyond , or exactly how it would have been used . Notable is the massive Iron Age hillfort Vespasian 's Camp built alongside the Avenue near the Avon . A decapitated seventh century Saxon man was excavated from Stonehenge in 1923 . The site was known to scholars during the Middle Ages and since then it has been studied and adopted by numerous groups . Function and construction Main article : Theories about Stonehenge See also : Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge Stonehenge was produced by a culture that left no written records . Many aspects of Stonehenge , such as how it was built and which purposes it was used for , remain subject to debate . A number of myths surround the stones . The site , specifically the great trilithon , the encompassing horseshoe arrangement of the five central trilithons , the heel stone , and the embanked avenue , are aligned to the sunset of the winter solstice and the opposing sunrise of the summer solstice . A natural landform at the monument 's location followed this line , and may have inspired its construction . The excavated remains of culled animal bones suggest that people may have gathered at the site for the winter rather than the summer . Further astronomical associations , and the precise astronomical significance of the site for its people , are a matter of speculation and debate . There is little or no direct evidence revealing the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders . Over the years , various authors have suggested that supernatural or anachronistic methods were used , usually asserting that the stones were impossible to move otherwise due to their massive size . However , conventional techniques , using Neolithic technology as basic as shear legs , have been demonstrably effective at moving and placing stones of a similar size . How the stones could be transported by a prehistoric people without the aid of the wheel or a pulley system is not known . The most common theory of how prehistoric people moved megaliths has them creating a track of logs on which the large stones were rolled along . Another megalith transport theory involves the use of a type of sleigh running on a track greased with animal fat . Such an experiment with a sleigh carrying a 40 - ton slab of stone was successful near Stonehenge in 1995 . A dedicated team of more than 100 workers managed to push and pull the slab along the 18 - mile ( 29 km ) journey from Marlborough Downs . Proposed functions for the site include usage as an astronomical observatory or as a religious site . More recently two major new theories have been proposed . Professor Geoffrey Wainwright , president of the Society of Antiquaries of London , and Timothy Darvill , of Bournemouth University , have suggested that Stonehenge was a place of healing -- the primeval equivalent of Lourdes . They argue that this accounts for the high number of burials in the area and for the evidence of trauma deformity in some of the graves . However , they do concede that the site was probably multifunctional and used for ancestor worship as well . Isotope analysis indicates that some of the buried individuals were from other regions . A teenage boy buried approximately 1550 BC was raised near the Mediterranean Sea ; a metal worker from 2300 BC dubbed the `` Amesbury Archer '' grew up near the alpine foothills of Germany ; and the `` Boscombe Bowmen '' probably arrived from Wales or Brittany , France . On the other hand , Mike Parker Pearson of Sheffield University has suggested that Stonehenge was part of a ritual landscape and was joined to Durrington Walls by their corresponding avenues and the River Avon . He suggests that the area around Durrington Walls Henge was a place of the living , whilst Stonehenge was a domain of the dead . A journey along the Avon to reach Stonehenge was part of a ritual passage from life to death , to celebrate past ancestors and the recently deceased . Both explanations were first mooted in the twelfth century by Geoffrey of Monmouth , who extolled the curative properties of the stones and was also the first to advance the idea that Stonehenge was constructed as a funerary monument . Whatever religious , mystical or spiritual elements were central to Stonehenge , its design includes a celestial observatory function , which might have allowed prediction of eclipse , solstice , equinox and other celestial events important to a contemporary religion . There are other hypotheses and theories . According to a team of British researchers led by Mike Parker Pearson of the University of Sheffield , Stonehenge may have been built as a symbol of `` peace and unity '' , indicated in part by the fact that at the time of its construction , Britain 's Neolithic people were experiencing a period of cultural unification . Another idea has to do with a quality of the stones themselves . Researchers from the Royal College of Art in London have discovered that some of the monument 's stones possess `` unusual acoustic properties '' -- when they are struck they respond with a `` loud clanging noise '' . According to Paul Devereux , editor of the journal Time and Mind : The Journal of Archaeology , Consciousness and Culture , this idea could explain why certain bluestones were hauled nearly 200 miles ( 320 km ) -- a major technical accomplishment at the time . In certain ancient cultures rocks that ring out , known as lithophones , were believed to contain mystic or healing powers , and Stonehenge has a history of association with rituals . The presence of these `` ringing rocks '' seems to support the hypothesis that Stonehenge was a `` place for healing '' , as has been pointed out by Bournemouth University archaeologist Timothy Darvill , who consulted with the researchers . Some of the stones of Stonehenge were brought from near a town in Wales called Maenclochog , a name which means `` ringing rock '' . Modern History Folklore The Heel Stone `` Heel stone '' , `` Friar 's Heel '' , or `` sun - stone '' The Heel Stone lies north east of the sarsen circle , beside the end portion of Stonehenge Avenue . It is a rough stone , 16 feet ( 4.9 m ) above ground , leaning inwards towards the stone circle . It has been known by many names in the past , including `` Friar 's Heel '' and `` Sun - stone '' . At summer solstice an observer standing within the stone circle , looking north - east through the entrance , would see the Sun rise in the approximate direction of the heel stone , and the sun has often been photographed over it . A folk tale relates the origin of the Friar 's Heel reference . The Devil bought the stones from a woman in Ireland , wrapped them up , and brought them to Salisbury plain . One of the stones fell into the Avon , the rest were carried to the plain . The Devil then cried out , `` No - one will ever find out how these stones came here ! '' A friar replied , `` That 's what you think ! '' , whereupon the Devil threw one of the stones at him and struck him on the heel . The stone stuck in the ground and is still there . Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable attributes this tale to Geoffrey of Monmouth , but though book eight of Geoffrey 's Historia Regum Britanniae does describe how Stonehenge was built , the two stories are entirely different . The name is not unique ; there was a monolith with the same name recorded in the nineteenth century by antiquarian Charles Warne at Long Bredy in Dorset . Arthurian legend A giant helps Merlin build Stonehenge . From a manuscript of the Roman de Brut by Wace in the British Library ( Egerton 3028 ) . Dating back to the second quarter of the 14th century , this is the oldest known depiction of Stonehenge . In the twelfth century , Geoffrey of Monmouth included a fanciful story in his Historia Regum Britanniae ( `` History of the Kings of Britain '' ) that attributed the monument 's construction to the wizard Merlin . Geoffrey 's story spread widely , appearing in more and less elaborate form in adaptations of his work such as Wace 's Norman French Roman de Brut , Layamon 's Middle English Brut , and the Welsh Brut y Brenhinedd . According to Geoffrey the rocks of Stonehenge were healing rocks , called the Giant 's dance , which Giants had brought from Africa to Ireland for their healing properties . The fifth - century king Aurelius Ambrosius wished to erect a memorial to 3,000 nobles slain in battle against the Saxons and buried at Salisbury , and at Merlin 's advice chose Stonehenge . The king sent Merlin , Uther Pendragon ( King Arthur 's father ) , and 15,000 knights , to remove it from Ireland , where it had been constructed on Mount Killaraus by the Giants . They slew 7,000 Irish but , as the knights tried to move the rocks with ropes and force , they failed . Then Merlin , using `` gear '' and skill , easily dismantled the stones and sent them over to Britain , where Stonehenge was dedicated . After it had been rebuilt near Amesbury , Geoffrey further narrates how first Ambrosius Aurelianus , then Uther Pendragon , and finally Constantine III , were buried inside the `` Giants ' Ring of Stonehenge '' . In another legend of Saxons and Britons , in 472 the invading king Hengist invited Brythonic warriors to a feast , but treacherously ordered his men to draw their weapons from concealment and fall upon the guests , killing 420 of them . Hengist erected the stone monument -- Stonehenge -- on the site to show his remorse for the deed . Sixteenth century to present Farm carts near the site , ca . 1885 Stonehenge has changed ownership several times since King Henry VIII acquired Amesbury Abbey and its surrounding lands . In 1540 Henry gave the estate to the Earl of Hertford . It subsequently passed to Lord Carleton and then the Marquess of Queensberry . The Antrobus family of Cheshire bought the estate in 1824 . During World War I an aerodrome ( Royal Flying Corps `` No. 1 School of Aerial Navigation and Bomb Dropping '' ) was built on the downs just to the west of the circle and , in the dry valley at Stonehenge Bottom , a main road junction was built , along with several cottages and a cafe . The Antrobus family sold the site after their last heir was killed in the fighting in France . The auction by Knight Frank & Rutley estate agents in Salisbury was held on 21 September 1915 and included `` Lot 15 . Stonehenge with about 30 acres , 2 rods , 37 perches ( 12.44 ha ) of adjoining downland . '' Sunrise at Stonehenge on the summer solstice , 21 June 2005 Cecil Chubb bought the site for £ 6,600 and gave it to the nation three years later . Although it has been speculated that he purchased it at the suggestion of -- or even as a present for -- his wife , in fact he bought it on a whim , as he believed a local man should be the new owner . In the late 1920s a nationwide appeal was launched to save Stonehenge from the encroachment of the modern buildings that had begun to rise around it . By 1928 the land around the monument had been purchased with the appeal donations , and given to the National Trust to preserve . The buildings were removed ( although the roads were not ) , and the land returned to agriculture . More recently the land has been part of a grassland reversion scheme , returning the surrounding fields to native chalk grassland . Neopaganism 10th Battalion , CEF marches past the site , winter 1914 -- 15 ( WW I ) ; Background : Preservation work on stones , propped up by timbers During the twentieth century , Stonehenge began to revive as a place of religious significance , this time by adherents of Neopaganism and New Age beliefs , particularly the Neo-druids . The historian Ronald Hutton would later remark that `` it was a great , and potentially uncomfortable , irony that modern Druids had arrived at Stonehenge just as archaeologists were evicting the ancient Druids from it . '' The first such Neo-druidic group to make use of the megalithic monument was the Ancient Order of Druids , who performed a mass initiation ceremony there in August 1905 , in which they admitted 259 new members into their organisation . This assembly was largely ridiculed in the press , who mocked the fact that the Neo-druids were dressed up in costumes consisting of white robes and fake beards . Between 1972 and 1984 , Stonehenge was the site of the Stonehenge Free Festival . After the Battle of the Beanfield in 1985 , this use of the site was stopped for several years and ritual use of Stonehenge is now heavily restricted . Some Druids have arranged an assembling of monuments styled on Stonehenge in other parts of the world as a form of Druidist worship . Setting and access Stonehenge at sunset When Stonehenge was first opened to the public it was possible to walk among and even climb on the stones , but the stones were roped off in 1977 as a result of serious erosion . Visitors are no longer permitted to touch the stones , but are able to walk around the monument from a short distance away . English Heritage does , however , permit access during the summer and winter solstice , and the spring and autumn equinox . Additionally , visitors can make special bookings to access the stones throughout the year . The access situation and the proximity of the two roads has drawn widespread criticism , highlighted by a 2006 National Geographic survey . In the survey of conditions at 94 leading World Heritage Sites , 400 conservation and tourism experts ranked Stonehenge 75th in the list of destinations , declaring it to be `` in moderate trouble '' . As motorised traffic increased , the setting of the monument began to be affected by the proximity of the two roads on either side -- the A344 to Shrewton on the north side , and the A303 to Winterbourne Stoke to the south . Plans to upgrade the A303 and close the A344 to restore the vista from the stones have been considered since the monument became a World Heritage Site . However , the controversy surrounding expensive re-routing of the roads has led to the scheme being cancelled on multiple occasions . On 6 December 2007 , it was announced that extensive plans to build Stonehenge road tunnel under the landscape and create a permanent visitors ' centre had been cancelled . The visitors centre at Stonehenge On 13 May 2009 , the government gave approval for a £ 25 million scheme to create a smaller visitors ' centre and close the A344 , although this was dependent on funding and local authority planning consent . On 20 January 2010 Wiltshire Council granted planning permission for a centre 2.4 km ( 1.5 miles ) to the west and English Heritage confirmed that funds to build it would be available , supported by a £ 10m grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund . On 23 June 2013 the A344 was closed to begin the work of removing the section of road and replacing it with grass . The centre , designed by Denton Corker Marshall , opened to the public on 18 December 2013 . Stonehenge Roundtable access Dancing inside the stones , 1984 Stonehenge Free Festival The earlier rituals were augmented by the Stonehenge Free Festival , loosely organised by the Politantric Circle , held between 1972 and 1984 , during which time the number of midsummer visitors had risen to around 30,000 . However , in 1985 the site was closed to festivalgoers by English Heritage and the National Trust . A consequence of the end of the festival in 1985 was the violent confrontation between the police and New Age travellers that became known as the Battle of the Beanfield when police blockaded a convoy of travellers to prevent them from approaching Stonehenge . Beginning in 1985 , the year of the Battle of the Beanfield , no access was allowed into the stones at Stonehenge for any religious reason . This ' exclusion zone ' policy continued for almost fifteen years and until just before the arrival of the twenty - first century , visitors were not allowed to go into the stones at times of religious significance : the two Solstices ( Winter and Summer ) and two Equinoxes ( Vernal and Autumnal ) . However , now due to the Roundtable process and the ' Court of Human Rights ' rulings gained by picketing by campaigners such as Brian `` Viziondanz '' Felstein and King Arthur Pendragon , some access had been gained four times a year . The ' Court of Human Rights ' rulings recognises that members of any genuine religion have a right to worship in their own church , and Stonehenge is a place of worship to Neo-Druids , Pagans and other ' Earth based ' or ' old ' religions . The Roundtable meetings include members of the Wiltshire Police force , National Trust , English Heritage , Pagans , Druids , Spiritualists and others . At the Summer Solstice 2003 which fell over a weekend over 30,000 people attended a gathering at and in the stones . The 2004 gathering was smaller ( around 21,000 people ) . Archaeological research and restoration ( ( ( annotations ) ) ) Post-World War I aerial photograph Seventeenth century depiction of Stonehenge from the Atlas van Loon 1600 -- 1900 Throughout recorded history , Stonehenge and its surrounding monuments have attracted attention from antiquarians and archaeologists . John Aubrey was one of the first to examine the site with a scientific eye in 1666 , and recorded in his plan of the monument the pits that now bear his name . William Stukeley continued Aubrey 's work in the early eighteenth century , but took an interest in the surrounding monuments as well , identifying ( somewhat incorrectly ) the Cursus and the Avenue . He also began the excavation of many of the barrows in the area , and it was his interpretation of the landscape that associated it with the Druids . Stukeley was so fascinated with Druids that he originally named Disc Barrows as Druids ' Barrows . The most accurate early plan of Stonehenge was that made by Bath architect John Wood in 1740 . His original annotated survey has recently been computer redrawn and published . Importantly Wood 's plan was made before the collapse of the southwest trilithon , which fell in 1797 and was restored in 1958 . William Cunnington was the next to tackle the area in the early nineteenth century . He excavated some 24 barrows before digging in and around the stones and discovered charred wood , animal bones , pottery and urns . He also identified the hole in which the Slaughter Stone once stood . Richard Colt Hoare supported Cunnington 's work and excavated some 379 barrows on Salisbury Plain including on some 200 in the area around the Stones , some excavated in conjunction with William Coxe . To alert future diggers to their work they were careful to leave initialled metal tokens in each barrow they opened . Cunnington 's finds are displayed at the Wiltshire Museum . In 1877 Charles Darwin dabbled in archaeology at the stones , experimenting with the rate at which remains sink into the earth for his book The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms . An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877 The monument from a similar angle in 2008 showing the extent of reconstruction A contemporary newspaper depiction of the 1920 restoration 1900 -- 2000 William Gowland oversaw the first major restoration of the monument in 1901 which involved the straightening and concrete setting of sarsen stone number 56 which was in danger of falling . In straightening the stone he moved it about half a metre from its original position . Gowland also took the opportunity to further excavate the monument in what was the most scientific dig to date , revealing more about the erection of the stones than the previous 100 years of work had done . During the 1920 restoration William Hawley , who had excavated nearby Old Sarum , excavated the base of six stones and the outer ditch . He also located a bottle of port in the Slaughter Stone socket left by Cunnington , helped to rediscover Aubrey 's pits inside the bank and located the concentric circular holes outside the Sarsen Circle called the Y and Z Holes . Richard Atkinson , Stuart Piggott and John F.S. Stone re-excavated much of Hawley 's work in the 1940s and 1950s , and discovered the carved axes and daggers on the Sarsen Stones . Atkinson 's work was instrumental in furthering the understanding of the three major phases of the monument 's construction . In 1958 the stones were restored again , when three of the standing sarsens were re-erected and set in concrete bases . The last restoration was carried out in 1963 after stone 23 of the Sarsen Circle fell over . It was again re-erected , and the opportunity was taken to concrete three more stones . Later archaeologists , including Christopher Chippindale of the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology , University of Cambridge and Brian Edwards of the University of the West of England , campaigned to give the public more knowledge of the various restorations and in 2004 English Heritage included pictures of the work in progress in its book Stonehenge : A History in Photographs . In 1966 and 1967 , in advance of a new car park being built at the site , the area of land immediately northwest of the stones was excavated by Faith and Lance Vatcher . They discovered the Mesolithic postholes dating from between 7000 and 8000 BC , as well as a 10 - metre ( 33 ft ) length of a palisade ditch -- a V - cut ditch into which timber posts had been inserted that remained there until they rotted away . Subsequent aerial archaeology suggests that this ditch runs from the west to the north of Stonehenge , near the avenue . Excavations were once again carried out in 1978 by Atkinson and John Evans during which they discovered the remains of the Stonehenge Archer in the outer ditch , and in 1979 rescue archaeology was needed alongside the Heel Stone after a cable - laying ditch was mistakenly dug on the roadside , revealing a new stone hole next to the Heel Stone . In the early 1980s Julian Richards led the Stonehenge Environs Project , a detailed study of the surrounding landscape . The project was able to successfully date such features as the Lesser Cursus , Coneybury Henge and several other smaller features . In 1993 the way that Stonehenge was presented to the public was called ' a national disgrace ' by the House of Commons Public Accounts Committee . Part of English Heritage 's response to this criticism was to commission research to collate and bring together all the archaeological work conducted at the monument up to this date . This two - year research project resulted in the publication in 1995 of the monograph Stonehenge in its landscape , which was the first publication presenting the complex stratigraphy and the finds recovered from the site . It presented a rephasing of the monument . 2000s More recent excavations include a series of digs held between 2003 and 2008 known as the Stonehenge Riverside Project , led by Mike Parker Pearson . This project mainly investigated other monuments in the landscape and their relationship to the stones -- notably Durrington Walls , where another `` Avenue '' leading to the River Avon was discovered . The point where the Stonehenge Avenue meets the river was also excavated , and revealed a previously unknown circular area which probably housed four further stones , most likely as a marker for the starting point of the avenue . In April 2008 Tim Darvill of the University of Bournemouth and Geoff Wainwright of the Society of Antiquaries , began another dig inside the stone circle to retrieve dateable fragments of the original bluestone pillars . They were able to date the erection of some bluestones to 2300 BC , although this may not reflect the earliest erection of stones at Stonehenge . They also discovered organic material from 7000 BC , which , along with the Mesolithic postholes , adds support for the site having been in use at least 4,000 years before Stonehenge was started . In August and September 2008 , as part of the Riverside Project , Julian Richards and Mike Pitts excavated Aubrey Hole 7 , removing the cremated remains from several Aubrey Holes that had been excavated by Hawley in the 1920s , and re-interred in 1935 . A licence for the removal of human remains at Stonehenge had been granted by the Ministry of Justice in May 2008 , in accordance with the Statement on burial law and archaeology issued in May 2008 . One of the conditions of the licence was that the remains should be reinterred within two years and that in the intervening period they should be kept safely , privately and decently . A new landscape investigation was conducted in April 2009 . A shallow mound , rising to about 40 cm ( 16 inches ) was identified between stones 54 ( inner circle ) and 10 ( outer circle ) , clearly separated from the natural slope . It has not been dated but speculation that it represents careless backfilling following earlier excavations seems disproved by its representation in eighteenth - and nineteenth - century illustrations . Indeed , there is some evidence that , as an uncommon geological feature , it could have been deliberately incorporated into the monument at the outset . A circular , shallow bank , little more than 10 cm ( 4 inches ) high , was found between the Y and Z hole circles , with a further bank lying inside the `` Z '' circle . These are interpreted as the spread of spoil from the original Y and Z holes , or more speculatively as hedge banks from vegetation deliberately planted to screen the activities within . In July 2010 , the Stonehenge Hidden Landscape Project discovered a `` henge - like '' monument less than 1 km ( 0.62 miles ) away from the main site . This new hengiform monument was subsequently revealed to be located `` at the site of Amesbury 50 '' , a round barrow in the Cursus Barrows group . On 26 November 2011 , archaeologists from University of Birmingham announced the discovery of evidence of two huge pits positioned within the Stonehenge Cursus pathway , aligned in celestial position towards midsummer sunrise and sunset when viewed from the Heel Stone . The new discovery is part of the Stonehenge Hidden Landscape Project which began in the summer of 2010 . The project uses non-invasive geophysical imaging technique to reveal and visually recreate the landscape . According to team leader Vince Gaffney , this discovery may provide a direct link between the rituals and astronomical events to activities within the Cursus at Stonehenge . On 18 December 2011 , geologists from University of Leicester and the National Museum of Wales announced the discovery of the exact source of some of the rhyolite fragments found in the Stonehenge debitage . These fragments do not seem to match any of the standing stones or bluestone stumps . The researchers have identified the source as a 70 - metre ( 230 ft ) long rock outcrop called Craig Rhos - y - Felin ( 51 ° 59 ′ 30.07 '' N 4 ° 44 ′ 40.85 '' W / 51.9916861 ° N 4.7446806 ° W / 51.9916861 ; - 4.7446806 ( Craig Rhos - y - Felin ) ) , near Pont Saeson in north Pembrokeshire , located 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) from Stonehenge . On 10 September 2014 the University of Birmingham announced findings including evidence of adjacent stone and wooden structures and burial mounds , overlooked previously , that may date as far back as 4000 BC . An area extending to 12 square kilometres ( 1,200 ha ) was studied to a depth of three metres with ground - penetrating radar equipment . As many as seventeen new monuments , revealed nearby , may be Late Neolithic monuments that resemble Stonehenge . The interpretation suggests a complex of numerous related monuments . Also included in the discovery is that the cursus track is terminated by two five - meter wide extremely deep pits , whose purpose is still a mystery . In popular culture See also : Cultural depictions of Stonehenge `` Stonehenge '' from mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap `` Stonehenge '' , a 2013 song by Ylvis See also Historical context Prehistoric Britain Other monuments in the Stonehenge ritual landscape Bluestonehenge Bush Barrow Normanton Down Barrows Woodhenge About Stonehenge and replicas of Stonehenge Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge Cultural depictions of Stonehenge Excavations at Stonehenge Manhattanhenge Stonehenge replicas and derivatives Stonehenge Free Festival Stonehenge Landscape Fiction Stonehenge ( novel ) Similar sites See also : Stonehenge replicas and derivatives Almendres Cromlech Arkaim Cahokia Carhenge Goloring Goseck circle List of largest monoliths in the world Maryhill Stonehenge Medicine wheel Newgrange Ring of Brodgar Zorats Karer Sites with similar sunrise or sunset alignments Manhattanhenge MIThenge Museums with collections from the World Heritage Site Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum Wiltshire Museum References Jump up ^ Christopher Young , Amanda Chadburn , Isabelle Bedu ( July 2008 ) . `` Stonehenge World Heritage Site Management Plan '' . 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Jump up ^ MacLeod , Nicola E. ; Aitchison , Cara ; Shaw , Stephen Joseph ( 2000 ) . Leisure and tourism landscapes : social and cultural geographies . New York : Routledge . pp. 103 -- 104 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 27166 - 5 . Jump up ^ LA air force pagans retrieved 12 October 2012 Jump up ^ Proposals for a tunnel at Stonehenge : an assessment of the alternatives Archived 15 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine ... The World Archaeological Congress Jump up ^ Planning Your Visit to Stonehenge . English Heritage Jump up ^ Milmo , Cahal ( 3 November 2006 ) . `` Troubled Stonehenge ' lacks magic ' '' . The Independent . UK . Retrieved 11 April 2009 . Jump up ^ A303 Stonehenge Road Scheme Hansard report of proceedings in the House of Commons 6 December 2007 Jump up ^ `` Stonehenge Centre gets Go - Ahead '' . BBC News . 13 May 2009 . Retrieved 19 March 2010 . Jump up ^ Morris , Steven ( 19 November 2010 ) . `` Stonehenge development saved by lottery 's £ 10m '' . The Guardian . UK . p. 14 . Jump up ^ `` Stonehenge permanent road closure work begins '' . UK : BBC . 24 June 2013 . Retrieved 24 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` End in sight after ' decades of dithering ' as Government steps in to help secure future for Stonehenge '' ( Press release ) . Department of Culture , Media and Sport. 4 April 2011 . Retrieved 5 April 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Stonehenge Visitor Centre by Denton Corker Marshall opens tomorrow '' . dezeen. 17 December 2013 . Retrieved 18 December 2013 . Jump up ^ Rivers , Julian ( 2010 ) . The Law of Organized Religions : Between Establishment and Secularism . Oxford University Press . p. 231 . Jump up ^ Hallett , Emma ( 20 June 2014 ) . `` Summer solstice : How the Stonehenge battles faded '' . BBC News . Retrieved 19 January 2015 . Jump up ^ Stukeley , William , 1740 , Stonehenge A Temple Restor 'd to the British Druids . London Jump up ^ Wood , John , 1747 , Choir Guare , Vulgarly called Stonehenge , on Salisbury Plain . Oxford ^ Jump up to : Johnson , Anthony ( 2008 ) . Solving Stonehenge : The New Key to an Ancient Enigma . Thames & Hudson . ISBN 978 - 0 - 500 - 05155 - 9 . ^ Jump up to : Cleal , Rosamund ; et al. ( 1995 ) . `` Y and Z holes '' . Archaeometry and Stonehenge . English Heritage . Archived from the original on 28 February 2009 . Retrieved 4 April 2008 . Jump up ^ Young , Emma . `` Concrete Evidence '' . New Scientist . No. 9 January 2001 . Retrieved 3 March 2008 . Jump up ^ Taverner , Roger ( 8 January 2001 ) . `` How they rebuilt Stonehenge '' . Western Daily Press , quoted in Cosmic Conspiracies : How they rebuilt Stonehenge . Retrieved 3 March 2008 . Jump up ^ Richards , Julian C. ( 2004 ) . Stonehenge : A History in Photographs . London : English Heritage . ISBN 1 - 85074 - 895 - 0 . Jump up ^ `` Stonehenge execution revealed '' . BBC News . 9 June 2000 . Retrieved 4 April 2008 . Jump up ^ Whittle , Alasdair ( 1996 ) . `` Eternal stones : Stonehenge completed '' . Antiquity ( 70 ) : 463 -- 465 . Jump up ^ Anon ( 29 September 2009 ) . `` StonehengeBones -- epetition response '' . The prime minister 's office epetitions . Crown copyright : Ministry of Justice . Archived from the original on 2 October 2009 . Retrieved 6 November 2009 . Jump up ^ Anon ( April 2008 ) . `` Statement on burial law and archaeology '' ( PDF ) . Review of Burial Legislation . Crown copyright : Ministry of Justice . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 29 January 2010 . Retrieved 6 November 2009 . Jump up ^ `` A new ' henge ' discovered at Stonehenge '' . University of Birmingham . 22 July 2010 . Archived from the original on 11 July 2012 . Retrieved 22 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Gaffney , C. ; Gaffney , V. ; Neubauer , W. ; Baldwin , E. ; Chapman , H. ; Garwood , P. ; Moulden , H. ; Sparrow , T. ; Bates , R. ; Löcker , K. ; Hinterleitner , A. ; Trinks , I. ; Nau , E. ; Zitz , T. ; Floery , S. ; Verhoeven , G. ; Doneus , M. ( 2012 ) . `` The Stonehenge Hidden Landscapes Project '' . Archaeological Prospection. 19 ( 2 ) : 147 . doi : 10.1002 / arp. 1422 . Jump up ^ Boyle , Alan , Pits Add to Stonehgenge Mystery Archived 1 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine. , msnbc.com Cosmic Log , 28 November 2011 ^ Jump up to : Discoveries Provide Evidence of a Celestial Procession at Stonehenge , University of Birmingham Press Release , 26 November 2011 Jump up ^ Birmingham Archaeologists Turn Back Clock at Stonehenge , University of Birmingham Press Release , 5 July 2010 Jump up ^ Keys , David ( 18 December 2011 ) . `` Scientists discover source of rock used in Stonehenge 's first circle '' . The Independent . London . Retrieved 20 December 2011 . Jump up ^ `` New Discovery in Stonehenge Bluestone Mystery '' . National Museum of Wales . Jump up ^ `` What Lies Beneath Stonehenge ? '' . Smithsonianmag.com . Retrieved 20 October 2014 . Jump up ^ Stonehenge on YouTube , 13 December 2013 Bibliography Atkinson , RJC , Stonehenge ( Penguin Books , 1956 ) Bender , B , Stonehenge : Making Space ( Berg Publishers , 1998 ) Burl , A , Great Stone Circles ( Yale University Press , 1999 ) Aubrey Burl , Prehistoric Stone Circles ( Shire , 2001 ) ( In Burl 's Stonehenge ( Constable , 2006 ) , he notes , cf . the meaning of the name in paragraph two above , that `` the Saxons called the ring ' the hanging stones ' , as though they were gibbets . '' ) Chippindale , C , Stonehenge Complete ( Thames and Hudson , London , 2004 ) ISBN 0 - 500 - 28467 - 9 Chippindale , C , et al. , Who owns Stonehenge ? ( BT Batsford Ltd , 1990 ) Cleal , R.M.J. , Walker , K.E. & Montague , R. , Stonehenge in its landscape ( English Heritage , London , 1995 ) Cunliffe , B , & Renfrew , C , Science and Stonehenge ( The British Academy 92 , Oxford University Press , 1997 ) Godsell , Andrew `` Stonehenge : Older Than the Centuries '' in `` Legends of British History '' ( 2008 ) Hall , R , Leather , K , & Dobson , G , Stonehenge Aotearoa ( Awa Press , 2005 ) Hawley , Lt - Col W , The Excavations at Stonehenge . ( The Antiquaries Journal 1 , Oxford University Press , 19 -- 41 ) . 1921 . Hawley , Lt - Col W , Second Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge . ( The Antiquaries Journal 2 , Oxford University Press , 1922 ) Hawley , Lt - Col W , Third Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge . ( The Antiquaries Journal 3 , Oxford University Press , 1923 ) Hawley , Lt - Col W , Fourth Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge . ( The Antiquaries Journal 4 , Oxford University Press , 1923 ) Hawley , Lt - Col W , Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1923 . ( The Antiquaries Journal 5 , Oxford University Press , 1925 ) Hawley , Lt - Col W , Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1924 . ( The Antiquaries Journal 6 , Oxford University Press , 1926 ) Hawley , Lt - Col W , Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge during 1925 and 1926 . ( The Antiquaries Journal 8 , Oxford University Press , 1928 ) Hutton , R , From Universal Bond to Public Free For All ( British Archaeology 83 , 2005 ) John , Brian , `` The Bluestone Enigma : Stonehenge , Preseli and the Ice Age '' ( Greencroft Books , 2008 ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 905559 - 89 - 6 Johnson , Anthony , Solving Stonehenge : The New Key to an Ancient Enigma ( Thames & Hudson , 2008 ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 500 - 05155 - 9 Legg , Rodney , `` Stonehenge Antiquaries '' ( Dorset Publishing Company , 1986 ) Mooney , J , Encyclopedia of the Bizarre ( Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers , 2002 ) Newall , RS , Stonehenge , Wiltshire - Ancient monuments and historic buildings - ( Her Majesty 's Stationery Office , London , 1959 ) North , J , Stonehenge : Ritual Origins and Astronomy ( HarperCollins , 1997 ) Pitts , M , Hengeworld ( Arrow , London , 2001 ) Pitts , MW , On the Road to Stonehenge : Report on Investigations beside the A344 in 1968 , 1979 and 1980 ( Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 48 , 1982 ) Richards , J , English Heritage Book of Stonehenge ( BT Batsford Ltd , 1991 ) Julian Richards Stonehenge : A History in Photographs ( English Heritage , London , 2004 ) Stone , JFS , Wessex Before the Celts ( Frederick A Praeger Publishers , 1958 ) Worthington , A , Stonehenge : Celebration and Subversion ( Alternative Albion , 2004 ) English Heritage : Stonehenge : Historical Background Videography SPENCER , Christopher ( dir . ) `` Stonehenge decoded '' , New York City : National Geographic , 2008 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stonehenge . Wikiquote has quotations related to : Stonehenge Wikisource has the text of The New Student 's Reference Work article Stonehenge . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Stonehenge . Stonehenge English Heritage official site : access and visiting information ; research ; future plans 360 ° panoramic English Heritage : A stunning interactive view from the center . Stonehenge Landscape The National Trust -- Information about the surrounding area . Stonehenge Today and Yesterday By Frank Stevens , at Project Gutenberg . The History of Stonehenge BBC animation of the monument 's construction . Stonehenge , a Temple Restor 'd to the British Druids By William Stukeley , at Sacred Texts . Stonehenge , and Other British Monuments Astronomically Considered By Norman Lockyer , at Sacred Texts . Stonehenge Laser Scans English Heritage report about the evidence of stone - working and carvings revealed after scanning of the stones . Glaciers and the bluestones of Wales British Archaeology essay about the bluestones as glacial deposits . Stonehenge Twentieth Century Excavations Databases An English Heritage commissioned report by Wessex Archaeology on the twentieth century excavations . Stonehenge : Stones being repositioned during restoration work in 1914 Reconstruction work in the 1950s World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom England Bath Blenheim Palace Canterbury Cathedral , St. Augustine 's Abbey and St. Martin 's Church Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape Derwent Valley Mills Durham Castle and Cathedral Frontiers of the Roman Empire Hadrian 's Wall Ironbridge Gorge Jurassic Coast Kew Royal Botanic Gardens Lake District Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City Maritime Greenwich Saltaire Stonehenge , Avebury and Associated Sites Studley Royal Park and Fountains Abbey Tower of London Westminster Palace , Westminster Abbey and St. Margaret 's Church Scotland Edinburgh Old Town and New Town Forth Bridge Frontiers of the Roman Empire Antonine Wall Heart of Neolithic Orkney New Lanark St. Kilda Wales Blaenavon Industrial Landscape Castles and Town Walls of King Edward I in Gwynedd Pontcysyllte Aqueduct Northern Ireland Giant 's Causeway British Overseas Territories Gorham 's Cave Complex Gough Island Inaccessible Island Henderson Island Town of St. George and Related Fortifications European megaliths Armenia Metsamor Zorats Karer Azerbaijan Gobustan Rocks Bulgaria Beglik Tash Garlo England Arbor Low Avebury Barbrook One Birkrigg Boscawen - Un Boskednan Brown Willy Cairns The Bull Ring Burnmoor stone circles Castlerigg Craddock Moor Devil 's Arrows Doll Tor Drizzlecombe Duloe Fernacre Gardom 's Edge Goodaver Grey Wethers Hoarstones Hordron Edge Hurlers Leper Stone Long Meg and Her Daughters Mên - an - Tol The Merry Maidens Mitchell 's Fold Nine Ladies Nine Stones , Altarnun Pipers Rollright Rudston Monolith Scorhill Stannon Stanton Drew Stonehenge Stripple Swinside Trippet France Barnenez Tumulus of Bougon Caixa de Rotllan Carnac Menhir de Champ - Dolent Dolmen de Bagneux Broken Menhir of Er Grah Filitosa Gallardet Dolmen Gavrinis Harrespil Kerzerho Locmariaquer megaliths Mane Braz Paddaghju Peyre - Brune Tremeca Verziau of Gargantua Germany Altendorf Denghoog Fraubillen cross Harhoog Lancken - Granitz dolmens Lohra Megaliths in Mecklenburg - Vorpommern Niedertiefenbach Oldendorfer Totenstatt Riesenstein Route of Megalithic Culture Sieben Steinhäuser Wotanstein Züschen Ireland Ardgroom Beltany stone circle Bohonagh Brownshill Dolmen Brú na Bóinne Carrigagulla Carrowmore Castlestrange stone Creevykeel Court Tomb Drombeg Gaulstown Portal Tomb Glantane East Grange stone circle High cross Knocknakilla Meehambee Dolmen Piper 's Stones Poulnabrone dolmen Reask Templebryan Stone Circle Turoe stone Uragh Stone Circle Jersey Jersey Dolmens La Hougue Bie Malta Megalithic Temples ( Borġ l - Imramma Borġ in - Nadur Buġibba Debdieba Ġgantija Ħaġar Qim Ħal - Ġinwi Kordin Mnajdra Qortin l - Imdawwar Santa Verna Skorba Ta ' Ħaġrat Ta ' Marżiena Ta ' Raddiena Tal - Qadi Tarxien Tas - Silġ Xemxija Xrobb l - Għaġin ) Hypogeum of Ħal - Saflieni Xagħra Stone Circle Netherlands Hunebed Northern Ireland Aughlish Ballynoe Beaghmore Corick Drumskinny Legananny Giant 's Ring Poland Brąchnówko Grzybnica Odry Węsiory Portugal Almendres Cromlech Anta Grande do Zambujeiro Cunha Baixa Dolmen Russia Dolmens of North Caucasus Thunder Stone Megaliths in the Urals Russian Geoglyph Scandinavia Picture stones Runestones Stone circles Stone ships Scotland Balquhain Callanish II III IV VIII X Carlin Cat Stane Clach an Trushal Colmeallie Drybridge Easter Aquhorthies Lochmaben Stone Pictish Ring of Brodgar Sheldon Stenness Steinacleit Strichen Yonder Bognie Ukraine Boundary stones Wales Barclodiad y Gawres Bedd Arthur Bedd Taliesin Bodowyr Bryn Cader Faner Bryn Celli Ddu Bryn Gwyn stones Capel Garmon Carreg Coetan Arthur Carreg Samson Coetan Arthur Foel Chwern Llanfechell Lligwy Burial Chamber Maen Llia Maen Madoc Meini Hirion Moel Tŷ Uchaf Parc Cwm long cairn Penrhos Feilw Pentre Ifan St Lythans burial chamber Trefignath Tinkinswood Tŷ Newydd Burial Chamber Whetstones General articles Standing stone Dolmen Henge Menhir Stone circle Stone row Concentric stone circle Recumbent stone circle Chambered cairn Harrespil Photographs of stone circles Middle Eastern megaliths Prehistoric technology Prehistory timeline outline Stone Age subdivisions New Stone Age synoptic table Technology history Tools Farming Neolithic Revolution founder crops New World crops Ard / plough Celt Digging stick Domestication Goad Irrigation Secondary products Sickle Terracing Food processing Fire Basket Cooking Earth oven Granaries Grinding slab Ground stone Hearth Aşıklı Höyük Qesem Cave Manos Metate Mortar and pestle Pottery Quern - stone Storage pit Hunting Arrow Boomerang throwing stick Bow and arrow history Nets Spear Spear - thrower baton harpoon woomera Schöningen Spears Projectile points Arrowhead Bare Island Cascade Clovis Cresswell Cumberland Eden Folsom Lamoka Manis Site Plano Transverse arrowhead Systems Game drive system Buffalo jump Toolmaking Earliest toolmaking Oldowan Acheulean Mousterian Clovis culture Cupstone Fire hardening Gravettian culture Hafting Hand axe Grooves Langdale axe industry Levallois technique Lithic core Lithic reduction analysis debitage flake Lithic technology Magdalenian culture Metallurgy Microblade technology Mining Prepared - core technique Solutrean industry Striking platform Tool stone Uniface Yubetsu technique Other tools Adze Awl bone Axe Bannerstone Blade prismatic Bone tool Bow drill Burin Canoe Oar Pesse canoe Chopper tool Cleaver Denticulate tool Fire plough Fire - saw Hammerstone Knife Microlith Quern - stone Racloir Rope Scraper side Stone tool Tally stick Weapons Wheel illustration Architecture Ceremonial Göbekli Tepe Kiva Standing stones megalith row Stonehenge Pyramid Dwellings Neolithic architecture British megalith architecture Nordic megalith architecture Burdei Cave Cliff dwelling Dugout Hut Quiggly hole Jacal Longhouse Mud brick Mehrgarh Neolithic long house Pit - 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Cotswold Cist Dartmoor kistvaens Clava cairn Court tomb Cremation Dolmen Great dolmen Funeral pyre Gallery grave transepted wedge - shaped Grave goods Jar burial Long barrow unchambered Grønsalen Megalithic tomb Mummy Passage grave Rectangular dolmen Ring cairn Simple dolmen Stone box grave Tor cairn Tumulus Unchambered long cairn Other cultural Astronomy sites lunar calendar Behavioral modernity Origin of language Prehistoric medicine trepanning Evolutionary musicology music archaeology Prehistoric music Alligator drum flutes Divje Babe flute gudi Prehistoric numerals Origin of religion Paleolithic religion Prehistoric religion Spiritual drug use Prehistoric warfare Symbols symbolism VIAF : 137120591 LCCN : sh85128337 GND : 4057736 - 3 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stonehenge&oldid=802661543 '' Categories : Stonehenge 4th - millennium BC architecture Archaeological sites in Wiltshire Bronze Age sites in England Bronze Age sites in Wiltshire Buildings and structures completed in the 26th century BC Buildings and structures in Wiltshire English Heritage sites in Wiltshire Henges History of Wiltshire Locations associated with Arthurian legend Locations in Celtic mythology Megalithic monuments in England National Trust properties in Wiltshire Ruins in Wiltshire Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Wiltshire Stone Age sites in England Stone circles in England Tourist attractions in Wiltshire World Heritage Sites in England Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter Webarchive template wayback links Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move - 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where did the stones come from to build stonehenge | [
"Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, the builders abandoned timber in favour of stone and dug two concentric arrays of holes (the Q and R Holes) in the centre of the site. These stone sockets are only partly known (hence on present evidence are sometimes described as forming 'crescents'); however, they could be the remains of a double ring. Again, there is little firm dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan), only 43 of which can be traced today. It is generally accepted that the bluestones (some of which are made of dolerite, an igneous rock), were transported by the builders from the Preseli Hills, 150 miles (240 km) away in modern-day Pembrokeshire in Wales. Another theory is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier[23] although there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England.[24]",
"Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, the builders abandoned timber in favour of stone and dug two concentric arrays of holes (the Q and R Holes) in the centre of the site. These stone sockets are only partly known (hence on present evidence are sometimes described as forming 'crescents'); however, they could be the remains of a double ring. Again, there is little firm dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan), only 43 of which can be traced today. It is generally accepted that the bluestones (some of which are made of dolerite, an igneous rock), were transported by the builders from the Preseli Hills, 150 miles (240 km) away in modern-day Pembrokeshire in Wales. Another theory is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier[23] although there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England.[24]",
"Archaeological excavation has indicated that around 2600 BC, the builders abandoned timber in favour of stone and dug two concentric arrays of holes (the Q and R Holes) in the centre of the site. These stone sockets are only partly known (hence on present evidence are sometimes described as forming 'crescents'); however, they could be the remains of a double ring. Again, there is little firm dating evidence for this phase. The holes held up to 80 standing stones (shown blue on the plan), only 43 of which can be traced today. It is generally accepted that the bluestones (some of which are made of dolerite, an igneous rock), were transported by the builders from the Preseli Hills, 150 miles (240 km) away in modern-day Pembrokeshire in Wales. Another theory is that they were brought much nearer to the site as glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier[23] although there is no evidence of glacial deposition within southern central England.[24]"
] | [
"Preseli Hills",
"glacial erratics by the Irish Sea Glacier",
"modern-day Pembrokeshire in Wales"
] |
-5120684193511370931 | Economy of Romania | Economy of Romania - Wikipedia Economy of Romania Jump to : navigation , search Economy of Romania Bucharest , Romania Currency Leu ( Leu or RON ) Fiscal year Calendar year Trade organisations European Union , WTO Statistics GDP $204,943 billion ( nominal , 2017 ) $467.436 billion ( PPP , 2017 ) GDP rank 41st ( PPP , 2017 ) GDP growth 7.0 % ( 2017 ) GDP per capita $23,709.349 ( PPP ; 2017 ) GDP by sector agriculture : 4.2 % ; industry : 33.2 % ; services : 64.4 % ( 2017 est . ) Inflation ( CPI ) 1.1 % Population below poverty line 25.4 % ( 2015 est . ) Gini coefficient 34 ( 2014 ) Labour force 9.133 million ( 2016 est . ) Labour force by occupation industry : 28.9 % services : 42.8 % agriculture : 28.3 % ( 2014 est . ) Unemployment 4.6 % ( January 2018 ) Average gross salary 4,143 RON / 1097 $ , monthly ( January 2018 ) Average net salary 533 € / 658 $ , monthly ( January 2018 ) Main industries electric machinery and equipment , textiles and footwear , light machinery and auto assembly , mining , timber , construction materials , metallurgy , chemicals , food processing , petroleum refining Ease - of - doing - business rank 45th ( 2018 ) External Exports $64.92 billion ( 2017 est . ) Export goods machinery and equipment , metals and metal products , textiles and footwear , chemicals , agricultural products , minerals and fuels Main export partners Germany 21.5 % Italy 11.6 % France 7.2 % Hungary 5.2 % United Kingdom 4.3 % ( 2016 est . ) Imports $78.12 billion ( 2017 est . ) Import goods machinery and equipment , chemicals , fuels and minerals , textile and products , agricultural products Main import partners Germany 20.5 % Italy 10.3 % Hungary 7.5 % France 5.6 % Poland 5.1 % China 5.1 % Netherlands 4.1 % ( 2016 est . ) FDI stock $70.113 billion ( 31 December 2016 est . ) Gross external debt € 93.954 billion ( 31 December 2017 ) Public finances Public debt 39.3 % of GDP ( 2016 est . ) Revenues $56.86 billion ( 2016 est . ) Expenses $62.14 billion ( 2016 est . ) Economic aid $100 billion EU structural funds ( 2007 -- 13 ) $100 billion EU structural funds ( 2014 -- 20 ) Credit rating Standard & Poor 's : BBB - ( Domestic ) BBB - ( Foreign ) A - ( T&C Assessment ) Outlook : Stable Moody 's : Baa3 Outlook : Positive Fitch : BBB - Outlook : Stable Foreign reserves US $42.96 billion ( 31 December 2014 ) Main data source : CIA World Fact Book All values , unless otherwise stated , are in US dollars . Romania , as part of the European Union single market , is a fast developing , upper - middle income mixed economy with a very high Human Development Index and a skilled labour force , the 16th largest in the European Union by total nominal GDP and the 13th largest based on purchasing power parity . The Romanian economy is the 41st - largest economy in the world ( out of 188 countries measured by IMF ) with $435,454 million annual output , and ranks 41st in the world in terms of GDP per capita measured by purchasing power parity . Romanian economy is expected to grow by + 6 % in 2017 . Based on current economic growth it 's expected to hit 1 trillion of USD PPP before 2035 . Romania continues to be one of the leading nations in Central and Eastern Europe for attracting foreign direct investment : the inward FDI in the country with a cumulative FDI totaling more than $170 billion since 1989 . Romania is the largest electronics producer in Central and Eastern Europe . Electronics manufacturing and research are among the main drivers of innovation and economic growth in the country . In the past 20 years Romania has also grown into a major center for mobile technology , information security , and related hardware research Dacia automobiles . Up until the late 2000s financial crisis , the Romanian economy had been referred to as a `` Tiger '' due to its high growth rates and rapid development . Until 2009 , Romanian economic growth was among the fastest in Europe ( officially 8.4 % in 2008 and more than three times the EU average ) . Romania is rich in iron ore , oil , salt , uranium , nickel , copper and natural gas . The country is a regional leader in multiple fields , such as IT and motor vehicle production . Bucharest , the capital city , is one of the largest financial and industrial centres in Eastern Europe . According to Eurostat Romania posted the biggest economic growth in EU in 2016 by more than 6 % increase of GDP . According to the IMF , Romania will have the highest economic growth in Europe in 2016 and 2017 . The top 10 exports of Romania are vehicles , machinery , chemical goods , electronic products , electrical equipment , pharmaceuticals , transport equipment , basic metals , food products , and rubber and plastics . Imports of goods and services increased 9.3 % , while exports grew 7.6 % in 2016 , as compared to 2015 . Exports of goods and services are expected to grow by 5.6 % in 2017 , while imports are seen increasing by 8.5 % , according to the latest CNP ( National Prognosis Commission ) projections . The projections for economic growth in Romania for 2018 and 2019 were both lifted to 4.5 % and 4.1 % , respectively , the World Bank said in its January 2018 Global Economic Prospects ( GEP ) report . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 1.1 Before World War II 1.2 Economy during 1944 -- 1989 1.3 Free market transition 1.4 Investments in Romania 1.5 EU membership ( 2007 ) 2 Economy 2.1 National budget 2.2 Economic growth 2.3 Growing middle class 2.4 Neighbors 3 Currency 3.1 Fulfillment of the Maastricht criteria 4 Natural resources 4.1 Energy 5 Physical infrastructure 6 Sectors of the economy 6.1 Gas and natural resources 6.2 Agriculture 6.2. 1 Fishing 6.3 Industry 6.3. 1 Car industry 6.3. 2 IT and other Industry 6.4 Services 7 Biotechnology industry 8 Regional variation 9 Foreign trade 10 Miscellaneous data 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References History ( edit ) Before World War II ( edit ) The GDP of Romania between 1870 and 2008 in 1990 International dollars After World War I , the application of radical agricultural reforms and the passing of a new constitution created a democratic framework and allowed for quick economic growth ( industrial production doubled between 1923 -- 1938 , despite the effects of the Great Depression ) . With oil production of 7.2 million tons in 1937 , Romania ranked second in Europe and seventh in the world . The oil extracted from Romania was essential for the German war campaigns . Before World War II , Romania was Europe 's second - largest food producer . Economy during 1944 -- 1989 ( edit ) After the Second World War , Romania became a member of the Eastern Bloc , and switched to a socialist - style command economy . During this period the country experienced rapid industrialization in an attempt to create a `` multilaterally developed socialist society '' . Economic growth was further fueled by foreign credits in the 1970s , but this eventually led to a growing foreign debt , which peaked at $11 -- 12 billion . Romania 's debt was largely paid off during the 1980s by implementing severe austerity measures which deprived Romanians of basic consumer goods . In 1989 , before the Romanian Revolution , Romania had a GDP of about 800 billion lei , or $53.6 billion . Around 58 % of the country 's gross national income came from industry , and another 15 % came from agriculture . The minimum wage was 2,000 lei , or $135 . Free market transition ( edit ) Romania 's GDP drop during the 1990s . Privatization of industry was pursued with the 1992 transfer of 30 % of the shares of some 6,000 state - owned enterprises to five private ownership funds , in which each adult citizen received certificates of ownership . The remaining 70 % ownership of the enterprises was transferred to a state ownership fund , with a mandate to sell off its shares at the rate of at least 10 % per year . The privatization law also called for direct sale of some 30 specially selected enterprises and the sale of `` assets '' ( i.e. , commercially viable component units ) of larger enterprises . As of 2008 , inflation stood at 7.8 % , up from 4.8 % in 2007 estimated by the BNR at coming within 6 % for the year 2006 ( the year - on - year CPI , published in March 2007 , is 3.66 % ) . Also , since 2001 , the economy has grown steadily at around 6 -- 8 % . Therefore , the PPP per capita GDP of Romania in 2008 was estimated to be between $12,200 and $14,064 . Financial and technical assistance continued to flow in from the U.S. , European Union , other industrial nations , and international financial institutions facilitating Romania 's reintegration into the world economy . The International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , World Bank ( IBRD ) , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( EBRD ) , and the U.S. Agency for International Development ( USAID ) all had programs and resident representatives in Romania . Romania also attracted foreign direct investment , which in 2008 rose to $72 billion . Romania was the largest U.S. trading partner in Central - Eastern Europe until Ceauşescu 's 1988 renunciation of Most Favored Nation ( non-discriminatory ) trading status , the latter of which resulted in high U.S. tariffs on Romanian products . Congress approved restoration of the MFN status effective 8 November 1993 , as part of a new bilateral trade agreement . Tariffs on most Romanian products dropped to zero in February 1994 with the inclusion of Romania in the Generalized System of Preferences ( GSP ) . Major Romanian exports to the U.S. include shoes and clothing , steel , and chemicals . Romania signed an Association Agreement with the EU in 1992 and a free trade agreement with the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) in 1993 , codifying Romania 's access to European markets and creating the basic framework for further economic integration . At the Helsinki Summit in December 1999 , the European Union invited Romania to formally begin accession negotiations . In 2002 , the target date of 2007 was set for Romania , along with Bulgaria , for its accession efforts . This was confirmed in 2003 at the Thessaloniki Summit and then in early 2005 Romania and Bulgaria signed the adherence treaty to EU . They formally joined the EU on 1 January 2007 . During the latter part of the Ceauşescu period , Romania earned significant credits from several Arab countries , notably Iraq , for work related to the oil industry . In August 2005 , Romania agreed to forgive 43 % of the US $1.7 billion debt owed by an Iraq still largely occupied by the military forces of the U.S. - led `` Coalition of the Willing '' , making Romania the first country outside of the Paris Club of wealthy creditor nations to forgive Iraqi debts . Growth in 2000 -- 07 was supported by exports to the EU , primarily to Italy and Germany , and a strong recovery of foreign and domestic investment . Domestic demand is playing an ever more important role in underpinning growth as interest rates drop and the availability of credit cards and mortgages increases . Current account deficits of around 2 % of GDP are beginning to decline as demand for Romanian products in the European Union increases . Accession to the EU gives further impetus and direction to structural reform . In early 2004 the government passed increases in the value - added tax ( VAT ) and tightened eligibility for social benefits with the intention to bring the public finance gap down to 4 % of GDP by 2006 , but more difficult pension and healthcare reforms will have to wait until after the next elections . Privatization of the state - owned bank Banca Comercială Română took place in 2005 . Intensified restructuring among large enterprises , improvements in the financial sector , and effective use of available EU funds is expected to accelerate economic growth . However , the Romanian economy was affected by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 and contracted in 2009 . Investments in Romania ( edit ) The level of investment remains above EU average . Investment accounts for almost 25 % of GDP in Romania as opposed to 19 % of GDP in the EU , in 2016 . EU membership ( 2007 ) ( edit ) Main article : Romania and the euro Eurozone participation European Union ( EU ) member states 19 in the eurozone . 7 not in ERM II , but obliged to join the eurozone on meeting convergence criteria ( Bulgaria , Croatia , Czech Republic , Hungary , Poland , Romania , and Sweden ) . 1 in ERM II , with an opt - out ( Denmark ) . 1 not in ERM II with an opt - out ( United Kingdom ) . Non-EU member states 4 using the euro with a monetary agreement ( Andorra , Monaco , San Marino , and Vatican City ) . 2 using the euro unilaterally ( Kosovo and Montenegro ) . On 1 January 2007 Romania entered the EU . This led to some immediate international trade liberalization . Romania is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers . Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union members and by EU legislation . This is to be contrasted with enormous current account deficits . Low interest rates guarantee availability of funds for investment and consumption . For example , a boom in the real estate market started around 2000 and has not subsided yet . At the same time annual inflation in the economy is variable and during the mid-2000s ( 2003 -- 2008 ) has seen a low of 2.3 % and high of 7.8 % . In the winter of 2004 the government introduced a flat tax of 16 % that was introduced on 1 January 2005 . This is done in hope for higher GDP growth and greater tax collection rates . The reform , which some called a `` revolution '' in taxation , was met with mild discussions and some protests by affected working classes . Romania subsequently enjoyed the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union , until Bulgaria also switched to a flat tax of 10 % in 2007 . The accession of Romania and Bulgaria to the European Union has given the Union access to the Black Sea . Major industries include food processing , pharmaceuticals , motor vehicles , information technology , chemicals , metallurgy , machinery , electrical goods , and tourism . Romania posted an economic growth of 6 percent in 2016 , the biggest among European Union member states . According to Bloomberg , the country 's economic growth advanced at the fastest pace since 2008 . It is now considered the next tech - startup hub country in EU . Nowadays , that Romania 's digital infrastructure ranks higher than other eastern and central European countries makes it an attractive place to start a tech business . Economy ( edit ) Romania 's GDP per capita per county in 2013 Romania 's net salary per county in 2016 In the Romanian press the economy has been referred to as the `` Tiger of the East '' during the 2000s . Romania is a country of considerable economic potential : over 10 million hectares of agricultural land , diverse energy sources ( coal , oil , natural gas , hydro , nuclear and wind ) , a substantial , if aging , manufacturing base and opportunities for expanded development in tourism on the Black Sea and in the mountains . National budget ( edit ) The planned national budget for 2017 is 422 billion lei ( $103 billion ) , with an estimated budget deficit to GDP of 1.1 % . Economic growth ( edit ) GDP growth reached 8.3 % in 2006 according to the statistical office of the Romania ( the year - to - year growth amounted to unexpected 9.8 % in the 3rd quarter of 2006 and stayed high at 9.5 % year - to - year change in the 4th quarter of 2006 ) , and 8.0 % in 2007 . In the first nine months of the year 2017 , the Romanian GDP grew by 7 % on gross series and by 6.9 percent on seasonally adjusted series . Growing middle class ( edit ) Romania has growing middle and upper classes with relatively high per capita incomes . World Bank estimated that in 2002 99 % of the urban and 94 % of the rural population had access to electricity . In 2004 , 91 % of the urban and only 16 % of the rural population had access to improved water supply and 94 % of the urban population had access to improved sanitation . In 2017 there were about 22.5 million mobile phone users in Romania and about 18 million with internet access . In March 2017 , the gross average monthly wage was RON 3,256 ( € 716 ) , and the net average monthly wage was RON 2,342 ( € 515 ) . Neighbors ( edit ) Countries tend to benefit from sharing borders with developed markets as this facilitates trade and development . Below is a table of Romania 's neighboring countries , their GDP per capita , and trade values between the pairs . In 2010 , as little as 10.94 pc of Romanian exports went to its neighbors ; while 14.06 pc of imports came from these five countries . For comparison , Germany alone accounted for 16.83 pc of Romania 's exports and 15.91 pc of its imports . Country GDP per capita , PPP ( current international $ ) 2017 Difference in GDP PPP ( % ) Exports to US billions ( 2010 ) Percentage of total exports Imports from US billions ( 2010 ) Percentage of total imports Hungary 26,457.6 13 1.984 4.04 3.113 8.47 Romania 23,709.34 Bulgaria 18,248.8 - 18 1.770 3.60 1.890 3.13 Serbia 14,111.9 - 36 0.473 0.96 0.536 0.89 Ukraine 7,939.6 - 64 0.711 1.45 0.725 1.20 Moldova 5,049.0 - 77 0.438 0.89 0.223 0.37 Currency ( edit ) Main articles : Romanian leu and Romania and the euro One new leu bank - note The leu ( pronounced ( ˈlew ) ) , plural : lei ( ( ˈlej ) ) ; ISO 4217 code RON ; numeric code 946 ) , `` leo '' ( lion ) in English is the currency of Romania . It is subdivided into 100 bani ( singular : ban ) . On 1 July 2005 , Romania underwent a currency reform , switching from the previous leu ( ROL ) to a new leu ( RON ) . 1 RON is equal to 10,000 ROL . Romania joined the European Union on 1 January 2007 and initially hoped to adopt the euro in 2014 , but with the deepening of the Euro crisis and with its own problems , such as a low workforce productivity , postponed its adoption plans indefinitely . According to Bloomberg , the Romanian currency is the third - best performer against the euro in 2016 among currencies in CEE area gaining 1.4 percent . Fulfillment of the Maastricht criteria ( edit ) Romania , as a member state of the European Union , is required to adopt the common European currency , the Euro . For this reason Romania must fulfil the five Maastricht criteria , of which it met three as of June 2016 . Convergence criteria Assessment month Country HICP inflation rate Excessive deficit procedure Exchange rate Long - term interest rate Compatibility of legislation Budget deficit to GDP Debt - to - GDP ratio ERM II member Change in rate 2012 ECB Report Reference values Max . 3.1 % ( as of 31 Mar 2012 ) None open ( as of 31 March 2012 ) Min. 2 years ( as of 31 Mar 2012 ) Max . ± 15 % ( for 2011 ) Max . 5.80 % ( as of 31 Mar 2012 ) Yes ( as of 31 Mar 2012 ) Max . 3.0 % ( Fiscal year 2011 ) Max . 60 % ( Fiscal year 2011 ) Romania 4.6 % Open No - 0.6 % 7.25 % No 5.2 % 33.3 % 2013 ECB Report Reference values Max . 2.7 % ( as of 30 Apr 2013 ) None open ( as of 30 Apr 2013 ) Min. 2 years ( as of 30 Apr 2013 ) Max . ± 15 % ( for 2012 ) Max . 5.5 % ( as of 30 Apr 2013 ) Yes ( as of 30 Apr 2013 ) Max . 3.0 % ( Fiscal year 2012 ) Max . 60 % ( Fiscal year 2012 ) Romania 4.1 % Open ( Closed in June 2013 ) No - 5.2 % 6.36 % Unknown 2.9 % 37.8 % 2014 ECB Report Reference values Max . 1.7 % ( as of 30 Apr 2014 ) None open ( as of 30 Apr 2014 ) Min. 2 years ( as of 30 Apr 2014 ) Max . ± 15 % ( for 2013 ) Max . 6.2 % ( as of 30 Apr 2014 ) Yes ( as of 30 Apr 2014 ) Max . 3.0 % ( Fiscal year 2013 ) Max . 60 % ( Fiscal year 2013 ) Romania 2.1 % None No 0.9 % 5.26 % No 2.3 % 38.4 % 2016 ECB Report Reference values Max . 0.7 % ( as of 30 Apr 2016 ) None open ( as of 18 May 2016 ) Min. 2 years ( as of 18 May 2016 ) Max . ± 15 % ( for 2015 ) Max . 4.0 % ( as of 30 Apr 2016 ) Yes ( as of 18 May 2016 ) Max . 3.0 % ( Fiscal year 2015 ) Max . 60 % ( Fiscal year 2015 ) Romania - 1.3 % None No 0.0 % 3.6 % No 0.7 % 38.4 % Criterion fulfilled Criterion potentially fulfilled : If the budget deficit exceeds the 3 % limit , but is `` close '' to this value ( the European Commission has deemed 3.5 % to be close by in the past ) , then the criteria can still potentially be fulfilled if either the deficits in the previous two years are significantly declining towards the 3 % limit , or if the excessive deficit is the result of exceptional circumstances which are temporary in nature ( i.e. one - off expenditures triggered by a significant economic downturn , or by the implementation of economic reforms that are expected to deliver a significant positive impact on the government 's future fiscal budgets ) . However , even if such `` special circumstances '' are found to exist , additional criteria must also be met to comply with the fiscal budget criterion . Additionally , if the debt - to - GDP ratio exceeds 60 % but is `` sufficiently diminishing and approaching the reference value at a satisfactory pace '' it can be deemed to be in compliance . Criterion not fulfilled Notes Jump up ^ The rate of increase of the 12 - month average HICP over the prior 12 - month average must be no more than 1.5 % larger than the unweighted arithmetic average of the similar HICP inflation rates in the 3 EU member states with the lowest HICP inflation . If any of these 3 states have a HICP rate significantly below the similarly averaged HICP rate for the eurozone ( which according to ECB practice means more than 2 % below ) , and if this low HICP rate has been primarily caused by exceptional circumstances ( i.e. severe wage cuts or a strong recession ) , then such a state is not included in the calculation of the reference value and is replaced by the EU state with the fourth lowest HICP rate . Jump up ^ The arithmetic average of the annual yield of 10 - year government bonds as of the end of the past 12 months must be no more than 2.0 % larger than the unweighted arithmetic average of the bond yields in the 3 EU member states with the lowest HICP inflation . If any of these states have bond yields which are significantly larger than the similarly averaged yield for the eurozone ( which according to previous ECB reports means more than 2 % above ) and at the same time does not have complete funding access to financial markets ( which is the case for as long as a government receives bailout funds ) , then such a state is not be included in the calculation of the reference value . Jump up ^ The change in the annual average exchange rate against the euro . Jump up ^ Reference values from the ECB convergence report of May 2012 . Jump up ^ Sweden , Ireland and Slovenia were the reference states . ^ Jump up to : The maximum allowed change in rate is ± 2.25 % for Denmark . Jump up ^ Sweden and Slovenia were the reference states , with Ireland excluded as an outlier . Jump up ^ Reference values from the ECB convergence report of June 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sweden , Latvia and Ireland were the reference states . Jump up ^ Reference values from the ECB convergence report of June 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Latvia , Portugal and Ireland were the reference states . Jump up ^ Reference values from the ECB convergence report of June 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Bulgaria , Slovenia and Spain were the reference states . Natural resources ( edit ) Main article : Mining industry in Romania Romania is an oil producer , but the current level of production is not enough to make the country self - sufficient . Although at one time it was Europe 's largest producer of oil , most of its reserves were used and squandered during the Nicolae Ceauşescu period . As a result , it is today a net oil and gas importer . The pipeline network in Romania included 2,427 km for crude oil , 3,850 km for petroleum products , and 3,508 km for natural gas in 2006 . Several major new pipelines are planned , especially the Nabucco Pipeline for Caspian oilfields , the longest one in the world . Romania could cash in four billion dollars from the Constanta - Trieste pipeline . Romania has considerable natural resources for a country of its size , including coal , iron ore , copper , chromium , uranium , antimony , mercury , gold , barite , borate , celestine ( strontium ) , emery , feldspar , limestone , magnesite , marble , perlite , pumice , pyrites ( sulfur ) , clay , arable land and hydropower . Romania 's mineral production is adequate to supply its manufacturing output . Energy needs are also met by importing bituminous and anthracite coal and crude petroleum . In 2007 approximately 34 million tons of coal , approximately 4,000 tons of tungsten , 565,000 tons of iron ore , and 47,000 tons of zinc ore were mined . Lesser amounts of copper , lead , molybdenum , gold , silver , kaolin , and fluorite also were mined . Energy ( edit ) Main article : Energy industry in Romania The Iron Gate I Hydro Power Plant , a joint venture between Romania and Serbia The energy sector is dominated by state - owned companies such as Termoelectrica , Hidroelectrica and Nuclearelectrica . Fossil fuels are the country 's primary source of energy , followed by hydroelectric power . Due to dependency on oil and gas imports from Russia , the country has placed an increasingly heavy emphasis on nuclear energy since the 1980s . The Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant is the only one of its kind in Romania , although there are plans to build a second one in Transylvania , possibly after 2020 . For domestic heating and cooking 48 % of rural and small - town households use directly burned solid fuel ( almost exclusively domestically produced wood ) as the main energy source . Wind power had an installed capacity of 76 MW in 2008 , and the country has the largest wind power potential in Southeast Europe , with Dobruja listed as the second - best place in Europe to construct wind farms . As a result , there are currently investor connection requests for over 12,000 MW . There are also plans to build a number of solar power stations , such as the Covaci Solar Park , which will be one of the largest in the world . Of the electricity generated in 2007 , 13.1 percent came from nuclear plants then in operation , 41.69 percent from thermal plants ( oil and coal ) , and 25.8 percent from hydroelectric sites . Physical infrastructure ( edit ) A1 motorway near Orăștie Main articles : Transport in Romania and Highways in Romania The volume of traffic in Romania , especially goods transportation , has increased in recent years due to its strategic location in South - East Europe . In the past few decades , much of the freight traffic shifted from rail to road . A further strong increase of traffic is expected in the future . As of June 2015 , 694 km of motorways are in use with Timisoara - Lugoj 26 km also to be finished in 2015 , Lugoj - Deva to be finished in 2016 while Sibiu - Pitesti is still tendering . The railway network , which was significantly expanded during the Communist years , is the fourth largest in Europe . Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system , comprising both the Bucharest Metro and the light rail system managed by Regia Autonomă de Transport Bucureşti . Although construction was planned to begin in 1941 , due to geo - political factors , the Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979 . Now it is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 800,000 passengers during the workweek . In total , the network is 67 km long and has 49 stations . Sectors of the economy ( edit ) Gas and natural resources ( edit ) Romania has become a natural gas exporter . Romanian Scientist , Lazar Edeleanu , had managed , for the first time in the world , to refine oil based products with sulphur dioxide , in other words separation from the oil of some hydrocarbon groups , without their chemical alteration . Agriculture ( edit ) Main article : Agriculture in Romania Agriculture employs about 29 % of the population ( one of the highest rates in Europe ) , and contributes about 8.1 % of GDP . The Bărăgan is characterized by large wheat farms . Dairy products , pork , poultry , and apple production are concentrated in the western region . Beef production is located in central Romania , while the production of fruits , vegetables , and wine ranges from central to southern Romania . Romania is a large producer of many agricultural products and is currently expanding its forestry and fishery industries . The implementation of the reforms and the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) have resulted in reforms in the agricultural sector of the economy . Fishing ( edit ) Fishing is an economic mainstay in parts of the East of Romania and along the Black Sea coast , with important fish markets in places such as Constanta , Galati and Tulcea . Fish such as european anchovy , sprat , pontic shad , mullet , goby , whiting , garfish , Black - Sea Turbot or horse mackerel are landed at ports such as Constanta . There has been a large scale decrease in employment in the fishing industry within Romania due to the EU 's Common Fisheries Policy , which places restrictions on the total tonnage of catch that can be landed , caused by overfishing in the Black Sea . In tandem with the decline of sea - fishing , commercial fish farms -- especially in salmon , have increased in prominence in the rivers and lochs of the east of Romania . Inland waters are rich in fresh water fish such as salmon , trout , and in particular , carp which traditionally has been the most popular fish , including its eggs ( icre ) , fresh or canned . Industry ( edit ) Main article : Industry in Romania Car industry ( edit ) 2014 Dacia Logan MCV It and other industry ( edit ) Romania has been successful in developing its industrial sector in recent years . Industry and construction accounted for 32 % of gross domestic product ( GDP ) in 2003 , a comparatively large share even without taking into account related services . The sector employed 26.4 % of the workforce . Romania excels in the production of automobiles , machine tools , and chemicals . In 2013 , some 410,997 automobiles were produced in Romania , up from 78,165 in 2000 . In 2004 Romania enjoyed one of the largest world market share in machine tools ( 5.3 % ) . Romanian - based companies such as Dacia , Petrom , Rompetrol , Bitdefender , Romstal and Mobexpert have expanded operations throughout the region . However , small - to medium - sized manufacturing firms form the bulk of Romania 's industrial sector . Romania 's industrial output is expected to advance 9 % in 2007 , while agriculture output is projected to grow 12 % . Final consumption is also expected to increase by 11 % overall -- individual consumption by 14.4 % and collective consumption by 10.4 % . Domestic demand is expected to go up 12.7 % . Industrial output growth was 6.9 % year - on - year in December 2009 , making it the highest in the EU - 27 zone which averaged − 1.9 % . Romania has the third - highest percentage of women working in information and communications technologies ( ICT ) in Europe . 29 % of their workforce is made up of women . Services ( edit ) Main article : Services in Romania In 2003 service sector constituted 55 % of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , and the sector employed 51.3 % of the workforce . The subcomponents of services are financial , renting , and business activities ( 20.5 % ) ; trade , hotels and restaurants , and transport ( 18 % ) ; and other service activities ( 21.7 % ) . The service sector in Romania has expanded in recent years , employing some 47 % of Romanians and accounting for slightly more than half of GDP . The largest employer is the retail sector , employing almost 12 % of Romanians . The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a relatively small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls . In recent years the rise of big - box stores , such as Cora ( hypermarket ) ( of the France ) and Carrefour ( a subsidiary of the French ) , have led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs . Biotechnology industry ( edit ) Romania is aggressively promoting and developing its biotechnology industry . Hundred of millions of dollars were invested into the sector to build up infrastructure , fund research and development and to recruit top international scientists to Romania . Romania features one of the world 's newest competitive bio-industries , in key areas as pharmacogenomics , protein engineering , glyco - engineering , tissue engineering , bio-informatics , genome medicine and preventive medicine . Romania is devoting substantial resources to developing universities and R&D facilities , increasing bioventure startups , growing bio-clusters ( communities of biotechnology companies and institutions ) and developing human resources , all with the goal of making it one of the world 's most advanced biotechnology regions . Regional variation ( edit ) The strength of the Romanian economy varies from region to region . GDP , and GDP per capita is highest in Bucharest . The following table shows the GDP ( 2015 ) per capita of the 4 counties and the capital city , with data supplied by CNP . Rank Place GDP per capita ( EUR ) Bucharest 26,652 Cluj 21,253 Timiş 20,301 Constanţa 19,782 5 Ilfov 18,648 The highest GDP per capita is found in Bucharest and surrounding Ilfov County . Values well above the national average are found in Timiş , Argeş , Braşov , Cluj , Constanţa , Sibiu and Prahova . Values well below the national average are found in : Vaslui , Botoşani , Călăraşi , Neamţ , Vrancea , Suceava , Giurgiu , Mehedinţi , Olt and Teleorman . Foreign trade ( edit ) Main article : Foreign trade of Romania A chart of Romania 's export products . Italy is Romania 's largest trading partner ; two - way trade totaled some $22.6 billion in 2007 . The principal exports from Italy to Romania include computers , integrated circuits , aircraft parts and other defense equipment , wheat , and automobiles , along with remittances . Romania 's chief exports to Italy include cut diamonds , jewelry , integrated circuits , printing machinery , and telecommunications equipment . 2.8 % of the country 's GDP is derived from Agricultural activity . While Romania imports substantial quantities of grain , it is largely self - sufficient in other agricultural products and food stuffs , due to the fact that food must be regulated for sale in the Romania retail market , and hence imports almost no food products from other countries . Romania imported in 2006 food products of 2.4 billion euros , up almost 20 % versus 2005 , when the imports were worth slightly more than 2 billion euros . The EU is Romania 's main partner in the trade with agri - food products . The exports to this destination represent 64 % , and the imports from the EU countries represent 54 % . Other important partners are the CEFTA countries , Turkey , Republic of Moldova and the USA . Despite a decline of the arms industry in the post-communist era , Romania is a significant exporter of military equipment , accounting for 3 -- 4 % of the world total in 2007 . EU members are represented by a single official at the World Trade Organization . During the first trimester of 2010 , Romanian exports increased by 21 % , one of the largest rates in the European Union , surpassed only by Malta . The trade deficit currently stands at roughly 2 billion EUR , the eighth largest in the EU . Miscellaneous data ( edit ) Households with access to fixed and mobile telephone access landline telephone -- 76 % ( 2017 ) mobile telephone -- 115 % ( 2017 ) Broadband penetration rate 63 % ( 2017 ) Individuals using computer and internet computer -- 74 % ( 2017 ) internet -- 87 % ( 2017 ) See also ( edit ) List of companies of Romania General : Economy of Europe Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute between the Republic of Kosovo and the Republic of Serbia . The Republic of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence on 17 February 2008 , but Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own sovereign territory . The two governments began to normalise relations in 2013 , as part of the Brussels Agreement . Kosovo has received formal recognition as an independent state from 113 out of 193 United Nations member states . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects ( PPP valuation of country GDP ) '' . IMF . Retrieved April 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ https://think.ing.com/snaps/romania-2017-gdp-growth-confirmed-at-70-yoy/ . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ World Economic Outlook Database , February 2017 , International Monetary Fund . Database updated on 4 February 2017 . Accessed on 18 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The World Factbook '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` People at risk of poverty or social exclusion - Statistics Explained '' . ec.europa.eu . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ANALIZA Familia Ionescu si rata saraciei la romani . Distributia saraciei in functie de zona , de numarul copiilor , dupa forma de proprietate ( proprietar vs. chiriasi ) . Una peste alta , Statistica a numarat saracii Romaniei : sunt 4 , 77 milioane - Hotnews Mobile '' . m.HotNews.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.zf.ro/profesii/salariul-mediu-net-a-ajuns-in-ianuarie-la-2484-lei-in-scadere-fata-de-decembrie-dar-cu-8-peste-nivelul-din-ianuarie-2017-17061281 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Ease of Doing Business in Romania '' . DoingBusiness.org . Retrieved 21 November 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The World Factbook -- Central Intelligence Agency '' . www.CIA.gov . Retrieved 4 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Export Partners of Romania '' . CIA World Factbook. 2018 . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Import Partners of Romania '' . CIA World Factbook. 2018 . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Foreign Direct Investment in Romania in 2016 '' . Retrieved 4 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Banca Naţională a României '' . BNR.ro . Retrieved 4 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Sovereigns rating list '' . Standard & Poor 's . Retrieved 13 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Rogers , Simon ; Sedghi , Ami ( 15 April 2011 ) . `` How Fitch , Moody 's and S&P rate each country 's credit rating '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 28 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Moody 's changes outlook on Romania 's Baa3 ratings to positive ; affirms ratings '' . Moody 's . Retrieved 11 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` World Economic Outlook Database October 2009 -- WEO Groups and Aggregates Information '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Romania '' . International Monetary Fund . Retrieved 6 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Romania 's economic outlook in 2017 : Growth to fall back to 4.1 pct of GDP , says Nomura '' . Business-Review.eu. 29 December 2016 . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` aaaa '' . www.Business-Arena.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The World Factbook '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/Universities/EUs-tiger-economy-is-tapped-by-university.htm ^ Jump up to : Adevarul Archived 20 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` Romania , the European Tiger - Invest Romania '' . InvestRomania.gov.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Poland and Romania : Two tigers of Eastern Europe - Nine O ` Clock '' . www.NineOclock.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 13 May 2008 . Retrieved 13 May 2008 . PIB - ul a crescut cu 7.5 % in T1 , iar anul agricol bun ar putea duce cresterea la peste 8 % . Jump up ^ http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/10691/ The 8.2 percent growth in Romania 's economy in the first three months of 2008 was more than three times higher than the EU average Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 21 January 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Statistic definitions '' ( PDF ) . OICA.net . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` BCR : Romania poate adopta euro in 2014 23904 '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Eurostat : Romania posts biggest economic growth in EU in 2016 Q2 '' . Business-Review.eu. 12 August 2016 . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IMF : Romania to have highest economic growth in Europe in 2016 and 2017 -- AGERPRES '' . www.AgerPres.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ https://seenews.com/news/romanias-economy-grows-by-48-yy-in-q4-2016-14-qq-revised-data-564500 Jump up ^ `` Romanian finmin analysts keep 2017 GDP growth forecast at 5.2 % '' . SeeNews.com . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` World Bank ups Romania economic growth estimation '' . https://www.romania-insider.com/ . Retrieved 14 January 2018 . External link in website = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` his1 '' . Retrieved 3 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` VIDEO Înregistrare senzaţională cu Hitler : `` Fără petrolul din România nu aş fi atacat niciodată URSS - ul '' `` . adevarul.ro . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Business in Romania : a country that 's fast off the Bloc -- Two years of EU membership have transformed the business face of Romania and savvy UK firms are reaping the rewards . Paul Bray reports '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . 24 February 2010 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ Klepper , Nicolae . ROMANIA An Illustrated History . NY : Hippocrene Books , Inc. , 2002 , page 230 ^ Jump up to : După douăzeci de ani . Economia României în 1989 Archived 24 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine. , 21 decembrie 2009 , standard.ro , accesat la 2 ianuarie 2010 Jump up ^ `` GDP -- per capita ( PPP ) '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Data refer to the year 2008 . PPP GDP 2008 & Population 2008 , World Development Indicators database , World Bank , 15 September 2009 . Note : Per capita values were obtained by dividing the PPP GDP data by the Population data . Jump up ^ `` Romania isi va recupera datoriile din Irak -- BloomBiz.ro -- Your Business Community '' . BloomBiz.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Index of / '' . Retrieved 3 March 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The European Semester '' ( PDF ) . European Commission - European Commission . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Eurostat : Romania posts biggest economic growth in EU in 2016 Q2 '' . Business-Review.eu. 12 August 2016 . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` One of the poorest countries in the EU could be its next tech - startup hub '' . QZ.com . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` See Table 4.1 '' ( PDF ) . WorldBank.org . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Earnings - since 1991 , the monthly series '' . Romanian National Institute of Statistics . Retrieved 5 June 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Import origins of Romania ( 2010 ) '' . The Observatory of Economic Complexity . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Export destinations of Romania ( 2010 ) '' . The Observatory of Economic Complexity . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` GDP per capita , PPP ( current international $ ) - Data '' . data.WorldBank.org . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Romania hopes to introduce euro in 2014 '' . Hotnews.ro. 26 January 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 14 . Jump up ^ Banking News ( 22 June 2012 ) . `` Croitoru ( BNR ) : Adoptarea monedei euro , un orizont indepartat '' . Retrieved 22 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` HICP ( 2005 = 100 ) : Monthly data ( 12 - month average rate of annual change ) '' . Eurostat. 16 August 2012 . Retrieved 6 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The corrective arm '' . European Commission . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Long - term interest rate statistics for EU Member States ( monthly data for the average of the past year ) '' . Eurostat . Retrieved 18 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Government deficit / surplus data '' . Eurostat. 22 April 2013 . Retrieved 22 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` What is ERM II ? '' . European Commission . 31 July 2012 . Retrieved 8 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Euro / ECU exchange rates - annual data ( average ) '' . Eurostat . Retrieved 5 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Former euro area national currencies vs. euro / ECU - annual data ( average ) '' . Eurostat . Retrieved 5 July 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Convergence Report May 2012 '' ( PDF ) . European Central Bank . May 2012 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Convergence Report - 2012 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . March 2012 . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : `` European economic forecast - spring 2012 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . 1 May 2012 . Retrieved 1 September 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Convergence Report '' ( PDF ) . European Central Bank . June 2013 . Retrieved 2013 - 06 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Convergence Report - 2013 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . March 2013 . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : `` European economic forecast - spring 2013 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . February 2013 . Retrieved 4 July 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Convergence Report '' ( PDF ) . European Central Bank . June 2014 . Retrieved 2014 - 07 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Convergence Report - 2014 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . April 2014 . Retrieved 2014 - 09 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : `` European economic forecast - spring 2014 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . March 2014 . Retrieved 5 July 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` Convergence Report '' ( PDF ) . European Central Bank . June 2016 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Convergence Report - June 2016 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . June 2016 . Retrieved 2016 - 06 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : `` European economic forecast - spring 2016 '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . May 2016 . Retrieved 7 June 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Luxembourg Report prepared in accordance with Article 126 ( 3 ) of the Treaty '' ( PDF ) . European Commission . 12 May 2010 . Retrieved 18 November 2012 . Jump up ^ `` EMI Annual Report 1994 '' ( PDF ) . European Monetary Institute ( EMI ) . April 1995 . Retrieved 22 November 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Progress towards convergence - November 1995 ( report prepared in accordance with article 7 of the EMI statute ) '' ( PDF ) . European Monetary Institute ( EMI ) . November 1995 . Retrieved 22 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Romania could cash in four billion dollars from the Constanta - Trieste pipeline . Pumping oil could pay off in Romania as benefits from the Constanta - Trieste pipeline could amount to more than four billion dollars . The benefits could range from 2.27 to 4.39 billion dollars over 20 years , depending on the capacity of the new oleo duct , according to Hill International 's feasibility study . Jump up ^ `` Romania contruieste a doua centrala nucleara '' . Euractiv.ro . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves '' . CleanCookstoves.org . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Avalansa portugheza : Martifer pregateste o achizitie de 7 mil . euro pe eolian si un parc propriu , EDP primeste deja turbinele '' ( in Romanian ) . Business Standard . 1 April 2009 . Retrieved 2 April 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Dobrogea , pe locul doi în Europa ca potenţial eolian '' . Dobrogea , pe locul doi în Europa ca potenţial eolian ( in Romanian ) . Evenimentul Zilei. 5 February 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` Potential de investitii in eolian de peste 4 mld . euro '' . Potential de investitii in eolian de peste 4 mld . euro ( in Romanian ) . Business Standard . 5 February 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 02 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` CJ Timis vrea sa construiasca un parc cu panouri solare , pe o suprafata de 60 de hectare '' ( in Romanian ) . Business Standard . 27 May 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Portalul national de Administratie Publica '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ Report from state power company Jump up ^ `` RAD - Network Access & Telecommunications Solutions '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Bucharest Metrorex - Railway Technology '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` METROREX '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Romania 's Black Sea natural gas production to start in 2018 ( official ) -- AGERPRES '' . www.AgerPres.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Oil and Gas Industry in Romania - ROPEPCA - Romanian Petroleum Exploration and Production Companies Association '' . www.Ropepca.ro . Retrieved 24 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Romania reports highest December 2009 industrial output growth in EU27 - FINANCIARUL - ultimele stiri din Finante , Banci , Economie , Imobiliare si IT '' . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` TOPUL celor mai bogate 5 judete din Romania dupa PIB - ul pe cap de locuitor '' . Retrieved 30 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` TOPUL celor mai bogate 5 judete din Romania dupa PIB - ul pe cap de locuitor '' . March 2015 . Retrieved 30 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Romania imports agri - food products of 2.4 bn euros in 2006 -- Danmarks ambassade Bukarest Archived 13 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` România ocupă locul doi în UE după creşterea exporturilor din primul trimestru - Mediafax '' . Mediafax.ro . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` IT and telecommunications in Central and Eastern Europe '' . Archived from the original on 11 October 2013 . Retrieved 16 September 2014 . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Economy of Romania . Economy of Romania Industry Automotive Construction Mining Petrochemicals Weapons Services Communications Internet Tourism Finances Banks ( National ) Foreign trade ( By county ) International reserves Romanian leu Energy Geothermal power Hydro power Natural gas Nuclear power Solar power Wind power Other Agriculture Bucharest Bucharest Stock Exchange Companies FDI in Romania Infrastructure Sibiu Stock Exchange Romania articles Topics History Timeline Prehistoric Romania Dacia Roman Dacia Early Middle Ages Middle Ages Early Modern Era National awakening United Principalities Kingdom World War I Greater Romania World War II Communist Romania Revolution Since 1989 Geography Cities Climate Counties Earthquakes Fauna Flora Historical Regions Islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas Rivers Topography Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT LGBT history Judiciary Law enforcement Military Parliament Political parties Unification with Moldova Economy Agriculture Energy Exports Foreign investment Foreign trade Industry automotive construction mining petrochemical Leu ( currency ) National Bank Property bubble Science and technology Services Stock Exchange Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Crime Demographics Education Healthcare Immigration Languages Minorities Hungarians in Romania Public holidays Religion Romanians Social structure Urban planning Welfare Culture Academy Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Folklore Humour Literature Media Music Philosophy Sport Outline Index Book Portal Commons Economy of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Artsakh Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard Other entities European Union Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) History Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD Anti-Bribery Convention Guidelines Multinational Enterprises Testing of Chemicals Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_Romania&oldid=835811857 '' Categories : Economy of Romania Economic history of Romania European Union member economies Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Webarchive template wayback links CS1 errors : external links CS1 Romanian - language sources ( ro ) Articles with dead external links from April 2018 Articles with dead external links from December 2016 Use dmy dates from May 2013 Wikipedia articles in need of updating from September 2017 All Wikipedia articles in need of updating All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from September 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from May 2011 All Wikipedia articles needing clarification Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2009 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Asturianu বাংলা Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Français Galego Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Lietuvių Nederlands 日本 語 Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Svenska Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 18 more Edit links This page was last edited on 10 April 2018 , at 22 : 28 . 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"\nEconomy of Romania\n\n\nBucharest, Romania\n\n\n\nCurrency\nLeu (Leu or RON)\n\n\n\nFiscal year\n\nCalendar year\n\n\n\nTrade organisations\n\nEuropean Union, WTO\n\n\nStatistics\n\n\nGDP\n\n $204,943 billion (nominal, 2017)[1]\n $467.436 billion (PPP, 2017)[1]\n\n\nGDP rank\n41st (PPP, 2017)\n\n\n\nGDP growth\n\n 7.0% (2017)[2]\n\n\n\nGDP per capita\n\n $23,709.349 (PPP; 2017)[3]\n\n\n\nGDP by sector\n\nagriculture: 4.2%; industry: 33.2%; services: 64.4% (2017 est.)\n\n\n\nInflation (CPI)\n\n 1.1%[4]\n\n\n\nPopulation below poverty line\n\n25.4 % (2015 est.)[5]\n\n\n\nGini coefficient\n\n34 (2014)[6]\n\n\n\nLabour force\n\n9.133 million (2016 est.)[4]\n\n\n\nLabour force by occupation\n\nindustry: 28.9%\nservices: 42.8%\nagriculture: 28.3% (2014 est.)[4]\n\n\nUnemployment\n4.6% (January 2018)[4]\n\n\n\nAverage gross salary\n\n4,143 RON / 1097 $, monthly (January 2018)[7]\n\n\n\nAverage net salary\n\n533 € / 658 $, monthly (January 2018)[7]\n\n\n\nMain industries\n\nelectric machinery and equipment, textiles and footwear, light machinery and auto assembly, mining, timber, construction materials, metallurgy, chemicals, food processing, petroleum refining\n\n\n\nEase-of-doing-business rank\n\n45th (2018)[8]\n\n\nExternal\n\n\nExports\n $64.92 billion (2017 est.)[9]\n\n\n\nExport goods\n\nmachinery and equipment, metals and metal products, textiles and footwear, chemicals, agricultural products, minerals and fuels\n\n\n\nMain export partners\n\n Germany 21.5%\n Italy 11.6%\n France 7.2%\n Hungary 5.2%\n United Kingdom 4.3% (2016 est.)[10]\n\n\nImports\n $78.12 billion (2017 est.)[9]\n\n\n\nImport goods\n\nmachinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels and minerals, textile and products, agricultural products\n\n\n\nMain import partners\n\n Germany 20.5%\n Italy 10.3%\n Hungary 7.5%\n France 5.6%\n Poland 5.1%\n China 5.1%\n Netherlands 4.1% (2016 est.)[11]\n\n\n\nFDI stock\n\n $70.113 billion (31 December 2016 est.)[12]\n\n\n\nGross external debt\n\n€93.954 billion (31 December 2017)[13]\n\n\nPublic finances\n\n\n\nPublic debt\n\n 39.3% of GDP (2016 est.)\n\n\nRevenues\n$56.86 billion (2016 est.)\n\n\nExpenses\n$62.14 billion (2016 est.)\n\n\nEconomic aid\n$100 billion EU structural funds (2007–13)\n$100 billion EU structural funds (2014–20)\n\n\n\nCredit rating\n\n\n\nStandard & Poor's:[14]\nBBB- (Domestic)\nBBB- (Foreign)\nA- (T&C Assessment)\nOutlook: Stable[15]\nMoody's:[16]\nBaa3\nOutlook: Positive\nFitch:[15]\nBBB-\nOutlook: Stable\n\n\n\n\n\nForeign reserves\n\nUS$42.96 billion (31 December 2014)\n\n\n\nMain data source: CIA World Fact Book\nAll values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars.\n\n\n"
] | [
"Leu (Leu or RON)"
] |
-425194203213713887 | Bennie and the Jets | Bennie and the Jets - wikipedia Bennie and the Jets Jump to : navigation , search `` Bennie and the Jets '' Single by Elton John from the album Goodbye Yellow Brick Road B - side `` Harmony '' Released 4 February 1974 Recorded May 1973 at Château d'Hérouville , France Genre Glam rock Length 5 : 23 Label MCA DJM Songwriter ( s ) Elton John Bernie Taupin Producer ( s ) Gus Dudgeon Elton John singles chronology `` Candle in the Wind '' ( 1974 ) `` Bennie and the Jets '' ( 1974 ) `` Do n't Let the Sun Go Down on Me '' ( 1974 ) `` Candle in the Wind '' ( 1974 ) `` Bennie and the Jets '' ( 1974 ) `` Do n't Let the Sun Go Down on Me '' ( 1974 ) `` Bennie and the Jets '' ( also titled as `` Benny & the Jets '' ) is a song composed by Elton John and Bernie Taupin . The song first appeared on the Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album in 1973 . `` Bennie and the Jets '' has been one of John 's most popular songs and was performed during John 's appearance at Live Aid . The track is spelled Benny on the sleeve of the single and in the track listing of the album , but Bennie on the album vinyl disc label . Contents ( hide ) 1 Single release 2 Song composition 3 Personnel 4 Music video 5 Chart performance 5.1 Weekly charts 5.2 Year - end charts 6 Covers 7 Mondegreens in the Song 8 References in popular culture 9 References 10 External links Single release ( edit ) `` Bennie and the Jets '' was featured on side one of the Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album , and Elton John was set against releasing it as a single , believing it would fail . CKLW in Windsor , Ontario , began heavy airplay of the song and it became the # 1 song in the Detroit market . This attention caused other American and Canadian Top 40 stations to add it to their playlists as well and as a result , the song peaked at # 1 on the US singles chart in 1974 . In the US , it was certified Gold on 8 April 1974 and Platinum on 13 September 1995 by the RIAA , and had sold 2.8 million copies by August 1976 . `` Bennie and the Jets '' was also John 's first Top 40 hit on what at the time was called the Billboard Hot Soul Singles chart , where it peaked at # 15 , the highest position out of the three of his singles which reached that chart . The acceptance of `` Bennie '' on R&B radio helped land John , a huge soul music fan , a guest appearance on the 17 May 1975 edition of Soul Train , where he played `` Bennie and the Jets '' and `` Philadelphia Freedom '' . In Canada , it held the # 1 spot on the RPM national singles chart for two weeks ( 13 -- 20 April ) , becoming his first # 1 single of 1974 and his fourth overall . Song composition ( edit ) The song tells of `` Bennie and the Jets '' , a fictional band of whom the song 's narrator is a fan . The song is written in the key of G major . In interviews , Taupin has said that the song 's lyrics are a satire on the music industry of the 1970s . The greed and glitz of the early 1970s music scene is portrayed by Taupin 's words : We 'll kill the fatted calf tonight , so stick around , you 're gon na hear electric music , solid walls of sound . Taupin also goes on to describe the flashy wardrobe of `` Bennie '' , the leader of the band : She 's got electric boots , a mohair suit You know I read it in a magazine Ohh ... See also : History_of_Benzedrine § Elton John - Bennie and the Jets Produced by Gus Dudgeon , the song was recorded during the `` Goodbye Yellow Brick Road '' sessions in France at Château d'Hérouville 's Strawberry Studios , where John and Taupin had recorded their previous two albums , Honky Château and Do n't Shoot Me I 'm Only the Piano Player . After recording the song in the studio , John and the band worried that it was too plain and unoriginal . In the Eagle Vision documentary on the making of Goodbye Yellow Brick Road , John recalled , `` I fought tooth and nail against ' Bennie ' coming out as a single . '' According to guitarist Davey Johnstone , `` ' Bennie and the Jets ' was one of the oddest songs we ever recorded . We just sat back and said , ' This is really odd . ' '' While mixing the album , Dudgeon came up with the idea of creating a `` live from Playhouse Theatre '' sound for the track . He added reverb effects , applause and other audience sounds from John 's previous concerts and a loop from the Jimi Hendrix live album Isle of Wight , plus whistles , giving it the `` live concert recording '' feel that has since become a sort of trademark . John rarely plays the song verbatim to the studio version , and often makes subtle or even drastic changes . Live , the piano solo in the middle of the song has been played in all sorts of variations , from very close to the original to wildly improvised and extended versions , such as the elaborate version during a Central Park concert in 1980 and another memorable take on it during the `` Elton and his band '' part of the show recorded for what would become Live in Australia in December 1986 . ( It can be seen on various Laserdisc releases of the show . ) He has also been known to end the song in a wide range of styles , including classical , swing , boogie - woogie and even using the signature five - note phrase from John Williams ' score for Close Encounters of the Third Kind . Personnel ( edit ) Elton John -- piano , Farfisa organ , vocals Davey Johnstone -- acoustic and electric guitars Dee Murray -- bass Nigel Olsson -- drums Music video ( edit ) In May 2017 , an official music video for `` Bennie and the Jets '' premiered at the Cannes Film Festival as a winner of Elton John : The Cut , a competition organized in partnership with AKQA , Pulse Films , and YouTube in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of his songwriting relationship with Bernie Taupin . The competition called upon independent filmmakers to submit treatments for music videos for one of three Elton John songs from the 1970s , with each song falling within a specific concept category . `` Bennie and the Jets '' was designated for the choreography category , and was directed by Jack Whiteley and Laura Brownhill . The video was influenced by early cinema and the work of Busby Berkeley , portraying characters as participants on a talent show auditioning for Bennie . Chart performance ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1974 ) Peak position Australia 5 Canada France ( SNEP ) 175 Ireland ( IRMA ) 18 New Zealand 13 US Billboard Hot 100 US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs ( Billboard ) 15 US Cash Box Top 100 Chart ( 1976 ) Peak position UK Singles Chart 37 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1974 ) Rank Australia 34 Canada 6 U.S. Billboard Hot 100 9 U.S. Cash Box 12 Covers ( edit ) In 1991 CKBE - FM David Tyler . Pyotr Mamonov and Vasily Shumov recorded a cover of this song on their Russkie poyut ( Russians are Singing ) album ( 1994 ) . The NFL 's New York Jets used a parody of the song called `` Vinny and the Jets '' during quarterback Vinny Testaverde 's first run with the team from 1998 to 2003 . Parodies relating to New York Mets players Lenny Dykstra and later Benny Agbayani were mainstays on New York City radio stations . Ray Castoldi , the longtime organist for the NBA 's New York Knicks , is often heard playing this song at Knicks home games . The song has also been played on the organ at Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings home games . The Beastie Boys released a cover of this song on their The Sounds of Science album in 1999 . The song , titled `` Benny and the Jets '' , was sung by frequent Beastie Boys collaborator Biz Markie . This recording was first released in 1995 as a flexi disc inside of issue two of the Beastie Boys ' Grand Royal magazine . Biz Markie performed his own humorous rendition of `` Bennie and the Jets '' on The Chris Rock Show in 2000 . Katherine Heigl and James Marsden sing along with the song , karaoke - style , while dancing on a bar in the 2008 film 27 Dresses . Both of them make many mistakes in the lyrics . Mary J. Blige sampled the melody for her song `` Deep Inside '' . When Blige asked Elton John for permission to sample the piano line , he ended up agreeing to actually play the line on the track instead . Ashanti 's 2008 single `` Good Good '' also sampled the melody . Mister G included a recording of himself playing Elton John 's `` Benny and the Jets '' at the age of nine as the last track on his album BUGS Cher performed the song in a duet on The Cher Show with Elton John on piano in 1975 . In 2006 Christina Aguilera with Elton John performed this song at Fashion Rocks . American Idol Season 10 finalist Haley Reinhart performed a cover of `` Bennie and the Jets '' during the Top 11 ( 2nd Week ) finalist performances on 30 March 2011 . She performed it again after her elimination during the Top 3 Results Show , on 19 May . It was covered by The Hickoids on Kicking It With the Twits , a 2011 mini LP of British Invasion era covers . Covered by Victoria Vox on her 2012 Under the Covers CD . In 2013 Brandy Moss - Scott released a cover of `` Bennie and the Jets '' . In 2013 James Sayer announced a cover of `` Bennie and the Jets '' would be released in December . In 2013 Lady Gaga with Elton John performed this song on Lady Gaga and the Muppets Holiday Spectacular . In 2014 Miguel with Wale performed this song on Goodbye Yellow Brick Road : 40th Anniversary Celebration . Indie Pop artist BØRNS performs his own cover of `` Bennie and The Jets '' during live shows . At times he adds a verse from Frank Ocean 's `` Super Rich Kids '' towards the end , as `` Super Rich Kids '' has samples of `` Bennie and The Jets '' within it . The song was sampled by rap group A Tribe Called Quest for the song `` Solid Wall of Sound '' on their 2016 album , We Got It from Here ... Thank You 4 Your Service . Mondegreens in the song ( edit ) The song contains the line `` She 's got electric boots , a mohair suit '' , which is often misheard as `` She 's got electric boobs , and mohair shoes '' . References in popular culture ( edit ) The original Winnipeg Jets NHL team 's mascot was named Benny , partially in reference to this song , but primarily after the original owner of the ( WHA ) team , Ben Hatskin . The band TV Girl released an EP on 25 July 2011 , entitled `` Benny and the Jetts '' . It features four songs , the first of which is also titled `` Benny and the Jetts '' , which describes a girl that the singer once knew who was always listening to the song . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Bill Janovitz . `` Bennie & the Jets - Elton John Song Info '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Elton John - Goodbye Yellow Brick Road ( Vinyl , LP , Album ) '' . Discogs.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ Karen Bliss ( 2016 - 01 - 21 ) . `` The Legacy of Rosalie Trombley , Radio Pioneer Immortalized in Bob Seger 's ' Rosalie ' and Breaker of ' Bennie and the Jets ' Billboard '' . Readability.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- John , Elton -- Bennie _ the Jets '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 02 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ Jahr , Cliff . `` Elton John , Lonely at the Top : Rolling Stone 's 1976 Cover Story '' . Rolling Stonedate = 2011 - 02 - 02 . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 02 . Jump up ^ Allmusic . `` Elton John : Charts and Awards '' . Allmusic . Retrieved 21 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display -- RPM -- Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Item Display -- RPM -- Library and Archives Canada '' . Collectionscanada.gc.ca . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Goodbye Yellow Brick Road at '' . Entertainment Weekly . 19 August 2008 . Archived from the original on 20 November 2009 . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` WATCH : Elton John and Bernie Taupin 's ' Tiny Dancer , ' ' Rocket Man ' and ' Bennie and the Jets ' Just Got New Music Videos '' . People.com . Retrieved 26 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Elton John Premieres Three Music Videos for His ' 70s Classics '' . Out Magazine . Retrieved 26 May 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Elton John -- Bennie and the Jets '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved June 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Irish Charts -- Search Results -- Bennie and the Jets '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved June 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` flavour of new zealand - search listener '' . Flavourofnz.co.nz . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Elton John -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot 100 for Elton John . Retrieved July 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Elton John -- Chart history '' Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs for Elton John . Retrieved July 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Image : RPM Weekly - Library and Archives Canada '' . Bac-lac.gc.ca . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Hits of 1974 / Top 100 Songs of 1974 '' . Musicoutfitters.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 19 October 2014 . Retrieved 2015 - 07 - 16 . Jump up ^ `` The Sounds of Science at Beastie Boys store '' . Sammerch.com . Archived from the original on 2 May 2008 . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Dearmore , Kelly ( 28 May 1998 ) . `` He got game -- Page 1 -- Music -- Dallas '' . Dallas Observer . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` VH1 Video on YouTube . Early 1970s performance on the Sonny and Cher Show '' . Youtube. 14 February 2008 . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` BØRNS covers Elton John : Bennie and the Jets . Independent SF , 3 / 12 / 15 - YouTube '' . M.youtube.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` mondegreens - misunderstood song lyrics '' . Corsinet.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ Lawrence DiStasi ( 2011 - 07 - 29 ) . `` DiStasiblog : Mondegreens '' . Distasiblog.blogspot.com . Retrieved 2016 - 10 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Photo of Benny , Winnipeg Jets mascot '' . Winnipegjetsonline.com . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Jump up ^ `` TV Girl Bandcamp Site for ' Benny and the Jetts ' '' . Tvgirl.bandcamp.com . Retrieved 10 April 2014 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Preceded by `` Hooked on a Feeling '' by Blue Swede US Billboard Hot 100 number - one single 13 April 1974 ( one week ) Succeeded by `` TSOP ( The Sound of Philadelphia ) '' by MFSB featuring The Three Degrees Preceded by `` Sunshine On My Shoulders '' by John Denver Canadian RPM 100 number - one single 13 April 1974 - 20 April 1974 ( two weeks ) Succeeded by `` TSOP ( The Sound of Philadelphia ) '' by MFSB featuring The Three Degrees ( hide ) Elton John songs 1960s and 1970s `` Skyline Pigeon '' ( 1968 ) `` I 've Been Loving You '' ( 1968 ) `` Lady Samantha '' ( 1969 ) `` It 's Me That You Need '' ( 1969 ) `` Border Song '' ( 1970 ) `` Rock and Roll Madonna '' ( 1970 ) `` From Denver to L.A. '' ( 1970 ) `` Take Me to the Pilot '' ( 1970 ) `` Your Song '' ( 1970 ) `` Friends '' ( 1971 ) `` Levon '' ( 1971 ) `` Tiny Dancer '' ( 1972 ) `` Rocket Man '' ( 1972 ) `` Honky Cat '' ( 1972 ) `` I Think I 'm Going to Kill Myself '' ( 1972 ) `` Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters '' ( 1972 ) `` Crocodile Rock '' ( 1972 ) `` Elderberry Wine '' ( 1972 ) `` Daniel '' ( 1972 ) `` Teacher I Need You '' ( 1973 ) `` Funeral for a Friend / Love Lies Bleeding '' ( 1973 ) `` Saturday Night 's Alright for Fighting '' ( 1973 ) `` Goodbye Yellow Brick Road '' ( 1973 ) `` Step into Christmas '' ( 1973 ) `` Candle in the Wind '' ( 1974 ) `` Bennie and the Jets '' ( 1974 ) `` Harmony '' ( 1974 ) `` Do n't Let the Sun Go Down on Me '' ( 1974 ) `` The Bitch Is Back '' ( 1974 ) `` Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' ( 1974 ) `` Philadelphia Freedom '' ( 1975 ) `` I Saw Her Standing There '' ( 1975 ) `` Someone Saved My Life Tonight '' ( 1975 ) `` Island Girl '' ( 1975 ) `` Grow Some Funk of Your Own '' ( 1976 ) `` I Feel Like a Bullet ( In the Gun of Robert Ford ) '' ( 1976 ) `` Pinball Wizard '' ( 1976 ) `` Do n't Go Breaking My Heart '' ( 1976 ) `` Cage the Songbird '' ( 1976 ) `` Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word '' ( 1976 ) `` Bite Your Lip ( Get Up and Dance ! ) '' ( 1977 ) `` Crazy Water '' ( 1977 ) `` The Goaldiggers Song '' ( 1977 ) `` Ego '' ( 1978 ) `` Part - Time Love '' ( 1978 ) `` Song for Guy '' ( 1978 ) `` Are You Ready for Love '' ( 1979 ) `` Mama Ca n't Buy You Love '' ( 1979 ) `` Johnny B. Goode '' ( 1979 ) 1980s `` Little Jeannie '' ( 1980 ) `` Sartorial Eloquence ( Do n't Ya Wanna Play This Game No More ? ) '' ( 1980 ) `` Dear God '' ( 1980 ) `` Whatever Gets You thru the Night '' ( 1981 ) `` Loving You Is Sweeter Than Ever '' ( with Kiki Dee , 1981 ) `` Blue Eyes '' ( 1982 ) `` Empty Garden ( Hey Hey Johnny ) '' ( 1982 ) `` Ball and Chain '' ( 1982 ) `` All Quiet on the Western Front '' ( 1982 ) `` I Guess That 's Why They Call It the Blues '' ( 1983 ) `` I 'm Still Standing '' ( 1983 ) `` Sad Songs ( Say So Much ) '' ( 1984 ) `` Nikita '' ( 1985 ) `` That 's What Friends Are For '' ( 1985 ) `` Wrap Her Up '' ( 1985 ) `` Take Me to the Pilot '' ( 1988 ) `` I Do n't Wanna Go on with You Like That '' ( 1988 ) `` Town of Plenty '' ( 1988 ) `` Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters ( Part Two ) '' ( 1988 ) `` Healing Hands '' ( 1989 ) `` Sacrifice '' ( 1989 ) 1990s `` Club at the End of the Street '' ( 1990 ) `` You Gotta Love Someone '' ( 1990 ) `` Do n't Let the Sun Go Down on Me '' ( 1991 ) `` The One '' ( 1992 ) `` Runaway Train '' ( 1992 ) `` The Last Song '' ( 1992 ) `` Simple Life '' ( 1993 ) `` True Love '' ( 1993 ) `` Shakey Ground '' ( 1994 ) `` Ai n't Nothing Like the Real Thing '' ( 1994 ) `` Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' ( 1994 ) `` Circle of Life '' ( 1994 ) `` Believe '' ( 1995 ) `` Made in England '' ( 1995 ) `` When the Money 's Gone '' ( 1995 ) `` You Can Make History ( Young Again ) '' ( 1996 ) `` The Madness of King Scar '' ( 1997 ) `` Something About the Way You Look Tonight '' ( 1997 ) `` Candle in the Wind 1997 '' ( 1997 ) `` Written in the Stars '' ( 1999 ) 2000s `` I Want Love '' ( 2001 ) `` This Train Do n't Stop There Anymore '' ( 2002 ) `` Original Sin '' ( 2002 ) `` Are You Ready for Love '' ( 2003 ) `` Ghetto Gospel '' ( 2005 ) `` Electricity '' ( 2005 ) `` The Bridge '' ( 2006 ) `` Joseph , Better You than Me '' ( 2008 ) `` Tiny Dancer ( Hold Me Closer ) '' ( 2009 ) Related articles Albums discography Videography Book : Elton John Category : Elton John Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bennie_and_the_Jets&oldid=806228677 '' Categories : Elton John songs 1974 singles Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles Songs with music by Elton John Songs with lyrics by Bernie Taupin Recorded music characters Mondegreens Fictional musical groups Song recordings produced by Gus Dudgeon 1973 songs MCA Records singles DJM Records singles Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from October 2016 Use British English from December 2013 Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013 Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Ireland2 Singlechart called without artist Singlechart usages for Billboardhot100 Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardrandbhiphop Use dmy dates from May 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Español Italiano Norsk Norsk nynorsk Português Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 20 October 2017 , at 16 : 05 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | when did bennie and the jets come out | [
"\"Bennie and the Jets\" (also titled as \"Benny & the Jets\") is a song composed by Elton John and Bernie Taupin.[1] The song first appeared on the Goodbye Yellow Brick Road album in 1973. \"Bennie and the Jets\" has been one of John's most popular songs and was performed during John's appearance at Live Aid. The track is spelled Benny on the sleeve of the single and in the track listing of the album, but Bennie on the album vinyl disc label.[2]"
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"1973"
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-2391814030758282947 | List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees | List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees - wikipedia List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees Jump to : navigation , search This is a list of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees in the award categories `` acting '' and `` directing '' . This list is based on `` statistics valid through the nomination announcement for the 2015 ( 88th Academy Awards ) , announced on January 14 , 2016 '' , as documented in The Official Academy Awards Database . Contents ( hide ) 1 Superlatives 2 Best Director 2.1 Oldest winners 2.2 Oldest nominees 2.3 Youngest winners 2.4 Youngest nominees 3 Best Actor in a Leading Role 3.1 Oldest winners 3.2 Oldest nominees 3.3 Youngest winners 3.4 Youngest nominees 4 Best Actress in a Leading Role 4.1 Oldest winners 4.2 Oldest nominees 4.3 Youngest winners 4.4 Youngest nominees 5 Best Actor in a Supporting Role 5.1 Oldest winners 5.2 Oldest nominees 5.3 Youngest winners 5.4 Youngest nominees 6 Best Actress in a Supporting Role 6.1 Oldest winners 6.2 Oldest nominees 6.3 Youngest winners 6.4 Youngest nominees 7 Honorary Awards 7.1 Academy Honorary Award 7.1. 1 Oldest honorees 7.1. 2 Oldest acting honorees 7.2 Honorary Juvenile Award 7.2. 1 Youngest honorees 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Superlatives ( edit ) Among the oldest and youngest winners and nominees of Academy Awards in standard competitive categories , the following superlatives emerge : Superlative Overall Director Actor Actress Oldest Nominee Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer Age 88 Huston , John John Huston Age 79 Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer Age 88 Stuart , Gloria Gloria Stuart Age 87 Oldest Winner Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer Age 82 Eastwood , Clint Clint Eastwood Age 74 Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer Age 82 Tandy , Jessica Jessica Tandy Age 80 Youngest Nominee Henry , Justin Justin Henry Age 8 Singleton , John John Singleton Age 24 Henry , Justin Justin Henry Age 8 Wallis , Quvenzhané Quvenzhané Wallis Age 9 Youngest Winner O'Neal , Tatum Tatum O'Neal Age 10 Chazelle , Damien Damien Chazelle Age 32 Hutton , Timothy Timothy Hutton Age 20 O'Neal , Tatum Tatum O'Neal Age 10 Best Director ( edit ) Oldest winners ( edit ) Source : `` Academy Award Statistics : Directing : Oldest / Youngest Directing Nominees / Winners : AMPAS Awards Database Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004273010000000000 ♠ 74 years , 272 days Eastwood , Clint Clint Eastwood Million Dollar Baby 000000001930 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31 , 1930 000000002005 - 02 - 27 - 0000 February 27 , 2005 Has held record for 13 years ( 2005 -- 2018 ) 7004254190000000000 ♠ 69 years , 217 days Polanski , Roman Roman Polanski The Pianist 2002 000000001933 - 08 - 18 - 0000 August 18 , 1933 000000002003 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 2003 Held record for 2 years ( 2003 -- 2005 ) 7004240130000000000 ♠ 65 years , 272 days Cukor , George George Cukor My Fair Lady 1964 000000001899 - 07 - 07 - 0000 July 7 , 1899 000000001965 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 1965 Held record for 38 years ( 1965 -- 2003 ) 7004234760000000000 ♠ 64 years , 100 days Scorsese , Martin Martin Scorsese The Departed 2006 000000001942 - 11 - 17 - 0000 November 17 , 1942 000000002007 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 2007 5 7004229480000000000 ♠ 62 years , 302 days Eastwood , Clint Clint Eastwood Unforgiven 1992 000000001930 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31 , 1930 000000001993 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1993 6 7004227510000000000 ♠ 62 years , 105 days Reed , Carol Carol Reed Oliver ! 1968 000000001906 - 12 - 30 - 0000 December 30 , 1906 000000001969 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1969 7 7004218960000000000 ♠ 59 years , 346 days Zinnemann , Fred Fred Zinnemann A Man for All Seasons 1966 000000001907 - 04 - 29 - 0000 April 29 , 1907 000000001967 - 04 - 10 - 0000 April 10 , 1967 8 7004217750000000000 ♠ 59 years , 225 days Attenborough , Richard Richard Attenborough Gandhi 1982 000000001923 - 08 - 29 - 0000 August 29 , 1923 000000001983 - 04 - 11 - 0000 April 11 , 1983 9 7004215950000000000 ♠ 59 years , 46 days Ford , John John Ford The Quiet Man 1952 000000001894 - 02 - 01 - 0000 February 1 , 1894 000000001953 - 03 - 19 - 0000 March 19 , 1953 Held record for 12 years ( 1953 -- 1965 ) 10 7004213090000000000 ♠ 58 years , 124 days Lee , Ang Ang Lee Life of Pi 2012 000000001954 - 10 - 23 - 0000 October 23 , 1954 000000002013 - 02 - 24 - 0000 February 24 , 2013 Oldest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7004290390000000000 ♠ 79 years , 184 days Huston , John John Huston Prizzi 's Honor 1985 000000001906 - 08 - 05 - 0000 August 5 , 1906 000000001986 - 02 - 05 - 0000 February 5 , 1986 Has held record for 32 years ( 1986 -- 2018 ) 7004286830000000000 ♠ 78 years , 193 days Crichton , Charles Charles Crichton A Fish Called Wanda 1988 000000001910 - 08 - 06 - 0000 August 6 , 1910 000000001989 - 02 - 15 - 0000 February 15 , 1989 7004281160000000000 ♠ 76 years , 357 days Altman , Robert Robert Altman Gosford Park 2001 000000001925 - 02 - 20 - 0000 February 20 , 1925 000000002002 - 02 - 12 - 0000 February 12 , 2002 7004280770000000000 ♠ 76 years , 318 days Lean , David David Lean A Passage to India 1984 000000001908 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 1908 000000001985 - 02 - 06 - 0000 February 6 , 1985 Held record for 1 year ( 1985 -- 1986 ) 5 7004279960000000000 ♠ 76 years , 237 days Eastwood , Clint Clint Eastwood Letters from Iwo Jima 2006 000000001930 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31 , 1930 000000002007 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2007 6 7004278130000000000 ♠ 76 years , 54 days Allen , Woody Woody Allen Midnight In Paris 2011 000000001935 - 12 - 01 - 0000 December 1 , 1935 000000002012 - 01 - 24 - 0000 January 24 , 2012 7 7004277130000000000 ♠ 75 years , 319 days Kurosawa , Akira Akira Kurosawa Ran 1985 000000001910 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 1910 000000001986 - 02 - 05 - 0000 February 5 , 1986 8 7004272680000000000 ♠ 74 years , 239 days Eastwood , Clint Clint Eastwood Million Dollar Baby 000000001930 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31 , 1930 000000002005 - 01 - 25 - 0000 January 25 , 2005 Winner 9 7004269040000000000 ♠ 73 years , 241 days Mystic River 2003 000000002004 - 01 - 27 - 0000 January 27 , 2004 10 7004261130000000000 ♠ 71 years , 181 days DeMille , Cecil B. Cecil B. DeMille The Greatest Show on Earth 1952 000000001881 - 08 - 12 - 0000 August 12 , 1881 000000001953 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1953 Held record for 32 years ( 1953 -- 1985 ) Youngest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004117260000000000 ♠ 32 years , 38 days Chazelle , Damien Damien Chazelle La La Land 2016 000000001985 - 01 - 19 - 0000 January 19 , 1985 000000002017 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 2017 Has held record for 1 year ( 2017 -- 2018 ) 7004119470000000000 ♠ 32 years , 260 days Taurog , Norman Norman Taurog Skippy 1930 / 31 000000001899 - 02 - 23 - 0000 February 23 , 1899 000000001931 - 11 - 10 - 0000 November 10 , 1931 Held record for 86 years ( 1931 -- 2017 ) 7004122810000000000 ♠ 33 years , 228 days Milestone , Lewis Lewis Milestone Two Arabian Knights 1927 / 28 000000001895 - 09 - 30 - 0000 September 30 , 1895 000000001929 - 05 - 16 - 0000 May 16 , 1929 Held record for 2 years ( 1929 -- 1931 ) 7004126560000000000 ♠ 34 years , 238 days Mendes , Sam Sam Mendes American Beauty 1999 000000001965 - 08 - 01 - 0000 August 1 , 1965 000000002000 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 2000 5 7004128060000000000 ♠ 35 years , 23 days Borzage , Frank Frank Borzage 7th Heaven 1927 / 28 000000001894 - 04 - 23 - 0000 April 23 , 1894 000000001929 - 05 - 16 - 0000 May 16 , 1929 6 7004128190000000000 ♠ 35 years , 36 days Milestone , Lewis Lewis Milestone All Quiet on the Western Front 1929 / 30 000000001895 - 09 - 30 - 0000 September 30 , 1895 000000001930 - 11 - 05 - 0000 November 5 , 1930 7 7004130960000000000 ♠ 35 years , 313 days Richardson , Tony Tony Richardson Tom Jones 1963 000000001928 - 06 - 05 - 0000 June 5 , 1928 000000001964 - 04 - 13 - 0000 April 13 , 1964 8 7004131500000000000 ♠ 36 years , 1 day Coppola , Francis Ford Francis Ford Coppola The Godfather Part II 000000001939 - 04 - 07 - 0000 April 7 , 1939 000000001975 - 04 - 08 - 0000 April 8 , 1975 9 7004132000000000000 ♠ 36 years , 51 days Mann , Delbert Delbert Mann Marty 1955 000000001920 - 01 - 30 - 0000 January 30 , 1920 000000001956 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1956 10 7004132150000000000 ♠ 36 years , 66 days Costner , Kevin Kevin Costner Dances with Wolves 1990 000000001955 - 01 - 18 - 0000 January 18 , 1955 000000001991 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 1991 Youngest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7003881000000000000 ♠ 24 years , 44 days Singleton , John John Singleton Boyz n the Hood 1991 000000001968 - 01 - 06 - 0000 January 6 , 1968 000000001992 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1992 Has held record for 26 years ( 1992 -- 2018 ) 7003977600000000000 ♠ 26 years , 279 days Welles , Orson Orson Welles Citizen Kane 1941 000000001915 - 05 - 06 - 0000 May 6 , 1915 000000001942 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1942 Held record for 50 years ( 1942 -- 1992 ) 7004106580000000000 ♠ 29 years , 66 days Branagh , Kenneth Kenneth Branagh Henry V 1989 000000001960 - 12 - 10 - 0000 December 10 , 1960 000000001990 - 02 - 14 - 0000 February 14 , 1990 7004107050000000000 ♠ 29 years , 113 days Lelouch , Claude Claude Lelouch A Man and a Woman 1966 000000001937 - 10 - 30 - 0000 October 30 , 1937 000000001967 - 02 - 20 - 0000 February 20 , 1967 5 7004107850000000000 ♠ 29 years , 193 days Shyamalan , M. Night M. Night Shyamalan The Sixth Sense 1999 000000001970 - 08 - 06 - 0000 August 6 , 1970 000000002000 - 02 - 15 - 0000 February 15 , 2000 6 7004108730000000000 ♠ 29 years , 281 days Lucas , George George Lucas American Graffiti 1973 000000001944 - 05 - 14 - 0000 May 14 , 1944 000000001974 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1974 7 7004110460000000000 ♠ 30 years , 88 days Zeitlin , Benh Benh Zeitlin Beasts of the Southern Wild 2012 000000001982 - 10 - 14 - 0000 October 14 , 1982 000000002013 - 01 - 10 - 0000 January 10 , 2013 8 7004110520000000000 ♠ 30 years , 95 days Reitman , Jason Jason Reitman Juno 2007 000000001977 - 10 - 19 - 0000 October 19 , 1977 000000002008 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 2008 9 7004110730000000000 ♠ 30 years , 116 days Jonze , Spike Spike Jonze Being John Malkovich 1999 000000001969 - 10 - 22 - 0000 October 22 , 1969 000000002000 - 02 - 15 - 0000 February 15 , 2000 10 7004113880000000000 ♠ 31 years , 65 days Spielberg , Steven Steven Spielberg Close Encounters of the Third Kind 1977 000000001946 - 12 - 18 - 0000 December 18 , 1946 000000001978 - 02 - 21 - 0000 February 21 , 1978 Best Actor in a Leading Role ( edit ) Source : `` Academy Award Statistics : Acting : Oldest / Youngest Winners and Nominees for Acting , By Category : Actor ( in a Leading Role ) '' , AMPAS Awards Database Oldest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004280760000000000 ♠ 76 years , 317 days Fonda , Henry Henry Fonda On Golden Pond 1981 000000001905 - 05 - 16 - 0000 May 16 , 1905 000000001982 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1982 Has held record for 36 years ( 1982 -- 2018 ) 7004229620000000000 ♠ 62 years , 316 days Wayne , John John Wayne True Grit 1969 000000001907 - 05 - 26 - 0000 May 26 , 1907 000000001970 - 04 - 07 - 0000 April 7 , 1970 Held record for 12 years ( 1970 -- 1982 ) 7004228530000000000 ♠ 62 years , 209 days Arliss , George George Arliss Disraeli 1929 / 30 000000001868 - 04 - 10 - 0000 April 10 , 1868 000000001930 - 11 - 05 - 0000 November 5 , 1930 Held record for 40 years ( 1930 -- 1970 ) 7004227080000000000 ♠ 62 years , 63 days Newman , Paul Paul Newman The Color of Money 1986 000000001925 - 01 - 26 - 0000 January 26 , 1925 000000001987 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1987 5 7004222500000000000 ♠ 60 years , 335 days Nicholson , Jack Jack Nicholson As Good as It Gets 1997 000000001937 - 04 - 22 - 0000 April 22 , 1937 000000001998 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 1998 6 7004220960000000000 ♠ 60 years , 181 days Finch , Peter Peter Finch Network 1976 000000001916 - 09 - 28 - 0000 September 28 , 1916 000000001977 - 03 - 28 - 0000 March 28 , 1977 Posthumous award 7 7004220080000000000 ♠ 60 years , 93 days Bridges , Jeff Jeff Bridges Crazy Heart 2009 000000001949 - 12 - 04 - 0000 December 4 , 1949 000000002010 - 03 - 07 - 0000 March 7 , 2010 8 7004218980000000000 ♠ 59 years , 348 days Oldman , Gary Gary Oldman Darkest Hour 2017 000000001958 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1958 000000002018 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 2018 9 7004208580000000000 ♠ 57 years , 40 days Colman , Ronald Ronald Colman A Double Life 1947 000000001891 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1891 000000001948 - 03 - 20 - 0000 March 20 , 1948 10 7004208500000000000 ♠ 57 years , 31 days Harrison , Rex Rex Harrison My Fair Lady 1964 000000001908 - 03 - 05 - 0000 March 5 , 1908 000000001965 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 1965 Oldest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7004290210000000000 ♠ 79 years , 167 days Farnsworth , Richard Richard Farnsworth The Straight Story 1999 000000001920 - 09 - 01 - 0000 September 1 , 1920 000000002000 - 03 - 22 - 0000 March 22 , 2000 Has held record for 18 years ( 2000 -- 2018 ) 7004283500000000000 ♠ 77 years , 226 days Dern , Bruce Bruce Dern Nebraska 2013 000000001936 - 06 - 06 - 0000 June 6 , 1936 000000002014 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16 , 2014 7004280300000000000 ♠ 76 years , 271 days Fonda , Henry Henry Fonda On Golden Pond 1981 000000001905 - 05 - 16 - 0000 May 16 , 1905 000000001982 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1982 Winner Held record for 18 years ( 1982 -- 2000 ) 7004272680000000000 ♠ 74 years , 239 days Eastwood , Clint Clint Eastwood Million Dollar Baby 000000001930 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31 , 1930 000000002005 - 01 - 25 - 0000 January 25 , 2005 5 7004272020000000000 ♠ 74 years , 174 days O'Toole , Peter Peter O'Toole Venus 2006 000000001932 - 08 - 02 - 0000 August 2 , 1932 000000002007 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2007 6 7004265440000000000 ♠ 72 years , 246 days Freeman , Morgan Morgan Freeman Invictus 2009 000000001937 - 06 - 01 - 0000 June 1 , 1937 000000002010 - 02 - 02 - 0000 February 2 , 2010 7 7004262070000000000 ♠ 71 years , 274 days Olivier , Laurence Laurence Olivier The Boys from Brazil 1978 000000001907 - 05 - 22 - 0000 May 22 , 1907 000000001979 - 02 - 20 - 0000 February 20 , 1979 Held record for 3 years ( 1979 -- 1982 ) 8 7004259540000000000 ♠ 71 years , 21 days Langella , Frank Frank Langella Frost / Nixon 2008 000000001938 - 01 - 01 - 0000 January 1 , 1938 000000002009 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 2009 9 7004255860000000000 ♠ 70 years , 19 days Newman , Paul Paul Newman Nobody 's Fool 1994 000000001925 - 01 - 26 - 0000 January 26 , 1925 000000001995 - 02 - 14 - 0000 February 14 , 1995 10 7004255360000000000 ♠ 69 years , 334 days Caine , Michael Michael Caine The Quiet American 2002 000000001933 - 03 - 14 - 0000 March 14 , 1933 000000002003 - 02 - 11 - 0000 February 11 , 2003 Youngest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004109350000000000 ♠ 29 years , 343 days Brody , Adrien Adrien Brody The Pianist 2002 000000001973 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1973 000000002003 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 2003 Has held record for 15 years ( 2003 -- 2018 ) 7004111140000000000 ♠ 30 years , 156 days Dreyfuss , Richard Richard Dreyfuss The Goodbye Girl 1977 000000001947 - 10 - 29 - 0000 October 29 , 1947 000000001978 - 04 - 03 - 0000 April 3 , 1978 Held record for 25 years ( 1978 -- 2003 ) 7004113180000000000 ♠ 30 years , 361 days Brando , Marlon Marlon Brando On the Waterfront 1954 000000001924 - 04 - 03 - 0000 April 3 , 1924 000000001955 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1955 Held record for 23 years ( 1955 -- 1978 ) 7004114450000000000 ♠ 31 years , 122 days Schell , Maximilian Maximilian Schell Judgment at Nuremberg 1961 000000001930 - 12 - 08 - 0000 December 8 , 1930 000000001962 - 04 - 09 - 0000 April 9 , 1962 5 7004117660000000000 ♠ 32 years , 78 days Cage , Nicolas Nicolas Cage Leaving Las Vegas 1995 000000001964 - 01 - 07 - 0000 January 7 , 1964 000000001996 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 1996 6 7004119710000000000 ♠ 32 years , 283 days Stewart , James James Stewart The Philadelphia Story 1940 000000001908 - 05 - 20 - 0000 May 20 , 1908 000000001941 - 02 - 27 - 0000 February 27 , 1941 Held record for 14 years ( 1941 -- 1955 ) 7 7004120190000000000 ♠ 32 years , 331 days Day - Lewis , Daniel Daniel Day - Lewis My Left Foot 1989 000000001957 - 04 - 29 - 0000 April 29 , 1957 000000001990 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 1990 8 7004121000000000000 ♠ 33 years , 47 days Redmayne , Eddie Eddie Redmayne The Theory of Everything 2014 000000001982 - 01 - 06 - 0000 January 6 , 1982 000000002015 - 02 - 22 - 0000 February 22 , 2015 9 7004124440000000000 ♠ 34 years , 26 days Gable , Clark Clark Gable It Happened One Night 1934 000000001901 - 02 - 01 - 0000 February 1 , 1901 000000001935 - 02 - 27 - 0000 February 27 , 1935 Held record for 6 years ( 1935 -- 1941 ) 10 7004126760000000000 ♠ 34 years , 258 days Laughton , Charles Charles Laughton The Private Life of Henry VIII 1932 / 33 000000001899 - 07 - 01 - 0000 July 1 , 1899 000000001934 - 03 - 16 - 0000 March 16 , 1934 Held record for 1 year ( 1934 -- 1935 ) Youngest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7003330700000000000 ♠ 9 years , 20 days Cooper , Jackie Jackie Cooper Skippy 1930 / 31 000000001922 - 09 - 15 - 0000 September 15 , 1922 000000001931 - 10 - 05 - 0000 October 5 , 1931 Has held record for 87 years ( 1931 -- 2018 ) 7003708100000000000 ♠ 19 years , 142 days Rooney , Mickey Mickey Rooney Babes in Arms 1939 000000001920 - 09 - 23 - 0000 September 23 , 1920 000000001940 - 02 - 12 - 0000 February 12 , 1940 7003806300000000000 ♠ 22 years , 27 days Chalamet , Timothée Timothée Chalamet Call Me by Your Name 2017 000000001995 - 12 - 27 - 0000 December 27 , 1995 000000002018 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2018 7003853700000000000 ♠ 23 years , 137 days Rooney , Mickey Mickey Rooney The Human Comedy 1943 000000001920 - 09 - 23 - 0000 September 23 , 1920 000000001944 - 02 - 07 - 0000 February 7 , 1944 5 7003876900000000000 ♠ 24 years , 3 days Travolta , John John Travolta Saturday Night Fever 1977 000000001954 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18 , 1954 000000001978 - 02 - 21 - 0000 February 21 , 1978 6 7003914100000000000 ♠ 25 years , 10 days Dean , James James Dean East of Eden 1955 000000001931 - 02 - 08 - 0000 February 8 , 1931 000000001956 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18 , 1956 Posthumous nomination 7 7003950700000000000 ♠ 26 years , 10 days Giant 1956 000000001957 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18 , 1957 8 7003956800000000000 ♠ 26 years , 72 days Gosling , Ryan Ryan Gosling Half Nelson 2006 000000001980 - 11 - 12 - 0000 November 12 , 1980 000000002007 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2007 9 7003977600000000000 ♠ 26 years , 279 days Welles , Orson Orson Welles Citizen Kane 1941 000000001915 - 05 - 06 - 0000 May 6 , 1915 000000001942 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1942 10 7003979900000000000 ♠ 26 years , 302 days Ledger , Heath Heath Ledger Brokeback Mountain 2005 000000001979 - 04 - 04 - 0000 April 4 , 1979 000000002006 - 01 - 31 - 0000 January 31 , 2006 Best Actress in a Leading Role ( edit ) Source : `` Academy Award Statistics : Acting : Oldest / Youngest Winners and Nominees for Acting , By Category : Actress ( in a Leading Role ) '' , AMPAS Awards Database Oldest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004295120000000000 ♠ 80 years , 292 days Tandy , Jessica Jessica Tandy Driving Miss Daisy 1989 000000001909 - 06 - 07 - 0000 June 7 , 1909 000000001990 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 1990 Has held record for 28 years ( 1990 -- 2018 ) 7004273500000000000 ♠ 74 years , 321 days Hepburn , Katharine Katharine Hepburn On Golden Pond 1981 000000001907 - 05 - 12 - 0000 May 12 , 1907 000000001982 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1982 Held record for 8 years ( 1982 -- 1990 ) 7004230100000000000 ♠ 63 years , 1 day Dressler , Marie Marie Dressler Min and Bill 1930 / 31 000000001868 - 11 - 09 - 0000 November 9 , 1868 000000001931 - 11 - 10 - 0000 November 10 , 1931 Held record for 51 years ( 1931 -- 1982 ) 7004228940000000000 ♠ 62 years , 249 days Streep , Meryl Meryl Streep The Iron Lady 2011 000000001949 - 06 - 22 - 0000 June 22 , 1949 000000002012 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 2012 5 7004226180000000000 ♠ 61 years , 337 days Hepburn , Katharine Katharine Hepburn The Lion in Winter 1968 000000001907 - 05 - 12 - 0000 May 12 , 1907 000000001969 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1969 6 7004224940000000000 ♠ 61 years , 214 days Mirren , Helen Helen Mirren The Queen 2006 000000001945 - 07 - 26 - 0000 July 26 , 1945 000000002007 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 2007 7 7004224020000000000 ♠ 61 years , 122 days Page , Geraldine Geraldine Page The Trip to Bountiful 1985 000000001924 - 11 - 22 - 0000 November 22 , 1924 000000001986 - 03 - 24 - 0000 March 24 , 1986 8 7004222490000000000 ♠ 60 years , 334 days Hepburn , Katharine Katharine Hepburn Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner 1967 000000001907 - 05 - 12 - 0000 May 12 , 1907 000000001968 - 04 - 10 - 0000 April 10 , 1968 9 7004221690000000000 ♠ 60 years , 254 days McDormand , Frances Frances McDormand Three Billboards Outside Ebbing , Missouri 2017 000000001957 - 06 - 23 - 0000 June 23 , 1957 000000002018 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 2018 10 7004199240000000000 ♠ 54 years , 201 days Booth , Shirley Shirley Booth Come Back , Little Sheba 1952 000000001898 - 08 - 30 - 0000 August 30 , 1898 000000001953 - 03 - 19 - 0000 March 19 , 1953 Oldest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7004313670000000000 ♠ 85 years , 321 days Riva , Emmanuelle Emmanuelle Riva Amour 2012 000000001927 - 02 - 24 - 0000 February 24 , 1927 000000002013 - 01 - 10 - 0000 January 10 , 2013 Has held record for 5 years ( 2013 -- 2018 ) 7004294720000000000 ♠ 80 years , 252 days Tandy , Jessica Jessica Tandy Driving Miss Daisy 1989 000000001909 - 06 - 07 - 0000 June 7 , 1909 000000001990 - 02 - 14 - 0000 February 14 , 1990 Winner Held record for 23 years ( 1990 -- 2013 ) 7004292300000000000 ♠ 80 years , 11 days Evans , Edith Edith Evans The Whisperers 1967 000000001888 - 02 - 08 - 0000 February 8 , 1888 000000001968 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1968 Held record for 22 years ( 1968 -- 1990 ) 7004288930000000000 ♠ 79 years , 38 days Dench , Judi Judi Dench Philomena 2013 000000001934 - 12 - 09 - 0000 December 9 , 1934 000000002014 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16 , 2014 5 7004277060000000000 ♠ 75 years , 313 days Robson , May May Robson Lady for a Day 1932 / 33 000000001858 - 04 - 19 - 0000 April 19 , 1858 000000001934 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 1934 Held record for 34 years ( 1934 -- 1968 ) 6 7004273040000000000 ♠ 74 years , 275 days Hepburn , Katharine Katharine Hepburn On Golden Pond 1981 000000001907 - 05 - 12 - 0000 May 12 , 1907 000000001982 - 02 - 11 - 0000 February 11 , 1982 Winner 7 7004263430000000000 ♠ 72 years , 45 days Dench , Judi Judi Dench Notes on a Scandal 2006 000000001934 - 12 - 09 - 0000 December 9 , 1934 000000002007 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2007 8 7004259860000000000 ♠ 71 years , 53 days Mrs Henderson Presents 2005 000000002006 - 01 - 31 - 0000 January 31 , 2006 9 7004255450000000000 ♠ 69 years , 343 days Rampling , Charlotte Charlotte Rampling 45 Years 2015 000000001946 - 02 - 05 - 0000 February 5 , 1946 000000002016 - 01 - 14 - 0000 January 14 , 2016 10 7004253180000000000 ♠ 69 years , 116 days Montenegro , Fernanda Fernanda Montenegro Central Station 1998 000000001929 - 10 - 16 - 0000 October 16 , 1929 000000001999 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1999 Youngest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7003788800000000000 ♠ 21 years , 218 days Matlin , Marlee Marlee Matlin Children of a Lesser God 1986 000000001965 - 08 - 24 - 0000 August 24 , 1965 000000001987 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1987 Has held record for 31 years ( 1987 -- 2018 ) 7003822900000000000 ♠ 22 years , 193 days Lawrence , Jennifer Jennifer Lawrence Silver Linings Playbook 2012 000000001990 - 08 - 15 - 0000 August 15 , 1990 000000002013 - 02 - 24 - 0000 February 24 , 2013 7003825800000000000 ♠ 22 years , 222 days Gaynor , Janet Janet Gaynor 7th Heaven , Street Angel , and Sunrise 1927 / 28 000000001906 - 10 - 06 - 0000 October 6 , 1906 000000001929 - 05 - 16 - 0000 May 16 , 1929 Held record for 58 years ( 1929 -- 1987 ) 7003889300000000000 ♠ 24 years , 127 days Fontaine , Joan Joan Fontaine Suspicion 1941 000000001917 - 10 - 22 - 0000 October 22 , 1917 000000001942 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 1942 5 7003909100000000000 ♠ 24 years , 325 days Hepburn , Audrey Audrey Hepburn Roman Holiday 1953 000000001929 - 05 - 04 - 0000 May 4 , 1929 000000001954 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 1954 6 7003913200000000000 ♠ 25 years , 0 days Jones , Jennifer Jennifer Jones The Song of Bernadette 1943 000000001919 - 03 - 02 - 0000 March 2 , 1919 000000001944 - 03 - 02 - 0000 March 2 , 1944 7 7003926900000000000 ♠ 25 years , 138 days Kelly , Grace Grace Kelly The Country Girl 1954 000000001929 - 11 - 12 - 0000 November 12 , 1929 000000001955 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1955 8 7003937100000000000 ♠ 25 years , 240 days Swank , Hilary Hilary Swank Boys Do n't Cry 1999 000000001974 - 07 - 30 - 0000 July 30 , 1974 000000002000 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 2000 9 7003950000000000000 ♠ 26 years , 4 days Christie , Julie Julie Christie Darling 1965 000000001940 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1940 000000001966 - 04 - 18 - 0000 April 18 , 1966 10 7003961200000000000 ♠ 26 years , 116 days Leigh , Vivien Vivien Leigh Gone with the Wind 1939 000000001913 - 11 - 05 - 0000 November 5 , 1913 000000001940 - 02 - 29 - 0000 February 29 , 1940 Youngest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7003342300000000000 ♠ 9 years , 135 days Wallis , Quvenzhané Quvenzhané Wallis Beasts of the Southern Wild 2012 000000002003 - 08 - 28 - 0000 August 28 , 2003 000000002013 - 01 - 10 - 0000 January 10 , 2013 Has held record for 5 years ( 2013 -- 2018 ) 7003505700000000000 ♠ 13 years , 309 days Castle - Hughes , Keisha Keisha Castle - Hughes Whale Rider 2003 000000001990 - 03 - 24 - 0000 March 24 , 1990 000000002004 - 01 - 27 - 0000 January 27 , 2004 Held record for 9 years ( 2004 -- 2013 ) 7003746800000000000 ♠ 20 years , 163 days Lawrence , Jennifer Jennifer Lawrence Winter 's Bone 000000001990 - 08 - 15 - 0000 August 15 , 1990 000000002011 - 01 - 25 - 0000 January 25 , 2011 7003754000000000000 ♠ 20 years , 235 days Adjani , Isabelle Isabelle Adjani The Story of Adele H . 000000001955 - 06 - 27 - 0000 June 27 , 1955 000000001976 - 02 - 17 - 0000 February 17 , 1976 Held record for 28 years ( 1976 -- 2004 ) 5 7003761600000000000 ♠ 20 years , 311 days Knightley , Keira Keira Knightley Pride & Prejudice 2005 000000001985 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 1985 000000002006 - 01 - 31 - 0000 January 31 , 2006 6 7003764000000000000 ♠ 20 years , 335 days Page , Ellen Ellen Page Juno 2007 000000001987 - 02 - 21 - 0000 February 21 , 1987 000000002008 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 2008 7 7003784100000000000 ♠ 21 years , 171 days Matlin , Marlee Marlee Matlin Children of a Lesser God 1986 000000001965 - 08 - 24 - 0000 August 24 , 1965 000000001987 - 02 - 11 - 0000 February 11 , 1987 Winner 8 7003794700000000000 ♠ 21 years , 277 days Ronan , Saoirse Saoirse Ronan Brooklyn 2015 000000001994 - 04 - 12 - 0000 April 12 , 1994 000000002016 - 01 - 14 - 0000 January 14 , 2016 9 7003809600000000000 ♠ 22 years , 60 days Hartman , Elizabeth Elizabeth Hartman A Patch of Blue 1965 000000001943 - 12 - 23 - 0000 December 23 , 1943 000000001966 - 02 - 21 - 0000 February 21 , 1966 Held record for 10 years ( 1966 -- 1976 ) 10 7003816400000000000 ♠ 22 years , 128 days Winslet , Kate Kate Winslet Titanic 1997 000000001975 - 10 - 05 - 0000 October 5 , 1975 000000001998 - 02 - 10 - 0000 February 10 , 1998 Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( edit ) Source : `` Academy Award Statistics : Acting : Oldest / Youngest Winners and Nominees for Acting , By Category : Actor ( in a Supporting Role ) '' , AMPAS Awards Database Oldest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004300250000000000 ♠ 82 years , 75 days Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer Beginners 2011 000000001929 - 12 - 13 - 0000 December 13 , 1929 000000002012 - 02 - 26 - 0000 February 26 , 2012 Oldest winner in any acting category Has held record for 6 years ( 2012 -- 2018 ) 7004292880000000000 ♠ 80 years , 69 days Burns , George George Burns The Sunshine Boys 000000001896 - 01 - 20 - 0000 January 20 , 1896 000000001976 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1976 Held record for 36 years ( 1976 -- 2012 ) 7004288640000000000 ♠ 79 years , 9 days Douglas , Melvyn Melvyn Douglas Being There 1979 000000001901 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 1901 000000001980 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1980 7004284730000000000 ♠ 77 years , 349 days Gielgud , John John Gielgud Arthur 1981 000000001904 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1904 000000001982 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1982 5 7004284210000000000 ♠ 77 years , 297 days Ameche , Don Don Ameche Cocoon 1985 000000001908 - 05 - 31 - 0000 May 31 , 1908 000000001986 - 03 - 24 - 0000 March 24 , 1986 6 7004267040000000000 ♠ 73 years , 41 days Palance , Jack Jack Palance City Slickers 1991 000000001919 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18 , 1919 000000001992 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1992 7 7004266340000000000 ♠ 72 years , 336 days Arkin , Alan Alan Arkin Little Miss Sunshine 2006 000000001934 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 1934 000000002007 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 2007 8 7004261250000000000 ♠ 71 years , 192 days Houseman , John John Houseman The Paper Chase 1973 000000001902 - 09 - 22 - 0000 September 22 , 1902 000000001974 - 04 - 02 - 0000 April 2 , 1974 Held record for 2 years ( 1974 -- 1976 ) 9 7004257690000000000 ♠ 70 years , 202 days Coburn , James James Coburn Affliction 1998 000000001928 - 08 - 31 - 0000 August 31 , 1928 000000001999 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1999 10 7004257420000000000 ♠ 70 years , 176 days Gwenn , Edmund Edmund Gwenn Miracle on 34th Street 1947 000000001877 - 09 - 26 - 0000 September 26 , 1877 000000001948 - 03 - 20 - 0000 March 20 , 1948 Held record for 26 years ( 1948 -- 1974 ) Oldest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7004321830000000000 ♠ 88 years , 41 days Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer All the Money in the World 2017 000000001929 - 12 - 13 - 0000 December 13 , 1929 000000002018 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2018 Oldest nominee in any category Has held record for 0 years ( 2018 - ) 7004306910000000000 ♠ 84 years , 10 days Duvall , Robert Robert Duvall The Judge 2014 000000001931 - 01 - 05 - 0000 January 5 , 1931 000000002015 - 01 - 15 - 0000 January 15 , 2015 Held the record for 3 years ( 2015 - 2018 ) 7004302890000000000 ♠ 82 years , 339 days Holbrook , Hal Hal Holbrook Into the Wild 2007 000000001925 - 02 - 17 - 0000 February 17 , 1925 000000002008 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 2008 Held the record for 7 years ( 2008 -- 2015 ) 7004302390000000000 ♠ 82 years , 289 days von Sydow , Max Max von Sydow Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close 2011 000000001929 - 04 - 10 - 0000 April 10 , 1929 000000002012 - 01 - 24 - 0000 January 24 , 2012 5 7004300000000000000 ♠ 82 years , 49 days Richardson , Ralph Ralph Richardson Greystoke : The Legend of Tarzan , Lord of the Apes 1984 000000001902 - 12 - 19 - 0000 December 19 , 1902 000000001985 - 02 - 06 - 0000 February 6 , 1985 Posthumous nomination Held record for 23 years ( 1985 -- 2008 ) 6 7004299920000000000 ♠ 82 years , 42 days Plummer , Christopher Christopher Plummer Beginners 2011 000000001929 - 12 - 13 - 0000 December 13 , 1929 000000002012 - 01 - 24 - 0000 January 24 , 2012 Winner 7 7004292710000000000 ♠ 80 years , 51 days The Last Station 2009 000000002010 - 02 - 02 - 0000 February 2 , 2010 8 7004292470000000000 ♠ 80 years , 28 days Burns , George George Burns The Sunshine Boys 000000001896 - 01 - 20 - 0000 January 20 , 1896 000000001976 - 02 - 17 - 0000 February 17 , 1976 Winner Held record for 9 years ( 1976 -- 1985 ) 9 7004288150000000000 ♠ 78 years , 326 days Douglas , Melvyn Melvyn Douglas Being There 1979 000000001901 - 04 - 05 - 0000 April 5 , 1901 000000001980 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 1980 Winner 10 7004287800000000000 ♠ 78 years , 290 days Arkin , Alan Alan Arkin Argo 2012 000000001934 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 1934 000000002013 - 01 - 10 - 0000 January 10 , 2013 Youngest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7003753200000000000 ♠ 20 years , 227 days Hutton , Timothy Timothy Hutton Ordinary People 1980 000000001960 - 08 - 16 - 0000 August 16 , 1960 000000001981 - 03 - 31 - 0000 March 31 , 1981 Has held record for 37 years ( 1981 -- 2018 ) 7004100670000000000 ♠ 27 years , 205 days Chakiris , George George Chakiris West Side Story 1961 000000001934 - 09 - 16 - 0000 September 16 , 1934 000000001962 - 04 - 09 - 0000 April 9 , 1962 Held record for 19 years ( 1962 -- 1981 ) 7004106740000000000 ♠ 29 years , 81 days Gooding , Jr. , Cuba Cuba Gooding , Jr . Jerry Maguire 000000001968 - 01 - 02 - 0000 January 2 , 1968 000000001997 - 03 - 24 - 0000 March 24 , 1997 7004109170000000000 ♠ 29 years , 324 days Ledger , Heath Heath Ledger The Dark Knight 2008 000000001979 - 04 - 04 - 0000 April 4 , 1979 000000002009 - 02 - 22 - 0000 February 22 , 2009 Posthumous award 5 7004113640000000000 ♠ 31 years , 42 days Lemmon , Jack Jack Lemmon Mister Roberts 1955 000000001925 - 02 - 08 - 0000 February 8 , 1925 000000001956 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1956 Held record for 6 years ( 1956 -- 1962 ) 6 7004115570000000000 ♠ 31 years , 234 days De Niro , Robert Robert De Niro The Godfather Part II 000000001943 - 08 - 17 - 0000 August 17 , 1943 000000001975 - 04 - 08 - 0000 April 8 , 1975 7 7004117690000000000 ♠ 32 years , 81 days Heflin , Van Van Heflin Johnny Eager 1942 000000001910 - 12 - 13 - 0000 December 13 , 1910 000000001943 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 1943 Held record for 13 years ( 1943 -- 1956 ) 8 7004121110000000000 ♠ 33 years , 58 days Russell , Harold Harold Russell The Best Years of Our Lives 1946 000000001914 - 01 - 14 - 0000 January 14 , 1914 000000001947 - 03 - 13 - 0000 March 13 , 1947 Sole winner of two Academy Awards for same performance 9 7004124530000000000 ♠ 34 years , 34 days del Toro , Benicio Benicio del Toro Traffic 2000 000000001967 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1967 000000002001 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 2001 10 7004128720000000000 ♠ 35 years , 88 days Washington , Denzel Denzel Washington Glory 1989 000000001954 - 12 - 28 - 0000 December 28 , 1954 000000001990 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 1990 Youngest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7003319800000000000 ♠ 8 years , 276 days Henry , Justin Justin Henry Kramer vs. Kramer 1979 000000001971 - 05 - 25 - 0000 May 25 , 1971 000000001980 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 1980 Youngest nominee in any category Has held record for 38 years ( 1980 -- 2018 ) 7003432800000000000 ♠ 11 years , 311 days Osment , Haley Joel Haley Joel Osment The Sixth Sense 1999 000000001988 - 04 - 10 - 0000 April 10 , 1988 000000002000 - 02 - 15 - 0000 February 15 , 2000 7003433000000000000 ♠ 11 years , 312 days deWilde , Brandon Brandon deWilde Shane 1953 000000001942 - 04 - 09 - 0000 April 9 , 1942 000000001954 - 02 - 15 - 0000 February 15 , 1954 Held record for 26 years ( 1954 -- 1980 ) 7003599100000000000 ♠ 16 years , 147 days Wild , Jack Jack Wild Oliver ! 1968 000000001952 - 09 - 30 - 0000 September 30 , 1952 000000001969 - 02 - 24 - 0000 February 24 , 1969 5 7003624800000000000 ♠ 17 years , 39 days Mineo , Sal Sal Mineo Rebel Without a Cause 1955 000000001939 - 01 - 10 - 0000 January 10 , 1939 000000001956 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18 , 1956 6 7003675100000000000 ♠ 18 years , 176 days Phoenix , River River Phoenix Running on Empty 1988 000000001970 - 08 - 23 - 0000 August 23 , 1970 000000001989 - 02 - 15 - 0000 February 15 , 1989 7 7003703000000000000 ♠ 19 years , 90 days DiCaprio , Leonardo Leonardo DiCaprio What 's Eating Gilbert Grape 1993 000000001974 - 11 - 11 - 0000 November 11 , 1974 000000001994 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1994 8 7003734800000000000 ♠ 20 years , 43 days Hedges , Lucas Lucas Hedges Manchester by the Sea 2016 000000001996 - 12 - 12 - 0000 December 12 , 1996 000000002017 - 01 - 24 - 0000 January 24 , 2017 9 7003749000000000000 ♠ 20 years , 185 days Hutton , Timothy Timothy Hutton Ordinary People 1980 000000001960 - 08 - 16 - 0000 August 16 , 1960 000000001981 - 02 - 17 - 0000 February 17 , 1981 Winner 10 7003808400000000000 ♠ 22 years , 48 days Mineo , Sal Sal Mineo Exodus 1960 000000001939 - 01 - 10 - 0000 January 10 , 1939 000000001961 - 02 - 27 - 0000 February 27 , 1961 Best Actress in a Supporting Role ( edit ) Source : `` Academy Award Statistics : Acting : Oldest / Youngest Winners and Nominees for Acting , By Category : Actress ( in a Supporting Role ) '' , AMPAS Awards Database Oldest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004282180000000000 ♠ 77 years , 93 days Ashcroft , Peggy Peggy Ashcroft A Passage to India 1984 000000001907 - 12 - 22 - 0000 December 22 , 1907 000000001985 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 1985 Has held record for 33 years ( 1985 -- 2018 ) 7004271120000000000 ♠ 74 years , 85 days Hull , Josephine Josephine Hull Harvey 1950 000000001877 - 01 - 03 - 0000 January 3 , 1877 000000001951 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1951 Held record for 34 years ( 1951 -- 1985 ) 7004264630000000000 ♠ 72 years , 166 days Gordon , Ruth Ruth Gordon Rosemary 's Baby 1968 000000001896 - 10 - 30 - 0000 October 30 , 1896 000000001969 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1969 7004262690000000000 ♠ 71 years , 338 days Rutherford , Margaret Margaret Rutherford The V.I.P.s 1963 000000001892 - 05 - 11 - 0000 May 11 , 1892 000000001964 - 04 - 13 - 0000 April 13 , 1964 5 7004257540000000000 ♠ 70 years , 187 days Hayes , Helen Helen Hayes Airport 1970 000000001900 - 10 - 10 - 0000 October 10 , 1900 000000001971 - 04 - 15 - 0000 April 15 , 1971 6 7004239530000000000 ♠ 65 years , 212 days Barrymore , Ethel Ethel Barrymore None But the Lonely Heart 1944 000000001879 - 08 - 15 - 0000 August 15 , 1879 000000001945 - 03 - 15 - 0000 March 15 , 1945 Held record for 6 years ( 1945 -- 1951 ) 7 7004234780000000000 ♠ 64 years , 102 days Dench , Judi Judi Dench Shakespeare in Love 1998 000000001934 - 12 - 09 - 0000 December 9 , 1934 000000001999 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1999 8 7004228840000000000 ♠ 62 years , 238 days Straight , Beatrice Beatrice Straight Network 1976 000000001914 - 08 - 02 - 0000 August 2 , 1914 000000001977 - 03 - 28 - 0000 March 28 , 1977 9 7004224150000000000 ♠ 61 years , 135 days Darwell , Jane Jane Darwell The Grapes of Wrath 1940 000000001879 - 10 - 15 - 0000 October 15 , 1879 000000001941 - 02 - 27 - 0000 February 27 , 1941 Held record for 4 years ( 1941 -- 1945 ) 10 7004217720000000000 ♠ 59 years , 222 days Bergman , Ingrid Ingrid Bergman Murder on the Orient Express 000000001915 - 08 - 29 - 0000 August 29 , 1915 000000001975 - 04 - 08 - 0000 April 8 , 1975 Oldest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7004319980000000000 ♠ 87 years , 221 days Stuart , Gloria Gloria Stuart Titanic 1997 000000001910 - 07 - 04 - 0000 July 4 , 1910 000000001998 - 02 - 10 - 0000 February 10 , 1998 Has held record for 20 years ( 1998 - 2018 ) 7004311330000000000 ♠ 85 years , 87 days Dee , Ruby Ruby Dee American Gangster 2007 000000001922 - 10 - 27 - 0000 October 27 , 1922 000000002008 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 2008 7004307520000000000 ♠ 84 years , 71 days Squibb , June June Squibb Nebraska 2013 000000001929 - 11 - 06 - 0000 November 6 , 1929 000000002014 - 01 - 16 - 0000 January 16 , 2014 7004302070000000000 ♠ 82 years , 257 days Tandy , Jessica Jessica Tandy Fried Green Tomatoes 1991 000000001909 - 06 - 07 - 0000 June 7 , 1909 000000001992 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1992 Held record for 6 years ( 1992 -- 1998 ) 5 7004299870000000000 ♠ 82 years , 37 days Le Gallienne , Eva Eva Le Gallienne Resurrection 1980 000000001899 - 01 - 11 - 0000 January 11 , 1899 000000001981 - 02 - 17 - 0000 February 17 , 1981 Held record for 11 years ( 1981 -- 1992 ) 6 7004288800000000000 ♠ 79 years , 26 days Sothern , Ann Ann Sothern The Whales of August 000000001909 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 1909 000000001988 - 02 - 17 - 0000 February 17 , 1988 7 7004283570000000000 ♠ 77 years , 234 days Whitty , May May Whitty Mrs. Miniver 1942 000000001865 - 06 - 19 - 0000 June 19 , 1865 000000001943 - 02 - 08 - 0000 February 8 , 1943 Held record for 38 years ( 1943 -- 1981 ) 8 7004281710000000000 ♠ 77 years , 46 days Ashcroft , Peggy Peggy Ashcroft A Passage to India 1984 000000001907 - 12 - 22 - 0000 December 22 , 1907 000000001985 - 02 - 06 - 0000 February 6 , 1985 Winner 9 7004281390000000000 ♠ 77 years , 15 days Evans , Edith Edith Evans The Chalk Garden 1964 000000001888 - 02 - 08 - 0000 February 8 , 1888 000000001965 - 02 - 23 - 0000 February 23 , 1965 10 7004278250000000000 ♠ 76 years , 67 days Cooper , Gladys Gladys Cooper My Fair Lady 1964 000000001888 - 12 - 18 - 0000 December 18 , 1888 000000001965 - 02 - 23 - 0000 February 23 , 1965 Youngest winners ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7003380100000000000 ♠ 10 years , 148 days O'Neal , Tatum Tatum O'Neal Paper Moon 1973 000000001963 - 11 - 05 - 0000 November 5 , 1963 000000001974 - 04 - 02 - 0000 April 2 , 1974 Youngest winner in any category Has held record for 44 years ( 1974 -- 2018 ) 7003425800000000000 ♠ 11 years , 240 days Paquin , Anna Anna Paquin The Piano 1993 000000001982 - 07 - 24 - 0000 July 24 , 1982 000000001994 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1994 7003595900000000000 ♠ 16 years , 115 days Duke , Patty Patty Duke The Miracle Worker 1962 000000001946 - 12 - 14 - 0000 December 14 , 1946 000000001963 - 04 - 08 - 0000 April 8 , 1963 Held record for 11 years ( 1963 -- 1974 ) 7003871100000000000 ♠ 23 years , 310 days Baxter , Anne Anne Baxter The Razor 's Edge 1946 000000001923 - 05 - 07 - 0000 May 7 , 1923 000000001947 - 03 - 13 - 0000 March 13 , 1947 Held record for 16 years ( 1947 -- 1963 ) 5 7003889400000000000 ♠ 24 years , 128 days Wright , Teresa Teresa Wright Mrs. Miniver 1942 000000001918 - 10 - 27 - 0000 October 27 , 1918 000000001943 - 03 - 04 - 0000 March 4 , 1943 Held record for 4 years ( 1943 -- 1947 ) 6 7003890300000000000 ♠ 24 years , 137 days Hawn , Goldie Goldie Hawn Cactus Flower 1969 000000001945 - 11 - 21 - 0000 November 21 , 1945 000000001970 - 04 - 07 - 0000 April 7 , 1970 7 7003906200000000000 ♠ 24 years , 296 days Jolie , Angelina Angelina Jolie Girl , Interrupted 1999 000000001975 - 06 - 04 - 0000 June 4 , 1975 000000002000 - 03 - 26 - 0000 March 26 , 2000 8 7003929700000000000 ♠ 25 years , 166 days Hudson , Jennifer Jennifer Hudson Dreamgirls 2006 000000001981 - 09 - 12 - 0000 September 12 , 1981 000000002007 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 2007 9 7003987900000000000 ♠ 27 years , 17 days Jones , Shirley Shirley Jones Elmer Gantry 1960 000000001934 - 03 - 31 - 0000 March 31 , 1934 000000001961 - 04 - 17 - 0000 April 17 , 1961 10 7004100090000000000 ♠ 27 years , 148 days Vikander , Alicia Alicia Vikander The Danish Girl 2015 000000001988 - 10 - 03 - 0000 October 3 , 1988 000000002016 - 02 - 28 - 0000 February 28 , 2016 Youngest nominees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Nomination Notes 7003375900000000000 ♠ 10 years , 106 days O'Neal , Tatum Tatum O'Neal Paper Moon 1973 000000001963 - 11 - 05 - 0000 November 5 , 1963 000000001974 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1974 Winner Has held record for 44 years ( 1974 -- 2018 ) 7003379300000000000 ♠ 10 years , 141 days Badham , Mary Mary Badham To Kill a Mockingbird 1962 000000001952 - 10 - 07 - 0000 October 7 , 1952 000000001963 - 02 - 25 - 0000 February 25 , 1963 Held record for 11 years ( 1963 -- 1974 ) 7003384500000000000 ♠ 10 years , 192 days Cummings , Quinn Quinn Cummings The Goodbye Girl 1977 000000001967 - 08 - 13 - 0000 August 13 , 1967 000000001978 - 02 - 21 - 0000 February 21 , 1978 7003393600000000000 ♠ 10 years , 284 days Breslin , Abigail Abigail Breslin Little Miss Sunshine 2006 000000001996 - 04 - 14 - 0000 April 14 , 1996 000000002007 - 01 - 23 - 0000 January 23 , 2007 5 7003419900000000000 ♠ 11 years , 181 days McCormack , Patty Patty McCormack The Bad Seed 1956 000000001945 - 08 - 21 - 0000 August 21 , 1945 000000001957 - 02 - 18 - 0000 February 18 , 1957 Held record for 6 years ( 1957 -- 1963 ) 6 7003421800000000000 ♠ 11 years , 200 days Paquin , Anna Anna Paquin The Piano 1993 000000001982 - 07 - 24 - 0000 July 24 , 1982 000000001994 - 02 - 09 - 0000 February 9 , 1994 Winner 7 7003503300000000000 ♠ 13 years , 285 days Ronan , Saoirse Saoirse Ronan Atonement 2007 000000001994 - 04 - 12 - 0000 April 12 , 1994 000000002008 - 01 - 22 - 0000 January 22 , 2008 8 7003511900000000000 ♠ 14 years , 5 days Granville , Bonita Bonita Granville These Three 1936 000000001923 - 02 - 02 - 0000 February 2 , 1923 000000001937 - 02 - 07 - 0000 February 7 , 1937 Held record for 20 years ( 1937 -- 1957 ) 9 7003515800000000000 ♠ 14 years , 45 days Steinfeld , Hailee Hailee Steinfeld True Grit 000000001996 - 12 - 11 - 0000 December 11 , 1996 000000002011 - 01 - 25 - 0000 January 25 , 2011 10 7003519700000000000 ♠ 14 years , 83 days Foster , Jodie Jodie Foster Taxi Driver 1976 000000001962 - 11 - 19 - 0000 November 19 , 1962 000000001977 - 02 - 10 - 0000 February 10 , 1977 Honorary Awards ( edit ) Source : `` Academy Award Statistics : Acting : Oldest / Youngest Winners and Nominees for Acting , By Category : Acting Honorary Award Winners '' , AMPAS Awards Database Academy Honorary Award ( edit ) Oldest honorees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004359310000000000 ♠ 98 years , 137 days Boyle , Robert F. Robert F. Boyle 2007 000000001909 - 10 - 10 - 0000 October 10 , 1909 000000002008 - 02 - 24 - 0000 February 24 , 2008 Has held record for 10 years ( 2008 -- 2018 ) 7004346750000000000 ♠ 94 years , 341 days Wallach , Eli Eli Wallach 000000001915 - 12 - 07 - 0000 December 7 , 1915 000000002010 - 11 - 13 - 0000 November 13 , 2010 7004344160000000000 ♠ 94 years , 83 days O'Hara , Maureen Maureen O'Hara 2014 000000001920 - 08 - 17 - 0000 August 17 , 1920 000000002014 - 11 - 08 - 0000 November 8 , 2014 7004336880000000000 ♠ 92 years , 86 days Roach , Hal Hal Roach 000000001892 - 01 - 14 - 0000 January 14 , 1892 000000001984 - 04 - 09 - 0000 April 9 , 1984 Held record for 24 years ( 1984 -- 2008 ) 5 7004332080000000000 ♠ 90 years , 336 days Coates , Anne V. Anne V. Coates 2016 000000001925 - 12 - 12 - 0000 December 12 , 1925 000000002016 - 11 - 12 - 0000 November 12 , 2016 6 7004327020000000000 ♠ 89 years , 195 days Kazan , Elia Elia Kazan 1998 000000001909 - 09 - 07 - 0000 September 7 , 1909 000000001999 - 03 - 21 - 0000 March 21 , 1999 7 7004326720000000000 ♠ 89 years , 165 days Varda , Agnès Agnès Varda 2017 000000001928 - 05 - 30 - 0000 May 30 , 1928 000000002017 - 11 - 11 - 0000 November 11 , 2017 8 7004326460000000000 ♠ 89 years , 139 days Smith , Dick Dick Smith 2011 000000001922 - 06 - 26 - 0000 June 26 , 1922 000000002011 - 11 - 12 - 0000 November 12 , 2011 9 7004325030000000000 ♠ 88 years , 361 days Stalmaster , Lynn Lynn Stalmaster 2016 000000001927 - 11 - 17 - 0000 November 17 , 1927 000000002016 - 11 - 12 - 0000 November 12 , 2016 10 7004321730000000000 ♠ 88 years , 31 days Lansbury , Angela Angela Lansbury 2013 000000001925 - 10 - 16 - 0000 October 16 , 1925 000000002013 - 11 - 16 - 0000 November 16 , 2013 Oldest acting honorees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7004346750000000000 ♠ 94 years , 341 days Wallach , Eli Eli Wallach 000000001915 - 12 - 07 - 0000 December 7 , 1915 000000002010 - 11 - 13 - 0000 November 13 , 2010 Has held record for 8 years ( 2010 -- 2018 ) 7004344160000000000 ♠ 94 years , 83 days O'Hara , Maureen Maureen O'Hara 2014 000000001920 - 08 - 17 - 0000 August 17 , 1920 000000002014 - 11 - 08 - 0000 November 8 , 2014 7004321730000000000 ♠ 88 years , 31 days Lansbury , Angela Angela Lansbury 2013 000000001925 - 10 - 16 - 0000 October 16 , 1925 000000002013 - 11 - 16 - 0000 November 16 , 2013 7004312810000000000 ♠ 85 years , 235 days Loy , Myrna Myrna Loy 1990 000000001905 - 08 - 02 - 0000 August 2 , 1905 000000001991 - 03 - 25 - 0000 March 25 , 1991 Held record for 19 years ( 1991 -- 2010 ) 5 7004311940000000000 ♠ 85 years , 148 days Rowlands , Gena Gena Rowlands 2015 000000001930 - 06 - 19 - 0000 June 19 , 1930 000000002015 - 11 - 14 - 0000 November 14 , 2015 6 7004311050000000000 ♠ 85 years , 59 days Bacall , Lauren Lauren Bacall 2009 000000001924 - 09 - 16 - 0000 September 16 , 1924 000000002009 - 11 - 14 - 0000 November 14 , 2009 7 7004304970000000000 ♠ 83 years , 182 days Marx , Groucho Groucho Marx 1973 000000001890 - 10 - 02 - 0000 October 2 , 1890 000000001974 - 04 - 02 - 0000 April 2 , 1974 Held record for 17 years ( 1974 -- 1991 ) 8 7004303090000000000 ♠ 82 years , 360 days Chaplin , Charlie Charlie Chaplin 1971 000000001889 - 04 - 16 - 0000 April 16 , 1889 000000001972 - 04 - 10 - 0000 April 10 , 1972 Held record for 2 years ( 1972 -- 1974 ) 9 7004303050000000000 ♠ 82 years , 356 days Pickford , Mary Mary Pickford 000000001893 - 04 - 08 - 0000 April 8 , 1893 000000001976 - 03 - 29 - 0000 March 29 , 1976 10 7004302360000000000 ♠ 82 years , 286 days Bellamy , Ralph Ralph Bellamy 1986 000000001904 - 06 - 17 - 0000 June 17 , 1904 000000001987 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1987 Honorary Juvenile Award ( edit ) Youngest honorees ( edit ) Rank Age Name Film Year in Film Date of Birth Date of Award Notes 7003250100000000000 ♠ 6 years , 310 days Temple , Shirley Shirley Temple 1934 000000001928 - 04 - 23 - 0000 April 23 , 1928 000000001935 - 02 - 27 - 0000 February 27 , 1935 Has held record for 83 years ( 1935 -- 2018 ) 7003264800000000000 ♠ 7 years , 91 days Winter , Vincent Vincent Winter The Little Kidnappers 1954 000000001947 - 12 - 29 - 0000 December 29 , 1947 000000001955 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1955 7003298100000000000 ♠ 8 years , 59 days O'Brien , Margaret Margaret O'Brien Meet Me in St. Louis 1944 000000001937 - 01 - 15 - 0000 January 15 , 1937 000000001945 - 03 - 15 - 0000 March 15 , 1945 7003369100000000000 ♠ 10 years , 39 days Whiteley , Jon Jon Whiteley The Little Kidnappers 1954 000000001945 - 02 - 19 - 0000 February 19 , 1945 000000001955 - 03 - 30 - 0000 March 30 , 1955 5 7003444200000000000 ♠ 12 years , 59 days Jandl , Ivan Ivan Jandl The Search 1948 000000001937 - 01 - 24 - 0000 January 24 , 1937 000000001949 - 03 - 24 - 0000 March 24 , 1949 6 7003455000000000000 ♠ 12 years , 167 days Jarman , Jr. , Claude Claude Jarman , Jr . The Yearling 1946 000000001934 - 09 - 27 - 0000 September 27 , 1934 000000001947 - 03 - 13 - 0000 March 13 , 1947 7 7003476800000000000 ♠ 13 years , 20 days Driscoll , Bobby Bobby Driscoll 1949 000000001937 - 03 - 03 - 0000 March 3 , 1937 000000001950 - 03 - 23 - 0000 March 23 , 1950 8 7003514600000000000 ♠ 14 years , 32 days Garner , Peggy Ann Peggy Ann Garner A Tree Grows in Brooklyn 1945 000000001932 - 02 - 03 - 0000 February 3 , 1932 000000001946 - 03 - 07 - 0000 March 7 , 1946 9 7003547800000000000 ♠ 14 years , 364 days Mills , Hayley Hayley Mills Pollyanna 1960 000000001946 - 04 - 18 - 0000 April 18 , 1946 000000001961 - 04 - 17 - 0000 April 17 , 1961 10 7003629000000000000 ♠ 17 years , 81 days Durbin , Deanna Deanna Durbin 1938 000000001921 - 12 - 04 - 0000 December 4 , 1921 000000001939 - 02 - 23 - 0000 February 23 , 1939 See also ( edit ) Academy Award portal Film portal Academy Award Academy Juvenile Award Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) List of Best Actor winners by age List of Best Actress winners by age List of Best Director winners by age List of Best Supporting Actor winners by age List of Best Supporting Actress winners by age List of earliest surviving Academy Award winners and nominees List of oldest living Academy Award winners and nominees List of posthumous Academy Award winners and nominees List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( 2008 - 02 - 24 ) . `` The Official Academy Awards Database '' . oscars.org ( AMPAS ) . Archived from the original on 2012 - 07 - 01 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 27 . The ( searchable ) Academy Awards Database contains the record of past Academy Award winners and nominees . The data is complete through the 2008 ( 81st ) Academy Awards ... The ( `` Academy Award Statistics '' in the `` Directing '' and `` Acting '' sections of the Awards Database ) are based on the most reliable birthdate information available to us at the time of publishing . We welcome any information from primary sources that might indicate a different birthdate for an individual . Such sources might be birth or death certificates or databases based on such records , published interviews with the individual or published documents that cite their sources . This would not include the Internet Movie Database or other web sites that do not cite primary sources for their information . N.B. : Ages ( including for those persons receiving nominations and / or awards posthumously ) are computed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) ; for nominations , all ages are computed `` from date of birth to date of nominations announcement '' ; for awards won , all ages are computed `` from date of birth to date of awards ceremony . '' Jump up ^ Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( March 2008 ) . `` Oldest / Youngest Directing Nominees / Winners '' . Awards Database . oscars.org ( AMPAS ) . Archived from the original on March 1 , 2009 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 27 . Statistics are valid through the 2007 ( 80th ) Awards , presented on February 24 , 2008 . ( document last updated 3 / 08 ) ... ( indicates a win ) . ^ Jump up to : Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( March 2008 ) . `` Oldest / Youngest Winners and Nominees for Acting , By Category '' . Awards Database . oscars.org ( AMPAS ) . Archived from the original on March 1 , 2009 . Retrieved 2008 - 07 - 27 . Statistics are valid through the 2007 ( 80th ) Awards , presented on February 24 , 2008 . ( document last updated 3 / 08 ) ... ( indicates a win ) . Jump up ^ `` Christopher Plummer becomes oldest acting Oscar winner '' . CBS News . 2012 - 02 - 27 . Retrieved 2014 - 08 - 26 . External links ( edit ) `` Academy Award Statistics '' -- Index ( `` Statistics Menu '' ) published in The Official Academy Awards Database ( Awards Database ) , on the official AMPAS website . ( `` Statistics are arranged by award category and represent eighty years of Academy Awards history through the 80th Academy Awards , presented on February 24 , 2008 . '' ( Documents for `` Directing '' and `` Acting '' both last updated March 2008 . ) ) Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) -- Official website . Academy Awards Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) Records Most wins per ceremony Oscar season Governors Awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting Pre-show Awards of Merit Best Picture Director Actor Actress Supporting Actor Supporting Actress Adapted Screenplay Original Screenplay Animated Feature Documentary Feature Foreign Language Film Animated Short Film Documentary Short Subject Live Action Short Film Cinematography Costume Design Film Editing Makeup and Hairstyling Original Score Original Song Production Design Sound Editing Sound Mixing Visual Effects Special awards Governors Awards Academy Honorary Award Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award Special Achievement Academy Award Academy Scientific and Technical Awards Academy Award of Merit ( non-competitive ) Scientific and Engineering Award Technical Achievement Award John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation Gordon E. Sawyer Award Student Awards Student Academy Award Former awards Merit Awards Assistant Director Dance Direction Story Special Awards Academy Juvenile Award Ceremonies ‡ ( List Book ) 1927 / 28 1928 / 29 1929 / 30 1930 / 31 1931 / 32 1932 / 33 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Footnote ‡ Dates and years listed for each ceremony were the eligibility period of film release in Los Angeles County . For the first five ceremonies , the eligibility period was done on a seasonal basis , from August to July . For the 6th ceremony , held in 1934 , the eligibility period lasted from August 1 , 1932 to December 31 , 1933 . Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935 , the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31 . Book Category Portal Academy Awards lists Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ( AMPAS ) Records Oscar season Oscar speech History of film Most wins per ceremony Combined major Oscars Superlatives Big Five All four acting categories Combined major awards Academy , Emmy , Grammy , and Tony Award careers Acting All nominees Best Actor ( by age ) Best Actress ( by age ) Best Supporting Actor ( by age ) Best Supporting Actress ( by age ) Acting noms in foreign language Actor multi-nom years Multi-Best Picture acting careers Multi-win Actors Multi-nom Actors Love curse Directing Best Director ( by age ) Film Films Foreign - language wins Foreign - language nominees Foreign - language noms in other categories Foreign - language : count by country Animated feature noms in other categories Ethnicity African Argentine Asian Australian Black Brazilian British Canadian Chilean Colombian Cuban French German - speaking Greek Hispanic - American ( U.S. ) Indian Iranian Italian Jewish Latin American Mexican New Zealand Nordic Pakistani Polish Puerto Rican Spanish Uruguayan Other Ceremonies Families Fictitious LGBT Multi-win years Posthumous Best Picture Presenters Trophy displays Oldest & Youngest Awards for Walt Disney Women in Non-gendered Categories Book Category Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_oldest_and_youngest_Academy_Award_winners_and_nominees&oldid=841109357 '' Categories : Academy Awards Academy Awards lists Lists of oldest people Lists of superlatives Lists of the youngest people United States - related lists of superlatives Hidden categories : Articles with hCards Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 14 May 2018 , at 03 : 44 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who was the youngest winner of the best actress in a leading role academy award | [
"\n\nRank\nAge\nName\nFilm\nYear in Film\nDate of Birth\nDate of Award\nNotes\n\n\n1\n7003788800000000000♠21 years, 218 days\nMatlin, MarleeMarlee Matlin\nChildren of a Lesser God\n1986\n000000001965-08-24-0000August 24, 1965\n000000001987-03-30-0000March 30, 1987\nHas held record for 31 years (1987–2018)\n\n\n2\n7003822900000000000♠22 years, 193 days\nLawrence, JenniferJennifer Lawrence\nSilver Linings Playbook\n2012\n000000001990-08-15-0000August 15, 1990\n000000002013-02-24-0000February 24, 2013\n\n\n\n3\n7003825800000000000♠22 years, 222 days\nGaynor, JanetJanet Gaynor\n7th Heaven, Street Angel, and Sunrise\n1927/28\n000000001906-10-06-0000October 6, 1906\n000000001929-05-16-0000May 16, 1929\nHeld record for 58 years (1929–1987)\n\n\n4\n7003889300000000000♠24 years, 127 days\nFontaine, JoanJoan Fontaine\nSuspicion\n1941\n000000001917-10-22-0000October 22, 1917\n000000001942-02-26-0000February 26, 1942\n\n\n\n5\n7003909100000000000♠24 years, 325 days\nHepburn, AudreyAudrey Hepburn\nRoman Holiday\n1953\n000000001929-05-04-0000May 4, 1929\n000000001954-03-25-0000March 25, 1954\n\n\n\n6\n7003913200000000000♠25 years, 0 days\nJones, JenniferJennifer Jones\nThe Song of Bernadette\n1943\n000000001919-03-02-0000March 2, 1919\n000000001944-03-02-0000March 2, 1944\n\n\n\n7\n7003926900000000000♠25 years, 138 days\nKelly, GraceGrace Kelly\nThe Country Girl\n1954\n000000001929-11-12-0000November 12, 1929\n000000001955-03-30-0000March 30, 1955\n\n\n\n8\n7003937100000000000♠25 years, 240 days\nSwank, HilaryHilary Swank\nBoys Don't Cry\n1999\n000000001974-07-30-0000July 30, 1974\n000000002000-03-26-0000March 26, 2000\n\n\n\n9\n7003950000000000000♠26 years, 4 days\nChristie, JulieJulie Christie\nDarling\n1965\n000000001940-04-14-0000April 14, 1940\n000000001966-04-18-0000April 18, 1966\n\n\n\n10\n7003961200000000000♠26 years, 116 days\nLeigh, VivienVivien Leigh\nGone with the Wind\n1939\n000000001913-11-05-0000November 5, 1913\n000000001940-02-29-0000February 29, 1940\n\n\n"
] | [
"Marlee Matlin"
] |
3643093465010420057 | Fort Davis, Texas | Fort Davis , Texas - wikipedia Fort Davis , Texas Jump to : navigation , search Fort Davis , Texas CDP Location of Fort Davis , Texas Coordinates : 30 ° 35 ′ 34 '' N 103 ° 53 ′ 31 '' W / 30.59278 ° N 103.89194 ° W / 30.59278 ; - 103.89194 Coordinates : 30 ° 35 ′ 34 '' N 103 ° 53 ′ 31 '' W / 30.59278 ° N 103.89194 ° W / 30.59278 ; - 103.89194 Country United States State Texas County Jeff Davis Area Total 5.6 sq mi ( 14.5 km ) Land 5.6 sq mi ( 14.5 km ) Water 0.0 sq mi ( 0.0 km ) Elevation 4,892 ft ( 1,491 m ) Population ( 2010 ) Total 1,201 Time zone Central ( CST ) ( UTC - 6 ) Summer ( DST ) CDT ( UTC - 5 ) ZIP code 79734 Area code ( s ) 432 FIPS code 48 - 26688 GNIS feature ID 1357584 See also : Fort Davis ( Washington , D.C. ) Fort Davis is a census - designated place ( CDP ) in Jeff Davis County , Texas , United States . The population was 1,201 at the 2010 US Census . It is the county seat of Jeff Davis County . It was the site of Fort Davis established in 1854 on the San Antonio - El Paso Road through west Texas and named after Jefferson Davis , who was then the Secretary of War under President Franklin Pierce . Contents ( hide ) 1 Geography 2 Demographics 3 Climate 4 Points of interest 5 Education 6 Gallery 7 References 8 External links Geography ( edit ) Fort Davis is located at 30 ° 35 ′ 34 '' N 103 ° 53 ′ 31 '' W / 30.59278 ° N 103.89194 ° W / 30.59278 ; - 103.89194 ( 30.592880 , - 103.891996 ) . According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 5.6 square miles ( 15 km ) , all land . Fort Davis has the highest elevation above sea level of any county seat in Texas ; the elevation is 5,050 feet . Demographics ( edit ) As of the census of 2000 , there were 1,050 people , 415 households , and 298 families residing in the CDP . The population density was 188.2 people per square mile ( 72.7 / km2 ) . There were 525 housing units at an average density of 94.1 per square mile ( 36.3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the CDP was 88.29 % White , 0.19 % African American , 0.48 % Native American , 7.62 % from other races , and 3.43 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 49.33 % of the population . There were 415 households out of which 32.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 57.6 % were married couples living together , 10.6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 28.0 % were non-families. 24.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.02 . In the CDP , the population was spread out with 24.7 % under the age of 18 , 7.4 % from 18 to 24 , 26.9 % from 25 to 44 , 25.4 % from 45 to 64 , and 15.6 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 39 years . For every 100 females there were 102.3 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 97.3 males . The median income for a household in the CDP was $25,882 , and the median income for a family was $27,955 . Males had a median income of $22,500 versus $20,000 for females . The per capita income for the CDP was $14,249 . About 20.7 % of families and 21.6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 26.3 % of those under age 18 and 26.0 % of those age 65 or over . Climate ( edit ) Fort Davis experiences a semi-arid climate ( Köppen BSk ) with cool , dry winters and hot , dry summers . Coordinates : 30 ° 35 ′ 59 '' N 103 ° 53 ′ 13 '' W / 30.59972 ° N 103.88694 ° W / 30.59972 ; - 103.88694 Elevation : 4,864 feet ( 1,483 m ) ( hide ) Climate data for Fort Davis , Texas ( Jan 1 , 1902 -- Mar 31 , 2013 ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° F ( ° C ) 81 ( 27 ) 85 ( 29 ) 90 ( 32 ) 97 ( 36 ) 102 ( 39 ) 107 ( 42 ) 103 ( 39 ) 101 ( 38 ) 101 ( 38 ) 100 ( 38 ) 85 ( 29 ) 79 ( 26 ) 107 ( 42 ) Average high ° F ( ° C ) 60.8 ( 16 ) 64.4 ( 18 ) 71.3 ( 21.8 ) 78.9 ( 26.1 ) 85.8 ( 29.9 ) 90.3 ( 32.4 ) 88.4 ( 31.3 ) 87.4 ( 30.8 ) 83.2 ( 28.4 ) 76.9 ( 24.9 ) 67.5 ( 19.7 ) 60.6 ( 15.9 ) 76.3 ( 24.6 ) Daily mean ° F ( ° C ) 44.8 ( 7.1 ) 48.1 ( 8.9 ) 54.3 ( 12.4 ) 62.0 ( 16.7 ) 69.6 ( 20.9 ) 75.3 ( 24.1 ) 75.2 ( 24 ) 74.2 ( 23.4 ) 69.3 ( 20.7 ) 61.3 ( 16.3 ) 51.7 ( 10.9 ) 45.2 ( 7.3 ) 60.9 ( 16.1 ) Average low ° F ( ° C ) 28.8 ( − 1.8 ) 31.8 ( − 0.1 ) 37.3 ( 2.9 ) 45.0 ( 7.2 ) 53.4 ( 11.9 ) 60.3 ( 15.7 ) 62.1 ( 16.7 ) 61.0 ( 16.1 ) 55.3 ( 12.9 ) 45.7 ( 7.6 ) 35.9 ( 2.2 ) 29.7 ( − 1.3 ) 45.5 ( 7.5 ) Record low ° F ( ° C ) ( − 17 ) 0 ( − 18 ) 10 ( − 12 ) 20 ( − 7 ) 33 ( 1 ) 42 ( 6 ) 47 ( 8 ) 51 ( 11 ) 36 ( 2 ) 18 ( − 8 ) 8 ( − 13 ) 0 ( − 18 ) 0 ( − 18 ) Average precipitation inches ( mm ) 0.50 ( 12.7 ) 0.46 ( 11.7 ) 0.38 ( 9.7 ) 0.54 ( 13.7 ) 1.31 ( 33.3 ) 1.98 ( 50.3 ) 2.85 ( 72.4 ) 2.91 ( 73.9 ) 2.27 ( 57.7 ) 1.35 ( 34.3 ) 0.54 ( 13.7 ) 0.55 ( 14 ) 15.64 ( 397.3 ) Average snowfall inches ( cm ) ( 3 ) 0.7 ( 1.8 ) 0.3 ( 0.8 ) 0.1 ( 0.3 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.0 ( 0 ) 0.2 ( 0.5 ) 0.5 ( 1.3 ) 1.0 ( 2.5 ) 3.9 ( 9.9 ) Average precipitation days ( ≥ 0.001 in ) 2.66 2.23 2.14 2.15 4.49 6.48 8.69 8.27 6.88 4.20 2.35 2.60 54.30 Source : Western Regional Climate Center , Desert Research Institute Points of interest ( edit ) Chihuahuan Desert Nature Center and Botanical Gardens at the Chihuahuan Desert Research Institute ( 1 ) Fort Davis National Historic Site The McDonald Observatory of the University of Texas at Austin ( 2 ) Fort Davis is home to one of ten dishes comprising the Very Long Baseline Array ( VLBA ) Davis Mountains State Park ( 3 ) Education ( edit ) Dirks - Anderson Elementary School Fort Davis is served by the Fort Davis Independent School District . Dirks - Anderson Elementary School Fort Davis High School Gallery ( edit ) Hotel Limpia ( c. 1912 ) Masonic Lodge References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` American FactFinder '' . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on 2013 - 09 - 11 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` US Board on Geographic Names '' . United States Geological Survey . 2007 - 10 - 25 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 31 . Jump up ^ https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-45.pdf Jump up ^ `` Find a County '' . National Association of Counties . Archived from the original on 2011 - 05 - 31 . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` The Davis Mountains of Texas '' , accessed September 13 , 2010 Jump up ^ `` US Gazetteer files : 2010 , 2000 , and 1990 '' . United States Census Bureau . 2011 - 02 - 12 . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` US COOP Station Map '' . Western Regional Climate Center , Desert Research Institute . Retrieved May 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` FORT DAVIS , TEXAS ( 413262 ) , Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary '' . Western Regional Climate Center , Desert Research Institute . Retrieved May 3 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fort Davis , Texas . Handbook of Texas : Fort Davis , TX Fort Davis Chamber of Commerce West Texas Weekly - a local weekly newspaper . Municipalities and communities of Jeff Davis County , Texas , United States County seat : Fort Davis Town Valentine CDP Fort Davis Unincorporated communities Madera Springs State of Texas Austin ( capital ) Topics Architecture Climate Cuisine Geography Government Healthcare History Languages Law Literature Media Newspapers Radio TV National Historic Landmarks Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks National Register of Historic Places Sites Sports Symbols Texans Tourist attractions Transportation Seal of Texas Society Culture Crime Demographics Economy Education Gambling Politics Regions Ark ‐ La ‐ Tex Big Bend Blackland Prairies Brazos Valley Central Texas Coastal Bend Concho Valley Cross Timbers Deep East Texas East Texas Edwards Plateau Golden Triangle Hill Country Llano Estacado Northeast Texas North Texas Osage Plains Panhandle Permian Basin Piney Woods Rio Grande Valley Southeast Texas South Plains South Texas Texoma Trans - Pecos West Texas Metropolitan areas Abilene Amarillo Austin -- Round Rock Beaumont -- Port Arthur Brownsville -- Harlingen College Station -- Bryan Corpus Christi Dallas -- Fort Worth -- Arlington El Paso Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land Killeen -- Temple Laredo Longview Lubbock McAllen -- Edinburg -- Mission Midland Odessa San Angelo San Antonio -- New Braunfels Sherman -- Denison Texarkana Tyler Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Counties See : List of counties in Texas County seats of Texas Abilene Albany Alice Alpine Amarillo Anahuac Anderson Andrews Angleton Anson Archer City Aspermont Athens Austin Baird Ballinger Bandera Bastrop Bay City Beaumont Beeville Bellville Belton Benjamin Big Lake Big Spring Boerne Bonham Boston Brackettville Brady Breckenridge Brenham Brownfield Brownsville Brownwood Bryan Burnet Caldwell Cameron Canadian Canton Canyon Carrizo Springs Carthage Center Centerville Channing Childress Clarendon Clarksville Claude Cleburne Coldspring Coleman Colorado City Columbus Comanche Conroe Cooper Corpus Christi Corsicana Cotulla Crane Crockett Crosbyton Crowell Crystal City Cuero Daingerfield Dalhart Dallas Decatur Del Rio Denton Dickens Dimmitt Dumas Eagle Pass Eastland Edinburg El Paso Eldorado Emory Fairfield Falfurrias Farwell Floresville Floydada Fort Davis Fort Stockton Fort Worth Franklin Fredericksburg Gail Gainesville Galveston Garden City Gatesville George West Georgetown Giddings Gilmer Glen Rose Goldthwaite Goliad Gonzales Graham Granbury Greenville Groesbeck Groveton Guthrie Hallettsville Hamilton Haskell Hebbronville Hemphill Hempstead Henderson Henrietta Hereford Hillsboro Hondo Houston Huntsville Jacksboro Jasper Jayton Jefferson Johnson City Jourdanton Junction Karnes City Kaufman Kermit Kerrville Kingsville Kountze La Grange Lamesa Lampasas Laredo Leakey Levelland Liberty Linden Lipscomb Littlefield Livingston Llano Lockhart Longview Lubbock Lufkin Madisonville Marfa Marlin Marshall Mason Matador McKinney Memphis Menard Mentone Meridian Mertzon Miami Midland Monahans Montague Morton Mount Pleasant Mount Vernon Muleshoe Nacogdoches New Braunfels Newton Odessa Orange Ozona Paducah Paint Rock Palestine Palo Pinto Pampa Panhandle Paris Pearsall Pecos Perryton Pittsburg Plains Plainview Port Lavaca Post Q Quanah Quitman Rankin Raymondville Refugio Richmond Rio Grande City Robert Lee Roby Rockport Rocksprings Rockwall Rusk San Angelo San Antonio San Augustine San Diego San Marcos San Saba Sanderson Sarita Seguin Seminole Seymour Sherman Sierra Blanca Silverton Sinton Snyder Sonora Spearman Stanton Stephenville Sterling City Stinnett Stratford Sulphur Springs Sweetwater Tahoka Throckmorton Tilden Tulia Tyler U Uvalde V Van Horn Vega Vernon Victoria Waco Waxahachie Weatherford Wellington Wharton Wheeler Wichita Falls Woodville Z Zapata VIAF : 139408513 LCCN : n81129569 GND : 4269718 - 9 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fort_Davis,_Texas&oldid=803737036 '' Categories : Census - designated places in Jeff Davis County , Texas Census - designated places in Texas County seats in Texas Butterfield Overland Mail in Texas 1854 establishments in Texas Hidden categories : Coordinates on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Languages تۆرکجه Bân - lâm - gú Català Cebuano Deutsch Español فارسی Français Gaeilge Hrvatski Italiano Kreyòl ayisyen Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska Volapük Edit links This page was last edited on 4 October 2017 , at 09 : 08 . About Wikipedia | what city in texas has the highest elevation | [
"Fort Davis has the highest elevation above sea level of any county seat in Texas; the elevation is 5,050 feet."
] | [
"Fort Davis"
] |
845428224653049775 | Plant breeding | Plant breeding - wikipedia Plant breeding Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Yecoro wheat ( right ) cultivar is sensitive to salinity , plants resulting from a hybrid cross with cultivar W4910 ( left ) show greater tolerance to high salinity Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics . Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for propagation , to methods that make use of knowledge of genetics and chromosomes , to more complex molecular techniques ( see cultigen and cultivar ) . Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years , since near the beginning of human civilization . It is practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and farmers , or by professional plant breeders employed by organizations such as government institutions , universities , crop - specific industry associations or research centers . International development nation agencies believe that breeding new crops is important for ensuring food security by developing new varieties that are higher - yielding , disease resistant , drought - resistant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing conditions . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Classical plant breeding 2.1 Before World War II 2.2 After World War II 3 Modern plant breeding 3.1 Steps of plant breeding 3.2 Marker assisted selection 3.3 Reverse breeding and doubled haploids ( DH ) 3.4 Genetic modification 4 Issues and concerns 5 Role of plant breeding in organic agriculture 6 Addressing global food security through plant breeding 6.1 Increased yield without expansion 6.2 Breeding for increased nutritional value 6.3 Breeding for tolerance 7 Participatory plant breeding 8 List of notable plant breeders 9 Terms related to plant breeding 10 See also 11 References 11.1 General 12 External links History ( edit ) Main article : History of plant breeding Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants , a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years . Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics , and employed these as progenitors for subsequent generations , resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits over time . Gregor Mendel 's experiments with plant hybridization led to his establishing laws of inheritance . Once this work became well known , it formed the basis of the new science of genetics , which stimulated research by many plant scientists dedicated to improving crop production through plant breeding . Modern plant breeding is applied genetics , but its scientific basis is broader , covering molecular biology , cytology , systematics , physiology , pathology , entomology , chemistry , and statistics ( biometrics ) . It has also developed its own technology . Classical plant breeding ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) For the role of crossing and plant breeding in viticulture , see Propagation of grapevines . One major technique of plant breeding is selection , the process of selectively propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or `` culling '' those with less desirable characteristics . Another technique is the deliberate interbreeding ( crossing ) of closely or distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties . Plants are crossbred to introduce traits / genes from one variety or line into a new genetic background . For example , a mildew - resistant pea may be crossed with a high - yielding but susceptible pea , the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high - yield characteristics . Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high - yielding parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high - yielding parent , ( backcrossing ) . The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield ( selection , as described above ) and mildew resistance and high - yielding resistant plants would be further developed . Plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce inbred varieties for breeding . Pollinators may be excluded through the use of pollination bags . Classical breeding relies largely on homologous recombination between chromosomes to generate genetic diversity . The classical plant breeder may also make use of a number of in vitro techniques such as protoplast fusion , embryo rescue or mutagenesis ( see below ) to generate diversity and produce hybrid plants that would not exist in nature . Traits that breeders have tried to incorporate into crop plants include : Improved quality , such as increased nutrition , improved flavor , or greater beauty Increased yield of the crop Increased tolerance of environmental pressures ( salinity , extreme temperature , drought ) Resistance to viruses , fungi and bacteria Increased tolerance to insect pests Increased tolerance of herbicides Longer storage period for the harvested crop Before world War II ( edit ) Garton 's catalogue from 1902 Successful commercial plant breeding concerns were founded from the late 19th century . Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders in England was established in the 1890s by John Garton , who was one of the first to commercialize new varieties of agricultural crops created through cross-pollination . The firm 's first introduction was Abundance Oat , one of the first agricultural grain varieties bred from a controlled cross , introduced to commerce in 1892 . In the early 20th century , plant breeders realized that Mendel 's findings on the non-random nature of inheritance could be applied to seedling populations produced through deliberate pollinations to predict the frequencies of different types . Wheat hybrids were bred to increase the crop production of Italy during the so - called `` Battle for Grain '' ( 1925 -- 1940 ) . Heterosis was explained by George Harrison Shull . It describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents . The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed . Maize was the first species where heterosis was widely used to produce hybrids . Statistical methods were also developed to analyze gene action and distinguish heritable variation from variation caused by environment . In 1933 another important breeding technique , cytoplasmic male sterility ( CMS ) , developed in maize , was described by Marcus Morton Rhoades . CMS is a maternally inherited trait that makes the plant produce sterile pollen . This enables the production of hybrids without the need for labor - intensive detasseling . These early breeding techniques resulted in large yield increase in the United States in the early 20th century . Similar yield increases were not produced elsewhere until after World War II , the Green Revolution increased crop production in the developing world in the 1960s . After world War II ( edit ) In vitro - culture of Vitis ( grapevine ) , Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute Following World War II a number of techniques were developed that allowed plant breeders to hybridize distantly related species , and artificially induce genetic diversity . When distantly related species are crossed , plant breeders make use of a number of plant tissue culture techniques to produce progeny from otherwise fruitless mating . Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are produced from a cross of related species or genera that do not normally sexually reproduce with each other . These crosses are referred to as Wide crosses . For example , the cereal triticale is a wheat and rye hybrid . The cells in the plants derived from the first generation created from the cross contained an uneven number of chromosomes and as result was sterile . The cell division inhibitor colchicine was used to double the number of chromosomes in the cell and thus allow the production of a fertile line . Failure to produce a hybrid may be due to pre - or post-fertilization incompatibility . If fertilization is possible between two species or genera , the hybrid embryo may abort before maturation . If this does occur the embryo resulting from an interspecific or intergeneric cross can sometimes be rescued and cultured to produce a whole plant . Such a method is referred to as Embryo Rescue . This technique has been used to produce new rice for Africa , an interspecific cross of Asian rice ( Oryza sativa ) and African rice ( Oryza glaberrima ) . Hybrids may also be produced by a technique called protoplast fusion . In this case protoplasts are fused , usually in an electric field . Viable recombinants can be regenerated in culture . Chemical mutagens like EMS and DMS , radiation and transposons are used to generate mutants with desirable traits to be bred with other cultivars - a process known as Mutation Breeding . Classical plant breeders also generate genetic diversity within a species by exploiting a process called somaclonal variation , which occurs in plants produced from tissue culture , particularly plants derived from callus . Induced polyploidy , and the addition or removal of chromosomes using a technique called chromosome engineering may also be used . When a desirable trait has been bred into a species , a number of crosses to the favored parent are made to make the new plant as similar to the favored parent as possible . Returning to the example of the mildew resistant pea being crossed with a high - yielding but susceptible pea , to make the mildew resistant progeny of the cross most like the high - yielding parent , the progeny will be crossed back to that parent for several generations ( See backcrossing ) . This process removes most of the genetic contribution of the mildew resistant parent . Classical breeding is therefore a cyclical process . With classical breeding techniques , the breeder does not know exactly what genes have been introduced to the new cultivars . Some scientists therefore argue that plants produced by classical breeding methods should undergo the same safety testing regime as genetically modified plants . There have been instances where plants bred using classical techniques have been unsuitable for human consumption , for example the poison solanine was unintentionally increased to unacceptable levels in certain varieties of potato through plant breeding . New potato varieties are often screened for solanine levels before reaching the marketplace . Modern plant breeding ( edit ) Modern plant breeding may use techniques of molecular biology to select , or in the case of genetic modification , to insert , desirable traits into plants . Application of biotechnology or molecular biology is also known as molecular breeding . Modern facilities in molecular biology are now used in plant breeding . Steps of plant breeding ( edit ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The following are the major activities of plant breeding : Collection of variation Selection Evaluation Release Multiplication Distribution of the new variety Selling to people Marker assisted selection ( edit ) Main article : Marker assisted selection Sometimes many different genes can influence a desirable trait in plant breeding . The use of tools such as molecular markers or DNA fingerprinting can map thousands of genes . This allows plant breeders to screen large populations of plants for those that possess the trait of interest . The screening is based on the presence or absence of a certain gene as determined by laboratory procedures , rather than on the visual identification of the expressed trait in the plant . Reverse breeding and doubled haploids ( dh ) ( edit ) Main article : Doubled haploidy Homozygous plants with desirable traits can be produced from heterozygous starting plants , if a haploid cell with the alleles for those traits can be produced , and then used to make a doubled haploid . The doubled haploid will be homozygous for the desired traits . Furthermore , two different homozygous plants created in that way can be used to produce a generation of F1 hybrid plants which have the advantages of heterozygosity and a greater range of possible traits . Thus , an individual heterozygous plant chosen for its desirable characteristics can be converted into a heterozygous variety ( F1 hybrid ) without the necessity of vegetative reproduction but as the result of the cross of two homozygous / doubled haploid lines derived from the originally selected plant . Genetic modification ( edit ) Main article : Transgenic plants Genetic modification of plants is achieved by adding a specific gene or genes to a plant , or by knocking down a gene with RNAi , to produce a desirable phenotype . The plants resulting from adding a gene are often referred to as transgenic plants . If for genetic modification genes of the species or of a crossable plant are used under control of their native promoter , then they are called cisgenic plants . Sometimes genetic modification can produce a plant with the desired trait or traits faster than classical breeding because the majority of the plant 's genome is not altered . To genetically modify a plant , a genetic construct must be designed so that the gene to be added or removed will be expressed by the plant . To do this , a promoter to drive transcription and a termination sequence to stop transcription of the new gene , and the gene or genes of interest must be introduced to the plant . A marker for the selection of transformed plants is also included . In the laboratory , antibiotic resistance is a commonly used marker : Plants that have been successfully transformed will grow on media containing antibiotics ; plants that have not been transformed will die . In some instances markers for selection are removed by backcrossing with the parent plant prior to commercial release . The construct can be inserted in the plant genome by genetic recombination using the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes , or by direct methods like the gene gun or microinjection . Using plant viruses to insert genetic constructs into plants is also a possibility , but the technique is limited by the host range of the virus . For example , Cauliflower mosaic virus ( CaMV ) only infects cauliflower and related species . Another limitation of viral vectors is that the virus is not usually passed on the progeny , so every plant has to be inoculated . The majority of commercially released transgenic plants are currently limited to plants that have introduced resistance to insect pests and herbicides . Insect resistance is achieved through incorporation of a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) that encodes a protein that is toxic to some insects . For example , the cotton bollworm , a common cotton pest , feeds on Bt cotton it will ingest the toxin and die . Herbicides usually work by binding to certain plant enzymes and inhibiting their action . The enzymes that the herbicide inhibits are known as the herbicides target site . Herbicide resistance can be engineered into crops by expressing a version of target site protein that is not inhibited by the herbicide . This is the method used to produce glyphosate resistant crop plants ( See Glyphosate ) Genetic modification of plants that can produce pharmaceuticals ( and industrial chemicals ) , sometimes called pharming , is a rather radical new area of plant breeding . Issues and concerns ( edit ) Modern plant breeding , whether classical or through genetic engineering , comes with issues of concern , particularly with regard to food crops . The question of whether breeding can have a negative effect on nutritional value is central in this respect . Although relatively little direct research in this area has been done , there are scientific indications that , by favoring certain aspects of a plant 's development , other aspects may be retarded . A study published in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition in 2004 , entitled Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops , 1950 to 1999 , compared nutritional analysis of vegetables done in 1950 and in 1999 , and found substantial decreases in six of 13 nutrients measured , including 6 % of protein and 38 % of riboflavin . Reductions in calcium , phosphorus , iron and ascorbic acid were also found . The study , conducted at the Biochemical Institute , University of Texas at Austin , concluded in summary : `` We suggest that any real declines are generally most easily explained by changes in cultivated varieties between 1950 and 1999 , in which there may be trade - offs between yield and nutrient content . '' The debate surrounding genetically modified food during the 1990s peaked in 1999 in terms of media coverage and risk perception , and continues today - for example , `` Germany has thrown its weight behind a growing European mutiny over genetically modified crops by banning the planting of a widely grown pest - resistant corn variety . '' The debate encompasses the ecological impact of genetically modified plants , the safety of genetically modified food and concepts used for safety evaluation like substantial equivalence . Such concerns are not new to plant breeding . Most countries have regulatory processes in place to help ensure that new crop varieties entering the marketplace are both safe and meet farmers ' needs . Examples include variety registration , seed schemes , regulatory authorizations for GM plants , etc . Plant breeders ' rights is also a major and controversial issue . Today , production of new varieties is dominated by commercial plant breeders , who seek to protect their work and collect royalties through national and international agreements based in intellectual property rights . The range of related issues is complex . In the simplest terms , critics of the increasingly restrictive regulations argue that , through a combination of technical and economic pressures , commercial breeders are reducing biodiversity and significantly constraining individuals ( such as farmers ) from developing and trading seed on a regional level . Efforts to strengthen breeders ' rights , for example , by lengthening periods of variety protection , are ongoing . When new plant breeds or cultivars are bred , they must be maintained and propagated . Some plants are propagated by asexual means while others are propagated by seeds . Seed propagated cultivars require specific control over seed source and production procedures to maintain the integrity of the plant breeds results . Isolation is necessary to prevent cross contamination with related plants or the mixing of seeds after harvesting . Isolation is normally accomplished by planting distance but in certain crops , plants are enclosed in greenhouses or cages ( most commonly used when producing F1 hybrids . ) Role of plant breeding in organic agriculture ( edit ) Critics of organic agriculture claim it is too low - yielding to be a viable alternative to conventional agriculture . However , part of that poor performance may be the result of growing poorly adapted varieties . It is estimated that over 95 % of organic agriculture is based on conventionally adapted varieties , even though the production environments found in organic vs. conventional farming systems are vastly different due to their distinctive management practices . Most notably , organic farmers have fewer inputs available than conventional growers to control their production environments . Breeding varieties specifically adapted to the unique conditions of organic agriculture is critical for this sector to realize its full potential . This requires selection for traits such as : Water use efficiency Nutrient use efficiency ( particularly nitrogen and phosphorus ) Weed competitiveness Tolerance of mechanical weed control Pest / disease resistance Early maturity ( as a mechanism for avoidance of particular stresses ) Abiotic stress tolerance ( i.e. drought , salinity , etc ... ) Currently , few breeding programs are directed at organic agriculture and until recently those that did address this sector have generally relied on indirect selection ( i.e. selection in conventional environments for traits considered important for organic agriculture ) . However , because the difference between organic and conventional environments is large , a given genotype may perform very differently in each environment due to an interaction between genes and the environment ( see gene - environment interaction ) . If this interaction is severe enough , an important trait required for the organic environment may not be revealed in the conventional environment , which can result in the selection of poorly adapted individuals . To ensure the most adapted varieties are identified , advocates of organic breeding now promote the use of direct selection ( i.e. selection in the target environment ) for many agronomic traits . There are many classical and modern breeding techniques that can be utilized for crop improvement in organic agriculture despite the ban on genetically modified organisms . For instance , controlled crosses between individuals allow desirable genetic variation to be recombined and transferred to seed progeny via natural processes . Marker assisted selection can also be employed as a diagnostics tool to facilitate selection of progeny who possess the desired trait ( s ) , greatly speeding up the breeding process . This technique has proven particularly useful for the introgression of resistance genes into new backgrounds , as well as the efficient selection of many resistance genes pyramided into a single individual . Unfortunately , molecular markers are not currently available for many important traits , especially complex ones controlled by many genes . Addressing global food security through plant breeding ( edit ) For future agriculture to thrive there are necessary changes which must be made in accordance to arising global issues . These issues are arable land , harsh cropping conditions and food security which involves , being able to provide the world population with food containing sufficient nutrients . These crops need to be able to mature in several environments allowing for worldwide access , this is involves issues such as drought tolerance . These global issues are achievable through the process of plant breeding , as it offers the ability to select specific genes allowing the crop to perform at a level which yields the desired results . Increased yield without expansion ( edit ) With an increasing population , the production of food needs to increase with it . It is estimated that a 70 % increase in food production is needed by 2050 in order to meet the Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security . But with the degradation of agricultural land , simply planting more crops is no longer a viable option . New varieties of plants can in some cases be developed through plant breeding that generate an increase of yield without relying on an increase in land area . An example of this can be seen in Asia , where food production per capita has increased twofold . This has been achieved through not only the use of fertilisers , but through the use of better crops that have been specifically designed for the area . Breeding for increased nutritional value ( edit ) Plant breeding can contribute to global food security as it is a cost - effective tool for increasing nutritional value of forage and crops . Improvements in nutritional value for forage crops from the use of analytical chemistry and rumen fermentation technology have been recorded since 1960 ; this science and technology gave breeders the ability to screen thousands of samples within a small amount of time , meaning breeders could identify a high performing hybrid quicker . The main area genetic increases were made was in vitro dry matter digestibility ( IVDMD ) resulting in 0.7 - 2.5 % increase , at just 1 % increase in IVDMD a single Bos Taurus also known as beef cattle reported 3.2 % increase in daily gains . This improvement indicates plant breeding is an essential tool in gearing future agriculture to perform at a more advanced level . Breeding for tolerance ( edit ) Plant breeding of hybrid crops has become extremely popular worldwide in an effort to combat the harsh environment . With long periods of drought and lack of water or nitrogen stress tolerance has become a significant part of agriculture . Plant breeders have focused on identifying crops which will ensure crops perform under these conditions ; a way to achieve this is finding strains of the crop that is resistance to drought conditions with low nitrogen . It is evident from this that plant breeding is vital for future agriculture to survive as it enables farmers to produce stress resistant crops hence improving food security . Participatory plant breeding ( edit ) Participatory plant breeding ( PPB ) is when farmers are involved in a crop improvement programme with opportunities to make decisions and contribute to the research process at different stages . Participatory approaches to crop improvement can also be applied when plant biotechnologies are being used for crop improvement . List of notable plant breeders ( edit ) Thomas Andrew Knight Keith Downey Luther Burbank Nazareno Strampelli Niels Ebbesen Hansen Norman Borlaug Terms related to plant breeding ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( March 2017 ) Mentor pollen , inactivated pollen that is compatible with the female plant is mixed with pollen that would normally be incompatible . The mentor pollen has the effect of guiding the foreign pollen to the ovules . S1 generation , the product of self - fertilization . See also ( edit ) Bioactive compound Cisgenesis Crop breeding in Nepal Cultivated plant taxonomy Double - pair mating EUCARPIA Family based QTL mapping Genomics of domestication International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants Marker - assisted selection ( MAS ) Orthodox seed QTL mapping Recalcitrant seed Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction Smart breeding References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Breeding Field Crops. 1995 . Sleper and Poehlman . Page 3 Jump up ^ Piperno , D.R. ; Ranere , A.J. ; Holst , I. ; Iriarte , J. ; Dickau , R. ( 2009 ) . `` Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley , Mexico '' . PNAS. 106 ( 13 ) : 5019 -- 5024 . PMC 2664021 . PMID 19307570 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0812525106 . Jump up ^ Deppe , Carol ( 2000 ) . Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties . Chelsea Green Publishing . page = 237 - 244 Jump up ^ `` Plant breeding '' . Jump up ^ Spring Seed Catalogue 1899 , Gartons Limited Jump up ^ Noel Kingsbury ( 2009 ) . Hybrid : The History and Science of Plant Breeding . University of Chicago Press . p. 140 . Jump up ^ patent Jump up ^ Suzie Key ; Julian K-C Ma & Pascal MW Drake ( 1 June 2008 ) . `` Genetically modified plants and human health '' . Journal of the Royal Society of Medecine. 101 : 290 -- 298 . PMC 2408621 . PMID 18515776 . doi : 10.1258 / jrsm. 2008.070372 . Jump up ^ Davis , D.R. ; Epp , M.D. ; Riordan , H.D. ( 2004 ) . `` Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops , 1950 to 1999 '' . Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 23 ( 6 ) : 669 -- 682 . doi : 10.1080 / 07315724.2004. 10719409 . Jump up ^ Costa - Font , J. ; Mossialos , E. ( 2007 ) . `` Are perceptions of ' risks ' and ' benefits ' of genetically modified food ( in ) dependent ? '' . Food Quality and Preference. 18 : 173 -- 182 . doi : 10.1016 / j. foodqual. 2005.09. 013 . Jump up ^ Connoly , Kate ( 2009 - 04 - 14 ) . `` Germany deals blow to GM crops '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2009 - 06 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : Murphy , Kevin M. ; K.G. Campbell ; S.R. Lyon ; S.S. Jones ( 2007 ) . `` Evidence of varietal adaptation to organic farming systems '' . Field Crops Research . 102 ( 3 ) : 172 -- 177 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fcr. 2007.03. 011 . ^ Jump up to : Lammerts van Bueren , E.T. ; S.S. Jones ; L. Tamm ; K.M. Murphy ; J.R. Myers ; C. Leifert ; M.M. Messmer ( 2010 ) . `` The need to breed crop varieties suitable for organic farming , using wheat , tomato and broccoli as examples : A review '' . NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences . 58 ( 3 -- 4 ) : 193 -- 205 . doi : 10.1016 / j. njas. 2010.04. 001 . Jump up ^ Lammerts van Bueren , E.T. ; G. Backes ; H. de Vriend ; H. Ostergard ( 2010 ) . `` The role of molecular markers and marker assisted selection in breeding for organic agriculture '' . Euphytica. 175 : 51 -- 64 . doi : 10.1007 / s10681 - 010 - 0169 - 0 . Jump up ^ Tester , Mark ; Langridge , Peter ( February 2010 ) . `` Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world '' . Science . AAAS : American Association for the Advancement of Science . 327 ( 5967 ) : 818 -- 822 . PMID 20150489 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1183700 . Jump up ^ Haddad , Lawrence ; Godfray , H. Charles J. ; Beddington , John R. ; Crute , Ian R. ; Lawrence , David ; Muir , James F. ; Pretty , Jules ; Robinson , Sherman ; Thomas , Sandy M. ; Toulmin , Camilla ( 12 February 2010 ) . `` Food security : the challenge of feeding 9 billion people '' . Science . AAAS : American Association for the Advancement of Science . 327 ( 5967 ) : 812 -- 818 . PMID 20110467 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1185383 . Jump up ^ Bänziger ( 2000 ) . `` Breeding for drought and nitrogen stress tolerance in maize : from theory to practice '' . From Theory to Practice : 7 -- 9 . Retrieved 7 - 11 - 2013 . Check date values in : access - date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Casler , Vogal , M.K. ( January -- February 1999 ) . `` Accomplishments and impact from breeding for increased forage nutritional value '' . Crop Science . 39 ( 1 ) : 12 -- 20 . doi : 10.2135 / cropsci1999. 0011183x003900010003x . Jump up ^ PRGA 2008 . Participatory Plant Breeding ( PPB ) Jump up ^ Sperling et al. 2001 . A Framework For Analizing Participatory Plant Breeding Approaches And Results . ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Ceccarelli 2001 . Decentralized - Participatory Plant Breeding : Adapting Crops to Environments and Clients ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Thro A & Spillane C ( 2000 ) . `` Biotechnology - assisted Participatory Plant Breeding : Complement or Contradiction ? '' ( PDF ) . CGIAR Systemwide Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis for Technology Development and Institutional Innovation . Working Document No. 4 April 2000 : 140 . ^ Jump up to : `` Plant breeding techniques '' , ? ? , Science Group , retrieved 21 March 2017 General ( edit ) McCouch , S. ( 2004 ) . `` Diversifying Selection in Plant Breeding '' . PLoS Biol. 2 ( 10 ) : e347 . PMC 521731 . PMID 15486582 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pbio. 0020347 . Briggs , F.N. and Knowles , P.F. 1967 . Introduction to Plant Breeding . Reinhold Publishing Corporation , New York . Curry , Helen Anne . Evolution Made to Order : Plant Breeding and Technological Innovation in Twentieth - Century America ( U of Chicago Press , 2016 ) . x , 285 pp . Gepts , P. ( 2002 ) . `` A Comparison between Crop Domestication , Classical Plant Breeding , and Genetic Engineering '' . Crop Science . 42 ( 6 ) : 1780 -- 1790 . doi : 10.2135 / cropsci2002. 1780 . The Origins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication - The Harlan Symposium Schlegel , Rolf ( 2009 ) Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding 2nd ed . ( ISBN 9781439802427 ) , CRC Press , Boca Raton , FL , USA , pp 584 Schlegel , Rolf ( 2007 ) Concise Encyclopedia of Crop Improvement : Institutions , Persons , Theories , Methods , and Histories ( ISBN 9781560221463 ) , CRC Press , Boca Raton , FL , USA , pp 423 Schouten , Henk J. ; Krens , Frans A. ; Jacobsen , Evert ( 2006 ) . `` Do cisgenic plants warrant less stringent oversight ? '' . Nature Biotechnology . 24 ( 7 ) : 753 . PMID 16841052 . doi : 10.1038 / nbt0706 - 753 . Schouten , Henk J. ; Krens , Frans A. ; Jacobsen , Evert ( 2006 ) . `` Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants '' . EMBO Reports . 7 ( 8 ) : 750 -- 753 . PMC 1525145 . PMID 16880817 . doi : 10.1038 / sj. embor. 7400769 . Sun . `` From indica and japonica splitting in common wild rice DNA to the origin and evolution of Asian cultivated rice '' . Agricultural Archaeology. 1998 : 21 -- 29 . Thro , A.M. ; Spillane , C. ( 1999 ) Biotechnology assisted participatory plant breeding : Complement or contradiction ? CGIAR Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis , Working Document No. 4 , CIAT : Cali . 150pp . Deppe , Carol ( 2000 ) . Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties . Chelsea Green Publishing . 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3901011790442880219 | French colonization of the Americas | French colonization of the Americas - wikipedia French colonization of the Americas Jump to : navigation , search Map of North America ( 1750 ) - France ( blue ) , Britain ( pink ) , and Spain ( orange ) The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century , and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere . France founded colonies in much of eastern North America , on a number of Caribbean islands , and in South America . Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish , sugar , and furs . As they colonized the New World , the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec and Montreal in Canada ; Detroit , Green Bay , St. Louis , Cape Girardeau , Mobile , Biloxi , Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States ; and Port - au - Prince , Cap - Haïtien ( founded as Cap - Français ) in Haiti , Cayenne in French Guiana and São Luís ( founded as Saint - Louis de Maragnan ) in Brazil . Contents ( hide ) 1 North America 1.1 Background 1.2 Colonization 1.3 French Florida 1.4 Canada and Acadia 1.5 Louisiana 1.5. 1 The Mississippi Bubble 1.6 Dissolution 2 West Indies 3 South America 3.1 Brazil 3.1. 1 1557 Calvinist arrival 3.1. 2 Portuguese intervention 3.2 Equinoctial France 3.3 History of France Équinoxiale 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 6.1 In French North America ( edit ) Background ( edit ) The French first came to the New World as explorers , seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth . Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I , King of France . In 1524 , Francis sent Italian - born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean . Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland , thus promoting French interests . Colonization ( edit ) Main article : New France Portrait of Jacques Cartier by Théophile Hamel , arr. 1844 In 1534 , Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River . He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula . The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed , due to weather , disease , or conflict with other European powers . Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap - Rouge ( Quebec City ) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area . A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island , South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort , but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France . Fort Caroline established in present - day Jacksonville , Florida , in 1564 , lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine . An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time . In 1599 , a sixteen - person trading post was established in Tadoussac ( in present - day Quebec ) , of which only five men survived the first winter . In 1604 Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short - lived French colony , the first in Acadia , on Saint Croix Island , presently part of the state of Maine , which was much plagued by illness , perhaps scurvy . The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal , located in present - day Nova Scotia . Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec ( 1608 ) and explored the Great Lakes . In 1634 , Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants ( present - day Green Bay ) , which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America . In 1634 , Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois - Rivières . In 1642 , Paul de Chomedey , Sieur de Maisonneuve , founded Fort Ville - Marie which is now known as Montreal . Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie ( 1668 ) and Saint Ignace ( 1671 ) and explored the Mississippi River . At the end of the 17th century , René - Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River . Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685 , but was gone by 1688 . Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit ( modern - day Detroit ) in 1701 and Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne , Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans ( New Orleans ) in 1718 . Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719 . Governor Frontenac performing a tribal dance with Indian allies . The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated . Due to the lack of women , intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent , giving rise to the Métis people . Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful . As the 19th - century historian Francis Parkman stated : `` Spanish civilization crushed the Indian ; English civilization scorned and neglected him ; French civilization embraced and cherished him '' -- Francis Parkman . To boost the French population , Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as `` natural Frenchmen '' by the Ordonnance of 1627 : `` The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country ( New France ) , together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it , shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen , and as such may come to live in France when they want , and acquire , donate , and succeed and accept donations and legacies , just as true French subjects , without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization . '' Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the `` King 's Daughters '' . However , the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem . At the beginning of the French and Indian War ( 1754 -- 1763 ) , the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1 . France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America ( see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale 's War and Father Le Loutre 's War ) . See also : Franco - Indian alliance French Florida ( edit ) Map of French Florida In 1562 , Charles IX , under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida . They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island , which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina , on which he built a fort named Charlesfort . The group , led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière , moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John 's river in Florida on June 22 , 1564 . This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons . In 1565 , Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine , 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline . Fearing a Spanish attack , Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet . On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards , commanded by Menéndez de Avilés , attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault . Canada and Acadia ( edit ) Political map of the Northeastern part of North America in 1664 . The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland . However , at the beginning of the 17th century , France was more interested in fur from North America . The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600 . Four years later , Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur . Although he had no formal mandate on this trip , he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing , on his return to France , a report entitled Savages ( Relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac ) . Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV . He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604 , conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts . It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island , the first French settlement in the New World , which would be given up the following winter . The expedition then founded the colony of Port - Royal . In 1608 , Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec , which would become the capital of New France . In Quebec , Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies , the Iroquois . Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America , with canoes made from Birch bark , to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries . In 1634 , the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin . Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers , the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632 . Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates . Following the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye , France took possession of the colony in 1632 . The city of Trois - Rivières was founded in 1634 . In 1642 , the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville - Marie ( later Montreal ) which was at that time , a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks ( the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667 ) . A new map of the north parts of America claimed by France in 1720 , according to the London cartographer Herman Moll . Despite this rapid expansion , the colony developed very slowly . The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony . In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government , the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants . That year , to increase the population , Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 ' King 's Daughters ' to become the wives of French settlers . The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689 . From 1689 to 1713 , the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars . From 1689 to 1697 , they fought the British in the Nine Years ' War . The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701 , when the two parties agreed on peace . Then , the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession . In 1690 and 1711 , Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army . Nevertheless , the British took advantage of the second war . With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 , France ceded to Britain Acadia ( with a population of 1700 people ) , Newfoundland and Hudson Bay . Under the Sovereign Council , the population of the colony grew faster . However , the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south . In the middle of the 18th century , New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people . This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British . The war between the colonies resumed in 1744 , lasting until 1748 . A final and decisive war began in 1754 . The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans , but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield . Louisiana ( edit ) Louisiana before 1736 On May 17 , 1673 , explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River , known to the Sioux as does Tongo , or to the Miami - Illinois as missisipioui ( the great river ) . They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river , after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea ( Pacific Ocean ) . In 1682 , the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta . They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River , along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans . In April 1682 , they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi ; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France . La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana . He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate . He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants , but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687 . In 1698 , Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi . He stopped between Isle - aux - Chats ( now Cat Island ) and Isle Surgeres ( renamed Isle - aux - Vascular or Ship Island ) on February 13 , 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland , with his brother Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi . He built a precarious fort , called ' Maurepas ' ( later ' Old Biloxi ' ) , before returning to France . He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702 . From 1699 to 1702 , Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana . His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713 . He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743 . In 1718 , Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana . He founded the city of New Orleans , in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans . The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square . The Mississippi bubble ( edit ) Main article : Mississippi Company In Weigel 's map ( 1719 ) intended to promote sales of the Mississippi Company in Germany ; most of the present - day United States appears under the name `` Louisiana '' . In 1718 , there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana . The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more , who landed in Louisiana in 1718 , doubling the European population . John Law encouraged Germans , particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule , and the Swiss to emigrate . Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards , under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana . The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation . In May 1720 , after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants , the French government prohibited such deportations . However , there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721 . Dissolution ( edit ) The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France , with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain . Only the islands of Saint - Pierre - et - Miquelon are still in French hands . In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France , but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803 . The French left many toponyms ( Illinois , Vermont , Bayous ... ) and ethnonyms ( Sioux , Coeur d'Alene , Nez Percé ... ) in North America . West indies ( edit ) Further information : French West Indies A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola , where France established the colony of Saint - Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664 . Nicknamed the `` Pearl of the Antilles '' , Saint - Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane . It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere . A 1791 slave revolt , the only ever successful slave revolt , began the Haitian Revolution , led to freedom for the colony 's slaves in 1794 and , a decade later , complete independence for the country , which renamed itself Haiti . France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island , which is now the Dominican Republic . During the 17th and 18th centuries , France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times . Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica , Grenada , Guadeloupe , Marie - Galante , Martinique , St. Barthélemy , St. Croix , St. Kitts , St. Lucia , St. Martin , St. Vincent and Tobago . Control of many of these islands was contested between the French , the British and the Dutch ; in the case of St. Martin , the island was divided in two , a situation that persists to this day . Great Britain captured some of France 's islands during the Seven Years ' War and the Napoleonic Wars . Following the latter conflict , France retained control of Guadeloupe , Martinique , Marie - Galante , St. Barthélemy , and its portion of St. Martin ; all remain part of France today . Guadeloupe ( including Marie - Galante and other nearby islands ) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France , while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007 . South America ( edit ) This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia 's quality standards . The specific problem is : Wording , and the need to add more relevant wikilinks to newly added material Please help improve this section if you can . ( April 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Brazil ( edit ) France Antarctique ( formerly also spelled France antartique ) was a French colony south of the Equator , in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which existed between 1555 and 1567 , and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio . The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots , and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567 . On November 1 , 1555 , French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon ( 1510 -- 1575 ) , a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta , who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution , led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists , and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay , in front of present - day Rio de Janeiro , where they built a fort named Fort Coligny . The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny ( then a Catholic statesman , who about a year later would become a Huguenot ) , an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists . To the still largely undeveloped mainland village , Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville , in honour of Henry II , the King of France , who also knew of and approved the expedition , and had provided the fleet for the trip . Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region , who were fighting the Portuguese . 1557 calvinist arrival ( edit ) Unchallenged by the Portuguese , who initially took little notice of his landing , Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556 . He sent one of his ships , the Grande Roberge , to Honfleur , entrusted with letters to King Henry II , Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts , the Protestant leader John Calvin . After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support , three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte , a nephew of Villegagnon . They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva , led by Philippe de Corguilleray , including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier . The new colonists , numbering around 300 , included 5 young women to be wed , 10 boys to be trained as translators , as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin , and also Jean de Léry , who would later write an account of the colony . They arrived in March 1557 . The relief fleet was composed of : The Petite Roberge , with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte . The Grande Roberge , with about 120 on board , captained by Sieur de Sainte - Marie dit l'Espine . The Rosée , with about 90 people , led by Captain Rosée . Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists , especially in relation to the Eucharist , and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result . They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558 , when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry , and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant . Portuguese intervention ( edit ) In 1560 Mem de Sá , the new Governor - General of Brazil , received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French . With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers , on 15 March 1560 , he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days , but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders , because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians , where they continued to live and to work . Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558 , disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics , who had come also with the second group ( see French Wars of Religion ) . Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá , named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega , and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios , Mem de Sá ordered his nephew , Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force . Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1 , 1565 , and fought the Frenchmen for two more years . Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle , on January 20 , 1567 , he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil , but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle . Coligny 's and Villegaignon 's dream had lasted a mere 12 years . Equinoctial France ( edit ) Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America , around the line of Equator , before `` tropical '' had fully gained its modern meaning : Equinoctial means in Latin `` of equal nights '' , i.e. , on the Equator , where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round . The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France ( Nouvelle France ) in North America , particularly in what is today the province of Quebec , Canada , and for a very short period ( 12 years ) also Antarctic France ( France Antarctique , in French ) , in present - day Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493 , which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal . This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas . History of France Équinoxiale ( edit ) France Équinoxiale started in 1612 , when a French expedition departed from Cancale , Brittany , France , under the command of Daniel de la Touche , Seigneur de la Ravardière , and François de Razilly , admiral . Carrying 500 colonists , it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão . De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization . The colonists soon founded a village , which was named `` Saint - Louis '' , in honor of the French king Louis IX . This later became São Luís in Portuguese , ( 1 ) the only Brazilian state capital founded by France . On 8 September , Capuchin friars prayed the first mass , and the soldiers started building a fortress . An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants ( see French Wars of Religion ) . The colony did not last long . A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco , under the command of Alexandre de Moura , was able to mount a military expedition , which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615 , less than four years after their arrival in the land . Thus , it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique , in 1567 . A few years later , in 1620 , Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop , with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery . French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North , in what is today French Guiana , in 1626 , 1635 ( when the capital , Cayenne , was founded ) and 1643 . Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded , in 1643 and 1645 , but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement . It was only after 1674 , when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office , that France Équinoxiale became a reality . To this day , French Guiana is a department of France . French Guiana located in the South American continent . French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604 , although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases . The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643 , but was abandoned . It was re-established in the 1660s . Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century , and by the Portuguese in the 19th century , Guiana has remained under French rule ever since . From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony , Devil 's Island ( Île du Diable ) . Since 1946 , French Guiana has been an overseas department of France . See also ( edit ) Part of a series on European colonization of the Americas First wave of European colonization British Couronian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller ( Maltese ) Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization Colonialism portal Atlantic World History of Canada Former colonies and territories in Canada French and Indian Wars Franco - Indian alliance French colonial empire French in Canada French in the United States French intervention in Mexico Illinois Country List of French possessions and colonies List of French forts in North America Military of New France Timeline of imperialism # Colonization of North America Canadian French Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Thomas B. Costain , The white and the gold : the French regime in Canada ( Doubleday , 2012 ) ch 1 . Jump up ^ https://umaine.edu/canam/publications/st-croix/champlain-and-the-settlement-of-acadia-1604-1607/ Jump up ^ Francis PArkman , The Pioneers of France in the New World ( 1865 ) . Jump up ^ Quoted in Cave , p. 42 Jump up ^ Acte pour l'établissement de la Compagnie des Cent Associés pour le commerce du Canada , contenant les articles accordés à la dite Compagnie par M. le Cardinal de Richelieu , le 29 avril 1627 ( 1 ) Jump up ^ Peter N. Moogk , La Nouvelle - France : the making of French Canada : a cultural history ( 2000 ) . Jump up ^ John T. McGrath , The French in early Florida : in the eye of the hurricane ( U Press of Florida , 2000 ) . Jump up ^ Bartolome Barrientos , Pedro Menéndez de Avilés : Founder of Florida ( University of Florida Press , 1965 ) . Jump up ^ Des sauvages , ou , Voyage de Samuel Champlain , de Brouage , fait en la France Nouuelle , l'an mil six cens trois , A Paris : Chez Claude de Monstr'œil , tenant sa boutique en la Cour du Palais , au nom de Iesus , 1603 . OCLC 71251137 Jump up ^ James MacPherson Le Moine , Quebec , Past and Present : a history of Quebec , 1608 - 1876 ( 1876 ) . online Jump up ^ Francis Parkman , Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV ( 1877 ) Jump up ^ Hubert , et al. Charbonneau , `` The population of the St - Lawrence Valley , 1608 -- 1760 . '' in A population history of North America ( 2000 ) : 99 - 142 . Jump up ^ R. Cole Harris , Historical Atlas of Canada : Volume I : From the Beginning to 1800 ( University of Toronto Press , 2016 ) . Jump up ^ Bennett H Wall and John C. Rodrigue , Louisiana : A History ( 2014 ( ch 1 Jump up ^ Francis Parkman , La Salle and the discovery of the Great West ( 1891 ) . online Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Cat Island : The History of a Mississippi Gulf Coast Barrier Island , By John Cuevas Jump up ^ `` Hispaniola Article '' . Britannica.com . Retrieved 4 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Rodriguez , Junius P. ( 2007 ) . Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 229 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 33272 - 2 . Jump up ^ As the French and Indian War started two years earlier , and continued until the signing of the peace treaty , the name Seven Years ' War is more properly applied to the European phase of the war . Jump up ^ Philip Boucher , `` French Proprietary Colonies In The Greater Caribbean , 1620s -- 1670s . '' in Constructing Early Modern Empires ( Brill , 2007 ) pp. 163 - 188 . Jump up ^ Joshua R. Hyles ( 2013 ) . Guiana and the Shadows of Empire : Colonial and Cultural Negotiations at the Edge of the World . Lexington Books . References ( edit ) Further information : Bibliography of Canadian history § Prior to 1763 Brecher , Frank W. Losing a Continent : France 's North American Policy , 1753 - 1763 ( 1998 ) Dechêne , Louise Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth - Century Montreal ( 2003 ) Eccles , W.J. The Canadian Frontier , 1534 - 1760 ( 1983 ) Eccles , W.J. Essays on New France ( 1988 ) Eccles , W.J. The French in North America , 1500 - 1783 ( Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited , 1998 . ) , a standard scholarly survey Havard , Gilles , and Cécile Vidal , `` Making New France New Again : French historians rediscover their American past , '' Common - Place ( July 2007 ) v 7 # 4 Holbrook , Sabra ( 1976 ) , The French Founders of North America and Their Heritage , New York : Atheneum , ISBN 0 - 689 - 30490 - 0 Katz , Ron . French America : French Architecture from Colonialization to the Birth of a Nation . Editions Didier Millet , 2004 . McDermott , John Francis . The French in the Mississippi Valley ( University of Illinois Press , 1965 ) McDermott , John F. , ed . Frenchmen and French ways in the Mississippi Valley ( 1969 ) Moogk , Peter N. La Nouvelle France : The Making of French Canada - A Cultural History ( 2000 ) . 340 pp . Trudel , Marcel . The Beginnings of New France 1524 - 1663 ( 1973 ) White , Sophie . Wild Frenchmen and Frenchified Indians : Material Culture and Race in Colonial Louisiana ( University of Pennsylvania Press , 2013 ) In French ( edit ) Balvay , Arnaud . L'épée et la plume : Amérindiens et soldats des troupes de la marine en Louisiane et au Pays d'en Haut ( 1683 - 1763 ) ( Presses Université Laval , 2006 ) Balvay , Arnaud . La Révolte des Natchez ( Editions du Félin , 2008 ) Halford , Peter Wallace , and Pierre - Philippe Potier . Le français des Canadiens à la veille de la conquête : témoignage du père Pierre Philippe Potier , SJ . ( Presses de l'Université d'Ottawa , 1994 ) Moussette , Marcel & Waselkov , Gregory A. : Archéologie de l'Amérique coloniale française . Lévesque éditeur , Montréal 2014 . ISBN 978 - 2 - 924186 - 38 - 1 ( print ) ; ISBN 978 - 2 - 924186 - 39 - 8 ( eBook ) Former French colonies in the Americas New France Acadia Louisiana Canada Terre Neuve French Caribbean Dominica Grenada The Grenadines Saint - Domingue Haïti , Dominican Republic Saint Kitts & Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent Tobago Virgin Islands Equinoctial France Berbice France Antarctique Inini French colonization of the Americas French West India Company New France ( 1534 -- 1763 ) Subdivisions Acadia ( 1604 -- 1713 ) Canada ( 1608 -- 1763 ) Pays d'en Haut Domaine du roy Louisiana ( 1682 -- 1762 , 1802 -- 1803 ) Illinois Country Ohio Country Newfoundland ( 1662 -- 1713 ) Île Royale ( 1713 -- 1763 ) Towns Acadia ( Port Royal ) Canada Quebec Trois - Rivières Montreal Détroit Île Royale Louisbourg Louisiana Mobile New Orleans Newfoundland Plaisance List of towns Forts Fort Rouillé Fort Michilimackinac Fort de Buade Fort de Chartres Fort Detroit Fort Carillon Fort Condé Fort Duquesne Fortress of Louisbourg Castle Hill Fort St. Louis ( Illinois ) Fort St. Louis ( Texas ) List of Forts Government Canada Governor General Intendant Sovereign Council Bishop of Quebec Governor of Trois - Rivières Governor of Montreal Acadia Governor Lieutenant - General Newfoundland Governor Lieutenant - General Louisiana Governor Intendant Superior Council Île Royale Governor Intendant Superior Council Law Intendancy Superior Council Admiralty court Provostship Officiality Seigneurial court Bailiff Maréchaussée Code Noir Economy Seigneurial system Fur trade Company of 100 Associates Crozat 's Company Mississippi Company Compagnie de l'Occident Chemin du Roy Coureur des bois Voyageurs Society Population 1666 census Habitants King 's Daughters Casquette girls Métis Amerindians Slavery Plaçage Gens de couleur libres Religion Jesuit missions Récollets Grey Nuns Ursulines Sulpicians War and peace Military of New France Intercolonial Wars French and Iroquois Wars Great Upheaval Great Peace of Montreal Schenectady massacre Deerfield massacre Related French colonization of the Americas French colonial empire History of Quebec History of the Acadians History of the French - Americans French West Indies Carib Expulsion Atlantic slave trade Category Portal Commons History of the Americas History North America Mesoamerica Central America Caribbean Latin America South America Andean South America Genetics Settlement Indigenous peoples Indigenous population Pre-Columbian trans - oceanic contact theories Discovery Exploration European colonization Spanish colonization French colonization Portuguese colonization British colonization Columbian Exchange Decolonization Societies Paleo - Indians Pre-Columbian era Aztec Maya Muisca Inca Related Maps Culture Geography Indigenous languages Epidemics Slavery Lists Pre-Columbian cultures Indigenous peoples Population Conflicts North America South America Chronology Archaeology of the Americas North America by period North American timelines Mesoamerica by period Mesoamerica timeline Era : By period By region Three - age system Ancient history Pre-Columbian era Classical Antiquity Middle Ages Modern history Future Former colonies and territories in Canada Norse Named Territories Vinland Markland Helluland Sites L'Anse aux Meadows Point Rosee French Claims New France Acadia Isle St - Jean Île Royale Canada Domaine du roy Louisiana Pays d'en Haut Terre Neuve Important sites Port Royal Quebec Trois - Rivières Montreal Louisbourg Plaisance List of towns List of Forts Spanish Claims New Spain Important sites Fort San Miguel , Nootka Sound Expeditions Newfoundland Pacific Northwest Scottish Claims Nova Scotia ( 1621 ) Sites Port Royal Colony Russian Claims Russian America American Claims Oregon Country English & British Claims Newfoundland ( 1583 ) New Albion ( ? 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"The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.[1]"
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"a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth"
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-9009944335333208801 | Peter principle | Peter Principle - wikipedia Peter Principle Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the management concept . For the software concept , see software Peter principle . For the British television series , see The Peter Principle ( TV series ) . For the musician , see Tuxedomoon . An illustration visualizing the Peter principle The Peter principle is a concept in management theory formulated by educator Laurence J. Peter and published in 1969 . It states that the selection of a candidate for a position is based on the candidate 's performance in their current role , rather than on abilities relevant to the intended role . Thus , employees only stop being promoted once they can no longer perform effectively , and `` managers rise to the level of their incompetence '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Research 3 Comparable texts 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography Overview ( edit ) The Peter principle is a special case of a ubiquitous observation : Anything that works will be used in progressively more challenging applications until it fails . This is the `` generalized Peter principle '' . Peter noted that there is a strong temptation for people to use what has worked before , even when this might not be appropriate for the current situation . In an organizational structure , assessing an employee 's potential for a promotion is often based on their performance in the current job . This eventually results in their being promoted to their highest level of competence and potentially then to a role in which they are not competent , referred to as their `` level of incompetence '' . The employee has no chance of further promotion , thus reaching their career 's ceiling in an organization . Peter suggests that `` in time , every post tends to be occupied by an employee who is incompetent to carry out '' assigned duties and that `` work is accomplished by those employees who have not yet reached their level of incompetence '' . He coined the term hierarchiology as the social science concerned with the basic principles of hierarchically organized systems in human society . He noted that their incompetence may be because the required skills are different , but not more difficult . For example , an excellent engineer may be a poor manager if he or she lacks the interpersonal skills necessary to lead a team . Rather than seeking to promote a talented `` super-competent '' junior employee , Peter suggested that an incompetent manager may set them up to fail or dismiss them because they are likely to `` violate the first commandment of hierarchical life with incompetent leadership : the hierarchy must be preserved '' . Research ( edit ) Alessandro Pluchino , Andrea Rapisarda , and Cesare Garofalo used an agent - based modelling approach to simulate the promotion of employees in a system where the Peter principle is assumed to be true . They found that the best way to improve efficiency in an enterprise is to promote people randomly , or to shortlist the best and the worst performer in a given group , from which the person to be promoted is then selected randomly . For this work , they won the 2010 edition of the parody Ig Nobel Prize in management science . Comparable texts ( edit ) José Ortega y Gasset suggested that : `` All public employees should be demoted to their immediately lower level , as they have been promoted until turning incompetent '' . Ortega died in 1955 , about 14 years before Peter published The Peter Principle . See also ( edit ) Dilbert principle Dunning -- Kruger effect Founder 's syndrome Up or out Negative selection ( politics ) Parkinson 's law Putt 's Law and the Successful Technocrat Systemantics References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Heylighen , F. ( November 30 , 1993 ) . `` The Generalized ' Peter Principle ' '' . Principia Cybernetica Web . Retrieved April 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Peter , Laurence J. ; Hull , Raymond ( 1969 ) . The Peter Principle : Why Things Always Go Wrong . New York : William Morrow and Company . p. 8 . ISBN 0 - 688 - 27544 - 3 . OCLC 1038496 . Jump up ^ Pluchino , Alessandro ; Rapisarda , Andrea ; Garofalo , Cesare ( 2009 ) . `` The Peter Principle Revisited : A Computational Study '' . Physica A. 389 ( 3 ) : 467 -- 472 . arXiv : 0907.0455 . Bibcode : 2010PhyA ... 389 ... 467P . doi : 10.1016 / j. physa. 2009.09. 045 . Jump up ^ `` The 2010 Ig Nobel Prize Winners '' ( PDF ) . Annals of Improbable Research . 16 ( 6 ) : 10 -- 13 . 2010 . Jump up ^ `` En el umbral de la incompetencia '' . La Opinión ( in Spanish ) . Retrieved November 30 , 2013 . Bibliography ( edit ) Lazear , Edward P ( October 12 , 2000 ) . `` The Peter Principle : Promotions and Declining Productivity '' ( PDF ) . Hoover Institution and Graduate School of Business , Stanford University . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_principle&oldid=815615721 '' Categories : 1969 books Adages Sociology books Business books Office work Organizational theory Words coined in the 1960s Incompetence Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Use mdy dates from April 2015 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Magyar മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Slovenčina Slovenščina Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 December 2017 , at 23 : 08 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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-5295388763354705142 | Battle of Buxar | Battle of Buxar - wikipedia Battle of Buxar Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2009 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Battle of Buxar Part of The Bengal Wars Date 22 October 1764 Location Near Buxar Result British East India Company victory Belligerents Mughal Empire Nawab of Awadh Mir Qasim Durrani and Rohilla Factions British East India Company Commanders and leaders Shah Alam II Shuja - ud - Daula Mirza Najaf Khan Mir Qasim Hector Munro of Novar Strength 40,000 140 cannons 7,072 30 cannons Casualties and losses Disputed British claim : 2,000 killed 733 -- 847 killed , wounded or missing Seven years War Bengal War Battle of Plassey Battle of Patna ( 1760 ) Battle of Gaya ( 1760 ) Battle of Sirpur Battle of Birpur Battle of Siwan Battle of Gheria Battle of Katwa Battle of Patna Battle of Udaynala ( 1763 ) Battle of Buxar Battle of Patna ( 1764 ) Battle of Kora ( 1765 ) The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22 October 1764 between the forces under the command of the British East India Company led by Hector Munro and the combined armies of Mir Qasim , Nawab of Bengal till 1763 ; the Nawab of Awadh ; and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II . The battle fought at Buxar , a `` small fortified town '' within the territory of Bengal , located on the banks of the Ganges river about 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) west of Patna , was a decisive victory for the British East India Company . Shuja - ud - Daulah and Shah Alam surrendered and the war came to an end by the `` Treaty of Allahabad '' in 1765 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Battle 2 Aftermath 3 Gallery 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Battle ( edit ) The British army engaged in the fighting numbered 7,071 comprising 859 British , 5,297 Indian sepoys and 918 Indian cavalry . The alliance army 's numbers were estimated to be over 40,000 . According to other sources , the combined army of the Mughals , Awadh and Mir Qasim consisting of 40,000 men was defeated by a British army comprising 10,000 men. The Nawabs had virtually lost their military power after the battle of Buxar . The lack of basic co-ordination among the three disparate allies was responsible for their decisive defeat . Mirza Najaf Khan commanded the right flank of the Mughal imperial army and was the first to advance his forces against Major Hector Munro at daybreak ; the British lines formed within twenty minutes and reversed the advance of the Mughals . According to the British , Durrani and Rohilla cavalry were also present and fought during the battle in various skirmishes . But by midday , the battle was over and Shuja - ud - Daula blew up large tumbrils and three massive magazines of gunpowder . Munro divided his army into various columns and particularly pursued the Mughal Grand Vizier Shuja - ud - Daula the Nawab of Awadh , who responded by blowing up his boat - bridge after crossing the river , thus abandoning the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and members of his own regiment . Mir Qasim also fled with his 3 million rupees worth of Gemstones and later committed suicide . Mirza Najaf Khan reorganised formations around Shah Alam II , who retreated and then chose to negotiate with the victorious British . Historian John William Fortescue claimed that the British casualties totalled 847 : 39 killed and 64 wounded from the European regiments and 250 killed , 435 wounded and 85 missing from the East India Company 's sepoys . He also claimed that the three Indian allies suffered 2,000 dead and that many more were wounded . Another source says that there were 69 European and 664 sepoy casualties on the British side and 6,000 casualties on the Mughal side . The victors captured 133 pieces of artillery and over 1 million rupees of cash . Immediately after the battle Munro decided to assist the Marathas , who were described as a `` warlike race '' , well known for their relentless and unwavering hatred towards the Mughal Empire and its Nawabs and the Sultanate of Mysore . Aftermath ( edit ) The British victory at Buxar had `` at one fell swoop , disposed of the three main scions of Mughal power in Upper India . Mir Kasim ( Qasim ) disappeared into an impoverished obscurity . Shah Alam realigned himself with the British , and Shah Shuja ( Shuja - ud - Daula ) fled west hotly pursued by the victors . The whole Ganges valley lay at the Company 's mercy ; Shah Shuja eventually surrendered ; henceforth Company troops became the power - brokers throughout Oudh as well as Bihar '' . Gallery ( edit ) The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II , as a prisoner of the British East India Company , 1781 The Nawab of Bengal , Mir Qasim Shuja - ud - Daula served as the leading Nawab Vizier of the Mughal Empire , he was a lifelong of Shah Alam II . Mirza Najaf Khan Baloch , the commander - in - chief of the Mughal Army . Political map of the Indian Subcontinent in the year 1765 . See also ( edit ) Battle of Plassey References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : History of the Freedom Movement in India ( 1857 -- 1947 ) , p. 2 , at Google Books ^ Jump up to : Fortescue , John William . ( 2004 ) . A History of the British Army : Volume III . p. 102 . The Naval and Military Press . Uckfield , Sussex . ISBN 978 - 1843427155 . ^ Jump up to : Black , Jeremy and Wyse , Liz . ( 1996 ) . The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare : Renaissance to Revolution , 1492 - 1792 . p. 160 . The Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9780521470339 . Jump up ^ Parshotam Mehra ( 1985 ) . A Dictionary of Modern History ( 1707 -- 1947 ) . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 561552 - 2 . Jump up ^ Sir Edward Cust , Annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century , Vol. 3 , p. 113 , at Google Books , Mitchell 's Military Library ( 1858 ) . ISBN 1235663922 Jump up ^ Keay , John . ( 1993 ) . The Honourable Company : A History of the English East India Company . Paperback edition . p. 374 . HarperCollins Publishers . London . ISBN 978 - 0 - 00 - 638072 - 6 . External links ( edit ) A detailed description of the Battle of Buxar ( hide ) Mughal Empire Emperors Babur Humayun Akbar Jahangir Shah Jahan Aurangzeb ( Alamgir ) Muhammad Azam Shah Bahadur Shah I Jahandar Shah Farrukhsiyar Rafi ud - Darajat Shah Jahan II Muhammad Shah Ahmad Shah Bahadur Alamgir II Shah Jahan III Shah Alam II Akbar II Bahadur Shah II Battles and conflicts Battle of Panipat ( 1526 ) Gujarat conquest Battle of Khanwa Battle of Ghaghra Siege of Sambhal Battle of Panipat ( 1556 ) Battle of Thanesar Siege of Chittorgarh Siege of Ranthambore Battle of Tukaroi Battle of Raj Mahal Battle of Haldighati Battle of Bhuchar Mori Siege of Kandahar Mughal -- Safavid War ( 1622 -- 23 ) Siege of Orchha Mughal -- Safavid War ( 1649 -- 53 ) Battle of Samugarh Battle of Khajwa Suppression of Tilpat rebellion Ahom -- Mughal conflicts Siege of Purandhar Tibet -- Ladakh -- Mughal War Mughal -- Maratha Wars Siege of Bijapur Siege of Jinji Child 's War Siege of Golconda Battle of Karnal Third Battle of Panipat Battle of Buxar Siege of Delhi Architecture Taj Mahal Gardens of Babur Fatehpur Sikri Tomb of Salim Chishti Humayun 's Tomb Red Fort Lahore Fort Jahangir Mahal Lalbagh Fort Akbar 's Tomb Agra Fort Chawk Mosque Shalimar Gardens Achabal Gardens Jahangir 's Tomb Bibi Ka Maqbara Badshahi Mosque Shahi Bridge Shah Jahan Mosque , Thatta Sheesh Mahal Sunehri Masjid Tipu Sultan Mosque Wazir Khan Mosque more Adversaries Ibrahim Lodi Rana Sanga Sher Shah Suri Hemu Maharana Pratap Malik Ambar Gokula Pratapaditya Shivaji Lachit Borphukan Khushal Khattak Sir Josiah Child Guru Gobind Singh Henry Every Bajirao I Nader Shah Hector Munro Provinces Bengal Subah Gujarat Subah See also Art Cuisine Culture Flag Gardens Language Military Painting Persians Tribe Weapons Timurid dynasty family tree Successor states Maratha Empire Rajput states Jats Sikh Empire Nawabs of Bengal Awadh Nizam of Hyderabad Carnatic Kingdom of Mysore Rohilkhand Indian Independence Movement History Colonisation Porto Grande de Bengala Dutch Bengal East India Company British Raj French India Portuguese India Battle of Plassey Battle of Buxar Anglo - Mysore Wars First Second Third Fourth Anglo - Maratha Wars First Second Third Polygar Wars Vellore Mutiny First Anglo - Sikh War Second Anglo - Sikh War Sannyasi Rebellion Rebellion of 1857 Radcliffe Line more Philosophies and ideologies Ambedkarism Gandhism Hindu nationalism Indian nationalism Khilafat Movement Muslim nationalism in South Asia Satyagraha Socialism Swadeshi movement Swaraj Events and movements Partition of Bengal ( 1905 ) Partition of Bengal ( 1947 ) Revolutionaries Direct Action Day Delhi - Lahore Conspiracy The Indian Sociologist Singapore Mutiny Hindu -- German Conspiracy Champaran Satyagraha Kheda Satyagraha Rowlatt Committee Rowlatt Bills Jallianwala Bagh massacre Noakhali riots Non-Cooperation Movement Christmas Day Plot Coolie - Begar Movement Chauri Chaura incident , 1922 Kakori conspiracy Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre Flag Satyagraha Bardoli 1928 Protests Nehru Report Fourteen Points of Jinnah Purna Swaraj Salt March Dharasana Satyagraha Vedaranyam March Chittagong armoury raid Gandhi -- Irwin Pact Round table conferences Act of 1935 Aundh Experiment Indische Legion Cripps ' mission Quit India Bombay Mutiny Coup d'état of Yanaon Provisional Government of India Independence Day Praja Mandala movement Organisations All India Kisan Sabha All - India Muslim League Anushilan Samiti Arya Samaj Azad Hind Berlin Committee Ghadar Party Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Indian National Congress India House Indian Home Rule movement Indian Independence League Indian National Army Jugantar Khaksar Tehrik Khudai Khidmatgar Swaraj Party more Social reformers A. Vaidyanatha Iyer Ayya Vaikundar Ayyankali B.R. Ambedkar Baba Amte Bal Gangadhar Tilak Dayananda Saraswati Dhondo Keshav Karve G. Subramania Iyer Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Gopal Hari Deshmukh Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar J.B. Kripalani Jyotirao Phule Kandukuri Veeresalingam Mahadev Govind Ranade Mahatma Gandhi Muthulakshmi Reddi Narayana Guru Niralamba Swami Pandita Ramabai Periyar E.V. Ramasamy Ram Mohan Roy Rettamalai Srinivasan Sahajanand Saraswati Savitribai Phule Shahu Sister Nivedita Sri Aurobindo Syed Ahmad Khan Vakkom Moulavi Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Vinoba Bhave Vitthal Ramji Shinde Vivekananda Independence activists Abul Kalam Azad Accamma Cherian Achyut Patwardhan A.K. Fazlul Huq Alluri Sitarama Raju Annapurna Maharana Annie Besant Ashfaqulla Khan Babu Kunwar Singh Bagha Jatin Bahadur Shah II Bakht Khan Bal Gangadhar Tilak Basawon Singh Begum Hazrat Mahal Bhagat Singh Bharathidasan Bhavabhushan Mitra Bhikaiji Cama Bhupendra Kumar Datta Bidhan Chandra Roy Bipin Chandra Pal C. Rajagopalachari Chandra Shekhar Azad Chetram Jatav Chittaranjan Das Dadabhai Naoroji Dayananda Saraswati Dhan Singh Dukkipati Nageswara Rao Gopal Krishna Gokhale Govind Ballabh Pant Har Dayal Hemu Kalani Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi Jatindra Mohan Sengupta Jatindra Nath Das Jawaharlal Nehru K. Kamaraj Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Khudiram Bose Shri Krishna Singh Lala Lajpat Rai M. Bhaktavatsalam M.N. Roy Mahadaji Shinde Mahatma Gandhi Mangal Pandey Mir Qasim Mithuben Petit Muhammad Ali Jauhar Muhammad Ali Jinnah Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari Nagnath Naikwadi Nana Fadnavis Nana Sahib P. Kakkan Prafulla Chaki Pritilata Waddedar Pritilata Waddedar Purushottam Das Tandon R. Venkataraman Rahul Sankrityayan Rajendra Prasad Ram Prasad Bismil Rani Lakshmibai Rash Behari Bose Sahajanand Saraswati Sangolli Rayanna Sarojini Naidu Satyapal Dang Shuja - ud - Daula Shyamji Krishna Varma Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi Siraj ud - Daulah Subhas Chandra Bose Subramania Bharati Subramaniya Siva Surya Sen Syama Prasad Mukherjee Tara Rani Srivastava Tarak Nath Das Tatya Tope Tiruppur Kumaran Ubaidullah Sindhi VO Chidamabaram V.K. Krishna Menon Vallabhbhai Patel Vanchinathan Veeran Sundaralingam Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Virendranath Chattopadhyaya Yashwantrao Holkar Yogendra Shukla more British leaders Wavell Canning Cornwallis Irwin Chelmsford Curzon Ripon Minto Dalhousie Bentinck Mountbatten Wellesley Lytton Clive Outram Cripps Linlithgow Hastings Independence Cabinet Mission Annexation of French colonies in India Constitution Republic of India Indian annexation of Goa Indian Independence Act Partition of India Political integration Simla Conference Patna division topics General Azimabad Battle of Buxar Kaimur Range Nalanda Pataliputra Takht Sri Patna Sahib Tourism in Patna Districts Bhojpur Buxar Kaimur Nalanda Patna Rohtas Rivers Ganges Durgavati Karmanasa Punpun Son Dams , barrages Indrapuri Barrage Transport NH 2 NH 30 NH 31 NH 82 NH 83 NH 84 NH 110 Ganga rail -- road bridge Koilwar Bridge Howrah -- Delhi main line Grand Chord Gaya -- Mughalsarai section Bakhtiyarpur -- Tilaiya line Mahatma Gandhi Setu Mokama -- Barauni section Nehru Setu Jawahar Setu Rajendra Setu Railway stations Bakhtiyarpur Junction Barh Bhabua Road Danapur Terminal Dehri - on - Sone Fatuha Junction Gulzarbagh Hathidah Junction Harnaut Khusropur Mokama Junction Patliputra Junction Patna Junction Patna Sahib Rajendra Nagar Terminal Rajgir Lok Sabha constituencies Arrah Buxar Jahanabad Karakat Nalanda Pataliputra Patna Sahib Sasaram See also People from Patna People from Rhotas district Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Buxar&oldid=839143350 '' Categories : British East India Company Battles involving the Mughal Empire Battles involving the Indian kingdoms Battles involving Bengal Battles involving the British East India Company 1764 in India Conflicts in 1764 History of Bihar 1764 in the Mughal Empire Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from February 2009 All articles needing additional references All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from August 2017 Bihar articles missing geocoordinate data All articles needing coordinates Use dmy dates from March 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা भोजपुरी Español Esperanto فارسی Français हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia Italiano മലയാളം Nederlands 日本 語 پنجابی Polski Русский Simple English தமிழ் తెలుగు Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 14 more Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2018 , at 15 : 16 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | when did the battle of buxar take place | [
"The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22 October 1764 between the forces under the command of the British East India Company led by Hector Munro and the combined armies of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal till 1763; the Nawab of Awadh; and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.[4] The battle fought at Buxar, a \"small fortified town\" within the territory of Bengal, located on the banks of the Ganges river about 130 kilometres (81 mi) west of Patna, was a decisive victory for the British East India Company. Shuja-ud-Daulah and Shah Alam surrendered and the war came to an end by the \"Treaty of Allahabad\" in 1765."
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"22 October 1764"
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-5554953777821055178 | Ross Geller | Ross Geller - wikipedia Ross Geller This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( July 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Ross Geller Friends character First appearance `` The Pilot '' Last appearance `` The Last One '' Created by David Crane Marta Kauffman Portrayed by David Schwimmer Information Full name Dr. Ross Eustace Geller , Ph. D . Occupation Paleontologist at New York Museum of Prehistoric History ( season 1 - 6 ) College professor at New York University ( season 6 - 10 ) Title Doctor Professor Family Jack Geller ( father ) Judy Geller ( mother ) Monica Geller ( younger sister ) Spouse ( s ) Carol Willick ( 1987 - 1994 ) Emily Waltham ( 1998 ) Rachel Green ( 1999 , 2004 - ) Children Ben Geller ( son ) Emma Geller - Green ( daughter ) Religion Judaism Nationality American Ross Eustace Geller , Ph. D. , is a fictional character from the NBC sitcom Friends , portrayed by David Schwimmer . Ross is considered by many to be the most intelligent member of the group and is noted for his goofy but lovable demeanor . His relationship with Rachel Green was included in TV Guide 's list of the best TV couples of all time , as well as Entertainment Weekly 's `` 30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They ? ' TV Couples '' . Kevin Bright , one of the executive producers of the show had worked with Schwimmer before , so the writers were already developing Ross 's character in Schwimmer 's voice . And hence , Schwimmer was the first person to be cast on the show . Contents 1 Appearances 2 Relationships 2.1 Rachel Green 2.2 Carol Willick 2.3 Emily Waltham 3 Reception 4 See also 5 References Appearances ( edit ) Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph. D. from Columbia University . An ongoing theme of his narrative arc is his romantic feelings toward Rachel Green , an infatuation that began in high school . A theme of Friends is their on - again , off - again romantic relationship . Born on October 18 , 1967 , and raised on Long Island , Ross is the elder brother of Monica Geller . Ross and Monica are Jewish and see themselves as at least cultural Jews , with Ross taking a more active role in wanting to teach his son , Ben , about the faith . Ross gets divorced and is newly single in the very first episode because his wife , Carol , has realized she 's a lesbian . Later he dates Rachel but it results in a break - up . Afterward , Ross gets married to Emily which does n't last long . Also , he marries Rachel in Las Vegas when the two are drunk and then ultimately that too results in a divorce . In the whole series , Ross gets divorced 3 times . A running theme in Ross ' narrative is his competition with his younger sister , manifested through wrestling and paranoia . As children , they took part in an American football match for the Geller Cup every Thanksgiving . This ended in its sixth year after Monica `` accidentally '' broke Ross ' nose . The siblings came up with a dance in primary school called `` The Routine '' , which later on allowed them to perform in a New Year 's Eve TV broadcast . When they were kids , Monica used to hate Ross because he always had his way and he was loved more than her as he was their parents ' first child . But eventually as the time passed and they grew up , she started loving him more than she used to and they also grew closer to each other though the competition between them was still visible as seen in `` The One with the Football '' . Ross often comes into conflict with his close friend , Phoebe Buffay . His rationality and Phoebe 's eccentricity lead to conflict over evolution , gravity , and whether Phoebe 's mother was reincarnated as a cat . It is also revealed that Phoebe once mugged Ross ( stealing a copy of the comic book Science Boy that Geller had created ) when they were teenagers . The two are roommates for a few weeks when a fire forces Phoebe to move into Chandler Bing and Monica 's apartment and Phoebe want to give the newly engaged couple some privacy . In a `` flashback '' episode , they are alone at the bar and start kissing , but the moment quickly passes when Ross keeps bumping his head . Phoebe also helps Ross on numerous occasions , ultimately making him realize that he loves Rachel and they both are meant to be together . Ross ' best friend since college is Chandler . In college , they were in a band called Way / No Way , and Ross blamed Chandler when he was caught smoking marijuana . Chandler becomes Ross ' brother - in - law after he marries Monica . Though they are best friends , at times Chandler gets annoyed with Ross ' geeky behavior . Ross is friends with Rachel Green , whom he has a crush on since high school . Rachel viewed Ross as ' Monica 's geeky older brother ' during high school . Despite having a huge crush on her , he never told her and eventually let go of his feelings for her . But he again discovers feelings for her in the first episode of the series . They get close to each other and have on and off relationship . In the final season of the show , Rachel tells him that he means more to her than any other member of their group . He is also close friends with Joey Tribbiani and helps him with movie and stage auditions . He kisses Joey once in order to help him practice a role as a gay man , only to find out that Joey had already done the audition and did n't get the part . Joey and Ross also briefly try to cut Chandler out of their friend group after he ignores them . Joey and Ross fall asleep together on the couch after watching Die Hard . Toward the end of the series , however , Ross and Joey are seen to become closer friends , often hanging out together after Chandler gets married . Ross often tries to bring out the best of his friends in difficult situations . For instance , in season 2 , he encourages Joey to audition for Another World after being fired from Days of Our Lives , despite Joey 's refusal to present himself for a two - line part of a secondary character , in season 7 , he buys Phoebe the bike of her dreams but threatens to take it away from her because of her reluctance to learn how to ride it . Also , when he discovers that Joey has a crush on Rachel , he tells him to tell her about it and go for it instead of hiding it , even though he has problems with the idea of Joey and Rachel being together . Above all Ross is a very sweet , loving and adorable guy who is always looking out for everyone 's best interests and often the most mature compared to the rest of the gang , despite his ego , outbursts , and paranoia . He has two children . Ross ' son , Ben , was conceived while Ross and Carol were still married and born at the end of Season 1 . Ross shares joint custody of Ben with his ex-wife Carol and her wife Susan . Ben appeared in a total 16 ( 17 ) episodes and was played chronologically : as an infant by Michael Gunderson Season 1 to 2 , by brothers Charles Thomas Allen and John Christopher Allen from Season 3 to 5 , and by Cole Sprouse from Season 6 to 8 . Ross ' daughter with Rachel , Emma Geller - Green , was born at the end of Season 8 . Rachel 's pregnancy was originally revealed in the season finale of Season 7 . The conception of Emma was predominantly the result of a one - night stand , which was later revealed in the Season 8 episode , `` The One With The Videotape '' . Ross claims to have `` given up a career in basketball '' to become a paleontologist , and claims to have had the idea for Jurassic Park and Die Hard stolen from him . He also had major interest in music when he used to play keyboard for hours in the basement of their house in Long Island . Ross had a pet in the earlier seasons of the show ; a White - headed capuchin monkey named `` Marcel '' . Relationships ( edit ) Over the course of the show , Ross dates a considerable number of women . He married three times and is divorced three times . His proclivity to marry and divorce is a running gag within the series . Julie . An old graduate school colleague , portrayed by Lauren Tom . She first appears in the final scene of the season 1 finale , returning with Ross from an archeological dig in China . They start dating in season 2 but break up after Ross discovers Rachel 's feelings for him and he decides he wants to be with her instead . Bonnie . A love interest ( played by Christine Taylor ) introduced to Ross by Phoebe , Bonnie is formerly a militant bald woman who no longer shaves her head . She enjoyed a sex - filled relationship with Ross , until a conniving Rachel broke them up by first setting Bonnie up to shave her head again , and later by revealing she was interested in reuniting with Ross . Mona . A love interest he met at Monica and Chandler 's wedding ( portrayed by Bonnie Somerville ) , who later broke up with him when she found out that his roommate , Rachel Green , was pregnant with Ross 's child . Ross becomes paranoid after Mona proposes to send out Christmas cards together , and in a panic decides to give her a key to his apartment . It is later revealed that Mona is unable to say `` I love you '' yet , and delivers what the female friends refer to as `` an emotional slap in the face '' with `` I love spending time with you '' . Chloe . Ross 's only relationship with Chloe ( referred to in a few prior episodes as `` The cute girl from the copy place with the belly button ring '' ) was a one - night stand during a `` break '' with his relationship with Rachel , which interferes with their attempt to get back together . Although only covered over two episodes in season 3 , Ross ' fling with Chloe would be the basis of the `` We were on a break ! '' running joke that would last until the very end of the series . Janice . Ross has a brief fling with Janice , Chandler 's ex-girlfriend , in season 5 . Phoebe said they would have very hairy children . Janice ironically dumps Ross because he whines too much . Ross , worried about how he would react , tells Chandler , who laughs . Elizabeth Stevens . A pretty 20 - year - old student who Ross teaches during his first year as a professor . The two go through a tremendous amount of effort to keep their relationship a secret from the faculty , as Ross would get fired for dating a student . He even tries to get on good terms with Elizabeth 's father Paul ( Bruce Willis ) , who in turn threatens to report him to the university . Ross eventually manages to blackmail Paul into pretending to like him by threatening to reveal Paul 's embarrassing mirror dance routine to Rachel ( who dates him briefly ) . Despite Paul no longer being a threat , Ross eventually realizes he sees no future in his relationship with Elizabeth and decides to break up with her due to her immaturity . Charlie Wheeler . Ross meets Charlie ( Aisha Tyler ) in `` The One With The Soap Opera Party '' . She is a paleontologist who has recently joined Ross 's department . She initially dates Joey before breaking up with him and gravitating toward Ross , after realizing she has more things in common with Ross . She eventually reconciles with her ex-boyfriend and breaks up with Ross . Cheryl . A very attractive woman that Ross briefly dates . He decides he wants to pursue a relationship with her , but is stifled by her incredibly filthy apartment . Despite her own living quarters being littered with garbage and infested with all kinds of pests , she ca n't stand the `` weird smell '' of Ross ' apartment , which is why she does n't like being there . After Ross breaks off the relationship after being covered in all kinds of trash in an attempt to make out with Cheryl , Monica later visits her and offers to clean her apartment , revealing she `` could n't sleep '' after Ross told her about it . Jill Green . Ross very briefly dates Rachel 's spoiled younger sister Jill ( played by Reese Witherspoon ) after her father sends her to New York to take lessons from Rachel in self - sufficiency . Although Jill actually finds Ross a geek , she dates him out of spite because Rachel is uncomfortable with it and tells her `` she 's always wanted what she could n't have '' . Rachel Green ( edit ) Rachel is Ross 's most significant relationship during the series . His attraction to her is established early on ; Ross met Rachel through his sister Monica , who was Rachel 's best friend in high school . He developed an unrequited crush on her , but never followed through on it . After leaving college , Ross married Carol , whom he had met at college , and had seemingly put his feelings for Rachel aside before he met her again in The Pilot . They have an on - again , off - again dynamic throughout most of the show . In the Season 1 finale , Ross has to go to China for his work so he asks Chandler to give Rachel a present on her birthday which he had bought for her . Chandler does give the present to Rachel during her birthday celebration while Ross is in China but also lets out that Ross loves Rachel , prompting Rachel to panic and start thinking about Ross in a romantic way . After Ross arrives back from China , Rachel goes to the airport to receive him on realising that she likes him , but she sees him with Julie and reluctantly backs off . In Season 2 episode The One Where Ross Finds Out , Rachel is on a date with a guy when she confesses to Ross over the phone in a drunken state that she had feelings for him but now she is over him . Ross hears this message the next day at Monica 's apartment with Rachel begging him not to check his messages . Later , in the same episode they share a passionate kiss at the doors of Central Perk . Later he breaks up with Julie but Rachel decides she does n't want to be with him after finding out that he had made a list , on the insistence of Chandler , comparing the good and bad qualities about her and Julie . The two begin dating each other only from Episode 15 of Season 2 after in the earlier episode The One with the Prom Video it is revealed that Ross despite being two years senior to Rachel had decided to be her date on her and Monica 's prom , as Rachel 's date had not arrived , only to be left disappointed as her date arrives and they both along with Monica and her date take off for the prom . Rachel famously kisses Ross on learning this revelation . However , they take a break from their relationship on their one - year anniversary together . That night , Ross cheats on Rachel , officially ending the relationship . They get together again at the end of Season 3 but again break up at the start of Season 4 . Some of the later episodes show them to be still in love with each other such as when Ross cancels his Discovery channel show appearance to be with Rachel when she breaks her rib or when Rachel flies to London to tell Ross before his wedding with Emily , that she 's still in love with him , only to realize that it would be better not to tell . Ross and Rachel also marry each other after getting heavily drunk in Las Vegas . This marriage ends in a divorce after a failed application for an annulment . In the 7th season premiere , after the news of Monica and Chandler 's engagement , Ross and Rachel kiss , and Monica is hurt by this as she believed that Rachel was trying to `` steal her thunder '' . The kiss is later revealed to have happened because Rachel was upset thinking about the fact that she was `` not even close '' to being engaged . In the 8th season finale , Ross 's daughter with Rachel named Emma Geller - Green is born , as a result of their one night stand prior to Chandler and Monica 's wedding . In the final episode of the show , when Rachel is moving to Paris for her job with a new fashion brand , Ross tells her at the airport that he loves her and asks not to leave . Rachel initially does n't heed his feelings , but when the plane is about to take off , she realizes that she loves him too and gets off the plane . They profess their love for each other and decide to be together once and for all . Ross and Rachel eventually got married shortly after the series finale . Carol willick ( edit ) Carol ( Anita Barone for pilot episode , Jane Sibbett thereafter ) is Ross 's first wife and the mother of his son Ben . In the very first episode , Carol has just moved out of their apartment after coming out of the closet as a lesbian and leaving Ross for a woman named Susan Bunch , who she later marries . In the early days , however , Ross and Carol seemed to have had a very passionate relationship . Carol is the only woman he 's ever had sex with ( and hence lost his virginity to ) at the start of the series . It is also revealed they shared a steamy session at Disneyland behind the `` Dutch children '' in It 's a Small World , which got them a lifetime ban from the theme park . Ross maintains a fairly healthy relationship with Carol after their divorce and both decide to raise Ben together through shared parenting , but he does n't hide his contempt for Susan as he believes she destroyed their marriage . He briefly considers getting back together with Carol and they even share a kiss at a sushi restaurant , but Carol makes it clear that she ca n't reciprocate his feelings and has chosen to be with Susan . Carol 's lack of romantic feelings towards Ross is reinforced in the flashback episode `` The One that Could have Been '' ( season 6 ) . Exploring what could have happened if Ross and Carol never got divorced , it is revealed that they have been on a sexual dry spell that 's lasted for months . Carol is very excited when Ross proposes they have a threesome with another woman . Picking Susan , whom she met at her gym just like in the `` real life scenario '' , the two girls end up mostly having sex without Ross . While explaining to Joey that he felt like a third wheel and ended up being so bored he made himself a sandwich , Ross realizes his wife is a lesbian all the same . Emily Waltham ( edit ) During the fourth season , Ross meets and falls in love with Emily Waltham ( Helen Baxendale ) , a British woman who is set up with Ross by Rachel . Ross spontaneously asks Emily to move in with him . This escalates into a marriage proposal . The two plan a wedding in London , to which Rachel is invited . During the ceremony , Ross , upon seeing Rachel , has a slip of the tongue and says Rachel 's name instead of Emily 's during his vows . Emily is furious and exits her own marriage . Emily however decides to forgive Ross , and reaches the airport but is annoyed to see Rachel and Ross boarding the plane together . She flees away again , and Ross follows her only to lose her and also Rachel goes to the place alone . Emily , later , calls Ross only to confront him by saying that he has to stop calling / harassing her relatives , but Ross makes her reveal her love for him . She said that she will return only if Ross stops being friends with Rachel . Unable to do so , Ross ends his marriage with Emily . Reception ( edit ) Ross Geller has become a well - known figure in pop culture , in particular due to his relationship with Rachel Green , his neurotic nature and his love for dinosaurs . In 2015 , a play titled Ross & Rachel debuted at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival . In October 2016 , Ross Geller was voted `` the Best Friends Character '' in an international poll held by Comedy Central , during six weeks of `` FriendsFest '' on the channel . See also ( edit ) List of Friends characters References ( edit ) Friends portal Jump up ^ Galindo , Buzz ( August 7 , 2013 ) . `` 25 Fascinating Facts You Might Not Know About `` Friends '' `` . BuzzFeed . BuzzFeed , Inc . Archived from the original on March 15 , 2015 . Retrieved August 11 , 2015 . The full names of the characters are ... Ross Eustace Geller . Jump up ^ Couric , Katie ( May 5 , 2004 ) . `` Dateline NBC - Newsmakers - NBCNews.com '' . MSNBC . Retrieved September 2 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Bierly , Mandi ; Fog , Henning ( July 25 , 2013 ) . `` 30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They ? ' TV Couples Photo 24 of 30 '' . Entertainment Weekly . Time Inc . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Anonymous . `` Plot Summary for `` Friends '' The One with the Routine ( 1999 ) `` . Jump up ^ Sonia Saraiya . `` David Schwimmer puts in the work : On learning wine , waiting tables and why he `` campaigned for years for a black girlfriend '' for Ross Geller `` . Salon . Retrieved May 30 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ross & Rachel - Assembly Festival -- Edinburgh Fringe '' . www.assemblyfestival.com . Retrieved 2016 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Official : Ross Geller Is The Best Friend '' . Friends Characters Chandler Bing Phoebe Buffay Monica Geller Ross Geller Rachel Green Joey Tribbiani Episodes Season 1 `` The Pilot '' ( 1.01 ) `` The One with the Sonogram at the End '' ( 1.02 ) Season 2 `` The One with the Lesbian Wedding '' ( 2.11 ) `` The One After the Superbowl '' ( 2.12 -- 2.13 ) `` The One with the Prom Video '' ( 2.14 ) `` The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies '' ( 2.18 ) Season 3 `` The One with the Princess Leia Fantasy '' ( 3.01 ) `` The One Where No One 's Ready '' ( 3.02 ) Season 4 `` The One with the Embryos '' ( 4.12 ) `` The One with Ross 's Wedding '' ( 4.23 -- 4.24 ) Season 5 `` The One After Ross Says Rachel '' ( 5.01 ) `` The One Hundredth '' ( 5.03 ) `` The One with All the Thanksgivings '' ( 5.08 ) `` The One with the Girl Who Hits Joey '' ( 5.15 ) `` The One Where Rachel Smokes '' ( 5.18 ) `` The One Where Ross Ca n't Flirt '' ( 5.19 ) `` The One with the Ride - Along '' ( 5.20 ) Season 6 `` The One After Vegas '' ( 6.01 ) `` The One with the Apothecary Table '' ( 6.11 ) `` The One with the Proposal '' ( 6.24 -- 6.25 ) Season 7 `` The One with Monica and Chandler 's Wedding '' ( 7.23 -- 7.24 ) Season 8 `` The One with Rachel 's Date '' ( 8.05 ) `` The One with the Rumor '' ( 8.09 ) Season 9 -- Season 10 `` The Last One '' ( 10.17 -- 10.18 ) Related articles Music `` I 'll Be There for You '' Joey Mad About You Awards and nominations Friends ... ' Til the End Hello Friends Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ross_Geller&oldid=854740000 '' Categories : Friends characters Fictional professors Fictional paleontologists Fictional characters from New York City Fictional American Jews Fictional characters introduced in 1994 Male characters in television Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from December 2015 Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from July 2015 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Čeština Dansk Español فارسی Français Gaeilge Հայերեն Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Nederlands Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English کوردی Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 18 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 August 2018 , at 13 : 13 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | what does jack geller do for a living | [
"Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph.D. from Columbia University. An ongoing theme of his narrative arc is his romantic feelings toward Rachel Green, an infatuation that began in high school. A theme of Friends is their on-again, off-again romantic relationship.\n"
] | [
"paleontologist"
] |
-7329570755223892921 | Help:Entering special characters | Help : entering special characters - Wikipedia Help : entering special characters Jump to : navigation , search For help viewing special characters , see Help : Special characters . This help page is a how - to guide . It details processes or procedures of some aspect or aspects of Wikipedia 's norms and practices . It is not one of Wikipedia 's policies or guidelines , as it has not been thoroughly vetted by the community . Shortcut : H : ESC Many special characters ( those not on the standard computer keyboard ) are useful -- and sometimes necessary -- in Wikipedia articles . Even articles that use only English words may use punctuation such as an em dash ( -- ) , and symbols such as a section sign ( § ) or registered mark ( ® ) . Articles about or that mention European persons or places may use many extended Latin characters , and articles about other persons and places may require characters from entirely different alphabets . This article describes several methods for entering such characters . Contents ( hide ) 1 Entry methods 1.1 Special character link 1.2 Keyboard code 1.2. 1 Windows - Alt code 1.2. 2 Macintosh - Option key 1.2. 3 Linux - Unicode 1.2. 4 iOS 1.3 External application 1.3. 1 Windows 1.3. 2 Macintosh 1.3. 3 Linux 1.4 HTML character reference ( not recommended ) 1.4. 1 Problems with HTML references 2 Editing notes for specific writing systems 2.1 Egyptian Hieroglyphs 2.2 Esperanto 3 Browser issues 3.1 Google Chrome 3.2 Console browsers 3.3 The workaround 4 Please take into consideration 4.1 Linking text with special characters 4.2 Special characters and searches 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Entry methods ( edit ) There are several ways to enter a special character into wikitext . Special character link ( edit ) Use a special - character link to enter a Unicode ( UTF - 8 ) character . Links are available under Special characters above the edit window , and below the buttons at the bottom of the edit window ( for more information on the latter , see Help : CharInsert ) . Clicking a special - character link enters that character at the current position of the cursor in the edit window , so you need to position the cursor where you want it before clicking the link . Clicking the arrow to the left of Special characters above the edit window opens a list of groups of images of special characters ( see Figure 1 below ) ; clicking again on the arrow ( which now points down ) closes the list . Click on a group name ( e.g. , Symbols ) to display that group ; click on the image of the appropriate character to enter that character at the current cursor position in the edit window . Some of the images of different characters are very similar in appearance , so it is important to use the correct image . For example , the images for the closing single quotation mark ( ' ) and closing double quotation mark ( '' ) are very similar to the images for the single prime ( ′ ) and double prime ( '' ) characters ( the latter two are located after the image of the degree symbol ) . Figure 1 . Special - character links above edit window : Symbol group Groups for the special - character links below the edit window are displayed one at a time ; the default group is Insert , which includes punctuation and some other common symbols ( see Figure 2 below ) , but another group may be shown if you have previously selected it . Click the down - pointing arrow at the right of this box to display other groups ; click on the appropriate group to select it . When the cursor is passed over a special - character link , the link is underlined ; clicking on the underlined link enters that character at the current cursor position in the edit window . Figure 2 . Special - character links below edit window : default Insert group Russian letters are in the Cyrillic group ; most other European letters are in the Latin group . You may need to click several categories in both places to find your special character , especially if it 's non-alphabetic : mathematical symbols can be at Symbols , Insert , or Math and logic ( the latter two are only at the bottom link ) , or at Wikipedia : Mathematical symbols and its linked articles . Some character images and links include pairs of opening and closing quotation marks . By default , the character pair is entered at the current cursor position ; if a passage of text is selected before the image or link is clicked , the quotation marks are entered at the beginning and end of the selection . This functionality is provided by MediaWiki 's CharInsert Extension , which has been installed by Wikipedia administrators . Keyboard code ( edit ) Enter a Unicode character using an Alt code ( Windows operating system ) , the Option key ( Macintosh computer ) , or Unicode combination ( Linux ) . Some keyboards have a Compose key that provides similar functionality with some other operating systems . Lists of Alt codes and Option key combinations are given in sources linked under External links . On the iPhone and iPad ( IOS ) , special characters are entered using the template ( ( Unicode & # x any - four - digit - hex - number ; ) ) . ( Space between ( & # x00A0 ( should be removed . ) This will display more accurately in some browsers , compared with the just & # x any - four - digit - hex - number ; . In this operating system , the menus of characters at the bottom of WP Edit pages are more limited than with Windows . Windows - Alt code ( edit ) Under Windows , the Alt key is pressed and held down while a decimal character code is entered on the numeric keypad ; the Alt key is then released and the character appears . The numerical code corresponds to the character 's code point in the Windows 1252 code page , with a leading zero ; for example , an en dash ( -- ) is entered using Alt + 0150 . The leading zero is required ; if it is omitted , a character corresponding to the code point in the default OEM code page is entered . For example , if the OEM default is code page 437 , Alt + 150 gives û . On a computer running the Microsoft Windows operating system , many special characters that have decimal equivalent codepoint numbers below 256 can be typed in by using the keyboard 's Alt + decimal equivalent code numbers keys . For example , the character é ( Small e with acute accent , HTML entity code é ; ) can be obtained by pressing Alt + 1 3 0 . Which means , first press the Alt key ( and keep it depressed ) with your left hand , then press the digit keys 1 , 3 , 0 , in sequence , one by one , in the right - side numeric keypad part of the keyboard , then release the Alt key . But special characters , for example , λ ( small lambda ) , can not be obtained from its decimal code 955 or 0955 , by using it with the Alt key , if used inside Notepad or Internet Explorer ) . You 'll get a wrong character , `` ╗ '' or `` '' `` . The WordPad editor accepts ( decimal numeric entity codepoints ) values above 255 , so it can be used to obtain the special / Unicode characters , then copy and paste where those characters are needed . To correctly obtain such special characters , which have decimal code points above 255 , another option is to use or type a character 's hex equivalent code point first , then press Alt + X keys . To do this , open or start WordPad , Word , etc . editing application software , ( this Alt + X process will not work in Internet Explorer , Notepad , etc . ) . Type in 3BB , which is a hexadecimal equivalent numeric code point of the character λ , then press Alt + X . Hex code 3BB will convert / turn into the λ character . If you press the Alt + X key combination again , then λ character will convert back to its hex equivalent code point , 3BB . Now character ( s ) can be copied and pasted where you want to use them , or , ( in IE ) use its HTML hexadecimal equivalent code & # x3BB ; or its HTML decimal equivalent code & # 955 ; . Macintosh - Option key ( edit ) On a Macintosh computer , the ⌥ Opt key ( and sometimes another key ) is pressed and held down while another key is pressed ; the ⌥ Opt key ( and when applicable , the other key ) is then released , and the character appears . For example , an en dash is entered using ⌥ Opt + - ; an em dash ( -- ) is entered using ⇧ Shift + ⌥ Opt + - . Also on a Macintosh pressing and holding certain letters ( the vowels and a few other letters ) brings up a pop - up menu of related special characters , such as accented versions of vowels , which can be clicked on or selected numerically . Linux - Unicode ( edit ) On Linux , one of three methods should work : Hold Ctrl + ⇧ Shift and type U followed by up to eight hex digits ( on main keyboard or numpad ) . Then release Ctrl + ⇧ Shift . Hold Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + U and type up to eight hex digits , then release Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + U . Type Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + U , then type up to eight hex digits , then type ↵ Enter . In LibreOffice , OpenOffice.org and Inkscape , for example , only the second method works . In GTK only the third method works . IOS ( edit ) In the iOS operating system , used on the iPhone and iPad , accented characters used in Western European languages are generated by holding the finger down on the character needing a diacritic , which opens a menu . Some of the most common special characters , such as § , are also generated this way . Holding the finger on the $ key , for example , accesses ₽ ( peseta , pre-Euro Spanish money ) , ¥ ( yen ) , € ( euro ) , ¢ , £ , and ₩ . The en dash , em dash , and are accessed by holding the hyphen key down . In addition , there are 308 alternate keyboards which are installed via Settings - General - Language and region - Add language , including Arabic , Russian , Hebrew , Punjabi , and many obscure ones , like Yiddish , Thai , and Armenian . Note that special fonts , including screen fonts , can be used in iOS only by the application that brings them ; it is not possible to install a font that can be used by unrelated applications . There is no `` Special Characters `` or `` Dingbats '' font . External application ( edit ) Windows ( edit ) Select , copy and paste the character from the Character Map application . Macintosh ( edit ) There are two external options : Enter the character by double - clicking on the character you want in the Special Characters tool , available at the bottom of any Edit menu . You can customize the character sets that are shown , e.g. , to add more phonetic alphabet symbols , by following the directions given here . Enable the Input menu ( via the ' Input Sources ' panel of the ' Keyboard ' System Preferences ) . This gives access to : the Keyboard Viewer , which can be used to view and input characters accessed via the ⌥ Option key the Character Viewer , which can be used to access any Unicode character . It is also available from the Special Characters tool Linux ( edit ) Select , copy , and paste the character using the GNOME Character Map . If not already installed along with GNOME , it is usually available as `` gucharmap '' ( which can be installed with `` yum install gucharmap '' as root on a Redhat - like Linux distribution , for example ) . HTML character reference ( not recommended ) ( edit ) Use an HTML character reference . The reference can be either named or numeric ; either type begins with an ampersand ( & ) ends with a semicolon ( ; ) . A named reference is of the form & name ; ; for example , à ; refers to a lower - case Latin a with grave accent ( à ) . Because the names are reasonably mnemonic , they are usually easier to remember than numerical codes , and accordingly are easier for other editors to recognize . Some Unicode characters , such as Turkish letters , do not have HTML names , so a numerical reference is sometimes the only option using HTML . An HTML numeric character reference is of the form & # D ; or & # x H ; ; D and H are the character 's Unicode code point in decimal and hexadecimal . For example , either & # 8212 ; or & # x2014 ; can be entered to give U + 2014 , em dash ( -- ) . Because a character 's Unicode code point is usually given in hexadecimal with a prefixed `` U+ '' , the hexadecimal code is arguably more convenient . Of course , when a name exists , a named reference ( e.g. , &mdash ; for an em dash ) is usually more convenient ( and more easily recognized ) than either numerical code . HTML character names ( and the corresponding hexadecimal and decimal codes ) are given in List of XML and HTML character entity references . Problems with HTML references ( edit ) Because a character reference uses only ASCII characters , it does not require that a Web browser support Unicode , and it is unambiguous when a Web page does not announce its character encoding , when the browser 's encoding is incorrectly manually set , and even when the character does not display properly with some browsers . Accordingly , it is usually the most `` Web safe '' approach . However , character references are distracting for many editors , and they may cause difficulties with searches in Wikipedia ( see below ) . Some old browsers incorrectly interpret codes in the range 128 -- 159 as references to the native character set . Because the code points 128 through 159 are not used for displayable glyphs in either ISO - 8859 - 1 and Unicode , character references in that range ( such as & # 131 ; ) are illegal in HTML and ambiguous , though they are commonly used by many web sites . Almost all browsers treat ISO - 8859 - 1 as Windows - 1252 , which does have printable characters in that space , and they often found their way into article titles on English projects , which really caused confusion when trying to create interwiki links to said pages . Generally speaking , Western European languages , such as Spanish , French , and German pose few problems . For specific details about the language in Turkey , see : Help : Turkish characters . ( More may be added to this list as contributors in other languages appear , although according to this deletion and this discussion , there may be little need for such lists in the future . ) Editing notes for specific writing systems ( edit ) Egyptian hieroglyphs ( edit ) E.g. , < hiero > P2 < / hiero > gives See Help : WikiHiero syntax . This is not dependent on browser capabilities , because it uses images on the servers . Hieroglyphs can also be represented in Unicode using the Aegyptus font . Esperanto ( edit ) in edit box in database and output Sx Ŝ Sxx Sx Sxxx Ŝx Sxxxx Sxx Sxxxxx Ŝxx MediaWiki installations configured for Esperanto use UTF - 8 for storage and display . However , when editing the text is converted to a form that is designed to be easier to edit with a standard keyboard . The characters for which this applies are : Ĉĉ , Ĝĝ , Ĥĥ , Ĵĵ , Ŝŝ , Ŭŭ . You may enter these directly in the edit box if you have the facilities to do so . However when you edit the page again you will see them encoded as Sx . This form is referred to as `` x-sistemo '' or `` x-kodo '' . In order to preserve round - trip capability when one or more xs follow these characters or their non-accented forms ( Cc , Gg , Hh , Jj , Ss , Uu ) , the number of xs in the edit box is double the number in the actual stored article text . For example , the interlanguage link ( ( en : Luxury car ) ) to en : Luxury car has to be entered in the edit box as ( ( en : Luxxury car ) ) on eo : . This has caused problems with interwiki update bots in the past . Browser issues ( edit ) Some browsers are known to do nasty things to text in the edit box . Most commonly they convert it to an encoding native to the platform ( whilst the NT line of Windows is internally UCS - 2LE -- 2 Byte subset of UTF - 16 -- it has a complete duplicate set of APIs in the Windows ANSI code page and many older apps tend to use these , especially for things like edit boxes ) . Then they let the user edit it using a standard edit control and convert it back . The result is that any characters that do not exist in the encoding used for editing get replaced with something that does ( often a question mark though at least one browser has been reported to actually transliterate text ! ) . Google Chrome ( edit ) Google Chrome and Chromium both have a cross-platform bug that prevents the use of font substitution . This means that even if the user has the correct typeface for a given script installed , it may not display correctly or at all . Console browsers ( edit ) Lynx , Links ( in text mode ) and W3M convert to the console character set ( Lynx and Links actually using a transliteration engine ) for editing and convert back on save . If the console character set is UTF - 8 then these browsers are Unicode safe but if it is n't they are n't . With Lynx and Links a possible detection method would be to add another edit box to the login form but this wo n't work for W3M as it does n't convert the text to the console character set until the user actually attempts to edit it . The workaround ( edit ) In database and edit box for normal browsers In editbox for trouble browsers œ & # x153 ; & # x153 ; & # x0153 ; & # x0153 ; & # x00153 ; After English Wikipedia switched to UTF - 8 and interwiki bots started replacing HTML entities in interwikis with literal Unicode text , edits that broke Unicode characters became so common they could no longer be ignored . A workaround was developed to allow the problematic browsers to edit safely provided that MediaWiki knew they have problems . Browsers listed in the setting $ wgBrowserBlackList ( a list of regexps that match against user agent strings ) are supplied text for editing in a special form . Existing hexadecimal HTML entities in the page have an extra leading zero added , non-ASCII characters that are stored in the wikitext are represented as hexadecimal HTML entities with no leading zeros . Currently the default settings only have IE Mac and a specific version of Netscape 4. x for Linux in the blacklist . Nevertheless it seems to have stopped most of the problems . Hopefully the default list will be expanded in future but that relies on getting someone with CVS access to commit the changes . Please take into consideration ( edit ) Linking text with special characters ( edit ) Many users have settings giving underlined links . When linking a special character , in some cases the result may be mistaken for another character with a different meaning : Linking + − < > ⊂ ⊃ gives + − < > ⊂ ⊃ which may look like ± = ≤ ≥ ⊆ ⊇ . In such cases one can better use a separate link : A ⊂ B ( see subset ) There is less risk of confusion if more than one character is linked , e.g. x > 3 . Special characters and searches ( edit ) Wikipedia searches are easier if a special character is entered as Unicode . If an HTML entity is used , a word like Odiliënberg can only be found by searching for Odili , euml , nberg or combination thereof ; this is actually a bug that should be fixed -- the entities should be folded into their raw character equivalents so all searches on them are equivalent . See also Help : Searching . See also ( edit ) Alt code Help : Special characters List of XML and HTML character entity references Option key Unicode input methods Wikipedia : How to make dashes Wikipedia : Mathematical symbols References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Font substitution fails on runic unicode characters '' . Chromium project . Dec 24 , 2011 . Retrieved November 29 , 2012 . HTML 4.01 Specification . 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-534956058691987986 | Lake Titicaca | Lake Titicaca - wikipedia Lake Titicaca Jump to : navigation , search For the archaeological site in the Cusco Region , Peru , see Titiqaqa ( Cusco ) . Lake Titicaca View of the lake from the lake 's Isla del Sol Coordinates 15 ° 45 ′ S 69 ° 25 ′ W / 15.750 ° S 69.417 ° W / - 15.750 ; - 69.417 Coordinates : 15 ° 45 ′ S 69 ° 25 ′ W / 15.750 ° S 69.417 ° W / - 15.750 ; - 69.417 Type Mountain lake Primary inflows 27 rivers Primary outflows Desaguadero River Evaporation Catchment area 58,000 km ( 22,400 sq mi ) Basin countries Bolivia Peru Max. length 190 km ( 118 mi ) Max . width 80 km ( 50 mi ) Surface area 8,372 km ( 3,232 sq mi ) Average depth 107 m ( 351 ft ) Max . depth 281 m ( 922 ft ) Water volume 893 km ( 214 cu mi ) Residence time 1343 years Shore length 1,125 km ( 699 mi ) Surface elevation 3,812 m ( 12,507 ft ) Frozen never Islands 42 + ( see article ) Sections / sub-basins Wiñaymarka Settlements Copacabana , Bolivia Puno , Peru References Ramsar Wetland Designated 26 August 1998 Shore length is not a well - defined measure . Lake Titicaca ( Spanish : Lago Titicaca , Quechua : Titiqaqa Qucha ) is a large , deep lake in the Andes on the border of Bolivia and Peru . By volume of water and by surface area , it is the largest lake in South America . Lake Maracaibo has a larger surface area , but it is a tidal bay , not a lake . It is often called the `` highest navigable lake '' in the world , with a surface elevation of 3,812 metres ( 12,507 ft ) . Although this refers to navigation by large boats , it is generally considered to mean commercial craft . For many years the largest vessel afloat on the lake was the 2,200 - ton , 79 - metre ( 259 ft ) SS Ollanta . Today the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized , but broader , train barge / float Manco Capac , operated by PeruRail ( berthed , as of 17 June 2013 , at 15 ° 50 ′ 11 '' S 70 ° 00 ′ 53 '' W / 15.8364 ° S 70.0147 ° W / - 15.8364 ; - 70.0147 , across the pier from the Ollanta ) . Numerous smaller bodies of water around the world are at higher elevations . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Temperature 3 Name 4 Ecology 5 Geology 6 Climate 7 Islands 7.1 Uros 7.2 Amantani 7.3 Taquile 7.4 Isla del Sol 7.5 Isla de la Luna 7.6 Suriki 8 Transport 8.1 History 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Overview ( edit ) The lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia . The western part of the lake lies within the Puno Region of Peru , and the eastern side is located in the Bolivian La Paz Department . The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins connected by the Strait of Tiquina , which is 800 m ( 2,620 ft ) across at the narrowest point . The larger sub-basin , Lago Grande ( also called Lago Chucuito ) , has a mean depth of 135 m ( 443 ft ) and a maximum depth of 284 m ( 932 ft ) . The smaller sub-basin , Wiñaymarka ( also called Lago Pequeño , `` little lake '' ) , has a mean depth of 9 m ( 30 ft ) and a maximum depth of 40 m ( 131 ft ) . The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m ( 351 ft ) . Map of Lake Titicaca Five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca . In order of their relative flow volumes these are Ramis , Coata , Ilave , Huancané , and Suchez . More than twenty other smaller streams empty into Titicaca . The lake has 41 islands , some of which are densely populated . Having only a single season of free circulation , the lake is monomictic , and water passes through Lago Huiñaimarca and flows out the single outlet at the Río Desaguadero , which then flows south through Bolivia to Lake Poopó . This only accounts for about 10 % of the lake 's water balance . Evapotranspiration , caused by strong winds and intense sunlight at high altitude , balances the remaining 90 % of the water loss . It is nearly a closed lake . Since 2000 Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels . Between April and November 2009 alone the water level dropped by 81 cm ( 32 in ) , reaching the lowest level since 1949 . This drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake . Water pollution is also an increasing concern because cities in the Titicaca watershed grow , sometimes outpacing solid waste and sewage treatment infrastructure . According to the Global Nature Fund ( GNF ) , Titicaca 's biodiversity is threatened by water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans . Already in 2012 , the GNF nominated the lake `` Threatened Lake of the Year '' . Temperature ( edit ) The cold sources and winds over the lake give it an average surface temperature of 10 to 14 ° C ( 50 to 57 ° F ) . In the winter ( June -- September ) , mixing occurs with the deeper waters , which are always between 10 to 11 ° C ( 50 to 52 ° F ) . Name ( edit ) A view of Lake Titicaca taken from the city of Puno A reed boat on Lake Titicaca Neither the protohistoric nor prehistoric name for Lake Titicaca is currently known . Given the various Native American groups that occupied the Lake Titicaca region , it is likely that it lacked a single , commonly accepted name in prehistoric times and at the time the Spaniards arrived . The terms titi and caca can be translated in multiple ways . In Aymara , titi can be translated as either puma , lead , or a heavy metal . The word caca ( kaka ) can be translated as white or gray hairs of the head and the term k'ak'a can be translated as either crack or fissure or , alternatively , comb of a bird . According to Weston La Barre , the Aymara considered in 1948 that the proper name of the lake is titiq'aq'a , which means gray discolored , lead - colored puma . This phrase refers to the sacred carved rock found on the Island of the Sun . In addition to names including the term titi and / or caca , Lake Titicaca was also known as Chuquivitu in the sixteenth century . This name can be loosely translated as lance point . This name survives in modern usage in which the large lake is occasionally referred to as Lago Chucuito . Stanish argues that the logical explanation for the origin of the name Titicaca is a corruption of the term thakhsi cala , which is the fifteenth - to sixteenth - century name of the sacred rock on the Island of the Sun . Given the lack of a common name for Lake Titicaca in the sixteenth century , it is argued that the Spaniards used the name of the site of the most important indigenous shrine in the region , thakhsi cala on the Island of the Sun , as the name for the lake . In time and with usage , this name developed into Titicaca . Locally , the lake goes by several names . The small lake to the south is called Huiñamarca . The large lake also is occasionally referred to as Lago Mayor , and the small lake as Lago Menor . In addition , the southeast quarter of the lake is separate from the main body ( connected only by the Strait of Tiquina ) , and the Bolivians call it Lago Huiñaymarca ( also Wiñay Marka , which in Aymara means The Eternal City ) and the larger part Lago Chucuito . In Peru , these smaller and larger parts are referred to as Lago Pequeño and Lago Grande , respectively . Ecology ( edit ) There are two Telmatobius species in the lake : The smaller , more coastal marbled water frog ( pictured , at Isla del Sol ) and the larger , more deep - water Titicaca water frog . Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 aquatic species . The lake holds large populations of water birds and was designated as a Ramsar Site on August 26 , 1998 . Several threatened species such as the huge Titicaca water frog and the flightless Titicaca grebe are largely or entirely restricted to the lake , and the Titicaca orestias has likely become extinct ( last seen in 1938 ) due to competition and predation by the introduced rainbow trout and the silverside Odontesthes bonariensis . In addition to the Titicaca orestias , native fish species in the lake 's basin are other species of Orestias , and the catfish Trichomycterus dispar , T. rivulatus and Astroblepus stuebeli ( the last species not in the lake itself , but in associated ecosystems ) . The many Orestias species in Lake Titicaca differ significantly in both habitat preference and feeding behavior . About 90 % of the fish species in the basin are endemic , including 23 species of Orestias that only are found in the lake . In addition to the threatened Titicaca grebe , some of the birds associated with water at Titicaca are the white - tufted grebe , Puna ibis , Chilean flamingo , Andean gull , Andean lapwing , white - backed stilt , greater yellowlegs , snowy egret , black - crowned night - heron , Andean coot , common gallinule , plumbeous rail , various ducks , wren - like rushbird , many - colored rush - tyrant and yellow - winged blackbird . Andean coot among totora reeds Titicaca is home to 24 described species of freshwater snails ( 15 endemics , including several tiny Heleobia ) and less than half a dozen bivalves ( all in family Sphaeriidae ) , but in general these are very poorly known and their taxonomy is in need of a review . The lake also has an endemic species flock of amphipods consisting of 11 Hyalella ( an additional Titicaca Hyalella species is non-endemic ) . Reeds and other aquatic vegetation is widespread in Lake Titicaca . Totora reeds grow in water shallower than 3 m ( 9.8 ft ) , less frequently to 5.5 m ( 18 ft ) , but macrophytes , notably Chara and Potamogeton , occur down to 10 m ( 33 ft ) . In sheltered shallow waters , such as the harbour of Puno , Azolla , Elodea , Lemna and Myriophyllum are common . Geology ( edit ) Further information : Altiplano Basin View from space , May 1985 ( north at right ) View of Lake Titicaca during sunrise The Tinajani Basin , in which Lake Titicaca lies , is an intermontane basin . This basin is a pull - apart basin created by strike - slip movement along regional faults starting in the late Oligocene and ending in the late Miocene . The initial development of the Tinajani Basin is indicated by volcanic rocks , which accumulated between 27 and 20 million years ago within this basin . They lie upon an angular unconformity which cuts across pre-basin strata . Lacustrine sediments of the Lower Tinajani Formation , which are exposed within the Tinajani Basin , demonstrate the presence of a pre-Quaternary , ancestral Lake Titicaca within it between 18 and 14 million years ago . Little is known about the prehistory of Lake Titicaca between 14 million years ago and 370,000 BP because the lake sediments dating to this period lie buried beneath the bottom of Lake Titicaca and have not yet been sampled by continuous coring . The Lake Titicaca drilling project recovered a 136 - m - long drill core of sediments from the bottom of Lake Titicaca at a depth of 235 m and at a location just east of Isla del Sol . This core contains a continuous record of lake sedimentation and paleoenvironmental conditions for Lake Titicaca back to about 370,000 BP . For this period of time , Lake Titicaca was typically fresher and had higher lake levels during periods of expanded regional glaciation that corresponded to global glacial periods . During periods of reduced regional glaciation that corresponded to global interglacial periods , Lake Titicaca had typically low lake levels . Lacustrine sediments and associated terraces provide evidence for the past existence of five major prehistoric lakes that occupied the Tinajani Basin during the Pliocene and Pleistocene . Within the northern Altiplano ( Tinajani Basin ) , these prehistoric lakes were Lake Mataro at an elevation of 3,950 m , Lake Cabana at an elevation of 3,900 m , Lake Ballivián at an elevation of 3,860 m , Lake ( North ) Minchin at an elevation of 3,825 m , and Lake ( North ) Tauca at an elevation 3,815 m . The age of Lake Mataro is uncertain -- it may date back to the Late Pliocene . Lake Cabana possibly dates to the Middle Pleistocene . Lake Ballivián existed between 120,000 and 98,000 BP . Two high lake stands , between 72,000 -- 68,000 BP and 44,000 -- 34,000 BP , have been discerned for Lake Minchin within the Altiplano . Another ancient lake in the area is Ouki . The high lake levels of Lake Tauca have been dated as having occurred between 18,100 and 14,100 BP . Climate ( edit ) Lake Titicaca has a borderline Subtropical highland / Alpine climate with cool to cold temperatures for most of the year . The average annual precipitation is 610 mm ( 24 in . ) mostly falling in summer thunderstorms . Winters are dry with very cold nights and mornings and warm afternoons . Below are the average temperatures of the town Juliaca in the northern part of the lake . ( hide ) Climate data for Puno , Peru ( 1961 -- 1990 ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Average high ° C ( ° F ) 16.7 ( 62.1 ) 16.7 ( 62.1 ) 16.5 ( 61.7 ) 16.8 ( 62.2 ) 16.6 ( 61.9 ) 16.0 ( 60.8 ) 16.0 ( 60.8 ) 17.0 ( 62.6 ) 17.6 ( 63.7 ) 18.6 ( 65.5 ) 18.8 ( 65.8 ) 17.7 ( 63.9 ) 17.08 ( 62.76 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) 3.6 ( 38.5 ) 3.5 ( 38.3 ) 3.2 ( 37.8 ) 0.6 ( 33.1 ) − 3.8 ( 25.2 ) − 7.0 ( 19.4 ) − 7.5 ( 18.5 ) − 5.4 ( 22.3 ) − 1.4 ( 29.5 ) 0.3 ( 32.5 ) 1.5 ( 34.7 ) 3.0 ( 37.4 ) − 0.78 ( 30.6 ) Average precipitation mm ( inches ) 133.3 ( 5.248 ) 108.7 ( 4.28 ) 98.5 ( 3.878 ) 43.3 ( 1.705 ) 9.9 ( 0.39 ) 3.1 ( 0.122 ) 2.4 ( 0.094 ) 5.8 ( 0.228 ) 22.1 ( 0.87 ) 41.1 ( 1.618 ) 55.3 ( 2.177 ) 85.9 ( 3.382 ) 609.4 ( 23.992 ) Source : Hong Kong Observatory , Islands ( edit ) Uros ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see Uru people . Raft of totora on Lake Titicaca in the island of the Sun ( Bolivia ) Uros The `` Floating Islands '' are small manmade islands constructed by the Uros ( or Uru ) people from layers of cut totora , a thick buoyant reed that grows abundantly in the shallows of Lake Titicaca . The Uros harvest the reeds that naturally grow on the lake 's banks to make the islands by continuously adding reeds to the surface . According to legend , the Uru people originated in the Amazon and migrated to the area of Lake Titicaca in the pre-Columbian era , where they were oppressed by the local population and were unable to secure land of their own . They built the reed islands , which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake as necessary , for greater safety from their hostile neighbors on land . Golden in color , many of the islands measure about 15 by 15 metres ( 50 by 50 ft ) , and the largest are approximately half the size of a football field . Each island contains several thatched houses , typically belonging to members of a single extended family . Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings , also constructed of reeds . Historically , most of the Uros islands were located near the middle of the lake , about 14 km ( 9 mi ) from the shore ; however , in 1986 , after a major storm devastated the islands , many Uros rebuilt closer to shore . As of 2011 , about 1,200 Uros lived on an archipelago of 60 artificial islands , clustering in the western corner of the lake near Puno , Titicaca 's major Peruvian port town . The islands have become one of Peru 's tourist attractions , allowing the Uros to supplement their hunting and fishing by conveying visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling handicrafts . Amantani ( edit ) Amantani island as seen from Taquile island Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca populated by Quechua speakers . About 4,000 people live in ten communities on the roughly circular 15 square kilometers ( 6 sq mi ) island . There are two mountain peaks , called Pachatata ( Father Earth ) and Pachamama ( Mother Earth ) , and ancient ruins on the top of both peaks . The hillsides that rise up from the lake are terraced and planted with wheat , potatoes , and vegetables . Most of the small fields are worked by hand . Long stone fences divide the fields , and cattle and sheep graze on the hillsides . There are no cars on the island and no hotels . Since machines are not allowed on the island , all agriculture is done by hand . A few small stores sell basic goods , and there is a health clinic and 6 schools . Electricity was produced by a generator and provided limited power a couple of hours each day , but with the rising price of the petroleum , they no longer use the generator . Most families use candles or flashlights powered by batteries or hand - cranks . Small solar panels have recently been installed on some homes . Some of the families on Amantani open their homes to tourists for overnight stays and provide cooked meals , arranged through tour guides . The families who do so are required to have a special room set aside for the tourists and must fit a code by the tourist companies that help them . Guests typically take food staples ( cooking oil , rice , etc. but no sugar products , as they have no dental facilities ) as a gift or school supplies for the children on the island . They hold nightly traditional dance shows for the tourists where they offer to dress them up in their traditional clothes and participate . Taquile ( edit ) Taquile Island View from Taquile Island Taquile is a hilly island located 45 kilometers east of Puno . It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century . In 1970 it became property of the Taquile people , who have inhabited the island since then ( current population around 2,200 ) . The taquiean Island is 5.5 by 1.6 km in size ( maximum measurements ) , with an area of 5.72 km2 . The highest point of the island is 4,050 meters above sea level and the main village is at 3,950 m . Pre-Inca ruins are found on the highest part of the island , and agricultural terraces on hillsides . From the hillsides of Taquile you have a view over the white snow tops of the Bolivian mountains . The inhabitants , known as Taquileños , are southern Quechua speakers . Life on Taquile is still largely unchanged by mainland modernities . There are no cars on the island and no hotels and a few small stores sell basic goods . Most families use candles or flashlights powered by batteries or hand - cranks . Small solar panels have recently been installed on some homes . On clear nights , Taquile is a perfect place for star gazing and you furthermore experience much lightning in the horizon due to electric activity in the area . Culture is very much alive on Taquile , which can be seen in the traditional clothes everyone wears . Taquile is especially known for its handicraft tradition which is regarded as among the highest quality handicrafts not only in Peru but in the world . `` Taquile and Its Textile Art '' were honored by being proclaimed `` Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity '' by UNESCO . Knitting is exclusively performed by males , starting at age eight . The women exclusively make yarn and weave . Taquileans are also known for having created an innovative , community - controlled tourism model , offering home stays , transportation , and restaurants to tourists . Ever since tourism started coming to Taquile in the seventies the taquleans have slowly lost control over the mass day - tourism operated by non-Taquileans . The Taquileans have thus developed alternative tourism models , including lodging for groups , cultural activities and local guides , who have recently completed a 2 - year training program . Furthermore , the local Travel Agency Munay Taquile has been established to regain control over tourism . The people in Taquile run their society based on community collectivism and on the Inca moral code ama sua , ama llulla , ama qhilla , ( do not steal , do not lie , do not be lazy ) . The island is divided into six sectors or suyus for crop rotation purposes . The economy is based on fishing , terraced farming horticulture based on potato cultivation , and tourist - generated income from the approximately 40,000 tourists who visit each year . Isla del Sol ( edit ) Copacabana , Bolivia Situated on the Bolivian side of the lake with regular boat links to the Bolivian town of Copacabana , Isla del Sol ( `` Island of the sun '' ) is one of the largest islands of the lake . Geographically , the terrain is harsh ; it is a rocky , hilly island . There are no motor vehicles or paved roads on the island . The main economic activity of the approximately 800 families on the island is farming , with fishing and tourism augmenting the subsistence economy . There are over 180 ruins on the island . Most of these date to the Inca period circa the 15th century AD . Many hills on the island contain agricultural terraces , which adapt steep and rocky terrain to agriculture . Among the ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock , a labyrinth - like building called Chicana , Kasa Pata , and Pilco Kaima . In the religion of the Incas , it was believed that the sun god was born here . During 1987 - 92 Johan Reinhard directed underwater archaeological investigations off of the Island of the Sun , recovering Inca and Tiahuanaco offerings . These artifacts are currently on display in the site museum of the village of Challapampa . Isla de La Luna ( edit ) Isla de la Luna and Cordillera Real Isla de la Luna is situated east from the bigger Isla del Sol . Both islands belong to the La Paz Department of Bolivia . According to legends that refer to Inca mythology Isla de la Luna ( Spanish for `` island of the moon '' ) is where Viracocha commanded the rising of the moon . Ruins of a supposed Inca nunnery ( Mamakuna ) occupy the oriental shore . Archaeological excavations indicate that the Tiwanaku peoples ( ca . AD 650 - 1000 ) built a major temple on the Island of the Moon . Pottery vessels of local dignitaries dating from this period have been excavated on islands in Lake Titicaca . Two of them were found in the nineteenth century and are now in the British Museum in London . The structures seen on the island today were built by the Inca ( ca . 1450 -- 1532 ) directly over the earlier Tiwanaku ones . Suriki ( edit ) Chelleca island on the Bolivian side Amantani Island -- Peru . In the background Capachica Peninsula . Suriki lies in the Bolivian part of lake Titicaca ( in the southeastern part also known as lake Wiñaymarka ) . Suriki is thought to be the last place where the art of reed boat construction survives , at least as late as 1998 . Craftsmen from Suriqui helped Thor Heyerdahl in the construction of several of his projects , such as the reed boats Ra II and Tigris , and a balloon gondola . Transport ( edit ) The dual gauge car float Manco Capac links PeruRail 's 1,435 mm ( 4 ft 8 ⁄ in ) standard gauge line at Puno with the Bolivian railways ' 1,000 mm ( 3 ft 3 ⁄ in ) meter gauge line at Guaqui . History ( edit ) The lake has had a number of steamships , each of which was built in the United Kingdom in `` knock down '' form with bolts and nuts , disassembled into many hundreds of pieces , transported to the lake , and then riveted together and launched . SS Yavari in Puno , 2002 In 1862 Thames Ironworks on the River Thames built the iron - hulled sister ships SS Yavari and SS Yapura under contract to the James Watt Foundry of Birmingham . The ships were designed as combined cargo , passenger and gunboats for the Peruvian Navy . After several years ' delay in delivery from the Pacific coast to the lake , Yavari was launched in 1870 and Yapura in 1873 . Yavari was 30 metres ( 100 ft ) long but in 1914 her hull was lengthened for extra cargo capacity and she was re-engined as a motor vessel . During the last days of the War of the Pacific Chile was sending a warship on railroad to Titicaca Lake in order to disrupt trade . In 1892 William Denny and Brothers at Dumbarton on the River Clyde in Scotland built SS Coya . She was 52 metres ( 170 ft ) long and was launched on the lake in 1893 . In 1905 Earle 's Shipbuilding at Kingston upon Hull on the Humber built SS Inca . By now a railway served the lake so the ship was delivered in kit form by rail . At 67 metres ( 220 ft ) long and 1,809 tons Inca was the lake 's largest ship thus far . In the 1920s Earle 's supplied a new bottom for the ship , which also was delivered in kit form . Trade continued to grow , so in 1930 Earle 's built SS Ollanta . Her parts were landed at the Pacific Ocean port of Mollendo and brought by rail to the lake port of Puno . At 79 metres ( 260 ft ) long and 2,200 tons she was considerably larger than the Inca , so first a new slipway had to be built to build her . She was launched in November 1931 . In 1975 Yavari and Yapura were returned to the Peruvian Navy , who converted Yapura into a hospital ship and renamed her BAP Puno . The Navy discarded Yavari but in 1987 charitable interests bought her and started restoring her . She is now moored at Puno Bay and provides static tourist accommodation while her restoration continues . Coya was beached in 1984 but restored as a floating restaurant in 2001 . Inca survived until 1994 when she was broken up . Ollanta is no longer in scheduled service but PeruRail has been leasing her for tourist charter operations . See also ( edit ) Chiripa Taraco Peninsula Titicaca National Reservation Tourism in Peru Yampupata Peninsula References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Data Summary : Lago Titicaca ( Lake Titicaca ) '' . International Lake Environment Committee Foundation - ILEC . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 23 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : Grove , M.J. , P.A. Baker , S.L. Cross , C.A. Rigsby and G.O. Seltzer 2003 Application of Strontium Isotopes to Understanding the Hydrology and Paleohydrology of the Altiplano , Bolivia - Peru . Palaeogeography , Palaeoclimatology , Palaeoecology 194 : 281 - 297 . Jump up ^ Rigsby , C. , P.A. Baker and M.S. Aldenderfer 2003 Fluvial History of the Rio Ilave Valley , Peru , and Its Relationship to Climate and Human History . Palaeogeography , Palaeoclimatology , Palaeoecology 194 : 165 - 185 Jump up ^ Questions Unlimited ( 2003 ) . `` Who Wants to Be a Judge at the National Academic Championship ? '' . National Academic Championship . Retrieved 6 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The World Factbook '' . cia.gov . Retrieved 27 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Highest Lake Elevations in the World '' . About.com Education . Retrieved 27 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Highest Lake in the World '' . highestlake.com . Retrieved 27 April 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Dejoux , C. and A. Iltis ( editors ) 1992 Lake Titicaca : A Synthesis of Limnological Knowledge . 68 . Kluwer Academic Publishers , Boston . Jump up ^ Roche , M.A. , J. Bourges , J. Cortes and R. Mattos 1992 Climatology and Hydrology of the Lake Titicaca Basin . In Lake Titicaca : A Synthesis of Limnological Knowledge , edited by C. Dejoux and A. Iltis , pp. 63 - 88 . Monographiae Biologicae . vol. 68 , H.J. Dumont and M.J.A. Werger , general editor . Kluwer Academic Publishers , Boston . Jump up ^ Cross , S.L. , P.A. Baker , G.O. Seltzer , S.C. Fritz and R.B. Dunbar 2001 Late Quaternary Climate and Hydrology of Tropical South America Inferred from an Isotopic and Chemical Model of Lake Titicaca , Bolivia and Peru . Quaternary Research 56 ( 1 ) : 1 - 9 . Jump up ^ Mourguiart , P. , T. Corrége , D. Wirrmann , J. Argollo , M.E. Montenegro , M. Pourchet and P. Carbonel 1998 Holocene Palaeohydrology of Lake Titicaca Estimated from an Ostracod - Based Transfer Function . Palaeogeography , Palaeoclimatology , Palaeoecology 143 : 51 - 72 . Jump up ^ Baucom , P.C. and C.A. Rigsby 1999 Climate and Lake Level History of the Northern Altiplano , Bolivia , as Recorded in Holocene Sediments of the Rio Desaguadero . Journal of Sedimentary Research 69 ( 3 ) : 597 - 611 . Jump up ^ Talbi , A. , A. Coudrain , P. Ribstein and B. Pouyaud 1999 Computation of the Rainfall of Lake Titicaca Catchment During the Holocene . Géosciences de Surface 329 : 197 - 203 . Jump up ^ Carlos Valdez : Lake Titicaca at dangerously low level - website of the Sydney Morning Herald ( accessed 2009 - 11 - 28 ) Jump up ^ Lake Titicaca evaporating away ( video ) - report by al Jazeera ( accessed 2009 - 11 - 28 ) Jump up ^ Shahriari , Sara ( 30 March 2012 ) . `` Pollution threatens South America 's Lake Titicaca '' . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved 26 May 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.globalnature.org/35193/Living-Lakes/America/Lake-Titicaca/resindex.aspx Jump up ^ `` GNF - Threatened Lake of the Year 2012 '' . GNF. 22 March 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2010 - 06 - 12 . Retrieved 2010 - 03 - 10 . ^ Jump up to : Standish , C. ( 2005 ) Ancient Titicaca : The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia . Oakland , California , University of California Press . 338 pp. ISBN 978 - 0520232457 Jump up ^ La Barre , W. ( 1948 ) The Aymara Indians of the Lake Titicaca Plateau , Bolivia . American Anthropological Association Memoir . no . 68 , pp. 208 - 210 . Jump up ^ Bauer , B. , and Stanish , C. ( 2001 ) Ritual and Pilgrimage in the Ancient Andes . Austin , Texas , University of Texas Press . 314 pp. ISBN 978 - 0292708907 ^ Jump up to : Cossel , Lindquist , Craig , and Luthman ( 2014 ) . Pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in marbled water frog Telmatobius marmoratus : first record from Lake Titicaca , Bolivia . Dis Aquat Organ. 112 ( 1 ) : 83 - 7 . doi : 10.3354 / dao02778 ^ Jump up to : Kroll ; Hershler ; Albrecht ; Terrazas ; Apaza ; Fuentealba ; Wolff ; and Wilke ( 2012 ) . The endemic gastropod fauna of Lake Titicaca : correlation between molecular evolution and hydrographic history . Ecol Evol . Jul 2012 ; 2 ( 7 ) : 1517 -- 1530 . ^ Jump up to : Fjeldså , J. ; & Krabbe , N. ( 1990 ) . Birds of the High Andes : A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia , South America . ISBN 978 - 8788757163 Jump up ^ Parenti , Lynne R. ( 1984 ) . A taxonomic revision of the Andean Killifish Genus Orestias ( Cyprinodontiformes , Cyprinodontidae ) . Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 178 : 107 - 214 . ^ Jump up to : Hales , J. , and P. Petry ( 2013 ) . Titicaca . Freshwater Ecoregions of the World . Retrieved 11 February 2013 Jump up ^ Lauzanne , L. ( 1992 ) . Fish Fauna . Pp. 405 - 448 in : Dejoux , C. , eds. ( 1992 ) . Lake Titicaca : a synthesis of limnological knowledge . ISBN 0 - 7923 - 1663 - 0 Jump up ^ Maldonado , E.E. , Hubert , N.N. , Sagnes , P.P. , & De MÉrona , B.B. ( 2009 ) . Morphology -- diet relationships in four killifishes ( Teleostei , Cyprinodontidae , Orestias ) from Lake Titicaca . Journal of Fish Biology , 74 ( 3 ) , 502 - 520 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1095 - 8649.2008. 02140. x Jump up ^ Vila , Morales , Scott , Poulin , Veliz , Harrod and Mendez ( 2013 ) . Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis of the genus Orestias ( Teleostei : Cyprinodontidae ) in the southern Chilean Altiplano : the relevance of ancient and recent divergence processes in speciation . Journal of Fish Biology 82 , 927 -- 943 . Jump up ^ Segers , H. ; and Martens , K ; editors ( 2005 ) . The Diversity of Aquatic Ecosystems . p. 46 . Developments in Hydrobiology . Aquatic Biodiversity . ISBN 1 - 4020 - 3745 - 7 Jump up ^ Slugina , Z.V. ( 2006 ) . Endemic Bivalvia in ancient lakes . Hydrobiologia 568 ( S ) : 213 -- 217 . Jump up ^ González , E.R. ; and Watling , L. ( 2003 ) . Two new species of Hyalella from Lake Titicaca , and redescriptions of four others in the genus ( Crustacea : Amphipoda ) . Hydrobiologia 497 ( 1 - 3 ) : 181 - 204 . ^ Jump up to : Iltis , A. , and P. Mourguiart ( 1992 ) . Higher Plants : Distribution and biomass . Pp. 242 - 253 in : Dejoux , C. , eds. ( 1992 ) . Lake Titicaca : a synthesis of limnological knowledge . ISBN 0 - 7923 - 1663 - 0 Jump up ^ Pull - apart basins , also called strike - slip basins , are regional topographic depressions created by lateral movement at a bend or discontinuity within a strike slip fault . Jump up ^ Marocco , R. , R. Baudino , and A. Lavenu , 1995 , Intermontane Late Paleogene -- Neogene Basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru : Sedimentologic and Tectonic Characteristics. in A.J. Tankard , R. Suárez Soruco , and H.J. Welsink , eds. , pp. 597 - 613 , Petroleum basins of South America : Memoir no . 62 . American Association of Petroleum Geologists , Tulsa , Oklahoma . ^ Jump up to : Fritz , S.C. , P.A. Baker , G.O. Seltzer , A. Ballantyne , P. Tapia , H. Cheng , and R.L. Edwards , 2007 , Quaternary glaciation and hydrologic variation in the South American tropics as reconstructed from the Lake Titicaca drilling project . Quaternary Research 68 ( 3 ) : 410 - 420 . Jump up ^ Fritz , S.C. , P.A. Baker , P. Tapia , T. Spanbauer , and K. Westover ( 2012 ) Evolution of the Lake Titicaca basin and its diatom flora over the last ~ 370,000 years . Palaeogeography , Palaeoclimatology , Palaeoecology 317 - 318 : 93 - 103 . Jump up ^ Clapperton , C.M. , 1993 , Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of South America . Elsevier Science , Amsterdam , 779 pp . Jump up ^ Rouchy , J.M. , M. Servant , M. Fournier , and C. Causse , 1996 , Extensive carbonate algal bioherms in Upper Pleistocene saline lakes of the central Altiplano of Bolivia : Sedimentology 43 ( 6 ) : 973 -- 993 . Jump up ^ Placzek , C. , J. Quade , and P.J. Patchett , 2006 , Geochronology and stratigraphy of Late Pleistocene lake cycles on the Southern Bolivian Altiplano : implications for causes of tropical climate change . Geological Society of America Bulletin 118 ( 5 - 6 ) : 515 -- 532 . Jump up ^ `` ClClimatological Information for Juliaca , Peru '' . Hong Kong Observatory . ^ Jump up to : Foer , Joshua ( February 25 , 2011 ) . `` The Island People : The seventh hidden wonder of South America '' . Slate . Archived from the original on October 7 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Istvan , Zoltan ( July 3 , 2003 ) . `` Rough Waters for Peru 's Floating Islands '' . National Geographic Channel . Archived from the original on August 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Reinhard , Johan ( 1992 ) `` Underwater Archaeological Research in Lake Titicaca , Bolivia . '' In Ancient America : Contributions to New World Archaeology , N. Saunders ( ed . ) , Oxford : Oxbow Books , pp. 117 - 143 . Jump up ^ Bolivia , Lonely Planet 2007 , ISBN 1 - 74104 - 557 - 6 Jump up ^ Bauer , Brian and Charles Stanish 2001 Ritual and Pilgrimage in the Ancient Andes University of Texas press , Austin Jump up ^ British Museum Collection ^ Jump up to : Box , Ben ( 1998 ) . South American Handbook . Footprint Handbooks . p. 292 . ISBN 0 - 8442 - 4886 - X . Jump up ^ Southern Peru Railroads ^ Jump up to : `` The Yavari Story '' . Yavari - Lake Titicaca - Peru . The Yavari Project . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Sater , William F. ( 2007 ) . Andean Tragedy : Fighting the War of the Pacific , 1879 -- 1884 . Lincoln and London : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8032 - 4334 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Cameron , Stuart ; Robinson , George ; Strathdee , Paul . `` SS Coya '' . Clyde - built Database . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Lake Steamers - Post 1900 '' . Yavari - Lake Titicaca - Peru . The Yavari Project . Archived from the original on 2011 - 09 - 28 . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : Grace , Michael L ( 2009 - 11 - 16 ) . `` The SS Ollanta '' . Cruising the Past . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 20 . Jump up ^ Dickinson , Rob . `` Steam in Peru 2001 '' . International Steam Pages . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 20 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lake Titicaca . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Lake Titicaca . Lake Titicaca - The Highest Navigable Lake in the World Bolivian Navy and Naval Ensign Management issues in the Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo system : Importance of developing a water budget Peru Cultural Society - Lake Titicaca History ( hide ) Lakes on the Altiplano Present - day lakes and salt pans Lake Titicaca Lake Poopó Salar de Uyuni Salar de Coipasa Lake expansions of Lake Titicaca Lake Ballivián Cabana Mataro Ancient lakes Lake Tauca Sajsi Lake Minchin Salinas Inca Huasi Ouki Lake Escara Other paleolakes and lake expansions in the region Cancosa paleolake VIAF : 315149284 NDL : 00628770 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lake_Titicaca&oldid=815623177 '' Categories : Mountain lakes Ramsar sites in Bolivia Ramsar sites in Peru Lake Titicaca Lakes of Peru Lakes of La Paz Department ( Bolivia ) Bolivia -- Peru border International lakes of South America Lakes of Puno Region Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Coordinates on Wikidata Articles which use infobox templates with no data rows Articles containing Spanish - language text Articles containing Quechua - language text Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011 All articles containing potentially dated statements All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans አማርኛ Aragonés Asturianu Aymar aru Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Български Boarisch བོད ་ ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių La . lojban . Magyar मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Нохчийн Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русский Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 粵語 中文 डोटेली Edit links This page was last edited on 16 December 2017 , at 00 : 11 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where is lake titicaca located on a map | [
"\n\nLake Titicaca\n\n\n\nView of the lake from the lake's Isla del Sol\n\n\n\nCoordinates\n15°45′S 69°25′W / 15.750°S 69.417°W / -15.750; -69.417Coordinates: 15°45′S 69°25′W / 15.750°S 69.417°W / -15.750; -69.417\n\n\nType\nMountain lake\n\n\nPrimary inflows\n27 rivers\n\n\nPrimary outflows\nDesaguadero River\nEvaporation\n\n\nCatchment area\n58,000 km2 (22,400 sq mi)[1]\n\n\nBasin countries\nBolivia\nPeru\n\n\n\n\n\nMax. length\n190 km (118 mi)\n\n\nMax. width\n80 km (50 mi)\n\n\nSurface area\n8,372 km2 (3,232 sq mi)[1]\n\n\nAverage depth\n107 m (351 ft)[1]\n\n\nMax. depth\n281 m (922 ft)[1]\n\n\nWater volume\n893 km3 (214 cu mi)[1]\n\n\nResidence time\n1343 years[1]\n\n\nShore length1\n1,125 km (699 mi)[1]\n\n\nSurface elevation\n3,812 m (12,507 ft)[1]\n\n\n\n\n\nFrozen\nnever[1]\n\n\nIslands\n42+ (see article)\n\n\nSections/sub-basins\nWiñaymarka\n\n\nSettlements\nCopacabana, Bolivia\nPuno, Peru\n\n\nReferences\n[1]\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRamsar Wetland\n\n\n\nDesignated\n26 August 1998\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure.\n\n"
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"15°45′S 69°25′W / 15.750°S 69.417°W"
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4078796163809592176 | Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act | Real estate settlement Procedures Act - wikipedia Real estate settlement Procedures Act Jump to : navigation , search Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act Long title Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974 Acronyms ( colloquial ) RESPA Enacted by the 93rd United States Congress Effective Dec. 22 , 1974 Citations Public law P.L. 93 - 533 Statutes at Large 88 Stat. 1724 Codification Titles amended 12 U.S.C. sections created 2601 - 2617 Legislative history Passed the Senate on July 24 , 1974 ( unanimous consent ) Passed the House of Representatives on August 14 , 1974 ( unanimous consent ) Reported by the joint conference committee on Dec. 9 , 1974 ; agreed to by the Senate on Dec. 9 , 1974 ( unanimous consent ) and by the House of Representatives on Dec. 11 , 1974 ( unanimous consent ) Signed into law by President Gerald Ford on Dec. 22 , 1974 Major amendments P.L. 94 - 205 , 89 Stat. 1157 ( 1976 ) The Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act ( RESPA ) was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1974 and codified as Title 12 , Chapter 27 of the United States Code , 12 U.S.C. § § 2601 -- 2617 . The main objective was to protect homeowners by assisting them in becoming better educated while shopping for real estate services , and eliminating kickbacks and referral fees which add unnecessary costs to settlement services . RESPA requires lenders and others involved in mortgage lending to provide borrowers with pertinent and timely disclosures regarding the nature and costs of a real estate settlement process . RESPA was also designed to prohibit potentially abusive practices such as kickbacks and referral fees , the practice of dual tracking , and imposes limitations on the use of escrow accounts . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Purpose 3 General Requirements 4 Good - Faith Estimate of Settlement Costs 5 Kickbacks and Unearned Fees 6 Borrower Requests for Information and Notifications of Errors 7 Criticisms 8 Sources 9 External links History ( edit ) RESPA was enacted in 1974 and was originally administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) . In 2011 , the consumer financial protection bureau ( CFPB ) , created under the provisions of the Dodd - Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , assumed the enforcement and rulemaking authority over RESPA . On December 31 , 2013 , the CFPB published final rules implementing provisions of the Dodd - Frank Act , which direct the CFPB to publish a single , integrated disclosure for mortgage transactions , which included mortgage disclosure requirements under the truth in lending Act ( TILA ) and sections 4 and 5 of RESPA . As a result , Regulation Z now houses the integrated forms , timing , and related disclosure requirements for most closed - end consumer mortgage loans . Purpose ( edit ) It was created because various companies associated with the buying and selling of real estate , such as lenders , real estate agents , construction companies and title insurance companies were often engaging in providing undisclosed kickbacks to each other , inflating the costs of real estate transactions and obscuring price competition by facilitating bait - and - switch tactics . For example , a lender advertising a home loan might have advertised the loan with a 5 % interest rate , but then when one applies for the loan one is told that one must use the lender 's affiliated title insurance company and pay $5,000 for the service , whereas the normal rate is $1,000 . The title company would then have paid $4,000 to the lender . This was made illegal , in order to make prices for the services clear so as to allow price competition by consumer demand and to thereby drive down prices . On July 21 , 2011 , administration and enforcement of the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act ( RESPA ) was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( CFPB ) . General requirements ( edit ) RESPA outlines requirements that lenders must follow when providing mortgages that are secured by federally related mortgage loans . This includes home purchase loans , refinancing , lender approved assumptions , property improvement loans , equity lines of credit , and reverse mortgages . Under RESPA , lending institutions must : Provide certain disclosures when applicable , including a Good - Faith Estimate of Settlement Costs ( GFE ) , Special Information Booklet , HUD - 1 / 1A settlement statement and Mortgage Servicing Disclosures . Provide the ability to compare the GFE to the HUD - 1 / 1a settlement statements at closing Follow established escrow accounting practices Not proceed with the foreclosure process when the borrower has submitted a complete application for loss mitigation options , and Not pay kickbacks or pay referral fees to settlement service providers ( e.g. , appraisers , real estate brokers / agents and title companies ) Good - Faith Estimate of settlement costs ( edit ) For closed - end reverse mortgages , a lender or broker is required to provide the consumer with the standard Good Faith Estimate ( GFE ) form . A Good Faith Estimate of settlement costs is a three - page document that shows estimates for the costs that the borrower will likely incur at settlement and related loan information . It is designed to allow borrowers to shop for a mortgage loan by comparing settlement costs and loan terms . These costs include , but are not limited to : Origination charges Estimates for required services ( e.g. , appraisals , credit report fees , flood certification ) Title insurance Per diem interest Escrow deposits , and Insurance premiums The bank or mortgage broker must provide the GFE no later than three business days after the lender or mortgage broker received an application , or information sufficient to complete and application , the application . Kickbacks and unearned fees ( edit ) A person may not give or receive a fee or anything of value for a referral of mortgage loan settlement business . This includes an agreement or understanding related to a federally related mortgage . Fees paid for mortgage - related services must be disclosed . Additionally , no person may give or receive any portion , split , or percentage of a fee for services connected with a federally related mortgage except for services actually performed . Permissible Compensation A payment to an attorney for services actually rendered ; A payment by a title company to its agent for services actually performed in the issuance of title insurance ; A payment by a lender to its duly appointed agent or contractor for services actually performed in the origination , processing , or funding of a loan ; A payment to a cooperative brokerage and referral arrangements between real estate agents and real estate brokers ; Normal promotional and education activities that are not conditioned on the referral of business , and do not involve the defraying of expenses that otherwise would be incurred by a person in a position to refer settlement services ; and An employer 's payment to its own employees for any referral activities . It is the responsibility of the lender to monitor third party fees in relationship to the services rendered to ensure no illegal kickbacks or referral fees are made . Borrower Requests for information and notifications of errors ( edit ) Upon receipt of a qualified written request , a mortgage servicer is required to take certain steps , each of which is subject to certain deadlines . The servicer must acknowledge receipt of the request within 5 business days . The servicer then has 30 business days ( from the request ) to take action on the request . The servicer has to either provide a written notification that the error has been corrected , or provide a written explanation as to why the servicer believes the account is correct . Either way , the servicer has to provide the name and telephone number of a person with whom the borrower can discuss the matter . The servicer can not provide information to any credit agency regarding any overdue payment during the 60 - day period . If the servicer fails to comply with the `` qualified written request '' , the borrower is entitled to actual damages , up to $2,000 of additional damages if there is a pattern of noncompliance , costs and attorneys fees . Criticisms ( edit ) However , critics say that kickbacks still occur . For example , lenders often provide captive insurance to the title insurance companies they work with , which critics say is essentially a kickback mechanism . Others counter that economically the transaction is a zero sum game , where if the kickback were forbidden , a lender would simply charge higher prices . To which others counter that the intended goal of the legislation is transparency , which it would provide if the lender must absorb the cost of the hidden kickback into the fee they charge . One of the core elements of the debate is the fact that customers overwhelmingly go with the default service providers associated with a lender or a real estate agent , even though they sign documents explicitly stating that they can choose to use any service provider . There have been various proposals to modify the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act . One proposal is to change the `` open architecture '' system currently in place , where a customer can choose to use any service provider for each service , to one where the services are bundled , but where the real estate agent or lender must pay directly for all other costs . Under this system , lenders , who have more buying power , would more aggressively seek the lowest price for real estate settlement services . While both the HUD - 1 and HUD - 1A serve to disclose all fees , costs and charges to both the buyer and seller involved in a real estate transaction , it is not uncommon to find mistakes on the HUD . Both buyer and seller should know how to properly read a HUD before closing a transaction and at settlement is not the ideal time to discover unnecessary charges and / or exorbitant fees as the transaction is about to be closed . Buyers or sellers can hire an experienced professional such as a real estate agent or an attorney to protect their interests at closing . Sources ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Regulation X Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act '' ( PDF ) . CFPB Consumer Laws and Regulations . Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . March 2015 . Retrieved 18 May 2016 . This article incorporates text from this source , which is in the public domain . Jump up ^ `` Recent Changes to the Law Governing Qualified Written Requests '' . Retrieved 2016 - 04 - 13 . Jump up ^ 12 USC 2605 ( f ) External links ( edit ) Full text of the act from the Legal Information Institute Integrated Mortgage Disclosures Under the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act ( Regulation X ) and the Truth In Lending Act ( Regulation Z ) Know Before You Owe Mortgages Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Real_Estate_Settlement_Procedures_Act&oldid=792803128 '' Categories : 1974 in law 93rd United States Congress United States federal housing legislation Real property law in the United States Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 28 July 2017 , at 19 : 48 . About Wikipedia | which of the following is not required by the real estate settlement procedures act | [] | [] |
8973835457555479845 | 2017 All-Ireland Minor Hurling Championship | 2017 All - Ireland Minor hurling championship - wikipedia 2017 All - Ireland Minor hurling championship Jump to : navigation , search All - Ireland Minor Hurling Championship 2017 Championship Details Dates 5 April 2016 - 3 September 2017 Teams 20 All Ireland Champions Winners Galway ( 11th win ) Captain Darren Morrissey Manager Jeffrey Lynskey All Ireland Runners - up Runners - up Cork Captain Seán O'Leary - Hayes Manager Denis Ring Provincial Champions Munster Cork Leinster Kilkenny Ulster Antrim Connacht Not Played Championship Statistics Matches Played 30 Total Goals 87 ( 2.9 per game ) Total Points 933 ( 31.1 per game ) Top Scorer Brian Turnbull ( 1 - 51 ) ← 2016 2018 → The 2017 All - Ireland Minor Hurling Championship was the 87th staging of the All - Ireland hurling championship since its establishment by the Gaelic Athletic Association in 1928 . It is the primary inter-county hurling championship for boys under the age of eighteen . The championship began on 5 April 2017 and ended on 3 September 2017 . Tipperary entered the championship as the defending champions , however , they were defeated by Cork in a Munster semi-final replay . On 3 September 2017 Galway won the championship following a 2 - 17 to 2 - 15 defeat of Cork in the All - Ireland final . This was their 11th All - Ireland title and their first in two championship seasons . Contents ( hide ) 1 Participating teams 2 Provincial Champsionships 2.1 Leinster Minor Hurling Championship 2.2 Munster Minor Hurling Championship 2.3 Ulster Minor Hurling Championship 3 All - Ireland Minor Hurling Championship 3.1 Quarter - finals 3.2 Semi-finals 3.3 Final 4 Scoring statistics 5 References Participating teams ( edit ) Team Colours Most recent success All - Ireland Provincial Antrim 2016 Armagh Carlow Clare 1997 2011 Cork 2001 2008 Donegal Down 2012 Dublin 1965 2016 Galway 2015 Kildare Kilkenny 2014 2015 Laois 1964 Limerick 1984 2014 Meath 1929 Offaly 1989 2000 Tipperary 2016 2016 Waterford 2013 2009 Westmeath Wicklow Wexford 1968 1985 Provincial champsionships ( edit ) Leinster Minor hurling championship ( edit ) First round Westmeath v Kilkenny 8 April 2017 First round Westmeath 0 - 4 - 3 - 22 Kilkenny ( show ) TEG Cusack Park , Mullingar 12 : 00 S Broughan 0 - 4 . A Mullen 0 - 12 , N Brennan 1 - 2 , S Ryan 1 - 2 , T Drea 1 - 0 , E O'Shea 0 - 2 , D Barron 0 - 1 , N Brassil 0 - 1 , B Staunton 0 - 1 , R Connolly 0 - 1 . Laois v Offaly 8 April 2017 First round Laois 2 - 22 - 0 - 14 Offaly ( show ) O'Connor Park , Tullamore 15 : 00 O Bennett 1 - 6 ( 0 - 6f ) , C Comerford 0 - 6 , J Phelan 1 - 0 , J Keyes 0 - 3 , P Delaney 0 - 3f , PJ Daly 0 - 1 , D Comerford 0 - 1 , L Senior 0 - 1 , B McGinley 0 - 1 . A Kenny 0 - 4f , D Nally 0 - 3 , O Hickey 0 - 2 , C Langton 0 - 1 , J Keenaghan 0 - 1 , L Kavanagh 0 - 1 , A Maher 0 - 1 S O'Toole 0 - 1 Kildare v Carlow 8 April 2017 First round Kildare 3 - 17 - 1 - 15 Carlow ( show ) St. Conleth 's Park , Newbridge 15 : 00 C Tobin 0 - 10 , B Tobin 2 - 0 , S Cullen 1 - 2 , K Aherne 0 - 2 , J Dolan 0 - 1 , L Conroy 0 - 1 , L O'Flynn 0 - 1 . J O'Neill 1 - 6 , J Nolan 0 - 9 . Meath v Wicklow 8 April 2017 First round Meath 4 - 28 - 0 - 13 Wicklow ( show ) St. Loman 's Park , Trim 15 : 00 J Ryan 2 - 4 , M Mullen 0 - 10 , J Leavy 1 - 1 , E Fitzgerald 0 - 4 , D Hennessy 1 - 0 , B Kelly 0 - 2 , B Dowling 0 - 2 , A Murphy 0 - 2 , D Gilmartin 0 - 1 , N Potterton 0 - 1 , M Farrell 0 - 1 . J O'Neill 0 - 6 , P O'Toole 0 - 3 , G Hughes 0 - 2 , I Clancy 0 - 1 , P McGing 0 - 1 . Second round Dublin v Laois 15 April 2017 Second round Dublin 1 - 11 - 1 - 8 Laois ( show ) Parnell Park , Donnycarney 15 : 00 S Currie 0 - 8 , K Desmond 1 - 0 , L Murphy , J Byrne and E O'Neill 0 - 1 each . Report O Bennett 1 - 6 ( 3 frees ) , J Keyes and P Delaney 0 - 1 each . Kilkenny v Wexford 15 April 2017 Second round Kilkenny 1 - 20 - 0 - 11 Wexford ( show ) Nowlan Park , Kilkenny 15 : 00 A Mullen ( 1 - 9 , 0 - 6 frees , 0 - 1 65 ) ; J Kelly ( 0 - 3 ) ; N Brassil ( 0 - 2 , 0 - 1 free ) ; E O'Shea ( 0 - 2 ) ; C Heary , N Brennan , S Ryan , T Drea ( 0 - 1 each ) . Report R Banville ( 0 - 8 , frees ) ; C Turner , S Wall , K Firman ( 0 - 1 each ) . Kildare v Offaly 15 April 2017 Second round Kildare 1 - 9 - 1 - 15 Offaly ( show ) St. Conleth 's Park , Newbridge 15 : 00 C Tobin 1 - 7 ( 1 - 5f , 1'65 ) , K Aherne and D Doyle 0 - 1 each . Report J Keenaghan 1 - 4 , A Kenny 0 - 4 ( 3f ) , D Nally 0 - 3 , C Quinn and O Hickey 0 - 2 each . Meath v Westmeath 15 April 2017 Second round Meath 2 - 18 - 0 - 6 Westmeath ( show ) Killegland West , Ashbourne 15 : 00 M Mullen ( 1 - 11 five frees , two ' 65s ' ) , N Potterton ( 1 - 3 ) , E Fitzgerald ( 0 - 2 ) , J Leavy ( 0 - 1 ) ; B Dowling ( 0 - 1 ) . Report S Broughan ( 0 - 4 three frees , one ' 65 ' ) , K Carey ( 0 - 1 ) , F Heeney ( 0 - 1 ) . Referee : G McGrath ( Wexford ) Quarter - finals Laois v Meath 29 April 2017 Quarter - final Laois 1 - 19 - 1 - 14 Meath ( show ) O'Moore Park , Portlaoise 15 : 00 C Comerford 1 - 7 , O Bennett 0 - 3f , J Keyes 0 - 2 , C Duggan , J McCormack , J Phelan , D Comerford , E Gaughan , P Delaney , PJ Daly 0 - 1 each . Report M Mullen 0 - 8 ( 7f , 1 ' 65 ) , B Dowling 1 - 0 , A Murphy , J Ryan 0 - 2 each , E Fitzgerald , N Potterton 0 - 1 each . Referee : M Murtagh ( Westmeath ) Wexford v Offaly 29 April 2017 Quarter - final Wexford 2 - 17 - 1 - 13 Offaly ( show ) Innovate Wexford Park , Wexford 15 : 00 R Banville 0 - 9 ( 7f , 1 ' 65 ) , J Devereux 1 - 3 , C McGuckin 1 - 1 , S Nolan 0 - 3 , S Wall 0 - 1 . Report A Kenny 0 - 6 ( 4f ) , J Kenaghan 1 - 2 , D Nally , M O'Brien 0 - 2 each , A Maher 0 - 1 . Referee : G Quilty ( Kilkenny ) Semi-finals Laois v Kilkenny 13 May 2017 Semi-final Laois 0 - 9 - 6 - 21 Kilkenny ( show ) O'Moore Park , Portlaoise O Bennett 0 - 6 ( all frees ) , D Comerford , J Keyes and C Comerford 0 - 1 each . Report A Mullen 1 - 8 ( 0 - 3 frees ) , N Brassil 1 - 3 , J Roberts 1 - 2 , J Dowd 1 - 2 , S Ryan 1 - 2 , D Barron 1 - 1 , J Ryan 0 - 2 , E O'Shea 0 - 1 . Dublin v Wexford 13 May 2017 Semi-final Dublin 0 - 20 - 1 - 14 Wexford ( show ) Parnell Park , Donnycarney S Currie 0 - 12 ( 0 - 0 - 8f ) , L Murphy 0 - 4 , D Ó Floinn and M Grogan 0 - 2 each . Report R Banville 0 - 11 ( 0 - 11f ) , J Cullen 1 - 1 , C McGuckin 0 - 2 . Final Kilkenny v Dublin 2 July 2017 Final Kilkenny 3 - 15 - 1 - 17 Dublin ( show ) Croke Park , Dublin A Mullen 1 - 9 ( 0 - 4f , 0 - 1 65 ) , S Ryan 2 - 2 , N Brasil , C Heary , E O'Shea and J Ryan 0 - 1 each . Report S Currie 0 - 8 ( 0 - 6f , 0 - 1 65 ) , D Keogh 0 - 5 ( 0 - 2f ) , L Murphy 0 - 3 , DO Floinn 0 - 1 . Munster Minor hurling championship ( edit ) Quarter - finals Clare v Waterford 5 April 2017 Quarter - final Clare 1 - 24 - 0 - 9 Waterford ( show ) Cusack Park , Ennis 18 : 15 K White ( 0 - 6 ) , C Haugh ( 1 - 1 ) , L Brack ( 0 - 4 ) 2 f 's , G Cooney ( 0 - 3 ) , D Ryan , C Darcy , C Tierney , T Agnew ( 0 - 2 ) each , R Considine , G Cahill ( 0 - 1 ) each . Report B Power ( 0 - 5 ) 2 f 's 1 ' 65 , I Daly , I Beecher , S Crotty , T Douglas ( 0 - 1 ) each . Attendance : 1,622 Referee : J Mullins ( Limerick ) Tipperary v Limerick 5 April 2017 Quarter - final Tipperary 4 - 15 - 2 - 18 Limerick ( show ) Semple Stadium , Thurles 19 : 00 C McCarthy 1 - 3 , A McKelvey 0 - 5 ( 4f ) , A Ormond 1 - 1 , W Barry & N Hoctor 1 - 0 each , C Bowe & J Morris 0 - 2 each , K Breen & C Bourke 0 - 1 each . Report P O'Brien 0 - 11 ( 7f , 1 65 ) , D O'Shea 2 - 2 , D Woulfe 0 - 3 , D Minehan & R Connolly 0 - 1 each . Attendance : 2,567 Referee : N Wall ( Cork ) Play - offs Cork v Waterford 3 May 2017 Play - off Cork 1 - 24 - 0 - 8 Waterford ( show ) Páirc Uí Rinn , Cork B Turnbull 0 - 10 ( 3fs ) ; B Roche 1 - 0 ; D Connery ( 3fs ) , C Hanafin , L O'Shea 0 - 3 each ; E Sheehan 0 - 2 , C O'Callaghan , B Murphy , J Geary 0 - 1 each . Report B Power 0 - 5 ( 5fs ) ; I Daly ( f ) , T Douglas ( f ) , T Looby 0 - 1 each . Referee : P Kelly ( Tipperary ) Limerick v Waterford 11 May 2017 Play - off Limerick 0 - 19 - 1 - 7 Waterford ( show ) Gaelic Grounds , Limerick 19 : 00 P O'Brien 0 - 10 ( 8fs , 1 65 ' ) , D O'Shea 0 - 3 , D Woulfe , R Connolly 0 - 2 each , D Minehan , R Duff 0 - 1 each . Report B Power 0 - 5 ( 4fs ) , T Douglas 1 - 0 ( 1 - 0 pen ) , I Daly , I Beecher 0 - 1 each . Referee : J McCormack ( Tipperary ) Semi-finals Clare v Limerick 28 June 2017 Semi-final Clare 0 - 19 - 0 - 17 ( aet ) Limerick ( show ) Cusack Park , Ennis 19 : 30 T Agnew 0 - 10 ( 7f , 1'65 ) ; G Cooney 0 - 4 ; B Horner , D Ryan , K White , G Cahill , A McCarthy 0 - 1 each . Report P O'Brien 0 - 9 ( 4f , 1'65 ) ; D Woulfe 0 - 4 ; R Connolly , D Minehan , D O'Shea , M O'Brien 0 - 1 each . Attendance : 3,697 Referee : P Kelly ( Tipperary ) Tipperary v Cork 29 June 2017 Semi-final Tipperary 2 - 18 - 1 - 21 ( aet ) Cork ( show ) Semple Stadium , Thurles 19 : 30 A McKelvey 0 - 8 ( 7f ) , D Woods 1 - 4 ( 0 - 2f ) , R McCormack 1 - 0 , P Cadell 0 - 3 , J Morris 0 - 2 , W Barry 0 - 1 . Report B Turnbull 0 - 9 ( 5f ) , D Connery 0 - 7 ( 5f ) , E Sheehan 1 - 0f , R Downey 0 - 2 , D Linehan , L O'Shea and D Hanlon 0 - 1 each . Attendance : 4,254 Referee : R McGann ( Clare ) Cork v Tipperary 3 July 2017 Semi-final replay Cork 2 - 22 - 2 - 19 Tipperary ( show ) Páirc Uí Rinn , Cork 19 : 30 B Turnbull 0 - 8 ( 4f ) , C Hanafin 1 - 4 , D Connery 0 - 6 ( 0 - 2f , 0 - 1 sl ) , L O'Shea 1 - 0 , R Downey 0 - 2 , S O'Leary - Hayes & E Sheehan 0 - 1 each . Report D Woods 0 - 6 ( 5f ) , J Morris 0 - 5 , A McKelvey 0 - 4f , C Bourke & K McCarthy 1 - 0 each , C Bowe 0 - 3 , N Hoctor 0 - 1 . Attendance : 8,142 Referee : J Murphy ( Limerick ) Final Clare v Cork 9 July 2017 Final Clare 0 - 16 - 4 - 21 Cork ( show ) Semple Stadium , Thurles 14 : 00 T Agnew 0 - 7 ( 0 - 6f ) , K McDermott 0 - 3 , C Minogue 0 - 2 ( 0 - 1f ) , K White , D Ryan , A McCarthy , R Considine 0 - 1 each . Report E Sheehan 2 - 2 , D Connery 0 - 6 ( 0 - 5f ) , R Downey 1 - 2 , B Murphy 1 - 1 , B Turnbull 0 - 4 ( 0 - 2f ) , L O'Shea 0 - 2 , B Buckley , S O'Leary - Hayes , C Hanafin , B Roche 0 - 1 each . Ulster Minor hurling championship ( edit ) Quarter - final Donegal v Armagh 3 June 2017 Quarter - final Donegal 4 - 24 - 1 - 8 Armagh ( show ) MacCumhail Park , Ballybofey 19 : 00 S Anderson 1 - 7 ( 0 - 5f ) ; R Craig 1 - 5 ; J Barr 2 - 1 ; K Brady 0 - 4 ; D Duffy 0 - 3 ( 1 pen ) ; P Tourish , PJ McCarron , C McGlynn , R Hilferty 0 - 1 each . Report O Fullerton 0 - 5 ( 3f ) ; O Richards 1 - 0 ; S McGuinness 0 - 2 ; C McGrory 0 - 1 . Referee : A Ferguson ( Fermanagh ) Semi-finals Antrim v Down 2 July 2017 Semi-final Antrim 1 - 21 - 0 - 18 Down ( show ) Corrigan Park , Belfast 14 : 00 S Elliott 1 - 9 ( 4f ) , T Murphy 0 - 6 ( 5f ) , D Smith 0 - 3 , C McHugh 0 - 2 , E McQuillan 0 - 1 . Report C McCrickard 0 - 5 ( 2f ) , R McCrickard 0 - 5f , R Costello 0 - 3 , M McVey 0 - 2 , T Murray , R Blair ( f ) , C Smyth 0 - 1 each . Referee : J Connors ( Donegal ) Derry v Donegal 2 July 2017 Semi-final Derry 4 - 16 - 2 - 6 Donegal ( show ) Celtic Park , Derry 14 : 00 R Mullan 1 - 9 ( 0 - 8f ) , T McHugh 2 - 0 , T Rankin 1 - 1 , Declan Quinn 0 - 3 ( 1f ) , F Bradley , C McAlinden , E O'Kane 0 - 1 each . Report S Anderson 0 - 4 ( 4f ) , Ben Doherty 1 - 1 , J Barr 1 - 0 , K Brady 0 - 1 . Attendance : C Canning ( Antrim ) Final Derry v Antrim 9 July 2017 Final Derry 2 - 8 - 3 - 13 Antrim ( show ) Owenbeg R Mullan 1 - 3 ( 0 - 3fs ) , R Rafferty 1 - 0 , T McHugh 0 - 2 , T Rankin , P McLaughlin , D Quinn 0 - 1 each . Report T Murphy 1 - 5 ( 0 - 2fs ) , E McQuillan 2 - 1 , D Smith 0 - 3 , S Elliott 0 - 2 ( 1f ) , C McHugh , C Boyd 0 - 1 each . All - Ireland Minor hurling championship ( edit ) Quarter - finals ( edit ) Galway v Clare 22 July 2017 Quarter - final Galway 2 - 19 - 1 - 12 Clare ( show ) Páirc Uí Chaoimh , Cork 13 : 00 J Canning 1 - 3 , C Walsh 0 - 5 ( 0 - 4f ) , E Fahey 1 - 0 , S Bleahane 0 - 3 , D Mannion 0 - 2 , J Fleming , C Fahey , B Moran , M McManus , C Elwood , S Ryan 0 - 1 each . Report G Cooney 1 - 3 , K White 0 - 3 , D Ryan , A McCarthy , C Darcy , G Cahill , B Horner , R Considine 0 - 1 each . Referee : J O'Brien ( Laois ) Dublin v Antrim 22 July 2017 Quarter - final Dublin 2 - 20 - 0 - 11 Antrim ( show ) Páirc Esler , Newry 18 : 00 S Currie ( 2 - 13 , four frees ) , M Grogan ( 0 - 2 ) , E Allen ( 0 - 2 ) , B Coffey ( 0 - 1 ) , L Murphy ( 0 - 1 ) , C Derwin ( 0 - 1 ) . Report S Elliott ( 0 - 5 , three frees ) , T Murphy ( 0 - 4 , all frees ) , D Smith ( 0 - 1 ) , A McGrath ( 0 - 1 ) . Referee : J Keane ( Galway ) Semi-finals ( edit ) Kilkenny v Galway 6 August 2017 Semi-final Kilkenny 2 - 8 - 1 - 12 Galway ( show ) Croke Park , Dublin 14 : 00 E Cody 1 - 1 , A Mullen 0 - 4 ( 0 - 2f , 0 - 1 65 ) , J Ryan 1 - 0 , J Brennan , N Brassil and E O'Shea 0 - 1 each . Report J Canning 1 - 4 ( 1 - 0 pen ) , S Bleahane 0 - 3 , C Walsh 0 - 2 ( 0 - 2f ) , C Molloy , D Mannion and E Fahy 0 - 1 each . Referee : J Murphy ( Limerick ) Cork v Dublin 13 August 2017 Semi-final Cork 0 - 23 - 2 - 13 Dublin ( show ) Croke Park , Dublin 13 : 30 B Turnbull 0 - 13 ( 0 - 11f ) , D Connery 0 - 5 ( 0 - 2f ) , D Linehan and B Roche 0 - 2 each , G Millerick 0 - 1 . Report E O'Neill and M Grogan 1 - 1 each , S Currie 0 - 6 ( 0 - 3f ) , L Murphy 0 - 4 ( 0 - 3f ) and E Allen 0 - 1 . Referee : M Murtagh ( Westmeath ) Final ( edit ) Galway v Cork 3 September 2017 Final Galway 2 - 17 - 2 - 15 Cork ( show ) Croke Park , Dublin 13 : 15 J Canning ( 2 - 02 ) , C Molloy ( 0 - 07 , 0 - 07f ) , S Bleahane ( 0 - 05 ) , D Loftus ( 0 - 01 ) ; B Moran ( 0 - 01 ) ; D Mannion ( 0 - 01 ) . Report B Turnbull ( 1 - 07 , 0 - 03f ) , E Sheehan ( 1 - 00 ) , L O'Shea ( 0 - 03 ) , C Hanafin ( 0 - 02 ) , D Connery ( 0 - 01 ) , R Downey ( 0 - 01 ) , B Murphy ( 0 - 01 ) . Referee : S Cleere ( Kilkenny ) Scoring statistics ( edit ) Top scorers overall Rank Player Team Tally Total Matches Average Brian Turnbull Cork 1 - 51 54 6 9.00 Seán Currie Dublin 2 - 47 53 5 10.60 Adrian Mullen Kilkenny 3 - 42 51 5 10.20 Mikey Mullen Meath 1 - 29 32 10.66 5 Paul O'Brien Limerick 0 - 30 30 10.00 6 Ross Banville Wexford 0 - 28 28 9.33 Daire Connery Cork 0 - 28 28 6 4.67 8 Oisín Bennett Laois 1 - 21 24 6.00 9 Jack Canning Galway 4 - 09 21 7.00 10 Ciarán Tobin Kildare 1 - 17 20 10.00 Top scorers in a single game Rank Player Team Tally Total Opposition Seán Currie Dublin 2 - 13 19 Antrim Mikey Mullen Meath 1 - 11 14 Westmeath Brian Turnbull Cork 0 - 13 13 Dublin Adrian Mullen Kilkenny 1 - 09 12 Dublin Seán Elliott Antrim 1 - 09 12 Down Richie Mullan Derry 1 - 09 12 Donegal Adrian Mullen Kilkenny 1 - 09 12 Wexford Seán Currie Dublin 0 - 12 12 Wexford Adrian Mullen Kilkenny 0 - 12 12 Westmeath 10 Adrian Mullen Kilkenny 1 - 08 11 Laois Ross Banville Wexford 0 - 11 11 Dublin Paul O'Brien Limerick 0 - 11 11 Tipperary References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Electric Ireland All - Ireland Minor Hurling Championship Final -- Tipperary 1 - 21 Limerick 0 - 17 '' . Tipperary GAA. 4 September 2016 . Retrieved 6 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Tipperary 1 - 21 Limerick 0 - 17 '' . Nationalist. 4 September 2016 . Retrieved 6 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Redemption as powerful Premier get hands on cup '' . Irish Examiner. 4 September 2016 . Retrieved 6 September 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Galway youngsters add to the silverware '' . Irish Examiner. 4 September 2017 . Retrieved 6 September 2017 . All - Ireland Minor Hurling Championships Championships 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1989 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Connacht Championship Leinster Championship Munster Championship Ulster Championship Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2017_All-Ireland_Minor_Hurling_Championship&oldid=799591829 '' Categories : 2017 in hurling All - Ireland Minor Hurling Championships Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 8 September 2017 , at 17 : 10 . About Wikipedia | who is in the minor hurling final 2017 | [] | [] |
-7622799293692238889 | Energy policy of the United States | Energy policy of the United States - Wikipedia Energy policy of the United States Jump to : navigation , search The Hoover Dam . The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal , state , and local entities in the United States , which address issues of energy production , distribution , and consumption , such as building codes and gas mileage standards . Energy policy may include legislation , international treaties , subsidies and incentives to investment , guidelines for energy conservation , taxation and other public policy techniques . Several mandates have been proposed over the years , such as gasoline will never exceed $1.00 / gallon ( Nixon ) , and the United States will never again import as much oil as it did in 1977 ( Carter ) , but no comprehensive long - term energy policy has been proposed , although there has been concern over this failure . Three Energy Policy Acts have been passed , in 1992 , 2005 , and 2007 , which include many provisions for conservation , such as the Energy Star program , and energy development , with grants and tax incentives for both renewable energy and non-renewable energy . There is also criticism that federal energy policies since the 1973 oil crisis have been dominated by crisis - mentality thinking , promoting expensive quick fixes and single - shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities . Instead of providing stable rules that support basic research while leaving plenty of scope for American entrepreneurship and innovation , congresses and presidents have repeatedly backed policies which promise solutions that are politically expedient , but whose prospects are doubtful , without adequate consideration of the dollar costs , environmental costs , or national security costs of their actions . State - specific energy - efficiency incentive programs also play a significant role in the overall energy policy of the United States . The United States refused to endorse the Kyoto Protocol , preferring to let the market drive CO reductions to mitigate global warming , which will require CO emission taxation . The administration of Barack Obama has proposed an aggressive energy policy reform , including the need for a reduction of CO emissions , with a cap and trade program , which could help encourage more clean renewable , sustainable energy development . Thanks to new technologies such as fracking , the United States has in 2014 resumed its former role as the top oil producer in the world . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Energy imports 2.1 Petroleum 2.2 Natural gas 2.3 Coal 2.4 Electricity 3 Energy consumption 4 Sources 4.1 Petroleum 4.2 Coal 4.3 Natural gas 4.4 Nuclear power 4.5 Renewable energy 4.5. 1 Biofuels 5 Energy efficiency 6 Energy budget , initiatives and incentives 6.1 Budget 6.2 Public investment 6.3 Tax incentives 6.4 Loan guarantees 6.5 Renewable portfolio standard 6.6 Biofuel subsidies 6.7 Consumer subsidies 6.8 Other subsidies 6.9 Federal leases 7 Electricity distribution 8 Statistics 8.1 Electricity 8.1. 1 Electricity production by source 8.1. 2 Electricity consumption by sector 8.2 Oil 8.3 Carbon dioxide emissions 9 Public opinion 10 General legislative policy , legislation and plans 11 Greenhouse gas emissions 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links History ( edit ) See also : History of the petroleum industry in the United States and History of coal mining in the United States U.S. oil reserves increased until 1970 , then began to decline . In the Colonial era the energy policy of the United States was for free use of standing timber for heating and industry . In the 19th century , new emphasis was placed on access to coal and its use for transport , heating and industry . Whales were rendered into lamp oil . Later , coal gas was fractionated for use as lighting and town gas . Natural gas was first used in America for lighting in 1816. , it has grown in importance for use in homes , industry , and power plants , but natural gas production reached its U.S. peak in 1973 , and the price has risen significantly since then . Coal provided the bulk of the US energy needs well into the 20th century . Most urban homes had a coal bin and a coal fired furnace . Over the years these were replaced with oil furnaces , not because of it being cheaper but because it was easier and safer . Coal remains far cheaper than oil . The biggest use of oil has come from the development of the automobile . Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State . Oil became increasingly important to the United States , and , from the early 1940s , the U.S. government and oil industry entered into a mutually beneficial collaboration to control global oil resources . By 1950 , oil consumption exceeded that of coal . The abundance of oil in California , Texas , Oklahoma , as well as in Canada and Mexico , coupled with its low cost , ease of transportation , high energy density , and use in internal combustion engines , lead to its increasing use . Following World War II , oil heating boilers took over from coal burners along the Eastern Seaboard ; diesel locomotives took over from coal - fired steam engines under dieselisation ; oil - fired electricity plants were built ; petroleum - burning buses replaced electric streetcars in a GM driven conspiracy , for which they were found guilty , and citizens bought gasoline powered cars . Interstate Highways helped make cars the major means of personal transportation . As oil imports increased , US foreign policy was inexorably drawn into Middle East politics , supporting oil - producing Saudi Arabia and patrolling the sea lanes of the Persian Gulf . Hydroelectricity was the basis of Nikola Tesla 's introduction of the U.S. electricity grid , starting at Niagara Falls , NY in 1883 . Electricity generated by major dams like the Jensen Dam , TVA Project , Grand Coulee Dam and Hoover Dam still produce some of the lowest - priced ( $0.08 / kWh ) , clean electricity in America . Rural electrification strung power lines to many more areas . Utilities have their rates set to earn a revenue stream that provides them with a constant 10 % -- 13 % rate of return based on operating costs . Increases or decreases of the operating costs of electricity production are passed directly through to the consumers . The federal government provided substantially larger subsidies to fossil fuels than to renewables in the 2002 -- 2008 period . Subsidies to fossil fuels totaled approximately $72 billion over the study period , representing a direct cost to taxpayers . Subsidies for renewable fuels , totaled $29 billion over the same period . In some cases , the U.S. has used its energy policy as a means to pursue other international goals . Richard Heinberg , a professor from Santa Rosa , California argues that a declassified CIA document shows that the U.S. used oil prices as leverage against the economy of the Soviet Union . Specifically , he argues that the U.S. intentionally worked with Saudi Arabia during the Reagan administration to keep oil prices low , thus decreasing the purchasing power of the Soviet Union 's petroleum export industry . When combined with other U.S. efforts to drain Soviet resources , this was eventually a major cause in the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Energy imports ( edit ) See also : 1973 oil crisis and U.S. Energy Independence The trend of net energy imports into the United States ( U.S. Energy Information Administration ) . U.S. oil production peaked in 1970 , then began to decline . In 2005 imports peaked at 60 % of consumption . The United States receives approximately 84 % of its energy from fossil fuels . This energy is used for transport , industry , and domestic use . The remaining portion comes primarily from Hydro and Nuclear stations . Americans constitute less than 5 % of the world 's population , but consume 26 % of the world 's energy to produce 26 % of the world 's industrial output . They account for about 25 % of the world 's petroleum consumption , while producing only 6 % of the world 's annual petroleum supply . Almost all of Canada 's energy exports go to the United States , making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports . Canada is the top source of U.S. imports of oil , gas . and electricity . Petroleum ( edit ) In 2012 , the US produced 60 % of the petroleum it used , the remainder being imported . The largest sources of imported oil were Canada , Saudi Arabia , Mexico , Venezuela , and Russia . Oil imports into the US peaked in 2005 , when imports supplied 60 % of US consumption ; they have declined since , due both to increased domestic oil production , and reduced consumption . The 1973 oil embargo highlighted the vulnerability of the United States to oil supply disruptions when it depends on imports from nations that are either politically unstable or opposed to US interests . Perceived remedies include measures to reduce demand for petroleum ( such as conservation or alternative fuels ) , increase the supply of petroleum ( by increasing domestic production , or maintaining petroleum reserves ) , or enhance the reliability of foreign imports ( through foreign policy ) . The Federal Department of Energy was started to direct the various approaches . Conservation . A National Maximum Speed Limit of 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) was imposed to help reduce consumption , and Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( aka CAFE ) standards were enacted to downsize automobile categories . Year - round Daylight Saving Time was imposed , the United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve was created and the National Energy Act of 1978 was introduced . Alternate forms of energy and diversified oil supply resulted . Re-design of cities , telecommuting , mass transit , higher housing density and walking could also reduce automobile fuel consumption . Carpooling , flexcars , Smart cars , and shorter commutes could all reduce fuel use . Increasing supply . The United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve was created to augment supply in case of a national emergency . Alternative fuels . Two - thirds of U.S. oil consumption is in the transportation sector . The US -- an important export country for food stocks -- converted approximately 18 % of its grain output to ethanol in 2008 . Across the US , 25 % of the whole corn crop went to ethanol in 2007 . The percentage of corn going to biofuel is expected to go up . In 2006 , U.S. Senators introduced the BioFuels Security Act . The proposal has been made for a hydrogen economy , in which cars and factories would be powered by hydrogen fuel cells . However , energy would have to be used to produce the hydrogen , and hydrogen cars have been called one of the least efficient , most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases . Other plans include making society carbon neutral and using renewable energy , including solar , wind , and methane sources . It has been suggested that automobiles could be powered by the following forms of energy : 60 % by grid electricity , 20 % by biofuels , and 20 % by direct solar . Re-design of cities , telecommuting , mass transit , higher housing density and walking could also reduce automobile fuel consumption . Enhance reliability of foreign sources One purpose of American foreign policy , especially in the Middle East , is commonly seen as securing the continued flow of petroleum exports from the region . The proposed Keystone XL pipeline from Canada is a way to enhance the security of US petroleum supply . Natural gas ( edit ) The United States is a net importer of natural gas , most of it by pipeline from Canada , with a smaller amount of LNG from other sources . Net gas imports into the US peaked in 2007 , when the country imported 16.4 percent of the natural gas it consumed , and was the world 's largest net importer of natural gas . By 2013 , despite growing use of natural gas in the US , net imports had fallen to 5.0 percent of consumption . Coal ( edit ) The United States mines more coal than it uses , and is an exporter of coal . Electricity ( edit ) The United States is a net importer of electricity from Canada , and a net exporter to Mexico . Overall , in 2012 the US had net electricity imports of 47 thousand gigawatt - hours , which was less than 1.2 % of the electrical power generated within the US . Nuclear power in the United States depends largely on imported uranium . In 2011 , US uranium mining provided 8 percent of the uranium concentrate loaded into nuclear reactors . The remainder was imported . Principal sources of imported uranium were Russia , Canada , Australia , Kazakhstan , and Namibia . Energy consumption ( edit ) The primary sectors of US energy consumption . Buildings and their construction consume more energy than transportation or industrial applications , and because buildings are responsible for the largest portion of greenhouse emissions , they have the largest impact on man - made climate change . The AIA has proposed making buildings carbon neutral by 2030 , meaning that the construction and operation of buildings will not require fossil fuel energy or emit greenhouse gases , and having the U.S. reduce CO emissions to 40 to 60 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Energy consumption can vary widely from state to state in the U.S. In 2012 for example , there was a large gap in electricity consumption by state between the top three states - Louisiana ( 1254 kWh / mo . ) , Tennessee ( 1217 kWh / mo . ) and Mississippi ( 1193 kWh / mo . ) - and the bottom three states - Maine ( 531 kWh / mo . ) , Hawaii ( 544 kWh / mo . ) and Vermont ( 565 kWh / mo . ) . When President Carter created the U.S. Department of Energy in 1977 , one of their first successful projects was the Weatherization Assistance Program . During the last 30 years , this program has provided services to more than 5.5 million low - income families . On average , low - cost weatherization reduces heating bills by 31 % and overall energy bills by $358 per year at current prices . Increased energy efficiency and weatherization spending has a high return on investment . The `` Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 '' has a significant impact on U.S. Energy Policy . It includes funding to help improve building codes , and will make it illegal to sell incandescent light bulbs , as they are less efficient than fluorescents and LEDs . Technologies such as passive solar building design and zero energy buildings ( ZEB ) have demonstrated significant new - construction energy bill reductions . The `` Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 '' includes funding to increase the popularity of ZEBs , photovoltaics , and even a new solar air conditioning program . Many energy - saving measures can be added to existing buildings as retrofits , but others are only cost - effective in new construction , which is why building code improvements are being encouraged . The solution requires both improved incentives for energy conservation , and new energy sources . The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 increases average gas mileage to 35 mpg by 2020 . The current administration and 2007 legislation are encouraging the near - term use of plug - in electric cars , and hydrogen cars by 2020 . Toyota has suggested that their third - generation 2009 Prius may cost much less than the current model . Larger advanced - technology batteries have been suggested to make it plug - in rechargeable . Photovoltaics are an option being discussed to extend its daytime electric driving range . Improving solar cell efficiency factors will continue to make this a progressively more - cost - effective option . Sources ( edit ) The primary sources of US energy consumption . About 82 % of all types of energy used in the United States is derived from fossil fuels . In 2014 , the largest source of the country 's energy came from petroleum ( 35 % ) , followed by natural gas ( 28 % ) , coal ( 18 % ) , renewable sources ( 10 % ) and nuclear power ( 8 % ) . Amory Lovins says that the sharp and steady cost reductions in solar power has been a `` stunning market success '' . He says that solar , wind and cheap natural gas have significantly reduced the prospects of coal and nuclear power plants around the world . John Rowe , chair of Exelon ( the largest nuclear power producer in the US ) , has said that the nuclear renaissance is dead . Petroleum ( edit ) U.S. Imports of crude oil and petroleum products ( in thousands of barrels ) , 1981 -- 2010 . In 2006 , the U.S. consumed 20.8 million barrels ( 3,310,000 m ) of petroleum a day , of which 9 million barrels ( 1,400,000 m ) is motor gasoline . Transportation is the largest consumer , accounting for approximately 68.9 % , and 55 % of oil use worldwide as documented in the Hirsch report . With approximately 5 % of the world 's population , the United States is responsible for approximately 25 % of annual global oil consumption and according to 2008 estimates has a per - person daily consumption rate more than double that of the European Union . Automobiles are the single largest consumer of oil , consuming 40 % , and are also the source of 20 % of the nation 's greenhouse gas emissions . An offshore oil platform The USA has about 22 billion barrels ( 3.5 × 10 m ) reserves while consuming about 7.6 billion barrels ( 1.21 × 10 m ) per year . This has created pressure for additional drilling . European gasoline prices were artificially raised to $4 per gallon through taxation long before they reached $4 / gallon in the U.S. , leading to better fuel economy . Problems associated with oil supply include volatile oil prices , increasing world and domestic petroleum product demand , dependence on unstable imported foreign oil , falling domestic production ( peak oil ) , and declining infrastructure , like the Alaska pipeline and oil refineries . American dependence on imports grew from 10 % in 1970 to 65 % by the end of 2004 . The Energy Information Administration projects that U.S. oil imports will remain flat and consumption will grow , so net imports will decline to 54 % of U.S. oil consumption by 2030 . The subject of continued exploration for offshore drilling in the United States is a perennial debate , one which was heavily influenced in 2010 by the BP Macondo oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico . Coal ( edit ) Main article : Coal power in the United States U.S. coal production regions . America is self - sufficient in coal . Indeed , it has several hundred years ' supply of it . The United States trend in coal use has been rising from 1950 through 2007 , when coal production and consumption more than doubled . The population of the US has almost doubled in this time period as well , while the per capita energy use has been declining since 1978 . Most electricity ( 52 % in 2000 ) in the country is generated from coal - fired power plants : in 2006 , more than 90 % of coal consumed was used to generate electricity . In 1950 , about 19 % percent of the coal consumed was for electricity generation . Coal in transit in Ohio In terms of the production of energy from domestic sources , from 1885 through 1951 , coal was the leading source of energy in the United States . Crude oil and natural gas then vied for that role until 1982 . Coal regained the position of the top domestic resource that year and again in 1984 , and has retained it since . The US burns 1 billion tons of coal every year . Concern for climate change has led to a call for a moratorium on all coal consumption , unless carbon capture is utilized . Coal is the largest potential source of CO emissions . Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle ( IGCC ) is the cleanest currently operational coal - fired electricity generation technology . FutureGen is an experimental U.S. research project to investigate the possibility of sequestering IGCC CO emissions underground . Natural gas ( edit ) See also : Shale gas in the United States Natural gas production and consumption quadrupled between 1950 and 1970 to 20 × 10 ^ cu ft ( 570 km ) , but declined steadily to stabilize in 1986 . Since then , the United States imports a rising share of its gas . In 2008 consumption of natural gas stood at 23.2 × 10 ^ cu ft ( 660 km ) , while domestic production was at 20.6 × 10 ^ cu ft ( 580 km ) . Approximately 3.0 × 10 ^ cu ft ( 85 km ) were imported , mainly by pipelines from Canada , which accounted for 90 % of foreign supplies , while the remainder is delivered by liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) tankers carrying gas from five different countries . The largest gas producing states in 2007 were Texas ( 30 % ) , Wyoming ( 10 % ) , Oklahoma ( 9 % ) and New Mexico ( 8 % ) , while 14 % of the country 's production came from the federal offshore lands in the Gulf of Mexico . Recent development in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling have increased interest for shale gas across the United States in recent years . Leading fields are the Barnett Shale in Texas and the Antrim Shale in Michigan . Natural gas reserves in the United States were 35 % higher in 2008 than two years earlier largely due to shale gas discoveries . Nuclear power ( edit ) Main article : Nuclear power in the United States The United States is the world 's largest supplier of commercial nuclear power . As of 2010 , the demand for nuclear power is softening in America , and some companies have withdrawn their applications for licenses to build . Ground has been broken on two new nuclear plants with a total of four reactors . The only reactor currently under construction in America , at Watts Bar , Tennessee , was begun in 1973 and may be completed in 2012 . Of the 104 reactors now operating in the U.S. , ground was broken on all of them in 1974 or earlier . In September 2010 , Matthew Wald from the New York Times reported that `` the nuclear renaissance is looking small and slow at the moment '' . In August 2011 , John Rowe , head of Exelon , America 's largest nuclear utility , said that this was not the time to build new nuclear plants , not because of political opposition or the threat of cost overruns , but because of the low price of natural gas . `` Shale ( gas ) '' , said he , `` is good for the country , bad for new nuclear development '' . Following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents , the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has announced it will launch a comprehensive safety review of the 104 nuclear power reactors across the United States , at the request of President Obama . The Obama administration `` continues to support the expansion of nuclear power in the United States , despite the crisis in Japan '' . Following the Japanese nuclear emergency , public support for building nuclear power plants in the U.S. dropped to 43 % , slightly lower than it was immediately after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 , according to a CBS News poll . In his 2012 state - of - the - union address , Barack Obama said that America needs `` an all - out , all - of - the - above strategy that develops every available source of American energy . '' President Obama boasted about a Michigan wind turbine factory , America 's healthy supplies of natural gas and widespread oil exploration . He urged Congress to pass tax incentives for energy efficiency , clean energy , and an end to oil - company subsidies , but made no mention of nuclear power . In 2013 , four aging reactors in the USA were permanently closed before their licenses expired because of high maintenance and repair costs at a time when natural gas prices have fallen : San Onofre 2 and 3 in California , Crystal River 3 in Florida , and Kewaunee in Wisconsin . The state of Vermont is trying to close Vermont Yankee , in Vernon . New York State is seeking to close Indian Point in Buchanan , 30 miles from New York City . Loss of nuclear generating capacity is expected to be offset by the five new nuclear reactors currently under construction , with a proposed combined capacity of more than 5,000 MW . Renewable energy ( edit ) Main article : Renewable energy in the United States Part of the 354 MW SEGS solar complex in northern San Bernardino County , California . The Shepherds Flat Wind Farm is an 845 megawatt ( MW ) wind farm in the U.S. state of Oregon . The 550 MW Desert Sunlight Solar Farm Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 12.9 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2013 . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTUs of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTUs ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. It produced around 6.2 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2010 which was 60.2 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 65,000 MW . For calendar year 2014 , the electricity produced from wind power in the United States amounted to 181.79 terawatt - hours , or 4.44 % of all generated electrical energy . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Several large solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW , making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world . As of 2015 , the largest photovoltaic ( PV ) power plant in North America is Solar Star , a 579 megawatt photovoltaic power station near Rosamond , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . With 2,957 MW of installed geothermal capacity , the United States remains the world leader with 30 % of the online capacity total . As of early 2009 , 120 new projects are underway . When developed , these projects could potentially supply up to 3,979 MW of power , meeting the needs of about 4 million homes . At this rate of development , geothermal production in the United States could exceed 15,000 MW by 2025 . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long - standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 . President Barack Obama 's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 included more than $70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs . This policy - stimulus combination represents the largest federal commitment in U.S. history for renewable energy , advanced transportation , and energy conservation initiatives . As a result of these new initiatives , many more utilities are expected to strengthen their clean energy programs . In February 2011 , the U.S. Department of Energy launched its SunShot initiative , a collaborative national effort to cut the total cost of photovoltaic solar energy systems by 75 % by 2020 . Reaching this goal would make unsubsidized solar energy cost - competitive with other forms of electricity and get grid parity . Biofuels ( edit ) Main articles : Biofuel in the United States , Food vs. fuel , and Sustainable biofuel In recent years there has been an increased interest in biofuels -- bioethanol and biodiesel -- derived from common agricultural staples or waste . Increased domestic production of these fuels could reduce US expenditure on foreign oil and improve energy security if methods of producing and transporting the fuels do not involve heavy inputs of fossil fuels , as current agriculture does . Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10 % ethanol , and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends . Portland , Oregon , recently became the first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10 % ethanol . Ford , Daimler AG , and GM are among the automobile companies that sell `` flexible - fuel '' cars , trucks , and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85 % ethanol ( E85 ) . By mid-2006 , there were approximately 6 million E85 - compatible vehicles on U.S. roads . The Renewable Fuels Association counts 113 U.S. ethanol distilleries in operation and another 78 under construction , with capacity to produce 11.8 billion gallons within the next few years . The Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) predicts in its Annual Energy Outlook 2007 that ethanol consumption will reach 11.2 billion US gallons ( 42,000,000 m ) by 2012 , outstripping the 7.5 billion US gallons ( 28,000,000 m ) required in the Renewable Fuel Standard that was enacted as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 . Expanding ethanol fuel ( and biodiesel ) industries provide jobs in plant construction , operations , and maintenance , mostly in rural communities . According to the Renewable Fuels Association , the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone , boosting household income by $5.7 billion . It also contributed about $3.5 billion in tax revenues at the local , state , and federal levels . In recent years , there has been criticism about the production of ethanol fuel from food crops . However , second generation biofuels are now being produced from a much broader range of feedstocks including the cellulose in dedicated energy crops ( perennial grasses such as switchgrass and Miscanthus giganteus ) , forestry materials , the co-products from food production , and domestic vegetable waste . Produced responsibly they are sustainable energy sources that need not divert any land from growing food , nor damage the environment . Energy efficiency ( edit ) Main article : Efficient energy use A spiral - type integrated compact fluorescent lamp , which has been popular among North American consumers since its introduction in the mid 1990s . The Tesla Roadster , first delivered in 2008 , uses lithium ion batteries to achieve 220 mi ( 350 km ) per charge , while also capable of going 0 - 60 in under 4 seconds . There are many different types of energy efficiency innovation , including efficient water heaters ; improved refrigerators and freezers ; advanced building control technologies and advances in heating , ventilation , and cooling ( HVAC ) ; smart windows that adapt to maintain a comfortable interior environment ; new building codes to reduce needless energy use ; and compact fluorescent lights . Improvements in buildings alone , where over sixty percent of all energy is used , can save tens of billions of dollars per year . Several states , including California , New York , Rhode Island , and Wisconsin , have consistently deployed energy efficiency innovations . Their state planning officials , citizens , and industry leaders , have found these very cost - effective , often providing greater service at lower personal and social cost than simply adding more fossil - fuel based supply . This is the case for several reasons . Energy efficient technologies often represent upgrades in service through superior performance ( e.g. higher quality lighting , heating and cooling with greater controls , or improved reliability of service through greater ability of utilities to respond to time of peak demand ) . So these innovations can provide a better , less expensive service . A wide range of energy efficient technologies have ancillary benefits in improved quality of life , such as advanced windows that not only save on heating and cooling expenses , but also make the workplace or home more comfortable . Another example is more efficient vehicles , which not only save immediately on fuel purchases , but also emit fewer pollutants , improving health and saving on medical costs to the individual and to society . In 1994 , Amory Lovins developed the design concept of the Hypercar . This vehicle would have ultra-light construction with an aerodynamic body using advanced composite materials , low - drag design , and hybrid drive . Designers of the Hypercar claim it would achieve a three - to five-fold improvement in fuel economy , equal or better performance , safety , amenity , and affordability , compared with today 's cars . Lovins says the commercialisation of the Hypercar began in 2014 , with the production of the all - carbon electric BMW i3 family and the 313 miles per gallon Volkswagen XL1 . Energy budget , initiatives and incentives ( edit ) Main article : List of United States Energy Acts An incentive resulting from US energy policy is a factor that provides motive for a specific course of action regarding the use of energy . In the U.S. most energy policy incentives take the form of financial incentives . Examples of these include tax breaks , tax reductions , tax exemptions , rebates , loans and specific funding . Throughout US history there have been many incentives created through U.S. energy policy . Most recently the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 , and Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 , each promote various energy efficiency improvements and encourage development of specific energy sources . U.S. Energy policy incentives can serve as a strategic manner to develop certain industries that plan to reduce America 's dependence on foreign petroleum products and create jobs and industries that boost the national economy . The ability to do this depends upon which industries and products the government chooses to subsidize . Budget ( edit ) Further information : USDOE The 2012 budget that President Obama submitted to Congress calls for a 70 percent increase over the 2011 allocation for federal research and development activities related to renewable energy . The Office of Science in the Department of Energy would receive $2.0 billion for basic energy sciences to discover new ways to produce , store and use energy . Included in that amount are allocations of $457 million for solar energy ; $341 million for biofuels and biomass R&D , including a new reverse auction to promote advanced biofuels ; and more than doubling investment in geothermal energy to $102 million . The budget includes funding to accelerate the deployment of new models of energy research pioneered in the last several years , including $550 million for the Advanced Research Projects Agency -- Energy , a program that supports breakthrough ideas . Public investment ( edit ) Public investment can enable the development of infrastructure projects through the use of public funds , grants , loans or other financing options . These funds provide a means for allocating the capital necessary for the development of renewable energy technologies . Tax incentives ( edit ) Federal tax incentives can be designed to accelerate market adoption , create jobs , encourage investment in a public good ( reduced pollution ) or encourage investment in renewable technology research and development . The Production Tax Credit ( PTC ) reduces the federal income taxes of qualified tax - paying owners of renewable energy projects based on the electrical output ( measured in kWh ) of grid - connected renewable energy facilities . The Investment Tax Credit ( ITC ) reduces federal income taxes for qualified tax - paying owners based on dollars of capital investment in renewable energy projects . The Advanced Energy Manufacturing Tax Credit ( MTC ) awards tax credits to new , expanded , or re-equipped domestic manufacturing facilities that support clean energy development . Loan guarantees ( edit ) The Department of Energy 's Loan Guarantee Program , established by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and enhanced by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , attempts to pave the way for investor support of clean energy projects by providing a guarantee of financing up to 80 % of the project cost . The program is scheduled to end on September 30 , 2011 , unless Congress passes further legislation . Renewable Portfolio Standard ( edit ) A Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) is a mandate that requires electricity providers to supply to their customers a minimum amount of power from renewable sources , usually as a percentage of total energy use . As of June 2010 , such standards have been enacted in 31 U.S. states and the District of Columbia . For example , Governor Jerry Brown signed legislation requiring California 's utilities to get 33 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2020 . Congress has considered a national RPS since 1997 : the Senate has passed legislation three times , and the House once . As of April 2011 , both houses have not acted in unison to pass legislation . Biofuel subsidies ( edit ) See also : Food vs. fuel and Energy subsidies In the United States biofuel subsidies have been justified on the following grounds : energy independence , reduction in greenhouse gas emissions , improvements in rural development related to biofuel plants and farm income support . Several economists from Iowa State University found `` there is no evidence to disprove that the primary objective of biofuel policy is to support farm income . '' Consumer subsidies ( edit ) Consumers who purchase hybrid vehicles are eligible for a tax credit that depends upon the type of vehicle and the difference in fuel economy in comparison to vehicles of similar weights . These credits range from several hundred dollars to a few thousand dollars . Homeowners can receive a tax credit up to $500 for energy efficient products like insulation , windows , doors , as well as heating and cooling equipment . Homeowners who install solar electric systems can receive a 30 % tax credit and homeowners who install small wind systems can receive a tax credit up to $4000 . Geothermal heat pumps also qualify for tax credits up to $2,000 . Other subsidies ( edit ) Recent energy policy incentives have provided , among other things , billions of dollars in tax reductions for nuclear power , fossil fuel production , clean coal technologies , renewable electricity production , and conservation and efficiency improvements . Federal leases ( edit ) Ceasing to issue new leases for fossil fuel extraction on federal lands and waters , and avoiding renewals of existing leases for resources that are not yet producing would reduce global CO emissions by 100 million tonnes per year by 2030 , and by greater amounts thereafter . Electricity distribution ( edit ) Main articles : Electricity distribution and V2G The U.S. power transmission grid consists of about 300,000 km ( 190,000 mi ) of lines operated by approximately 500 companies . The North American Electric Reliability Corporation ( NERC ) oversees all of them . Long distance electric power transmission results in energy loss , through electrical resistance , heat generation , electromagnetic induction and less - than - perfect electrical insulation . In 1995 , these losses were estimated at 7.2 % . Energy generation and distribution can be more efficient the closer it is to the point of use , if conducted in a high - efficiency generator , such as a CHP . In the generation and delivery of electrical power , system losses along the delivery chain are pronounced . Of five units of energy going into most large power plants , only about one unit of energy is delivered to the consumer in a usable form . A similar situation exists in gas transport , where compressor stations along pipelines use energy to keep the gas moving , or where gas liquefaction / cooling / regasification in the liquiefied natural gas supply chain uses a substantial amount of energy , even though the scale of the loss is not as pronounced as it is in electricity . Distributed generation is a means of reducing total and transmission losses . Statistics ( edit ) Electricity ( edit ) U.S. energy use ( in Quad BTU. ( 1 Quad / s = 1 trillion MW ; 1 Quad / year = 33.5 Gigawatts ) . Electricity production by source ( edit ) Source 2012 production ( TWh ) Percentage of Total Coal 1,709 41.5 % Petroleum 30 0.7 % Natural Gas 1,066 25.8 % Nuclear 813 19.7 % Renewable sources 486 11.8 % Other 21 0.5 % Total 4,120 100 % Electricity consumption by sector ( edit ) Sector 2012 consumption ( TWh ) Percentage of total Residential 1,413 36.5 % Commercial 1,323 34.2 % Industrial 986 25.5 % Transportation 7 0.2 % Direct use 138 3.6 % Total 3,867 100 % Oil ( edit ) production : 9.688 - million - barrels - per - day ( 1,540,300 m / d ) ( 2010 est . ) consumption : 19.15 - million - barrels - per - day ( 3,045,000 m / d ) ( 2010 est . ) Heat engines are only 20 % efficient at converting oil into work . Electric transmission ( production to consumer ) loses over 23 % of the energy due to generation , transmission , and distribution . Carbon dioxide emissions ( edit ) Atmospheric carbon dioxide versus time The EPA has the authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions , under the Clean Air Act , and is one of the agency 's seven priorities . US carbon dioxide emissions ( millions of metric tons of CO ) Year CO Change from 1990 5,100.5 0.00 % 2005 6,107.6 19.75 % 2006 6,019.0 18.01 % 2007 6,118.6 19.96 % 2008 5,924.3 16.15 % 2009 5,500.5 7.84 % 5,706.4 11.88 % Public opinion ( edit ) The summer 2006 issue of Ms. magazine examined how the oil industry impacts women 's lives The U.S. results from the 1st Annual World Environment Review , published on June 5 , 2007 revealed that : 74 % are concerned about climate change . 80 % think their Government should do more to tackle global warming . 84 % think that the US is too dependent on fossil fuels . 72 % think that the US is too reliant on foreign oil . 79 % think that the US Government should do more to increase the number of hybrid cars that are sold . 67 % think that the US Government should allow more off shore drilling . The public is also quite clear on its priorities when it comes to promoting energy conservation versus increasing the supply of oil , coal , and natural gas . When asked which of these should be the higher priority , the public chooses energy conservation by a very wide 68 percent - to - 21 percent margin . The public also predominantly believes that the need to cut down on energy consumption and protect the environment means increased energy efficiency should be mandated for certain products . Ninety - two percent of Americans now support such requirements . However , when energy policy and climate change are compared to other issues , they are rated extremely low in terms of importance . A Pew Research Center poll on public priorities for 2011 found that global warming ranked last of twenty - two possible policy priorities . The same survey in 2012 found similar results . Gallup found that from 2009 through the latest poll in March 2013 , public opinion has been nearly evenly split on whether to give priority to the environment or to developing energy sources such as oil , gas , and coal . This represents a shift from poll results from 2001 through 2008 , when clear pluralities of Americans wanted environmental concerns to take priority over developing fossil fuel resources . However , public opinion still heavily favors an emphasis on wind and solar energy ( 59 percent ) over fossil fuels ( 31 percent ) . General legislative policy , legislation and plans ( edit ) The current head of the U.S. Department of Energy under the Obama administration is Dr. Ernest Moniz , who succeeded Dr. Steven Chu in May 2013 . As of September 2012 , `` The mission of the Energy Department is to ensure America 's security and prosperity by addressing its energy , environmental and nuclear challenges through transformative science and technology solutions . '' Catalyze the timely , material , and efficient transformation of the nation 's energy system and secure U.S. leadership in clean energy technologies . Maintain a vibrant U.S. effort in science and engineering as a cornerstone of our economic prosperity with clear leadership in strategic areas . Enhance nuclear security through defense , nonproliferation , and environmental efforts . Establish an operational and adaptable framework that combines the best wisdom of all Department stakeholders to maximize mission success . In December 2009 , the United States Patent and Trademark Office announced the Green Patent Pilot Program . The program was initiated to accelerate the examination of patent applications relating to certain green technologies , including the energy sector . The pilot program was initially designed to accommodate 3,000 applications related to certain green technology categories , and the program was originally set to expire on December 8 , 2010 . In May , 2010 , the USPTO announced that it would expand the pilot program . Greenhouse gas emissions ( edit ) See also : Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States and Kyoto Protocol CO emission per capita per year per country Although exceeded by China since 2007 , the United States has historically been the world 's largest producer of greenhouse gases . Some states are much more prolific polluters than others . The state of Texas produces approximately 1.5 trillion pounds of carbon dioxide yearly , more than every nation in the world except five outside of the United States : China , Russia , Japan , India , and Germany . Despite signing the Kyoto Protocol , the United States has neither ratified nor withdrawn from it . In the absence of ratification it remains non-binding on the US . The Obama Administration has promised to take specific action towards mitigation of climate change . In addition , at state and local levels , there are currently a number of initiatives . As of March 11 , 2007 , mayors of 418 US cities in 50 states have endorsed the Kyoto protocol , after Mayor Greg Nickels of Seattle started a nationwide effort to get cities to agree to the protocol . As of January 18 , 2007 , eight Northeastern US states are involved in the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , a state level emissions capping and trading program . On August 31 , 2006 , the California Legislature reached an agreement with Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger to reduce the state 's greenhouse - gas emissions , which rank at 12th - largest carbon emitter in the world , by 25 percent by the year 2020 . This resulted in the Global Warming Solutions Act which effectively puts California in line with the Kyoto limitations , but at a date later than the 2008 -- 2012 Kyoto commitment period . In the non-binding ' Washington Declaration ' agreed on February 16 , 2007 , the United States , together with Presidents or Prime Ministers from Canada , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , Russia , United Kingdom , Brazil , China , India , Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol . They envisage a global cap - and - trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries , and hoped that this would be in place by 2009 . Chemistry Professor Nathan Lewis at Caltech estimates that to keep atmospheric carbon levels below 750 ppm , a level at which serious climate change would occur , by the year 2050 , the United States would need to generate twice as much energy from renewable sources as is generated by all power sources combined today . However , current research indicates that even carbon dioxide concentrations in excess of 450 ppm would result in irreversible global climate change . The book , Carbon - Free and Nuclear - Free , A Roadmap for U.S. Energy Policy , by Arjun Makhijani , argues that in order to meet goals of limiting global warming to 2 ° C , the world will need to reduce CO emissions by 85 % and the U.S. will need to reduce emissions by 95 % , which can be extended to within a few percent plus or minus of carbon free with little additional change . The book calls for phasing out use of oil , natural gas , and coal which does not use carbon sequestration by the year 2050 . Effective delivered energy is projected to increase from about 75 Quadrillion Btu in 2005 to about 125 Quadrillion in 2050 , but due to efficiency increases , the actual energy input is projected to increase from about 99 Quadrillion Btu in 2005 to about 103 Quadrillion in 2010 and then to decrease to about 77 Quadrillion in 2050 . Petroleum use is projected to increase until 2010 and then linearly decrease to zero by 2050 . The roadmap calls for nuclear power to decrease to zero at the same time , with the reduction also beginning in 2010 . In his book Hell and High Water , author Joseph Romm calls for the rapid deployment of existing technologies to decrease carbon emissions . In a follow - up article in Nature.com in June 2008 , he argues that `` If we are to have confidence in our ability to stabilize carbon dioxide levels below 450 p.p.m. emissions must average less than ( 5 billion metric tons of carbon ) per year over the century . This means accelerating the deployment of the 11 wedges so they begin to take effect in 2015 and are completely operational in much less time than originally modelled by Socolow and Pacala . '' In 2012 , the National Renewable Energy Laboratory assessed the technical potential for renewable electricity for each of the 50 states , and concluded that each state has technical potential for renewable electricity , mostly from solar power and wind power , greater than its current electricity consumption . The report cautions : `` Note that as a technical potential , rather than economic or market potential , these estimates do not consider availability of transmission infrastructure , costs , reliability or time - of - dispatch , current or future electricity loads , or relevant policies . '' See also ( edit ) Politics portal Energy portal United States portal United States Hydrogen Policy 2000s energy crisis Carbon tax Carter Doctrine Climate change policy of the United States Economics of new nuclear power plants Electricity sector of the United States Emissions trading Energy and American Society : Thirteen Myths Energy in the United States Energy law Energy policy of the Obama administration Energy policy of the Soviet Union List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming United States Secretary of Energy World energy consumption References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Jimmy Carter . `` Crisis of Confidence Speech 1979 '' . Cartercenter.org . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` CRS Report for Congress '' . Digital.library.unt.edu . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 30 . ^ Jump up to : `` Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate ) '' . Archived from the original on January 15 , 2016 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 18 . Jump up ^ Grossman , Peter ( 2013 ) . U.S. Energy Policy and the Pursuit of Failure . Cambridge University Press . p. 416 . ISBN 978 - 1107005174 . Jump up ^ Hamilton , Michael S. 2013 . Energy Policy Analysis : A Conceptual Framework . Armonk , NY : M.E. Sharpe , Inc . Jump up ^ `` Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency '' . Dsireusa.org . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ Daly , Herman E. ( 2006 ) . `` Sustainable Development -- Definitions , Principles , Policies '' . In Keiner , Marco . The Future of Sustainability . Springer . p. 257 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4020 - 4734 - 3 . Jump up ^ Smith , Grant ( 4 July 2014 ) . `` U.S. is now world 's biggest oil producer '' . www.chicagotribune.com . Bloomberg News . 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-8128757500231447174 | Pacific War | Pacific War - wikipedia Pacific War This article is about the Pacific theatres of World War II . For other uses , see Pacific War ( disambiguation ) . `` War in the Pacific '' redirects here . For the war between Chile , Bolivia , and Peru in 1879 -- 84 , see War of the Pacific . `` Pacific Theater of World War II '' redirects here . For the US military area of operations , see Pacific Ocean theater of World War II . For other uses , see Pacific Theatre ( disambiguation ) . Pacific War Part of World War II Map showing the main areas of the conflict and Allied landings in the Pacific , 1942 -- 45 Date 7 December 1941 -- 2 September 1945 ( 3 years , 8 months , 3 weeks and 5 days ) Location East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Oceania Western Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean Result Allied victory End of World War II Fall of the Japanese Empire Continuation of the Chinese Civil War Substantial weakening of European colonial powers and the gradual decolonization of Asia 1951 Treaty of San Francisco 1956 Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration Territorial changes Allied occupation of Japan Removal of all Japanese troops occupying parts of the Republic of China and the retrocession of Taiwan to China Liberation of Korea and Manchuria from Japanese rule , followed by the division of Korea Cession of all Japanese - held islands in the Central Pacific Ocean to the United Nations Removal of all Japanese troops from the Australian - governed Solomon Islands and the territories of New Guinea and Papua Seizure and annexation of South Sakhalin and of the Kuril Islands by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands is placed under the authority of the United States of America . When the territory fell apart the US gained the territory of the Northern Mariana Islands . Belligerents Allies United States Philippines China Chinese Communist Party United Kingdom India Burma Malaya Australia Canada New Zealand Netherlands Dutch East Indies Mexico Soviet Union and others Axis Japan Thailand Client states ( show ) Manchukuo Mengjiang Nanjing Regime Azad Hind State of Burma Philippine Republic and others Commanders and leaders Franklin D. Roosevelt ( 1941 -- 45 ) Harry S. Truman ( 1945 ) Chiang Kai - shek Winston Churchill John Curtin W.L. Mackenzie King Peter Fraser A.T. van S. Stachouwer Joseph Stalin Hirohito Hideki Tōjō Plaek Phibunsongkhram Strength 14,000,000 3,621,383 + ( 1945 ) 2,000,000 1,669,500 ( 1945 ) 600,000 400,000 140,000 7,800,000 -- 7,900,000 ( 1945 ) 126,500 , , and others : ~ 1,000,000 + ( 1945 ) Casualties and losses Military 4,000,000 + dead ( 1937 -- 45 ) Breakdown ( show ) Allied casualties 1937 -- 1945 : 3,237,000 + ( not including allied irregulars ) 584,267 425,588 235,000 140,000 100,000 + 68,612 + 45,841 20,000 + 753 578 + Civilian deaths 26,000,000 + ( 1937 -- 45 ) Military 2,500,000 + dead ( 1937 -- 45 ) Civilian deaths 1,000,000 + Including its islands and neighboring countries Partially and briefly Campaigns of World War II Europe Poland Phoney War Winter War Denmark & Norway France & Benelux Britain Balkans Eastern Front Finland Western Front ( 1944 -- 45 ) Pacific War China Pacific Ocean South - East Asia South West Pacific Japan Manchuria ( 1945 ) Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa Horn of Africa Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Yugoslavia Iraq Syria -- Lebanon Iran Italy Dodecanese Southern France Other campaigns Atlantic Arctic Strategic bombing America French West Africa Madagascar Contemporaneous wars Chinese Civil War USSR -- Japan Border Wars French -- Thai Ecuadorian -- Peruvian War Ili Rebellion Pacific War Central Pacific Hawaii Marshalls - Gilberts raids Doolittle Raid Coral Sea Midway RY Solomons Gilberts & Marshalls Marianas & Palau Volcano & Ryukyu Truk Southeast Asia Indochina ( 1940 ) Indian Ocean ( 1940 -- 45 ) Philippines 1941 -- 42 Franco - Thai War Thailand Dutch East Indies Malaya Hong Kong Singapore Indochina ( 1945 ) Malacca Strait Jurist Tiderace Zipper Strategic bombing ( 1944 -- 45 ) Burma Burma ( 1941 -- 42 ) Burma ( 1942 -- 43 ) Burma ( 1944 ) Burma ( 1944 -- 45 ) Southwest Pacific Dutch East Indies 1941 -- 42 Portuguese Timor Australia New Guinea Philippines 1944 -- 45 Borneo 1945 North America Attack on Pearl Harbor Ellwood Aleutian Islands Estevan Point Lighthouse Fort Stevens Lookout Air Raids Fire balloon Project Hula PX Japan Air raids Mariana Islands Volcano & Ryukyu Is Tokyo Starvation Naval bombardments Yokosuka Sagami Bay Kure Downfall Hiroshima & Nagasaki Kurils Karafuto Japanese surrender Manchuria Kantokuen Manchuria ( 1945 ) Mutanchiang Sakhalin Island Kuril Islands Shumshu Second Sino - Japanese War Japanese colonial campaigns Meiji period Korea ( 1894 -- 95 ) Liaodong Peninsula ( 1895 ) China ( 1899 -- 1901 ) Manchuria / Korea ( 1904 -- 05 ) Korea ( 1910 ) Taishō period Tsingtao ( 1914 ) Siberia ( 1918 -- 22 ) Shōwa period Manchuria ( 1931 -- 32 ) Soviet Union ( 1932 -- 39 ) China ( 1937 -- 45 ) Vietnam ( 1940 ) Thailand ( 1941 ) Asia - Pacific ( 1941 - 1945 ) History of Japan Periods ( show ) Paleolithic before 14,000 BC Jōmon 14,000 -- 300 BC Yayoi 300 BC -- 300 AD Kofun 300 -- 538 Asuka 538 -- 710 Nara 710 -- 794 Heian 794 -- 1185 Kamakura 1185 -- 1333 Kenmu Restoration 1333 -- 1336 Muromachi ( Ashikaga ) Nanboku - chō Sengoku 1336 -- 1573 Azuchi -- Momoyama Nanban trade 1573 -- 1603 Edo ( Tokugawa ) Sakoku Convention of Kanagawa Bakumatsu 1603 -- 1868 Meiji Boshin War Restoration First Sino - Japanese War Russo - Japanese War 1868 -- 1912 Taishō World War I 1912 -- 1926 Shōwa Financial crisis Militarism World War II Occupation Economic miracle Post-occupation Bubble Economy 1926 -- 1989 Heisei Lost Decade 1989 -- present Topics ( show ) Currency Earthquakes Economy Education Empire Historiography Military Naval Post-war Glossary Timeline The Pacific War , sometimes called the Asia - Pacific War , was the theater of World War II that was fought in the Pacific and Asia . It was fought over a vast area that included the Pacific Ocean and islands , the South West Pacific , South - East Asia , and in China ( including the 1945 Soviet -- Japanese conflict ) . The Second Sino - Japanese War between the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China had been in progress since 7 July 1937 , with hostilities dating back as far as 19 September 1931 with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria . However , it is more widely accepted that the Pacific War itself began on 7 / 8 December 1941 , when Japan invaded Thailand and attacked the British possessions of Malaya , Singapore , and Hong Kong as well as the United States military and naval bases in Hawaii , Wake Island , Guam and the Philippines . The Pacific War saw the Allies pitted against Japan , the latter briefly aided by Thailand and to a much lesser extent by the Axis allied Germany and Italy . The war culminated in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and other large aerial bomb attacks by the Allies , accompanied by the Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria on 9 August 1945 , resulting in the Japanese announcement of intent to surrender on 15 August 1945 . The formal surrender of Japan ceremony took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945 . Japan 's Shinto Emperor was forced to relinquish much of his authority and his divine status through the Shinto Directive in order to pave the way for extensive cultural and political reforms . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 1.1 Names for the war 1.2 Participants 1.3 Theaters 2 Historical background 2.1 Conflict between China and Japan 2.2 Tensions between Japan and the West 2.3 Japanese preparations 3 Japanese offensives , 1941 -- 42 3.1 Attack on Pearl Harbor 3.2 South - East Asian campaigns of 1941 -- 42 3.3 Threat to Australia 4 Allies re-group , 1942 -- 43 4.1 Coral Sea 4.2 Midway 4.3 New Guinea and the Solomons 4.3. 1 Guadalcanal 4.4 Allied advances in New Guinea and the Solomons 5 Stalemate in China and Southeast Asia 5.1 China 1942 -- 1943 5.2 Burma 1942 -- 1943 6 Allied offensives , 1943 -- 44 6.1 Cairo Conference 6.2 Submarine warfare 7 Japanese counteroffensives in China , 1944 8 Japanese offensive in India , 1944 9 Beginning of the end in the Pacific , 1944 9.1 The Marianas and the Philippine Sea 9.2 Leyte Gulf , 1944 9.3 Philippines , 1944 -- 45 10 Final stages 10.1 Iwo Jima , February 1945 10.2 Allied offensives in Burma , 1944 -- 45 10.3 Borneo , 1945 10.4 China , 1945 10.5 Okinawa 10.6 Landings in the Japanese home islands 10.7 Atomic bombs 10.8 Soviet invasion of Manchuria 10.9 Surrender 11 Casualties 11.1 Allied 11.2 Axis 11.3 War crimes 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 14.1 Citations 14.2 Sources 15 Further reading 16 External links Overview ( edit ) Names for the War ( edit ) Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek , Allied Commander - in - Chief in the China theatre from 1942 to 1945 In Allied countries during the war , the `` Pacific War '' was not usually distinguished from World War II in general , or was known simply as the War against Japan . In the United States , the term Pacific Theater was widely used , although this was a misnomer in relation to the British campaign in Burma , the war in China and other activities within the Southeast Asian Theater . Japan used the name Greater East Asia War ( 大 東亜 戦争 , Dai Tō - A Sensō ) , as chosen by a cabinet decision on 10 December 1941 , to refer to both the war with the Western Allies and the ongoing war in China . This name was released to the public on 12 December , with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving their independence from the Western powers through armed forces of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere . Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan -- China Incident ( 日 支 事変 , Nisshi Jihen ) into the Greater East Asia War . During the Allied military occupation of Japan ( 1945 -- 52 ) , these Japanese terms were prohibited in official documents , although their informal usage continued , and the war became officially known as the Pacific War ( 太平洋 戦争 , Taiheiyō Sensō ) . In Japan , the Fifteen Years ' War ( 十 五 年 戦争 , Jūgonen Sensō ) is also used , referring to the period from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945 . Participants ( edit ) Political map of the Asia - Pacific region , 1939 Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek and General Joseph Stilwell , Allied Commander - in - Chief in the China theatre from 1942 -- 1945 The Axis states which assisted Japan included the authoritarian government of Thailand , which quickly formed a temporary alliance with the Japanese in 1941 , as the Japanese forces were already invading the peninsula of southern Thailand . The Phayap Army sent troops to invade and occupy northeastern Burma , which was former Thai territory that had been annexed by Britain much earlier . The official policy of the US government is that Thailand was not an ally of the Axis , and that the United States was not at war with Thailand . The policy of the US government ever since 1945 has been to treat Thailand not as a former enemy , but rather as a country which had been forced into certain actions by Japanese blackmail , before being occupied by Japanese troops . Thailand has been treated by the United States in the same way as such other Axis - occupied countries as Belgium , Czechoslovakia , Denmark , Greece , Norway , Poland , and the Netherlands . Also involved were the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo and Mengjiang ( consisting of most of Manchuria and parts of Inner Mongolia respectively ) , and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime ( which controlled the coastal regions of China ) . In preparation for the war against the United States , which would be decided at sea and in the air , Japan increased its naval budget as well as putting large formations of the Army and its attached air force under navy command . While formerly the IJA consumed the lion 's share of the state 's military budget due to the secondary role of the IJN in Japan 's campaign against China ( with a 73 / 27 split in 1940 ) , from 1942 to 1945 there would instead be a roughly 60 / 40 split in funds between the army and the navy . Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Formosa ( Taiwan ) . To a small extent , some Vichy French , Indian National Army , and Burmese National Army forces were active in the area of the Pacific War . Collaborationist units from Hong Kong ( reformed ex-colonial police ) , Philippines , Dutch East Indies ( the PETA ) and Dutch Guinea , British Malaya and British Borneo , Inner Mongolia and former French Indochina ( after the overthrow of Vichy French regime ) as well as Timorese militia also assisted Japanese war efforts . Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War . The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian and Pacific Oceans . The Italians had access to `` concession territory '' naval bases in China , while the Germans did not . After Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war , both navies had access to Japanese naval facilities . The major Allied participants were the United States , China , the United Kingdom ( including the armed forces of British India , the Fiji Islands , Samoa , etc . ) , Australia , the Commonwealth of the Philippines , the Netherlands ( as the possessor of the Dutch East Indies and the western part of New Guinea ) , New Zealand , and Canada , all of whom were members of the Pacific War Council . Mexico , Free France and many other countries also took part , especially forces from other British colonies . The Soviet Union fought two short , undeclared border conflicts with Japan in 1938 and 1939 , then remained neutral until August 1945 , when it joined the Allies and invaded the territory of Manchukuo , China , Inner Mongolia , the Japanese protectorate of Korea and Japanese - claimed islands such as Sakhalin . Theaters ( edit ) The Pacific War Council as photographed on 12 October 1942 . Pictured are representatives from the United States ( seated ) , China , the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , New Zealand , and the Philippine Commonwealth . Between 1942 and 1945 , there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War : China , the Central Pacific , South - East Asia and the South West Pacific . US sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War : the Pacific theater and the China Burma India Theater ( CBI ) . However these were not operational commands . In the Pacific , the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands , known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area . In 1945 , for a brief period just before the Japanese surrender , the Soviet Union and its Mongolian ally engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China . Historical background ( edit ) Conflict between China and Japan ( edit ) Main article : Second Sino - Japanese War Chinese casualties of a mass panic during a June 1941 Japanese aerial bombing of Chongqing By 1937 , Japan controlled Manchuria and was ready to move deeper into China . The Marco Polo Bridge Incident on 7 July 1937 provoked full - scale war between China and Japan . The Nationalist and Communist Chinese suspended their civil war to form a nominal alliance against Japan , and the Soviet Union quickly lent support by providing large amount of materiel to Chinese troops . In August 1937 , Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek deployed his best army to fight about 300,000 Japanese troops in Shanghai , but , after three months of fighting , Shanghai fell . The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back , capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937 and conducted the Nanking Massacre . In March 1938 , Nationalist forces won their first victory at Taierzhuang . but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May . In June 1938 , Japan deployed about 350,000 troops to invade Wuhan and captured it in October . The Japanese achieved major military victories , but world opinion -- in particular in the United States -- condemned Japan , especially after the Panay incident . In 1939 , Japanese forces tried to push into the Soviet Far East from Manchuria . They were soundly defeated in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol by a mixed Soviet and Mongolian force led by Georgy Zhukov . This stopped Japanese expansion to the north , and Soviet aid to China ended as a result of the signing of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact at the beginning of its war against Germany . In September 1940 , Japan decided to cut China 's only land line to the outside world by seizing Indochina , which was controlled at the time by Vichy France . Japanese forces broke their agreement with the Vichy administration and fighting broke out , ending in a Japanese victory . On 27 September Japan signed a military alliance with Germany and Italy , becoming one of the three Axis Powers . In practice , there was little coordination between Japan and Germany until 1944 , by which time the US was deciphering their secret diplomatic correspondence . The war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian -- Zaoyang , 1st Battle of Changsha , Battle of Kunlun Pass and Battle of Zaoyi . After these victories , Chinese nationalist forces launched a large - scale counter-offensive in early 1940 ; however , due to its low military - industrial capacity , it was repulsed by the Imperial Japanese Army in late March 1940 . In August 1940 , Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; in retaliation , Japan instituted the `` Three Alls Policy '' ( `` Kill all , Burn all , Loot all '' ) in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists . By 1941 the conflict had become a stalemate . Although Japan had occupied much of northern , central , and coastal China , the Nationalist Government had retreated to the interior with a provisional capital set up at Chungking while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi . In addition , Japanese control of northern and central China was somewhat tenuous , in that Japan was usually able to control railroads and the major cities ( `` points and lines '' ) , but did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside . The Japanese found its aggression against the retreating and regrouping Chinese army was stalled by the mountainous terrain in southwestern China while the Communists organised widespread guerrilla and saboteur activities in northern and eastern China behind the Japanese front line . Japan sponsored several puppet governments , one of which was headed by Wang Jingwei . However , its policies of brutality toward the Chinese population , of not yielding any real power to these regimes , and of supporting several rival governments failed to make any of them a viable alternative to the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai - shek . Conflicts between Chinese communist and nationalist forces vying for territory control behind enemy lines culminated in a major armed clash in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation . Japanese strategic bombing efforts mostly targeted large Chinese cities such as Shanghai , Wuhan , and Chongqing , with around 5,000 raids from February 1938 to August 1943 in the later case . Japan 's strategic bombing campaigns devastated Chinese cities extensively , killing 260,000 -- 350,934 non-combatants . Tensions between Japan and the West ( edit ) From as early as 1935 Japanese military strategists had concluded the Dutch East Indies were , because of their oil reserves , of considerable importance to Japan . By 1940 they had expanded this to include Indochina , Malaya , and the Philippines within their concept of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere . Japanese troop build ups in Hainan , Taiwan , and Haiphong were noted , Imperial Japanese Army officers were openly talking about an inevitable war , and Admiral Sankichi Takahashi was reported as saying a showdown with the United States was necessary . In an effort to discourage Japanese militarism , Western powers including Australia , the United States , Britain , and the Dutch government in exile , which controlled the petroleum - rich Dutch East Indies , stopped selling oil , iron ore , and steel to Japan , denying it the raw materials needed to continue its activities in China and French Indochina . In Japan , the government and nationalists viewed these embargos as acts of aggression ; imported oil made up about 80 % of domestic consumption , without which Japan 's economy , let alone its military , would grind to a halt . The Japanese media , influenced by military propagandists , began to refer to the embargoes as the `` ABCD ( '' American - British - Chinese - Dutch `` ) encirclement '' or `` ABCD line '' . Faced with a choice between economic collapse and withdrawal from its recent conquests ( with its attendant loss of face ) , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters began planning for a war with the western powers in April or May 1941 . Japanese preparations ( edit ) Japan 's key objective during the initial part of the conflict was to seize economic resources in the Dutch East Indies and Malaya which offered Japan a way to escape the effects of the Allied embargo . This was known as the Southern Plan . It was also decided -- because of the close relationship between the UK and United States , and the belief the US would inevitably become involved -- Japan would also require taking the Philippines , Wake and Guam . Japanese planning was for fighting a limited war where Japan would seize key objectives and then establish a defensive perimeter to defeat Allied counterattacks , which in turn would lead to a negotiated peace . The attack on the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , with carrier - based aircraft of the Combined Fleet was to give the Japanese time to complete a perimeter . The early period of the war was divided into two operational phases . The First Operational Phase was further divided into three separate parts in which the major objectives of the Philippines , British Malaya , Borneo , Burma , Rabaul and the Dutch East Indies would be occupied . The Second Operational Phase called for further expansion into the South Pacific by seizing eastern New Guinea , New Britain , Fiji , Samoa , and strategic points in the Australian area . In the Central Pacific , Midway was targeted as were the Aleutian Islands in the North Pacific . Seizure of these key areas would provide defensive depth and deny the Allies staging areas from which to mount a counteroffensive . By November these plans were essentially complete , and were modified only slightly over the next month . Japanese military planners ' expectation of success rested on the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union being unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack because of the threat posed to each by Germany ; the Soviet Union was even seen as unlikely to commence hostilities . The Japanese leadership was aware that a total military victory in a traditional sense against the US was impossible ; the alternative would be negotiating for peace after their initial victories , which would recognize Japanese hegemony in Asia . In fact , the Imperial GHQ noted , should acceptable negotiations be reached with the Americans , the attacks were to be canceled -- even if the order to attack had already been given . The Japanese leadership looked to base the conduct of the war against America on the historical experiences of the successful wars against China ( 1894 -- 95 ) and Russia ( 1904 -- 05 ) , in both of which a strong continental power was defeated by reaching limited military objectives , not by total conquest . They also planned , should the United States transfer its Pacific Fleet to the Philippines , to intercept and attack this fleet en route with the Combined Fleet , in keeping with all Japanese Navy prewar planning and doctrine . If the United States or Britain attacked first , the plans further stipulated the military were to hold their positions and wait for orders from GHQ . The planners noted attacking the Philippines and Malaya still had possibilities of success , even in the worst case of a combined preemptive attack including Soviet forces . Japanese offensives , 1941 -- 42 ( edit ) Following prolonged tensions between Japan and the Western powers , units of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army launched simultaneous surprise attacks on Australian , British , Dutch and US forces on 7 December ( 8 December in Asia / West Pacific time zones ) . The locations of this first wave of Japanese attacks included : Hawaii , Malaya , Kingdom of Sarawak , Guam , Wake Island , Hong Kong , and the Philippines . Japanese forces also simultaneously invaded southern and eastern Thailand and were resisted for several hours , before the Thai government signed an armistice with Japan . Attack on Pearl Harbor ( edit ) Main article : Attack on Pearl Harbor USS Arizona burned for two days after being hit by a Japanese bomb in the attack on Pearl Harbor . In the early hours of 7 December ( Hawaiian time ) , Japan launched a major surprise carrier - based air strike on Pearl Harbor without explicit warning , which crippled the US Pacific Fleet , leaving eight American battleships out of action , 188 American aircraft destroyed , and 2,403 American citizens dead . At the time of the attack , the US was not officially at war anywhere in the world as the Japanese embassy failed to decipher and deliver the Japanese ultimatum to the American government before noon December 7 ( Washington time ) , which means that the people killed or property destroyed at Pearl Harbor by the Japanese attack had a non-combatant status . The Japanese had gambled that the United States , when faced with such a sudden and massive blow , would agree to a negotiated settlement and allow Japan free rein in Asia . This gamble did not pay off . American losses were less serious than initially thought : The American aircraft carriers , which would prove to be more important than battleships , were at sea , and vital naval infrastructure ( fuel oil tanks , shipyard facilities , and a power station ) , submarine base , and signals intelligence units were unscathed . Japan 's fallback strategy , relying on a war of attrition to make the US come to terms , was beyond the IJN 's capabilities . Before the attack on Pearl Harbor , the 800,000 - member America First Committee vehemently opposed any American intervention in the European conflict , even as America sold military aid to Britain and the Soviet Union through the Lend - Lease program . Opposition to war in the US vanished after the attack . On 8 December , the United States , the United Kingdom , Canada , and the Netherlands declared war on Japan , followed by China and Australia the next day . Four days after Pearl Harbor , Germany and Italy declared war on the United States , drawing the country into a two - theater war . This is widely agreed to be a grand strategic blunder , as it abrogated both the benefit Germany gained by Japan 's distraction of the US and the reduction in aid to Britain , which both Congress and Hitler had managed to avoid during over a year of mutual provocation , which would otherwise have resulted . South - East Asian campaigns of 1941 -- 42 ( edit ) HMS Prince of Wales ( left , front ) and HMS Repulse ( left , rear ) under attack by Japanese aircraft . A destroyer is in the foreground . British , Australian , and Dutch forces , already drained of personnel and matériel by two years of war with Germany , and heavily committed in the Middle East , North Africa , and elsewhere , were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle - hardened Japanese . The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war . Two major British warships , HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales , were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on 10 December 1941 . Thailand , with its territory already serving as a springboard for the Malayan Campaign , surrendered within 5 hours of the Japanese invasion . The government of Thailand formally allied with Japan on 21 December . To the south , the Imperial Japanese Army had seized the British colony of Penang on 19 December , encountering little resistance . Hong Kong was attacked on 8 December and fell on 25 December 1941 , with Canadian forces and the Royal Hong Kong Volunteers playing an important part in the defense . American bases on Guam and Wake Island were lost at around the same time . Following the Declaration by United Nations ( the first official use of the term United Nations ) on 1 January 1942 , the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell to American - British - Dutch - Australian Command ( ABDACOM ) , a supreme command for Allied forces in Southeast Asia . This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge force , albeit thinly spread over an area from Burma to the Philippines to northern Australia . Other areas , including India , Hawaii , and the rest of Australia remained under separate local commands . On 15 January , Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDACOM . Japanese battleships Yamashiro , Fusō and Haruna ( more distant ) In January , Japan invaded Burma , the Dutch East Indies , New Guinea , the Solomon Islands and captured Manila , Kuala Lumpur and Rabaul . After being driven out of Malaya , Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the Battle of Singapore , but were forced to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942 ; about 130,000 Indian , British , Australian and Dutch personnel became prisoners of war . The pace of conquest was rapid : Bali and Timor also fell in February . The rapid collapse of Allied resistance left the `` ABDA area '' split in two . Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on 25 February , handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of Commander - in - Chief , India . The Bombing of Darwin , Australia , 19 February 1942 Meanwhile , Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in Southeast Asia and were making attacks on northern Australia , beginning with a psychologically devastating but militarily insignificant attack on the city of Darwin on 19 February , which killed at least 243 people . At the Battle of the Java Sea in late - February and early - March , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force , under Admiral Karel Doorman . The Dutch East Indies campaign subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java and Sumatra . In March and April , a powerful IJN carrier force launched a raid into the Indian Ocean . British Royal Navy bases in Ceylon were hit and the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes and other Allied ships were sunk . The attack forced the Royal Navy to withdraw to the western part of the Indian Ocean . This paved the way for a Japanese assault on Burma and India . Surrender of US forces at Corregidor , Philippines , May 1942 In Burma , the British , under intense pressure , made a fighting retreat from Rangoon to the Indo - Burmese border . This cut the Burma Road , which was the western Allies ' supply line to the Chinese Nationalists . In March 1942 , the Chinese Expeditionary Force started to attack Japanese forces in northern Burma . On 16 April , 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division , led by Sun Li - jen . Cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists had waned from its zenith at the Battle of Wuhan , and the relationship between the two had gone sour as both attempted to expand their areas of operation in occupied territories . The Japanese exploited this lack of unity to press ahead in their offensives . Filipino and US forces resisted in the Philippines until 8 May 1942 , when more than 80,000 soldiers were ordered to surrender . By this time , General Douglas MacArthur , who had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific , had been withdrawn to Australia . The US Navy , under Admiral Chester Nimitz , had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean . This divided command had unfortunate consequences for the commerce war , and consequently , the war itself . Threat to Australia ( edit ) In late 1941 , as the Japanese struck at Pearl Harbor , most of Australia 's best forces were committed to the fight against Hitler in the Mediterranean Theatre . Australia was ill - prepared for an attack , lacking armaments , modern fighter aircraft , heavy bombers , and aircraft carriers . While still calling for reinforcements from Churchill , the Australian Prime Minister John Curtin called for American support with a historic announcement on 27 December 1941 : The Australian Government ... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies ' fighting plan . Without inhibitions of any kind , I make it clear that Australia looks to America , free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom . -- Prime Minister John Curtin Dutch and Australian PoWs at Tarsau , in Thailand in 1943 . 22,000 Australians were captured by the Japanese ; 8,000 died as prisoners of war . Australia had been shocked by the speedy collapse of British Malaya and Fall of Singapore in which around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war . Curtin predicted the `` battle for Australia '' would now follow . The Japanese established a major base in the Australian Territory of New Guinea in early 1942 . On 19 February , Darwin suffered a devastating air raid , the first time the Australian mainland had been attacked . Over the following 19 months , Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times . US General Douglas MacArthur , Commander of Allied forces in the South - West Pacific Area , with Australian Prime Minister John Curtin Two battle - hardened Australian divisions were steaming from the Mid-East for Singapore . Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma , but Curtin insisted on a return to Australia . In early 1942 elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed an invasion of Australia . The Imperial Japanese Army opposed the plan and it was rejected in favour of a policy of isolating Australia from the United States via blockade by advancing through the South Pacific . The Japanese decided upon a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby , capital of the Australian Territory of Papua which would put Northern Australia within range of Japanese bomber aircraft . President Franklin Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur in the Philippines to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942 . Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of MacArthur who became Supreme Commander , South West Pacific . MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia . Enemy naval activity reached Sydney in late May 1942 , when Japanese midget submarines launched a daring raid on Sydney Harbour . On 8 June 1942 , two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney 's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle . Allies re-group , 1942 -- 43 ( edit ) Japanese advance until mid-1942 In early 1942 , the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia - Pacific war council , based in Washington , D.C. A council was established in London , with a subsidiary body in Washington . However , the smaller powers continued to push for an American - based body . The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington , on 1 April 1942 , with President Franklin D. Roosevelt , his key advisor Harry Hopkins , and representatives from Britain , China , Australia , the Netherlands , New Zealand , and Canada . Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added . The council never had any direct operational control , and any decisions it made were referred to the US -- UK Combined Chiefs of Staff , which was also in Washington . Allied resistance , at first symbolic , gradually began to stiffen . Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor . American troops marching through snow and ice during the Battle of Attu Having accomplished their objectives during the First Operation Phase with ease , the Japanese now turned to the second . The Second Operational Phase planned to expand Japan 's strategic depth by adding eastern New Guinea , New Britain , the Aleutians , Midway , the Fiji Islands , Samoa , and strategic points in the Australian area . However , the Naval General Staff , the Combined Fleet , and the Imperial Army , all had different strategies on the next sequence of operations . The Naval General Staff advocated an advance to the south to seize parts of Australia . However , with large numbers of troops still engaged in China combined with those stationed in Manchuria facing the Soviet Union , the Imperial Japanese Army declined to contribute the forces necessary for such an operation , this quickly led to the abandonment of the concept . The Naval General Staff still wanted to cut the sea links between Australia and the United States by capturing New Caledonia , Fiji , and Samoa . Since this required far fewer troops , on March 13 the Naval General Staff and the Army agreed to operations with the goal of capturing Fiji and Samoa . The Second Operational Phase began well when Lae and Salamaua , located in eastern New Guinea , were captured on March 8 . However , on March 10 , American carrier aircraft attacked the invasion forces and inflicted considerable losses . The raid had major operational implications since it forced the Japanese to stop their advance in the South Pacific , until the Combined Fleet provided the means to protect future operations from American carrier attack . Concurrently , the Doolittle Raid occurred in April 1942 , where 16 bombers took off from the aircraft carrier USS Hornet , 600 miles ( 970 km ) from Japan . The raid inflicted minimal material damage on Japanese soil but was a huge morale boost for the United States , it also had major psychological repercussions in Japan , in exposing the vulnerabilities of the Japanese homeland . As the raid was mounted by a carrier task force , it consequently highlighted to the dangers the Japanese home islands could face until the destruction of the American carrier forces was achieved . With only Marcus Island and a line of converted trawlers patrolling the vast waters that separate Wake and Kamchatka , the Japanese east coast was left open to attack . Admiral Yamamoto now perceived that was it was essential to complete the destruction of the United States Navy , which had begun at Pearl Harbor . His proposal to achieve this was by attacking and occupying Midway Atoll an objective , which he assessed , the Americans would sure be certain to fight for as they would be forced to contest a Japanese invasion there since it was close enough to Hawaii . During a series of meetings held from April 2 - 5 , between the Naval General Staff and representatives of the Combined Fleet reached a compromise . Yamamoto got his Midway operation , but only after he had threatened to resign . In return , however , Yamamoto had to agree to two demands from the Naval General Staff both of which had implications for the Midway operation . In order to cover the offensive in the South Pacific , Yamamoto agreed to allocate one carrier division to the operation against Port Moresby . Yamamoto also agreed to include an attack to seize strategic points in the Aleutian Islands simultaneously with the Midway operation , these were enough to remove the Japanese margin of superiority in the coming Midway attack . Coral Sea ( edit ) Main article : Battle of the Coral Sea The aircraft carrier USS Lexington explodes on 8 May 1942 , several hours after being damaged by a Japanese carrier air attack . The attack on Port Moresby was codenamed the MO Operation and was divided into several parts or phases . In the first , Tulagi would be occupied on May 3 , the carriers would then conduct a wide sweep through the Coral Sea to find and attack and destroy Allied naval forces , with the landings conducted to capture Port Moresby scheduled for May 10 . The MO Operation featured a force of 60 ships led by the two carriers : Shōkaku and Zuikaku , one light carrier ( Shōhō ) , six heavy cruisers , three light cruisers , and 15 destroyers . Additionally , some 250 aircraft were assigned to the operation including 140 aboard the three carriers . However , the actual battle did not go according to plan , although Tulagi was seized on May 3 , the following day , aircraft from the American carrier Yorktown struck the invasion force . The element of surprise , which had present at Pearl Harbor , was now lost due to the success of Allied codebreakers who had discovered the attack would be against Port Moresby . From the Allied point of view if Port Moresby fell , the Japanese would control the seas to the north and west of Australia and could isolate the country . An Allied task force under the command of Admiral Fletcher , with the carriers USS Lexington and USS Yorktown was assembled to stop the Japanese advance . For the next two days , both the American and Japanese carrier forces tried unsuccessfully to locate each other . On May 7 , the Japanese carriers launched a full strike on a contact reported to be enemy carriers , the report though turned out to be false . The strike force found and struck only an oiler , the Neosho and the destroyer Sims . The American carriers also launched a strike with incomplete reconnaissance , instead of finding the main Japanese carrier force , they only located and sank the Shōhō . On May 8 , the opposing carrier forces finally found each other and exchanged air strikes . The 69 aircraft from the two Japanese carriers succeeded in sinking the carrier Lexington and damaging Yorktown , in return the Americans damaged the Shōkaku . Although Zuikaku was the left undamaged , aircraft and personnel losses to Zuikaku were heavy and the Japanese were unable to support a landing on Port Moresby . As a result , the MO Operation was cancelled , and the Japanese were subsequently forced to abandon their attempts to isolate Australia . Although they managed to sink a carrier , the battle was a disaster for the Japanese . Not only was the attack on Port Moresby halted , which constituted the first strategic Japanese setback of the war , but all three carriers that were committed to the battle would now be unavailable for the operation against Midway . The Battle of the Coral Sea was the first naval battle fought in which ships involved never sighted each other , with attacks solely by aircraft . After Coral Sea , the Japanese had four fleet carriers operational -- Sōryū , Kaga , Akagi and Hiryū -- and believed that the Americans had a maximum of two -- Enterprise and Hornet . Saratoga was out of action , undergoing repair after a torpedo attack , while Yorktown had been damaged at Coral Sea and was believed by Japanese naval intelligence to have been sunk . She would , in fact , sortie for Midway after just three days ' of repairs to her flight deck , with civilian work crews still aboard , in time to be present for the next decisive engagement . Midway ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Midway Hiryū under attack by B - 17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers Admiral Yamamoto viewed the operation against Midway as the potentially decisive battle of the war which could would lead to the destruction of American strategic power in the Pacific , and subsequently open the door for a negotiated peace settlement with the United States , favorable to Japan . For the operation , the Japanese had only four carriers ; Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū and Hiryū . Through strategic and tactical surprise , the Japanese would knock out Midway 's air strength and soften it for a landing by 5,000 troops . After the quick capture of the island , the Combined Fleet would lay the basis for the most important part of the operation . Yamamoto hoped that the attack would lure the Americans into a trap , Midway was to be bait for the USN which would depart Pearl Harbor to counterattack after Midway had been captured . When the Americans arrived , he would concentrate his scattered forces to defeat them . An important aspect of the scheme was Operation AL , which was the plan to seize two islands in the Aleutians , concurrently with the attack on Midway . Contradictory to persistent myth , the Aleutian operation was not a diversion to draw American forces from Midway , the Japanese wanted the Americans to be drawn to Midway , rather than away from it . However , in May , Allied codebreakers discovered the planned attack on Midway . Yamamoto 's complex plan had no provision for intervention by the American fleet before the Japanese had expected them . Planned surveillance of the American fleet in Pearl Harbor by long - ranged seaplane did not happen as a result of an abortive identical operation in March . Planned detection of the American departure by submarine patrol line faltered on their late departure , a product of Nagumo 's hasty sortie . The battle began on June 3 , when American aircraft from Midway spotted and attacked the Japanese transport group 700 miles ( 1,100 km ) west of the atoll . On June 4 , the Japanese launched a 108 - aircraft strike on the island , the attackers brushing aside Midway 's defending fighters but failing to deliver a decisive blow to the island 's facilities . Most importantly , the strike aircraft based on Midway had already departed to attack the Japanese carriers , which had been spotted . This information was passed to the three American carriers and a total of 116 carrier aircraft , in addition to those from Midway , were on their way to attack the Japanese . The aircraft from Midway attacked , but failed to score a single hit on the Japanese . In the middle of these uncoordinated attacks , a Japanese scout aircraft reported the presence of an American task force , but it was not until later that the presence of an American carrier was confirmed . Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo , was put in a difficult tactical situation in which he had to counter continuous American air attacks and prepare to recover his Midway strike , while deciding whether to mount an immediate strike on the American carrier or wait to prepare a proper attack . After quick deliberation , he opted for a delayed but better - prepared attack on the American task force after recovering his Midway strike and properly arming aircraft . However , beginning at 10.22 am , American SBD Dauntlesses surprised and successfully attacked three of the Japanese carriers . With their decks laden with fully fueled and armed aircraft , Sōryū , Kaga , and Akagi were turned into blazing wrecks . A Japanese single carrier , Hiryū , remained operational , and launched an immediate counterattack . Both of her attacks hit Yorktown and put her out of action . Later in the afternoon , aircraft from the two remaining American carriers found and destroyed Hiryū . The crippled Yorktown , along with the destroyer Hammann , were both sunk by the Japanese submarine I - 168 . With the striking power of the Kido Butai having been destroyed , Japan 's offensive power was blunted . Early on the morning of June 5 , with the battle lost , the Japanese cancelled the Midway operation and the initiative in the Pacific was in the balance . Although losing four carriers , Parshall and Tully note losses at Midway did not radically degrade the fighting capabilities of Japanese naval aviation as a whole . New Guinea and the solomons ( edit ) Main articles : New Guinea campaign and Solomon Islands campaign Japanese land forces continued to advance in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . From July 1942 , a few Australian reserve battalions , many of them very young and untrained , fought a stubborn rearguard action in New Guinea , against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track , towards Port Moresby , over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges . The militia , worn out and severely depleted by casualties , were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force , returning from action in the Mediterranean theater . In early September 1942 Japanese marines attacked a strategic Royal Australian Air Force base at Milne Bay , near the eastern tip of New Guinea . They were beaten back by Allied ( primarily Australian Army ) forces . Guadalcanal ( edit ) Main article : Guadalcanal Campaign US Marines rest in the field during the Guadalcanal campaign in November 1942 . At the same time as major battles raged in New Guinea , Allied forces identified a Japanese airfield under construction at Guadalcanal . Sixteen thousand Allied infantry , primarily US Marines , made an amphibious landing to capture the airfield in August . With Japanese and Allied forces occupying various parts of the island , over the following six months both sides poured resources into an escalating battle of attrition on land , at sea , and in the sky . Most of the Japanese aircraft based in the South Pacific were redeployed to the defense of Guadalcanal . Many were lost in numerous engagements with the Allied air forces based at Henderson Field as well as carrier based aircraft . Meanwhile , Japanese ground forces launched repeated attacks on heavily defended US positions around Henderson Field , in which they suffered appalling casualties . To sustain these offensives , resupply was carried out by Japanese convoys , termed the `` Tokyo Express '' by the Allies . The convoys often faced night battles with enemy naval forces in which they expended destroyers that the IJN could ill - afford to lose . Later fleet battles involving heavier ships and even daytime carrier battles resulted in a stretch of water near Guadalcanal becoming known as `` Ironbottom Sound '' from the multitude of ships sunk on both sides . However , the Allies were much better able to replace these losses . Finally recognizing that the campaign to recapture Henderson Field and secure Guadalcanal had simply become too costly to continue , the Japanese evacuated the island and withdrew in February 1943 . In the six month war of attrition , the Japanese had lost as a result of failing to commit enough forces in sufficient time . Allied advances in New Guinea and the solomons ( edit ) Australian commandos in New Guinea during July 1943 By late 1942 , Japanese headquarters decided to make Guadalcanal their priority . They ordered the Japanese on the Kokoda Track , within sight of the lights of Port Moresby , to retreat to the northeastern coast of New Guinea . Australian and US forces attacked their fortified positions and after more than two months of fighting in the Buna -- Gona area finally captured the key Japanese beachhead in early 1943 . In June 1943 , the Allies launched Operation Cartwheel , which defined their offensive strategy in the South Pacific . The operation was aimed at isolating the major Japanese forward base at Rabaul and cutting its supply and communication lines . This prepared the way for Nimitz 's island - hopping campaign towards Japan . Stalemate in China and Southeast Asia ( edit ) China 1942 -- 1943 ( edit ) Main article : Second Sino - Japanese War Chinese troops during the Battle of Changde in November 1943 In mainland China , the Japanese 3rd , 6th , and 40th Divisions , a grand total of around 120,000 troops , massed at Yueyang and advanced southward in three columns , attempting again to cross the Miluo River to reach Changsha . In January 1942 , Chinese forces scored a victory at Changsha , the first Allied success against Japan . After the Doolittle Raid , the Japanese army conducted the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign , with the goal of searching out the surviving American airmen , applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them , and destroying air bases . This operation started on 15 May 1942 with 40 infantry and 15 -- 16 artillery battalions , but was repelled by Chinese forces in September . During this campaign , the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and also spread cholera , typhoid , plague and dysentery pathogens . Chinese estimates put the death toll at 250,000 civilians . Around 1,700 Japanese troops died , out of a total 10,000 who fell ill when their biological weapons rebounded on their own forces . On 2 November 1943 , Isamu Yokoyama , commander of the Imperial Japanese 11th Army , deployed the 39th , 58th , 13th , 3rd , 116th and 68th Divisions , a total of around 100,000 troops , to attack Changde of China . During the seven - week Battle of Changde , the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly campaign of attrition . Although the Imperial Japanese Army initially successfully captured the city , the Chinese 57th Division was able to pin them down long enough for reinforcements to arrive and encircle the Japanese . The Chinese then cut Japanese supply lines , provoking a retreat and Chinese pursuit . During the battle , Japan used chemical weapons . Burma 1942 -- 1943 ( edit ) Main article : Burma Campaign 1942 -- 1943 In the aftermath of the Japanese conquest of Burma , there was widespread disorder and pro-Independence agitation in eastern India and a disastrous famine in Bengal , which ultimately caused up to 3 million deaths . In spite of these , and inadequate lines of communication , British and Indian forces attempted limited counter-attacks in Burma in early 1943 . An offensive in Arakan failed , ignominiously in the view of some senior officers , while a long distance raid mounted by the Chindits under Brigadier Orde Wingate suffered heavy losses , but was publicized to bolster Allied morale . It also provoked the Japanese to mount major offensives themselves the following year . In August 1943 the Allies formed a new South East Asia Command ( SEAC ) to take over strategic responsibilities for Burma and India from the British India Command , under Wavell . In October 1943 Winston Churchill appointed Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten as its Supreme Commander . The British and Indian Fourteenth Army was formed to face the Japanese in Burma . Under Lieutenant General William Slim , its training , morale and health greatly improved . The American General Joseph Stilwell , who also was deputy commander to Mountbatten and commanded US forces in the China Burma India Theater , directed aid to China and prepared to construct the Ledo Road to link India and China by land . Allied offensives , 1943 -- 44 ( edit ) The Allied leaders of the Asian and Pacific Theaters : Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Winston Churchill meeting at the Cairo Conference in 1943 Allied attack routes against the Empire of Japan Midway proved to be the last great naval battle for two years . The United States used the ensuing period to turn its vast industrial potential into increased numbers of ships , planes , and trained aircrew . At the same time , Japan , lacking an adequate industrial base or technological strategy , a good aircrew training program , or adequate naval resources and commerce defense , fell further and further behind . In strategic terms the Allies began a long movement across the Pacific , seizing one island base after another . Not every Japanese stronghold had to be captured ; some , like Truk , Rabaul , and Formosa , were neutralized by air attack and bypassed . The goal was to get close to Japan itself , then launch massive strategic air attacks , improve the submarine blockade , and finally ( only if necessary ) execute an invasion . In November 1943 US Marines sustained high casualties when they overwhelmed the 4,500 - strong garrison at Tarawa . This helped the Allies to improve the techniques of amphibious landings , learning from their mistakes and implementing changes such as thorough pre-emptive bombings and bombardment , more careful planning regarding tides and landing craft schedules , and better overall coordination . The US Navy did not seek out the Japanese fleet for a decisive battle , as Mahanian doctrine would suggest ( and as Japan hoped ) ; the Allied advance could only be stopped by a Japanese naval attack , which oil shortages ( induced by submarine attack ) made impossible . Cairo Conference ( edit ) On 22 November 1943 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and ROC Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek , met in Cairo , Egypt , to discuss a strategy to defeat Japan . The meeting was also known as the Cairo Conference and concluded with the Cairo Declaration . Submarine warfare ( edit ) Main article : Allied submarines in the Pacific War US submarines , as well as some British and Dutch vessels , operating from bases at Cavite in the Philippines ( 1941 -- 42 ) ; Fremantle and Brisbane , Australia ; Pearl Harbor ; Trincomalee , Ceylon ; Midway ; and later Guam , played a major role in defeating Japan , even though submarines made up a small proportion of the Allied navies -- less than two percent in the case of the US Navy . Submarines strangled Japan by sinking its merchant fleet , intercepting many troop transports , and cutting off nearly all the oil imports essential to weapons production and military operations . By early 1945 , Japanese oil supplies were so limited that its fleet was virtually stranded . The Japanese military claimed its defenses sank 468 Allied submarines during the war . In reality , only 42 American submarines were sunk in the Pacific due to hostile action , with 10 others lost in accidents or as the result of friendly fire . The Dutch lost five submarines due to Japanese attack or minefields , and the British lost three . The torpedoed Yamakaze , as seen through the periscope of an American submarine , Nautilus , in June 1942 American submarines accounted for 56 % of the Japanese merchantmen sunk ; mines or aircraft destroyed most of the rest . American submariners also claimed 28 % of Japanese warships destroyed . Furthermore , they played important reconnaissance roles , as at the battles of the Philippine Sea ( June 1944 ) and Leyte Gulf ( October 1944 ) ( and , coincidentally , at Midway in June 1942 ) , when they gave accurate and timely warning of the approach of the Japanese fleet . Submarines also rescued hundreds of downed fliers , including future US president George H.W. Bush . Allied submarines did not adopt a defensive posture and wait for the enemy to attack . Within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack , in retribution against Japan , Roosevelt promulgated a new doctrine : unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan . This meant sinking any warship , commercial vessel , or passenger ship in Axis - controlled waters , without warning and without aiding survivors . At the outbreak of the war in the Pacific , the Dutch admiral in charge of the naval defense of the East Indies , Conrad Helfrich , gave instructions to wage war aggressively . His small force of submarines sank more Japanese ships in the first weeks of the war than the entire British and US navies together , an exploit which earned him the nickname `` Ship - a-day Helfrich '' . While Japan had a large number of submarines , they did not make a significant impact on the war . In 1942 , the Japanese fleet submarines performed well , knocking out or damaging many Allied warships . However , Imperial Japanese Navy ( and pre-war US ) doctrine stipulated that only fleet battles , not guerre de course ( commerce raiding ) could win naval campaigns . So , while the US had an unusually long supply line between its west coast and frontline areas , leaving it vulnerable to submarine attack , Japan used its submarines primarily for long - range reconnaissance and only occasionally attacked US supply lines . The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia in 1942 and 1943 also achieved little . As the war turned against Japan , IJN submarines increasingly served to resupply strongholds which had been cut off , such as Truk and Rabaul . In addition , Japan honored its neutrality treaty with the Soviet Union and ignored American freighters shipping millions of tons of military supplies from San Francisco to Vladivostok , much to the consternation of its German ally . The I - 400 class , the largest non-nuclear submarines ever constructed The US Navy , by contrast , relied on commerce raiding from the outset . However , the problem of Allied forces surrounded in the Philippines , during the early part of 1942 , led to diversion of boats to `` guerrilla submarine '' missions . Basing in Australia placed boats under Japanese aerial threat while en route to patrol areas , reducing their effectiveness , and Nimitz relied on submarines for close surveillance of enemy bases . Furthermore , the standard - issue Mark 14 torpedo and its Mark VI exploder both proved defective , problems which were not corrected until September 1943 . Worst of all , before the war , an uninformed US Customs officer had seized a copy of the Japanese merchant marine code ( called the `` maru code '' in the USN ) , not knowing that the Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) had broken it . The Japanese promptly changed it , and the new code was not broken again by OP - 20 - G until 1943 . Thus , only in 1944 did the US Navy begin to use its 150 submarines to maximum effect : installing effective shipboard radar , replacing commanders deemed lacking in aggression , and fixing the faults in the torpedoes . Japanese commerce protection was `` shiftless beyond description , '' and convoys were poorly organized and defended compared to Allied ones , a product of flawed IJN doctrine and training -- errors concealed by American faults as much as Japanese overconfidence . The number of American submarines patrols ( and sinkings ) rose steeply : 350 patrols ( 180 ships sunk ) in 1942 , 350 ( 335 ) in 1943 , and 520 ( 603 ) in 1944 . By 1945 , sinkings of Japanese vessels had decreased because so few targets dared to venture out on the high seas . In all , Allied submarines destroyed 1,200 merchant ships -- about five million tons of shipping . Most were small cargo carriers , but 124 were tankers bringing desperately needed oil from the East Indies . Another 320 were passenger ships and troop transports . At critical stages of the Guadalcanal , Saipan , and Leyte campaigns , thousands of Japanese troops were killed or diverted from where they were needed . Over 200 warships were sunk , ranging from many auxiliaries and destroyers to one battleship and no fewer than eight carriers . Underwater warfare was especially dangerous ; of the 16,000 Americans who went out on patrol , 3,500 ( 22 % ) never returned , the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II . The Joint Army -- Navy Assessment Committee assessed US submarine credits . The Japanese losses , 130 submarines in all , were higher . Japanese counteroffensives in China , 1944 ( edit ) Main article : Operation Ichi - Go In mid-1944 Japan mobilized over 500,000 men and launched a massive operation across China under the code name Operation Ichi - Go , their largest offensive of World War II , with the goal of connecting Japanese - controlled territory in China and French Indochina and capturing airbases in southeastern China where American bombers were based . During this time , about 250,000 newly American - trained Chinese troops under Joseph Stilwell and Chinese expeditionary force were forcibly locked in the Burmese theater by the terms of the Lend - Lease Agreement . Though Japan suffered about 100,000 casualties , these attacks , the biggest in several years , gained much ground for Japan before Chinese forces stopped the incursions in Guangxi . Despite major tactical victories , the operation overall failed to provide Japan with any significant strategic gains . A great majority of the Chinese forces were able to retreat out of the area , and later come back to attack Japanese positions at the Battle of West Hunan . Japan was not any closer to defeating China after this operation , and the constant defeats the Japanese suffered in the Pacific meant that Japan never got the time and resources needed to achieve final victory over China . Operation Ichi - go created a great sense of social confusion in the areas of China that it affected . Chinese Communist guerrillas were able to exploit this confusion to gain influence and control of greater areas of the countryside in the aftermath of Ichi - go . Japanese offensive in India , 1944 ( edit ) Main article : Burma Campaign 1944 Chinese forces on M3A3 Stuart tanks on the Ledo Road British Indian troops during the Battle of Imphal After the Allied setbacks in 1943 , the South East Asia command prepared to launch offensives into Burma on several fronts . In the first months of 1944 , the Chinese and American troops of the Northern Combat Area Command ( NCAC ) , commanded by the American Joseph Stilwell , began extending the Ledo Road from India into northern Burma , while the XV Corps began an advance along the coast in the Arakan Province . In February 1944 the Japanese mounted a local counter-attack in the Arakan . After early Japanese success , this counter-attack was defeated when the Indian divisions of XV Corps stood firm , relying on aircraft to drop supplies to isolated forward units until reserve divisions could relieve them . The Japanese responded to the Allied attacks by launching an offensive of their own into India in the middle of March , across the mountainous and densely forested frontier . This attack , codenamed Operation U-Go , was advocated by Lieutenant General Renya Mutaguchi , the recently promoted commander of the Japanese Fifteenth Army ; Imperial General Headquarters permitted it to proceed , despite misgivings at several intervening headquarters . Although several units of the British Fourteenth Army had to fight their way out of encirclement , by early April they had concentrated around Imphal in Manipur state . A Japanese division which had advanced to Kohima in Nagaland cut the main road to Imphal , but failed to capture the whole of the defences at Kohima . During April , the Japanese attacks against Imphal failed , while fresh Allied formations drove the Japanese from the positions they had captured at Kohima . As many Japanese had feared , Japan 's supply arrangements could not maintain her forces . Once Mutaguchi 's hopes for an early victory were thwarted , his troops , particularly those at Kohima , starved . During May , while Mutaguchi continued to order attacks , the Allies advanced southwards from Kohima and northwards from Imphal . The two Allied attacks met on 22 June , breaking the Japanese siege of Imphal . The Japanese finally broke off the operation on 3 July . They had lost over 50,000 troops , mainly to starvation and disease . This represented the worst defeat suffered by the Imperial Japanese Army to that date . Although the advance in the Arakan had been halted to release troops and aircraft for the Battle of Imphal , the Americans and Chinese had continued to advance in northern Burma , aided by the Chindits operating against the Japanese lines of communication . In the middle of 1944 the Chinese Expeditionary Force invaded northern Burma from Yunnan . They captured a fortified position at Mount Song . By the time campaigning ceased during the monsoon rains , the NCAC had secured a vital airfield at Myitkyina ( August 1944 ) , which eased the problems of air resupply from India to China over `` The Hump '' . Beginning of the end in the Pacific , 1944 ( edit ) The Marianas and the Philippine Sea ( edit ) Main articles : Battle of Saipan and Battle of the Philippine Sea The Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku and two destroyers under attack in the Battle of the Philippine Sea On 15 June 1944 , 535 ships began landing 128,000 US Army and Marine Corps personnel on the island of Saipan in the Northern Marianas . The Allies aimed to establish airfields near enough the Japanese Home Islands , including Honshu , the location of Tokyo , to allow their bombing with the new Boeing B - 29 Superfortress . The ability to plan and execute such a complex operation in the space of 90 days was indicative of Allied logistical superiority . Japanese commanders saw holding Saipan as imperative . The only way to do so involved destroying the U.S. Fifth Fleet , which had 15 fleet carriers and 956 planes , 7 battleships , 28 submarines , and 69 destroyers , as well as several light and heavy cruisers . Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa attacked with nine - tenths of Japan 's fighting fleet , which included nine carriers with 473 planes , 5 battleships , several cruisers , and 28 destroyers . Ozawa 's pilots were outnumbered 2 : 1 and their aircraft were becoming or were already obsolete . The Japanese had considerable antiaircraft defenses but lacked proximity fuzes or good radar . With the odds against him , Ozawa devised an appropriate strategy . His planes had greater range because they were not weighed down with protective armor ; they could attack at about 480 km ( 300 mi ) , and could search a radius of 900 km ( 560 mi ) . U.S. Navy Hellcat fighters could attack only within 200 miles ( 320 km ) and search only within a 325 - mile ( 523 km ) radius . Ozawa planned to use this advantage by positioning his fleet 300 miles ( 480 km ) out . The Japanese planes would hit the U.S. carriers , land at Guam to refuel , then hit the enemy again when returning to their carriers . Ozawa also counted on about 500 land - based planes at Guam and other islands . Admiral Raymond A. Spruance had overall command of the U.S. Fifth Fleet . The Japanese plan would have failed if the much larger U.S. fleet had closed on Ozawa and attacked aggressively ; Ozawa correctly inferred Spruance would not attack . U.S. Admiral Marc Mitscher , in tactical command of Task Force 58 , with its 15 carriers , was aggressive , but Spruance vetoed Mitscher 's plan to hunt down Ozawa because Spruance 's orders made protecting the landings on Saipan his first priority . Marines fire captured mountain gun during the attack on Garapan , Saipan , 21 June 1944 . The forces converged in the largest sea - battle of World War II up to that point - the Battle of the Philippine Sea ( 19 -- 20 June 1944 ) . Over the previous month American destroyers had destroyed 17 of 25 submarines out of Ozawa 's screening force . Repeated US raids destroyed the Japanese land - based planes . Ozawa 's main attack lacked coordination , with the Japanese planes arriving at their targets in a staggered sequence . Following a directive from Nimitz , the US carriers all had combat - information centers , which interpreted the flow of radar data and radioed interception orders to the Hellcats . The result was later dubbed the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot . The few attackers to reach the US fleet encountered massive AA fire with proximity fuzes . Only one American warship was slightly damaged . On the second day , US reconnaissance planes located Ozawa 's fleet , 275 miles ( 443 km ) away , and submarines sank two Japanese carriers . Mitscher launched 230 torpedo planes and dive bombers . He then discovered the enemy was actually another 60 miles ( 97 km ) further off , out of aircraft range ( based on a roundtrip flight ) . Mitscher decided this chance to destroy the Japanese fleet was worth the risk of aircraft losses due to running out of fuel on the return flight . Overall , the US lost 130 planes and 76 aircrew ; however , Japan lost 450 planes , three carriers , and 445 aircrew . US aircraft had effectively destroyed the Imperial Japanese Navy 's carrier force . A month after the invasion of Saipan , the US recaptured Guam and captured Tinian . Once captured , the islands of Saipan and Tinian were used extensively by the United States military as they finally put mainland Japan within round - trip range of American B - 29 bombers . In response , Japanese forces attacked the bases on Saipan and Tinian from November 1944 to January 1945 . At the same time and afterwards , the United States Army Air Forces based out of these islands conducted an intense strategic bombing campaign against the Japanese cities of military and industrial importance , including Tokyo , Nagoya , Osaka , Kobe and others . Leyte Gulf , 1944 ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Leyte Gulf The Battle of Leyte Gulf was arguably the largest naval battle in history and was the largest naval battle of World War II . It was a series of four distinct engagements fought off the Philippine island of Leyte from 23 to 26 October 1944 . Leyte Gulf featured the largest battleships ever built , was the last time in history that battleships engaged each other , and was also notable as the first time that kamikaze aircraft were used . Allied victory in the Philippine Sea established Allied air and sea superiority in the western Pacific . Nimitz favored blockading the Philippines and landing on Formosa . This would give the Allies control of the sea routes to Japan from southern Asia , cutting off substantial Japanese garrisons . MacArthur favored an invasion of the Philippines , which also lay across the supply lines to Japan . Roosevelt adjudicated in favor of the Philippines . Meanwhile , Japanese Combined Fleet Chief Toyoda Soemu prepared four plans to cover all Allied offensive scenarios . On 12 October Nimitz launched a carrier raid against Formosa to make sure that planes based there could not intervene in the landings on Leyte . Toyoda put Plan Sho - 2 into effect , launching a series of air attacks against the US carriers . However the Japanese lost 600 planes in three days , leaving them without air cover . The four engagements in the Battle of Leyte Gulf Sho - 1 called for V. Adm. Jisaburō Ozawa 's force to use an apparently vulnerable carrier force to lure the US 3rd Fleet away from Leyte and remove air cover from the Allied landing forces , which would then be attacked from the west by three Japanese forces : V. Adm. Takeo Kurita 's force would enter Leyte Gulf and attack the landing forces ; R. Adm. Shōji Nishimura 's force and V. Adm. Kiyohide Shima 's force would act as mobile strike forces . The plan was likely to result in the destruction of one or more of the Japanese forces , but Toyoda justified it by saying that there would be no sense in saving the fleet and losing the Philippines . Kurita 's `` Center Force '' consisted of five battleships , 12 cruisers and 13 destroyers . It included the two largest battleships ever built : Yamato and Musashi . As they passed Palawan Island after midnight on 23 October the force was spotted , and US submarines sank two cruisers . On 24 October , as Kurita 's force entered the Sibuyan Sea , USS Intrepid and USS Cabot launched 260 planes , which scored hits on several ships . A second wave of planes scored many direct hits on Musashi . A third wave , from USS Enterprise and USS Franklin hit Musashi with 11 bombs and eight torpedoes . Kurita retreated but in the evening turned around to head for San Bernardino Strait . Musashi sank at about 19 : 30 . Meanwhile , V. Adm. Onishi Takijiro had directed his First Air Fleet , 80 land - based planes , against US carriers , whose planes were attacking airfields on Luzon . The carrier USS Princeton was hit by an armor - piercing bomb and suffered a major explosion which killed 108 crew ( out of 1,569 ) and 233 on the cruiser USS Birmingham which was fire - fighting alongside . Princeton sank , and Birmingham was forced to retire . Nishimura 's force consisted of two battleships , one cruiser and four destroyers . Because they were observing radio silence , Nishimura was unable to synchronize with Shima and Kurita . Nishimura and Shima had failed to even coordinate their plans before the attacks -- they were long - time rivals and neither wished to have anything to do with the other . When he entered the narrow Surigao Strait at about 02 : 00 , Shima was 22 miles ( 40 km ) behind him , and Kurita was still in the Sibuyan Sea , several hours from the beaches at Leyte . As they passed Panaon Island , Nishimura 's force ran into a trap set for them by the US - Australian 7th Fleet Support Force . R. Adm. Jesse Oldendorf had six battleships , four heavy cruisers , four light cruisers , 29 destroyers and 39 PT boats . To pass the strait and reach the landings , Nishimura had to run the gauntlet . At about 03 : 00 the Japanese battleship Fusō and three destroyers were hit by torpedoes and Fusō broke in two . At 03 : 50 the US battleships opened fire . Radar fire control meant they could hit targets from a much greater distance than the Japanese . The battleship Yamashiro , a cruiser and a destroyer were crippled by 16 - inch ( 406 mm ) shells ; Yamashiro sank at 04 : 19 . Only one of Nishimura 's force of seven ships survived the engagement . At 04 : 25 Shima 's force of two cruisers and eight destroyers reached the battle . Seeing Fusō and believing her to be the wrecks of two battleships , Shima ordered a retreat , ending the last battleship - vs - battleship action in history . Ozawa 's `` Northern Force '' had four aircraft carriers , two obsolete battleships partly converted to carriers , three cruisers and nine destroyers . The carriers had only 108 planes . The force was not spotted by the Allies until 16 : 40 on 24 October . At 20 : 00 Toyoda ordered all remaining Japanese forces to attack . Halsey saw an opportunity to destroy the remnants of the Japanese carrier force . The US Third Fleet was formidable -- nine large carriers , eight light carriers , six battleships , 17 cruisers , 63 destroyers and 1,000 planes -- and completely outgunned Ozawa 's force . Halsey 's ships set out in pursuit of Ozawa just after midnight . US commanders ignored reports that Kurita had turned back towards San Bernardino Strait . They had taken the bait set by Ozawa . On the morning of 25 October Ozawa launched 75 planes . Most were shot down by US fighter patrols . By 08 : 00 US fighters had destroyed the screen of Japanese fighters and were hitting ships . By evening , they had sunk the carriers Zuikaku , Zuihō , and Chiyoda , and a destroyer . The fourth carrier , Chitose , and a cruiser were disabled and later sank . The Japanese aircraft carriers Zuikaku , left , and ( probably ) Zuihō come under attack by dive bombers early in the battle off Cape Engaño . Kurita passed through San Bernardino Strait at 03 : 00 on 25 October and headed along the coast of Samar . The only thing standing in his path were three groups ( Taffy 1 , 2 and 3 ) of the Seventh Fleet , commanded by Admiral Thomas Kinkaid . Each group had six escort carriers , with a total of more than 500 planes , and seven or eight destroyers or destroyer escorts ( DE ) . Kinkaid still believed that Lee 's force was guarding the north , so the Japanese had the element of surprise when they attacked Taffy 3 at 06 : 45 . Kurita mistook the Taffy carriers for large fleet carriers and thought he had the whole Third Fleet in his sights . Since escort carriers stood little chance against a battleship , Adm. Clifton Sprague directed the carriers of Taffy 3 to turn and flee eastward , hoping that bad visibility would reduce the accuracy of Japanese gunfire , and used his destroyers to divert the Japanese battleships . The destroyers made harassing torpedo attacks against the Japanese . For ten minutes Yamato was caught up in evasive action . Two US destroyers and a DE were sunk , but they had bought enough time for the Taffy groups to launch planes . Taffy 3 turned and fled south , with shells scoring hits on some of its carriers and sinking one of them . The superior speed of the Japanese force allowed it to draw closer and fire on the other two Taffy groups . However , at 09 : 20 Kurita suddenly turned and retreated north . Signals had disabused him of the notion that he was attacking the Third Fleet , and the longer Kurita continued to engage , the greater the risk of major air strikes . Destroyer attacks had broken the Japanese formations , shattering tactical control . Three of Kurita 's heavy cruisers had been sunk and another was too damaged to continue the fight . The Japanese retreated through the San Bernardino Strait , under continuous air attack . The Battle of Leyte Gulf was over ; and a large part of the Japanese surface fleet destroyed . The battle secured the beachheads of the US Sixth Army on Leyte against attack from the sea , broke the back of Japanese naval power and opened the way for an advance to the Ryukyu Islands in 1945 . The only significant Japanese naval operation afterwards was the disastrous Operation Ten - Go in April 1945 . Kurita 's force had begun the battle with five battleships ; when he returned to Japan , only Yamato was combat - worthy . Nishimura 's sunken Yamashiro was the last battleship in history to engage another in combat . Philippines , 1944 -- 45 ( edit ) Main article : Philippines Campaign ( 1944 -- 45 ) General Douglas MacArthur wading ashore at Leyte On 20 October 1944 the US Sixth Army , supported by naval and air bombardment , landed on the favorable eastern shore of Leyte , north of Mindanao . The US Sixth Army continued its advance from the east , as the Japanese rushed reinforcements to the Ormoc Bay area on the western side of the island . While the Sixth Army was reinforced successfully , the US Fifth Air Force was able to devastate the Japanese attempts to resupply . In torrential rains and over difficult terrain , the advance continued across Leyte and the neighboring island of Samar to the north . On 7 December US Army units landed at Ormoc Bay and , after a major land and air battle , cut off the Japanese ability to reinforce and supply Leyte . Although fierce fighting continued on Leyte for months , the US Army was in control . On 15 December 1944 landings against minimal resistance were made on the southern beaches of the island of Mindoro , a key location in the planned Lingayen Gulf operations , in support of major landings scheduled on Luzon . On 9 January 1945 , on the south shore of Lingayen Gulf on the western coast of Luzon , General Krueger 's Sixth Army landed his first units . Almost 175,000 men followed across the twenty - mile ( 32 km ) beachhead within a few days . With heavy air support , Army units pushed inland , taking Clark Field , 40 miles ( 64 km ) northwest of Manila , in the last week of January . US troops approaching Japanese positions near Baguio , Luzon , 23 March 1945 Two more major landings followed , one to cut off the Bataan Peninsula , and another , that included a parachute drop , south of Manila . Pincers closed on the city and , on 3 February 1945 , elements of the 1st Cavalry Division pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila and the 8th Cavalry passed through the northern suburbs and into the city itself . As the advance on Manila continued from the north and the south , the Bataan Peninsula was rapidly secured . On 16 February paratroopers and amphibious units assaulted the island fortress of Corregidor , and resistance ended there on 27 February . In all , ten US divisions and five independent regiments battled on Luzon , making it the largest campaign of the Pacific war , involving more troops than the United States had used in North Africa , Italy , or southern France . Forces included the Mexican Escuadrón 201 fighter squadron as part of the Fuerza Aérea Expedicionaria Mexicana ( FAEM -- `` Mexican Expeditionary Air Force '' ) , with the squadron attached to the 58th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces that flew tactical support missions . Of the 250,000 Japanese troops defending Luzon , 80 percent died . The last Japanese soldier in the Philippines to surrender was Hiroo Onoda on 9 March 1974 . Palawan Island , between Borneo and Mindoro , the fifth largest and western-most Philippine Island , was invaded on 28 February with landings of the Eighth Army at Puerto Princesa . The Japanese put up little direct defense of Palawan , but cleaning up pockets of Japanese resistance lasted until late April , as the Japanese used their common tactic of withdrawing into the mountain jungles , dispersed as small units . Throughout the Philippines , US forces were aided by Filipino guerrillas to find and dispatch the holdouts . The US Eighth Army then moved on to its first landing on Mindanao ( 17 April ) , the last of the major Philippine Islands to be taken . Mindanao was followed by invasion and occupation of Panay , Cebu , Negros and several islands in the Sulu Archipelago . These islands provided bases for the US Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces to attack targets throughout the Philippines and the South China Sea . Final stages ( edit ) See also : End of World War II in Asia and Aftermath of World War II Iwo Jima location map Iwo Jima , February 1945 ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Iwo Jima The Battle of Iwo Jima ( `` Operation Detachment '' ) in February 1945 was one of the bloodiest battles fought by the Americans in the Pacific War . Iwo Jima is an 8 sq mile ( 21 km ) island situated halfway between Tokyo and the Mariana Islands . Holland Smith , the commander of the invasion force , aimed to capture the island and prevent its use as an early - warning station against air raids on the Japanese Home Islands , and to use it as an emergency landing field . Lt. General Tadamichi Kuribayashi , the commander of the defense of Iwo Jima , knew that he could not win the battle , but he hoped to make the Americans suffer far more than they could endure . From early 1944 until the days leading up to the invasion , Kuribayashi transformed the island into a massive network of bunkers , hidden guns , and 11 mi ( 18 km ) of underground tunnels . The heavy American naval and air bombardment did little but drive the Japanese further underground , making their positions impervious to enemy fire . Their pillboxes and bunkers were all connected so that if one was knocked out , it could be reoccupied again . The network of bunkers and pillboxes greatly favored the defender . Starting in mid-June 1944 , Iwo Jima came under sustained aerial bombardment and naval artillery fire . However , Kuribayashi 's hidden guns and defenses survived the constant bombardment virtually unscathed . On 19 February 1945 , some 30,000 men of the 3rd , 4th , and 5th Marine Divisions landed on the southeast coast of Iwo , just under Mount Suribachi ; where most of the island 's defenses were concentrated . For some time , they did not come under fire . This was part of Kuribayashi 's plan to hold fire until the landing beaches were full . As soon as the Marines pushed inland to a line of enemy bunkers , they came under devastating machine gun and artillery fire which cut down many of the men . By the end of the day , the Marines reached the west coast of the island , but their losses were appalling ; almost 2,000 men killed or wounded . On 23 February , the 28th Marine Regiment reached the summit of Suribachi , prompting the now famous Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima picture . Navy Secretary James Forrestal , upon seeing the flag , remarked `` there will be a Marine Corps for the next 500 years '' . The flag raising is often cited as the most reproduced photograph of all time and became the archetypal representation not only of that battle , but of the entire Pacific War . For the rest of February , the Americans pushed north , and by 1 March , had taken two - thirds of the island . But it was not until 26 March that the island was finally secured . The Japanese fought to the last man , killing 6,800 Marines and wounding nearly 20,000 more . The Japanese losses totaled well over 20,000 men killed , and only 1,083 prisoners were taken . Historians debate whether it was strategically worth the casualties sustained . Allied offensives in Burma , 1944 -- 45 ( edit ) Main article : Burma Campaign 1944 -- 45 British Royal Marines landing at Ramree In late 1944 and early 1945 , the Allied South East Asia Command launched offensives into Burma , intending to recover most of the country , including Rangoon , the capital , before the onset of the monsoon in May . The Indian XV Corps advanced along the coast in Arakan province , at last capturing Akyab Island after failures in the two previous years . They then landed troops behind the retreating Japanese , inflicting heavy casualties , and captured Ramree Island and Cheduba Island off the coast , establishing airfields on them which were used to support the offensive into Central Burma . The Chinese Expeditionary Force captured Mong - Yu and Lashio , while the Chinese and American Northern Combat Area Command resumed its advance in northern Burma . In late January 1945 , these two forces linked up with each other at Hsipaw . The Ledo Road was completed , linking India and China , but too late in the war to have any significant effect . The Japanese Burma Area Army attempted to forestall the main Allied attack on the central part of the front by withdrawing their troops behind the Irrawaddy River . Lieutenant General Heitarō Kimura , the new Japanese commander in Burma , hoped that the Allies ' lines of communications would be overstretched trying to cross this obstacle . However , the advancing British Fourteenth Army under Lieutenant General William Slim switched its axis of advance to outflank the main Japanese armies . During February , Fourteenth Army secured bridgeheads across the Irrawaddy on a broad front . On 1 March , units of IV Corps captured the supply centre of Meiktila , throwing the Japanese into disarray . While the Japanese attempted to recapture Meiktila , XXXIII Corps captured Mandalay . The Japanese armies were heavily defeated , and with the capture of Mandalay , the Burmese population and the Burma National Army ( which the Japanese had raised ) turned against the Japanese . During April , Fourteenth Army advanced 300 miles ( 480 km ) south towards Rangoon , the capital and principal port of Burma , but was delayed by Japanese rearguards 40 miles ( 64 km ) north of Rangoon at the end of the month . Slim feared that the Japanese would defend Rangoon house - to - house during the monsoon , which would commit his army to prolonged action with disastrously inadequate supplies , and in March he had asked that a plan to capture Rangoon by an amphibious force , Operation Dracula , which had been abandoned earlier , be reinstated . Dracula was launched on 1 May , to find that the Japanese had already evacuated Rangoon . The troops that occupied Rangoon linked up with Fourteenth Army five days later , securing the Allies ' lines of communication . The Japanese forces which had been bypassed by the Allied advances attempted to break out across the Sittaung River during June and July to rejoin the Burma Area Army which had regrouped in Tenasserim in southern Burma . They suffered 14,000 casualties , half their strength . Overall , the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma . Only 1,700 prisoners were taken . The Allies were preparing to make amphibious landings in Malaya when word of the Japanese surrender arrived . Borneo , 1945 ( edit ) Main article : Borneo campaign ( 1945 ) US LVTs land Australian soldiers at Balikpapan on 7 July 1945 The Borneo campaign of 1945 was the last major campaign in the South West Pacific Area . In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July , the Australian I Corps , under General Leslie Morshead , attacked Japanese forces occupying the island . Allied naval and air forces , centered on the US 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid , the Australian First Tactical Air Force and the US Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign . The campaign opened with a landing on the small island of Tarakan on 1 May . This was followed on 1 June by simultaneous assaults in the north west , on the island of Labuan and the coast of Brunei . A week later the Australians attacked Japanese positions in North Borneo . The attention of the Allies then switched back to the central east coast , with the last major amphibious assault of World War II , at Balikpapan on 1 July . Although the campaign was criticized in Australia at the time , and in subsequent years , as pointless or a `` waste '' of the lives of soldiers , it did achieve a number of objectives , such as increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the Dutch East Indies , capturing major oil supplies and freeing Allied prisoners of war , who were being held in deteriorating conditions . At one of the very worst sites , around Sandakan in Borneo , only six of some 2,500 British and Australian prisoners survived . China , 1945 ( edit ) Main articles : Battle of West Hunan and Second Guangxi Campaign By April 1945 , China had already been at war with Japan for more than seven years . Both nations were exhausted by years of battles , bombings and blockades . After Japanese victories in Operation Ichi - Go , Japan was losing the battle in Burma and facing constant attacks from Chinese Nationalist forces and Communist guerrillas in the country side . The Imperial Japanese Army began preparations for the Battle of West Hunan in March 1945 . Japanese mobilized 34th , 47th , 64th , 68th and 116th Divisions , as well as the 86th Independent Brigade , for a total of 80,000 men to seize Chinese airfields and secure railroads in West Hunan by early April . In response , the Chinese National Military Council dispatched the 4th Front Army and the 10th and 27th Army Groups with He Yingqin as commander - in - chief . At the same time , it airlifted the entire Chinese New 6th Corps , an American - equipped corps and veterans of the Burma Expeditionary Force , from Kunming to Zhijiang . Chinese forces totaled 110,000 men in 20 divisions . They were supported by about 400 aircraft from Chinese and American air forces . Chinese forces achieved a decisive victory and launched a large counterattack in this campaign . Concurrently , the Chinese managed to repel a Japanese offensive in Henan and Hubei . Afterwards , Chinese forces retook Hunan and Hubei provinces in South China . Chinese launched a counter offensive to retake Guangxi which was the last major Japanese stronghold in South China . In August 1945 , Chinese forces successfully retook Guangxi . Okinawa ( edit ) Main article : Battle of Okinawa USS Bunker Hill burns after being hit by two kamikazes . At Okinawa , the kamikazes caused 4,900 American deaths . The largest and bloodiest American battle came at Okinawa , as the US sought airbases for 3,000 B - 29 bombers and 240 squadrons of B - 17 bombers for the intense bombardment of Japan 's home islands in preparation for a full - scale invasion in late 1945 . The Japanese , with 115,000 troops augmented by thousands of civilians on the heavily populated island , did not resist on the beaches -- their strategy was to maximize the number of soldier and Marine casualties , and naval losses from Kamikaze attacks . After an intense bombardment the Americans landed on 1 April 1945 and declared victory on 21 June . The supporting naval forces were the targets for 4,000 sorties , many by Kamikaze suicide planes . US losses totaled 38 ships of all types sunk and 368 damaged with 4,900 sailors killed . The Americans suffered 75,000 casualties on the ground ; 94 % of the Japanese soldiers died along with many civilians . The British Pacific Fleet operated as a separate unit from the American task forces in the Okinawa operation . Its objective was to strike airfields on the chain of islands between Formosa and Okinawa , to prevent the Japanese reinforcing the defences of Okinawa from that direction . Landings in the Japanese home Islands ( edit ) Main article : Japan campaign Hard - fought battles on the Japanese home islands of Iwo Jima , Okinawa , and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides but finally produced a Japanese defeat . Of the 117,000 Japanese troops defending Okinawa , 94 percent died . Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots , the Japanese increased their use of kamikaze tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the Allies . The US Navy proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade and air raids . The mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 60,000 feet ( 18 km ) into the air on the morning of 9 August 1945 Towards the end of the war as the role of strategic bombing became more important , a new command for the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific was created to oversee all US strategic bombing in the hemisphere , under United States Army Air Forces General Curtis LeMay . Japanese industrial production plunged as nearly half of the built - up areas of 67 cities were destroyed by B - 29 firebombing raids . On 9 -- 10 March 1945 alone , about 100,000 people were killed in a conflagration caused by an incendiary attack on Tokyo . LeMay also oversaw Operation Starvation , in which the inland waterways of Japan were extensively mined by air , which disrupted the small amount of remaining Japanese coastal sea traffic . On 26 July 1945 , the President of the United States Harry S. Truman , the President of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai - shek and the Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill issued the Potsdam Declaration , which outlined the terms of surrender for the Empire of Japan as agreed upon at the Potsdam Conference . This ultimatum stated that , if Japan did not surrender , it would face `` prompt and utter destruction . '' Atomic bombs ( edit ) Main article : Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki On 6 August 1945 , the US dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in the first nuclear attack in history . In a press release issued after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , Truman warned Japan to surrender or `` ... expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth . '' Three days later , on 9 August , the US dropped another atomic bomb on Nagasaki , the last nuclear attack in history . More than 140,000 -- 240,000 people died as a direct result of these two bombings . The necessity of the atomic bombings has long been debated , with detractors claiming that a naval blockade and aerial bombing campaign had already made invasion , hence the atomic bomb , unnecessary . However , other scholars have argued that the bombings shocked the Japanese government into surrender , with Emperor finally indicating his wish to stop the war . Another argument in favor of the atomic bombs is that they helped avoid Operation Downfall , or a prolonged blockade and bombing campaign , any of which would have exacted much higher casualties among Japanese civilians . Historian Richard B. Frank wrote that a Soviet invasion of Japan was never likely because they had insufficient naval capability to mount an amphibious invasion of Hokkaidō . Soviet invasion of Manchuria ( edit ) Main articles : Soviet -- Japanese War and Soviet invasion of Manchuria Pacific Fleet marines of the Soviet Navy hoist the Soviet naval ensign in Port Arthur , on 1 October 1945 . On 3 February 1945 the Soviet Union agreed with Roosevelt to enter the Pacific conflict . It promised to act 90 days after the war ended in Europe and did so exactly on schedule on 9 August by invading Manchuria . A battle - hardened , one million - strong Soviet force , transferred from Europe , attacked Japanese forces in Manchuria and landed a heavy blow against the Japanese Kantōgun ( Kwantung Army ) . The Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation began on 9 August 1945 , with the Soviet invasion of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo and was the last campaign of the Second World War and the largest of the 1945 Soviet -- Japanese War which resumed hostilities between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Empire of Japan after almost six years of peace . Soviet gains on the continent were Manchukuo , Mengjiang ( Inner Mongolia ) and northern Korea . The USSR 's entry into the war was a significant factor in the Japanese decision to surrender as it became apparent the Soviets were no longer willing to act as an intermediary for a negotiated settlement on favorable terms . Surrender ( edit ) Main article : Surrender of Japan Douglas MacArthur signs the formal Japanese Instrument of Surrender on the USS Missouri , 2 September 1945 . The effects of the `` Twin Shocks '' -- the Soviet entry and the atomic bombings -- were profound . On 10 August the `` sacred decision '' was made by Japanese Cabinet to accept the Potsdam terms on one condition : the `` prerogative of His Majesty as a Sovereign Ruler '' . At noon on 15 August , after the American government 's intentionally ambiguous reply , stating that the `` authority '' of the emperor `` shall be subject to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers '' , the Emperor broadcast to the nation and to the world at large the rescript of surrender , ending the Second World War . Should we continue to fight , it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation , but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization . -- Emperor Hirohito , The Voice of the Crane : The Imperial Rescript of 15 August 1945 In Japan , 14 August is considered to be the day that the Pacific War ended . However , as Imperial Japan actually surrendered on 15 August , this day became known in the English - speaking countries as `` V-J Day '' ( Victory in Japan ) . The formal Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed on 2 September 1945 , on the battleship USS Missouri , in Tokyo Bay . The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers , with representatives of several Allied nations , from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu and Yoshijirō Umezu . Following this period , MacArthur went to Tokyo to oversee the postwar development of the country . This period in Japanese history is known as the occupation . Casualties ( edit ) Allied ( edit ) United States There were some 426,000 American casualties : 161,000 dead ( including 111,914 in battle and 49,000 non-battle ) , 248,316 wounded , and 16,358 captured ( not counting POWs who died ) . Material losses were 188 + warships including 5 battleships , 11 aircraft carriers , 25 cruisers , 84 destroyers and destroyer escorts , and 63 submarines , plus 21,255 aircraft . This gave the USN a 2 - 1 exchange ratio with the IJN in terms of ships and aircraft . The US protectorate in the Philippines suffered considerable losses . Military losses were 27,000 dead ( including POWs ) , 75,000 living POWs , and an unknown number wounded , not counting irregulars that fought in the insurgency . Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died due to either war - related shortages or Japanese war crimes . China According to official Chinese Nationalist statistics , losses to the regular National Revolutionary Army totaled 3,237,000 , with 1,320,000 killed 1,797,000 wounded 120,000 missing . The soldiers of the Chinese Communist Party suffered 584,267 casualties , of which 160,603 were killed , 133,197 missing , and 290,467 wounded . This would equate to a total of 3.82 million combined NRA / CCP casualties , of which 1.74 million were killed or missing . Neither total includes the considerable number of irregular guerrilla fighters sworn to regional warlords who fought the Japanese . Including them , an academic study published in the United States estimates Chinese military casualties at 6.75 million with 3.75 million killed or missing . The casualties break down as 1.5 million killed in battle , 750,000 missing in action , 1.5 million deaths due to disease and 3 million wounded . China suffered enormous civilian losses in the war . Estimates vary wildly , though there is a general consensus that civilian deaths were in the 17 to 22 million range , mostly from war - related causes such as famine . A large number of deaths were caused directly by Japanese war crimes . For instance , 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed in the `` Three Alls '' campaign . Commonwealth Between the Malayan Campaign ( 130,000 discounting some 20,000 Australians ) , Burma Campaign ( 86,600 ) , Battle of Hong Kong ( 15,000 ) , and various naval encounters , British Empire forces incurred some 235,000 casualties in the Pacific Theater , including roughly 82,000 killed ( 50,000 in combat and 32,000 as POWs ) The Royal Navy lost 23 warships in the Pacific and Indian oceans : 1 battleship , 1 battlecruiser , 1 aircraft carrier , 3 cruisers , 8 destroyers , 5 submarines , and 4 escorts . There were significant indirect losses to the British Empire territories of India and Burma as a result of the war . These included 3 million deaths in the Bengal famine of 1943 and 0.25 to 1 million deaths in British Burma . Australia incurred losses of 45,841 not including deaths and illnesses from natural causes such as disease : 17,501 killed ( including POW deaths in captivity ) , 13,997 wounded , and 14,345 living POWs . New Zealand lost 578 men killed , with an unknown number wounded or captured . 6 warships of the Royal Australian Navy totaling 29,391 tons were sunk : 3 cruisers ( Canberra , Perth , and Sydney ) , 2 destroyers ( Vampire and Voyager ) , and 3 corvettes ( Armidale , Geelong , and Wallaroo , the latter two in accidents ) . Other Between Lake Khasan , Khalkin Gol , advisors deployed to China , and the 1945 operations in Manchuria and the Kuriles , Soviet casualties against Japan totaled 68,612 : 22,731 killed / missing and 45,908 wounded . Material losses included some 1,000 tanks and AFVs , 5 landing ships , and 300 aircraft . Mongolian casualties were 753 . The entire 140,000 - strong Royal Dutch East Indies Army was killed , captured , or missing by the conclusion of the East Indies Campaign . 1,500 colonial and 900 Dutch soldiers were killed in action . Most of the colonial soldiers were freed on the spot or deserted . Of the ethnic Dutch troops , 900 were killed in action and 37,000 became prisoners . 8,500 of these POWs would die in Japanese captivity . Dutch naval losses in the Pacific numbered 14 major warships and 14 minor ones totaling some 40,427 tons : 2 cruisers ( Java and De Ruyter ) , 7 destroyers ( Evertsen , Kortenaer , Piet Hein , Witte de With , Banckert , Van Nes , and Van Ghent ) , 5 submarines ( K XVIII , K XVII , K XIII , KX , and K VII ) , 7 minelayers ( Prins van Oranje , Pro Patria , Bangkalan , Rigel , Soemenep , Krakatau , and Gouden Leeuw , most of which were scuttled ) , and 7 minesweepers ( A , B , D , C , Pieter de Bitter , Eland Dubois , and Jan van Amstel ) . About 30,000 Dutch and 300,000 Indonesia forced laborers died during the Japanese occupation of the East Indies , while 3 million Indonesian civilians perished in famines . Similar to the Dutch , the 65,000 - strong French colonial army in French Indochina ( 16,500 European French and 48,500 colonial ) disintegrated at the end of the Japanese invasion . 2,129 European French and 2,100 Indochinese colonial troops were killed , while 12,000 French and 3,000 colonial troops were kept as prisoners . 1 - 2 million deaths occurred under Japanese occupation in French Indochina , mostly due to the 1945 Vietnamese famine . Axis ( edit ) 800,000 Japanese civilians and over 2 million Japanese soldiers died during the war . According to a report compiled by the Relief Bureau of the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964 , combined Japanese Army and Navy deaths during the war ( 1937 -- 45 ) numbered approximately 2,121,000 men , mostly against either the Americans ( 1.1 + million ) in places such as the Solomons , Japan , Taiwan , the Central Pacific , and the Philippines , or against various Chinese factions ( 500,000 + ) , predominantly the NRA and CCP , during the war on the Chinese mainland , the Chinese resistance movement in Manchuria and Burma campaign . The losses were broken down as follows : Key : Location , Army dead , Navy dead , ( Total dead ) Japan Proper : 58,100 , 45,800 , ( 103,900 ) Bonin Islands : 2,700 , 12,500 , ( 15,200 ) Okinawa : 67,900 , 21,500 , ( 89,400 ) Formosa ( Taiwan ) : 28,500 , 10,600 , ( 39,100 ) Korea : 19,600 , 6,900 , ( 26,500 ) Sakhalin , the Aleutian , and Kuril Islands : 8,200 , 3,200 , ( 11,400 ) Manchuria : 45,900 , 800 , ( 46,700 ) China ( inc . Hong Kong ) : 435,600 , 20,100 , ( 455,700 ) Siberia : 52,300 , 400 , ( 52,700 ) Central Pacific : 95,800 , 151,400 , ( 247,200 ) Philippines : 377,500 , 121,100 , ( 498,600 ) French Indochina : 7,900 , 4,500 , ( 12,400 ) Thailand : 6,900 , 100 , ( 7,000 ) Burma ( inc . India ) : 163,000 , 1,500 , ( 164,500 ) Malaya & Singapore : 8,500 , 2,900 , ( 11,400 ) Andaman & Nicobar Islands : 900 , 1,500 , ( 2,400 ) Sumatra : 2,700 , 500 , ( 3,200 ) Java : 2,700 , 3,800 , ( 6,500 ) Lesser Sundas : 51,800 , 1,200 , ( 53,000 ) Borneo : 11,300 , 6,700 , ( 18,000 ) Celebes : 1,500 , 4,000 , ( 5,500 ) Moluccas : 2,600 , 1,800 , ( 4,400 ) New Guinea : 112,400 , 15,200 , ( 127,600 ) Bismarck Archipelago : 19,700 , 10,800 , ( 30,500 ) Solomon Islands : 63,200 , 25,000 , ( 88,200 ) Total : 1,647,200 , 473,800 , ( 2,121,000 ) The IJN lost over 341 warships , including 11 battleships , 25 aircraft carriers , 39 cruisers , 135 destroyers , and 131 submarines , almost entirely in action against the United States Navy . The IJN and IJA together lost some 45,125 aircraft . Japan 's ally Germany lost 10 submarines and four auxiliary cruisers ( Thor , Michel , Pinguin , and Kormoran ) in the Indian and Pacific oceans . These four alone sank 420,467 gross tons of Allied shipping . War crimes ( edit ) Further information : List of war crimes § 1939 -- 1945 : World War II , Japanese war crimes , International Military Tribunal for the Far East , and Allied war crimes during World War II § Asia and the Pacific War Australian POW moments before his execution On 7 December 1941 , 2,403 non-combatants ( 2,335 neutral military personnel and 68 civilians ) were killed and 1,247 wounded during the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor . Because the attack happened without a declaration of war or explicit warning , it was judged by the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime . During the Pacific War , Japanese soldiers killed millions of non-combatants , including prisoners of war , from surrounding nations . At least 20 million Chinese died during the Second Sino - Japanese War ( 1937 -- 1945 ) . Unit 731 was one example of wartime atrocities committed on a civilian population during World War II , where experiments were performed on thousands of Chinese and Korean civilians as well as Allied prisoners of war . In military campaigns , the Imperial Japanese Army used biological weapons and chemical weapons on the Chinese , killing around 400,000 civilians . The Nanking Massacre is another example of atrocity committed by Japanese soldiers on a civilian population . Chinese corpses in a ditch after being killed by the Imperial Japanese Army , Hsuchow According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal , the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 % , some seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians . The most notorious use of forced labour was in the construction of the Burma -- Thailand `` Death Railway . '' Around 1,536 U.S. civilians were killed or otherwise died of abuse and mistreatment in Japanese internment camps in the Far East ; in comparison , 883 U.S. civilians died in German internment camps in Europe . A widely publicised example of institutionalised sexual slavery are `` comfort women '' , a euphemism for the 200,000 women , mostly from Korea and China , who served in the Imperial Japanese Army 's camps during World War II . Some 35 Dutch comfort women brought a successful case before the Batavia Military Tribunal in 1948 . In 1993 , Chief Cabinet Secretary Yōhei Kōno said that women were coerced into brothels run by Japan 's wartime military . Other Japanese leaders have apologized , including former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi in 2001 . In 2007 , then - Prime Minister Shinzō Abe asserted : `` The fact is , there is no evidence to prove there was coercion . '' The Three Alls Policy ( Sankō Sakusen ) was a Japanese scorched earth policy adopted in China , the three alls being : `` Kill All , Burn All and Loot All '' . Initiated in 1940 by Ryūkichi Tanaka , the Sankō Sakusen was implemented in full scale in 1942 in north China by Yasuji Okamura . According to historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta , the scorched earth campaign was responsible for the deaths of `` more than 2.7 million '' Chinese civilians . The collection of skulls and other remains of Japanese soldiers by Allied soldiers was shown by several studies to have been widespread enough to be commented upon by Allied military authorities and US wartime press . Following the surrender of Japan , the International Military Tribunal for the Far East took place in Ichigaya , Tokyo from 29 April 1946 to 12 November 1948 to try those accused of the most serious war crimes . Meanwhile , military tribunals were also held by the returning powers throughout Asia and the Pacific for lesser figures . See also ( edit ) World War II portal War portal Japan portal Military of the United States portal European theatre of World War II Japanese holdouts Operation Downfall Pacific War campaigns Post -- World War II economic expansion Timeline WW II -- Pacific Theater Yasukuni Shrine Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ At war since 1937 Jump up ^ Complete list of nations that fought on the Allied side in the Pacific War : China , the United States , the United Kingdom ( including the Fiji Islands , the Straits Settlements and other colonial forces ) , Tonga ( a British protectorate ) , Australia ( including the Territory of New Guinea ) , the Commonwealth of the Philippines ( a United States protectorate ) , British India , the Netherlands ( including Dutch East Indies colonial forces ) , the Soviet Union , New Zealand , Canada , Mexico , and Mongolia . Free French Naval Forces contributed several warships , such as the Le Triomphant . After the Liberation of France , the French battleship Richelieu was sent to the Pacific . From 1943 , the commando group Corps Léger d'Intervention took part in resistance operations in Indochina . French Indochinese forces faced Japanese forces in a coup in 1945 . The commando corps continued to operate after the coup until liberation . Guerrilla organizations that fought for the Allies include the Chinese Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army , the Hukbalahap , the Malayan Peoples ' Anti-Japanese Army , the Manchurian Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies , the Korean Liberation Army , the Free Thai Movement and the Việt Minh . Jump up ^ Complete list of nations and groups that fought on the Axis side in the Pacific War : Japan ( including Thailand , the puppet government of Manchukuo , Mengjiang , Wang Jingwei regime , and other Chinese collaborationist governments and organizations , the State of Burma , the Provisional Government of Free India , the puppet Second Philippine Republic , and other states in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ) . The Vichy French allowed the Japanese to use bases in French Indochina beginning in 1941 following invasion . In addition , Germany and Italy both contributed small naval forces . Jump up ^ Strength of the US Military in Asia and the Pacific as of war 's end : Army : 1,770,036 , Navy ( excluding Coast Guard and Marines ) : 1,366,716 , and Marine Corps : 484,631 . These figures do not include the Coast Guard or naval personnel in the China - Burma - India theater . Jump up ^ These numbers do not include the Royal Netherlands Navy . Jump up ^ 111,914 battle deaths ( including 13,395 who died as POWs and 5,707 who died of wounds ) , 49,000 + non-battle deaths , 248,316 wounded , 16,358 captured and returned ) Jump up ^ Over 17 million Chinese civilian deaths ( 1937 -- 45 ) ; around 4 million civilian deaths from the Dutch East Indies ; 1 -- 2 million Indochinese civilians ; around 3 million Indian civilian deaths in the Bengal famine of 1943 ; 0.5 to 1 million Filipino civilian deaths ; 250,000 to 1,000,000 Burmese civilian deaths ; 50,000 East Timorese civilian deaths ; and hundreds of thousands of Malayan , Pacific and other civilian deaths Jump up ^ 2,133,915 Japanese military deaths 1937 -- 45 , 1.18 million Chinese collaborator casualties 1937 -- 45 ( 432,000 dead ) , 22,000 Burmese casualties , 5,600 Thai troops killed , and 2,615 Indian National Army ( Azad Hind ) killed / missing Jump up ^ 460,000 Japanese civilian deaths ( 338,000 in the bombings of Japan , 100,000 in the Battle of Okinawa , 22,000 in the Battle of Saipan ) , 543,000 Korean civilian deaths ( mostly due to Japanese forced labor projects ) , 2,000 -- 8,000 Thai civilian deaths Jump up ^ `` For fifty - three long months , beginning in July 1937 , China stood alone , single - handedly fighting an undeclared war against Japan . On 9 December 1941 , after Japan 's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor , China finally declared war against Japan . What had been for so long a war between two countries now became part of a much wider Pacific conflict . '' Jump up ^ : `` It was not an official term , but a term of incitement used by the Japanese media , under the guidance of the military , in order to stir up the Japanese people 's sense of crisis ... '' Jump up ^ The Neutrality Patrol had US destroyers fighting at sea , but no state of war had been declared by Congress . Jump up ^ The US thereby reversed its opposition to unrestricted submarine warfare . After the war , when moralistic doubts about Hiroshima and other raids on civilian targets were loudly voiced , no one criticized Roosevelt 's submarine policy . ( Two German admirals , Erich Raeder and Karl Dönitz , faced charges at the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials of violating international law through unrestricted submarine warfare ; the court acquitted them after they proved that Allied merchant ships were legitimate military targets under the rules in force at the time . ) Jump up ^ Chihaya went on to note that when the IJN belatedly improved its ASW methods , the US submarine force responded by increasing Japanese losses . References ( edit ) Citations ( edit ) Jump up ^ A Decade of American Foreign Policy 1941 -- 1949 Interim Meeting of Foreign Ministers , Moscow Archived 8 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine ... Retrieved 30 September 2009 . Jump up ^ Hastings p. 205 Jump up ^ Coakley and Leighton ( 1989 ) . Global Logistics and Strategy 1943 -- 1945 p. 836 Jump up ^ US Navy Personnel in World War II Service and Casualty Statistics , Naval History and Heritage Command Table 9 . Jump up ^ King , Ernest J. ( 1945 ) . Third Report to the Secretary of the Navy p. 221 Jump up ^ US Navy Personnel in World War II Service and Casualty Statistics , Naval History and Heritage Command Footnote 2 . ^ Jump up to : Hastings , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Beevor : The Second World War p. 776 . Total involved in Manchuria Jump up ^ `` Chapter 10 : Loss of the Netherlands East Indies '' . The Army Air Forces in World War II : Vol. 1 -- Plans & Early Operations . HyperWar . Retrieved 31 August 2010 . Jump up ^ Cook ( 1992 ) . Japan at War : an Oral History . New Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56584 - 039 - 3 . p. 403 . Japanese strength is given at 4,335,500 in the Home Islands and 3,527,000 abroad . Jump up ^ Harrison p. 29 Retrieved 10 March 2016 Jump up ^ Australia - Japan Research Project , `` Dispositions and Deaths '' Retrieved 10 March 2016 Jump up ^ Meyer , Milton Walter ( 1997 ) . Asia : A Concise History . Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield . p. 309 . ISBN 9780847680634 . Jump up ^ Jowett , pp. 72 Jump up ^ Hsu Long - hsuen `` History of the Sino - Japanese war ( 1937 -- 1945 ) '' Taipei 1972 Jump up ^ Clodfelter , Michael `` Warfare and Armed Conflicts : A Statistical Reference '' , Vol. 2 , pp. 956 . Jump up ^ C.E. Albertson , `` Beneath the Southern Cross '' p. xv Jump up ^ `` United States Dept. of the Army , Army Battle Casualties and Non Battle Deaths in World War II '' . Cgsc.cdmhost.com . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Michael Clodfelter . Warfare and Armed Conflicts -- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures , 1500 -- 2000 . 2nd Ed . 2002 ISBN 0 - 7864 - 1204 - 6 . p. 585 . Jump up ^ `` Chinese People Contribute to WWII '' . Retrieved 23 April 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Dower , John William ( 1987 ) , War Without Mercy : Race and Power in the Pacific War . Pantheon Jump up ^ `` Vietnam needs to remember famine of 1945 '' . Mailman.anu.edu.au . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Amartya Sen ( 1981 ) . Poverty and Famines : An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation . London : Oxford University Press . p. 203 . ISBN 9780195649543 . Jump up ^ Werner Gruhl , Imperial Japan 's World War Two , 1931 -- 1945 Transaction 2007 ISBN 978 - 0 - 7658 - 0352 - 8 . pp. 143 -- 44 . Jump up ^ Michael Clodfelter . Warfare and Armed Conflicts : A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures , 1500 -- 2000 . 2nd ed. 2002 ISBN 0 - 7864 - 1204 - 6 . p. 556 Jump up ^ McLynn , The Burma Campaign : Disaster into Triumph , 1942 -- 1945 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Ruas , Óscar Vasconcelos , `` Relatório 1946 -- 47 '' , AHU Jump up ^ Bren , John ( 3 June 2005 ) `` Yasukuni Shrine : Ritual and Memory '' Japan Focus . Retrieved on 5 June 2009 . Jump up ^ R.J. Rummel . China 's Bloody Century . Transaction 1991 ISBN 0 - 88738 - 417 - X . Table 5A Jump up ^ Eiji Murashima , `` The Commemorative Character of Thai Historiography : The 1942 -- 43 Thai Military Campaign in the Shan States Depicted as a Story of National Salvation and the Restoration of Thai Independence '' Modern Asian Studies , v40 , n4 ( 2006 ) pp. 1053 -- 96 , p. 1057n : Jump up ^ Michael Clodfelter . Warfare and Armed Conflicts -- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures , 1500 -- 2000 . 2nd Ed . 2002 ISBN 0 - 7864 - 1204 - 6 . p. 556 . Jump up ^ Statistics of Democide : Chapter 13 : Death By American Bombing , RJ Rummel , University of Hawaii . Jump up ^ Werner Gruhl , Imperial Japan 's World War Two , 1931 -- 1945 Transaction 2007 ISBN 978 - 0 - 7658 - 0352 - 8 p. 19 Jump up ^ E. Bruce Reynolds , `` Aftermath of Alliance : The Wartime Legacy in Thai - Japanese Relations '' , Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , v21 , n1 , March 1990 , pp. 66 -- 87 . `` An OSS document ( XL 30948 , RG 226 , USNA ) quotes Thai Ministry of Interior figures of 8,711 air raids deaths in 1944 -- 45 and damage to more than 10,000 buildings , most of them totally destroyed . However , an account by M.R. Seni Pramoj ( a typescript entitled ' The Negotiations Leading to the Cessation of a State of War with Great Britain ' and filed under Papers on World War II , at the Thailand Information Center , Chulalongkorn University , p. 12 ) indicates that only about 2,000 Thai died in air raids . '' Jump up ^ Williamson Murray , Allan R. Millett A War to be Won : Fighting the Second World War , Harvard University Press , 2001 , p. 143 Jump up ^ Roy M. MacLeod , Science and the Pacific War : Science and Survival in the Pacific , 1939 -- 1945 , Kluwer Academic Publishing , p. 1 , 1999 Jump up ^ Hsi - sheng Ch'i , in James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine , China 's Bitter Victory : The War with Japan 1937 -- 1945 , M.E. Sharpe , 1992 , p. 157 . Jump up ^ Youli Sun , China and the Origins of the Pacific War , 1931 -- 41 , Palgrave MacMillan , p. 11 Jump up ^ Drea 1998 , p. 26 . Jump up ^ John Costello , The Pacific War : 1941 -- 1945 , Harper Perennial , 1982 Jump up ^ Japan Economic Foundation , Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry , Volume 16 , 1997 Jump up ^ `` MacArthur orders end of Shinto as Japanese state religion '' . HISTORY.com . Retrieved 1 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Jansen 2002 , p. 626 . Jump up ^ `` The Effects of Strategic Bombing on Japan 's War Economy '' , United States Strategic Bombing Survey , Washington December 1946 , Table B - 2 . 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Inter-Allied Review . 15 December 1941 . Retrieved 3 October 2009 -- via Pearl Harbor History Associates Inc . Jump up ^ Peattie 2007 , pp. 168 -- 169 . Jump up ^ Brecher , Michael ; Wilkenfeld , Jonathan ( 1997 ) . A Study of Crisis . University of Michigan Press . p. 407 . ISBN 978 - 0472108060 . Jump up ^ Barber , Andrew ( 2010 ) . Penang At War : A History of Penang During and Between the First and Second World Wars 1914 -- 1945 . AB&B . ISBN 9789834337230 . Jump up ^ `` Remembering 1942 , The fall of Singapore , 15 February 1942 '' . Awm.gov.au . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Klemen , L ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` The capture of Bali Island , February 1942 '' . Forgotten Campaign : The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 -- 1942 . Jump up ^ Klemen , L ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` The Japanese Invasion of Dutch West Timor Island , February 1942 '' . Forgotten Campaign : The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 -- 1942 . See Battle of Timor . ^ Jump up to : Peattie 2007 , pp. 170 -- 172 . Jump up ^ Klemen , L ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` The Java Sea Battle , February 1942 '' . Forgotten Campaign : The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 -- 1942 . Jump up ^ Klemen , L ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` The conquest of Java Island , March 1942 '' . Forgotten Campaign : The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 -- 1942 . Jump up ^ Womack , Tom ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` An Abandoned Army -- The KNIL and The Japanese Invasion of Northern Dutch Sumatra '' . Dutch East Indies Campaign website . Jump up ^ Peattie 2007 , p. 172 . Jump up ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 377 . ^ Jump up to : Blair , Silent Victory Jump up ^ `` In office -- John Curtin -- Australia 's PMs -- Australia 's Prime Ministers '' . Primeministers.naa.gov.au . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Cited in Frank Crowley ( 1973 ) Vol 2 , p. 51 Jump up ^ `` Remembering the war in New Guinea -- Rabaul '' . Ajrp.awm.gov.au . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Remembering the war in New Guinea -- Were the Japanese going to invade ? '' . Ajrp.awm.gov.au. 19 February 1942 . Retrieved 20 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Midget Submarines history at '' . Home.st.net.au . Retrieved 29 April 2010 . Jump up ^ Stille 2014 , p. 30 . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 31 . Jump up ^ Jansen 2002 , p. 648 . ^ Jump up to : Willmott 1983 , p. 118 . Jump up ^ Stille 2014 , pp. 31 - 32 . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 32 . Jump up ^ Stille 2014 , pp. 32 - 34 . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 34 . Jump up ^ Evans & Peattie 1997 , p. 489 . Jump up ^ Parshall & Tully 2005 , p. 33 . Jump up ^ Parshall & Tully 2005 , pp. 19 - 38 . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 35 . Jump up ^ Willmott , Barrier and the Javelin ( Annapolis , 1983 ) . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 36 . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 37 . ^ Jump up to : Stille 2014 , p. 38 . Jump up ^ Parshall & Tully 2005 , pp. 417 . Jump up ^ Evans & Peattie 1997 , p. 490 . Jump up ^ Ch'i 1992 , p. 158 . Jump up ^ Schoppa , R. Keith ( 2011 ) . In a Sea of Bitterness , Refugees during the Sino - Japanese War . Harvard University Press . p. 28 . ISBN 9780674059887 . Jump up ^ Yuki Tanaka , Hidden Horrors , Westviewpres , 1996 , p. 138 Jump up ^ Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004 , p. 19 . Jump up ^ Croddy & Wirtz 2005 , p. 171 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chinese Victory : Changteh is Lost and Won in Battle Called Most Decisive in Three Years '' . LIFE : 45 . 21 February 1944 . Jump up ^ Philip J. Jaffe ( 1943 ) . Amerasia , Volume 7 . Amerasia , inc . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Agar , Jon Science in the 20th Century and Beyond , p. 281 . Jump up ^ Allen , Louis ( 1984 ) . Burma : The longest War . Dent Publishing . pp. 112 -- 116 . ISBN 0 - 460 - 02474 - 4 . Jump up ^ Evans & Peattie 1997 , p. 491 . Jump up ^ Theodore Roscoe , United States Submarine Operations in World War II ( US Naval Institute Press , 1949 ) . Jump up ^ Prange et al. Pearl Harbor Papers ^ Jump up to : Roscoe , Theodore . Pig Boats ( Bantam Books , 1958 ) ; Blair , Silent Victory , pp. 991 -- 992 . Jump up ^ `` Boats , '' www.dutchsubmarines.com Jump up ^ Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis , U.S. Submarines in World War II Jump up ^ TIME , Monday , 23 February 1942 ( 23 February 1942 ) . `` World Battlefronts : Dutchman 's Chance '' . Time . Jump up ^ David Stevens . Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942 -- 1944 . Retrieved 18 June 2007 . Jump up ^ Carl Boyd , `` The Japanese Submarine Force and the Legacy of Strategic and Operational Doctrine Developed Between the World Wars '' , in Larry Addington ed . Selected Papers from the Citadel Conference on War and Diplomacy : 1978 ( Charleston , 1979 ) 27 -- 40 ; Clark G. Reynolds , Command of the Sea : The History and Strategy of Maritime Empires ( 1974 ) 512 . Jump up ^ Farago , Ladislas . Broken Seal . Jump up ^ Chihaya Masataka , in Pearl Harbor Papers , p. 323 . Jump up ^ Blair , Silent Victory , pp. 359 -- 360 , 551 -- 552 , 816 . Jump up ^ RD Designs ( 7 December 1941 ) . `` Sinkings By Boat '' . Pigboats.com . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Japanese Naval and Merchant Vessels Sunk During World War II By All U.S. Submarines '' . Valoratsea.com . Archived from the original on 15 September 2012 . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Roscoe , op . cit . Jump up ^ Blair , p. 877 . Jump up ^ The Joint Army - Navy Assessment Committee ( February 1947 ) , Transcribed and formatted for HTML by Larry Jewell & Patrick Clancey , ed. , Japanese Naval and Merchant Shipping Losses During World War II by All Causes NAVEXOS P - 468 , Hyperwar project ed . Patrick Clancey Jump up ^ `` Operation Ichi - Go '' . Archived from the original on 17 November 2015 . Retrieved 6 December 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Davison , John The Pacific War : Day By Day , pp. 37 , 106 Jump up ^ 新聞 記者 が 語りつぐ 戦争 16 中国 慰霊 読売 新聞 社 ( 1983 / 2 ) p. 187 . Jump up ^ China at War : An Encyclopedia . Ed . Li Xiaobing . United States of America : ABC - CLIO. 2012 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59884 - 415 - 3 . Retrieved 21 May 2012 . p. 163 . Jump up ^ Bond , Tachikawa , p. 122 . Jump up ^ Stevens , p. 70 . Jump up ^ Blair , Clay , Jr . Silent Victory ( New York : Bantam , 1976 ) . Jump up ^ Morison , S.E. U.S. Navy in World War Two . Jump up ^ Peattie 2007 , pp. 188 -- 189 . Jump up ^ L , Klemen ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` Rear - Admiral Takeo Kurita '' . Forgotten Campaign : The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 -- 1942 . Jump up ^ Evans & Peattie 1997 , p. 492 . Jump up ^ Klemen , L. `` 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron '' . The Netherlands East Indies 1941 -- 1942 . 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron ^ Jump up to : `` Creating military power : the sources of military effectiveness '' . Risa Brooks , Elizabeth A. Stanley ( 2007 ) . Stanford University Press . p. 41 . ISBN 0 - 8047 - 5399 - 7 Jump up ^ Powers , D. ( 2011 ) : Japan : No Surrender in World War Two BBC History ( 17 February 2011 ) . Jump up ^ Robert S. Burrell , `` Breaking the Cycle of Iwo Jima Mythology : A Strategic Study of Operation Detachment , '' Journal of Military History Volume 68 , Number 4 , October 2004 , pp. 1143 -- 1186 and rebuttal in Project MUSE Jump up ^ Hsu & Chang 1971 , p. 457 . Jump up ^ Slim , William ( 1956 ) . Defeat into Victory . Cassell . pp. 468 -- 469 . ISBN 0 - 552 - 08757 - 2 . ^ Jump up to : `` Japanese prisoners of war '' . Philip Towle , Margaret Kosuge , Yōichi Kibata ( 2000 ) . Continuum International Publishing Group . pp. 47 -- 48 . ISBN 1 - 85285 - 192 - 9 . Jump up ^ Grey , Jeffrey ( 1999 ) . A Military History of Australia . Cambridge , England : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 64483 - 6 ... pp. 184 -- 186 . ^ Jump up to : Wilson , Dick . When Tigers Fight . New York , NY : The Viking Press , 1982 . p. 248 ^ Jump up to : Hsu & Chang 1971 , pp. 452 -- 457 . Jump up ^ `` National Revolutionary Army Order of Battle for the Battle of West Hunan '' . China Whampoa Academy Net . 11 September 2007 < http://www.hoplite.cn/Templates/hpjh0106.htm > . Jump up ^ Joseph H. Alexander , The final campaign : Marines in the victory on Okinawa ( 1996 ) short official history online Jump up ^ Hiromichi Yahara , The Battle For Okinawa ( 1997 ) , Japanese perspective excerpt and text search Jump up ^ Skates , James . Invasion of Japan . Jump up ^ `` Potsdam Declaration : Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender Issued , at Potsdam , July 26 , 1945 '' . National Science Digital Library . Jump up ^ `` PBS : Statement By The President '' . Retrieved 15 August 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Professor Duncan Anderson , 2005 , `` Nuclear Power : The End of the War Against Japan '' ( World War Two , BBC History website ) Access date : 11 September 2007 . Jump up ^ See , for example , Alperowitz , G. , The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb ( 1995 ; New York , Knopf ; ISBN 0 - 679 - 44331 - 2 ) for this argument . Jump up ^ Frank , Richard B. ( 2007 ) . Tsuyoshi Hasegawa , ed . The End of the Pacific War : Reappraisals . Stanford University Press . p. 89 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 5427 - 9 . Jump up ^ Battlefield S4 / E3 -- The Battle of Manchuria -- The Forgotten Victory . YouTube . 10 October 2012 . Retrieved 1 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Raymond L. Garthoff . The Soviet Manchurian Campaign , August 1945 . Military Affairs , Vol. 33 , No. 2 ( Oct. 1969 ) , pp. 312 -- 336 Jump up ^ Toland , John ( 2003 ) . The Rising Sun : the Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire . New York : Random House . p. 806 . ISBN 0 - 8129 - 6858 - 1 . Jump up ^ Sadao Asada . `` The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japan 's Decision to Surrender : A Reconsideration '' . The Pacific Historical Review , Vol. 67 , No. 4 ( Nov. 1998 ) , pp. 477 -- 512 . Jump up ^ Patrick Clancey . `` The Voice of the Crane : The Imperial Rescript of 15Aug45 '' . ibiblio . University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . Retrieved 27 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Chronology of Japanese Holdouts '' . Wanpela.com . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` United States Dept. of the Army , Army Battle Casualties and Non Battle Deaths in World War II '' . Cgsc.cdmhost.com . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Clofelter , p. 585 Jump up ^ Hara , p. 299 Jump up ^ www.navsource.org Retrieved 25 July 2015 ; www.uboat.net Retrieved 25 July 2015 ; Major British Warship Losses in World War II . Retrieved 25 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Gruhl , Werner ( 2007 ) . Imperial Japan 's World War Two . New Brunswick : Transaction Publishers . p. 65 . ISBN 9780765803528 . Jump up ^ Gruhl , p. 143 - 144 Jump up ^ Clodfelter , p. 956 Jump up ^ Meng Guoxiang & Zhang Qinyuan , 1995 . `` 关于 抗日 战争 中 我国 军民 伤亡 数字 问题 '' . Jump up ^ Ho Ping - ti . Studies on the Population of China , 1368 -- 1953 . Cambridge : Harvard University Press , 1959 . Jump up ^ Clodfelter , p. 956 Jump up ^ Himeta , Mitsuyoshi ( 1995 ) . 日本 軍 による 『 三光 政策 ・ 三光 作戦 をめぐって ( Concerning the Three Alls Strategy / Three Alls Policy By the Japanese Forces ) . Iwanami Bukkuretto . p. 43 . ISBN 978 - 4 - 00 - 003317 - 6 . Jump up ^ Corfield , Justin & Robin ( 2012 ) . The Fall of Singapore . Singapore : Talisman Books . ISBN 978 - 981 - 07 - 0984 - 6 . Page 743 . Jump up ^ Nesbit , The Battle for Burma pp. 240 Jump up ^ Banham , Tony ( 2005 ) . Not the Slightest Chance : The Defence of Hong Kong , 1941 . Hong Kong : Hong Kong University Press . Page 317 . Jump up ^ Kevin Blackburn , Karl Hack . `` Forgotten Captives in Japanese - Occupied Asia '' . 2007 . p. 4 . British Empire POWs are given a death rate of 25 % . Jump up ^ BRITISH LOSSES & LOSSES INFLICTED ON AXIS NAVIES . National Museum of the Royal Navy . Retrieved Feb. 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ McLynn , The Burma Campaign : Disaster into Triumph , 1942 -- 1945 , p. 1 . Jump up ^ Long ( 1963 ) , pp. 633 -- 34 Jump up ^ `` Honouring NZ 's Pacific War dead '' . Beehive. 15 August 2005 . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ BRITISH LOSSES & LOSSES INFLICTED ON AXIS NAVIES . National Museum of the Royal Navy . Retrieved Feb. 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ ( 12,031 killed and 24,425 wounded in the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria , 10,495 killed and 21,456 wounded in the 1938 Battle of Lake Khasan and 1939 Battles of Khalkhin Gol ) , 205 advisors killed in China . Jump up ^ Per `` Soviet Losses in the Khalkhin Gol Battle '' , losses at Khalkin Gol were : 30 BT - 7s , 27 BT - 7RTs , 2 BT - 7As , 127 BT - 5s , 30 BT - 5RTs , 8 T - 26s , 10 KhT - 26 S , 2 KhT - 130 S , 17 T - 37s , and 133 BA - 6 / BA - 10 armored cars . This does not include tanks that only sustained light to moderate damage , or ones lost due to mechanical failure . Jump up ^ Japanese Monograph no . 154 : Record of Operations against Soviet Russia , Eastern Front August 1945 Page 39 . Jump up ^ Russell , Richard A. , Project Hula : Secret Soviet - American Cooperation in the War Against Japan , Washington , D.C. : Naval Historical Center , 1997 , ISBN 0 - 945274 - 35 - 1 , pp. 30 -- 31 . Jump up ^ Coox , Alvin ( July 1973 ) . `` The Lake Khasan Affair of 1938 : Overview and Lessons '' . Soviet Studies . 25 ( 1 ) : 53 . Jump up ^ `` Russia and USSR in Wars of the 20th Century '' . И. И. Ивлев . Archived from the original on 5 May 2008 . Retrieved 11 July 2008 . Jump up ^ `` WORLD WAR II : THE DEFENSIVE PHASE '' , US Army Center Of Military History , p. 87 Jump up ^ Kevin Blackburn , Karl Hack . `` Forgotten Captives in Japanese - Occupied Asia '' . 2007 . p. 4 . Jump up ^ Allied War Losses . uboat.net . Retrieved Feb. 24 2018 . Jump up ^ United Nations , Economic and Social Council , Report of the Working Group for Asia and the Far East , Supp. 10 . 1947 pp. 13 -- 14 Jump up ^ Werner Gruhl , Imperial Japan 's World War Two , 1931 -- 1945 Transaction 2007 ISBN 978 - 0 - 7658 - 0352 - 8 , pp 19 , 143 Jump up ^ Marr , David G. ( 1995 ) . Vietnam 1945 : The Quest for Power . University of California Press . Page 61 . Jump up ^ Ishikida , Miki ( 2005 ) . Toward Peace : War Responsibility , Postwar Compensation , and Peace Movements and Education in Japan . iUniverse , Inc . ( July 13 , 2005 ) . p. 30 . ISBN 978 - 0595350636 . Retrieved March 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Figures were compiled by the Relief Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964 '' . Australia - Japan Research Project . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 10 . Jump up ^ Hara p. 297 - 299 Jump up ^ BRITISH LOSSES & LOSSES INFLICTED ON AXIS NAVIES . National Museum of the Royal Navy . Retrieved Feb. 24 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Yuma Totani ( 1 April 2009 ) . The Tokyo War Crimes Trial : The Pursuit of Justice in the Wake of World War II . Harvard University Asia Center . p. 57 . Jump up ^ Stephen C. McCaffrey ( 22 September 2004 ) . Understanding International Law . AuthorHouse . pp. 210 -- 229 . Jump up ^ `` Rummel , R.J. ' ' ' Statistics of Democide : Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900 ' ' ' Chapter 3 . LIT Verlag Münster - Hamburg - Berlin - Wien - London - Zürich ( 1999 ) '' . Hawaii.edu . Retrieved 31 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` BBC -- History -- World Wars : Nuclear Power : The End of the War Against Japan '' . bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 1 December 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Remember role in ending fascist war '' . Retrieved 6 December 2015 . Jump up ^ Christopher Hudson ( 2 March 2007 ) . `` Doctors of Depravity '' . Daily Mail . Jump up ^ Chapel , Joseph ( 2004 ) . `` Denial of the Holocaust and the Rape of Nanking '' . Jump up ^ U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II : The Issue of Compensation by Japan . Jump up ^ de Brouwer , Anne - Marie ( 2005 ) . Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence . Intersentia . p. 8 . ISBN 90 - 5095 - 533 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` No government coercion in war 's sex slavery : Abe '' , The Japan Times , 2 March 2007 . Jump up ^ Himeta , Mitsuyoshi ( 姫 田 光義 ) ( 日本 軍 による 『 三光 政策 ・ 三光 作戦 をめぐって 』 ) ( Concerning the Three Alls Strategy / Three Alls Policy By the Japanese Forces ) , Iwanami Bukkuretto , 1996 , Bix , Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan , 2000 . Jump up ^ `` Simon Harrison , Dark Trophies : hunting and the enemy body in modern war , Berghahn Booksl , 2012 Jump up ^ Dennis et al. 2008 , pp. 576 -- 577 . Jump up ^ McGibbon 2000 , pp. 580 -- 581 . Sources ( edit ) Bergerud , Eric M. ( 2000 ) . Fire in the Sky : The Air War in the South Pacific . Boulder , Colorado : Westview Press . ISBN 0 - 8133 - 3869 - 7 . Blair , Jr. , Clay . Silent Victory . Philadelphia : Lippincott , 1975 ( submarine war ) . Bond , Brian ; Tachikawa , Kyoichi ( 2004 ) . British and Japanese Military Leadership in the Far Eastern War , 1941 -- 1945 Volume 17 of Military History and Policy Series . Routledge . ISBN 9780714685557 . Buell , Thomas . Master of Seapower : A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King Naval Institute Press , 1976 . Buell , Thomas . The Quiet Warrior : A Biography of Admiral Raymond Spruance. 1974 . Ch'i , Hsi - Sheng ( 1992 ) . `` The Military Dimension , 1942 -- 1945 '' . In James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine . China 's Bitter Victory : War with Japan , 1937 -- 45 . Armonk , NY : M.E. Sharpe . ISBN 978 - 1 - 56324 - 246 - 5 . CS1 maint : Uses editors parameter ( link ) Channel 4 ( UK ) . Hell in the Pacific ( television documentary series ) . 2001 . Costello , John . The Pacific War . 1982 , overview Craven , Wesley , and James Cate , eds . The Army Air Forces in World War II . Vol. 1 , Plans and Early Operations , January 1939 to August 1942 . University of Chicago Press , 1958 . Official history ; Vol. 4 , The Pacific : Guadalcanal to Saipan , August 1942 to July 1944 . 1950 ; Vol. 5 , The Pacific : Matterhorn to Nagasaki. 1953 . Dennis , Peter ; Grey , Jeffrey ; Morris , Ewan ; Prior , Robin ; Bou , Jean ( 2008 ) . The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History ( Second ed . ) . Melbourne : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0195517849 . Drea , Edward J. ( 1998 ) . In the Service of the Emperor : Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army . Nebraska : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 1708 - 0 . Dunnigan , James F. , and Albert A. Nofi . The Pacific War Encyclopedia . Facts on File , 1998 . 2 vols . 772p . Evans , David C ; Peattie , Mark R ( 1997 ) . Kaigun : strategy , tactics , and technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1887 -- 1941 . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 - 87021 - 192 - 7 . Gailey , Harry A. ( 2011 ) . The War in the Pacific : From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay ( reprint , 1995 ed . ) . Random House Publishing Group . ISBN 0 - 307 - 80204 - 3 . Goldman , Stuart ( 2012 ) . Nomonhan , 1939 : The Red Army 's Victory That Shaped World War II . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 - 61251 - 098 - 1 . Gordon , David M. `` The China - Japan War , 1931 -- 1945 '' Journal of Military History ( January 2006 ) v 70 # 1 , pp 137 -- 82 . Historiographical overview of major books Seki , Eiji. ( 2006 ) . Mrs. Ferguson 's Tea - Set , Japan and the Second World War : The Global Consequences Following Germany 's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940 . London : Global Oriental . ISBN 978 - 1 - 905246 - 28 - 1 ( cloth ) ( reprinted by University of Hawaii Press ) , Honolulu , 2007 . previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy : A New Interpretation . Hara , Tameichi ( 2011 ) . Japanese Destroyer Captain . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59114 - 384 - 0 . Harrison , Simon ( 2012 ) . Dark Trophies . Hunting and the Enemy Body in Modern War . New York City : Berghahn Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85745 - 499 - 7 . Hastings , Max ( 2008 ) . Retribution . Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group . ISBN 978 - 0307263513 . Saburo Hayashi and Alvin Coox . Kogun : The Japanese Army in the Pacific War . Quantico , Virginia : Marine Corps Assoc. , 1959 . Hopkins , William B. ( 2010 ) . The Pacific War : The Strategy , Politics , and Players that Won the War . Zenith Press . ISBN 0 - 76033 - 975 - 9 . Hsiung , James C. and Steven I. Levine , eds . China 's Bitter Victory : The War with Japan , 1937 -- 1945 M.E. Sharpe , 1992 Hsi - sheng , Ch'i . Nationalist China at War : Military Defeats and Political Collapse , 1937 -- 1945 University of Michigan Press , 1982 Hsu Long - hsuen and Chang Ming - kai , History of The Sino - Japanese War ( 1937 -- 1945 ) , 2nd Ed. , 1971 . Translated by Wen Ha - hsiung , Chung Wu Publishing ; 33 , 140th Lane , Tung - hwa Street , Taipei , Taiwan Republic of China . Inoguchi , Rikihei , Tadashi Nakajima , and Robert Pineau . The Divine Wind . Ballantine , 1958 . Kamikaze . James , D. Clayton . The Years of MacArthur . Vol. 2 . Houghton Mifflin , 1972 . Jansen , Marius B. ( 2002 ) . The Making of Modern Japan . Cambridge , Mass : Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 00334 - 9 . Jowett , Phillip ( 2005 ) . Rays of the Rising Sun : Japan 's Asian Allies 1931 -- 1945 Volume 1 : China and Manchukuo . Helion and Company Ltd . ISBN 1 - 874622 - 21 - 3 . Kirby , S. Woodburn The War Against Japan . 4 vols . London : H.M.S.O. , 1957 -- 1965 . Official Royal Navy history . L , Klemen ( 1999 -- 2000 ) . `` Forgotten Campaign : The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941 -- 1942 '' . Leary , William M . We Shall Return : MacArthur 's Commanders and the Defeat of Japan . University Press of Kentucky , 1988 . Long , Gavin ( 1963 ) . The Final Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 -- 1945 . Series 1 -- Army . Volume 7 . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1297619 . Lundstrom , John B. ( 2005 ) . The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign : Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942 ( New ed . ) . Annapolis , Maryland : US Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 - 59114 - 472 - 8 . McCarthy , Dudley ( 1959 ) . South - West Pacific Area -- First Year . Australia in the War of 1939 -- 1945 . Series 1 -- Army . Volume 5 . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 3134247 . McGibbon , Ian , ed. ( 2000 ) . The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History . Auckland : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 558376 - 0 . Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1941 -- 1942 , United States Army Center of Military History , Washington , D.C. , 1990 Stille , Mark ( 2014 ) . The Imperial Japanese Navy in the Pacific War . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 1 - 47280 - 146 - 6 . Stevens , Keith ( 2005 ) . `` A Token Operation : 204 Military Mission to China , 1941 -- 1945 '' . Asian Affairs . Risk Management Reference Center , EBSCOhost. 36 ( 1 ) : 66 , 74 . doi : 10.1080 / 03068370500039151 . Miller , Edward S. ( 2007 ) . War Plan Orange : The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan , 1897 -- 1945 . US Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 - 59114 - 500 - 7 . Peattie , Mark R ( 2007 ) . Sunburst : The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power , 1909 -- 1941 . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 - 59114 - 664 - X . Samuel Eliot Morison , History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Vol. 3 , The Rising Sun in the Pacific . Boston : Little , Brown , 1961 ; Vol. 4 , Coral Sea , Midway and Submarine Actions. 1949 ; Vol. 5 , The Struggle for Guadalcanal. 1949 ; Vol. 6 , Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. 1950 ; Vol. 7 , Aleutians , Gilberts , and Marshalls. 1951 ; Vol. 8 , New Guinea and the Marianas. 1962 ; Vol. 12 , Leyte . 1958 ; vol. 13 , The Liberation of the Philippines : Luzon , Mindanao , the Visayas. 1959 ; Vol. 14 , Victory in the Pacific . 1961 . Takemae , Eiji ( 2003 ) . The Allied Occupation of Japan . Continuum Press . ISBN 0 - 82641 - 521 - 0 . Masatake Okumiya , and Mitso Fuchida . Midway : The Battle That Doomed Japan . Naval Institute Press , 1955 . Potter , E.B. and Chester W. Nimitz . Triumph in the Pacific . Prentice Hall , 1963 . Naval battles Potter , E.B. Bull Halsey Naval Institute Press , 1985 . Potter , E.B. Nimitz . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press , 1976 . Potter , John D. Yamamoto 1967 . Prange , Gordon W. Donald Goldstein , and Katherine Dillon . At Dawn We Slept . Penguin , 1982 . Pearl Harbor -- -- , et al. Miracle at Midway . Penguin , 1982 . -- -- , et al. Pearl Harbor : The Verdict of History . Sarantakes , Nicholas Evan . Allies against the Rising Sun : The United States , the British Nations , and the Defeat of Imperial Japan ( 2009 ) . 458pp . Seki , Eiji ( 2007 ) . Sinking of the SS Automedon And the Role of the Japanese Navy : A New Interpretation . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 1 - 905246 - 28 - 5 . Shaw , Henry , and Douglas Kane . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Vol. 2 , Isolation of Rabaul . Washington , D.C. : Headquarters , U.S. Marine Corps , 1963 Shaw , Henry , Bernard Nalty , and Edwin Turnbladh . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Vol. 3 , Central Pacific Drive . Washington , D.C. : Office of the Chief of Military History , 1953 . E.B. Sledge , With the Old Breed : At Peleliu and Okinawa . Presidio , 1981 . Memoir . Smith , J. Douglas , and Richard Jensen . World War II on the Web : A Guide to the Very Best Sites. ( 2002 ) Ronald Spector , Eagle Against the Sun : The American War with Japan Free Press , 1985 . John Toland , The Rising Sun . 2 vols . Random House , 1970 . Japan 's war . Ian W. Toll . Pacific Crucible : War at Sea in the Pacific , 1941 -- 1942 ( 2011 ) Parshall , Jonathan ; Tully , Anthony ( 2005 ) . Shattered Sword : The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway . Dulles , Virginia : Potomac Books . ISBN 1 - 57488 - 923 - 0 . Willmott , H.P. ( 2014 ) . Empires in the Balance : Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies to April 1942 ( reprint , 1982 ed . ) . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 - 612 - 51728 - 5 . Willmott , H.P. ( 1983 ) . The Barrier and the Javelin . Annapolis , Maryland : United States Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 - 87021 - 092 - 0 . Weinberg , Gerhard L. A World at Arms : A Global History of World War II , Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 44317 - 2 . ( 2005 ) . Y'Blood , William . Red Sun Setting : The Battle of the Philippine Sea . Annapolis , Maryland : Naval Institute Press , 1980 . Yenne , Bill ( 2014 ) . The Imperial Japanese Army : The Invincible Years 1941 -- 42 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 1 - 78200 - 982 - 5 . Harries , Meirion ; Harries , Susie ( 1994 ) . Soldiers of the Sun : The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 - 679 - 75303 - 6 . Tsuyoshi Hasegawa , The Soviet factor in ending the Pacific War ( 2003 ) Primary sources United States War Department . TM 30 - 480 Handbook On Japanese Military Forces , 1942 ( 1942 ) online ; 384pp ; highly detailed description of wartime IJA by U.S. Army Intelligence . Further reading ( edit ) Dean , Peter J. McArthur 's Coalition : US and Australian operations in the Southwest Pacific Area , 1942 - 1945 ( University Press of Kansas , 2018 ) Werner Gruhl ( 31 December 2011 ) . Imperial Japan 's World War Two : 1931 -- 1945 . Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4128 - 0926 - 9 . Judge , Sean M. et al . The Turn of the Tide in the Pacific War : Strategic Initiative , Intelligence , and Command , 1941 - 1943 ( University Press of Kansas , 2018 ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pacific War . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pacific War . `` The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia '' compiled by Kent G. 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"\n\nPacific War\n\n\nPart of World War II\n\n\n\nMap showing the main areas of the conflict and Allied landings in the Pacific, 1942–45\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDate\n\n7 December 1941 – 2 September 1945\n(3 years, 8 months, 3 weeks and 5 days)\n\n\n\nLocation\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEast Asia\nSouth Asia\nSoutheast Asia\nOceania\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWestern Pacific Oceana\nIndian Oceanb\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nResult\n\nAllied victory\n\nEnd of World War II\nFall of the Japanese Empire\nContinuation of the Chinese Civil War\nSubstantial weakening of European colonial powers and the gradual decolonization of Asia\n1951 Treaty of San Francisco\n1956 Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration\n\n\n\n\nTerritorial\nchanges\n\nAllied occupation of Japan\n\nRemoval of all Japanese troops occupying parts of the Republic of China and the retrocession of Taiwan to China\nLiberation of Korea and Manchuria from Japanese rule, followed by the division of Korea\nCession of all Japanese-held islands in the Central Pacific Ocean to the United Nations\nRemoval of all Japanese troops from the Australian-governed Solomon Islands and the territories of New Guinea and Papua\nSeizure and annexation of South Sakhalin and of the Kuril Islands by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\nTrust Territory of the Pacific Islands is placed under the authority of the United States of America. When the territory fell apart the US gained the territory of the Northern Mariana Islands.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBelligerents\n\n\n\nAllies[1]\n United States\n\n Philippines\n\n China[a]\n\n Chinese Communist Party\n\n United Kingdom\n\n India\n Burma\n Malaya\n\n Australia\n Canada\n New Zealand\n Netherlands\n\n Dutch East Indies\n\n Mexico\n Soviet Union\nand others [b]\n\nAxis\n Japan\n Thailand\n\nClient states[show]\n\n Manchukuo\n Mengjiang\n Nanjing Regime\n Azad Hind\n State of Burma\n Philippine Republic\n\n\nand others [c]\n\n\nCommanders and leaders\n\n\n\n\n\n Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941–45)\n Harry S. Truman (1945)\n Chiang Kai-shek\n Winston Churchill\n John Curtin\n W. L. Mackenzie King\n Peter Fraser\n A. T. van S. Stachouwer\n Joseph Stalin\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Hirohito\n Hideki Tōjō\n Plaek Phibunsongkhram\n\n\n\n\n\nStrength\n\n\n 14,000,000[2]\n 3,621,383+ (1945)[d]\n 2,000,000[7]\n 1,669,500 (1945)[8]\n 600,000\n 400,000[7]\n 140,000[9][e]\n 7,800,000–7,900,000 (1945)[10][11][12]\n 126,500[13]\n, , and others: ~1,000,000+ (1945)[14]\n\n\nCasualties and losses\n\n\n\n\n\nMilitary\n4,000,000+ dead (1937–45)\n\nBreakdown[show]\n\nAllied casualties 1937–1945:\n\n 3,237,000+[15][16]\n(not including allied irregulars)\n 584,267\n 425,588[f]\n 235,000\n 140,000\n 100,000+\n 68,612+\n 45,841\n 20,000+\n 753\n 578+\n\n\n\n\n\nCivilian deaths\n26,000,000+ (1937–45)[g]\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMilitary\n2,500,000+ dead (1937–45)[h]\nCivilian deaths\n1,000,000+[i]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\na Including its islands and neighboring countries\nb Partially and briefly\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"2 September 1945"
] |
-2382554262074893380 | The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay | The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay - wikipedia The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Jump to : navigation , search The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay North American cover Developer ( s ) Starbreeze Studios Tigon Studios Publisher ( s ) Vivendi Universal Games Producer ( s ) Lars Johansson Designer ( s ) Fredrik Ljungdahl Jens Andersson Programmer ( s ) Magnus Högdahl Artist ( s ) Jens Matthies Writer ( s ) Mikael Säker John Zuur Platten Flint Dille Platform ( s ) Xbox Windows Release June 1 , 2004 ( show ) Xbox NA : June 1 , 2004 EU : August 13 , 2004 Microsoft Windows EU : December 3 , 2004 NA : December 8 , 2004 Genre ( s ) Action - adventure , stealth Mode ( s ) Single - player The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay is a first - person action and stealth video game developed by Starbreeze Studios and published by Vivendi Universal Games . Released for the Xbox and Windows in 2004 , the game is a tie - in prequel to the futuristic science fiction film The Chronicles of Riddick . Actor Vin Diesel -- who was involved in the game 's development -- reprises his role as that film 's protagonist , Richard B. Riddick . The game follows Riddick , the anti-hero of the two films Pitch Black and The Chronicles of Riddick , as he attempts to escape from a maximum - security prison called Butcher Bay . Escape from Butcher Bay 's designers focused on exploring Riddick 's character in a prison break setting to differentiate the game from the film . The game 's influences include the film Escape from Alcatraz , and video games such as Half - Life and Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell . Escape from Butcher Bay was praised by critics , who lauded its graphics and its implementation of stealth , action and adventure elements . However , they commonly lamented its brevity and lack of multiplayer components . The game went on to win several accolades , including the Golden Joystick Award for Unsung Hero Game of the Year and the Spike Video Game Award for Best Game Based on a Movie . An enhanced remake of the game , included in The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , was released in 2009 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Gameplay 2 Plot 2.1 Setting and characters 2.2 Story 3 Development 3.1 Expanded remake 4 Reception 4.1 Awards and accolades 5 References 6 External links Gameplay ( edit ) Riddick in stealth mode , preparing to stab an enemy with a screwdriver In Escape from Butcher Bay , the player takes the role of Richard B. Riddick and attempts to break out of Butcher Bay prison . The game incorporates elements from video game genres such as first - person shooter , adventure and stealth , and is played primarily from a first - person perspective , though the camera switches to a third - person perspective during certain scenes . Unlike many first - person shooters , the game contains no head - up display ; on - screen cues are limited to flashes when a new weapon is selected , and small , white boxes that display the player character 's health when damage is taken . Health can be replenished in designated areas throughout the game . By finding cigarette packs hidden in levels , the player can unlock concept art and video files . The player may interact with and receive quests from the prison 's residents , and earns information , tools and other rewards by completing quests . Violent conflict often occurs between the player , inmates and prison guards . The player attacks with Riddick 's bare hands , or with improvised weapons such as shivs and clubs . Combos are created by stringing together punches . A DNA - scanning security system initially prevents Riddick from using firearms , but a limited arsenal later becomes available . A `` stealth mode '' is activated when the player character crouches , allowing the player to move silently and tinting the edges of the screen blue when the player is hidden . While in stealth mode , the player can drag bodies out of sight and hide from enemies . The mode grants attacks that quickly kill enemies ; the player may drop on enemies from above , or execute them from behind . During the game , Riddick acquires eyeshine , allowing him to see in the dark but temporarily blinding him if used in brightly lit areas . Plot ( edit ) Setting and characters ( edit ) Escape from Butcher Bay is set in the futuristic science fiction universe of the Chronicles of Riddick franchise , and is a prequel to the film Pitch Black . The game takes place inside Butcher Bay , a maximum - security prison from which no prisoner has escaped . The facility -- constructed on a barren planet -- contains three increasingly secure holding areas , and a subterranean mining operation . The game 's protagonist is Richard B. Riddick ( reprised by Vin Diesel ) , a murderer recently confined in Butcher Bay . Riddick is resourceful , and seeks to break out of the prison by any means necessary . His capturer is the bounty hunter William J. Johns ( Cole Hauser ) ; the two have had previous encounters . Butcher Bay 's warden is a man named Hoxie ( Dwight Schultz ) , while Abbott ( Xzibit ) is a prison guard disliked by the inmates . The inmate Pope Joe ( Willis Burks II ) is an insane old man , who lives in the sewer tunnels beneath the prison . Story ( edit ) The opening cinematic shows Riddick in hiding , having grown out his hair and beard , before the opening scene of the Chronicles of Riddick movie . He hunts an animal and after killing it , a disembodied voice starts talking to him asking him where he got his eyes . He states that he received them from a `` slam preacher '' and this causes him to remember his time at Butcher Bay . The game takes place in a flashback . Another opening cinematic takes place in which Riddick is being transported for collection on the bounty . He and Johns have a brief conversation in which Riddick tells Johns that there is no way he is going to get the price he wants . Riddick wakes up as they land and stands out front of Butcher Bay waiting for the warden . He sneaks up behind Johns and breaks his neck and proceeds to escape . After getting his hands on a gun , he goes through the ventilation ducts and seemingly escapes into the desert . Everything fades to white as Riddick hears Johns saying `` Rise and shine , Riddick . '' It turns out this escape was simply a dream . Riddick wakes up and Johns escorts him off the ship . Johns meets with Hoxie to negotiate his pay , while Abbott escorts Riddick to his cell in the `` single - max '' security area . After making enemies with and killing a gang leader named Rust , Riddick familiarizes himself with the facility , and soon instigates a riot ; during the confusion , he escapes into the prison 's sewer system . Armed with a shotgun and a dying flashlight , Riddick discovers he is not alone in the sewers . Fighting through the sewers against mutant `` dwellers '' , Riddick eventually meets Pope Joe , for whom he retrieves a lost radio , which Joe calls a blessed voicebox . A woman named Shirah ( Kristin Lehman ) tells Riddick that he `` has been blind too long '' , and he gains his trademark `` eyeshine '' night vision . Afterwards , he accuses Pope Joe of tampering with his eyes ; Joe says that he merely treated Riddick 's injured arm . Riddick then continues his escape , while using the eyeshine to his advantage . After emerging from a manhole in the showers of the guard living quarters , Riddick uses a guard uniform to blend in as he makes his way to the space port and his chance at escape . Realizing he requires a guard to get through the retinal scanner that locks the doors to the space port , Riddick decides to go after Abbott and take his eyes . He gains access to Abbott 's apartment by telling him there is a delivery for him . A fire fight ensues and after that , as Abbott bleeds out on the floor , Riddick moves in for the kill but is stopped by Johns . Riddick is captured and transferred to the `` double - max '' security area . Gaining the trust of the inmates by participating in fighting matches , Riddick eventually kills the champion of the fighting matches , a guard named Bam . This leads him to be taken to a room where no surveillance is seen and several guards await to kill Riddick . Abbott walks into the room , fully healed , holding a baseball bat . Shirah returns to him and tells him that the fury of all of his kind is within him , and he can release it if he chooses . A blast of energy called the ' Rage of Furya ' kills all the guards around him except Abbott , who hides and then panics and attacks Riddick . Riddick kills Abbott and proceeds to find another way to escape . Using a secret entrance to an elevator , he infiltrates a mining facility . He meets an inmate of great influence in the area named Jagger Valance ( Ron Perlman ) , who wishes to escape with him . He makes a bomb and plants it in a mining site with a massive gas leak . However , Riddick is discovered and caught by the guards . During his transfer to another section , the prison is disrupted by an outbreak of creatures called `` Xeno '' , due to the bomb Riddick planted , in order to create the confusion necessary for his escape , and Riddick attempts to escape with Valance . His plans are foiled again by Johns . After a fist fight , Riddick and Johns are both shot by Valance ( who only meant to hit Johns ) and Valance is killed by the guards . After meeting again with the warden , and telling him that he is just getting started , Riddick is placed in the `` triple - max '' area , where inmates are kept in cryonic sleep . They are awakened daily for two minutes of exercise ; during this time , Riddick discovers a flaw in the system and escapes . He then hijacks a large robot and fights his way through Butcher Bay to reach Hoxie . Tired of dealing with the prison officials , Johns helps Riddick to elude the guards . Riddick knocks Johns out and flies the ship into the warden 's office . The warden calls in two robot guards with cloaking abilities and Riddick defeats them . After Hoxie surrenders , Riddick receives the codes to Hoxie 's ship and Riddick and Johns escape disguised as a guard and prisoner . Two guards enter Hoxie 's room , where Hoxie is bound and covered in Riddick 's former attire . They mistake him for Riddick and kill him . Riddick and Johns take off in Hoxie 's ship , ending the game . Development ( edit ) Actor Vin Diesel reprised his role as Riddick for Escape from Butcher Bay , and assisted in the game 's development . Escape from Butcher Bay was developed by Swedish company Starbreeze Studios , and published by Vivendi Games and the Vin Diesel - founded Tigon Studios . Universal Studios Consumer Products Group granted The Chronicles of Riddick license to Vivendi Games ; both companies were owned by Vivendi Universal . The game was announced in March 2004 as an Xbox title . Tigon Studios ' Cos Lazouras said , `` ( The game ) features an original storyline that provides insight into how Riddick evolved into such a complex character '' . In contrast to other film tie - in games , which often closely follow the events of their source material , the development team of Escape from Butcher Bay focused on differentiating the game from The Chronicles of Riddick . They sought to explore Riddick 's character in a prison break setting , and took inspiration from films such as Escape from Alcatraz . Starbreeze was also inspired by video games such as GoldenEye 007 and the Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series . The opening sequence , in which Riddick is escorted into Butcher Bay , is a tribute to Half - Life , and the game 's hand - to - hand combat was inspired by Punch - Out ! ! . Starbreeze focused solely on developing the game 's single - player mode , and did not include multiplayer ; the company believed that such a mode would require a design team twice as large and another year of development . Vin Diesel , the lead actor of The Chronicles of Riddick , provided his voice and likeness for Riddick . He and director David Twohy also contributed to the game 's plot and character design ; the game 's story was developed in conjunction with the film 's . Per the filmmakers ' instructions , the designers made the origin of Riddick 's `` eyeshine '' vague . Diesel offered guidance to the game 's lead writer during voice recording sessions ; this included dialogue rewrites to reduce Riddick 's lines , as Diesel believed the character spoke too often . Starbreeze intended for Escape from Butcher Bay to feature more complex role - playing game systems , but feedback from Diesel and game testers dissuaded them . Starbreeze senior producer Peter Wanat said , `` We tried to limit the number of really hard or really intricate RPG elements , and that was a choice because we wanted the game to be playable . '' Other removed features include an electric bullwhip for the guard Abbott , and a 25 - minute final boss fight . A PlayStation 2 version that was in development was cancelled so the company could focus on the Xbox version . The game uses normal mapping , which allows detailed textures to be drawn on models with lower polygon counts ; this increases visual fidelity , without sacrificing higher frame rates . It also featured dynamic lighting with per - pixel stencil shadowing and self - shadowing Escape from Butcher Bay was completed in 18 months . Vin Diesel promoted the game and the accompanying movie at the May 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) video game convention . The game was released in North America on June 1 , 2004 , shortly before The Chronicles of Riddick . North American pre-orders of the game included a DVD of promotional content , such as a partial interactive walkthrough and footage from the film . The game 's soundtrack , composed by Gustaf Grefberg , was released by Vivendi as a free download on June 24 , 2004 . Following rumors , Vivendi confirmed in July 2004 that a Windows port of Escape from Butcher Bay was in development , entitled `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Director 's Cut '' . The game features a higher display resolution , additional cigarette packs , and new scenes where Riddick steals mechanized riot armor . It includes developer commentary which details the game 's creation and design decisions . The game was released on December 8 in North America . Expanded remake ( edit ) `` We 're very happy to be working in the Riddick universe again . Assault on Dark Athena gives us an opportunity to revisit the original game and share it with a new audience , as well as offer a continuation of the Butcher Bay gameplay and storyline . '' -- Ian Stevens , Starbreeze Studios Main article : The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena In May 2007 , Vivendi announced that Escape from Butcher Bay was being remade by Starbreeze Studios for PC , Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . Entitled The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , the game was referred to by Vivendi as a `` reinvention '' of Escape from Butcher Bay ; it would include a multiplayer mode and new single - player content . It was planned that Vivendi - subsidiary Sierra Entertainment would publish the game in late 2007 . In December 2007 , Activision and Vivendi Games merged to become Activision Blizzard ; the new company announced the dismissal of Assault on Dark Athena , Brütal Legend , Ghostbusters : The Video Game and others from its roster in July 2008 . The titles were put up for sale to other publishers . In September 2008 , Starbreeze Studios confirmed that the game was still in development , and that it was nearing completion . The following month , Atari reportedly paid a flat fee for the publishing rights to Assault on Dark Athena and Ghostbusters : The Video Game ; Atari later confirmed that it had picked up both titles . The company also stated that it had struck a deal with Universal Studios to develop more Chronicles of Riddick games . Assault on Dark Athena was released in April 2009 in North America , Europe , and Australia . Reception ( edit ) Reception Review scores Publication Score PC Xbox 1UP.com A+ CVG 8.6 / 10 8.3 / 10 Eurogamer 9 / 10 9 / 10 Game Informer 9.5 / 10 GameSpot 9.3 9.3 GameSpy GamesRadar+ 8 / 10 GameZone 9.2 / 10 9.2 / 10 IGN 8.8 / 10 8.5 / 10 Aggregate scores GameRankings 90.95 % 88.72 % Metacritic 90 / 100 89 / 100 Escape from Butcher Bay received critical acclaim . Certain reviewers preferred the game over its film counterpart , and considered it an exception to the general mediocrity of film tie - in games . The Xbox version of the game sold 159,000 copies in August 2004 , and was among the best - selling games on any platform during June 2004 ; it was later re-released as a Platinum Hits title . Conversely , the PC version sold 32,500 after six months on shelves . Escape from Butcher Bay 's gameplay was compared to first - person shooters like Far Cry and Half - Life , and to stealth game series like Splinter Cell , Metal Gear , and Thief . Reviewers enjoyed the variety of gameplay elements : Game Informer 's Jeremy Zoss noted that `` every aspect of play is expertly implemented '' , and GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin believed that the game `` effectively and innovatively combines excellent shooting , hand - to - hand combat , stealth , and adventure elements '' . While the game 's stealth mechanics were praised , certain critics received its first - person shooter elements with less enthusiasm . Reviewers applauded the control scheme , such as the Xbox version 's analog stick - based hand - to - hand combat . The implementation of Riddick 's eyeshine ability was also generally praised , but Computer and Video Games believed that it was no different from night vision goggles in other first - person shooters , and said that it `` could 've been developed into so much more . '' The game 's visuals -- particularly the Xbox version 's -- were acclaimed , and compared to those of Doom 3 and Half - Life 2 . GameZone 's Michael Lafferty said that the game 's graphics `` ( take ) the genre to the next level '' . The textures and lighting were cited as high points , particularly because of the gameplay role of shadows . Character models and facial animations were considered highly realistic ; much praise was given to those of Riddick . GameSpot appreciated the developers ' attention to graphical detail ; they noted that recent bullet - holes glow red and smoke , but gradually cool and darken . Certain reviewers complained about graphical glitches , such as `` seams '' and `` clipping '' , and gave as an example the visibility of bullet tracers through walls . The portrayal of Butcher Bay was considered convincing , and 1UP 's Shawn Elliott compared it to the settings of the Alien franchise . `` You can almost smell the thick stink of Butcher Bay and its inhabitants from the grime on the walls , dirty clothes of the inmates , and environmental textures . This place oozes with style and creates sense of reality in which it 's easy to become immersed . '' -- Perry and Adams , IGN The audio of Escape from Butcher Bay was generally well received , and critics praised its voice acting ; the performances of Vin Diesel and Cole Hauser were given special commendation . In regard to the music , FiringSquad 's Jakub Wojnarowicz stated , `` It 's not good enough to sweep you away ( , ) but it 's also not bad enough to stick out like a sore thumb '' . IGN said , `` The music is n't memorable , but it 's not bad '' . The Sunday Herald Sun called the voice acting `` Surprisingly good '' . The game 's length was commonly criticized . Reviewers noted that it could be completed in eight to fifteen hours , and IGN said , `` If you consider around 12 hours of gameplay short , then Riddick is just that . '' Several reviewers were displeased by the game 's lack of multiplayer components ; Computer and Video Games referred to it as a `` missed opportunity '' . Game Informer said , `` Since the main quest is short ( ... ) and there is no multiplayer , it 's not a ton of game for your money . '' Professor James Paul Gee , a researcher of video games , has used Escape from Butcher Bay in his studies . He discussed the relation of Garrett from Thief and the nameless soldier from Full Spectrum Warrior with the character of Riddick , saying that the games `` allow players to take a projective stance to the ( virtual ) world , but a stance that is rooted in the knowledge , values , and ways of seeing and being in the world of an authentic professional , an ' expert ' . '' Awards and accolades ( edit ) Both versions of the game were given editor 's choice awards from IGN , GameSpot , and GameSpy . The PC version was IGN 's PC Game of the Month for December 2004 . The editors of Computer Gaming World presented Butcher Bay with their 2004 `` Action Game of the Year '' award , and hailed it as `` the best movie prequel ever produced '' . Computer Games Magazine named Escape from Butcher Bay the tenth - best computer game of 2004 . IGN later ranked Butcher Bay 12th on its list of the 25 greatest Xbox games of all time . Game Informer placed Escape from Butcher Bay as the 8th best on their list of 25 greatest Xbox games of all time . Escape from Butcher Bay was nominated for GameSpot 's Game of the Year award for 2004 , but it lost to World of Warcraft . Computer and Video Games called the PC version the 98th best PC game of all time . Billboard 's Digital Entertainment Conference nominated Riddick as its Best Character in a Game and a Golden Joystick Award for `` Unsung Hero Game of the Year '' . GamesRadar placed Escape from Butcher Bay in their `` Top 7 movie games that do n't suck '' list , and said that `` Escape from Butcher Bay was a triumph on almost every level . '' In 2013 , IGN ranked Escape from Butcher Bay as the 27th greatest first - person shooter of all time . Year Award Result Ref . Golden Joystick Awards Unsung Hero Game of the Year ( Editors ' Award ) Won Spike TV 's Video Game Awards Best Game Based on a Movie Won Best Performance by a Human Male ( Vin Diesel as Richard B. Riddick ) Nominated 2005 8th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards Console First Person Action Game of the Year Nominated Outstanding Character Performance - Male Nominated 2nd British Academy Video Games Awards Action Game Nominated Xbox Nominated References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Elliott , Shawn ( March 22 , 2005 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay -- Developer 's Cut Review ( PC ) '' . 1UP.com . Ziff Davis . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2016 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Kasavin , Greg ( June 1 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review for Xbox '' . CBS Interactive . p. 2 . Retrieved April 2 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Kasavin , Greg ( June 1 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review for Xbox '' . GameSpot . CBS Interactive . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Kasavin , Greg ( June 1 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review for Xbox - Page 3 '' . CBS Interactive . p. 3 . Retrieved April 2 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Dyer , Mitch ( August 12 , 2008 ) . `` Defending Licensed Games '' . Official Xbox Magazine . Archived from the original on November 23 , 2008 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : CVG Staff ( January 1 , 2005 ) . `` PC Review : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay '' . Computer and Video Games . Archived from the original on October 25 , 2012 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Boulding , Aaron ( January 26 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Preview '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 2 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : CVG Staff ( August 17 , 2004 ) . `` Xbox Review : The Chronicles Of Riddick Escape from Butcher Bay '' . Computer and Video Games . Archived from the original on October 25 , 2012 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Reed , Kristan ( December 14 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review '' . Eurogamer . Gamer Network . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Raymond , Justin ( December 28 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay - Director 's Cut Review '' . GameZone . Archived from the original on April 17 , 2009 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Douglass C. ( May 28 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 2 . Archived from the original on March 5 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Williams , Bryn ( June 1 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review '' . GameSpy . Ziff Davis . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Christophe ( August 21 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review - Xbox Review '' . PALGN . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2012 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : GameSpot Staff ( November 3 , 2004 ) . `` VU Games Announces The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay '' . GameSpot . CBS Interactive . Archived from the original on September 4 , 2004 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Bramwell , Tom ( June 10 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review '' . Eurogamer . Gamer Network . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Douglass C. ( May 28 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 5 . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Hendrix , Air ( June 11 , 2004 ) . `` Review : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay ( Xbox ) '' . GamePro . Archived from the original on May 4 , 2009 . Retrieved April 2 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Douglass C. ( September 1 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 1 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Douglass C. ( September 2 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay , Pt. 2 '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 3 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Douglass C. ( September 2 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay , Pt. 2 '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 2 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Perry , Douglass C. ; Goldstein , Hilary ( April 29 , 2004 ) . `` Pre-E3 2004 : The Chronicles of Riddick Hands - on '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 2 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Perry , Douglass C. ( September 2 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay , Pt. 2 '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 1 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Feldman , Curt ( June 12 , 2004 ) . `` Q&A : Tigon Studios ' Cos Lazouras '' . GameSpot . CBS Interactive . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Perry , Douglass C. ( September 1 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay ( page 3 ) '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 3 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : Perry , Douglass C. ( September 1 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 2 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Perry , Douglass C. ( September 2 , 2004 ) . `` Epilogue : The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay , Pt. 2 '' . IGN . Ziff Davis . p. 4 . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Leone , Matt ( June 2 , 2011 ) . `` Inside Starbreeze : The Secret History of the Riddick Team '' . 1UP.com . Ziff Davis . p. 3 . Archived from the original on May 15 , 2016 . Retrieved June 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Williams , Bryn ( June 1 , 2004 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay Review '' . GameSpy . p. 2 . Retrieved April 6 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Bramwell , Tom ( June 9 , 2004 ) . `` Chronicling Riddick : Journey To Butcher Bay '' . 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Jump up ^ PC Zone Staff ( May 12 , 2007 ) . `` The 101 best PC games ever , part one '' . Computer and Video Games.com . p. 1 . Retrieved January 3 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Andrew ( November 8 , 2004 ) . `` Digital Entertainment Conference Announces Game Award Winners '' . Gamasutra . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Andrew ( November 5 , 2004 ) . `` Golden Joystick Awards Announces 2004 Winners '' . Gamasutra . Retrieved March 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ GamesRadar US ( February 12 , 2007 ) . `` The Top 7 ... movie games that do n't suck '' . Future US . p. 6 . Retrieved October 31 , 2009 . Jump up ^ IGN Staff ( September 12 , 2013 ) . `` The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay - # 27 Top Shooters '' . IGN . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ CVG Staff ( November 5 , 2004 ) . `` News : Golden Joystick Awards 2004 : Winners announced ! '' . Computer and Video Games . Archived from the original on September 21 , 2013 . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ David Jenkins ( December 16 , 2004 ) . `` Spike TV Announces 2004 Video Game Award Winners '' . Gamasutra . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Rainier Van Autrijve ( November 16 , 2004 ) . `` Video Game Awards 2004 Categories and Nominees '' . GameSpy . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` D.I.C.E. Awards By Video Game Details - Chronicles of Riddick '' . Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 2005 Games Action Game '' . British Academy of Film and Television Arts . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 2005 Games Xbox '' . British Academy of Film and Television Arts . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Released under the Sierra Entertainment brand name in PAL regions External links ( edit ) The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay at MobyGames The Chronicles of Riddick : Escape from Butcher Bay on IMDb 2000s portal Film portal Microsoft portal Speculative fiction portal Video games portal Xbox portal ( hide ) The Chronicles of Riddick Films Pitch Black The Chronicles of Riddick Dark Fury Riddick Video games Escape from Butcher Bay Assault on Dark Athena Related articles Richard B. Riddick Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Chronicles_of_Riddick:_Escape_from_Butcher_Bay&oldid=839148676 '' Categories : 2004 video games Cancelled PlayStation 2 games First - person adventure games First - person shooters Science fiction video games Single - player video games Starbreeze Studios games Stealth video games The Chronicles of Riddick ( franchise ) video games Video game prequels Video games developed in Sweden Video games set in prison Video games with commentaries Universal Interactive games Windows games Xbox games Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Articles using Infobox video game using locally defined parameters Articles using Wikidata infoboxes with locally defined images Articles using Video game reviews template in multiple platform mode Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français Italiano עברית Lietuvių Magyar Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 5 more Edit links This page was last edited on 1 May 2018 , at 15 : 59 . 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-7565558573397360426 | Coral bleaching | Coral bleaching - wikipedia Coral bleaching Bleached corals Healthy corals Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with this algae crucial for the health of the coral and the reef . The algae provides up to 90 % of the coral 's energy . Bleached corals continue to live but begin to starve after bleaching . Some corals recover . Above - average sea water temperatures caused by global warming is the leading cause of coral bleaching . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , between 2014 and 2016 the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef . The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016 . Contents 1 Causes 2 Triggers 2.1 List of triggers 3 Mass bleaching events 4 Impact 4.1 Pacific Ocean 4.1. 1 Great Barrier Reef 4.1. 2 Hawaii 4.1. 3 Japan 4.2 Indian Ocean 4.2. 1 Maldives 4.2. 2 Thailand 4.2. 3 Indonesia 4.3 Atlantic Ocean 4.3. 1 United States 4.3. 2 Belize 4.3. 3 Caribbean 4.4 Other areas 4.5 Economic and political impact 4.6 Monitoring reef sea surface temperature 4.7 Changes in ocean chemistry 4.8 Infectious disease 5 Coral adaptation 6 Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts 7 Rebuilding coral reefs 8 Economic value of coral reefs 9 Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links Causes ( edit ) Coral and microscopic algae have a symbiotic relationship . When water temperatures get too high , the algae leave the coral tissue and the coral begins to starve . The corals that form the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae - like single - celled flagellate protozoa called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues and give the coral its coloration . The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through photosynthesis , a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient - poor tropical waters . In exchange , the coral provide the zooxanthellae with the carbon dioxide and ammonium needed for photosynthesis . Negative environmental conditions thwart the coral 's ability to provide for the zooxanthellae 's needs . To ensure short - term survival , the coral - polyp then expels the zooxanthellae . This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance , hence the term `` bleached '' . As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90 % of the coral 's energy needs through products of photosynthesis , after expelling , the coral may begin to starve . Healthy coral at left and bleached , but still living , coral to right Coral can survive short - term disturbances , but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist , the coral 's chances of survival diminish . In order to recover from bleaching , the zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it . If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching , they will decay . The hard coral species will then leave behind their calcium carbonate skeletons , which will be taken over by algae , effectively blocking coral re-growth . Eventually , the coral skeletons will erode , causing the reef structure to collapse . Triggers ( edit ) Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors . While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching , the large scale coral bleaching events of the recent years have been triggered by increased sea surface temperatures . Coral reefs located in warm , shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow . List of triggers ( edit ) Bleached coral - partially overgrown with algae increased water temperature ( most commonly due to global warming ) , or reduced water temperatures oxygen starvation caused by an increase in zooplankton levels as a result of overfishing increased solar irradiance ( photosynthetically active radiation and ultraviolet light ) increased sedimentation ( due to silt runoff ) bacterial infections changes in salinity herbicides extreme low tide and exposure cyanide fishing elevated sea levels due to global warming ( Watson ) mineral dust from African dust storms caused by drought pollutants such as oxybenzone , butylparaben , octyl methoxycinnamate , or enzacamene : four common sunscreen ingredients that are nonbiodegradable and can wash off of skin ocean acidification due to elevated levels of CO caused by air pollution being exposed to Oil or other chemical spills Mass bleaching events ( edit ) Bleached Acropora coral ( foreground ) and normal colony ( background ) , Keppel Islands , Great Barrier Reef Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events . Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990 , with the associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world . In 2016 , the longest coral bleaching event was recorded . The longest and most destructive coral bleaching event was because of the El Niño that occurred from 2014 - 2017 . During this time , over 70 % of the coral reefs around the world have become damaged . Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress - resistance which reduces bleaching , tolerance to the absence of zooxanthellae , and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead . Due to the patchy nature of bleaching , local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence . Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching . Large coral colonies such as Porites are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks , while fragile branching corals such Acropora are far more susceptible to stress following a temperature change . Corals consistently exposed to low stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching . Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian ( Frasnian / Famennian ) , also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures . It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth 's history . Impact ( edit ) Two images of the Great Barrier Reef showing that the warmest water ( top picture ) coincides with the coral reefs ( lower picture ) , setting up conditions that can cause coral bleaching In the 2012 -- 2040 period , coral reefs are expected to experience more frequent bleaching events . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) sees this as the greatest threat to the world 's reef systems . Coral reefs worldwide were lost by 19 % , and 60 % of the remaining reefs are at immediate risk of being lost . There are a few ways to tell the impacts of coral bleaching on reefs . First by the coral cover , the more coral that is covering the ground the less of an impact bleaching had . Second , coral abundance , which is the number of different living species on the coral reef . ( Shidqi et al. 2017 ) Pacific ocean ( edit ) Great Barrier reef ( edit ) The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980 , 1982 , 1992 , 1994 , 1998 , 2002 , 2006 , 2016 and 2017 . Some locations suffered severe damage , with up to 90 % mortality . The most widespread and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002 , with 42 % and 54 % respectively of reefs bleached to some extent , and 18 % strongly bleached . However coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals . An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7 % from 1985 to 2012 , but with only about 10 % of that decline attributable to bleaching , and the remaining 90 % caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by crown - of - thorns starfishes . A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans . These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef . The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas . In late November 2016 surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused a 29 % loss of shallow water coral . The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-self reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay . The IPCC 's moderate warming scenarios ( B1 to A1T , 2 ° C by 2100 , IPCC , 2007 , Table SPM. 3 , p. 13 ) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching . Hawaii ( edit ) Major bleaching occurred in Hawaiian coral reefs in 1996 and in 2002 . In 2014 , biologists from the University of Queensland observed the first mass bleaching event , and attributed it to The Blob . In 2014 and 2015 , a survey in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve on Oahu found 47 % of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10 % of the corals dying . Japan ( edit ) According to a 2017 Japanese government report , almost 75 % of Japan 's largest coral reef in Okinawa has died from bleaching . Indian ocean ( edit ) Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures , most severely in the Indian Ocean . Up to 90 % of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives , Sri Lanka , Kenya and Tanzania and in the Seychelles during the massive 1997 - 98 bleaching event . Maldives ( edit ) More than 60 % of the coral in the Maldives has suffered from bleaching in 2016 . Thailand ( edit ) Thailand experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70 % of the coral in the Andaman Sea . Between 30 % and 95 % of the bleached coral died . Indonesia ( edit ) In 2017 there was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was . One of the places was Melinjo Islands and the other was Saktu Islands . In Saktu Island the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad , with an average coral cover of 22.3 % . In Melinjo Islands the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad , with an average coral cover of 22.2 % . ( Shidqi et al. 2017 ) Atlantic ocean ( edit ) United States ( edit ) In South Florida , a 2016 survey of large corals from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale found that about 66 % of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue . Belize ( edit ) The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998 , where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 ° C ( 88.7 ° F ) from 10 August to 14 October . For a few days , Hurricane Mitch brought in stormy weather on October 27 but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less . During this time period , mass bleaching in the fore - reef and lagoon occurred . While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage , coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic . The most prevalent coral in the reefs of Belize in 1998 was the lettuce coral , Agaricia tenuifolia . On 22 and 23 October , surveys were conducted at two sites and the findings were devastating . Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently . At the lagoon floor , complete bleaching was evident among Agaricia tenuifolia . Furthermore , surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of Agaricia tenuifolia at all depths . Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well . Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation . Caribbean ( edit ) Hard coral cover on reefs in the Caribbean have declined by an estimated 80 % , from an average of 50 % cover in the 1970s to only about 10 % cover in the early 2000s . A 2013 study to follow up on a mass bleaching event in Tobago from 2010 showed that after only 1 year , the majority of the dominant species declined by about 62 % while coral abundance declined by about 50 % . However , between 2011 and 2013 , coral cover increased for 10 of the 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations . Other areas ( edit ) Coral in the south Red Sea does not bleach despite summer water temperatures up to 34 ° C ( 93 ° F ) . Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs , the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral eating starfish , dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment . In 1988 there was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and in Sudan , the southern reefs were more resilient and affected them very little . Previously it was thought that the North suffers more from coral bleaching but they show a fast turnover of coral and the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly , they show more consistency . However , new research shows where the south reef should be bigger and healthier than the north it was not . This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events , and coral eating starfish . In 2010 , coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan , where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees . Certain taxa experienced 80 % to 100 % of their colonies bleaching , while some showed on average 20 % of that taxa bleaching . Economic and political impact ( edit ) According to Brian Skoloff of The Christian Science Monitor , `` If the reefs vanished , experts say , hunger , poverty and political instability could ensue . '' Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators , the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a domino effect that would trickle down to the many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood . There has been a 44 % decline over the last 20 years in the Florida Keys , and up to 80 % in the Caribbean alone . Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services , one of which is being a natural fishery , as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics . Thus , reefs are a popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers , especially small , local fisheries . As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching , reef associated fish populations also decrease , which affects fishing opportunities . A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $49 -- $69 billion , if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases . But , these losses could be reduced for a consumer surplus benefit of about $14 -- $20 billion , if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead . These economic losses also have important political implications , as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located , namely in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean . It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food , in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as ecotourism . A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that the commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4 % every time coral cover decreases by 1 % because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities . Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact , which lowers the damage from storms , erosions , and flooding . Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of the increased susceptibility of storms . This indirect cost , combined with the lost revenue in tourism , will result in enormous economic effects . Monitoring reef sea surface temperature ( edit ) The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) monitors for bleaching `` hot spots '' , areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 ° C or more above the long - term monthly average . The `` hot spots '' are the location in which thermal stress is measured and with the development of Degree Heating Week ( DHW ) , the coral reef 's thermal stress is monitored . Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing the rise of sea temperatures . It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity , as well as it weakening corals , eventually leading to their mortality . This system detected the worldwide 1998 bleaching event , that corresponded to the 1997 -- 98 El Niño event . Currently , 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA , and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via NOAA Coral Reef Watch ( CRW ) website . By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures , the early warnings of coral bleaching , alerts reef managers to prepare and draw awareness to future bleaching events . The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010 , which was when the El Niño caused the oceans temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions . The 2014 - 2017 El Niño was recorded to be the longest and most damaging to the corals , which harmed over 70 % of our coral reefs . Over two thirds of the Great Barrier Reef have been reported to be bleached or dead . Changes in ocean chemistry ( edit ) Increasing ocean acidification due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress . Acidification affects the corals ' ability to create calcareous skeletons , essential to their survival . This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water , making it more difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for the skeleton . As a result , the resilience of reefs goes down , while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve . In addition , the increase in CO allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral - dominated ecosystems to algal - dominated ecosystems . A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises , the levels of CO could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years . Infectious disease ( edit ) Infectious bacteria of the species Vibrio shiloi are the bleaching agent of Oculina patagonica in the Mediterranean Sea , causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae . V. shiloi is infectious only during warm periods . Elevated temperature increases the virulence of V. shiloi , which then become able to adhere to a beta - galactoside - containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral . V. shiloi then penetrates the coral 's epidermis , multiplies , and produces both heat - stable and heat - sensitive toxins , which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis . During the summer of 2003 , coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to the pathogen , and further infection was not observed . The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals . The bacterial species capable of lysing V. shiloi had not been identified as of 2011 . Coral adaptation ( edit ) In 2010 , researchers at Penn State discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the Andaman Sea in the Indian Ocean . Normal zooxanthellae can not withstand temperatures as high as was there , so this finding was unexpected . This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming , coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant to high temperature , and can live within the reefs . In 2010 , researchers from Stanford University also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide . The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase . Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become trained to withstand the high temperatures . Researchers are now asking a new question : can we condition corals , that are not from this area , in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures . Recovery and macroalgal regime shifts ( edit ) After corals experience a bleaching event to increased temperature stress some reefs are able to return to their original , pre-bleaching state . Reefs either recover from bleaching , where they are recolonized by zooxanthellae , or they experience a regime shift , where previously flourishing coral reefs are taken over by thick layers of macroalgae . This inhibits further coral growth because the algae produces antifouling compounds to deter settlement and competes with corals for space and light . As a result , macroalgae forms stable communities that make it difficult for corals to grow again . Reefs will then be more susceptible to other issues , such as declining water quality and removal of herbivore fish , because coral growth is weaker . Discovering what causes reefs to be resilient or recover from bleaching events is of primary importance because it helps inform conservation efforts and protect coral more effectively . Corals have shown to be resilient to short - term disturbances . Recovery has been shown in after storm disturbance and crown of thorns starfish invasions . Fish species tend to fare better following reef disturbance than coral species as corals show limited recovery and reef fish assemblages have shown little change as a result of short - term disturbances . In contrast , fish assemblages in reefs that experience bleaching exhibit potentially damaging changes . One study by Bellwood et al. notes that while species richness , diversity , and abundance did not change , fish assemblages contained more generalist species and less coral dependent species . Responses to coral bleaching are diverse between reef fish species , based on what resources are affected . Rising sea temperature and coral bleaching do not directly impact adult fish mortality , but there are many indirect consequences of both . Coral - associated fish populations tend to be in decline due to habitat loss ; however , some herbivorous fish populations have seen a drastic increase due to the increase of algae colonization on dead coral . Studies note that better methods are needed to measure the effects of disturbance on the resilience of corals . The lemon damselfish ( Pomacentrus moluccensis ) is a coral associated species that has been shown to decline dramatically following coral bleaching . Until recently , the factors mediating the recovery of coral reefs from bleaching were not well studied . Research by Graham et al. ( 2005 ) studied 21 reefs around Seychelles in the Indo - Pacific in order to document the long - term effects of coral bleaching . After the loss of more than 90 % of corals due to bleaching in 1998 around 50 % of the reefs recovered and roughly 40 % of the reefs experienced regime shifts to macroalgae dominated compositions . After an assessment of factors influencing the probability of recovery , the study identified five major factors : density of juvenile corals , initial structural complexity , water depth , biomass of herbivorous fishes , and nutrient conditions on the reef . Overall , resilience was seen most in coral reef systems that were structurally complex and in deeper water . The ecological roles and functional groups of species also play a role in the recovery of regime shifting potential in reef systems . Coral reefs are affected by bioeroding , scraping , and grazing fish species . Bioeroding species remove dead corals , scraping species remove algae and sediment to further future growth , grazing species remove algae . The presence of each type of species can influence the ability for normal levels of coral recruitment which is an important part of coral recovery . Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea - urchin - dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions . There is always the possibility of unobservable changes , or cryptic losses or resilience , in a coral community 's ability to perform ecological processes . These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips . More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs that take into account long - term changes to the coral ecosystems and better - informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come . Rebuilding coral reefs ( edit ) Research is being done to help slow down the mortality rate of corals . Worldwide Projects are being completed to help replenish and restore our coral reefs . The population of corals is rapidly declining , so scientists are doing experiments in coral growth and research tanks to help replenish the population of corals . These research tanks mimic the coral reefs natural environment in the ocean . They are growing corals in these tanks to use for their experiments , so no more corals are being harmed or taken from the ocean . They are also transplanting the successfully grown corals from the research tanks and putting them into the areas of the ocean where the reefs are dying out . An experiment is being done in some coral growth and research tanks by Ruth Gates and Madelaine Van Oppen . They are trying to make `` super corals '' that can withstand some of the environmental factors that the corals are currently dying from . Van Oppen is also working on developing a type of algae that will have a symbiotic relationship with corals and can withstand water temperature fluctuations for long periods of time . This project may be helping to replenish our reefs , but the growing process of corals in research tanks is very time consuming . It can take at least 10 years for the corals to fully grow and mature enough to where they will be able to breed . Economic value of coral reefs ( edit ) Coral reefs provide goods and services to an estimated quarter of all ocean species . Experts estimate that coral reef services are worth up to $1.2 million per hectare which translates to an average of $172 billion per year . The benefits of coral reefs include providing physical structures such as coastal shoreline protection , biotic services within and between ecosystems , biogeochemical services such as maintaining nitrogen levels in the ocean , climate records , and recreational and commercial ( tourism ) services . Coral reefs are one of the best marine ecosystems to use to as a food source . The coral reefs are also the perfect habitat for rare and economically important species of tropical fish , as they provide the perfect area for fish to breed and create nurseries in . If the populations of the fish and corals in the reef are high , then we can use the area as a place to gather food and things with medicinal properties , which also helps create jobs for people who can collect these specimens . The reefs also have some cultural importance in specific regions around the world . Cost benefit analysis of reducing loss of coral reefs ( edit ) In 2010 , the Convention on Biological Diversity 's ( CBD ) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011 - 2020 created twenty distinct targets for sustainable development for post-2015 . Target 10 indicates the goal of minimizing `` anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs '' . Two programs were looked at , one that reduces coral reef loss by 50 % that has a capital cost of $684 million and a recurrent cost of $81 million . The other program reduces coral reef loss by 80 % and has a capital cost of $1,036 million with recurring costs of $130 million . CBD acknowledges that they may be underestimating the costs and resources needed to achieve this target due to lack of relevant data but nonetheless , the cost - benefit analysis shows that the benefits outweigh the costs by a great enough amount for both programs ( Benefit Cost Ratio of 95.3 and 98.5 ) that `` there is ample scope to increase outlays on coral protection and still achieve a benefit to cost ratio that is well over one '' . See also ( edit ) Climate change Coral Point Count ( CPe ) Coral reef Ove Hoegh - Guldberg ( biologist ) Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Dove SG , Hoegh - Guldberg O ( 2006 ) . `` Coral bleaching can be caused by stress . The cell physiology of coral bleaching '' . 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Annual Review of Ecology , Evolution , and Systematics. 35 ( 1 ) : 557 -- 81 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. ecolsys. 35.021103. 105711 . JSTOR 30034127 . ^ Jump up to : Baker AC , Glynn PW , Riegl B ( 2008 - 12 - 10 ) . `` Climate change and coral reef bleaching : An ecological assessment of long - term impacts , recovery trends and future outlook '' . Estuarine , Coastal and Shelf Science . 80 ( 4 ) : 435 -- 471 . Bibcode : 2008ECSS ... 80 ... 435B . doi : 10.1016 / j. ecss. 2008.09. 003 . ^ Jump up to : Hughes TP , Graham NA , Jackson JB , Mumby PJ , Steneck RS ( November 2010 ) . `` Rising to the challenge of sustaining coral reef resilience '' . Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 25 ( 11 ) : 633 -- 42 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tree. 2010.07. 011 . PMID 20800316 . Jump up ^ Bellwood DR , Hoey AS , Ackerman JL , Depczynski M ( 2006 ) . `` Coral bleaching , reef fish community phase shifts and the resilience of coral reefs '' . Global Change Biology . 12 ( 9 ) : 1587 -- 94 . Bibcode : 2006GCBio ... 12.1587 B . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 2486.2006. 01204. x . ^ Jump up to : Bellwood DR , Hughes TP , Folke C , Nyström M ( June 2004 ) . `` Confronting the coral reef crisis '' . Nature . 429 ( 6994 ) : 827 -- 33 . Bibcode : 2004Natur. 429 ... 827B . doi : 10.1038 / nature02691 . PMID 15215854 . Jump up ^ `` New DNA study suggests coral reef biodiversity is seriously underestimated '' . Smithsonian Insider. 2 November 2011 . Jump up ^ `` What are coral reef services worth ? $130,000 to $1.2 million per hectare , per year : experts '' . EurekAlert ! . American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) . 16 October 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Economic valuation and policy priorities for sustainable management of coral reefs '' . Sweden : World Fish Center . ^ Jump up to : Markandya A ( 21 October 2014 ) . `` Benefits and Costs of the Biodiversity Targets for the Post-2015 Development Agenda '' ( PDF ) . Copenhagen Consensus Center . References ( edit ) Watson ME ( 2011 ) . `` Coral Reefs '' . In Allin CW . Encyclopedia of environmental issues . 1 . Pasadena , Calif. : Salem Press . pp. 317 -- 318 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58765 - 735 - 1 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coral bleaching . Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority information on bleaching . ReefBase : a global information system on coral reefs . More details on coral bleaching , causes and effects . Travellers Impressions The Link between Overfishing and Mass Coral Bleaching Discussion on Overfishing and Coral Bleaching Social & Economic Costs of Coral Bleaching from `` NOAA Socioeconomics '' website initiative Microdocs : Coral bleaching Coral Bleaching at Maro Reef , September 2004 Corals and coral reefs Stony corals Blue Brain Elegance Elkhorn Hermatypic Chalice Pillar Staghorn Table Soft corals Bamboo Black Organ pipe Sea fans Sea pens Coral reefs Atoll Cay Coral Fringing Microatoll Coral reef fish Census of Coral Reefs The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs Catlin Seaview Survey Spur and groove formation Coral regions List of reefs Deep - water coral African coral reefs Amazon Reef Andros , Bahamas Belize Barrier Reef Coral Sea Islands Coral Triangle Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Great Barrier Reef Maldives Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System New Caledonia barrier reef Pulley Ridge Raja Ampat Islands Red Sea Southeast Asian coral reefs Coral diseases Coral bleaching Black band disease Skeletal eroding band White band disease White pox disease Protection Coral Reef Alliance Coral reef protection Green Fins International Society for Reef Studies Project AWARE Reef Check Reef Ball Other Artificial reef Aquaculture of coral Coral dermatitis Precious coral Coral rag Coral reef organizations Coral sand Coralline algae Environmental issues with coral reefs Fire coral Reef resilience Rugosa ( extinct ) Symbiodinium Tabulata LCCN : sh2007002332 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coral_bleaching&oldid=856702560 '' Categories : Coral reefs Effects of global warming Hidden categories : Articles needing more detailed references Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2016 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from March 2018 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2016 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from December 2015 Use dmy dates from April 2011 Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Simple English Slovenščina Suomi Svenska 中文 10 more Edit links This page was last edited on 27 August 2018 , at 01 : 11 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | what is the main cause of coral reef bleaching | [
"Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming is the leading cause of coral bleaching.[2] According to the United Nations Environment Programme, between 2014 and 2016 the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's coral.[3][4][5] In 2017, the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef.[6][7] The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016.[8]\n"
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"Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming"
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-3387237189067905386 | Hera | Hera - wikipedia Hera This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 24 October 2017 . Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Hera ( disambiguation ) . Hera Goddess of marriage , women , childbirth , and family The Campana Hera , a Roman copy of a Hellenistic original , from the Louvre Abode Mount Olympus Symbol Pomegranate , peacock feather , diadem , cow , lily , lotus , cuckoo , panther , scepter , throne , lion Mount Chariot drawn by peacocks Personal Information Consort Zeus Children Angelos , Ares , Eileithyia , Enyo , Eris , Hebe , Hephaestus Parents Cronus and Rhea Siblings Poseidon , Hades , Demeter , Hestia , Zeus , Chiron Roman equivalent Juno Part of a series on Ancient Greek religion Features ( show ) Greek mythology Ancient Greek philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Ancient Greek religion Polytheism Henosis Monism Pantheism Orthopraxy Godheads ( show ) Olympians Zeus Hera Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hades Hephaestus Hermes Hestia Poseidon Primordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx Phanes Pontus Thalassa Tartarus Uranus Lesser deities Alpheus Amphitrite Asclepius Aura Bia Circe Deimos Eileithyia Enyo Eos Eris Harmonia Hebe Hecate Helios Heracles Iris Kratos Leto Metis Momus Morpheus Nemesis Nike Pan Persephone Phantasos Phobos Proteus Scamander Selene Thanatos Thetis Triton Zelus Ethics ( show ) Arete Hubris Xenia Ethic of reciprocity Practices ( show ) Amphidromia Animal sacrifice Funeral practices Greek hero cult Hieros gamos Iatromantis Libations Oracles Pharmakos Temples Votive offerings Festivals Daphnephoria Dionysia Dionysian Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Panathenaic Games Panhellenic Games ( Isthmian Nemean Olympic Pythian ) Thesmophoria Sacred places ( show ) Eleusis Delphi Delos Dodona Mount Olympus Olympia Texts ( show ) Argonautica Bibliotheca Corpus Hermeticum Delphic maxims Dionysiaca Epic Cycle Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Orphic Hymns Theogony Works and Days History ( show ) Mycenaean gods Decline of Hellenistic polytheism Julian restoration Hellenismos portal Hera ( / ˈhɛrə / , / ˈhɪərə / ; Greek : Ἥρᾱ Hērā , equivalently Ἥρη Hērē , in Ionic and Homer ) is the goddess of women and marriage in Greek mythology and religion . She is the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea . Hera is married to her brother Zeus and is titled as the Queen of Heaven . One of her characteristics is her jealous and vengeful nature against Zeus 's other lovers and offspring and against the mortals who cross her . Hera is commonly seen with the animals she considers sacred including the cow , lion and the peacock . Portrayed as majestic and solemn , often enthroned , and crowned with the polos ( a high cylindrical crown worn by several of the Great Goddesses ) , Hera may hold a pomegranate in her hand , emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy . Scholar of Greek mythology Walter Burkert writes in Greek Religion , `` Nevertheless , there are memories of an earlier aniconic representation , as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos . '' Her counterpart in the religion of ancient Rome was Juno . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Cult 2.1 Importance 2.2 Matriarchy 2.3 Origin and birth 2.4 Youth 3 Emblems 3.1 Epithets 4 Marriage to Zeus 4.1 Children 5 Important stories involving Hera 5.1 Heracles 5.2 Leto and the Twins : Apollo and Artemis 5.3 Io and Argus 5.4 Judgment of Paris 5.5 The Iliad 6 Smaller stories involving Hera 7 Genealogy 8 Art and Events 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Etymology ( edit ) The name of Hera may have several of mutually exclusive etymologies ; one possibility is to connect it with Greek ὥρα hōra , season , and to interpret it as ripe for marriage and according to Plato ἐρατή eratē , `` beloved '' as Zeus is said to have married her for love . According to Plutarch , Hera was an allegorical name and an anagram of aēr ( ἀήρ , `` air '' ) . So begins the section on Hera in Walter Burkert 's Greek Religion . In a note , he records other scholars ' arguments `` for the meaning Mistress as a feminine to Heros , Master . '' John Chadwick , a decipherer of Linear B , remarks `` her name may be connected with hērōs , ἥρως , ' hero ' , but that is no help , since it too is etymologically obscure . '' A.J. van Windekens , offers `` young cow , heifer '' , which is consonant with Hera 's common epithet βοῶπις ( boōpis , `` cow - eyed '' ) . R.S.P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin . Her name is attested in Mycenaean Greek written in the Linear B syllabic script as 𐀁𐀨 , e-ra , appearing on tablets found in Pylos and Thebes . Cult ( edit ) Hera may have been the first deity to whom the Greeks dedicated an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary , at Samos about 800 BCE . It was replaced later by the Heraion , one of the largest of all Greek temples ( Greek altars were in front of the temples , under the open sky ) . There were many temples built on this site so evidence is somewhat confusing and archaeological dates are uncertain . The temple created by the Rhoecus sculptors and architects was destroyed between 570 - 560 BCE . This was replaced by the Polycratean temple 540 - 530 BCE . In one of these temples we see a forest of 155 columns . There is also no evidence of tiles on this temple suggesting either the temple was never finished or that the temple was open to the sky . Earlier sanctuaries , whose dedication to Hera is less certain , were of the Mycenaean type called `` house sanctuaries '' . Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings , many of them late 8th and 7th centuries BCE , which show that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the Aegean : the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from Armenia , Babylon , Iran , Assyria , Egypt , testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims . Compared to this mighty goddess , who also possessed the earliest temple at Olympia and two of the great fifth and sixth century temples of Paestum , the termagant of Homer and the myths is an `` almost ... comic figure '' according to Burkert . The Temple of Hera at Agrigento , Magna Graecia . Though greatest and earliest free - standing temple to Hera was the Heraion of Samos , in the Greek mainland Hera was especially worshipped as `` Argive Hera '' ( Hera Argeia ) at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city - states of Argos and Mycenae , where the festivals in her honor called Heraia were celebrated . `` The three cities I love best , '' the ox - eyed Queen of Heaven declares ( Iliad , book iv ) `` are Argos , Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets . '' There were also temples to Hera in Olympia , Corinth , Tiryns , Perachora and the sacred island of Delos . In Magna Graecia , two Doric temples to Hera were constructed at Paestum , about 550 BCE and about 450 BCE . One of them , long called the Temple of Poseidon was identified in the 1950s as a second temple there of Hera . In Euboea the festival of the Great Daedala , sacred to Hera , was celebrated on a sixty - year cycle . Hera 's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor . The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her cult , the Heraion of Samos and the Heraion of Argos in the Argolid , were the very earliest monumental Greek temples constructed , in the 8th century BCE . Importance ( edit ) According to Walter Burkert , both Hera and Demeter have many characteristic attributes of Pre-Greek Great Goddesses . According to the Homeric Hymn III to Delian Apollo , Hera detained Eileithyia to already prevent Leto from going into labor with Artemis and Apollo , since the father was Zeus . The other goddesses present at the birthing on Delos sent Iris to bring her . As she stepped upon the island , the divine birth began . In the myth of the birth of Heracles , it is Hera herself who sits at the door instead , delaying the birth of Heracles until her protégé , Eurystheus , had been born first . The Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo makes the monster Typhaon the offspring of archaic Hera in her Minoan form , produced out of herself , like a monstrous version of Hephaestus , and whelped in a cave in Cilicia . She gave the creature to Python to raise . Roman copy of a Greek 5th century Hera of the `` Barberini Hera '' type , from the Museo Chiaramonti In the Temple of Hera at Olympia , Hera 's seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it . Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in the Iliad , in which she declares to Zeus , `` I am Cronus ' eldest daughter , and am honourable not on this ground only , but also because I am your wife , and you are king of the gods . '' Though Zeus is often called Zeus Heraios ' Zeus , ( consort ) of Hera ' , Homer 's treatment of Hera is less than respectful , and in late anecdotal versions of the myths ( see below ) she appeared to spend most of her time plotting revenge on the nymphs seduced by her consort , for Hera upheld all the old right rules of Hellene society and sorority . Matriarchy ( edit ) There has been considerable scholarship , reaching back to Johann Jakob Bachofen in the mid-nineteenth century , about the possibility that Hera , whose early importance in Greek religion is firmly established , was originally the goddess of a matriarchal people , presumably inhabiting Greece before the Hellenes . In this view , her activity as goddess of marriage established the patriarchal bond of her own subordination : her resistance to the conquests of Zeus is rendered as Hera 's `` jealousy '' , the main theme of literary anecdotes that undercut her ancient cult . However , it remains a controversial claim that primitive matriarchy existed in Greece or elsewhere . Origin and birth ( edit ) Hera is the daughter of the youngest Titan Cronus and his wife , and sister , Rhea . Cronus was fated to be overthrown by one of his children ; to prevent this , he swallowed all of his newborn children whole until Rhea tricked him into swallowing a stone instead of her youngest child , Zeus . Zeus grew up in secret and when he grew up he tricked his father into regurgitating his siblings , including Hera . Zeus then led the revolt against the Titans , banished them , and divided the dominion over the world with his brothers Poseidon and Hades . Youth ( edit ) Hera was most known as the matron goddess , Hera Teleia ; but she presided over weddings as well . In myth and cult , fragmentary references and archaic practices remain of the sacred marriage of Hera and Zeus , and at Plataea , there was a sculpture of Hera seated as a bride by Callimachus , as well as the matronly standing Hera . Hera was also worshipped as a virgin : there was a tradition in Stymphalia in Arcadia that there had been a triple shrine to Hera the Girl ( Παις ( Pais ) ) , the Adult Woman ( Τελεια ( Teleia ) ) , and the Separated ( Χήρη ( Chḗrē ) ' Widowed ' or ' Divorced ' ) . In the region around Argos , the temple of Hera in Hermione near Argos was to Hera the Virgin . At the spring of Kanathos , close to Nauplia , Hera renewed her virginity annually , in rites that were not to be spoken of ( arrheton ) . The Female figure , showing her `` Moon '' over the lake is also appropriate , as Hebe , Hera , and Hecate ; new moon , full moon , and old moon in that order and otherwise personified as the Virgin of spring , The Mother of Summer , and the destroying Crone of Autumn . Emblems ( edit ) In Hellenistic imagery , Hera 's chariot was pulled by peacocks , birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander . Alexander 's tutor , Aristotle , refers to it as `` the Persian bird . '' The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno , and which European painters focused on . A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level , where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with `` their '' bird , was the cuckoo , which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus . Her archaic association was primarily with cattle , as a Cow Goddess , who was especially venerated in `` cattle - rich '' Euboea . On Cyprus , very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks ( see Bull ( mythology ) ) . Her familiar Homeric epithet Boôpis , is always translated `` cow - eyed '' . In this respect , Hera bears some resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian deity Hathor , a maternal goddess associated with cattle . Epithets ( edit ) Hera bore several epithets in the mythological tradition , including : Αἰγοφάγος ( Aigophágos ) ' Goat - Eater ' ( among the Lacedaemonians ) Ἀκραῖα ( Akráia ) ' ( She ) of the Heights ' Ἀμμωνία ( Ammonia ) Ἀργεία ( Argéia ) ' ( She ) of Argos ' Βασίλεια ( Basíleia ) ' Queen ' Βουναία ( Bounáia ) ' ( She ) of the Mound ' ( in Corinth ) Βοῶπις ( Boṓpis ) ' Cow - Eyed ' or ' Cow - Faced ' Λευκώλενος ( Leukṓlenos ) ' White - Armed ' Παῖς ( Pais ) ' Child ' ( in her role as virgin ) Παρθένος ( Parthénos ) ' Virgin ' Τελεία ( Teléia ) ( as goddess of marriage ) Χήρη ( Chḗrē ) ' Widowed ' Marriage to Zeus ( edit ) Hera is known for her jealousy ; even Zeus , who is known to fear nothing , feared her tantrums . Zeus fell in love with Hera but she refused his first marriage proposal . Zeus then preyed on her empathy for animals and other beings , created a thunderstorm and transformed himself into a little cuckoo . As a cuckoo , Zeus pretended to be in distress outside her window . Hera , feeling pity towards the bird brought it inside and held it to her breast to warm it . Zeus then transformed back into himself and took advantage of her . Hera , ashamed of being exploited , agreed to marriage with Zeus . All of nature burst into bloom for their wedding and many gifts were exchanged . Zeus loved Hera , but he also loved Greece and often snuck down to Earth in disguise to marry and bear children with the mortals . He wanted many children to inherit his greatness and become great heroes and rulers of Greece . Hera 's jealousy towards all of Zeus ' lovers and children caused her to continuously torment them and Zeus was powerless to stop his wife . Hera was always aware of Zeus ' trickery and kept very close watch over him and his excursions to Earth . Hera `` presided over the right arrangements of the marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed . '' However , she is not notable as a mother . Children ( edit ) Name Father Functions Explanation Angelos Zeus An underworld goddess Her story only survives in scholia on Theocritus ' Idyll 2 . She was raised by nymphs . One day she stole Hera 's anointments and gave them away to Europe . To escape her mother 's wrath , she tried to hide herself . Hera eventually ceased from prosecuting her , and Zeus ordered the Cabeiroi to cleanse Angelos . They performed the purification rite in the waters of the Acherusia Lake in the U nderworld . Consequently , she received the world of the dead as her realm of influence , and was assigned an epithet katachthonia ( `` she of the underworld '' ) . Ares Zeus God of war According to Hesiod 's Theogony , he was a son of Zeus and Hera . Eileithyia Zeus Goddess of childbirth In Theogony and other sources , she is described as a daughter of Hera by Zeus . Although , the meticulously accurate mythographer Pindar in Seventh Nemean Ode mentions Hera as Eileithyia 's mother but makes no mention of Zeus . Enyo Zeus A war goddess She was responsible with the destruction of cities and an attendant of Ares , though Homer equates Enyo with Eris . Eris Zeus Goddess of discord She appears in Homer 's Iliad Book IV ; equated with Enyo as sister of Ares and so presumably daughter of Zeus and Hera . Hebe Zeus / -- Goddess of youth She was a daughter of Zeus and Hera . In an alternative version , Hera alone produced Hebe after being impregnated by a head of lettuce . Hephaestus Zeus / -- God of fire and the forge Attested by the Greek poet Hesiod , Hera was jealous of Zeus ' giving birth to Athena with Metis , so she gave birth to Hephaestus without union with Zeus , although in some stories , he is the son of her and Zeus . Hera was then disgusted with Hephaestus ' ugliness and threw him from Mount Olympus . Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which , when she sat on , did not allow her to leave . The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go , but he repeatedly refused . Dionysus got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule . Hephaestus released Hera after being given Aphrodite as his wife . Typhon -- Serpent - monster Typhon is presented both as the son of Hera ( in Homer 's Pythian Hymn to Apollo ) and as the son of Gaia ( in Hesiod 's Theogony ) . According to the Homeric Hymn to Apollo ( 6th century BC ) , Typhon who was the parthenogenous child of Hera , whom she bore alone as a revenge at Zeus who had given birth to Athena . Hera prayed to Gaia to give her a son as strong as Zeus , then slapped the ground and became pregnant . Hera gave the infant Typhon to the serpent Python to raise , and Typhon grew up to become a great bane to mortals . The b scholia to Iliad 2.783 , however , has Typhon born in Cilicia as the offspring of Cronus . Gaia , angry at the destruction of the Giants , slanders Zeus to Hera . So Hera goes to Cronus and he gives Hera two eggs smeared with his own semen , telling her to bury them , and that from them would be born one who would overthrow Zeus . Hera , angry at Zeus , buries the eggs in Cilicia `` under Arimon '' , but when Typhon is born , Hera , now reconciled with Zeus , informs him . Important stories involving Hera ( edit ) Heracles ( edit ) Heracles strangling the snakes sent by Hera , Attic red - figured stamnos , ca . 480 -- 470 BCE . From Vulci , Etruria . Hera is the stepmother and enemy of Heracles . The name Heracles means `` Glory of Hera '' . When Alcmene was pregnant with Zeus ' child Heracles , Hera tried to prevent the birth from occurring by having Eileithyia tie Alcmene 's legs in knots . Her attempt was foiled when Galanthis frightened Eileithyia while she was tying Alcmene 's legs and Heracles was born . Hera thus punishes Galanthis by turning her into a weasel . Hera 's wrath against Zeus ' son continues and while Heracles is still an infant , Hera sends two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot . Heracles throttles the snakes with his bare hands and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were a child 's toy . When Heracles reached adulthood , Hera drove him mad , which lead him to murder his family and this later led to him undertaking his famous labours . Later she stirred up the Amazons against him when he was on one of his quests . The Origin of the Milky Way by Jacopo Tintoretto . One account of the origin of the Milky Way is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles : discovering who he was , she pulled him from her breast , and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day . Unlike any Greeks , the Etruscans instead pictured a full - grown bearded Heracles at Hera 's breast : this may refer to his adoption by her when he became an Immortal . He had previously wounded her severely in the breast . Hera assigned Heracles to labor for King Eurystheus at Mycenae . She attempted to make almost each of Heracles ' twelve labors more difficult . When he fought the Lernaean Hydra , she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him . When Heracles took the cattle of Geryon , he shot Hera in the right breast with a triple - barbed arrow : the wound was incurable and left her in constant pain , as Dione tells Aphrodite in the Iliad , Book V. Afterwards , Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle , irritate them and scatter them . Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much that Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle . He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower . When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus , the cattle were sacrificed to Hera . Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice the Cretan Bull to Hera . She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles . The bull was released and wandered to Marathon , becoming known as the Marathonian Bull . Some myths state that in the end , Heracles befriended Hera by saving her from Porphyrion , a giant who tried to rape her during the Gigantomachy , and that she even gave her daughter Hebe as his bride . Whatever myth - making served to account for an archaic representation of Heracles as `` Hera 's man '' it was thought suitable for the builders of the Heraion at Paestum to depict the exploits of Heracles in bas - reliefs . Hera ( according to inscription ) ; tondo of an Attic white - ground kylix from Vulci , ca . 470 BC Leto and the twins : Apollo and Artemis ( edit ) When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father , she convinced the nature spirits to prevent Leto from giving birth on terra - firma , the mainland , or any island at sea . Poseidon gave pity to Leto and guided her to the floating island of Delos , which was neither mainland nor a real island where Leto was able to give birth to her children . As a gesture of gratitude , Delos was secured with four pillars . The island later became sacred to Apollo . Alternatively , Hera kidnapped Eileithyia , the goddess of childbirth , to prevent Leto from going into labor . The other gods bribed Hera with a beautiful necklace nobody could resist and she finally gave in . Either way , Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo . Some versions say Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo for nine days . Another variation states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo , on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo . Io and Argus ( edit ) Io with Zeus by Giovanni Ambrogio Figino . Hera saw a lone thundercloud and raced down in an attempt to catch Zeus with a mistress . Zeus saw her coming and transformed his new bride Io into a little snow - white cow . However , Hera was not fooled and demanded that Zeus give her the heifer as a present . Zeus could not refuse his queen without drawing suspicion so he had to give her the beautiful heifer . Once Io was given to Hera , she tied her to a tree and sent her servant Argus to keep Io separated from Zeus . Argus was a loyal servant to Hera and he has immense strength and one hundred eyes all over his body . It was not possible to go past Argus since he never closed more than half his eyes at any time . Zeus was afraid of Hera 's wrath could not personally intervene , so to save Io , he commanded Hermes to kill Argus , which he does by lulling all one hundred eyes into eternal sleep . In Ovid 's interpolation , when Hera learned of Argus ' death , she took his eyes and placed them in the plumage of the peacock , her favorite animal , accounting for the eye pattern in its tail and making it the vainest of all animals . Hera , furious about Io being free and the death of Argus , sent a gadfly ( Greek oistros , compare oestrus ) to sting Io as she wandered the earth . Eventually Io made it to Egypt , the Egyptians worshiped the snow - white heifer and named her the Egyptian goddess Isis . Hera permitted Zeus to change Io back into her human form , under the condition that he never look at her again . Io , the goddess - queen of Egypt , then bore Zeus ' son as the next King . Judgment of Paris ( edit ) Main article : Judgement of Paris This is one of the many works depicting the event . Hera is the goddess in the center , wearing the crown . Das Urteil des Paris by Anton Raphael Mengs , ca . 1757 A prophecy stated that a son of the sea - nymph Thetis , with whom Zeus fell in love after gazing upon her in the oceans off the Greek coast , would become greater than his father . Possibly for this reasons , Thetis was betrothed to an elderly human king , Peleus son of Aeacus , either upon Zeus ' orders , or because she wished to please Hera , who had raised her . All the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis ( the eventual parents of Achilles ) and brought many gifts . Only Eris , goddess of discord , was not invited and was stopped at the door by Hermes , on Zeus ' order . She was annoyed at this , so she threw from the door a gift of her own : a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ ( kallistēi , `` To the fairest '' ) . Aphrodite , Hera , and Athena all claimed to be the fairest , and thus the rightful owner of the apple . The goddesses quarreled bitterly over it , and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one , for fear of earning the enmity of the other two . They chose to place the matter before Zeus , who , not wanting to favor one of the goddesses , put the choice into the hands of Paris , a Trojan prince . After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated , they appeared before Paris to have him choose . The goddesses undressed before him , either at his request or for the sake of winning . Still , Paris could not decide , as all three were ideally beautiful , so they resorted to bribes . Hera offered Paris political power and control of all of Asia , while Athena offered wisdom , fame , and glory in battle , and Aphrodite offered the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife , and he accordingly chose her . This woman was Helen , who was , unfortunately for Paris , already married to King Menelaus of Sparta . The other two goddesses were enraged by this and through Helen 's abduction by Paris they brought about the Trojan War . The Iliad ( edit ) Hera plays a substantial role in The Iliad , appearing in a number of books throughout the epic poem . In accordance with ancient Greek mythology , Hera 's hatred towards the Trojans , which was started by Paris ' decision that Aphrodite was the most beautiful goddess , is seen as through her support of the Greeks during the war . Throughout the epic Hera makes many attempts to thwart the Trojan army . In books 1 and 2 , Hera declares that the Trojans must be destroyed . Hera persuades Athena to aid the Achaeans in battle and she agrees to assist with interfering on their behalf . In book 5 , Hera and Athena plot to harm Ares , who had been seen by Diomedes in assisting the Trojans . Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly . Hera , Ares ' mother , saw Ares ' interference and asked Zeus , Ares ' father , for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield . Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god . Athena drove the spear into Ares ' body , and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mt . Olympus , forcing the Trojans to fall back . Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida by James Barry , 1773 ( City Art Galleries , Sheffield . ) In book 8 , Hera tries to persuade Poseidon to disobey Zeus and help the Achaean army . He refuses , saying he does n't want to go against Zeus . Determined to intervene in the war , Hera and Athena head to the battlefield . However , seeing the two flee , Zeus sent Iris to intercept them and make them return to Mt . Olympus or face grave consequences . After prolonged fighting , Hera sees Poseidon aiding the Greeks and giving them motivation to keep fighting . In book 14 Hera devises a plan to deceive Zeus . Zeus set a decree that the gods were not allowed to interfere in the mortal war . Hera is on the side of the Achaeans , so she plans a Deception of Zeus where she seduces him , with help from Aphrodite , and tricks him into a deep sleep , with the help of Hypnos , so that the Gods could interfere without the fear of Zeus . In book 21 , Hera continues her interference with the battle as she tells Hephaestus to prevent the river from harming Achilles . Hephaestus sets the battlefield ablaze , causing the river to plead with Hera , promising her he will not help the Trojans if Hephaestus stops his attack . Hephaestus stops his assault and Hera returns to the battlefield where the gods begin to fight amongst themselves . Smaller stories involving Hera ( edit ) Echo According to the urbane retelling of myth in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , for a long time , a nymph named Echo had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus ' affairs by leading her away and flattering her . When Hera discovered the deception , she cursed Echo to only repeat the words of others ( hence our modern word `` echo '' ) . Semele and Dionysus When Hera learned that Semele , daughter of Cadmus King of Thebes , was pregnant by Zeus , she disguised herself as Semele 's nurse and persuaded the princess to insist that Zeus show himself to her in his true form . When he was compelled to do so , having sworn by Styx his thunder and lightning destroyed Semele . Zeus took Semele 's unborn child , Dionysus and completed its gestation sewn into his own thigh . In another version , Dionysus was originally the son of Zeus by either Demeter or Persephone . Hera sent her Titans to rip the baby apart , from which he was called Zagreus ( `` Torn in Pieces '' ) . Zeus rescued the heart ; or , the heart was saved , variously , by Athena , Rhea , or Demeter . Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of Semele -- hence Dionysus became known as `` the twice - born '' . Certain versions imply that Zeus gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her . Hera tricked Semele into asking Zeus to reveal his true form , which killed her . Dionysus later managed to rescue his mother from the underworld and have her live on Mount Olympus . See also Dionysus ' birth for other variations . Lamia Lamia was a queen of Libya , whom Zeus loved . Hera turned her into a monster and murdered their children . Or , alternatively , she killed Lamia 's children and the grief turned her into a monster . Lamia was cursed with the inability to close her eyes so that she would always obsess over the image of her dead children . Zeus gave her the gift to be able to take her eyes out to rest , and then put them back in . Lamia was envious of other mothers and ate their children . Gerana Gerana was a queen of the Pygmies who boasted she was more beautiful than Hera . The wrathful goddess turned her into a crane and proclaimed that her bird descendants should wage eternal war on the Pygmy folk . Hera and Prometheus , tondo of a 5th - century BCE cup from Vulci , Etruria Cydippe Cydippe , a priestess of Hera , was on her way to a festival in the goddess ' honor . The oxen which were to pull her cart were overdue and her sons , Biton and Cleobis , pulled the cart the entire way ( 45 stadia , 8 kilometers ) . Cydippe was impressed with their devotion to her and Hera so asked Hera to give her children the best gift a god could give a person . Hera ordained that the brothers would die in their sleep . This honor bestowed upon the children was later used by Solon , as a proof while trying to convince Croesus that it is impossible to judge a person 's happiness until they have died a fruitful death after a joyous life . Tiresias Tiresias was a priest of Zeus , and as a young man he encountered two snakes mating and hit them with a stick . He was then transformed into a woman . As a woman , Tiresias became a priestess of Hera , married and had children , including Manto . After seven years as a woman , Tiresias again found mating snakes ; depending on the myth , either she made sure to leave the snakes alone this time , or , according to Hyginus , trampled on them and became a man once more . As a result of his experiences , Zeus and Hera asked him to settle the question of which sex , male or female , experienced more pleasure during intercourse . Zeus claimed it was women ; Hera claimed it was men . When Tiresias sided with Zeus , Hera struck him blind . Since Zeus could not undo what she had done , he gave him the gift of prophecy . An alternative and less commonly told story has it that Tiresias was blinded by Athena after he stumbled onto her bathing naked . His mother , Chariclo , begged her to undo her curse , but Athena could not ; she gave him prophecy instead . Chelone At the marriage of Zeus and Hera , a nymph named Chelone was disrespectful or refused to attend . Zeus thus , turned her into a tortoise . The Golden Fleece Hera hated Pelias because he had killed Sidero , his step - grandmother , in one of the goddess 's temples . She later convinced Jason and Medea to kill Pelias . The Golden Fleece was the item that Jason needed to get his mother freed . The Metamorphoses In Thrace , Hera and Zeus turned King Haemus and Queen Rhodope into mountains , the Balkan ( Haemus Mons ) and Rhodope Mountains respectively , for their hubris in comparing themselves to the gods . Ixion When Zeus had pity on Ixion and brought him to Olympus and introduced him to the gods , instead of being grateful , Ixion grew lustful for Hera . Zeus found out about his intentions and made a cloud in the shape of Hera , who was later named Nephele , and tricked Ixion into coupling with it and from their union came Centaurus . So Ixion was expelled from Olympus and Zeus ordered Hermes to bind Ixion to a winged fiery wheel that was always spinning . Therefore , Ixion was bound to a burning solar wheel for all eternity , at first spinning across the heavens , but in later myth transferred to Tartarus . Genealogy ( edit ) ( hide ) Hera 's family tree Uranus Gaia Uranus ' genitals Cronus Rhea Zeus HERA Poseidon Hades Demeter Hestia a b Ares Hephaestus Metis Athena Leto Apollo Artemis Maia Hermes Semele Dionysus Dione a b Aphrodite Art and events ( edit ) Greek mythology portal Hellenismos portal Barberini Hera - a Roman sculpture of Hera / Juno Hera Borghese - sculpture related to Hera Hera Farnese - sculpture of Hera 's head Heraea Games - games dedicated to Hera -- the first sanctioned ( and recorded ) women 's athletic competition to be held in the stadium at Olympia . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Ruck , Carl A.P. , and Danny Staples , The World of Classical Myth , 1994 . Jump up ^ Walter Burkert , Greek Religion , ( Harvard University Press ) 1985 , p. 131 Jump up ^ Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia , The Book People , Haydock , 1995 , p. 215 . Jump up ^ ἐρατός at LSJ Jump up ^ Plato , Cratylus , 404c Jump up ^ On Isis and Osiris , 32 Jump up ^ Burkert , p. 131 . Jump up ^ Chadwick , The Mycenaean World ( Cambridge University Press ) 1976 : 87 . Jump up ^ Windekens , in Glotta 36 ( 1958 ) , pp. 309 - 11 . Jump up ^ R.S.P. Beekes , Etymological Dictionary of Greek , Brill , 2009 , p. 524 . Jump up ^ `` The Linear B word e-ra '' . Palaeolexicon . Word study tool of Ancient languages . Raymoure , K.A. `` e-ra '' . Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean . Jump up ^ Martin Persson Nilsson , The Minoan - Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion ( Lund ) 1950 pt . I. ii `` House Sanctuaries '' , pp 77 - 116 ; H.W. Catling , `` A Late Bronze Age House - or Sanctuary - Model from the Menelaion , Sparta , '' BSA 84 ( 1989 ) 171 - 175 . Jump up ^ Burkert , p. 132 , including quote ; Burkert : Orientalizing Revolution . Jump up ^ Her name appears , with Zeus and Hermes , in a Linear B inscription ( Tn 316 ) at Mycenean Pylos ( John Chadwick , The Mycenaean World ( Cambridge University Press ) 1976 : 89 ) . Jump up ^ P.C. Sestieri , Paestum , the City , the Prehistoric Acropolis in Contrada Gaudo , and the Heraion at the Mouth of the Sele ( Rome 1960 ) , p. 11 etc . `` It is odd that there was no temple dedicated to Poseidon in a city named for him ( Paestum was originally called Poseidonia ) . Perhaps there was one at Sele , the settlement that preceded Paestum , '' Sarantis Symeonoglou suggested ( Symeonoglou , `` The Doric Temples of Paestum '' Journal of Aesthetic Education , 19. 1 , Special Issue : Paestum and Classical Culture : Past and Present ( Spring 1985 : 49 - 66 ) p. 50 . Jump up ^ `` The goddesses of Greek polytheism , so different and complementary '' ; Greek mythology scholar Walter Burkert has observed , in Homo Necans ( 1972 ) 1983 : 79f , `` are nonetheless , consistently similar at an earlier stage , with one or the other simply becoming dominant in a sanctuary or city . Each is the Great Goddess presiding over a male society ; each is depicted in her attire as Mistress of the Beasts , and Mistress of the Sacrifice , even Hera and Demeter . '' Jump up ^ Iliad , ii. 781 - 783 ) Jump up ^ The Iliad by Homer - Project Gutenberg Jump up ^ Bachofen , Mutterrecht 1861 , as Mother Right : An Investigation of the Religious and Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World . Bachofen was seminal in the writings of Jane Ellen Harrison and other students of Greek myth . Jump up ^ Slater 1968 . Jump up ^ Steven Goldberg , The Inevitability of Patriarchy , ( William Morrow & Company , 1973 ) ; Joan Bamberger , ' The Myth of Matriarchy : Why Men Rule in Primitive Society ' , in M Rosaldo and L Lamphere , Women , Culture , and Society , ( Stanford , California : Stanford University Press , 1974 ) , pp. 263 - 280 ; Donald E. Brown , Human Universals ( Philadelphia : Temple University Press ) , 1991 ; Steven Goldberg , Why Men Rule , ( Chicago , Illinois : Open Court Publishing Company , 1993 ) ; Cynthia Eller , The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory : Why an Invented Past Wo n't Give Women a Future , ( Boston : Beacon Press , 2001 ) ; Jonathan Marks , ' Essay 8 : Primate Behavior ' , in The Un-Textbook of Biological Anthropology , ( Unpublished , 2007 ) , p. 11 ; Encyclopædia Britannica describes this view as `` consensus '' , listing matriarchy as a hypothetical social system . ' Matriarchy ' Encyclopædia Britannica , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Cronus Greek god '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 04 . Jump up ^ Farnell , I 191 , Jump up ^ Pausanias , 9.2. 7 - 9.3. 3 ; Pausanias explains this by telling the myth of the Daedala . Jump up ^ Farnell , I 194 , citing Pausanias 8.22. 2 ' Pindar refers to the `` praises of Hera Parthenia ( the Maidenly ) '' Olympian ode 6.88 Jump up ^ S. Casson : `` Hera of Kanathos and the Ludovisi Throne '' The Journal of Hellenic Studies 40. 2 ( 1920 ) , pp. 137 - 142 , citing Stephanus of Byzantium sub Ernaion . Jump up ^ Pausanias , 2.38. 2 - 3 . Jump up ^ Robert Graves ( 1955 ) , The Greek Myths . Jump up ^ Barbara G. Walker ( 1983 ) , The Women 's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets , p. 392 ISBN 0 - 06 - 250925 - X Jump up ^ Seznec , Jean , The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art , 1953 Jump up ^ Pausanias , iii. 15 . § 7 Jump up ^ James Joseph Clauss , Sarah Iles Johnston . Medea : Essays on Medea in myth , literature , philosophy , and art , 1997 . p. 46 Jump up ^ Henry George Liddell , Robert Scott . A Greek - English Lexicon Jump up ^ Heinrich Schliemann . Ilios : The city and country of the Trojans , 1881 . ^ Jump up to : Homeric Hymns ^ Jump up to : D'Aulaire , Ingri ; D'Aulaire , Edgar Parin ( 1992 ) . D'Aulaires ' Book of Greek Myths . Delacorte Books for Young Readers . ISBN 0440406943 . Jump up ^ See , Sally ( 2014 - 12 - 25 ) . The Greek Myths . S&T . Jump up ^ Scholia on Theocritus , Idyll 2 . 12 referring to Sophron ^ Jump up to : Theogony 921 -- 922 . Jump up ^ Hesiod , Theogony 921 -- 922 ; Homer , Odyssey 11 . 604 -- 605 ; Pindar , Isthmian 4.59 -- 60 ; Apollodorus , 1.3. 1 , and later authors . ^ Jump up to : Detienne , Marcel ( 2002 - 11 - 25 ) . The Writing of Orpheus : Greek Myth in Cultural Context . JHU Press . ISBN 9780801869549 . Jump up ^ Theogony 924 -- 929 . Jump up ^ In Homer , Odyssey viii. 312 Hephaestus addresses `` Father Zeus '' ; cf . Homer , Iliad i . 578 ( some scholars , such as Gantz , Early Greek Myth , p. 74 , note that Hephaestus ' reference to Zeus as ' father ' here may be a general title ) , xiv. 338 , xviii. 396 , xxi. 332 . See also Cicero , De Natura Deorum 3.22 . ^ Jump up to : Deris , Sara ( 2013 - 06 - 06 ) . `` Examining the Hephaestus Myth through a Disability Studies Perspective '' . Prandium : The Journal of Historical Studies at U of T Mississauga. 2 ( 1 ) . Jump up ^ The return of Hephaestus on muleback to Olympus accompanied by Dionysus was a theme of the Attic vase - painters , whose wares were favored by Etruscans . The return of Hephaestus was painted on the Etruscan tomb at the `` Grotta Campana '' near Veii ( identified by Peterson ; the `` well - known subject '' was doubted in this instance by A.M. Harmon , `` The Paintings of the Grotta Campana '' , American Journal of Archaeology 16. 1 ( January - March 1912 ) : 1 - 10 ) ; for further examples , see Hephaestus # Return to Olympus . Jump up ^ Decker , Jessica Elbert ( 2016 - 11 - 16 ) . `` Hail Hera , Mother of Monsters ! Monstrosity as Emblem of Sexual Sovereignty '' . Women 's Studies . 45 ( 8 ) : 743 -- 757 . ISSN 0049 - 7878 . doi : 10.1080 / 00497878.2016. 1232021 . Jump up ^ Homeric Hymn to Apollo 306 -- 348 . Stesichorus , Fragment 239 ( Campbell , pp. 166 -- 167 ) also has Hera produce Typhon alone to `` spite Zeus '' . Jump up ^ Gantz , p. 49 , remarks on the strangeness of such a description for one who would challenge the gods . Jump up ^ Kirk , Raven , and Schofield . pp. 59 -- 60 no . 52 ; Ogden 2013b , pp. 36 -- 38 ; Gantz , pp. 50 -- 51 , Ogden 2013a , p. 76 n . 46 . ^ Jump up to : Evslin , Bernard ( 2012 - 10 - 30 ) . Gods , Demigods and Demons : An Encyclopedia of Greek Mythology . Open Road Media . ISBN 9781453264386 . Jump up ^ `` The Origin of the Milky Way in the National Gallery on JSTOR '' ( PDF ) . www.jstor.org . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Kerenyi , p 131 ^ Jump up to : `` Pindar on the Birth of Apollo on JSTOR '' ( PDF ) . www.jstor.org . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ Ovid , Metamorphoses I. 624ff and II. 531 . The peacock ( Greek taos ) , not native to Greece or Western Asia , was unknown to Hellenes until the time of Alexander the Great . Jump up ^ Scholiast on Homer 's Iliad ; Hyginus , Fabulae 54 ; Ovid , Metamorphoses 11.217 . Jump up ^ Apollodorus , Library 3.168 . Jump up ^ Pindar , Nemean 5 ep2 ; Pindar , Isthmian 8 str3 -- str5 . Jump up ^ Hesiod , Catalogue of Women fr. 57 ; Cypria fr. 4 . Jump up ^ Photius , Myrobiblion 190 . Jump up ^ Hyginus , Fabulae 92 . Jump up ^ Apollodorus Epitome E. 3.2 ^ Jump up to : Homer . The Iliad . Jump up ^ Metamorphoses , iii. 341 - 401 . Jump up ^ Hamilton , Edith ( 1969 ) . `` Mythology '' . Jump up ^ Seyffert Dictionary Jump up ^ Ovid , Metamorphoses 6.89 - 91 Jump up ^ Herodotus ' History , Book I Jump up ^ Hygini , Fabulae , LXXV Jump up ^ Ovid , Metamorphoses 6.87 Jump up ^ Kerenyi 1951 , p. 160 Jump up ^ This chart is based upon Hesiod 's Theogony , unless otherwise noted . Jump up ^ According to Homer , Iliad 1.570 -- 579 , 14.338 , Odyssey 8.312 , Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus , see Gantz , p. 74 . Jump up ^ According to Hesiod , Theogony 927 -- 929 , Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone , with no father , see Gantz , p. 74 . Jump up ^ According to Hesiod , Theogony 886 -- 890 , of Zeus ' children by his seven wives , Athena was the first to be conceived , but the last to be born ; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her , later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena `` from his head '' , see Gantz , pp. 51 -- 52 , 83 -- 84 . Jump up ^ According to Hesiod , Theogony 183 -- 200 , Aphrodite was born from Uranus ' severed genitals , see Gantz , pp. 99 -- 100 . Jump up ^ According to Homer , Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus ( Iliad 3.374 , 20.105 ; Odyssey 8.308 , 320 ) and Dione ( Iliad 5.370 -- 71 ) , see Gantz , pp. 99 -- 100 . References ( edit ) Burkert , Walter , Greek Religion 1985 . Burkert , Walter , The Orientalizing Revolution : Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age , 1998 Farnell , Lewis Richard , The cults of the Greek states I : Zeus , Hera Athena Oxford , 1896 . Gantz , Timothy , Early Greek Myth : A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources , Johns Hopkins University Press , 1996 , Two volumes : ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 5360 - 9 ( Vol. 1 ) , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 5362 - 3 ( Vol. 2 ) . Graves , Robert , The Greek Myths 1955 . Use with caution . Hesiod , Theogony , in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn - White , Cambridge , MA. , Harvard University Press ; London , William Heinemann Ltd. 1914 . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library . Homer , The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray , Ph. D. in two volumes . Cambridge , MA. , Harvard University Press ; London , William Heinemann , Ltd. 1924 . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library . Homer ; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray , PH. D. in two volumes . Cambridge , MA. , Harvard University Press ; London , William Heinemann , Ltd. 1919 . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library . Kerenyi , Carl , The Gods of the Greeks 1951 ( paperback 1980 ) Kerenyi , Karl , 1959 . The Heroes of the Greeks Especially Heracles . Kirk , G.S. , J.E. Raven , M. Schofield , The Presocratic Philosophers : A Critical History with a Selcetion of Texts , Cambridge University Press , Dec 29 , 1983 . ISBN 9780521274555 . Ogden , Daniel ( 2013a ) , Drakon : Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds , Oxford University Press , 2013 . ISBN 9780199557325 . Ogden , Daniel ( 2013b ) , Dragons , Serpents , and Slayers in the Classical and early Christian Worlds : A sourcebook , Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 992509 - 4 . Ruck , Carl A.P. , and Danny Staples , The World of Classical Myth 1994 Seyffert , Oskar . Dictionary of Classical Antiquities 1894 . ( On - line text ) Seznec , Jean , The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art , 1953 Slater , Philip E. The Glory of Hera : Greek Mythology and the Greek Family ( Boston : Beacon Press ) 1968 ( Princeton University 1992 ISBN 0 - 691 - 00222 - 3 ) Concentrating on family structure in 5th - century Athens ; some of the crude usage of myth and drama for psychological interpreting of `` neuroses '' is dated . Smith , William ; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology , London ( 1873 ) . `` Gali'nthias '' External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hera . 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415335207208345072 | List of countries by number of Internet users | List of countries by number of Internet users - Wikipedia List of countries by number of Internet users Jump to : navigation , search Further information : Global Internet usage This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( August 2017 ) Internet users per 100 inhabitants Source : International Telecommunications Union . Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country 's population Source : International Telecommunications Union . Number of Internet users in 2012 Source : International Telecommunications Union . Below is a sortable list of countries by number of Internet users as of 2016 . Internet users are defined as persons who accessed the Internet in the last 12 months from any device , including mobile phones . The percentages on the list are the percentages of each country 's population that are Internet users . Estimates are derived from either household surveys or from Internet subscription data . All United Nations member states are listed . A disputed territory , Taiwan , is listed as a sovereign country . Worldwide Internet users 2005 2016 World population 6.5 billion 6.9 billion 7.3 billion Users worldwide 16 % 30 % 47 % Users in the developing world 8 % 21 % 40 % Users in the developed world 51 % 67 % 81 % Estimate . Source : International Telecommunications Union . Internet users by region 2005 2016 Africa 2 % 10 % 25 % Americas 36 % 49 % 65 % Arab States 8 % 26 % 42 % Asia and Pacific 9 % 23 % 42 % Commonwealth of Independent States 10 % 34 % 67 % Europe 46 % 67 % 79 % Estimate . Source : International Telecommunication Union . Contents ( hide ) 1 List 2 See also 3 References 4 External links List ( edit ) Country or area Internet users Rank Percentage Rank China 746,662,194 53.20 % 109 India 391,292,635 29.55 % 143 United States 245,436,423 76.18 % 54 Brazil 123,927,230 59.68 % 90 Japan 117,528,631 5 92.00 % 15 Russia 110,003,284 6 76.41 % 53 Mexico 75,937,568 7 59.54 % 92 Germany 73,436,503 8 89.65 % 20 Indonesia 66,244,991 9 25.37 % 157 United Kingdom 62,354,410 10 94.78 % 11 Philippines 57,342,723 11 55.50 % 101 France 55,413,854 12 85.62 % 29 Nigeria 47,743,541 13 25.67 % 153 South Korea 47,094,267 14 92.72 % 14 Turkey 46,395,500 15 58.35 % 95 Vietnam 43,974,618 16 46.50 % 120 Iran 42,731,675 17 53.23 % 107 Egypt 37,519,531 18 39.21 % 130 Spain 37,337,607 19 80.56 % 35 Italy 36,442,438 20 61.32 % 86 Thailand 32,710,169 21 47.50 % 116 Canada 32,602,776 22 89.84 % 19 Argentina 30,758,972 23 70.15 % 70 South Africa 30,248,355 24 54.00 % 106 Pakistan 29,965,859 25 15.51 % 179 Bangladesh 29,738,660 26 18.25 % 175 Colombia 28,287,098 27 58.14 % 97 Poland 28,018,492 28 73.30 % 62 Malaysia 24,572,446 29 78.79 % 45 Saudi Arabia 23,803,319 30 73.75 % 61 Ukraine 23,321,390 31 52.48 % 110 Australia 21,288,648 32 88.24 % 23 Morocco 20,555,783 33 58.27 % 96 Venezuela 18,940,907 34 60.00 % 88 Taiwan 18,786,473 35 79.75 % 41 Algeria 17,440,299 36 42.95 % 126 Ethiopia 15,739,371 37 15.37 % 180 Netherlands 15,358,245 38 90.41 % 18 Uzbekistan 14,713,955 39 46.79 % 117 Peru 14,444,387 40 45.46 % 122 Kazakhstan 13,814,581 41 76.80 % 51 Myanmar 13,258,325 42 25.07 % 159 Kenya 12,600,007 43 26.00 % 152 Chile 11,822,229 44 66.01 % 82 Romania 11,767,959 45 59.50 % 93 Sudan 11,082,072 46 28.00 % 147 Belgium 9,827,270 47 86.52 % 28 Ghana 9,779,273 48 34.67 % 134 Uganda 9,077,567 49 21.88 % 167 Sweden 9,002,326 50 91.51 % 16 Ecuador 8,857,767 51 54.06 % 104 United Arab Emirates 8,398,268 52 90.60 % 17 Czech Republic 8,115,252 53 76.48 % 52 Iraq 7,898,106 54 21.23 % 169 Hungary 7,730,451 55 79.26 % 43 Greece 7,726,829 56 69.09 % 74 Azerbaijan 7,605,244 57 78.20 % 47 Switzerland 7,511,995 58 89.41 % 21 Austria 7,346,074 59 84.32 % 30 Portugal 7,303,699 60 70.42 % 69 Tanzania 7,224,386 61 13.00 % 184 Yemen 6,780,200 62 24.58 % 161 Belarus 6,741,258 63 71.11 % 67 Sri Lanka 6,665,916 64 32.05 % 138 Israel 6,535,440 65 79.78 % 40 Dominican Republic 6,530,903 66 61.33 % 85 Hong Kong 6,375,381 67 87.30 % 25 Ivory Coast 6,286,527 68 26.53 % 151 Serbia 5,914,748 69 67.06 % 77 Jordan 5,890,965 70 62.30 % 83 Syria 5,873,785 71 31.87 % 139 Cameroon 5,859,797 72 25.00 % 160 Tunisia 5,801,972 73 50.88 % 112 Guatemala 5,722,610 74 34.51 % 135 Nepal 5,706,708 75 19.69 % 173 Denmark 5,538,800 76 96.97 % 8 Norway 5,112,817 77 97.30 % 7 Mozambique 5,050,924 78 17.52 % 178 Democratic Republic of the Congo 4,889,515 79 6.21 % 200 Finland 4,826,246 80 87.70 % 24 Lebanon 4,571,675 81 76.11 % 55 Singapore 4,554,189 82 81.00 % 34 Cuba 4,449,238 83 38.77 % 131 Slovakia 4,381,507 84 80.48 % 36 Bolivia 4,322,489 85 39.70 % 129 Bulgaria 4,266,773 86 59.83 % 89 Zambia 4,232,464 87 25.51 % 156 New Zealand 4,123,439 88 88.47 % 22 Cambodia 4,030,438 89 25.57 % 155 Senegal 3,954,620 90 25.66 % 154 Ireland 3,883,418 91 82.17 % 31 Angola 3,745,750 92 13.00 % 185 Zimbabwe 3,733,964 93 23.12 % 165 Afghanistan 3,673,539 94 10.6 % 192 Paraguay 3,453,445 95 51.35 % 111 Costa Rica 3,207,258 96 66.03 % 81 Kuwait 3,176,010 97 78.37 % 46 Oman 3,089,369 98 69.82 % 72 Croatia 3,063,044 99 72.70 % 65 Puerto Rico 2,946,059 100 80.32 % 37 Palestinian Authority 2,930,953 101 61.18 % 87 Moldova 2,882,322 102 71.00 % 68 Honduras 2,733,860 103 30.00 % 141 Burkina Faso 2,603,042 104 13.96 % 181 Bosnia and Herzegovina 2,438,208 105 69.33 % 73 Qatar 2,423,068 106 94.29 % 12 Rwanda 2,383,501 107 20.00 % 172 Uruguay 2,286,820 108 66.40 % 79 Panama 2,178,424 109 54.00 % 105 Lithuania 2,163,155 110 74.38 % 59 Kyrgyzstan 2,054,728 111 34.50 % 136 Mali 1,999,226 112 11.11 % 190 Georgia 1,962,702 113 50.00 % 113 Albania 1,941,925 114 66.36 % 80 El Salvador 1,839,969 115 29.00 % 145 Armenia 1,813,386 116 62.00 % 84 Tajikistan 1,788,044 117 20.47 % 170 Malawi 1,738,600 118 9.61 % 194 Latvia 1,574,256 119 79.89 % 39 Slovenia 1,568,786 120 75.50 % 57 Nicaragua 1,511,037 121 24.57 % 162 Macedonia 1,501,798 122 72.16 % 66 Laos 1,478,051 123 21.87 % 168 Bahrain 1,396,668 124 98.00 % Haiti 1,326,629 125 12.23 % 186 Benin 1,303,589 126 11.99 % 187 Jamaica 1,296,610 127 45.00 % 124 Libya 1,275,642 128 20.27 % 171 Guinea 1,214,801 129 9.80 % 193 Madagascar 1,172,533 130 4.71 % 203 Estonia 1,144,974 131 87.24 % 26 Turkmenistan 1,018,691 132 17.99 % 177 Trinidad and Tobago 1,000,517 133 73.30 % 63 Gabon 951,287 134 48.05 % 115 Niger 893,073 135 4.32 % 204 Cyprus 888,125 136 75.90 % 56 Botswana 885,702 137 27.50 % 149 Sierra Leone 870,532 138 11.77 % 188 Togo 860,280 139 11.31 % 189 South Sudan 819,459 140 6.70 % 199 Papua New Guinea 776,159 141 9.60 % 195 Mauritania 774,183 142 18.00 % 176 Namibia 769,455 143 31.03 % 140 Chad 722,627 144 5.00 % 202 Mongolia 674,201 145 22.27 % 166 Mauritius 671,833 146 53.23 % 108 Lesotho 602,965 147 27.36 % 150 Luxembourg 561,295 148 97.49 % 6 Burundi 544,097 149 5.17 % 201 Macau 499,773 150 81.64 % 32 Montenegro 439,276 151 69.88 % 71 Fiji 418,013 152 46.51 % 119 Republic of the Congo 416,217 153 8.12 % 196 Swaziland 383,723 154 28.57 % 146 The Gambia 377,123 155 18.50 % 174 Liberia 337,732 156 7.32 % 198 Bhutan 333,226 157 41.77 % 127 Malta 331,853 158 77.29 % 48 Iceland 326,622 159 98.24 % Timor Leste 320,339 160 25.25 % 158 Brunei 317,397 161 75.00 % 58 The Bahamas 312,986 162 80.00 % 38 Equatorial Guinea 290,470 163 23.78 % 164 Guyana 275,760 164 35.66 % 133 Somalia 269,178 165 1.88 % 207 Cabo Verde 259,906 166 48.17 % 114 Suriname 253,499 167 45.40 % 123 Maldives 252,761 168 59.09 % 94 Barbados 226,715 169 79.55 % 42 New Caledonia 194,707 170 74.00 % year 2015 60 French Polynesia 191,774 171 68.44 % 76 Central African Republic 183,785 172 4.00 % 205 Belize 163,588 173 44.58 % 125 Guam 125,446 174 77.01 % 49 Djibouti 123,728 175 13.13 % 183 Aruba 98,051 176 93.54 % 13 Saint Lucia 83,186 177 46.73 % 118 Andorra 75,681 178 97.93 % 5 Antigua and Barbuda 73,702 179 73.00 % 64 Guinea - Bissau 68,270 180 3.76 % 206 Solomon Islands 65,936 181 11.00 % 191 Vanuatu 64,896 182 24.00 % 163 Comoros 63,170 183 7.94 % 197 U.S. Virgin Islands 62,539 184 59.61 % 91 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 60,929 185 55.57 % 100 Bermuda 60,432 186 98.00 % Grenada 59,947 187 55.86 % 99 Eritrea 58,465 188 1.18 % 208 Samoa 57,386 189 29.41 % 144 São Tomé and Príncipe 55,974 190 28.00 % 148 Seychelles 53,248 191 56.51 % 98 Dominica 49,296 192 67.03 % 78 Cayman Islands 48,004 193 79.00 % 44 Faroe Islands 46,715 194 95.11 % 10 Tonga 42,795 195 39.95 % 128 Saint Kitts and Nevis 42,113 196 76.82 % 50 Jersey 38,958 197 41.03 % year 2012 - Greenland 38,642 198 68.50 % 75 Liechtenstein 36,946 199 98.09 % Monaco 36,654 200 95.21 % 9 Micronesia , Federated States of 34,996 201 33.35 % 137 Gibraltar 32,494 202 94.44 % - San Marino 16,484 203 54.21 % year 2009 103 Marshall Islands 15,808 204 29.79 % 142 Kiribati 15,672 205 13.70 % 182 British Virgin Islands 14,456 206 37.60 % year 2012 132 Anguilla 12,043 207 81.57 % 33 Tuvalu 5,106 208 46.01 % 121 Saint Helena 2,906 209 37.6 % year 2012 - Falkland Islands 2,881 210 99.02 % - Montserrat 2,833 211 54.60 % year 2013 102 Wallis and Futuna 1,383 212 8.95 % year 2012 - Niue 1,034 213 86.90 % year 2013 27 Ascension 361 214 41.0 % year 2012 - See also ( edit ) Jump up ^ The data for the number of Internet users is based on multiplying an estimate for the percentage of people using the Internet in a given country from one source ( usually the ITU ) by the population from another source ( usually the U.S. Census Bureau ) . There are not enough significant figures in the percentage estimate for the precise Internet user counts found in the table to be meaningful . As a result , they should not be treated as precise figures or even precise estimates . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Individuals using the Internet 2005 to 2014 '' , Key ICT indicators for developed and developing countries and the world ( totals and percentage rates ) , International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) . Retrieved 25 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Internet users per 100 inhabitants 1997 to 2007 '' , ICT Data and Statistics ( IDS ) , International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) . Retrieved 25 May 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000 - 2012 '' , International Telecommunications Union ( Geneva ) , June 2013 , retrieved 22 June 2013 Jump up ^ `` Definitions of World Telecommunication / ICT Indicators , March 2010 '' ( PDF ) . International Telecommunication Union ( Geneva ) . March 2010 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 20 December 2014 . Retrieved 28 October 2015 -- via Internet Archive . Jump up ^ `` Total Midyear Population for the World : 1950 - 2050 '' `` . International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies , U.S. Census Bureau . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` ICT Facts and Figures 2005 , 2010 , 2014 '' . Telecommunication Development Bureau , International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` ICT Facts and Figures 2005 , 2010 , 2016 '' . Telecommunication Development Bureau , International Telecommunication Union ( ITU ) . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 24 . External links ( edit ) `` Internet Monitor '' , a research project of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University to evaluate , describe , and summarize the means , mechanisms , and extent of Internet access , content controls and activity around the world . Internet in Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde ( Cabo Verde ) Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast ( Côte d'Ivoire ) Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla ( Spain ) Madeira ( Portugal ) Mayotte / Réunion ( France ) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha ( United Kingdom ) Lists of countries by mass media rankings Indices e-Government Government Broadband Index ICT Development Index Networked Readiness Index Internet Broadband Censorship and surveillance Connection speed Hosts IPv4 addresses Users Phones 4G LTE penetration Smartphones Mobile banking Mobile phones Telephone lines Other Books published Television stations List of international rankings List of top international rankings by country Lists by country Telecommunications History Beacon Broadcasting Cable protection system Cable TV Communications satellite Computer network Drums Electrical telegraph Fax Heliographs Hydraulic telegraph Internet Mass media Mobile phone Optical telecommunication Optical telegraphy Pager Photophone Prepay mobile phone Radio Radiotelephone Satellite communications Semaphore Smartphone Smoke signals Telecommunications history Telautograph Telegraphy Teleprinter ( teletype ) Telephone The Telephone Cases Television Timeline of communication technology Undersea telegraph line Videoconferencing Videophone Videotelephony Whistled language Pioneers Edwin Howard Armstrong John Logie Baird Paul Baran Alexander Graham Bell Tim Berners - Lee Jagadish Chandra Bose Vint Cerf Claude Chappe Donald Davies Lee de Forest Philo Farnsworth Reginald Fessenden Elisha Gray Erna Schneider Hoover Charles K. 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852836678165413294 | Limestone | Limestone - wikipedia Limestone Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Limestone ( disambiguation ) . Limestone Sedimentary rock Limestone outcrop in the Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of Málaga , Spain Composition Calcium carbonate : inorganic crystalline calcite or organic calcareous material Limestone is a sedimentary rock , composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral , forams and molluscs . Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO ) . About 10 % of sedimentary rocks are limestones . The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes , in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years . Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock . Limestone has numerous uses : as a building material , an essential component of concrete ( Portland cement ) , as aggregate for the base of roads , as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints , as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime , as a soil conditioner , or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Description 2 Classification 2.1 Folk classification 2.2 Dunham classification 3 Limestone landscape 4 Uses 4.1 Occupational safety and health 4.1. 1 United States 5 Degradation by organisms 6 Gallery 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Description ( edit ) Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek , Virginia , USA Cutting limestone blocks at a quarry in Gozo , Malta Limestone as building material La Zaplaz formations in the Piatra Craiului Mountains , Romania . Like most other sedimentary rocks , most limestone is composed of grains . Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera . These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite , and leave these shells behind when they die . Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids , peloids , intraclasts , and extraclasts . Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert ( chalcedony , flint , jasper , etc . ) or siliceous skeletal fragment ( sponge spicules , diatoms , radiolarians ) , and varying amounts of clay , silt and sand ( terrestrial detritus ) carried in by rivers . Some limestones do not consist of grains at all , and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite , i.e. travertine . Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters ( groundwater that precipitates the material in caves ) . This produces speleothems , such as stalagmites and stalactites . Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone , which can be recognized by its granular ( oolite ) appearance . The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms . Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs , building upon past generations . Below about 3,000 meters , water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly , so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters ( see lysocline ) . Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments . Calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater , depending on several factors , including the water temperature , pH , and dissolved ion concentrations . Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility , in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases . Impurities ( such as clay , sand , organic remains , iron oxide , and other materials ) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors , especially with weathered surfaces . Limestone may be crystalline , clastic , granular , or massive , depending on the method of formation . Crystals of calcite , quartz , dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock . When conditions are right for precipitation , calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together , or it can fill fractures . Travertine is a banded , compact variety of limestone formed along streams ; particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs . Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite . Tufa , a porous or cellular variety of travertine , is found near waterfalls . Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells . During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process ( orogeny ) , limestone recrystallizes into marble . Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group . Classification ( edit ) See also : List of types of limestone Two major classification schemes , the Folk and the Dunham , are used for identifying limestone and carbonate rocks . Folk classification ( edit ) Main article : Folk classification Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks . Based on composition , there are three main components : allochems ( grains ) , matrix ( mostly micrite ) , and cement ( sparite ) . The Folk system uses two - part names ; the first refers to the grains and the second is the root . It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme , because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample . Dunham classification ( edit ) Main article : Dunham classification The Dunham scheme focuses on depositional textures . Each name is based upon the texture of the grains that make up the limestone . Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962 ; it focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks . Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles . Dunham names are essentially for rock families . His efforts deal with the question of whether or not the grains were originally in mutual contact , and therefore self - supporting , or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats . Unlike the Folk scheme , Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock . The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture , not the grains in the sample . Limestone landscape ( edit ) Main article : Karst topography The Cudgel of Hercules , a tall limestone rock ( Pieskowa Skała Castle in the background ) About 10 % of all sedimentary rocks are limestones . Limestone is partially soluble , especially in acid , and therefore forms many erosional landforms . These include limestone pavements , pot holes , cenotes , caves and gorges . Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts . Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks , but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks . It is therefore usually associated with hills and downland , and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks , typically clays . Karst topography and caves develop in limestone rocks due to their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater . The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes . Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above - ground sources ( ponds and streams ) , as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone . While draining , water and organic acid from the soil slowly ( over thousands or millions of years ) enlarges these cracks , dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in solution . Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock . Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation . Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means . This process is known as bioerosion . It is most common in the tropics , and it is known throughout the fossil record ( see Taylor and Wilson , 2003 ) . Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth 's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands . Examples include the Burren in Co . Clare , Ireland ; the Verdon Gorge in France ; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight , England ; the Great Orme in Wales ; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland , the Niagara Escarpment in Canada / United States , Notch Peak in Utah , the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam and the hills around the Lijiang River and Guilin city in China . The Florida Keys , islands off the south coast of Florida , are composed mainly of oolitic limestone ( the Lower Keys ) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs ( the Upper Keys ) , which thrived in the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present . Unique habitats are found on alvars , extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles . The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland , Sweden . Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland , Sweden . Huge quarries in northwestern Europe , such as those of Mount Saint Peter ( Belgium / Netherlands ) , extend for more than a hundred kilometers . The world 's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company in Rogers City , Michigan . Uses ( edit ) The Megalithic Temples of Malta such as Ħaġar Qim are built entirely of limestone . They are among the oldest free - standing structures in existence . Limestone is very common in architecture , especially in Europe and North America . Many landmarks across the world , including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in Giza , Egypt , were made of limestone . So many buildings in Kingston , Ontario , Canada were , and continue to be , constructed from it that it is nicknamed the ' Limestone City ' . On the island of Malta , a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was , for a long time , the only building material available , and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures . Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving . Ancient American sculptors valued limestone because it was easy to work and good for fine detail . Going back to the Late Preclassic period ( by 200 -- 100 BCE ) , the Maya civilization ( Ancient Mexico ) created refined sculpture using limestone because of these excellent carving properties . The Maya would decorate the ceilings of their sacred buildings ( known as lintels ) and cover the walls with carved limestone panels . Carved on these sculptures were political and social stories , and this helped communicate messages of the king to his people . Limestone is long - lasting and stands up well to exposure , which explains why many limestone ruins survive . However , it is very heavy , making it impractical for tall buildings , and relatively expensive as a building material . The Great Pyramid of Giza , one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World had an outside cover made entirely from limestone . Riley County Courthouse built of limestone in Manhattan , Kansas , USA A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print . Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Train stations , banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone . It is used as a facade on some skyscrapers , but only in thin plates for covering , rather than solid blocks . In the United States , Indiana , most notably the Bloomington area , has long been a source of high quality quarried limestone , called Indiana limestone . Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone . Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred , since it is hard , durable , and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures . Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone . Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England . Limestone and ( to a lesser extent ) marble are reactive to acid solutions , making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone . Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain . Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain , acting as a pH buffering agent . Acid - based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone , which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline - based cleaner . Other uses include : It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime ( calcium oxide ) , slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) , cement and mortar . Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils ( agricultural lime ) . Is crushed for use as aggregate -- the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete . Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs ; As a reagent in flue - gas desulfurization , it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution control . Glass making , in some circumstances , uses limestone . It is added to toothpaste , paper , plastics , paint , tiles , and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler . It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines . Purified , it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium . Calcium levels in livestock feed are supplemented with it , such as for poultry ( when ground up ) . It can be used for remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels . Used in blast furnaces , limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove them from the iron . It is often found in medicines and cosmetics . It is used in sculptures because of its suitability for carving . Occupational Safety and Health ( edit ) People can be exposed to limestone in the workplace by inhalation of and eye contact with the dust . United States ( edit ) The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for limestone exposure in the workplace as 15 mg / m total exposure and 5 mg / m respiratory exposure over an 8 - hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 10 mg / m total exposure and 5 mg / m respiratory exposure over an 8 - hour workday . Degradation by organisms ( edit ) The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone ; as can the green alga Eugamantia sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa . Gallery ( edit ) A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee , U.S. The less - resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale . The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction . Thin - section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah , U.S. The round grains are ooids ; the largest is 1.2 mm in diameter . This limestone is an oosparite . Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation ( Upper Ordovician ) near Cincinnati , Ohio , U.S. Biosparite limestone of the Brassfield Formation ( Lower Silurian ) near Fairborn , Ohio , U.S. , showing grains mainly composed of crinoid fragments . A concretionary nodular ( septarian ) limestone at Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark , Dalian , China . Limestone from Lake Tai , used in gongshi , a Chinese stone art See also ( edit ) Chalk Coral sand Kurkar In Praise of Limestone Sandstone References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kranjc , Andrej ( 2006 ) . `` Balthasar Hacquet ( 1739 / 40 - 1815 ) , the Pioneer of Karst Geomorphologists '' . Acta Carsologica . Institute for the Karst Research , Scientific Research Centre , Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts . 35 ( 2 ) . ISSN 0583 - 6050 . Archived from the original on 31 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Roeser , Patricia ; Franz , Sven O. ; Litt , Thomas ( 1 December 2016 ) . `` Aragonite and calcite preservation in sediments from Lake Iznik related to bottom lake oxygenation and water column depth '' . Sedimentology. 63 ( 7 ) : 2253 -- 2277 . doi : 10.1111 / sed. 12306 . ISSN 1365 - 3091 . Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Trewin , N.H. ; Davidson , R.G. ( 1999 ) . `` Lake - level changes , sedimentation and faunas in a Middle Devonian basin - margin fish bed '' . Journal of the Geological Society . 156 ( 3 ) : 535 -- 548 . doi : 10.1144 / gsjgs. 156.3. 0535 . Jump up ^ Oilfield Glossary : Term ' evaporite ' Archived 31 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine ... Glossary.oilfield.slb.com . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ Folk , R.L. ( 1974 ) . Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks . Austin , Texas : Hemphill . Jump up ^ Dunham , R.J. ( 1962 ) . `` Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures '' . In Ham , W.E. Classification of carbonate rocks . Am. Assoc . Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1 . pp. 108 -- 121 . Jump up ^ `` Calcite '' . mine-engineer.com . Archived from the original on 3 March 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 13 . Jump up ^ Limestone ( mineral ) . Archived from the original on 31 October 2009 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Isle of Wight , Minerals '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2 November 2006 . Retrieved 2006 - 10 - 08 . Jump up ^ Michigan Markers Archived 19 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine ... Michmarkers.com . Retrieved on 2011 - 11 - 25 . Jump up ^ Cassar , Joann ( 2010 ) . ' The use of limestone in historic context '. in Smith , Bernard J. ( ed . ) , `` Limestone in the Built Environment : Present - day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past '' Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine ... Geographical Society of London . pp. 16 -- 18 . ISBN 1862392943 . ISBN 9781862392946 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome to the Limestone City '' . Archived from the original on 20 February 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 13 . Jump up ^ Cassar , Joann ( 2010 ) . ' The use of limestone in historic context '. in Smith , Bernard J. ( ed . ) , `` Limestone in the Built Environment : Present - day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past '' Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine ... Geographical Society of London . pp. 13 -- 23 . ISBN 1862392943 . ISBN 9781862392946 . Jump up ^ Linda Schele and Mary Ellen Miller , `` The Blood of Kings : Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art , '' Kimbell Art Museum . Page 41 . Jump up ^ Kogel , Jessica Elzea ( 2006 ) . Industrial Minerals & Rocks : Commodities , Markets , and Uses . SME . ISBN 9780873352338 . Archived from the original on 16 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` A Guide to Giving Your Layer Hens Enough Calcium '' . PoultyOne . Archived from the original on 3 April 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Nutrient minerals in drinking - water and the potential health consequences of consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking - water : Consensus of the meeting '' . World Health Organization report . Archived from the original on 24 December 2007 . Jump up ^ `` CDC -- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards -- Limestone '' . www.cdc.gov . Archived from the original on 20 November 2015 . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 19 . Jump up ^ Henry Lutz Ehrlich ; Dianne K Newman ( 2009 ) . Geomicrobiology , Fifth Edition . pp. 181 -- 182 . ISBN 9780849379079 . Archived from the original on 10 May 2016 . Further reading ( edit ) Taylor , P.D. and Wilson , M.A. , 2003 . Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities . Earth - Science Reviews 62 : 1 -- 103. ( 1 ) Folk RL , ( 1974 ) Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks , Hemphill Publishing , Austin , Texas Dunham , R.J. , 1962 , Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures , in Ham W.E. ( ed . ) , Classification of carbonate rocks : Am. Assoc . Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1 , p. 108 -- 121 Robert S. Boynton -- Chemistry and technology of lime and limestone -- Wiley ( 1980 ) -- 578 pages -- ISBN 0471027715 External links ( edit ) Media related to Limestone at Wikimedia Commons GND : 4163107 - 9 LCCN : sh85077017 NDL : 00570623 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limestone&oldid=843487942 '' Categories : Limestone Industrial minerals Sedimentary rocks Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Use dmy dates from March 2018 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Alemannisch Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Български Boarisch Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Magyar Македонски Malti Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan پنجابی Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 74 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018 , at 13 : 29 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where does the carbon in limestone come from | [
"Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts.",
"Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts.",
"Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts.",
"Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts."
] | [
"ooids",
"peloids",
"intraclasts",
"extraclasts"
] |
-3309804912376169069 | (What's the Story) Morning Glory? | ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? - Wikipedia ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with other songs titled `` Morning Glory '' . ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? Studio album by Oasis Released 2 October 1995 ( 1995 - 10 - 02 ) Recorded March 1995 , May -- June 1995 Studio Rockfield Studios , Monmouth , Wales Genre Britpop , rock Length 50 : 06 Label Creation Producer Owen Morris Noel Gallagher Oasis chronology Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) Be Here Now ( 1997 ) Singles from ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? `` Some Might Say '' Released : 24 April 1995 `` Roll with It '' Released : 14 August 1995 `` Morning Glory '' Released : 15 September 1995 `` Wonderwall '' Released : 30 October 1995 `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' Released : 19 February 1996 `` Champagne Supernova '' Released : 13 May 1996 ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? is the second studio album by English rock band Oasis , released on 2 October 1995 by Creation Records . It was produced by Owen Morris and the group 's guitarist Noel Gallagher . The structure and arrangement style of the album were a significant departure from the group 's previous record Definitely Maybe . Gallagher 's compositions were more focused in balladry and placed more emphasis on huge choruses , with the string arrangements and more varied instrumentation on the record contrasting with the rawness of the group 's debut album . ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was the group 's first album with drummer Alan White , who replaced Tony McCarroll . The record propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon , and according to various critics , was a significant record in the timeline of British indie music . The band 's most commercially successful release , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? sold a record - breaking 347,000 copies in its first week on sale , spent 10 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart , and reached number four in the US Billboard 200 . Singles from the album were successful in Britain , America and Australia : `` Some Might Say '' and `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' reached number one in the UK ; `` Champagne Supernova '' and `` Wonderwall '' reached number one on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart , with `` Wonderwall '' also topping the Australian and New Zealand singles charts . Although a commercial smash , the record received initially lukewarm reviews from mainstream music critics ; many contemporary reviewers deemed it inferior to Definitely Maybe , with the songwriting and production particular points of criticism . In the ensuing years , however , critical opinion towards the album reversed , and it is now generally considered a seminal record of both the Britpop era , and the 1990s in general . Over several months in 1995 and 1996 , the band performed an extensive world tour in support of the album . The most notable of the concerts were two Knebworth House performances in August to a combined crowd of 250,000 people . At the 1996 Brit Awards , the album won Best British Album . At the 2010 Brit Awards , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was named the greatest British album since 1980 . It has sold over 22 million copies worldwide , and appears on several lists of the greatest albums in rock music . As of July 2016 , it is the UK 's fifth best - selling album of all time , having sold over 4.7 million copies . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background and recording 2 Composition 3 Cover 4 Promotion 5 Release 6 Tour 7 Reception 8 Legacy 9 Track listing 9.1 Original release 9.2 Vinyl version 9.3 Singles box set 9.4 2014 reissue 10 Personnel 11 Charts 11.1 Weekly charts 11.2 Year - end charts 11.3 Decade - end charts 12 Certifications 13 See also 14 References Background and recording ( edit ) In May 1995 , in the wake of the critical and commercial success of their 1994 debut album , Definitely Maybe , Oasis began recording Morning Glory at Rockfield Studios in Wales , with Welshman Owen Morris and Noel Gallagher producing . By the time they were finished in June 1995 , Oasis were on the brink of becoming one of the most popular bands in the UK : the August 1995 Battle of Britpop incident in which Oasis and Blur had a chart battle over their singles `` Roll with It '' , and `` Country House '' , would propel them to mainstream awareness . The band recorded the album quickly : early on , averaging almost one song every twenty - four hours . However , tension arose between songwriter Noel Gallagher and his younger brother , lead singer Liam , when Noel wanted to sing lead vocals on either `` Wonderwall '' or `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' . The younger Gallagher considered this tantamount to a temporary exile from his own group . The issue dissipated momentarily as Noel was pleased with Liam 's vocal take of `` Wonderwall '' . However , tension returned due to Liam 's strained attempts to sing the high notes on `` Champagne Supernova '' . When Noel subsequently took his turn to record his vocals for `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' , Liam went to a local pub and came back accompanied by a crowd of people , including music journalist John Robb who was producing the band Cable in nearby studio Monnow Valley , Wales whilst recording was still underway . After an altercation with Cable that infuriated his brother , the siblings then began fighting viciously , the session was abandoned and recording was suspended . When the Gallagher brothers were reconciled three weeks later , the group spent another two weeks working on the album , followed by post-production work in London . Despite the friction involved between the Gallagher brothers , Owen Morris reflected in 2010 that : `` The sessions were the best , easiest , least fraught , most happily creative time I 've ever had in a recording studio . I believe people can feel and hear when music is dishonest and motivated by the wrong reasons . Morning Glory , for all its imperfection and flaws , is dripping with love and happiness . '' Paul Weller joined them in the studio and provided lead guitar and backing vocals for `` Champagne Supernova '' , and harmonica for the two untitled tracks known as `` The Swamp Song '' . Noel wrote the last song for the album , `` Cast No Shadow '' , on the train as he returned to the studio . Morris claimed the album was recorded in 15 days , at a pace of one song a day . `` Some Might Say '' proved problematic to record : the backing track was recorded in one take after Noel Gallagher and Morris drunkenly listened to the demo and decided the new version was played too fast , and Noel woke the rest of the band to re-record it . The backing track was faster than intended , with what Morris described as `` a really bad speed up during the first three bars of the first chorus '' , but the take had to be used because those involved were impressed with Liam 's vocals , and Morris had to mix the track three times , using delay and other processing to hide the mistakes . When the album was finished , Morris said it would `` wipe the field with any competition ... It 's astonishing . It 's the Bollocks for this decade . '' The brickwall mastering technique utilised during the recording of the album has led to some journalists claiming that it was responsible for initiating the loudness war , as its heavy use of compression , first widely used by Morris on Definitely Maybe , was leaps and bounds beyond what any other album up until then had attempted . Music journalist Nick Southall , who has written extensively on the loudness war , commented , `` If there 's a jump - the - shark moment as far as CD mastering goes then it 's probably Oasis . '' In Britpop and the English Music Tradition Andy Bennet and John Stratton noted that as a result of this technique `` the songs were especially loud . ( Liam ) Gallagher 's voice is foregrounded to the point that it appears to grow out of the mixes of the songs , exposing itself to execute a pseudo-live quality . '' Producer Owen Morris on the sound of the album Truth is ... the mixes I was doing back then ... and sadly , probably even now ... would never make an `` audiophile '' happy . I was n't the most technically adept of either recording or mix engineers ... but I tried hard , so kind of got the recordings recorded . The Oasis re-issues are pretty much exactly like the 1 / 2 '' master tapes are ... I was compressing very heavily as a definite artistic decision : it was more about trying to imply noise and power rather than worrying about competing with better recorded music . And a lot of the mixing on Def maybe and Morning Glory was about hiding the not so great playing ( by certain members ) , so the `` compressed mush '' was actually essential in my opinion . It was about delivery the songs , Liam 's vocals etc as best as possible , given the general overall ineptness of the backing tracks and sonic production . We were working fast then . I remember some comment from Alan White about when his brother Steve went in recording with Weller and Brendan Lynch recording that is was n't until day 3 or 4 at the earliest that they actually started recording ( cos they were `` positioning microphones '' etc until then ) . By day 3 or 4 with Oasis , we 'd already recorded 3 or 4 whole . complete , finished songs . And I was very anti production at the time having come out of what I though was a very soul-less couple of years with Johnny Marr where he was more interested in `` posh production values '' ( which have their place ) ... at the expense of actually just playing some bloody songs and recording music ( in my humble opinion ) . There 's bit 's that I regret about not being so sonically able in the studio at the time ... but honestly ... it 's ok . It 's just music . And we all did the best we could . Personally , I wish Noel / Ignition would 've let me personally re-master my albums : they would 've all benefited from cleverer processing ( I 've used a multi band compressor to create more `` shape '' happening between low end , mids and highs ) ... but I was over ruled . Ian Cooper did a good job , in that he did virtually nothing . The main thing that happened was on Morning Glory I asked to have a de-esser ( to get rid of Liam 's vocal sibilances ... my fault ... an oversight in mixing ... whoops ) on the mixes . I think they sound better cos of that . Sorry if you are not happy with these new versions . They are as the 1 \ 2 `` masters . And for that reason ( i.e. , the lack of my over eq'ing in mastering that I did at the time ) I think they are ok . Not brilliant . But ok . That 's my rant . Cheers , Owen Composition ( edit ) John Harris commented in his music history Britpop ! : Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock that much of the music on ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? seemed to be `` little more inspired than a string of musical hand - me - downs '' . Among the musical cues Harris noted on the album were Gary Glitter 's `` Hello , Hello I 'm Back Again '' ( `` Hello '' , Glitter was an influence on Britpop ) , the theme to the 1970s children 's programme You and Me and The Beatles ' `` While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' ( `` She 's Electric '' ) , and the influence of R.E.M 's `` The One I Love '' on `` Morning Glory '' . One song , `` Step Out '' , bore such a close resemblance to the song `` Uptight ( Everything 's Alright ) '' by Stevie Wonder that it was removed from the album shortly before release due to the threat of legal action . In Britpop ... , Bennet and Stratton analysed Liam Gallagher 's vocal style in significant detail , stressing its importance to the songs of the album ; `` ( Liam 's ) Mancunian accent blends into a register and timbre that works the gestural contours of the melody and lyrics . '' Bennet and Stratton went on to conclude that Liam 's ' over-personalized ' style on songs such as `` Wonderwall '' resulted in `` a beautiful sense of sentimentality that bespeaks the despondency of a generation . This occurs through the narrative structure of the song , vocal production , and the conventions of the singer 's cultural context . '' Noel Gallagher summed up his own perspective on the album 's aesthetic in an interview with Rolling Stone in 1995 ; `` Whilst ( Definitely Maybe ) is about dreaming of being a pop star in a band , What 's the Story is about actually being a pop star in a band . '' The album has a notable anthemic theme to its songs , differing from the rawness and edged rock of Definitely Maybe . The use of string arrangements and more varied instrumentation in songs such as `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' and `` Champagne Supernova '' was a significant departure from the band 's debut . This style had first been implemented by the band on their fifth single , `` Whatever '' , released in December 1994 . It was produced in conjunction with the London Symphony Orchestra , resulting in a much more pop - oriented and mellower sound ; this would be the template that would come to define many of the songs on What 's the Story . In the BBC documentary Seven Ages of Rock , former NME chief editor Steve Sutherland noted that `` with Morning Glory , ( Noel ) began to take seriously the notion of being the voice of a generation '' . Cover ( edit ) The cover is a picture of two men passing each other on Berwick Street in London . The two men are London DJ Sean Rowley and album sleeve designer Brian Cannon ( back to the camera ) . The album 's producer Owen Morris can be seen in the background , on the left footpath , holding the album 's master tape in front of his face . The location was chosen because the street was a popular location for record shops at the time . The cover cost £ 25,000 to produce . Promotion ( edit ) Whilst `` Some Might Say '' , a number one hit , had been released in April , the single chosen to directly precede the album 's release was `` Roll with It '' , planned for release on 14 August , six weeks before the album was due to hit the shelves . This was an unorthodox method for the time , contrasting the standard industry procedure of releasing the lead single three weeks before its parent album . Blur 's management had become worried that this would hinder the chances of the group 's forthcoming `` Country House '' single reaching number one the following week . As a reaction , Food Records pushed the release of `` Country House '' back a week and thus started what became known as ' The Battle of Britpop ' . The event triggered an unprecedented amount of exposure for both bands in national newspapers and on television news bulletins , supposedly symbolising the battle between the middle class of the south and the working class of the north . In the midst of the battle a Guardian newspaper headline proclaimed `` Working Class Heroes Lead Art School Trendies '' . In the event `` Country House '' outsold `` Roll with It '' by 54,000 , and topped the singles chart for a fortnight . Overall singles sales that week were up by 41 percent . In 2005 , John Harris reflected on the importance of the event in popularising Britpop ; `` ( as ) Blur 's `` Country House '' raced Oasis ' `` Roll with It '' to the top of the charts , just about every voice in the media felt compelled to express an opinion on the freshly inaugurated age of Britpop . '' During a promotional interview in September , the month before the album was released , Noel spoke about the rivalry with Damon Albarn and Alex James from Blur , and was quoted in the 17 September edition of The Observer saying he hoped `` the pair of them would catch AIDS and die because I fucking hate them two . '' Although Noel recanted and said that AIDS is no laughing matter , the quote caused a storm of controversy , with Noel having to write a letter of apology ; he later confessed that `` my whole world came crashing down in on me then '' . However , in an interview with The Guardian in 2005 , Blur 's guitarist Graham Coxon explained that he bore no malice towards Oasis . `` At least they were outright about it . They were n't pretending to like us and then slagging us off , which is what we 'd been used to . In that way , I quite appreciated them . '' Release ( edit ) What 's the Story was released on 2 October 1995 . The album sold quickly ; the Daily Mirror reported the day after release that central London HMV stores were selling copies of the album at a rate of two per minute . At the end of the first week of sales , the album had sold a record - breaking 347,000 copies , making it ( at the time ) the second - fastest - selling album in British history , behind Michael Jackson 's Bad . After initially entering the UK charts at number one , it hovered around the top three for the rest of the year before initiating a six - week stay at the top in mid January , followed by a further three weeks at number one in March . In total , the album did n't leave the top three for an astonishing seven months . After the fourth single from the album , `` Wonderwall '' , hit the top ten in several countries , including stays at number one in Australia , New Zealand and Spain , and a peak at number eight in the US , the album began to enjoy prolonged international success . Eventually the album had a five - week run at the top of the Australian albums chart and an eight - week run at the top of the New Zealand albums chart before topping charts in Canada , Ireland , Sweden and Switzerland . The album was also making significant waves in the US market as well , thanks in part to the success of the `` Wonderwall '' and `` Champagne Supernova '' singles on American modern rock radio . Both songs reached number one on the Modern Rock Chart and stayed there for ten and five weeks respectively . By early 1996 , What 's the Story was selling 200,000 copies a week , eventually peaking at number four and being certified four times platinum by the end of the year for shipments of over four million units . Tour ( edit ) Main article : ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? Tour The band embarked on what would become a 103 show world tour in support of the album over a period of several months in 1995 and 1996 . The tour started on 22 June 1995 with a pre-Glastonbury festival warm up gig at the 1,400 capacity Bath Pavilion , which featured the debut of new drummer Alan White and several new songs off the album , and ended on 4 December 1996 at the 11,800 capacity Mayo Civic Centre in Rochester , Minnesota , USA , and included concerts at Earls Court in November 1995 and Cardiff International Arena in March 1996 . The tour had many disruptions and cancellations due to Noel twice walking out of the group , and Liam pulling out of a US leg . In September 1995 , bass player Paul McGuigan walked out on the group after a flurry of verbal abuse from Liam whilst doing interviews in Paris . ' Guigsy ' cited nervous exhaustion as the reason for his departure . Scott Mcleod of The Ya - Yas was brought in as his replacement ; though , despite playing a string of gigs with the band and appearing in the video for the `` Wonderwall '' single , Mcleod was unable to adapt to the frenetic celebrity lifestyle , duly returning to Manchester halfway through an American promotional tour for the album . The band played a few dates , including an appearance on Late Show with David Letterman , as a four piece , before McGuigan was convinced to return for the group 's Earls Court shows in early November . When the band broke up for a brief time in late 1996 , several US tour dates and the entire Australia and New Zealand leg had to be cancelled . As the band began to reach the peak of their popularity , several large open - air concerts were organized in the UK during 1996 , including two gigs at Manchester City football stadium Maine Road , two nights at Loch Lomond in Scotland , and two nights at Knebworth House in front of a record 125,000 people each night ; an event that would come to be acknowledged as the height of the Britpop phenomenon , with one journalist commenting ; `` ( Knebworth ) could be seen as the last great Britpop performance ; nothing after would match its scale . '' At the time , the concerts were the biggest gigs ever held for a single band on UK soil , and to date remain the largest demand ever for a British concert ; with reportedly over 2,500,000 applications for tickets . The Earl 's Court and Maine Road gigs were filmed and later released as the Oasis VHS / DVD ... There and Then . Reception ( edit ) Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating AllMusic Encyclopedia of Popular Music Entertainment Weekly A − The Guardian Los Angeles Times NME 7 / 10 Pitchfork 8.9 / 10 Rolling Stone The Rolling Stone Album Guide Select 4 / 5 What 's the Story was released to lukewarm reviews from the mainstream music press . Many contemporary reviewers expressed disappointment at the album 's perceived inferiority to Definitely Maybe , taking aim at the ' banal lyrics ' and the unoriginal nature of the compositions . David Cavanagh of Q magazine said of the lyrics `` They scan ; they fill a hole ; end of story . They ( say ) nothing much about anything . '' Andy Gill of The Independent commented that `` She 's Electric '' is laddism of a tiresomely generic kind ( whilst ) `` Roll With It '' is drab and chummy . '' Perhaps the most damning review came from David Stubbs of the now - defunct Melody Maker . Despite stating that `` Some Might Say '' was `` the best single of the year '' , Stubbs went on to be critical of the album as a whole ; `` What 's the Story ( sounds ) laboured and lazy . On this evidence , Oasis are a limited band ... they sound knackered . '' In a positive review , Rolling Stone 's Jon Weiderhorn wrote that `` What 's the Story is more than a natural progression , it 's a bold leap forward that displays significant musical and personal growth . '' Weiderhorn went on to note that the ' stormy ' relationship between Liam and Noel proved to be one of the album 's strengths ; `` tension and instability have been inherent traits of great rock teams ... for Oasis , the addition of shared genes gives their songs extra impact and dimension . '' NME said that the album shows Oasis pursuing `` an altogether different direction ; away from the conscience - free overloaded hedonism towards an understanding of its consequences '' . The album finished 10th in the voting for The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll . In his book Britpop ! , John Harris concluded that the initial negative reviews of the time missed the album 's universal strengths . `` Those who fussed about the music 's more artful aspects were missing the point . The fact that ( Noel 's ) songs contained so many musical echoes seemed to couch the album in an air of homely reassurance . '' Harris believed that the `` ordinary '' nature of some of the album 's songs `` turned out to be part of its deeply populist appeal '' . Rob Sheffield , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , called the album `` a triumph , full of bluster and bravado but also moments of surprising tenderness '' . Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic in his retrospective review and gave it a two - star honorable mention , indicating a `` likable effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy . '' He cited `` She 's Electric '' and `` Roll with It '' as highlights and quipped `` give them credit for wanting it all -- and ( yet another Beatles connection ! ) playing guitars '' . Legacy ( edit ) ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? is considered to be a seminal record of the Britpop era and as one of the best albums of the nineties , and it appears in several charts as one of the greatest albums of all time . In 2010 , Rolling Stone commented that `` the album is a triumph , full of bluster , bravado and surprising tenderness . Morning Glory capped a true golden age for Britpop . '' The magazine ranked the album at 378 on its 2012 list of `` The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '' . The album 's enduring popularity within the UK was reflected when it won the BRITs Album of 30 years at the 2010 BRIT Awards . The award was voted by the public to decide the greatest ' Best Album ' winner in the history of the BRIT Awards . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . What 's the Story went on to become the best - selling album of the decade in the UK . With its fourteen platinum certifications from the British Phonographic Industry and four platinum certifications from the Recording Industry Association of America . The fourteen platinum certifications in the UK were the highest ever awarded to a single record until Adele 's 21 , released in 2011 . The success of the album resulted in Oasis becoming one of the biggest bands in the world , with substantial and considerable press coverage in the mainstream music press and frequent comparisons to the Beatles in the media . Liam and Noel Gallagher both featured prominently in gossip columns and daily tabloids throughout 1996 -- 97 . What 's the Story propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon after the momentum gained by the critically acclaimed Definitely Maybe . It has been pinpointed by music critics as a significant record in the timeline of British indie music , demonstrating just how far into the mainstream independent music had ventured . In 2005 , John Harris noted the significance of the album and `` Wonderwall '' in particular to Britpop 's legacy . `` When ( Oasis ) released Wonderwall , the rules of British music were decisively changed . From hereon in , the lighter - than - air ballad became obligatory , and the leather - trousers era of rock'n'roll was over . '' The success of the album in Britain resulted in Oasis becoming a cultural ubiquity for a brief period , featuring in tabloid newspapers on an almost daily basis and breaking sales records for live concerts . On the other hand , while reviewing the most overrated albums of all time , where Morning Glory ranked number 16 , writer Max Easton of FasterLouder wrote that the album is `` full of anthems for the sake of anthems , '' and that `` they 're all variations on only a couple of good ideas . '' He concluded by saying , `` What 's the Story 's lasting place in ' 90s folklore is less about the quality of the album , and more about the celebrity status and faux imagery attached to it . '' Track listing ( edit ) Original release ( edit ) All tracks written by Noel Gallagher , except where noted . No . Title Length 1 . `` Hello '' ( writers : Noel Gallagher , Gary Glitter , Mike Leander ) 3 : 21 2 . `` Roll with It '' 3 : 59 3 . `` Wonderwall '' 4 : 18 4 . `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' 4 : 48 5 . `` Hey Now ! '' 5 : 41 6 . Untitled ( also known as `` The Swamp Song -- Excerpt 1 '' ) 0 : 44 7 . `` Some Might Say '' 5 : 29 8 . `` Cast No Shadow '' 4 : 51 9 . `` She 's Electric '' 3 : 40 10 . `` Morning Glory '' 5 : 03 11 . Untitled ( also known as `` The Swamp Song -- Excerpt 2 '' ) 0 : 40 12 . `` Champagne Supernova '' 7 : 27 Vinyl version ( edit ) Side one No . Title Length 1 . `` Hello '' ( Gallagher , Glitter , Leander ) 3 : 21 2 . `` Roll with It '' 3 : 59 3 . `` Wonderwall '' 4 : 18 Side two No . Title Length 1 . `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' 4 : 48 2 . `` Hey Now ! '' 5 : 41 3 . Untitled ( also known as `` The Swamp Song -- Excerpt 1 '' ) 0 : 44 4 . `` Bonehead 's Bank Holiday '' 4 : 03 Side three No . Title Length 1 . `` Some Might Say '' 5 : 29 2 . `` Cast No Shadow '' 4 : 51 3 . `` She 's Electric '' 3 : 40 Side four No . Title Length 1 . `` Morning Glory '' 5 : 03 2 . Untitled ( also known as `` The Swamp Song -- Excerpt 2 '' ) 0 : 40 3 . `` Champagne Supernova '' 7 : 27 Singles box set ( edit ) ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? Box set by Oasis Released 4 November 1996 Recorded 1995 Genre Rock , Britpop Length 81 : 59 Label Creation Producer Owen Morris , Noel Gallagher Oasis box set chronology Definitely Maybe ( 1996 ) ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1996 ) The ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? box set was released on 4 November 1996 , featuring four discs of singles , including B - sides , and one disc of interviews . The album charted at number 24 on the UK Albums Chart . All songs written by Noel Gallagher , except `` Cum On Feel the Noize '' by Noddy Holder and Jim Lea ; `` Step Out '' co-written by Stevie Wonder , Henry Cosby and Sylvia Moy . Disc one No . Title Length 1 . `` Interviews '' 18 : 22 Disc two No . Title Length 1 . `` Some Might Say '' 5 : 28 2 . `` Talk Tonight '' 4 : 21 3 . `` Acquiesce '' 4 : 24 4 . `` Headshrinker '' 4 : 38 Disc three No . Title Length 1 . `` Roll with It '' 4 : 00 2 . `` It 's Better People '' 3 : 59 3 . `` Rockin ' Chair '' 4 : 36 4 . `` Live Forever '' ( Live at Glastonbury Festival , 1995 ) 4 : 40 Disc four No . Title Length 1 . `` Wonderwall '' 4 : 19 2 . `` Round Are Way '' 5 : 42 3 . `` The Swamp Song '' 4 : 15 4 . `` The Masterplan '' 5 : 23 Disc five No . Title Length 1 . `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' 4 : 47 2 . `` Step Out '' 3 : 40 3 . `` Underneath the Sky '' 3 : 20 4 . `` Cum On Feel the Noize '' 5 : 09 2014 reissue ( edit ) As part of a promotional campaign entitled Chasing the Sun , the album was re-released on 29 September 2014 . The 3 - disc deluxe edition includes remastered versions of the album and its associated b - sides from the four UK singles . Bonus content includes 5 demo tracks , and live choices taken from the band 's iconic gigs at Earls Court , Knebworth Park and Maine Road . All tracks written by Noel Gallagher , except where noted . 2014 reissue disc 1 : ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? No . Title Length 1 . `` Hello '' ( Noel Gallagher , Gary Glitter , Mike Leander ) 3 : 21 2 . `` Roll with It '' 3 : 59 3 . `` Wonderwall '' 4 : 18 4 . `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' 4 : 48 5 . `` Hey Now ! '' 5 : 41 6 . Untitled ( also known as `` The Swamp Song -- Excerpt 1 '' ) 0 : 44 7 . `` Some Might Say '' 5 : 29 8 . `` Cast No Shadow '' 4 : 51 9 . `` She 's Electric '' 3 : 40 10 . `` Morning Glory '' 5 : 03 11 . Untitled ( also known as `` The Swamp Song -- Excerpt 2 '' ) 0 : 40 12 . `` Champagne Supernova '' 7 : 27 Japanese Bonus Tracks ( SICP - 4152 ) No . Title Length 13 . `` Hello '' ( Demo ) 3 : 15 14 . `` Wonderwall '' ( Live at Knebworth Park ) 4 : 07 ( show ) 2014 reissue disc 2 : B - Sides No . Title Length 1 . `` Talk Tonight '' 4 : 24 2 . `` Acquiesce '' 4 : 29 3 . `` Headshrinker '' 4 : 42 4 . `` It 's Better People '' 4 : 01 5 . `` Rockin ' Chair '' 4 : 40 6 . `` Step Out '' ( Henry Cosby , Noel Gallagher , Sylvia Moy , Stevie Wonder ) 3 : 45 7 . `` Underneath the Sky '' 3 : 25 8 . `` Cum On Feel the Noize '' ( Jim Lea , Noddy Holder ) 5 : 13 9 . `` Round Are Way '' 5 : 45 10 . `` The Swamp Song '' 4 : 23 11 . `` The Masterplan '' 5 : 26 12 . `` Bonehead 's Bank Holiday '' 4 : 03 13 . `` Champagne Supernova '' ( Brendan Lynch mix ) 6 : 59 14 . `` You 've Got to Hide Your Love Away '' ( Lennon - McCartney ) 2 : 18 ( show ) 2014 reissue disc 3 : Rare Tracks No . Title Length 1 . `` Acquiesce '' ( live at Earls Court , London on 4 November 1995 ) 3 : 55 2 . `` Some Might Say '' ( demo . Recorded at soundcheck Club Quattro Tokyo , Japan on 14 September 1994 . ) 4 : 04 3 . `` Some Might Say '' ( live at Roskilde Festival , Denmark on 30 June 1995 ) 5 : 07 4 . `` She 's Electric '' ( demo . Recorded at Mauldeth Road West Studio , Manchester . ) 3 : 03 5 . `` Talk Tonight '' ( live at Bath Pavilion on 22 June 1995 ) 3 : 43 6 . `` Rockin ' Chair '' ( demo . Recorded at Mauldeth Road West Studio , Manchester . ) 4 : 05 7 . `` Hello '' ( live at Roskilde Festival , Denmark on 30 June 1995 ) 3 : 24 8 . `` Roll with It '' ( live at Roskilde Festival , Denmark on 30 June 1995 ) 4 : 08 9 . `` Morning Glory '' ( live at Roskilde Festival , Denmark on 30 June 1995 ) 4 : 48 10 . `` Hey Now ! '' ( demo . Recorded at soundcheck Club Quattro Tokyo , Japan on 14 September 1994 ) 3 : 08 11 . `` Bonehead 's Bank Holiday '' ( demo . Recorded at soundcheck Club Quattro Tokyo , Japan on 14 September 1994 ) 2 : 09 12 . `` Round Are Way '' ( MTV Unplugged . Royal Festival Hall , London on 23 August 1996 ) 4 : 52 13 . `` Cast No Shadow '' ( live at Maine Road , Manchester on 27 April 1996 ) 4 : 06 14 . `` The Masterplan '' ( live at Knebworth Park , Hertfordshire on 10 August 1996 ) 4 : 56 Personnel ( edit ) Oasis Liam Gallagher -- lead vocals , tambourine Noel Gallagher -- lead and acoustic guitar , vocals ( lead on `` Do n't Look Back in Anger , '' `` Talk Tonight , '' `` Step Out , '' `` The Masterplan , '' `` Bonehead 's Bank Holiday , '' and `` You 've Got To Hide Your Love Away '' ) , bass guitar , piano , mellotron , e-bow , production Paul `` Bonehead '' Arthurs -- rhythm and acoustic guitar , piano , mellotron , melodica , drunk vocals on `` Bonehead 's Bank Holiday '' Paul McGuigan -- bass guitar Alan White -- drums , percussion ( except on `` Some Might Say '' ) Tony McCarroll -- drums on `` Some Might Say '' Additional musician Paul Weller -- lead guitar and backing vocals on `` Champagne Supernova '' and harmonica on `` Untitled '' ( excerpt 1 and 2 ) . Additional personnel Owen Morris -- production Neil Dorfsman -- multichannel mixing ( SACD version ) David Swope -- assistant mixing ( SACD version ) Barry Grint -- original audio mastering at Abbey Road Studios ( now at Alchemy Soho ) Vlado Meller -- mastering ( SACD version ) Michael Spencer Jones -- photography Brian Cannon -- artwork , design Mathew Sankey -- assistant design Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1995 -- 96 ) Peak position Australian Albums Chart Austrian Albums Chart Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) 7 Belgian Albums Chart ( Wallonia ) Canadian Albums Chart Danish Albums Chart Dutch Albums Chart European Albums Chart Finnish Albums Chart 8 French Albums Chart 8 German Albums Chart Hungarian Albums Chart 32 Icelandic Albums Chart Irish Albums Chart Italian Albums Chart 5 Japanese Albums Chart 8 New Zealand Albums Chart Norwegian Albums Chart 5 Portuguese Albums Chart 6 Spanish Albums Chart Swedish Albums Chart Swiss Albums Chart UK Albums Chart US Billboard 200 Zimbabwean Albums Chart 5 Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1995 ) Position Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) 84 Belgian Albums Chart ( Wallonia ) 63 UK Albums ( OCC ) Chart ( 1996 ) Position Australian Albums ( ARIA ) Austrian Albums ( Ö3 Austria ) 19 Canadian Albums ( RPM ) Dutch Albums ( MegaCharts ) 29 French Albums ( SNEP ) 18 Italian Albums ( Hit Parade ) 18 Swiss Albums ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 10 UK Albums ( OCC ) US Billboard 200 13 Decade - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1990 -- 99 ) Position UK Albums ( OCC ) Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Argentina ( CAPIF ) Gold 30,000 Australia ( ARIA ) 8 × Platinum 560,000 Austria ( IFPI Austria ) Gold 25,000 Belgium ( BEA ) Gold 25,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) 8 × Platinum 800,000 Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) Gold 25,000 Finland ( Musiikkituottajat ) Gold 27,540 France ( SNEP ) Platinum 300,000 Germany ( BVMI ) Gold 250,000 Hong Kong ( IFPI Hong Kong ) Gold 10,000 Ireland ( IRMA ) 6 × Platinum 90,000 Italy ( FIMI ) Platinum 100,000 Japan ( RIAJ ) Platinum 200,000 Netherlands ( NVPI ) Gold 50,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Platinum 15,000 Norway ( IFPI Norway ) Platinum 50,000 South Korea ( Gaon Chart ) 11,838 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) 2 × Platinum 200,000 Sweden ( GLF ) Platinum 100,000 Switzerland ( IFPI Switzerland ) Gold 25,000 Thailand Gold 25,000 ^ United Kingdom ( BPI ) 14 × Platinum 4,700,000 United States ( RIAA ) 4 × Platinum 4,000,000 Summaries Europe ( IFPI ) 6 × Platinum 6,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone See also ( edit ) List of best - selling albums in the United Kingdom List of best - selling albums Top best - selling albums by UK Chart References ( edit ) Footnotes ^ Jump up to : `` Owen Morris on producing Morning Glory '' . oasis-recordinginfo.co.uk . ^ Jump up to : Seven Ages of Rock : What the World is Waiting For Jump up ^ Hung , Steffen . `` Oasis -- Wonderwall '' . australian-charts.com . Retrieved 10 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Lady Gaga wins Brit Awards triple '' . BBC News . 16 February 2010 . Retrieved 10 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 50 fastest selling albums ever '' . NME . ^ Jump up to : Gumble , Daniel ( 5 July 2016 ) . `` UK 's 60 Biggest Selling Albums of All Time '' . Music Week . Intent Media . Retrieved 9 December 2016 . ^ Jump up to : The Mojo Collection . Canongate Books . 1 November 2007 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84767 - 643 - 6 . Retrieved 11 January 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Harris , John ( 12 August 2005 ) . `` Remember the first time '' . Music . The Guardian . London . ISSN 0261 - 3077 . OCLC 60623878 . Retrieved 9 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Britton , Amy ( Nov 2011 ) . Revolution Rock : The Albums Which Defined Two Ages . AuthorHouse . p. 232 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4678 - 8711 - 3 . Retrieved 9 January 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Reed , John ( 2005 ) . Paul Weller : my ever changing moods . Music Sales Group . p. 238 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84449 - 491 - 0 . Retrieved 12 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Reed , John ( 2005 ) . Paul Weller : my ever changing moods . Music Sales Group . p. 298 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84449 - 491 - 0 . Retrieved 12 January 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Morris , Owen . `` The Rise and Fall of Me Recording Oasis '' . owenmorris.net . Retrieved 24 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 227 Jump up ^ `` Imperfect Sound Forever -- Stylus Magazine '' . stylusmagazine.com . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Stratton ; Bennet , p. 149 Jump up ^ http://forums.stevehoffman.tv/threads/email-from-owen-morris-about-the-latest-oasis-remasters.384419/ Jump up ^ Harris , p. 253 -- 54 Jump up ^ Stratton ; Bennet , p. 148 -- 49 Jump up ^ The AV Club : Alternative Nation -- Part 8 : The Ballad of Oasis and Radiohead ^ Jump up to : ' Seven Ages ' at BBC Online ^ Jump up to : `` Fotostrasse presents What 's The Story ? Morning Glory '' . Fotostrasse . Jump up ^ `` ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory : The true story behind the cover - The Big Issue '' . bigissue.com. 1 October 2014 . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 250 : `` Blur had assumed that Oasis would follow standard music business protocol , releasing a single three weeks before the album . '' Jump up ^ Harris , p. 229 -- 235 ^ Jump up to : Harris , p. 250 Jump up ^ Titorenko , Mark ( 19 February 1996 ) . `` Noel 's AIDS comment '' . The Oasis Archive . Retrieved 17 January 2006 . ( scroll down to section 3.5 ) Jump up ^ `` ChartArchive - The Chart Archive '' . www.chartstats.com . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 261 Jump up ^ `` Bath Pavilion '' . bathpavilion.org. 2012 . Archived from the original on 25 February 2012 . Retrieved 8 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mayo Civic Center : Facilities '' . mayociviccenter.com. 2012 . Retrieved 8 January 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Harris , John . Britpop ! : Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock . Da Capo Press , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 81367 - X ^ Jump up to : Harris , p. 255 Jump up ^ `` Oasis : Abandoned US Tour Fuels Rumours of Split '' . Itn Source . Archived from the original on 19 July 2011 . Retrieved 9 January 2011 . Jump up ^ BBC . `` BBC - Seven Ages of Rock - Events - Oasis At Knebworth '' . bbc.co.uk . Jump up ^ NME.COM . `` Oasis mark Knebworth anniversary '' . NME.COM . Jump up ^ Erlewine , Stephen Thomas . `` ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? -- Oasis '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 25 September 2009 . Jump up ^ Larkin , Colin ( 2011 ) . The Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 5th concise ed . ) . Omnibus Press . ISBN 0 - 85712 - 595 - 8 . Jump up ^ Flaherty , Mike ( 6 October 1995 ) . `` ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 25 September 2009 . Jump up ^ Sullivan , Caroline ( 29 September 1995 ) . `` CD of the week : ( the inevitable ) Oasis '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Hilburn , Robert ( 1 October 1995 ) . `` Oasis ; `` ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' , Epic `` . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 19 October 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Robinson , John ( 30 September 1995 ) . `` Oasis -- ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . NME . London : 52 . Archived from the original on 17 August 2000 . Retrieved 10 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Berman , Stuart ( 29 September 2014 ) . `` Oasis : ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . Pitchfork . Retrieved 27 January 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Wiederhorn , Jon ( 19 October 1995 ) . `` Oasis : ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . Rolling Stone ( 719 ) . Retrieved 21 April 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Sheffield 2004 , p. 598 . Jump up ^ Harrison , Andrew ( November 1995 ) . `` Star Trip II : The Search For Rock '' . Select ( 65 ) : 98 -- 99 . ^ Jump up to : Stubbs , David ( 30 September 1995 ) . `` Tale Editing ? '' . Melody Maker . Retrieved 15 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Gill , Andy ( 28 September 1995 ) . `` Album Review : Oasis ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory Creation CRE CD '' . The Independent . Retrieved 15 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Harris , p. 254 Jump up ^ `` The 1995 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll '' . The Village Voice . New York . 20 February 1996 . Retrieved 15 April 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Christgau 2000 , p. 231 . Jump up ^ Christgau 2000 , p. xvi . ^ Jump up to : `` 5 . Oasis -- ' ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory ? ' '' . Rolling Stone . Jump up ^ `` ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) by Oasis : Best Ever Albums '' . besteveralbums.com. 2012 . Retrieved 11 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Rolling Stone Album Guide : Morning Glory '' . rollingstone.com . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 500 Greatest Albums : ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . rollingstone.com . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Slacker , Inc . `` AOL Radio Stations '' . AOL Radio . Jump up ^ Robert Dimery ; Michael Lydon ( 23 March 2010 ) . 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die : Revised and Updated Edition . Universe . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7893 - 2074 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` 1990s Albums Chart Archive -- everyHit.com '' . everyhit.com . Jump up ^ `` Certified Awards '' . bpi.co.uk . Jump up ^ Harris , p. 230 Jump up ^ Easton , Max ( 21 September 2012 ) . `` The Most Overrated Albums Of All Time '' . FasterLouder . Retrieved 10 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Featured Artists : Oasis '' . The Official Charts Company . Archived from the original on 3 December 2010 . Retrieved 11 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Australian Charts -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Austria Top - 40 -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' ( in German ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Charts Vlaanderen -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Charts Belgique Francophone -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' ( in French ) . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Top Albums / CDs -- Volume 62 , No. 25 , February 5 , 1996 '' . RPM . Retrieved 21 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World -- Denmark '' . Billboard. 27 April 1996 . p. 61 . Retrieved 27 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Classements -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' ( in Dutch ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World -- Eurochart Hot 100 '' . Billboard. 18 March 1996 . p. 67 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Finnish Charts -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Le Détail des Albums de chaque Artiste -- O '' ( in French ) . Infodisc.fr . Archived from the original on 22 October 2014 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Select Oasis from the menu , then press OK . Jump up ^ `` Album -- Oasis , ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory ? '' ( in German ) . Charts.de . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Kereső - előadó / cím szerint - Archívum - Hivatalos magyar slágerlisták '' . slagerlistak.hu . Archived from the original on 27 December 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Tonlist Top 40 '' . DV . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World -- Ireland '' . Billboard. 18 November 1995 . p. 63 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World -- Italy '' . Billboard. 18 May 1996 . Retrieved 25 July 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Japanese chart positions '' . Oricon Style . Retrieved 16 October 2012 . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand Charts > Oasis '' . charts.org.nz Hung Medien . Retrieved 12 August 2009 . Jump up ^ `` VG - Lista -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( album ) '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World -- Portugal '' . Billboard. 8 June 1996 . p. 81 . Retrieved 27 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Hits of the World -- Spain '' . Billboard. 23 March 1996 . p. 48 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Swedish Charts > Oasis '' . swedishcharts.com . Archived from the original on 25 September 2008 . Retrieved 2 September 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss Charts > Oasis '' . swedishcharts.com . Retrieved 24 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Chart Archive -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . ChartArchive.org . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Oasis -- Billboard Albums '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 29 October 2010 . Jump up ^ * Zimbabwe . Kimberley , C. Zimbabwe : albums chart book . Harare : C. Kimberley , 2000 Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten 1995 '' . Ultratop 50 . Hung Medien ( in Dutch ) . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Rapports annuels 1995 '' . Ultratop 50 . Hung Medien ( in French ) . Retrieved 2011 - 04 - 02 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chart Archive - 1990s Albums '' . everyHit.com . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts - End Of Year Charts - Top 50 Albums 1996 '' . ARIA . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jahreshitparade Alben 1996 '' ( in German ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top Albums / CDs - Volume 64 , No. 18 , December 16 1996 '' . RPM. 16 December 1996 . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten - Album 1996 '' ( in Dutch ) . Hung Medien . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Classement Albums - année 1996 '' ( in French ) . SNEP . Archived from the original on 11 December 2013 . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Gli album più venduti del 1994 '' ( in Italian ) . Hit Parade Italia . Retrieved 1 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Swiss Year - end Charts 1996 '' . Hung Medien . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 1996 : End of Year Charts 1996 '' . Retrieved 25 November 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 1996 : Billboard 200 Albums '' . Billboard . Retrieved 28 July 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Disco de Oro y Platino -- Oasis '' ( in Spanish ) . Cámara Argentina de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . Archived from the original on 31 May 2011 . Retrieved 27 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ARIA Charts -- Accreditations -- 2016 Albums '' . Australian Recording Industry Association . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Austrian album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' ( in German ) . IFPI Austria . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Enter Oasis in the field Interpret . Enter ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? in the field Titel . Select album in the field Format . Click Suchen Jump up ^ `` Ultratop − Goud en Platina -- 1996 '' . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Canadian album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory '' . Music Canada . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Danish album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's The Story ) Morning ... '' IFPI Denmark . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Click on næste to go to page if certification from official website Jump up ^ `` IFPI -- Tilastot -- Kulta - ja platinalevyt '' . Ifpi.fi . Archived from the original on 18 August 2010 . Retrieved 10 June 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Oasis '' ( in Finnish ) . Musiikkituottajat -- IFPI Finland . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` French album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' ( in French ) . Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Gold - / Platin - Datenbank ( Oasis ; ' ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ' ) '' ( in German ) . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Billboard Oasis What 's the story ? '' . Billboard . Nielsen Business Media : 54 . 1996 - 02 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Oasis : Cari tenori , cantate con noi '' . la Repubblica ( in Italian ) . 26 May 1996 . p. 32 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` RIAJ > The Record > October 1997 > Certified Awards ( August 1997 ) '' ( PDF ) . Recording Industry Association of Japan ( in Japanese ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 18 October 2014 . Retrieved 2 August 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dutch album certifications -- Oasis -- Morning Glory '' ( in Dutch ) . Nederlandse Vereniging van Producenten en Importeurs van beeld - en geluidsdragers . Retrieved 13 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's The Story ) Morning ... '' Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 25 July 2017 . Jump up ^ `` IFPI Norsk platebransje Trofeer 1993 -- 2011 '' ( in Norwegian ) . IFPI Norway . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ UNSUPPORTED OR EMPTY REGION : South Korea ( Gaon Chart ) . Jump up ^ `` 국내 대표 음악 차트 가온 차트 ! '' . gaonchart.co.kr . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 국내 대표 음악 차트 가온 차트 ! '' . gaonchart.co.kr . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 국내 대표 음악 차트 가온 차트 ! '' . gaonchart.co.kr . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 국내 대표 음악 차트 가온 차트 ! '' . gaonchart.co.kr . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 국내 대표 음악 차트 가온 차트 ! '' . gaonchart.co.kr . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 국내 대표 음악 차트 가온 차트 ! '' . www.gaonchart.co.kr . Retrieved 7 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Solo Exitos 1959 -- 2002 Ano A Ano : Certificados > 1995 -- 1999 '' . Iberautor Promociones Culturales . ISBN 84 - 8048 - 639 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Guld - och Platinacertifikat − År 1987 − 1998 '' ( PDF ) ( in Swedish ) . IFPI Sweden . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community : Awards ( Oasis ; ' ( What 's The Story ) Morning ... ' ) '' . IFPI Switzerland . Hung Medien . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Jump up ^ `` British album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Enter ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications -- Oasis -- ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? '' . Recording Industry Association of America . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ `` IFPI Platinum Europe Awards -- 1997 '' . International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . Bibliography Christgau , Robert ( 2000 ) . Christgau 's Consumer Guide : Albums of the ' 90s . Macmillan . ISBN 0 - 312 - 24560 - 2 . Harris , John . Britpop ! : Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock . Da Capo Press , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 81367 - X Bennet , Andy ; Stratton , John . Britpop and the English Music Tradition . Ashgate , 2010 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7546 - 6805 - 3 Seven Ages of Rock : What the World is Waiting For . BBC , 2007 . Sheffield , Rob ( 2004 ) . `` Oasis '' . In Brackett , Nathan ; Hoard , Christian . The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 4th ed . ) . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 0169 - 8 . Oasis Liam Gallagher Noel Gallagher Paul `` Guigsy '' McGuigan Paul `` Bonehead '' Arthurs Tony McCarroll Alan White Gem Archer Andy Bell Zak Starkey Chris Sharrock Studio albums Definitely Maybe ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? Be Here Now Standing on the Shoulder of Giants Heathen Chemistry Do n't Believe the Truth Dig Out Your Soul Live albums Familiar to Millions Live from The Roundhouse Compilations Definitely Maybe ( singles box ) Morning Glory ( singles box ) The Masterplan Stop the Clocks Time Flies ... 1994 -- 2009 Be Here Now Acoustic Collection Extended plays Live Demonstration Boy with the Blues Singles `` Supersonic '' `` Shakermaker '' `` Live Forever '' `` Cigarettes & Alcohol '' `` Rock ' n ' Roll Star '' `` Whatever '' `` Some Might Say '' `` Roll with It '' `` Morning Glory '' `` Wonderwall '' `` Do n't Look Back in Anger '' `` Champagne Supernova '' `` D'You Know What I Mean ? '' `` Stand by Me '' `` All Around the World '' `` Do n't Go Away '' `` Acquiesce '' `` Go Let It Out '' `` Who Feels Love ? '' `` Sunday Morning Call '' `` Where Did It All Go Wrong ? '' `` The Hindu Times '' `` Stop Crying Your Heart Out '' `` Little by Little '' / `` She Is Love '' `` Songbird '' `` Lyla '' `` The Importance of Being Idle '' `` Let There Be Love '' `` Lord Do n't Slow Me Down '' `` The Shock of the Lightning '' `` I 'm Outta Time '' `` Falling Down '' Other songs `` Slide Away '' `` Half the World Away '' `` Talk Tonight '' `` Acquiesce '' `` The Masterplan '' `` Stop the Clocks '' `` Boy with the Blues '' Video albums Live by the Sea ... There and Then Familiar to Millions Definitely Maybe Lord Do n't Slow Me Down Time Flies ... 1994 -- 2009 Tours Definitely Maybe Tour ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? Tour Be Here Now Tour Standing on the Shoulder of Giants Tour The Tour of Brotherly Love Heathen Chemistry Tour Do n't Believe the Truth Tour Dig Out Your Soul Tour Related Articles Discography Awards Band members Songs Big Brother Recordings Oasis : Supersonic Bands Beady Eye Heavy Stereo Hurricane # 1 Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds Ride The Rain No Way Sis People Jay Darlington Tony Griffiths Terry Kirkbride Alan McGee Scott McLeod Owen Morris Dave Sardy Paul Stacey Steve White Albums and Songs The Dreams We Have as Children Standing on the Edge of the Noise `` Wibbling Rivalry '' `` Stop the Clocks '' Book Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=(What%27s_the_Story)_Morning_Glory%3F&oldid=817485999 '' Categories : 1995 albums Creation Records albums Epic Records albums Oasis ( band ) albums Albums produced by Owen Morris Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) CS1 Finnish - language sources ( fi ) CS1 Japanese - language sources ( ja ) CS1 Norwegian - language sources ( no ) Cite certification used with missing parameters CS1 Swedish - language sources ( sv ) Articles with hAudio microformats Certification Table Entry usages for Argentina Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Austria Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for Denmark Certification Table Entry usages for Finland Certification Table Entry usages for France Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for Hong Kong Certification Table Entry usages for Ireland Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for Japan Certification Table Entry usages for Netherlands Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for Norway Certification Table Entry usages for unsupported region Certification Table Entry usages for Spain Certification Table Entry usages for Sweden Certification Table Entry usages for Switzerland Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Certification Table Entry usages for Europe Use British English from January 2013 Use dmy dates from April 2014 Good articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 28 December 2017 , at 18 : 25 . 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5473904718663634958 | Samuel L. Jackson filmography | Samuel L. Jackson Filmography - wikipedia Samuel L. Jackson Filmography Jump to : navigation , search Jackson in 2008 Samuel L. Jackson is an American actor and film producer . In 2009 , the collective total of all box - office receipts for films that Jackson has starred in ( including minor roles and cameos ) is the highest of any on - screen actor . As of December 2015 , Jackson appeared in over one hundred films with a worldwide box - office gross of approximately $16 billion to date . Jackson 's film career started in 1972 with a role in the film Together for Days . Over the next nineteen years he was cast in multiple films as minor characters up until his breakthrough role as Gator , a crack addict , in the 1991 Spike Lee film Jungle Fever , for which Jackson won a special jury prize for best supporting actor at the Cannes International Film Festival . Later , Jackson was cast in starring roles in Amos & Andrew , Pulp Fiction , The Great White Hype , A Time to Kill and The Negotiator . In 1999 , Jackson started playing the recurring character Mace Windu in both the Star Wars prequel trilogy and in the animated film Star Wars : The Clone Wars In 2000 , he had been cast as the lead in the remake of Shaft , S.W.A.T. , Coach Carter , Snakes on a Plane and Lakeview Terrace , among other films . Jackson played Marvel Comics character Nick Fury in the films Iron Man , Iron Man 2 , Thor , Captain America : The First Avenger , The Avengers , and Captain America : The Winter Soldier , the first six of a nine - film commitment as the character for Marvel Studios . He reprised the role again in Avengers : Age of Ultron . For his role in Pulp Fiction , Jackson won a British Academy of Film and Television Arts award for Best Supporting Actor and was nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award . In 1994 , he was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a miniseries for Against the Wall . Jackson also received Golden Globe nominations in 1996 for A Time to Kill and in 1997 for Jackie Brown . In 2000 , Jackson was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , and in 2006 put his hand and footprints outside Grauman 's Chinese Theatre . Contents ( hide ) 1 Filmography 1.1 Film 1.2 Television 1.3 Web 1.4 Video games 1.5 Audiobooks 2 See also 3 References Filmography ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 1972 Together for Days Stan Lee 1980 The Exterminator Uncredited Extra 1981 Ragtime Gang Member No. 2 Magic Sticks Bum Credited as Sam Jackson Eddie Murphy Raw Eddie 's Uncle Comedy sketch Coming to America Hold - Up Man School Daze Leeds 1989 Do the Right Thing Mister Señor Love Daddy Credited as Sam Jackson Sea of Love Black Guy Def by Temptation Minister Garth A Shock to the System Ulysses Betsy 's Wedding Taxi Dispatcher Mo ' Better Blues Madlock The Exorcist III Blind Dream Man Goodfellas Parnell Steven `` Stacks '' Edwards The Return of Superfly Nate Cabot 1991 Strictly Business Monroe Jungle Fever Gator Purify 1992 Juice Trip Patriot Games LCDR Robby Jackson White Sands Greg Meeker Jumpin ' at the Boneyard Mr. Simpson Johnny Suede B - Bop Fathers & Sons Marshall Menace II Society Tat Lawson Loaded Weapon 1 Sgt . Wes Luger Amos & Andrew Andrew Sterling Jurassic Park John Raymond Arnold True Romance Big Don 1994 Fresh Sam Pulp Fiction Jules Winnfield The New Age Dale Hail Caesar Mailman Assault at West Point : The Court - Martial of Johnson Whittaker Richard Theodore Greener 1995 Kiss of Death Calvin Hart Die Hard with a Vengeance Zeus Carver Losing Isaiah Kadar Lewis Fluke Rumbo ( voice ) The Great White Hype Rev. Fred Sultan A Time to Kill Carl Lee Hailey The Long Kiss Goodnight Mitch Henessey Hard Eight Jimmy Trees Lounge Wendell Teens and Guns : Preventing Violence Himself Used in schools The Search for One - eye Jimmy Colonel Ron 1997 One Eight Seven Trevor Garfield Eve 's Bayou Louis Batiste Producer Jackie Brown Ordell Robbie 1998 Sphere Harry Adams The Negotiator Lt. Danny Roman The Red Violin Charles Morritz Out of Sight Hejira Henry Uncredited 1999 Star Wars : Episode I -- The Phantom Menace Mace Windu Deep Blue Sea Russell Franklin 2000 Rules of Engagement Col. Terry L. Childers Shaft John Shaft Unbreakable Elijah Price / Mr. Glass 2001 The Caveman 's Valentine Romulus Ledbetter Executive producer The 51st State Elmo McElroy 2002 Changing Lanes Doyle Gipson Star Wars : Episode II -- Attack of the Clones Mace Windu xXx Agent Augustus Gibbons No Good Deed Jack Friar 2003 Basic Sergeant Nathan West S.W.A.T. Sgt. Dan `` Hondo '' Harrelson Twisted John Mills Kill Bill : Volume 2 Rufus The Incredibles Lucius Best / Frozone ( voice ) In My Country Langston Whitfield Unforgivable Blackness : The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson Jack Johnson Documentary ; voice The N - Word Himself Documentary 2005 Coach Carter Coach Ken Carter xXx : State of the Union Agent Augustus Gibbons Star Wars : Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith Mace Windu The Man Derrick Vann 2006 Freedomland Lorenzo Council Snakes on a Plane Agent Neville Flynn Home of the Brave Dr. Will Marsh 2007 Farce of the Penguins Narrator ( voice ) Black Snake Moan Lazarus Woods Sang on soundtrack 1408 Gerald Olin Resurrecting the Champ Bob Satterfield Cleaner Tom Cutler 2008 Jumper Agent Roland Cox Iron Man Nick Fury Uncredited cameo Star Wars : The Clone Wars Mace Windu ( voice ) Lakeview Terrace Abel Turner Soul Men Louis Hinds The Spirit The Octopus Gospel Hill Paul Malcolm Uncredited 2009 Astro Boy ZOG ( voice ) Mother and Child Paul Inglourious Basterds Narrator ( voice ) Uncredited Quantum Quest : A Cassini Space Odyssey Fear ( voice ) Unthinkable Henry Harold Humphries Iron Man 2 Nick Fury The Other Guys Detective PK Highsmith 2011 African Cats Narrator ( voice ) Thor Nick Fury Uncredited cameo Captain America : The First Avenger Uncredited cameo Arena Logan 2012 Fury Foley The Avengers Nick Fury Meeting Evil Richie Zambezia Tendai ( voice ) Django Unchained Stephen 2013 Turbo Whiplash ( voice ) Oldboy Chaney 2014 Reasonable Doubt Clinton Davis RoboCop Patrick `` Pat '' Novak Captain America : The Winter Soldier Nick Fury Kite Karl Aker Big Game President William Alan Moore 2015 Kingsman : The Secret Service Richmond Valentine Avengers : Age of Ultron Nick Fury Barely Lethal Hardman Chi - Raq Dolmedes The Hateful Eight Major Marquis Warren 2016 Cell Tom McCourt The Legend of Tarzan George Washington Williams I Am Not Your Negro Narrator ( voice ) Miss Peregrine 's Home for Peculiar Children Mr. Barron Eating You Alive Himself 2017 xXx : Return of Xander Cage NSA Agent Augustus Gibbons Kong : Skull Island Lieutenant Colonel Preston Packard The Hitman 's Bodyguard Darius Kincaid Unicorn Store The Salesman 2018 Avengers : Infinity War Nick Fury Uncredited post-credits scene cameo Blazing Samurai Jimbo ( voice ) Post-production Incredibles 2 Lucius Best / Frozone ( voice ) Post-production Life Itself Post-production The Last Full Measure Takoda Post-production 2019 Glass Elijah Price / Mr. Glass Post-production Captain Marvel Nick Fury Filming Son of Shaft John Shaft Filming Television ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 1976 Movin ' On Patrolman Episode : `` Woman of Steel '' 1977 The Displaced Person Sulk Television film 1978 Milo Muse the Rabbit Television film 1986 -- 1987 Spenser : For Hire Leroy Clancy / Ned 2 episodes Uncle Tom 's Cabin George Television film 1989 Dead Man Out Calvin Fredricks Television film The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd Brother Elvis Episode : `` Here 's Why You Should Always Make Your Bed in the Morning '' 1991 Law & Order Taggert Episode : `` The Violence of Summer '' 1992 Ghostwriter Reggie Jenkins 3 episodes 1994 Against the Wall Jamaal Television film 1995 Shaquille O'Neal : Larger than Life Narrator ( voice ) Documentary 1997 Happily Ever After : Fairy Tales for Every Child The Mayor ( voice ) Episode : `` The Pied Piper '' 1998 1998 MTV Movie Awards Himself ( host ) Television special Saturday Night Live Himself ( host ) Episode : `` Samuel L. Jackson / Ben Folds Five '' 2001 The Proud Family Joseph ( voice ) Episode : `` Seven Days of Kwanzaa '' 2002 Fighting for Freedom : Revolution & Civil War Narrator ( voice ) Documentary The Art of Action : Martial Arts in the Movies Himself ( host ) Television special Unchained Memories : Readings from the Slave Narratives Narrator ( voice ) Documentary 2003 Doggy Fizzle Televizzle Himself Episode : `` Pilot 2005 -- 2010 The Boondocks Gin Rummy ( voice ) 8 episodes 2005 Extras Himself Episode : `` Samuel L. Jackson '' 2005 Spike Video Game Awards Himself ( host ) Television special 2006 Honor Deferred Narrator ( voice ) Documentary 2006 Spike Video Game Awards Himself ( host ) Television special 2007 Afro Samurai Afro Samurai / Ninja Ninja ( voices ) 5 episodes ; also executive producer Respect Yourself : The Stax Records Story Narrator ( voice ) Documentary 2007 Spike Video Game Awards Himself ( host ) Television special 2009 Afro Samurai : Resurrection Afro Samurai / Ninja Ninja ( voices ) Television film ; also producer Uneven Fairways Narrator ( voice ) Documentary 2011 The Sunset Limited Black Man Television film Prohibition Reader ( voice ) 1 episode Curiosity Himself ( host ) Episode : `` How Will the World End ? '' 2012 2012 Spike Video Game Awards Himself ( voice ) Television special The Colbert Report Ad Narrator ( voice ) Episode : `` Carrie Rebora Barratt '' 2013 Generations Himself 1 episode 2013 -- 2014 Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Nick Fury 2 episodes 2014 Black Dynamite Captain Quinton ( voice ) Episodes : `` Black Jaws ! '' or `` Finger Lickin ' Chicken of the Sea '' Web ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 2012 The Sad Off : Samuel L. Jackson vs. Anne Hathaway Himself Funny or Die short 2013 Everything is Samuel L. Jackson 's Fault Himself Funny or Die short Video games ( edit ) Year Title Voice role Notes The Incredibles Lucius Best / Frozone Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas Officer Frank Tenpenny 2008 Afro Samurai Afro Samurai / Ninja Ninja Heroes of Newerth Samuel Jackson Announcer Iron Man 2 Nick Fury 2011 Lego Star Wars III : The Clone Wars Mace Windu Voice 2 chapters 2014 Disney Infinity : Marvel Super Heroes ( 2.0 Edition ) Nick Fury 2015 Disney Infinity 3.0 Nick Fury Audiobooks ( edit ) Year Title 2011 Go the Fuck to Sleep 2012 A Rage in Harlem See also ( edit ) List of awards and nominations received by Samuel L. Jackson References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Samuel L. Jackson Leaves His Prints in Hollywood '' . Fox News . January 31 , 2006 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Boucher , Geoff ( January 24 , 2009 ) . `` Samuel L. Jackson is animated about ' Afro Samurai : Resurrection ' '' . The Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Box Office History - The Numbers '' . Jump up ^ Williams , Lena ( June 9 , 1991 ) . `` UP AND COMING ; Samuel L. Jackson : Out of Lee 's ' Jungle , ' Into the Limelight '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Amos & Andrew '' . Star News Online . September 23 , 2008 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Campbell , Caren Weiner ( 1998 - 11 - 20 ) . `` Take No Prisoners '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Samuel L. Jackson Earns a Lightsaber '' . San Francisco Chronicle . May 16 , 1999 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Barnard , Linda ( Aug 15 , 2008 ) . `` ' Star Wars : The Clone Wars ' a clunky effort '' . Toronto Star . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Films of the Week '' . California Chronicle . May 17 , 2009 . Archived from the original on July 8 , 2011 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Neal , Rome ( Aug 6 , 2003 ) . `` On The ' S.W.A.T. ' Team '' . The Early Show . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Vineyard , Jennifer ( Jan 10 , 2005 ) . `` Samuel L. Jackson Was ' Coach , ' Both On - Camera And Off '' . MTV . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Tyrangiel , Josh ( Apr 24 , 2006 ) . `` Snakes on Samuel L. Jackson '' . Time . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ Abele , Robert ( September 19 , 2008 ) . `` Samuel L. Jackson menaces neighbors in ' Lakeview Terrace ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on June 11 , 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Best Supporting Actor Awards ( BAFTA ) '' . Variety . Archived from the original on 2009 - 06 - 11 . Retrieved 2009 - 05 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Samuel L. Jackson : ' I 'm fine with snakes ' '' . MSNBC . 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Jump up ^ http://www.channel24.co.za/TV/News/Samuel-L-Jackson-stars-in-Generations-20130531 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel_L._Jackson_filmography&oldid=842044744 '' Categories : Male actor filmographies Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Português Română Русский Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 19 May 2018 , at 21 : 10 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | how many marvel movies has samuel l jackson been in | [] | [] |
2125657683981488834 | List of Wii games with traditional control schemes | List of Wii games with traditional control schemes - wikipedia List of Wii games with traditional control schemes Jump to : navigation , search GameCube ports on the top of the Wii unit This is a list of released video games for the Wii video game consoles which allow use of Classic Controller / Classic Controller Pro and / or GameCube controller . This list does not include games released on Nintendo 's Virtual Console as the Classic Controller and GameCube controller can also be used for all Virtual Console games , with the exception of some TurboGrafx - 16 games . Many of the games on this list are ports of prior generation games or games that were concurrently released on other consoles with traditional control schemes such as PlayStation 2 , 3 , and 4 and the Xbox 360 and One . This list only applies if these games are played with the original version of the Wii console , as the newer , revised late 2011 Wii models are not backward - compatible with GameCube games and accessories , including the controller since the revised console lack the controller ports the original 2006 model had . Like the revised Wii models , the Wii U does not include GameCube controller ports , but a USB peripheral , released in November 2014 , allows players to use GameCube controllers with Super Smash Bros. for Wii U . This peripheral will not work for any other games . The peripheral is also incompatible with GameCube Controller compatible Virtual Console or Wii games playable on the Wii U. c Top 0 -- 9 J O Q U V X Y Z WiiWare See also Wii games Title Classic Controller GameCube controller Notes ref . 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa A Boy and His Blob AFL Amazing Spider - Man Arc Rise Fantasia Arcade Shooter Ilvelo Baroque Ben 10 : Galactic Racing Bit. Trip Complete Blast Works : Build , Trade , Destroy Bleach : Versus Crusade Bomberman Blast Also on WiiWare Bomberman Land Call of Duty : Black Ops Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 Cars 2 Cartoon Network : Punch Time Explosion XL Castle of Shikigami III Castlevania Judgment Conduit 2 Dance Dance Revolution Disney Grooves Dance Dance Revolution II Densha de Go ! Shinkansen EX : Sanyou Shinkansen - hen Dirt 2 Doctor Fizzwizzle 's Animal Rescue Dokapon Kingdom Also for PlayStation 2 Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi 2 Ported from PlayStation 2 version of the game Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi 3 Also for PlayStation 2 Dragon Ball : Revenge of King Piccolo Dragon Quest : Monsters Battle Road Victory Earth Seeker Endless Ocean 2 : Adventures of the Deep F1 2009 FIFA 10 FIFA 11 FIFA 12 FIFA Soccer 09 All - Play Final Fantasy Fables : Chocobo 's Dungeon Fire Emblem : Radiant Dawn Furu Furu Park G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra GTI Club Supermini Festa ! Geometry Wars : Galaxies GoldenEye 007 Remake of the GoldenEye 007 video game for Nintendo 64 The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy Also for PlayStation 2 Groovin ' Blocks Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Harvest Moon : Animal Parade Harvest Moon : Tree of Tranquility Jikkyou Powerful Pro Yakyu 15 Jikkyou Powerful Pro Yakyu 2009 Jikkyou Powerful Pro Yakyu NEXT Jikkyou Powerful Pro Yakyu Wii Kamen Rider : Climax Heroes W Kamen Rider : Dragon Knight Katekyo Hitman Reborn ! Dream Hyper Battle ! Katekyo Hitman Reborn ! Kindan no Yami no Delta The King of Fighters Collection : The Orochi Saga Also for PlayStation 2 King of Fighters Collection : The Orochi Saga Also for PlayStation 2 Kirby 's Dream Collection : Special Edition Klonoa The Last Story The Legend of Spyro : The Eternal Night MLB Power Pros MX vs. ATV : Untamed Madden NFL 12 Madden NFL 13 Mahō Sensei Negima ! ? Neo-Pactio Fight ! ! Mario Kart Wii Mercury Meltdown Revolution Metal Slug Anthology Ported from Neo Geo and arcade games Milestone Shooting Collection 2 MiniCopter : Adventure Flight Monster Hunter G Monster Hunter Tri Mortal Kombat : Armageddon The Munchables Muramasa : The Demon Blade MySims Racing NASCAR Kart Racing NASCAR The Game : 2011 NASCAR The Game : Inside Line NASCAR Unleashed NBA 2K12 NBA Jam NHL 2K10 NHL 2K11 Namco Museum Remix Naruto Shippuden : Clash of Ninja Revolution 3 Naruto Shippuden : Dragon Blade Chronicles Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX 2 Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX 3 Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! EX Naruto Shippūden : Gekitō Ninja Taisen ! Special Naruto : Clash of Ninja Revolution 2 Naruto : Clash of Ninja Revolution Need for Speed : Hot Pursuit Need for Speed : Nitro Need for Speed : The Run Need for Speed : Undercover Nicktoons MLB Nights : Journey of Dreams No More Heroes 2 : Desperate Struggle Opoona Pandora 's Tower Phantom Brave : We Meet Again Enhanced port of PlayStation 2 version of the game Power Punch Pro Evolution Soccer 2009 Pro Evolution Soccer 2010 Pro Evolution Soccer 2011 Pro Evolution Soccer 2012 Puyo Puyo 7 Puyo Puyo ! 15th Anniversary Puyo Puyo ! ! 20th Anniversary Radirgy : Noa Rayman Origins Resident Evil 4 : Wii Edition Ported from GameCube , PlayStation 2 , and Windows PC versions of the game . GameCube controller will be utilized after unplugging the attachment from the Wii Remote . Resident Evil Archives : Resident Evil Ported from GameCube version of the game Resident Evil Zero Ported from GameCube version of the game Rugby League 3 Rune Factory Frontier SD Gundam Gashapon Wars SNK Arcade Classics Vol. 1 Also for PlayStation 2 Sakura Wars : So Long , My Love Ported from PlayStation 2 version of the game Samurai Shodown Anthology Samurai Warriors 3 : Xtreme Legends Samurai Warriors 3 Scooby - Doo ! First Frights Sega Superstars Tennis Sengoku Basara 2 Heroes Sengoku Basara : Samurai Heroes Sengoku Musou 3 Moushouden Shiren the Wanderer Sin & Punishment : Star Successor The Sky Crawlers : Innocent Aces Skylanders SuperChargers Racing The Classic Controller icon does n't appear on the back of the box , but the said controller has been reported to work with this game . Sled Shred featuring the Jamaican Bobsled Team Sonic & Sega All - Stars Racing Sonic Colors Sonic Riders : Zero Gravity Gamecube controller support is n't documented or listed on the packaging , but it 's fully implemented and functional . Sonic Unleashed Sonic and the Secret Rings Party mode only The Spiderwick Chronicles SpongeBob 's Truth or Square Super Mario All - Stars 25th Anniversary Edition Port of SNES compilation Super Robot Taisen NEO Super Smash Bros. Brawl TNA Impact ! Taiko no Tatsujin Wii : Do Don to 2 Daime Taiko no Tatsujin Wii Tales of Graces Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Cross Generation of Heroes Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All Stars Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles : Smash - Up Tetris Party Deluxe Toshinden Tournament of Legends TrackMania Wii Twinkle Queen Ultimate Shooting Collection Valhalla Knights : Eldar Saga Victorious Boxers : Revolution We Dance WWE ' 12 WWE ' 13 WWE All Stars Also for PlayStation 2 WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010 Also for PlayStation 2 WWE Smackdown vs. Raw 2011 Also for PlayStation 2 Wheelspin Xenoblade Chronicles Yatterman Wii : Bikkuridokkiri Machine de Mou Race da Koron Yu - Gi - Oh ! 5D 's : Wheelie Breakers Zangeki no Reginleiv Top 0 -- 9 J O Q U V X Y Z WiiWare See also WiiWare Title Classic Controller GameCube controller Notes ref . Arkanoid Plus ! Art Style : ROTOZOA Bejeweled 2 bittos+ BIT. TRIP VOID BIT. TRIP FATE Blood Beach Bomberman Blast Also sold retail Bubble Bobble Plus ! Bust - a-Move Plus ! Puzzle Bobble Plus ! Puzzle Bobble Wii Castlevania : The Adventure ReBirth Cave Story Chronos Twins DX Contra ReBirth Dr. Mario Online Rx Dracula : Undead Awakening Dragon Master Spell Caster FAST - Racing League Final Fantasy IV : The After Years Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles : My Life as a King Gradius ReBirth High Voltage Hot Rod Show La - Mulana Mega Man 9 Mega Man 10 Military Madness : Nectaris Mr. Driller W Pirates : The Key of Dreams Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Keep Going ! Blazing Adventure Squad Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Let 's Go ! Stormy Adventure Squad Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Go For It ! Light Adventure Squad Pokémon Rumble Pole 's Big Adventure Retro City Rampage Rush Rush Rally Racing Shootanto : Evolutionary Mayhem Toki Tori Viral Survival Water Warfare Top 0 -- 9 J O Q U V X Y Z WiiWare See also See also ( edit ) List of Wii games List of WiiWare games List of GameCube games List of Wii U games that use the Wii U Pro Controller References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Tach , Dave . `` Nintendo GameCube controller adapter coming to Wii U for Smash Bros . '' . Polygon . Retrieved May 29 , 2014 . Jump up ^ http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2014-10-08-wii-u-gamecube-controller-adaptor-compatible-with-more-than-just-smash-bros Jump up ^ http://www.ign.com/articles/2014/10/08/gamecube-controllers-will-work-with-more-than-just-smash-bros Jump up ^ `` 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa Review - Wii Review at IGN '' . Wii.ign.com. 2010 - 04 - 28 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 05 - 04 . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` A Boy and His Blob ( Wii ) review '' . Wii.nintendolife.com. 2009 - 10 - 19 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Wicked Witch Software http://www.wicked-witch.com/index.php?page=86&id=2#chromemenu Jump up ^ `` Nintendo World Report Review '' . nintendoworldreport.com . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 03 . Jump up ^ Arc Rise Fantasia -- GameFly Listing http://www.gamefly.com/game/Wii/Arc-Rise-Fantasia/134985/ Jump up ^ `` Ilvelo Wii : Illmatic Envelope ( JP ) Box Shot for Wii '' . GameFAQs.com . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` N - Europe : News : Baroque Supports Classic Controller '' . n-europe.com. 2007 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ Woodham , Cary . `` Game Review : Ben 10 : Galactic Racing ( Wii , 360 , PS3 , 3DS , DS ) '' . GamerDad . Retrieved 14 January 2012 . Jump up ^ http://www.wiiloveit.com/games/bit-trip-complete---wii-review Jump up ^ `` Blast Works : Build , Trade , Destroy at Nintendo : : Games '' . Nintendo.com. 2008 - 06 - 10 . 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Jump up ^ `` Colin McRae : DiRT 2 Review - MMGN Wii Reviews '' . wii.mmgn.com. 2009 - 10 - 12 . Retrieved 2011 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` What They Play - Doctor Fizzwizzle 's Animal Rescue for Wii '' . whattheyplay.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` IGN : Dokapon Kingdom Kingdom Review '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` CNet : Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi 2 ( Wii ) '' . Reviews.cnet.com. 2006 - 12 - 26 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` The Wiire Dragon Ball Z : Budokai Tenkaichi 3 '' . Thewiire.com. 2007 - 12 - 02 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` NAMCO BANDAI Games America Inc . -- Dragon Ball : Revenge of King Piccolo '' . Namcobandaigames.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` 1UP.com : Dragon Quest Monster Battle Road Victory Triumphantly Coming To Wii / / Siliconera '' . Siliconera.com. 2010 - 04 - 14 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` 1UP.com : Earth Seeker : Action ( ? ) Wii RPG by ex-Capcom devs '' . 1UP.com . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Endless Ocean 2 : Adventures of the Deep ( Wii ) review '' . Wii.nintendolife.com. 2010 - 04 - 14 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 05 . Jump up ^ `` F1 2009 Review for Nintendo Wii '' . cheatcc.com/ . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Wii Review : FIFA 10 '' . Nintendo World Report . 2009 - 11 - 18 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ http://reviews.cnet.com/wii-games/fifa-soccer-11-wii/4505-9993_7-33975894.html#reviewPage1 Jump up ^ `` FIFA 09 ( Wii ) '' . Blasteroids. 1990 - 01 - 06 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Sato , Yoshi ( 2007 - 08 - 08 ) . `` New Details on Chocobo 's Dungeon Wii '' . 1UP.com . Retrieved August 10 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` IGN : Fire Emblem : Radiant Dawn Review '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Furu Furu Park for Wii - Technical Information , Game Information , Technical Support '' . GameSpot.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ VanOrd , Kevin ( 2009 - 08 - 04 ) . `` G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra ( Wii ) Review '' . GameSpot . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` GTI Club Supermini Festa ! Review ( Wii , PSP ) - Gaming Age '' . gaming-age.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ Bozon . `` IGN : Geometry Wars : Galaxies Review '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` E3 2010 : New GoldenEye supports Classic Controller Pro , put those remotes away '' . Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1W3v8ndPeA at 0 : 18 the option GCN Controller Rumble is visible Jump up ^ CNet : The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy ( Wii ) Review Jump up ^ Game is not listed for CC support Jump up ^ `` Groovin ' Blocks '' . gamevortex.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 05 . Jump up ^ Clements , Ryan . `` IGN : Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus Review '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Park , Andrew ( 2007 - 10 - 15 ) . `` Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Review '' . GameSpot . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ http://www.fogu.com/hm/animal_parade/controls.php Jump up ^ `` Harvest Moon : Tree of Tranquility ( Wii ) review '' . Wii.nintendolife.com. 2009 - 10 - 23 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Jikkyou Powerful Pro Yakyu 15 cover '' . jp.msn.com . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Jikkyou Powerful Pro Yakyu 2009 cover '' . purecom.co.jp . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` 人気 シリーズ の 最新 作 が Wii と プレイステーション 2 で 発売 決定 『 実況 パワフル プロ 野球 NEXT 』 『 実況 パワフル プロ 野球 2009 』 - ファミ 通. com '' . Famitsu.com . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.co.jp : カスタマー レビュー 実況 パワフル プロ 野球 Wii '' . Amazon.co.jp . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` NintendoThailand.com - ( Review ) Kamen Rider : Climax Heroes W '' . NintendoThailand.com. 2009 - 12 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Nintendo World Report - Review - Kamen Rider : Dragon Knight Review '' . NintendoWorldReport.com. 2010 - 01 - 20 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Hitman Reborn ! Dream Hyper Battle nets Wiimote Control / / Siliconera '' . Siliconera.com. 2007 - 11 - 15 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` 家庭 教師 ヒットマン REBORN ! 禁断 の 闇 の デルタ '' . Nintendo.co.jp . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : http://wii.ign.com/articles/936/936955p1.html Jump up ^ `` Nintendo Life Review '' . nintendolife.com . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` IGN : Klonoa '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Nintendo Bundles The Last Story with Wii in Japan '' . wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Wii Review - MLB Power Pros '' . Wiisworld.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` MX vs. ATV : Untamed Review for the Nintendo Wii '' . cheatcc.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.nintendoworldreport.com/preview/26904 Jump up ^ `` Mahou Sensei Negima ? ! Neo-Pactio Fight ! ! '' . shopncsx.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Mario Kart Wii website '' . Mariokart.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ GameSpot : Metal Slug Anthology Review Jump up ^ `` Ultimate Shooting Collection Review '' . Dark Diamond . 2010 - 03 - 21 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` MiniCopter : Adventure Flight - Wii - Gamespy '' . Gamespy.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Classic controller with a Monster Hunter G Design '' . WiiNintendo.com. 2009 - 01 - 15 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` News Article : Classic Controller Pro Announced for North America '' . Nintendo World Report . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Mortal Kombat : Armageddon Review '' . GameSpot. 2007 - 05 - 29 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Nintendo World Report - Review - The Munchables Review '' . NintendoWorldReport.com. 2009 - 06 - 17 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Muramasa : The Demon Blade review '' . GameSpot. 2009 - 09 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Light , Austin ( 2009 - 06 - 12 ) . `` MySims Racing Review '' . GameSpot . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` MySims Racing '' . What They Play . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Harris , Craig ( 2009 - 02 - 10 ) . `` IGN : NASCAR Kart Racing Review '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ http://www.sbnation.com/nascar/2011/5/27/2193702/nascar-the-game-2011-wii-version-review Jump up ^ http://reviews.cnet.com/wii-games/nascar-2011-the-game/4535-9993_7-34191326.html Jump up ^ Harris , Craig ( 2010 - 10 - 05 ) . `` NBA Jam Review - Wii Review at IGN '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` NHL 2K10 Preview for the Wii from '' . 1UP.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` NHL 2K11 Review : Happiness is a Wii Classic Controller Away - Techland - TIME.com '' . Techland.com. 2010 - 09 - 21 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Namco Museum Remix ( Wii ) '' . GamerDad. 2007 - 12 - 07 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` IGN : Naruto Shippuden : Clash of Ninja Revolution 3 Review '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Naruto Shippuden : Dragon Blade Chronicles '' . gamerankings.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 04 . Jump up ^ http://www.mywii.com.au/GameDetail.aspx?id=135 Jump up ^ IGN Pre-E3 2008 : Hands - on Naruto : Clash of Ninja Revolution 2 Jump up ^ `` Naruto : Clash of Ninja Revolution Preview '' . Cheatcc.com. 2007 - 10 - 23 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ gamezone.de : Review from November 18th 2010 ( German , last accessed on October 22nd 2013 ) Jump up ^ `` IGN : EA Reveals NFS Nitro Release Date '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.mediadis.com/games/detail.asp?id=184011 Jump up ^ `` NiGHTS : Journey of Dreams website '' ... sega.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` No More Heroes 2 : Desperate Struggle Review : : gamestyle '' . gamestyle.com. 2010 - 05 - 28 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 01 . Jump up ^ thomasterranova on May 2 , 2008 ( 2008 - 05 - 02 ) . `` CNet - Opoona review '' . Reviews.cnet.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Pandora 's Tower review : Chained blades '' . joystiq.com . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` Gamers Info : Phantom Brave : We Meet Again '' . GamersInfo.net . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` the_gel : Wii 's Hidden Games '' . the-gel.livejournal.com. 2010 - 03 - 03 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Pro Evolution Soccer 2009 ( Wii ) exclusive preview Retail Biz MCV '' . Mcvuk.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Ahearn , Nate . `` Pro Evolution Soccer 2010 Review - Wii Review at IGN '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Pro Evolution Soccer 2012 - Wii - IGN '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` 右脳 式 ぷよぷよ ルーム : 基本 的 情報 ( Wii 版 ぷよ 7 ) '' . ne.jp . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Puyo Puyo Playtest - Wii Preview at IGN '' . Wii.ign.com. 2007 - 08 - 01 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Radirgy : Noa Locks On To Wii / / Siliconera '' . 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What They Play . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Tales of Graces Has a Style Switching Combat System / / Siliconera '' . Siliconera.com. 2009 - 04 - 06 . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` IGN : Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All - Stars ( Tatsunoko vs. Capcom ) '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Wii Review : TMNT : Smash Up '' . GameSpot. 2009 - 09 - 22 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Buy Tetris Party Premium ( Nintendo Wii ) - Play-Asia.com '' . Hudson Soft . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Toshinden , You 've Changed / / Siliconera '' . Siliconera.com. 2009 - 08 - 20 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` GDC 10 : Tournament of Legends Hands - on - Wii Preview at IGN '' . IGN.com. 2010 - 03 - 11 . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` TrackMania Wii Review - www.impulsegamer.com '' . ImpulseGamer.com . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` Crossover Eroge Fighter Coming To Wii Next Month / / Siliconera '' . 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Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` クソゲー まとめ @ ウィキ - ヤッターマン Wii ビックリ ドッキリ マシン で 猛 レース だ コロン '' ( in Japanese ) . Kusoge Matome . Retrieved 2010 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Gamefly : Yu - Gi - Oh ! 5D 's Wheelie Breaker Video Game '' . Gamefly . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ http://blog.lhyeung.net/lang/all/2010/04/04/zangeki-no-reginleiv-review/ ^ Jump up to : Wii Shop Channel Jump up ^ http://wii.ign.com/articles/107/1074335p1.html Jump up ^ http://wii.ign.com/articles/109/1094864p1.html Jump up ^ `` Bubble Bobble Plus '' . GamersInfo.net. 2009 - 07 - 08 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Thomas , Lucas M. `` Bubble Bobble Plus ! Review - Wii Review - at IGN '' . Wii.ign.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` News - Critical Reception : Nicalis / Pixel 's Cave Story '' . Gamasutra. 2010 - 03 - 24 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ http://www.vooks.net/story-19658-Cave-Story-update-squashes-sound-bugs-adds-GameCube-Controller-support.html Jump up ^ `` Dr. Mario Online Rx '' . Digital Chumps. 2008 - 05 - 26 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ http://wii.ign.com/articles/107/1076172p1.html Jump up ^ http://wii.ign.com/articles/104/1044251p1.html Jump up ^ http://www.nintendoworldreport.com/impressions/26346 Jump up ^ http://www.rpgfan.com/reviews/Final_Fantasy_IV_The_After_Years/index.html Jump up ^ `` FINAL FANTASY CRYSTAL CHRONICLES : My Life as a King - Interview with Director Kenichiro Yuji SQUARE ENIX MEMBERS '' . Member.square-enix.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Gradius ReBirth ( WiiWare ) review '' . Wiiware.nintendolife.com. 2009 - 03 - 10 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ IGN : High Voltage Hot Rod Show Review / Jump up ^ How to Play La - Mulana / Jump up ^ ( 6 ) / ^ Jump up to : http://www.n4g.com/wii/News-376016.aspx Jump up ^ `` Wii.com - Pokémon Rumble '' . Us.wii.com . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ Eventful Journey ! Pole 's Big Adventure ( Wii ) Nintendo Preview Jump up ^ - Retro City Rampage Jump up ^ http://www.rushrushrallyracing.com/wiiware-controls.html Jump up ^ http://wii.ign.com/articles/104/1043215p1.html Jump up ^ `` Cheat Code Central Article : The Ultimate WiiWare Guide '' . Cheatcc.com. 2008 - 05 - 12 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` News : : Toki Tori '' . N - Philes. 2008 - 05 - 25 . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 03 . 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4658775966644883184 | Triple bottom line | Triple bottom line - wikipedia Triple bottom line Graphic describing the three types of bottom lines The triple bottom line ( or otherwise noted as TBL or 3BL ) is an accounting framework with three parts : social , environmental ( or ecological ) and financial . Some organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a broader perspective to create greater business value . Business writer John Elkington claims to have coined the phrase in 1994 . Contents 1 Background 2 Definition 2.1 The three bottom lines 2.1. 1 People , the social equity bottom line 2.1. 2 Planet , the environmental bottom line 2.1. 3 Profit , the economic bottom line 3 Subsequent development 4 Supporting arguments 5 Criticism 6 Legislation 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Background ( edit ) In traditional business accounting and common usage , the `` bottom line '' refers to either the `` profit '' or `` loss '' , which is usually recorded at the very bottom line on a statement of revenue and expenses . Over the last 50 years , environmentalists and social justice advocates have struggled to bring a broader definition of bottom line into public consciousness by introducing full cost accounting . For example , if a corporation shows a monetary profit , but their asbestos mine causes thousands of deaths from asbestosis , and their copper mine pollutes a river , and the government ends up spending taxpayer money on health care and river clean - up , how do we perform a full societal cost benefit analysis ? The triple bottom line adds two more `` bottom lines '' : social and environmental ( ecological ) concerns . With the ratification of the United Nations and ICLEI TBL standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007 , this became the dominant approach to public sector full cost accounting . Similar UN standards apply to natural capital and human capital measurement to assist in measurements required by TBL , e.g. the EcoBudget standard for reporting ecological footprint . Use of the TBL is fairly widespread in South African media , as found in a 1990 -- 2008 study of worldwide national newspapers . An example of an organization seeking a triple bottom line would be a social enterprise run as a non-profit , but earning income by offering opportunities for handicapped people who have been labelled `` unemployable '' , to earn a living by recycling . The organization earns a profit , which is controlled by a volunteer Board , and ploughed back into the community . The social benefit is the meaningful employment of disadvantaged citizens , and the reduction in the society 's welfare or disability costs . The environmental benefit comes from the recycling accomplished . In the private sector , a commitment to corporate social responsibility ( CSR ) implies a commitment to transparent reporting about the business ' material impact for good on the environment and people . Triple bottom line is one framework for reporting this material impact . This is distinct from the more limited changes required to deal only with ecological issues . The triple bottom line has also been extended to encompass four pillars , known as the quadruple bottom line ( QBL ) . The fourth pillar denotes a future - oriented approach ( future generations , intergenerational equity , etc . ) . It is a long - term outlook that sets sustainable development and sustainability concerns apart from previous social , environmental , and economic considerations . The challenges of putting the TBL into practice relate to the measurement of social and ecological categories . Despite this , the TBL framework enables organizations to take a longer - term perspective and thus evaluate the future consequences of decisions . Definition ( edit ) Sustainable development was defined by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in 1987 . Triple bottom line ( TBL ) accounting expands the traditional reporting framework to take into account social and environmental performance in addition to financial performance . In 1981 , Freer Spreckley first articulated the triple bottom line in a publication called ' Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working ' . In this work , he argued that enterprises should measure and report on financial performance , social wealth creation , and environmental responsibility . The phrase `` triple bottom line '' was articulated more fully by John Elkington in his 1997 book Cannibals with Forks : the Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business A Triple Bottom Line Investing group advocating and publicizing these principles was founded in 1998 by Robert J. Rubinstein . For reporting their efforts companies may demonstrate their commitment to corporate social responsibility ( CSR ) through the following : Top - level involvement ( CEO , Board of Directors ) Policy Investments Programs Signatories to voluntary standards Principles ( UN Global Compact - Ceres Principles ) Reporting ( Global Reporting Initiative ) The concept of TBL demands that a company 's responsibility lies with stakeholders rather than shareholders . In this case , `` stakeholders '' refers to anyone who is influenced , either directly or indirectly , by the actions of the firm . Examples of stakeholders include employees , customers , suppliers , local residents , government agencies , and creditors . According to the stakeholder theory , the business entity should be used as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests , instead of maximizing shareholder ( owner ) profit . A growing number of financial institutions incorporate a triple bottom line approach in their work . It is at the core of the business of banks in the Global Alliance for Banking on Values , for example . The Detroit - based Avalon International Breads interprets the triple bottom line as consisting of `` Earth '' , `` Community '' , and `` Employees '' . The three bottom lines ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The triple bottom line consists of social equity , economic , and environmental factors . The phrase , `` people , planet , and profit '' to describe the triple bottom line and the goal of sustainability , was coined by John Elkington in 1994 while at Sustain Ability , and was later used as the title of the Anglo - Dutch oil company Shell 's first sustainability report in 1997 . As a result , one country in which the 3P concept took deep root was The Netherlands . People , the social equity bottom line ( edit ) The people , social equity , or human capital bottom line pertains to fair and beneficial business practices toward labour and the community and region in which a corporation conducts its business . A TBL company conceives a reciprocal social structure in which the well - being of corporate , labour and other stakeholder interests are interdependent . An enterprise dedicated to the triple bottom line seeks to provide benefit to many constituencies and not to exploit or endanger any group of them . The `` upstreaming '' of a portion of profit from the marketing of finished goods back to the original producer of raw materials , for example , a farmer in fair trade agricultural practice , is a common feature . In concrete terms , a TBL business would not use child labour and monitor all contracted companies for child labour exploitation , would pay fair salaries to its workers , would maintain a safe work environment and tolerable working hours , and would not otherwise exploit a community or its labour force . A TBL business also typically seeks to `` give back '' by contributing to the strength and growth of its community with such things as health care and education . Quantifying this bottom line is relatively new , problematic and often subjective . The Global Reporting Initiative ( GRI ) has developed guidelines to enable corporations and NGOs alike to comparably report on the social impact of a business . Planet , the environmental bottom line ( edit ) The planet , environmental bottom line , or natural capital bottom line refers to sustainable environmental practices . A TBL company endeavors to benefit the natural order as much as possible or at the least do no harm and minimize environmental impact . A TBL endeavour reduces its ecological footprint by , among other things , carefully managing its consumption of energy and non-renewables and reducing manufacturing waste as well as rendering waste less toxic before disposing of it in a safe and legal manner . `` Cradle to grave '' is uppermost in the thoughts of TBL manufacturing businesses , which typically conduct a life cycle assessment of products to determine what the true environmental cost is from the growth and harvesting of raw materials to manufacture to distribution to eventual disposal by the end user . Currently , the cost of disposing of non-degradable or toxic products is borne financially by governments and environmentally by the residents near the disposal site and elsewhere . In TBL thinking , an enterprise which produces and markets a product which will create a waste problem should not be given a free ride by society . It would be more equitable for the business which manufactures and sells a problematic product to bear part of the cost of its ultimate disposal . Ecologically destructive practices , such as overfishing or other endangering depletions of resources are avoided by TBL companies . Often environmental sustainability is the more profitable course for a business in the long run . Arguments that it costs more to be environmentally sound are often specious when the course of the business is analyzed over a period of time . Generally , sustainability reporting metrics are better quantified and standardized for environmental issues than for social ones . A number of respected reporting institutes and registries exist including the Global Reporting Initiative , CERES , Institute 4 Sustainability and others . The ecological bottom line is akin to the concept of eco-capitalism . Profit , the economic bottom line ( edit ) The profit or economic bottom line deals with the economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs , including the cost of the capital tied up . It therefore differs from traditional accounting definitions of profit . In the original concept , within a sustainability framework , the `` profit '' aspect needs to be seen as the real economic benefit enjoyed by the host society . It is the real economic impact the organization has on its economic environment . This is often confused to be limited to the internal profit made by a company or organization ( which nevertheless remains an essential starting point for the computation ) . Therefore , an original TBL approach can not be interpreted as simply traditional corporate accounting profit plus social and environmental impacts unless the `` profits '' of other entities are included as a social benefit . Subsequent development ( edit ) Following the initial publication of the triple bottom line concept , students and practitioners have sought greater detail in how the pillars can be evaluated . The people concept for example can be viewed in three dimensions -- organisational needs , individual needs , and community issues . Equally , profit is a function of both a healthy sales stream , which needs a high focus on customer service , coupled with the adoption of a strategy to develop new customers to replace those that die away . And planet can be divided into a multitude of subdivisions , although reduce , reuse and recycle is a succinct way of steering through this division . Supporting arguments ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The following business - based arguments support the concept of TBL : Reaching untapped market potential : TBL companies can find financially profitable niches which were missed when money alone was the driving factor . Examples include : Adding ecotourism or geotourism to an already rich tourism market such as the Dominican Republic Developing profitable methods to assist existing NGOs with their missions such as fundraising , reaching clients , or creating networking opportunities with multiple NGOs Providing products or services which benefit underserved populations and / or the environment which are also financially profitable . Adapting to new business sectors : While the number of social enterprises is growing , and with the entry of the B Corp movement , there is more demand from consumers and investors for an accounting for social and environmental impact . For example , Fair Trade and Ethical Trade companies require ethical and sustainable practices from all of their suppliers and service providers . Fiscal policy of governments usually claims to be concerned with identifying social and natural deficits on a less formal basis . However , such choices may be guided more by ideology than by economics . The primary benefit of embedding one approach to measurement of these deficits would be first to direct monetary policy to reduce them , and eventually achieve a global monetary reform by which they could be systematically and globally reduced in some uniform way . The argument is that the Earth 's carrying capacity is at risk , and that in order to avoid catastrophic breakdown of climate or ecosystems , there is need for comprehensive reform of global financial institutions similar in scale to what was undertaken at Bretton Woods in 1944 . With the emergence of an externally consistent green economics and agreement on definitions of potentially contentious terms such as full - cost accounting , natural capital and social capital , the prospect of formal metrics for ecological and social loss or risk has grown less remote since the 1990s . In the United Kingdom in particular , the London Health Observatory has undertaken a formal programme to address social deficits via a fuller understanding of what `` social capital '' is , how it functions in a real community ( that being the City of London ) , and how losses of it tend to require both financial capital and significant political and social attention from volunteers and professionals to help resolve . The data they rely on is extensive , building on decades of statistics of the Greater London Council since World War II . Similar studies have been undertaken in North America . Studies of the value of Earth have tried to determine what might constitute an ecological or natural life deficit . The Kyoto Protocol relies on some measures of this sort , and actually relies on some value of life calculations that , among other things , are explicit about the ratio of the price of a human life between developed and developing nations ( about 15 to 1 ) . While the motive of this number was to simply assign responsibility for a cleanup , such stark honesty opens not just an economic but political door to some kind of negotiation -- presumably to reduce that ratio in time to something seen as more equitable . As it is , people in developed nations can be said to benefit 15 times more from ecological devastation than in developing nations , in pure financial terms . According to the IPCC , they are thus obliged to pay 15 times more per life to avoid a loss of each such life to climate change -- the Kyoto Protocol seeks to implement exactly this formula , and is therefore sometimes cited as a first step towards getting nations to accept formal liability for damage inflicted on ecosystems shared globally . Advocacy for triple bottom line reforms is common in Green Parties . Some of the measures undertaken in the European Union towards the Euro currency integration standardize the reporting of ecological and social losses in such a way as to seem to endorse in principle the notion of unified accounts , or unit of account , for these deficits . To address financial bottom line profitability concerns , some argue that focusing on the TBL will indeed increase profit for the shareholders in the long run . In practice , John Mackey , CEO of Whole Foods , uses Whole Foods 's Community Giving Days as an example . On days when Whole Foods donates 5 % of their sales to charity , this action benefits the community , creates goodwill with customers , and energizes employees -- which may lead to increased , sustainable profitability in the long - run . Criticism ( edit ) While many people agree with the importance of good social conditions and preservation of the environment , there are also many who disagree with the triple bottom line as the way to enhance these conditions . The following are the reasons why : Reductive method : Concurrently the environment comes to be treated as an externality or background feature , an externality that tends not to have the human dimension build into its definition . Thus , in many writings , even in those critical of the triple - bottom - line approach , the social becomes a congeries of miscellaneous considerations left over from the other two prime categories . Alternative approaches , such as Circles of Sustainability , that treat the economic as a social domain , alongside and in relation to the ecological , the political and the cultural are now being considered as more appropriate for understanding institutions , cities and regions . Inertia : The difficulty of achieving global agreement on simultaneous policy may render such measures at best advisory , and thus unenforceable . For example , people may be unwilling to undergo a depression or even sustained recession to replenish lost ecosystems . Application : According to Fred Robins ' The Challenge of TBL : A Responsibility to Whom ? one of the major weaknesses of the TBL framework is its ability to be applied in the practical world . Equating ecology with environment : TBL is seen to be disregarding ecological sustainability with environmental effects , where in reality both economic and social viability is dependent on environmental well being . While greenwashing is not new , its use has increased over recent years to meet consumer demand for environmentally friendly goods and services . The problem is compounded by lax enforcement by regulatory agencies such as the Federal Trade Commission in the United States , the Competition Bureau in Canada , and the Committee of Advertising Practice and the Broadcast Committee of Advertising Practice in the United Kingdom . Critics of the practice suggest that the rise of greenwashing , paired with ineffective regulation , contributes to consumer skepticism of all green claims , and diminishes the power of the consumer in driving companies toward greener solutions for manufacturing processes and business operation . Time dimension : While the triple bottom line incorporates the social , economical and environmental ( People , Planet , Profit ) dimensions of sustainable development , it does not explicitly address the fourth dimension : time . The time dimension focuses on preserving current value in all three other dimensions for later . This means assessment of short term , longer term and long term consequences of any action . `` One problem with the triple bottom line is that the three separate accounts can not easily be added up . It is difficult to measure the planet and people accounts in the same terms as profits -- that is , in terms of cash . '' This has led to TBL being augmented with cost - benefit analysis in Triple Bottom Line Cost Benefit Analysis ( TBL - CBA ) . Elkington himself has called for a rethink on TBL and a `` product recall '' on use of the concept . He argues that the original idea was to encourage businesses to manage the wider economic , social and environmental impacts of their operations , but its practical use as an accounting tool has now undermined its value . This is summarised below as : attempting to divert the attention of regulators and deflating pressure for regulatory change ; seeking to persuade critics , such as non-government organisations , that they are both well - intentioned and have changed their ways ; seeking to expand market share at the expense of those rivals not involved in greenwashing ; this is especially attractive if little or no additional expenditure is required to change performance ; alternatively , a company can engage in greenwashing in an attempt to narrow the perceived ' green ' advantage of a rival ; reducing staff turnover and making it easier to attract staff in the first place ; making the company seem attractive for potential investors , especially those interested in ethical investment or socially responsive investment . inability to add up the three accounts unless tools such as cost - benefit analysis are added to put social and environmental externalities in monetary terms . Legislation ( edit ) A focus on people , planet and profit has led to legislation changes around the world , often through social enterprise or social investment or through the introduction of a new legal form , the Community Interest Company . In the United States , the BCorp movement has been part of a call for legislation change to allow and encourage a focus on social and environmental impact , with BCorp a legal form for a company focused on `` stakeholders , not just shareholders '' . In Western Australia , the triple bottom line was adopted as a part of the State Sustainability Strategy , and accepted by the Government of Western Australia but its status was increasingly marginalised by subsequent premiers Alan Carpenter and Colin Barnett . See also ( edit ) Sustainable development portal Business portal B Corporation ( certification ) Bottom of the pyramid Circles of Sustainability Community interest company Conscious business Double bottom line , a similar concept predating the UN standard EC3 Global Grassroots Business Fund Impact investing Institute for Sustainable Communication Low - profit limited liability company Permaculture ethics Social entrepreneurship Triple top line Value network Value network analysis References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Slaper , Timothy F. and Hall , Tanya J. ( 2011 ) . `` The Triple Bottom Line : What Is It and How Does It Work ? '' Indiana Business Review . Spring 2011 , Volume 86 , No. 1 . ^ Jump up to : Elkington , J. ( 2018 ) , `` 25 Years Ago I Coined the Phrase `` Triple Bottom Line . '' Here 's Why It 's Time to Rethink It `` , Harvard Business Review , 25 June 2018 Jump up ^ `` Triple Bottom Line '' . The Economist . November 17 , 2009 . Retrieved 14 August 2014 . 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Jump up ^ `` John Mackey : The conscious capitalist '' . ^ Jump up to : Scerri , Andy ; James , Paul ( 2010 ) . `` Accounting for sustainability : Combining qualitative and quantitative research in developing ' indicators ' of sustainability '' . International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 13 ( 1 ) : 41 -- 53 . Jump up ^ Paul James and Andy Scerri , ' Auditing Cities through Circles of Sustainability ' , Mark Amen , Noah J. Toly , Patricia L. Carney and Klaus Segbers , eds , Cities and Global Governance , Ashgate , Farnham , 2011 , pp. 111 -- 36 . Jump up ^ Scerri , A. ( 2012 ) . `` Ends in view : The capabilities approach in ecological / sustainability economics '' . Ecological Economics . 77 : 7 -- 10 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ecolecon. 2012.02. 027 . Jump up ^ Liam Magee , & Andy Scerri ( 2012 ) ' From Issues to Indicators : A Response to Grosskurth and Rotmans ' , Local Environment 17 ( 8 ) : 915 - 933 . Jump up ^ Lozano , R. ( 2012 ) . `` Towards better embedding sustainability into companies ' systems : an analysis of voluntary corporate initiatives , '' Journal of Cleaner Production 25 pp. 14 - 26 Jump up ^ `` Triple bottom line - It consists of three Ps : profit , people and planet '' . The Economist . Retrieved May 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Community Interest Companies '' . UK Government . Retrieved 15 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Becoming a Legal BCorp '' . BCorp . Retrieved 15 July 2015 . Jump up ^ Government of Western Australia . ( 2003 , September ) . `` Hope for the Future : The Western Australia State Sustainability Strategy '' , accessed August 30 , 2013 Further reading ( edit ) Social Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working 1981 by Freer Spreckley Local Livelihoods Publications The Gaia Atlas of Green Economics ( Gaia Future Series ) ( Paperback ) , by Paul Ekins , Anchor Books Harvard Business Review on Corporate Responsibility by Harvard Business School Press The Soul of a Business : Managing for Profit and the Common Good by Tom Chappell Capitalism at the Crossroads : The Unlimited Business Opportunities in Solving the World 's Most Difficult Problems by Professor Stuart L. Hart The Triple Bottom Line : How Today 's Best - Run Companies Are Achieving Economic , Social and Environmental Success -- and How You Can Too by Andrew W. Savitz and Karl Weber The Sustainability Advantage : Seven Business Case Benefits of a Triple Bottom Line ( Conscientious Commerce ) by Bob Willard , New Society Publishers ISBN 978 - 0 - 86571 - 451 - 9 SURF Framework for a Sustainable Economy by Marilyn Waite Journal of Management and Sustainability External links ( edit ) Explainer : what is the triple bottom line ? - The Conversation The Triple Bottom Line : What Is It and How Does It Work ? - Indiana Business Review Balancing Act - A Triple Bottom Line Analysis of the Australian Economy Citizens for Corporate Redesign ( Minnesota ) Triple Pundit - Blog on Triple Bottom Line ( United States ) Corporate Responsibility ( United Kingdom ) TBL Accounting without boundaries - Australian corporate and government experiences Social and environmental accountability Ethics and principles Aarhus Convention Corporate accountability / behaviour / social responsibility Ethical banking Ethical code Extended producer responsibility Organizational ethics Organizational justice Principles for Responsible Investment Social responsibility Stakeholder theory Sullivan principles Transparency ( behavioral social ) UN Global Compact Social accounting Double bottom line Ethical positioning index Higg Index Impact assessment ( environmental equality social ) ISO 26000 ISO 45001 Genuine progress indicator Performance indicator SA8000 Social return on investment Whole - life cost Environmental accounting Carbon accounting Eco-Management and Audit Scheme Emission inventory Environmental full - cost accounting / impact assessment / management system / profit - and - loss account ISO 14000 ISO 14031 Life - cycle assessment Pollutant release and transfer register Sustainability accounting / measurement / metrics and indices / standards and certification / supply chain Toxics Release Inventory Triple bottom line Reporting Global Reporting Initiative GxP guidelines Sustainability reporting Auditing Community - based monitoring Environmental ( certification ) Fair trade ( certification ) ISO 19011 Related Bangladesh Accord Benefit corporation Child labour Community interest company Conflict of interest Disasters Disinvestment Eco-labeling Environmental pricing reform Environmental , social and corporate governance Ethical consumerism Euthenics Health impact assessment Market governance mechanism Product certification Public participation Social enterprise Socially responsible investing Stakeholder ( engagement ) Supply chain management Environment portal Commons Organizations Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triple_bottom_line&oldid=863620359 '' Categories : Welfare economics Sustainable business Corporate social responsibility Accounting terminology Accountability Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from April 2014 All articles needing additional references All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Français Nederlands Português Русский Svenska தமிழ் 4 more Edit links This page was last edited on 11 October 2018 , at 23 : 01 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who came up with the triple bottom line | [
"The triple bottom line (or otherwise noted as TBL or 3BL) is an accounting framework with three parts: social, environmental (or ecological) and financial. Some organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a broader perspective to create greater business value.[1] Business writer John Elkington claims to have coined the phrase in 1994.[2][3]\n"
] | [
"John Elkington"
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-248335203985499418 | Jane the Virgin | Jane the Virgin - wikipedia Jane the Virgin Jane the Virgin Genre Drama Romantic comedy Satire Based on Juana la virgen by Perla Farías Developed by Jennie Snyder Urman Starring Gina Rodriguez Andrea Navedo Yael Grobglas Justin Baldoni Ivonne Coll Brett Dier Jaime Camil Elias Janssen Narrated by Anthony Mendez Theme music composer Gustavo Santaolalla Composer ( s ) Kevin Kiner Country of origin United States Original language ( s ) English Spanish No. of seasons No. of episodes 81 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Jennie Snyder Urman Ben Silverman Gary Pearl Jorge Granier Brad Silberling Producer ( s ) Paul Sciarrotta Meredith Averill Corinne Brinkerhoff David S. Rosenthal Josh Reims Gina Lamar Mark Grossan Sean Canino Production location ( s ) Los Angeles , California Manhattan Beach , California Cinematography Lowell Peterson Xavier Grobet Editor ( s ) Eric Lea Raul Davalos Bruce Green Camera setup Single - camera Running time 42 minutes Production company ( s ) Poppy Productions RCTV International Electus Entertainment Warner Bros. Television CBS Television Studios Distributor CBS Television Distribution Release Original network The CW Picture format 1080i ( 16 : 9 HDTV ) Audio format Dolby Digital 5.1 with Spanish - language dubbing on SAP channel ( where available ) Original release October 13 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 13 ) -- present Chronology Related shows La virgen de la calle External links Website Jane the Virgin is an American satirical romantic comedy drama developed by Jennie Snyder Urman , that debuted on The CW on October 13 , 2014 . It is a loose adaptation of the Venezuelan telenovela Juana la Virgen created by Perla Farías . The series stars Gina Rodriguez as Jane Villanueva , a working , religious young Latina virgin , who becomes pregnant after accidentally being artificially inseminated . The program parodies commonly used tropes and devices in Latin telenovelas . At the 72nd Golden Globe Awards , Jane the Virgin was nominated for the award for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy , received the Peabody Award , and Gina Rodriguez won the award for Best Actress -- Television Series , Musical or Comedy . It was also named a TV Program of the Year by the American Film Institute . Beginning with the fourth episode of season three , the series ' on - screen title card was modified , with `` The Virgin '' crossed out in favor of a substitute each episode . This mirrored the storyline , in which Jane is no longer a virgin . On April 2 , 2018 , The CW renewed the series for a fifth and final season . Contents 1 Premise 2 Cast 2.1 Main 2.2 Recurring 3 Series overview 4 Production 5 Broadcast 6 Reception 6.1 Critical response 6.1. 1 Critics ' top ten lists 6.2 Ratings 6.3 Accolades 7 Home media 8 Novel 9 References 10 External links Premise ( edit ) Set in Miami , the series details the surprising and dramatic events that take place in the life of Jane Gloriana Villanueva , a hard - working , religious , young , Venezuelan - American woman . Jane 's vow to save her virginity until marriage becomes complicated when a doctor mistakenly artificially inseminates her during a checkup . To make matters worse , the biological father is a married man , a former playboy , and a cancer survivor who is not only the new owner of the hotel where Jane works , but was also her former teenage crush . In addition to adjusting to pregnancy and then motherhood , in the initial episodes Jane is faced with questions about her professional future and the daunting prospect of choosing between the father of her baby or her detective boyfriend . As the series evolves , the issues shift as her child grows into a toddler , her writing career moves forward , and her family members likewise develop independent plotlines . Cast ( edit ) See also : List of Jane the Virgin characters Main ( edit ) Gina Rodriguez as Jane Gloriana Villanueva , a 23 - year - old , religious young Latina who becomes pregnant after being artificially inseminated by mistake while being engaged to Michael . After meeting Rafael and hearing his situation , she agrees to carry the baby full term and turn over custody to him and his wife Petra , but only if she is sure her baby will be safe and loved with them . Jane breaks off the engagement with Michael due to him keeping secrets from her regarding the Solanos . But , as the pregnancy grows , Rafael and Jane start to have feelings for each other , but the relationship does n't last very long . Jane ends up having a baby boy named Mateo Gloriano Rogelio Solano Villanueva . She marries Michael Cordero in the season two finale . In the tenth episode of season three , she becomes widowed when he dies from his gunshot wound . After trying to find a letter which Michael wrote her while he was alive , her ex-boyfriend Adam comes back into her life , bringing out her fun side , which had been hidden after giving birth . Adam soon leaves for a job offer . She later finds her feelings resurfacing for Rafael again . Executive producer Jennie Snyder Urman stated that Gina Rodriguez `` was literally the third person that came in '' during the casting . Jenna Ortega as Young Jane , at age 10 , is the most frequent ( 21 chapters as of season 3 ) of the four younger `` Janes '' seen in flashbacks . Andrea Navedo as Xiomara `` Xo '' Gloriana Villanueva , Jane 's outgoing mother . She was only sixteen years old when she had Jane , which is why Jane would rather keep her virginity until marriage than make the same mistake her mother did . She is a dance teacher , but dreams of having a singing career . She marries Jane 's father in the Season three finale . In the end of Season 4 , she is diagnosed with breast cancer . Catherine Toribio plays a younger Xiomara during some flashback sequences . Justin Baldoni as Rafael Solano , the 31 - year - old owner of the Marbella Hotel and the biological father of Jane 's child , who has fallen out of love with his wife . As the series progresses , he develops growing feelings for Jane , and divorces Petra after discovering her affair . In season two , he has two daughters with Petra and , in season three , briefly goes to jail . In season four , he and Jane grow closer and it is thought he would propose . Yael Grobglas as Petra Solano ( birthname : Natalia Andel , later Natalia Dvoracek ) , Rafael 's scheming wife and a member of a shady Czech crime family who got married to Rafael in order to steal his wealth , though over time she did fall in love with him . She later divorces Rafael and in Season 2 , inseminates herself with Rafael 's sperm and gives birth to their twin daughters , Anna and Ellie ( formally Elsa but changed due to Petra hating the `` Frozen '' references ) . She is then convicted for the murder of her twin sister , causing her to meet her lawyer Jane . Lawyer Jane and Petra grow closer and then fall in love . Ivonne Coll as Alba Gloriana Villanueva , Jane 's pious maternal grandmother . She is highly religious , and encourages Jane to save her virginity until marriage . While she is able to speak English , she only speaks Spanish with her family , even when they address her in English . She was in the country illegally until she got her green card in season two . In season 4 she becomes a citizen of America . She falls in love with her boss Jorge . Jorge proposes to Alba , but she denies it . Soon she realizes that that was a mistake but Jorge had moved on . At the end of Season 4 , Alba and Jorge get married to help him meet his mother who lives out of the country . Brett Dier as Michael Cordero , Jr. ( seasons 1 -- 3 , 5 ; guest season 4 ) , Jane 's 29 - year - old husband who was a detective . He is aware of Petra 's affair , and blackmails her to ensure that her marriage remains intact , so that Jane will give the baby to them , however later he decides to support Jane 's decision to keep the baby . He also dislikes Rafael due to Jane 's , and eventually Rafael 's , attraction to one another . He is the head detective in the hunt for Sin Rostro , a high - profile drug dealer who seems to be based in the Marbella Hotel , however he gets shot while searching for Sin Rostro , he later quits to become a lawyer . Jane and Michael get married in the season two finale . He apparently dies in season three by an aortic dissection caused by a gunshot . In the Season 4 finale , it is revealed that Michael is still alive . Jaime Camil as Rogelio de la Vega , a self - involved , famous telenovela star and Jane 's biological father . He is currently trying to gain a relationship with his newly discovered daughter . He also has feelings for Xiomara , who was his girlfriend in high school . He marries Xiomara in the season three finale . He desperately wants a child and has one with Darci Factor . They later have the child and named it Baby Michaelina de la Vega Factor . Elias Janssen as Mateo Gloriano Rogelio Solano Villanueva ( season 4 ) , Jane and Rafael 's baby . Named after Jane 's grandfather and Alba 's husband , who died before Jane was born . Aria Rose Garcia as toddler Mateo Gloriano Rogelio Solano Villanueva . Joseph Sanders played the role in the third season . Anthony Mendez ( voice over ) as the Latin Lover Narrator ; Third - person omniscient . The narration features both metanarration and metafiction . Recurring ( edit ) Yara Martinez as Dr. Luisa Alver , Rafael 's lesbian , neurotic , recovering alcoholic sister , and the doctor who accidentally artificially inseminated Jane . She later has a relationship with her step mother , Sin Rostro / Rose . Bridget Regan as Rose , a former lawyer , former girlfriend of Luisa , and eventually stepmother of Luisa and Rafael who defends Luisa against the malpractice suit . She is later revealed to be the crime lord Sin Rostro , and is arrested in season three . Megan Ketch as Susanna Barnett ( season 2 ) , Michael 's partner who was in fact Rose in disguise . After being discovered , she shot Michael in the chest . Before this she has a relationship with Luisa . Elisabeth Röhm as Eileen ( season 3 ) , the second woman whose identity Rose steals for the next three years . In the meantime , the real Eileen murdered Scott . Mia and Ella Allan as Anna and Elsa Solano ( season 2 - present ) , Petra and Rafael 's twin daughters as a result of Petra 's artificial insemination . Carlo Rota as Emilio Solano ( season 1 ) , Luisa 's biological father and Rafael 's adopted father . He is murdered by his wife , Rose . Michael Rady as Lachlan Moore ( seasons 1 - 2 ) , Rafael 's rival and Petra 's former fiancé . Diane Guerrero as Lina Santillan , Jane 's best friend and co-worker . Azie Tesfai as Detective Nadine Hansan ( seasons 1 - 2 ) , a police detective and rival , partner , and brief lover to Michael . She was killed taking a bullet that was meant for Michael , after she was revealed to be working with Sin Rostro . Priscilla Barnes as Magda Andel , Petra 's mother . She is confined to a wheelchair ( but only pretends to be paraplegic ) and she is Petra 's co-conspirator in her plot to steal Rafael 's hotel and wealth . While imprisoned , she was still working against Petra from inside ; she is now out . Yael Grobglas also portrays Anezka ( seasons 2 - 4 ) , Petra 's long - lost twin sister who grew up with a rough life in the Czech Republic . At the end of the second season she drugs Petra and begins a scheme with Magda to impersonate Petra so they can gain controlling shares in the Marbella . She is then murdered by her sister , Petra . Adam Rodriguez as Jonathan Chavez ( season 2 , 4 ) , one of Jane 's teachers at grad school and briefly her love interest . Later found out that he is known for affairs with students . Alano Miller as Roman Zazo ( season 1 ) , Rafael 's best friend and Petra 's lover . He is believed to be murdered in the hotel , causing tension for everyone , including Petra and Rafael . Miller also portrays Aaron Zazo ( season 1 ) , Roman 's twin brother , who appears from `` Chapter Fourteen '' onwards investigating his brother 's murder , is later revealed to be Roman ; it was Aaron who was murdered . Roman is later killed , in self - defense , by Petra . Shelly Bhalla as Krishna ( season 2 - present ) , Petra 's assistant , formerly Rafael 's assistant . She is believed to be blackmailing Petra in season 4 , but it turns out that she was the one being blackmailed . Ricardo Chavira as Bruce ( season 3 ) , Xiomara 's boyfriend of three years who she becomes briefly engaged to , only to break things off due to her lingering feelings for Rogelio . Justina Machado as Darci Factor ( seasons 3 - present ) , Rogelio 's ex-girlfriend and the mother of her and Rogelio 's daughter `` Baby Michaelina de la Vega Factor '' . She runs a matchmaking business . Alfonso DiLuca as Jorge ( seasons 3 - present ) , Alba 's love interest , later boyfriend . Then becomes her husband . Johnny Messner as Chuck Chesser ( seasons 3 - present ) , the new owner of the rival hotel to the Marbella who serves as a new love interest for Petra . Francisco San Martin as Fabian ( seasons 3 - 4 ) , Rogelio 's costar on telenovela Los Viajes de Guillermo who has a brief fling with Jane . Tyler Posey as Adam Alvaro ( seasons 3 - 4 ) , Jane 's first love and later boyfriend , who is bisexual . Rosario Dawson as Jane Ramos ( season 4 ) , Petra 's attorney and love interest . Series overview ( edit ) Main article : List of Jane the Virgin episodes Season Episodes Originally aired First aired Last aired 22 October 13 , 2014 ( 2014 - 10 - 13 ) May 11 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 11 ) 22 October 12 , 2015 ( 2015 - 10 - 12 ) May 16 , 2016 ( 2016 - 05 - 16 ) 20 October 17 , 2016 ( 2016 - 10 - 17 ) May 22 , 2017 ( 2017 - 05 - 22 ) 17 October 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 13 ) April 20 , 2018 ( 2018 - 04 - 20 ) Production ( edit ) Gina Rodriguez portrays the title role . On June 27 , 2013 , American television network The CW announced that it was planning to release a new show based on the Venezuelan soap opera Juana La Virgen . On February 23 , 2014 , Entertainment Weekly announced that Rodriguez would play the title role of Jane Villanueva . On May 8 , 2014 , during The CW 's 2014 -- 2015 upfronts , the series was officially picked up . On July 18 , 2014 , an extended trailer was released by The CW . On August 8 , 2014 , it was announced that White Collar 's Bridget Regan and Azie Tesfai would join the series as respectively Rose , a former lawyer , and Detective Nadine Hansan , a police detective and rival to Dier 's character . On August 10 , 2014 , TVLine announced that Melrose Place and Emily Owens , M.D. actor Michael Rady would join the series as Lachlan . Filming for season one commenced on July 28 , 2014 . The show is filmed on soundstages in Los Angeles and the pilot was filmed in Huntington Beach , California . On October 21 , 2014 , the show was given a full season order . On January 11 , 2015 , the show was renewed for a second season , set to air during the 2015 -- 16 television season . Its second season premiered on October 12 , 2015 . On March 11 , 2016 , the show was renewed for a third season , which premiered on October 17 , 2016 . On January 8 , 2017 , The CW renewed the series for a fourth season that premiered on October 13 , 2017 . On April 2 , 2018 , The CW renewed the series for a fifth and final season , which will air in 2019 . Broadcast ( edit ) Jane the Virgin premiered on The CW on October 13 , 2014 , during the 2014 -- 15 television season . Unique to the CW , it is the network 's only program to feature a Spanish language audio track on the second audio program channel ; however , as many CW stations usually do not carry the SAP channel due to a lack of need , this is more limited than the major networks , which are required by the FCC to have a SAP channel for the Descriptive Video Service track , which as a minor network the CW is not required to carry . The show premiered in Canada on Global TV and in Australia on Fox8 on December 1 , 2014 . The first two seasons aired in the United Kingdom on E4. , with the first - run episodes on UK Netflix from season 3 onwards . Sony Channel broadcast the series throughout Southeast Asia as replacements of Sony Entertainment Television in the region ( including BeTV in the Philippines ) . In Canada , new episodes are added each week to the streaming service Shomi , in addition to cable carriage by some providers of American CW affiliates ( Chicago 's WGN - TV , available as a superstation in Canada , carried the series ' first two seasons until it ended its CW affiliation before the 2016 - 17 television season ) . The show premiered in New Zealand on July 24 on Prime . In the Philippines , Jane the Virgin premiered on ABS - CBN on March 28 , 2016 , dubbed in Filipino . The show replaced the local drama series You 're My Home on a late - night timeslot , as part of the Primetime BIDA evening block . Days before the premiere , a teaser showing Gina Rodriguez promoting the show was also released . ABS - CBN only aired the first two seasons , locally editing and splitting the episodes into half - hour segments similar to the network 's teleserye and anime programs . For a total of 74 modified episodes , the season - two finale aired on July 8 , 2016 . Reception ( edit ) Season Critical response Rotten Tomatoes Metacritic 100 % ( 50 reviews ) 80 % ( 23 reviews ) 100 % ( 11 reviews ) 87 % ( 4 reviews ) 100 % ( 12 reviews ) - 100 % ( 13 reviews ) - Critical response ( edit ) Jane the Virgin has received praise for its writing and Rodriguez 's performance . Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the first season of the show a `` certified fresh '' rating of 100 % based on 50 reviews , with a rating average of 7.7 out of 10 . The site 's consensus states , `` Jane the Virgin 's dubious premise has become part of its unlikely charm -- along with delightfully diverse writing and a knockout performance by Gina Rodriguez . '' Metacritic , another review aggregator , gives the show a score of 80 out of 100 , based on 23 reviews , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . The second season also received critical acclaim . On Metacritic , the season holds a 87 out of 100 , based on four reviews , indicating `` universal acclaim '' . Rotten Tomatoes gave it a rating of 100 % based on 11 reviews and a rating average of 9.7 out of 10 . The site 's consensus reads , `` Jane the Virgin stays true to its over-the - top telenovela roots in season two while layering in more humor and increasingly complex storytelling . '' Maureen Ryan of Variety praised the show , saying that the series `` is envisioned , edited and curated with great deftness and economy , and the fact that it is so entertaining and accessible should not preclude it from being at the center of conversations about the best the medium has to offer . '' Critics ' top ten lists ( edit ) show 2014 No. 3 TV Guide No. 3 The Salt Lake Tribune No. 6 TV.com No. 7 Las Vegas Weekly No. 8 Sioux City Journal No. 10 Boston Globe -- American Film Institute -- Associated Press -- Chicago Reader -- Huffington Post -- Los Angeles Times -- Philadelphia Daily News -- ScreenCrush show 2015 No. 3 Village Voice No. 4 Vulture No. 4 Slate No. 5 The Salt Lake Tribune No. 6 Las Vegas Weekly No. 7 TV.com -- Boob Tube Dude -- Criticwire -- Variety -- The Week show 2016 No. 1 Variety No. 2 Boob Tube Dude No. 8 MTV -- CNN show 2017 No. 6 Variety No. 9 TV by the Numbers No. 9 USA Today Ratings ( edit ) Season Timeslot ( ET ) Episodes First aired Last aired TV season Rank Avg . viewers ( millions ) 18 -- 49 rating ( average ) Date Viewers ( millions ) Date Viewers ( millions ) Monday 9 : 00 pm 22 October 13 , 2014 1.61 May 11 , 2015 1.24 2014 -- 15 177 1.55 0.6 22 October 12 , 2015 1.06 May 16 , 2016 0.97 2015 -- 16 180 1.48 0.6 20 October 17 , 2016 1.09 May 22 , 2017 0.96 2016 -- 17 155 1.60 0.7 Friday 9 : 00 pm 17 October 13 , 2017 0.68 April 20 , 2018 0.58 2017 -- 18 193 1.23 0.5 Jane the Virgin : U.S. viewers per episode ( millions ) Audience measurement performed by Nielsen Media Research . Accolades ( edit ) The show has been acknowledged by the People 's Choice Awards , Golden Globe Awards , Critics ' Choice Awards , the Primetime Emmy Awards , the Image Awards and the Television Critics Association as well as honored by the American Film Institute and the George Foster Peabody Awards . Year Award Category Recipients Outcome 2014 America Film Institute Award AFI Television Program Of The Year Jane the Virgin Won TV Guide Award Favorite New Show Jane the Virgin Nominated 2015 People 's Choice Award Favorite New TV Comedy Jane the Virgin Won Golden Globe Award Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy Gina Rodriguez Won Peabody Award Honoree Jane the Virgin Won Critics ' Choice Award Best Comedy Series Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actress in a Comedy Series Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Jaime Camil Nominated TV Line Performer of the Week Honoree Jaime Camil ( `` Chapter Twelve '' ) Won TV Line Performer of the Week Honoree Gina Rodriguez ( `` Chapter Twenty '' ) Won Teen Choice Award Choice TV Actor : Comedy Jaime Camil Nominated Choice TV Actress : Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated Choice TV : Breakout Show Jane the Virgin Nominated Choice TV : Breakout Star Gina Rodriguez Nominated Choice TV : Liplock Gina Rodriguez & Justin Baldoni Nominated Television Critics Association Award Outstanding New Program Jane the Virgin Nominated Outstanding Achievement in Comedy Jane the Virgin Nominated Individual Achievement in Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated Imagen Award Best Primetime Television Program -- Comedy Jane the Virgin Won Best Actress -- Television Gina Rodriguez Won Best Supporting Actor -- Television Justin Baldoni Nominated Jaime Camil Nominated Best Supporting Actress -- Television Ivonne Coll Nominated Andrea Navedo Won Gold Derby Award Best Comedy Series Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Comedy Lead Actress Gina Rodriguez Nominated Breakthrough Performer Gina Rodriguez Won EWwy Award Best Comedy Series Jane the Virgin Won Best Actress -- Comedy Gina Rodriguez Won Best Supporting Actor -- Comedy Jaime Camil Nominated Emmy Award Outstanding Narrator Anthony Mendez Nominated Voice Arts Award Outstanding Narration -- TV or Film , Best Voice over Anthony Mendez Won Gotham Award Breakthrough Series -- Long Form Jane the Virgin Nominated Dorian Award Campy TV Show of the Year Jane the Virgin Won Online Film and Television Association Award Best Actress Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Guest Actress Rita Moreno Won Maxwell Weinberg Award Arpi Ketendjian CBS Studios Won NHMC Impact Gala Award Honoree Gina Rodriguez Won HOLA Award Breakthrough Performance Andrea Navedo Won GiRL POWER Media Role Model Award Honoree Gina Rodriguez Won Honoree Andrea Navedo Won Honoree Ivonne Coll Won International Drama Award Best Mini-Series Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actress Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Director Brad Silberling Nominated Paleyfest LA Honoree Jane the Virgin Won 2016 Satellite Award Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series Gina Rodriguez Nominated Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series Jennie Snyder Urman Nominated Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series Brad Silberling Nominated Golden Globe Award Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated Critics ' Choice Award Best Comedy Series Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actress in a Comedy Series Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Jaime Camil Nominated TV Line Performer of the Week Honoree Yael Grobglas ( `` Chapter Thirty - Six '' ) Nominated Golden Reel Award Best Sound Editing Susan Ham , Sharyn Gersh Nominated GMS Award Best Music Supervision Kevin J. Edelman Nominated The Women 's Image Award Best Actress in a Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Comedy Series Jane the Virgin Nominated Outstanding Writing in a Series Jennie Snyder Urman ( `` Chapter One : Pilot '' ) Nominated Artios Award Outstanding Achievement in Casting - Comedy Alyson Silverberg , Jonathan Clay Harris Nominated Frijolywood Award / Frijoldeoro Award Screenwriter in Comedy Carolina Rivera Won Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Jaime Camil Won NHMC Impact Award Outstanding Performance in a Comedy Series Andrea Navedo Won Cine Award Best Comedy Series Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actress in a Comedy Series Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Supporting Actor Jaime Camil Nominated Best Supporting Actress Ivonne Coll Won Young Artist Award Best Performance in a TV Series Madison Rojas Nominated Teen Choice Award Choice TV : Comedy Jane the Virgin Nominated Choice TV : Actor Jaime Camil Nominated Choice TV : Actress Gina Rodriguez Nominated Emmy Award Outstanding Narrator Anthony Mendez Nominated EWwy Award Best Actress -- Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated Best Supporting Actor -- Comedy Jaime Camil Nominated Imagen Award Best Primetime Television Program -- Comedy Jane the Virgin Won Best Actress -- Television Gina Rodriguez Won Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Jaime Camil Won Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Andrea Navedo Nominated TV Line Performer of the Week Honoree Gina Rodriguez ( `` Chapter Forty - Seven '' ) Won 2017 Golden Globe Award Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy Gina Rodriguez Nominated People 's Choice Award Favorite TV Comedy Jane the Virgin Nominated Favorite TV Comedy Actress Gina Rodriguez Nominated Black Reel Award Outstanding Actress , Comedy Series Gina Rodriguez Nominated MTV Award Best American Story Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Actor in a Show Gina Rodriguez Nominated GMS Award Best Music Supervision Kevin J. Edelman Nominated Teen Choice Award Choice Comedy TV Show Jane the Virgin Nominated Choice Comedy TV Actress Gina Rodriguez Nominated Choice Comedy TV Actor Jaime Camil Nominated Imagen Award Best Primetime Television Program -- Comedy Jane the Virgin Nominated Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Jaime Camil Nominated Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Ivonne Coll Nominated 2018 MTV Award Best Kiss Gina Rodriguez & Justin Baldoni Nominated Teen Choice Award Choice Comedy TV Show Jane the Virgin Nominated Choice Comedy TV Actress Gina Rodriguez Won Choice Comedy TV Actor Jaime Camil Won Choice Liplock Gina Rodriguez & Justin Baldoni Nominated Home media ( edit ) Warner Home Entertainment originally released Season 1 on DVD , but poor sales caused a switch in distribution rights with CBS now releasing every season of Jane the Virgin as manufacture - on - demand Blu - ray and DVDs exclusively on Amazon going forward in addition to a manufacture - on - demand reissue of Season 1 . Name DVD Blu - ray No. of episodes Features Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 Region A Region B The Complete First Season September 29 , 2015 March 1 , 2017 October 13 , 2017 22 Immaculate Creation -- ' Behind the Scenes ' Getting to Know the Cast Gag reel Deleted scenes The Complete Second Season June 16 , 2017 March 1 , 2017 December 22 , 2017 22 The Complete Third Season January 19 , 2018 September 6 , 2017 January 19 , 2018 20 Deleted scenes The Complete Fourth Season June 6 , 2018 17 Novel ( edit ) A tie - in novel , based on the book Jane writes in the show , has been published . The story is a historical romance set in Miami during 1902 . In the series , the book 's plot is inspired by the love story of Jane and Michael . Title Published Publisher Snow Falling November 14 , 2017 Simon & Schuster References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Bustle '' . bustle.com . Retrieved 20 September 2015 . Jump up ^ Rosie Narasaki ( 16 February 2015 ) . `` 7 Reasons You Should Catch Up With ' Jane the Virgin ' '' . Indiewire . Retrieved 20 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Jane the Virgin ' Is The CW 's Best Show Ever '' . The Daily Beast . Retrieved 20 September 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' Jane The Virgin ' Trailer and Official Synopsis : The CW Presents Adaptation of ' Juana la Virgen ' '' . Novela Lounge . May 15 , 2014 . Retrieved September 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` ' Jane the Virgin ' : See the CW Comedy 's Updated Title '' from The Hollywood Reporter ( November 2 , 2016 ) Jump up ^ Goldberg , Leslie ( April 2 , 2018 ) . `` ' Riverdale , ' ' Flash , ' ' Supernatural ' Among 10 CW Renewals '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved April 2 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( May 17 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jane The Virgin , ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' , ' iZombie ' To End After Upcoming Seasons '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved May 18 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Sava , Oliver ( December 8 , 2014 ) . `` Adapting a telenovela with Jane the Virgin showrunner Jennie Urman '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved May 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ https://www.econotimes.com/Jane-the-Virgin-Season-5-Air-Date-Spoilers-Cast-Lineup-What-to-Expect-and-Where-to-Watch-It-1403669 Jump up ^ Choy , Danny ( September 4 , 2014 ) . `` Latinos in the US : Voiceover Actor Anthony Mendez Talks About His Role in New CW TV Show ' Jane The Virgin ' '' . Latin Times . Retrieved September 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Clemmons , Rachael Vaughan ( April 20 , 2018 ) . `` The fifth season of ' Jane the Virgin ' will be its last '' . Metro.us . Jump up ^ Dries , Kate ( June 27 , 2013 ) . `` A Show Called Jane the Virgin Might Be the Next Thing on Your DVR '' . Jezebel.com . Retrieved August 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Highfill , Samantha ( February 27 , 2014 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin ' : Gina Rodriguez cast as lead in new CW pilot '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved February 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( February 27 , 2014 ) . `` Gina Rodriguez Lands Title Role in CW 's ' Jane the Virgin ' , Brad Silberling to Direct '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved February 27 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( May 8 , 2014 ) . `` Fall TV Scoop : The CW Orders Four Dramas , Including Flash , iZombie and Jane the Virgin , Passes on Supernatural Spin - Off '' . TV Line . Retrieved May 12 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Bridget Regan & Azie Tesfai to Recur on ' Jane the Virgin ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . August 8 , 2014 . Retrieved August 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( August 10 , 2014 ) . `` Michael Rady Cast in ' Jane the Virgin ' on The CW -- Season 1 '' . TV Line . Retrieved August 22 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : `` JaneTheVirginWriters on Twitter '' . Twitter . Jump up ^ Villarreal , Yvonne ( September 12 , 2014 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin ' takes ' wacky ' telenovela premise for a spin '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved November 4 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Connelly , Laylan ( April 24 , 2015 ) . `` Hollywood thinks Huntington Beach looks great on camera '' . The Orange County Register . Retrieved 28 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Flash , ' ' Jane the Virgin ' Get Full - Season Orders at CW '' . Hollywood Reporter . October 21 , 2014 . Retrieved October 22 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( January 11 , 2015 ) . `` ' Arrow ' , ' Jane the Virgin ' , ' Reign ' , ' The 100 ' , ' The Flash ' , ' Supernatural , ' The Originals ' & ' The Vampire Diaries ' renewed by the CW '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Kondolojy , Amanda ( July 31 , 2015 ) . `` The CW Moves ' Jane the Virgin ' & ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' Premieres Up to Monday October 12 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 31 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( March 11 , 2016 ) . `` ' The Flash ' , ' The 100 ' and even ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' renewed : All 11 CW series picked up for 2016 - 17 '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 11 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mitovich , Matt ( January 8 , 2017 ) . `` The CW Renews The Flash , Supernatural , Crazy Ex and 4 Others '' . TVLine . Retrieved January 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` TV Premiere Dates 2017 Guide '' . Hollywood Reporter . October 25 , 2016 . Retrieved June 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' Riverdale , ' ' Flash , ' ' Supernatural ' Among 10 CW Renewals '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2018 - 08 - 18 . Jump up ^ Petski , Nellie Andreeva , Denise ( 2018 - 05 - 17 ) . `` ' Jane The Virgin , ' Crazy Ex-Girlfriend ' , ' iZombie ' To End After Upcoming Seasons '' . Deadline . Retrieved 2018 - 08 - 18 . Jump up ^ Nolan , Emma ( 2018 - 08 - 14 ) . `` Jane the Virgin season 5 Netflix release date : Will there be another season ? '' . Express.co.uk . Retrieved 2018 - 08 - 18 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( June 25 , 2014 ) . `` The CW Announces Fall Premiere Dates '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 25 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin and The Flash : Premiere on Fox8 '' . Foxtel . November 10 , 2014 . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2014 . Retrieved January 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` E4 Drops ' Jane The Virgin ' After Two Seasons '' . tvwise.co.uk . June 13 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Netflix UK Takes First Window Rights To ' Jane The Virgin ' , Will Stream Season 4 This Autumn '' . tvwise.co.uk . June 30 , 2017 . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin Full Trailer : Starting March 28 on ABS - CBN ! '' . ABS - CBN Entertainment . March 17 , 2016 . Retrieved January 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ABS - CBN Airs the Tagalized Version of ' Jane the Virgini ' on Primetime '' . ABS - CBN Social Media Newsroom . March 23 , 2016 . Retrieved March 29 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin : The Hit American TV Series '' . ABS - CBN Entertainment . March 23 , 2016 . Retrieved January 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin : Season 1 ( 2014 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin : Season 1 '' . Metacritic . Retrieved October 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin Season 2 Review '' . Retrieved 15 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin : Season 2 ( 2015 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved September 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ryan , Maureen . `` TV Review : ' Jane the Virgin ' Season 2 '' . variety.com . Retrieved 15 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2014 : Television Critic Top Ten Lists '' . Metacritic . December 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2015 : Television Critic Top Ten Lists '' . Metacritic . December 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2016 : Television Critic Top Ten Lists '' . Metacritic . December 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 2017 : Television Critic Top Ten Lists '' . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( October 14 , 2014 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' & ' Dancing With the Stars ' Adjusted Up ; ' The Big Bang Theory ' & ' Castle ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Archived from the original on October 15 , 2014 . Retrieved October 14 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Bibel , Sara ( May 12 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' Dancing With the Stars ' & ' The Following ' Adjusted Up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 22 , 2015 ) . `` Full 2014 - 15 Series Rankings '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2015 . Retrieved May 22 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2015 ) . `` Monday Final Ratings : ' The Voice ' and ' The Big Bang Theory ' Adjusted Up , ' Castle ' , ' Life in Pieces ' and ' Scorpion ' Adjusted Down '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 17 , 2016 ) . `` Monday final ratings : ' Mike & Molly ' finale and ' The Voice ' adjust up '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 17 , 2016 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 26 , 2016 ) . `` Full 2015 - 16 Series Rankings '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2016 ) . `` ' Gotham , ' ' The Voice , ' ' Big Bang , ' ' DWTS ' adjust up , ' Conviction ' and ' 2 Broke Girls ' adjust down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 18 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( May 23 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Voice ' adjusts up , ' Jane the Virgin ' adjusts down : Monday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved May 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 25 , 2017 ) . `` Final 2016 - 17 TV Rankings : ' Sunday Night Football ' Winning Streak Continues '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved May 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Welch , Alex ( October 16 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hell 's Kitchen , ' ' MacGyver , ' ' Once Upon a Time , ' & more remain unchanged : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( April 23 , 2018 ) . `` ' Dynasty ' adjusts down : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved April 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ de Moraes , Lisa ( May 22 , 2018 ) . `` 2017 - 18 TV Series Ratings Rankings : NFL Football , ' Big Bang ' Top Charts '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved May 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ For the first season , see `` Jane the Virgin : Season One Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . For the second season , see `` Jane the Virgin : Season Two Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . For the third season , see `` Jane the Virgin : Season Three Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . For the fourth season , see `` Jane the Virgin : Season Four Ratings '' . TV Series Finale . Retrieved February 20 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` AFI Awards '' . American Film Institute . December 10 , 2014 . Retrieved December 10 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice Nominees '' . peopleschoice.com . November 4 , 2014 . Archived from the original on November 8 , 2014 . Retrieved December 8 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globe Nominations '' . December 11 , 2014 . Retrieved December 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Lisa de Moraes . `` Peabody Awards 2015 Entertainment TV Winners : Full List - Deadline '' . Deadline Hollywood . Jump up ^ Erik Pedersen . `` Critics ' Choice Television Awards Nominations 2015 '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved May 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Performer of the Week : Jane the Virgin 's Jaime Camil '' . February 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Performer of the Week : Gina Rodriguez '' . May 2 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Matt Webb Mitovich . `` TCA Award Nominees 2015 : ' Empire ' ' Transparent ' ' Jane the Virgin ' - TVLine '' . TVLine . Retrieved June 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 67th Emmy Awards Nominees and Winners '' . Emmys . Retrieved September 6 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` 2015 Categories International Press Academy '' . Pressacademy.com . Retrieved 2018 - 06 - 27 . Jump up ^ Patrick Hipes . `` NAACP Image Award Nominations 2015 -- Full List - Deadline '' . Deadline Hollywood . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globe Nominations '' . Deadline Hollywood . December 10 , 2015 . Retrieved December 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Patrick Hipes . `` Critics ' Choice Awards Nominations 2016 -- Full List - Deadline '' . Deadline Hollywood . Jump up ^ `` Performer of the Week '' . March 12 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` 68th Emmy Awards Nominees and Winners '' . Emmys . Retrieved September 6 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Performer of the Week : Gina Rodriguez '' . November 5 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Golden Globe Nominations '' . Deadline Hollywood . December 12 , 2016 . Retrieved December 14 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` People 's Choice : Full List of Winners '' . peopleschoice.com . January 18 , 2017 . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2017 . Retrieved January 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Douglas , Esme . `` Teen Choice Awards 2018 : See the full list of winners '' . EW . Archived from the original on August 13 , 2018 . Retrieved August 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Jane The Virgin -- Season 1 5 DVD '' . JB Hi - Fi . Retrieved July 31 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin , Season 1 5 Discs '' . Amazon . October 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin , Season 2 5 Discs '' . Amazon . Jump up ^ `` Jane The Virgin -- Season 2 6 DVD '' . JB Hi - Fi . Retrieved July 31 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin , Season 2 5 Discs '' . Amazon . 22 December 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin , Season 3 5 Discs '' . Amazon . January 19 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jane The Virgin -- Season 3 5 DVD '' . JB Hi - Fi . Retrieved July 31 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jane the Virgin , Season 3 5 Discs '' . Amazon . January 19 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Jane The Virgin -- Season 4 5 DVD '' . JB Hi - Fi . Retrieved July 31 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Weldon , Sarah ( October 27 , 2017 ) . `` That Jane the Virgin book is coming to life thanks to Simon & Schuster '' . Entertainment Weekly . 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3817505211319068594 | Pop Muzik | Pop Muzik - wikipedia Pop Muzik Not to be confused with Pop music . `` Pop Muzik '' Single by M from the album New York London Paris Munich B - side `` M Factor '' Released 1979 Format CD single digital download 7 '' 12 '' maxi single Genre New wave synth - pop disco Length 3 : 21 Label MCA EMI Sire Songwriter ( s ) Robin Scott Producer ( s ) Robin Scott M singles chronology `` Moderne Man '' ( 1979 ) `` Pop Muzik '' ( 1979 ) `` Moonlight and Muzak '' ( 1979 ) `` Pop Muzik '' is a 1979 song by M , a project by English musician Robin Scott , from the debut album New York London Paris Munich . The single , first released in the UK in early 1979 , was bolstered by a music video ( directed by Brian Grant ) that was well received by critics . The clip featured Scott as a DJ singing into a microphone from behind an exaggerated turntable setup , at times flanked by two female models who sang and danced in a robotic manner . The video also featured Brigit Novik , Scott 's partner at the time , who provided the backup vocals for the track . The single 's B - side , `` M Factor '' , was featured in two different versions . The original cut appeared on the first UK and European releases of the single , while a slightly remixed version appeared on the single released in the United States and Canada . The song reached # 1 in several countries and was one of the most popular singles of 1979 . Contents 1 Concept and chart performance 2 Album 3 Other formats 4 Chart performance 4.1 Weekly charts 4.2 Year - end charts 4.3 Certifications and sales 5 Formats and track listings 5.1 Original 7 '' single 5.2 Long version single 5.3 Netherlands 12 '' single 5.4 Sweden 7 '' 1989 release 5.5 Sweden 12 '' 1989 release 5.6 Germany 12 '' 1989 release 5.7 Germany CD 2001 release 6 Cover versions 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Concept and Chart performance ( edit ) The song was initially recorded in R&B and funk styles before a friend of Scott suggested using synthesisers . He describes the genesis of `` Pop Muzik '' : I was looking to make a fusion of various styles which somehow would summarise the last 25 years of pop music . It was a deliberate point I was trying to make . Whereas rock and roll had created a generation gap , disco was bringing people together on an enormous scale . That 's why I really wanted to make a simple , bland statement , which was , ' All we 're talking about basically ( is ) pop music . ' The single was released in the UK first , peaking at number two on 12 May 1979 , unable to break Art Garfunkel 's 6 - week stint at number one with `` Bright Eyes '' . In August of that same year , it was released in North America , where it eventually climbed all the way to number one in Canada on 27 October and in the US on 3 November . Along with Scott , other musicians who played on the track were his brother Julian Scott ( on bass ) , then unknown keyboardist Wally Badarou , Canadian synthesiser programmer John Lewis , drummer Phil Gould ( who later became one of the founding members of the group Level 42 ) , Gary Barnacle and Brigit Novik , the backing vocalist , credited as `` Brigit Vinchon '' on the records and sleeves . The image of the baby on `` Pop Muzik '' 's single disc pictures Robin Scott 's daughter , named Berenice , who is now a singer and piano / keyboard player and composer and involved with her father 's friend Phil Gould and Wally Badarou projects . Album ( edit ) The subsequent full - length album New York London Paris Munich was recorded in Montreux , Switzerland , at Queen 's Mountain Studio , with lead singer and guitarist Robin Scott and regular engineer David Richards , as well as Julian Scott , Wally Badarou and Brigit Novik . Additional musicians on the album included drummer Phil Gould , Gary Barnacle on saxophone and flute , and David Bowie ( a friend of Scott and a resident of Montreux at the time ) who provided occasional handclaps . The album was also released in the United States on Sire Records with a different track listing but it was not commercially successful , compared to the album 's success in Europe . Other formats ( edit ) The UK 12 - inch single version was notable for the A-side having a double groove such that the two tracks ( `` Pop Muzik '' and `` M Factor '' ) both started at the outer edge of the record and finished in the middle ( with a long silence at the end of `` M Factor '' since the track was the shorter of the two ) . This resulted in a random selection of the two tracks , depending on which groove the needle landed in the lead - in . To further market this idea , the UK record sleeve stated `` B side included on A side , full length disco mix of Pop Musik on Seaside '' . ' Seaside ' ( in other words `` C side '' ) was a simple play on words as the letter C , apart from being the logical next `` side '' after the A and B sides , is pronounced the same way as the English word `` sea '' . The song was remixed and re-released in 1989 where it reached number 15 in the UK Singles Charts . Chart performance ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1979 -- 1980 ) Peak position Australia ( Kent Music Report ) Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Canada Adult Contemporary ( RPM ) 19 Canada Dance / Urban ( RPM ) Canada Top Singles ( RPM ) Denmark ( IFPI ) Europe ( Eurochart Hot 100 ) France ( IFOP ) 12 Germany ( Official German Charts ) Ireland ( IRMA ) Italy ( FIMI ) 5 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) New Zealand ( Recorded Music NZ ) Norway ( VG - lista ) 5 South Africa ( Springbok Radio ) Sweden ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) US Billboard Hot 100 US Cash Box US Record World Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 1979 ) Rank Australia ( Kent Music Report ) 10 Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) 6 Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) 28 Canada ( RPM Top 200 Singles ) 21 France ( IFOP ) 39 Germany ( Official German Charts ) 7 Italy ( FIMI ) 18 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) 28 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 29 South Africa ( Springbok Radio ) 5 Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) 13 US Cash Box 15 Chart ( 1980 ) Rank US Billboard Hot 100 40 Certifications and sales ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Germany ( BVMI ) Gold 250,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Silver 250,000 United States ( RIAA ) Gold 1,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Formats and track listings ( edit ) Original 7 '' single ( edit ) Original 7 '' single released by MCA Records and EMI in Europe . Pop Muzik -- 3 : 21 M Factor -- 2 : 30 Long version single ( edit ) Released in both 7 '' and 12 '' vinyl single formats in the United States by Sire Records , and as a 12 '' vinyl in France by Pathé Marconi EMI , all featuring a longer version of the song Pop Muzik ( Long Version ) -- 4 : 58 M Factor -- 2 : 30 Netherlands 12 '' single ( edit ) 12 '' single released in the Netherlands by MCA Records . The B - side `` M Factor '' was featured on the A-side of the vinyl on this release , with a remix of the title song on the B - side . Pop Muzik M Factor Pop Muzik ( Long Version ) Sweden 7 '' 1989 release ( edit ) 7 '' single released in Sweden in 1989 by Freestyle Records Pop Muzik ( Edited 1989 Remix ) -- 3 : 10 Pop Muzik ( Original 7 '' Version ) -- 3 : 20 Sweden 12 '' 1989 release ( edit ) 12 '' single released in Sweden in 1989 by Freestyle Records Pop Muzik ( Extended 1989 Hip Hop Remix ) -- 5 : 40 Pop Muzik ( 7 '' Version ) -- 3 : 20 Pop Muzik ( Edited 1989 Dub Remix ) -- 3 : 20 Pop Muzik ( Original 12 '' Version ) -- 5 : 00 Pop Muzik ( Edited 1989 Remix ) -- 3 : 10 Germany 12 '' 1989 release ( edit ) 12 '' single released in Germany in 1989 by ZYX Records Pop Muzik ( The Hip Hop Club Remix ) -- 5 : 38 Pop Muzik ( The Hip Hop Remix ) -- 3 : 20 Pop Muzik ( Original ' 79 Mix ) -- 3 : 21 Germany CD 2001 release ( edit ) CD single released in Germany in 2001 by ZYX Records Pop Muzik ( Britannia ' 89 Remix ) -- 3 : 11 Pop Muzik ( Cabinet Remix ) -- 7 : 38 Pop Muzik ( Original Version ) -- 3 : 21 Cover versions ( edit ) Male vocal and instrumental band All Systems Go entered the UK Singles Chart on 18 June 1988 . It reached number 63 , and remained in the chart for 2 weeks . In 1997 , U2 remixed the song to use as the opening track for their PopMart Tour . The remix features an upbeat tempo and use of synthesizers . In the live version , Robin Scott 's vocals were used . The song was released on the `` Last Night on Earth '' single and Bono 's vocals replaced Scott 's . The only part of the song Bono added was the line `` dance to the PopMart , top of the food chain . '' Andrew Unterberger of Stylus Magazine said the cover was `` hardly the most musically accomplished thing U2 did in this period , but I ca n't think of a better choice to introduce this period of their career . '' See also ( edit ) List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 1979 List of European number - one hits of 1979 List of number - one singles in Australia during the 1970s List of number - one singles of 1979 ( Canada ) List of number - one hits of 1979 ( Germany ) List of number - one singles and albums in Sweden List of number - one singles from 1968 -- 79 ( Switzerland ) List of RPM number - one dance singles of 1979 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Weisbard , Eric ; Marks , Craig ( 1995 ) . Spin Alternative Record Guide . Vintage Books . ISBN 978 - 06 - 7975 - 574 - 6 . ^ Jump up to : Eddy , Chuck ( 2011 ) . Rock and Roll Always Forgets : A Quarter Century of Music Criticism . Duke University Press . p. 243 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8223 - 5010 - 1 . the weird chart - topping New Wave disco single by one - letter - named one - hit - wonder M ( real name : Robin Scott ) finished second on another chart in 1979 Jump up ^ Chiu , David ( 4 July 2013 ) . `` A look back at 1983 : The year of the second British Invasion '' . CBS News . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Synthpop made inroads in America starting in the late ' 70s with songs like `` Pop Muzik '' by M , `` Video Killed the Radio Star , '' by the Buggles , and `` Cars '' by Gary Numan . Jump up ^ `` Defining Decades : 1970s '' . 17 April 2015 . Vintage TV . Missing or empty series = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` One - Hit Wonders at the BBC '' . 17 April 2015 . BBC Four . Missing or empty series = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Bronson , Fred ( 1988 ) . `` Pop Muzik '' -- M. The Billboard Book of Number One Hits ( 4th ed . ) . Super Seventies . ISBN 0 - 8230 - 7641 - 5 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Top RPM Singles : Issue 9459a . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved 12 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 : 02 July 1989 -- 08 July 1989 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 7 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Australia No. 1 hits -- 1970 's '' . World Charts . Archived from the original on 24 April 2014 . Retrieved 10 June 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- M -- Pop Muzik '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- M -- Pop Muzik '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Adult Contemporary : Issue 6874 . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved 12 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Dance / Urban : Issue 7883 . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . Retrieved 12 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Billboard -- Hits Of The World '' . Billboard. 91 ( 43 ) : 80 . 27 October 1979 . ISSN 0006 - 2510 . See last week peak position . Jump up ^ `` MusicSeek.info -- UK , Eurochart , Billboard & Cashbox No. 1 Hits '' . Archived from the original on 14 June 2006 ... MusicSeek.info . Jump up ^ `` InfoDisc : Tous les Titres par Artiste '' ( in French ) . InfoDisc . Select `` M '' or `` M . '' from the artist drop - down menu . Archived from the original on 27 January 2012 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Offiziellecharts.de -- M -- Pop Muzik '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` The Irish Charts -- Search Results -- Pop Muzik '' . Irish Singles Chart . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` I singoli più venduti del 1979 '' ( in Italian ) . Hit Parade Italia . Creative Commons . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- M - Pop Muzik '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- M -- Pop Muzik '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Charts.nz -- M -- Pop Muzik '' . Top 40 Singles . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Norwegiancharts.com -- M -- Pop Muzik '' . VG - lista . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` South African Rock Lists Website SA Charts 1969 -- 1989 Acts ( M ) '' . Rock.co.za . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Swedishcharts.com -- M -- Pop Muzik '' . Singles Top 100 . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- M -- Pop Muzik '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 23 July 2013 . Jump up ^ `` M -- Awards '' . AllMusic . All Media Network . Retrieved 31 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` CASH BOX Top 100 Singles -- Week ending OCTOBER 27 , 1979 '' . Archived from the original on 4 September 2011 ... Cash Box magazine . Jump up ^ `` Record World Singles '' ( PDF ) . Record World . 27 October 1979 . p. 33 . ISSN 0034 - 1622 . Retrieved 17 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Forum - ARIA Charts : Special Occasion Charts -- Top 100 End of Year AMR Charts -- 1970s '' . Australian-charts.com . Hung Medien . Archived from the original on 6 November 2013 . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jahreshitparade 1979 '' ( in German ) . Austrian-charts.com . Hung Medien . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten 1979 '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` 1979 Top 200 Singles '' . RPM . Vol. 32 no . 13 . Library and Archives Canada . 22 December 1979 . Jump up ^ `` TOP -- 1979 '' ( in French ) . Top-france.fr . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jahrescharts -- 1979 '' . Offiziellecharts.de ( in German ) . GfK Entertainment Charts . Archived from the original on 8 May 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 - Jaaroverzicht van 1979 '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jaaroverzichten -- Single 1979 '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Hung Medien . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Top 20 Hit Singles of 1979 '' . Rock.co.za . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Schweizer Jahreshitparade 1979 '' ( in German ) . Hitparade.ch . Hung Medien . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` The CASH BOX Year - End Charts : 1979 '' . Archived from the original on 25 August 2012 ... Cash Box magazine . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 Hits for 1980 '' . The Longbored Surfer . Retrieved 31 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Gold - / Platin - Datenbank ( ' Pop Muzik ' ) '' ( in German ) . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Pop Muzik '' . British Phonographic Industry . Select singles in the Format field . Select Silver in the Certification field . Type Pop Muzik in the `` Search BPI Awards '' field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` American single certifications -- M -- Pop Muzik '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Single , then click SEARCH . Jump up ^ Rice , Tim ; Rice , Johnathan ; Gambaccini , Paul ( 1990 ) , Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums , Enfield , Middlesex : Guinness World Records and Guinness Publishing , ISBN 0 - 85112 - 398 - 8 Jump up ^ Unterberger , Andrew ( 16 October 2007 ) . `` U2 -- Poopropa '' . Stylus Magazine . Retrieved 7 August 2015 . 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-79309291357348103 | The Iron Giant | The Iron Giant - wikipedia The Iron Giant Jump to : navigation , search The Iron Giant Theatrical release poster Directed by Brad Bird Produced by Allison Abbate Des McAnuff Screenplay by Tim McCanlies Story by Brad Bird Based on The Iron Man by Ted Hughes Starring Jennifer Aniston Harry Connick , Jr . Vin Diesel James Gammon Cloris Leachman Christopher McDonald John Mahoney Eli Marienthal M. Emmet Walsh Music by Michael Kamen Cinematography Steven Wilzbach Edited by Darren T. Holmes Production company Warner Bros. Feature Animation Distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures Release date August 6 , 1999 ( 1999 - 08 - 06 ) Running time 87 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $70 -- 80 million Box office $31.3 million The Iron Giant is a 1999 American animated science fiction film using both traditional animation and computer animation , produced by Warner Bros. Feature Animation and directed by Brad Bird in his directorial debut . It is based on the 1968 novel The Iron Man by Ted Hughes ( which was published in the United States as The Iron Giant ) and was scripted by Tim McCanlies from a story treatment by Bird . The film stars the voices of Eli Marienthal , Christopher McDonald , Jennifer Aniston , Harry Connick , Jr. , John Mahoney , and Vin Diesel . Set during the Cold War in 1957 , the film is about a young boy named Hogarth Hughes , who discovers a giant metallic robot who fell from space . With the help of beatnik artist Dean McCoppin , they attempt to prevent the U.S. military and Kent Mansley , a paranoid federal agent , from finding and destroying the Giant . The film 's development phase began in 1994 as a musical with the involvement of The Who 's Pete Townshend , though the project took root once Bird signed on as director and hired McCanlies to write the screenplay in 1996 . The film was created traditionally , with computer - generated imagery used to animate the title character and other effects . The understaffed crew of the film completed it with half of the time and budget of other animated features . Michael Kamen produced the film 's score , recorded with the Czech Philharmonic . The Iron Giant premiered at Mann 's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles on July 31 , 1999 , and was released worldwide on August 6 . Upon its release , the film significantly under - performed at the box office , making $31.3 million worldwide against a budget of $70 -- 80 million , which was blamed on an unusually poor marketing campaign . However , the film received widespread critical acclaim with praise directed at the story , animation , characters , the portrayal of the title character , and the voice performances of Aniston , Connick , Jr. , Diesel , McDonald , Mahoney , and Marienthal . The film was nominated for several awards , winning nine Annie Awards out of 15 nominations . Through home video releases and television syndication , the film gathered a cult following and is now widely regarded as a modern animated classic . In 2015 , an extended , remastered version of the film was re-released theatrically , which saw a home video release the following year . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Writing 3.3 Animation 3.4 Music 3.5 Post-production 4 Themes 5 Release 5.1 Marketing 5.2 Box office 5.3 Home media and television syndication 6 Reception 6.1 Critical response 6.2 Accolades 7 Legacy 7.1 Signature Edition 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Plot ( edit ) Shortly after the Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1 in October 1957 , an object from space crashes in the ocean just off the Maine coast , then enters the forest near Rockwell , Maine . Nine - year - old Hogarth Hughes goes to investigate and finds a giant robot being electrocuted as it tries to eat the transmission lines of an electrical substation . Hogarth turns off the station , and the Giant runs off . Hogarth tracks down and befriends the Giant , finding it docile and curious . When it eats the railroad tracks in the path of an oncoming train , Hogarth tries to have the robot repair the damage , but the train collides with its head and derails . Hogarth helps usher the Giant away from the scene , discovering that its ' damaged parts are drawn to the Giant and can undergo self - repair . Hogarth hides it in his family 's barn . After dinner with his widowed mother , Annie , Hogarth reads comics to the Giant . It is impressed with the adventures of Superman , but agitated by how the villainous `` Atomo the Metal Menace '' is depicted . Hogarth calms the Giant by telling it `` you are who you choose to be '' . The recent incidents lead U.S. government agent Kent Mansley to town . He discovers evidence of Hogarth 's involvement and rents a room in their house to stay close to the boy . Hogarth ditches Kent long enough to move the Giant to a junkyard owned by beatnik artist Dean McCoppin , where they are able to pretend the Giant is one of Dean 's scrap metal sculptures . Nevertheless , the easily spooked Kent issues orders for the military , led by General Shannon Rogard , to move into town . Hogarth enjoys his time with the Giant but is forced to explain the nature of death when they witness hunters kill a deer . One day , Hogarth is playing with the Giant using a toy gun , which unintentionally activates The Giant 's weapons system , and Dean rescues Hogarth before one strikes him . The Giant reverts to its docile form and Dean orders it away for Hogarth 's safety , but Hogarth gives chase . Dean realizes the Giant was acting in self - defense and quickly catches up to Hogarth as they follow the Giant into town . The Giant saves two boys falling from a roof when it arrives , winning over the townspeople . Kent convinces Rogard to start an attack against the robot . The Giant exposes its ' weapons again , and readily overpowers the military . Dean and Hogarth arrive and calm the Giant , but the military continues to fight it . Hogarth is knocked unconscious , and the Giant , believing Hogarth to be dead , becomes enraged and enters an automatic living weapon status , continuing its retaliation . Kent convinces Rogard to prepare to launch a nuclear missile from the USS Nautilus offshore if they can not stop it . Dean and Annie revive Hogarth , and he helps return the Giant to its ' docile state , while Dean explains the situation to the military . Rogard is ready to stand down when Kent panics and orders the missile launch . Rogard furiously reminds Kent that the missile is locked onto the Giant 's current position and they will all be killed in the blast radius . Kent tries to escape but the Giant stops him , and Rogard 's men hold him at gun point . Hogarth explains to the Giant what will happen when the missile strikes . The Giant says farewell to Hogarth and flies off to intercept the missile , remembering Hogarth 's words about being who one chooses to be , and the Giant says , `` Superman '' just before collision . The missile explodes harmlessly in the atmosphere . As the townspeople and military are relieved to be alive , Hogarth is saddened by the robot 's apparent destruction . Some months later , the town has constructed a statue of the Giant in its memory , and Dean and Annie are starting a relationship . Hogarth receives a package from Rogard , a bolt from the Giant being the only remnant they could find . That night , Hogarth sees the bolt trying to move on its own , and he opens the window , letting the bolt roll free . The bolt joins many other parts as they converge on the Giant 's head on the Langjökull glacier in Iceland . The Giant 's head activates , and it smiles as it begins putting itself back together . Cast ( edit ) Christopher McDonald , Brad Bird and Eli Marienthal in March 2012 at the Iron Giant screening at the LA Animation Festival Eli Marienthal as Hogarth Hughes , an intelligent , energetic and curious 9 - year - old boy with an active imagination . Marienthal 's performances were videotaped and given to animators to work with , which helped develop expressions and acting for the character . Vin Diesel as the Iron Giant , a fifty - foot , metal - eating robot . Created for an unknown purpose , the Giant involuntarily reacts defensively if he recognizes anything as a weapon , immediately attempting to destroy it . The Giant 's voice was originally to be electronically modulated but the filmmakers decided they `` needed a deep , resonant and expressive voice to start with , '' so they hired Vin Diesel . Christopher McDonald as Kent Mansley , a government agent sent to investigate sightings of the Iron Giant . The logo on his official government car says he is from the `` Bureau of Unexplained Phenomena '' . Harry Connick , Jr. as Dean McCoppin , a beatnik artist and junkyard owner . Bird felt it appropriate to make the character a member of the beat generation , as they were viewed as mildly threatening to small - town values during that time . An outsider himself , he is among the first to recognize the Giant as no threat . Jennifer Aniston as Annie Hughes , the widow of a military pilot and Hogarth 's mother . John Mahoney as General Shannon Rogard , the military leader in Washington , D.C. who strongly dislikes Mansley . M. Emmet Walsh as Earl Stutz , a sailor and the first man to see the robot . James Gammon as Marv Loach , a foreman who follows the robot 's trail after it destroys the power station . James Gammon also voices Floyd Toubeaux Cloris Leachman as Mrs. Lynley Tensedge , Hogarth 's schoolteacher Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas as the train engineers . Johnston and Thomas were animators and members of Disney 's Nine Old Men . Bird cited them as inspirations for his career and incorporated their voices and likenesses into the film . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) The origins of the film lie in the book The Iron Man ( 1968 ) , by poet Ted Hughes , who wrote the novel for his children . In the 1980s , rock musician Pete Townshend chose to adapt the book for a concept album ; it was released as The Iron Man : A Musical in 1989 . In 1991 , Richard Bazley , who later became the film 's lead animator , pitched a version of The Iron Man to Don Bluth while working at his studio in Ireland . He created a story outline and character designs but Bluth passed on the project . After a stage musical was mounted in London , Des McAnuff , who had adapted Tommy with Townshend for the stage , believed that The Iron Man could translate to the screen , and the project was ultimately acquired by Warner Bros. Entertainment . In late 1996 , while developing the project on its way through , the studio saw the film as a perfect vehicle for Brad Bird , who at the time was working for Turner Feature Animation developing Ray Gunn . Turner Entertainment had recently merged with Warner Bros. parent company Time Warner , and Bird was allowed to transfer to the Warner Bros. Animation studio to direct The Iron Giant . After reading the original Iron Man book by Hughes , Bird was impressed with the mythology of the story and in addition , was given an unusual amount of creative control by Warner Bros . This creative control involved introducing two new characters not present in the original book , Dean and Kent , setting the film in America , and discarding Townshend 's musical ambitions ( who did not care either way , reportedly remarking , `` Well , whatever , I got paid '' ) . Bird 's pitch to Warner Bros. was based around the idea `` What if a gun had a soul ? '' He expanded upon his desire to set the film in America in the 1950s in a later interview : The Maine setting looks Norman Rockwell idyllic on the outside , but inside everything is just about to boil over ; everyone was scared of the bomb , the Russians , Sputnik -- even rock and roll . This clenched Ward Cleaver smile masking fear ( which is really what the Kent character was all about ) . It was the perfect environment to drop a 50 - foot - tall robot into . Bird 's sister , Susan , was shot and killed by her estranged husband before the film 's story was completed . This motivated Bird to emphasize the anti-gun message of the film and the moralistic quote by Dean : `` You are who you choose to be . '' The film was dedicated to Susan 's memory . Ted Hughes , the original story 's author , died before the film 's release . His daughter , Frieda Hughes , did see the finished film on his behalf and loved it . Pete Townshend , who this project originally started with , enjoyed the final film as well . Writing ( edit ) Tim McCanlies was hired to write the script , though Bird was somewhat displeased with having another writer on board , as he wanted to write the screenplay himself . He later changed his mind after reading McCanlies ' then - unproduced screenplay for Secondhand Lions . In Bird 's original story treatment , America and the USSR were at war at the end , with the Giant dying . McCanlies decided to have a brief scene displaying his survival , stating , `` You ca n't kill E.T. and then not bring him back . '' McCanlies finished the script within two months . McCanlies was given a three - month schedule to complete a script , and it was by way of the film 's tight schedule that Warner Bros. `` did n't have time to mess with us '' as McCanlies said . The question of the Giant 's backstory was purposefully ignored as to keep the story focused on his relationship with Hogarth . Bird considered the story difficult to develop due to its combination of unusual elements , such as `` paranoid fifties sci - fi movies with the innocence of something like The Yearling . '' Hughes himself was sent a copy of McCanlies ' script and sent a letter back , saying how pleased he was with the version . In the letter , Hughes stated , `` I want to tell you how much I like what Brad Bird has done . He 's made something all of a piece , with terrific sinister gathering momentum and the ending came to me as a glorious piece of amazement . He 's made a terrific dramatic situation out of the way he 's developed The Iron Giant . I ca n't stop thinking about it . '' Bird combined his knowledge from his years in television to direct his first feature . He credited his time working on Family Dog as essential to team - building , and his tenure on The Simpsons as an example of working under strict deadlines . He was open to others on his staff to help develop the film ; he would often ask crew members their opinions on scenes and change things accordingly . One of his priorities was to emphasize softer , character - based moments , as opposed to more frenetic scenes -- something Bird thought was a problem with modern filmmaking . `` There has to be activity or sound effects or cuts or music blaring . It 's almost as if the audience has the remote and they 're going to change channels , '' he commented at the time . Storyboard artist Teddy Newton played an important role in shaping the film 's story . Newton 's first assignment on staff involved being asked by Bird to create a film within a film to reflect the `` hygiene - type movies that everyone saw when the bomb scare was happening . '' Newton came to the conclusion that a musical number would be the catchiest alternative , and the `` Duck and Cover sequence '' came to become one of the crew members ' favorites of the film . Nicknamed `` The X-Factor '' by story department head Jeffery Lynch , the producers gave him artistic freedom on various pieces of the film 's script . Animation ( edit ) The financial failure of Warner 's previous animated effort , Quest for Camelot , which made the studio reconsider animated films , helped shape The Iron Giant 's production considerably . `` Three - quarters '' of the animation team on that team helped craft The Iron Giant . By the time it entered production , Warner Bros. informed the staff that there would be a smaller budget as well as time - frame to get the film completed . Although the production was watched closely , Bird commented `` They did leave us alone if we kept it in control and showed them we were producing the film responsibly and getting it done on time and doing stuff that was good . '' Bird regarded the trade - off as having `` one - third of the money of a Disney or DreamWorks film , and half of the production schedule , '' but the payoff as having more creative freedom , describing the film as `` fully - made by the animation team ; I do n't think any other studio can say that to the level that we can . '' A small part of the team took a weeklong research trip to Maine , where they photographed and videotaped five small cities . They hoped to accurately reflect its culture down to the minutiae ; `` we shot store fronts , barns , forests , homes , home interiors , diners , every detail we could , including the bark on trees , '' said production designer Mark Whiting . Bird stuck to elaborate scene planning , such as detailed animatics , to make sure there were no budgetary concerns . The team initially worked with Macromedia 's Director software , before switching to Adobe After Effects full - time . Bird was eager to use the then - nascent software , as it allowed for storyboard to contain indications of camera moves . The software became essential to that team -- dubbed `` Macro '' early on -- to help the studio grasp story reels for the film . These also allowed Bird to better understand what the film required from an editing perspective . In the end , he was proud of the way the film was developed , noting that `` We could imagine the pace and the unfolding of our film accurately with a relatively small expenditure of resources . '' The group would gather in a screening room to view completed sequences , with Bird offering suggestions by drawing onto the screen with a marker . Lead animator Bazley suggested this led to a sense of camaraderie among the crew , who were unified in their mission to create a good film . Bird cited his favorite moment of the film 's production as occurring in the editing room , when the crew gathered to test a sequence in which the Giant learns what a soul is . `` People in the room were spontaneously crying . It was pivotal ; there was an undeniable feeling that we were really tapping into something , '' he recalled . He opted to give the film 's animators portions to animate entirely , rather than the standard process of animating one character , in a throwback to the way Disney 's first features were created . The exception were those responsible for creating the Giant himself , who was created using computer - generated imagery due to the difficulty of creating a metal object `` in a fluid - like manner . '' They had additional trouble with using the computer model to express emotion . The Giant was designed by filmmaker Joe Johnston ( best known for designing the Star Wars trilogy ) , which was refined by production designer Mark Whiting and Steve Markowski , head animator for the Giant . Using software , the team would animate the Giant `` on twos '' ( every other frame , or twelve frames per second ) when interacting with other characters , to make it less obvious it was a computer model . Bird brought in students from CalArts to assist in minor animation work due to the film 's busy schedule . He made sure to spread out the work on scenes between experienced and younger animators , noting , `` You overburden your strongest people and underburden the others ( if you let your top talent monopolize the best assignments ) . '' Hiroki Itokazu designed all of the film 's CGI props and vehicles , which were created in a variety of software , including Alias Systems Corporation 's Maya , Alias ' PowerAnimator , a modified version of Pixar 's RenderMan , Cambridge Animation 's Animo ( now part of Toon Boom Animation ) , Avid Elastic Reality , and Adobe Photoshop . The art of Norman Rockwell , Edward Hopper and N.C. Wyeth inspired the design . Whiting strove for colors both evocative of the time period in which the film is set and also representative of its emotional tone ; for example , Hogarth 's room is designed to reflect his `` youth and sense of wonder . '' That was blended with a style reminiscent of 1950s illustration . Animators studied Chuck Jones , Hank Ketcham , Al Hirschfeld and Disney films from that era , such as 101 Dalmatians , for inspiration in the film 's animation . Music ( edit ) The score for the film was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen . Bird 's original temp score , `` a collection of Bernard Herrmann cues from ' 50s and ' 60s sci - fi films , '' initially scared Kamen . Believing the sound of the orchestra is important to the feeling of the film , Kamen `` decided to comb eastern Europe for an `` old - fashioned '' sounding orchestra and went to Prague to hear Vladimir Ashkenazy conduct the Czech Philharmonic in Strauss 's An Alpine Symphony . '' Eventually , the Czech Philharmonic was the orchestra used for the film 's score , with Bird describing the symphony orchestra as `` an amazing collection of musicians . '' The score for The Iron Giant was recorded in a rather unconventional manner , compared to most films : recorded over one week at the Rudolfinum in Prague , the music was recorded without conventional uses of syncing the music , in a method Kamen described in a 1999 interview as `` ( being able to ) play the music as if it were a piece of classical repertoire . '' Kamen 's score for The Iron Giant won the Annie Award for Music in an Animated Feature Production on November 6 , 1999 . Post-production ( edit ) Bird opted to produce The Iron Giant in widescreen -- specifically the wide 2.39 : 1 CinemaScope aspect ratio -- but was warned against doing so by his advisers . He felt it was appropriate to use the format , as many films from the late 1950s were produced in such widescreen formats . He hoped to include the CinemaScope logo on a poster , partially as a joke , but 20th Century Fox , owner of the trademark , refused . Bird later recalled that he clashed with executives who wished to add characters , such as a sidekick dog , set the film in the present day , and include a soundtrack of hip hop . This was due to concerns that the film was not merchandisable , to which Bird responded , `` If they were interested in telling the story , they should let it be what it wants to be . '' The film was also initially going to released under the Warner Bros. Family Entertainment banner , the logo for which featured mascot Bugs Bunny in a tuxedo . Bird was against this for a multitude of reasons , and eventually got confirmation that executives Bob Daley and Terry Semel agreed . Instead , Bird and his team developed another version of the logo to resemble the classic studio logo in a circle , famously employed in Looney Tunes shorts . He credited executives Lorenzo di Bonaventura and Courtney Vallenti with helping him achieve his vision , noting that they were open to his opinion . According to a report from the time of its release , The Iron Giant cost $50 million to produce with an additional $30 million going towards marketing , though Box Office Mojo later calculated its budget as $70 million . It was regarded as a lower - budget film , in comparison to the films distributed by Walt Disney Pictures . Themes ( edit ) The Iron Giant primarily deals with the concept of existentialism , as well as the nature of humanity . This is exemplified when Hogarth says to the Giant `` You are who you choose to be '' . McCanlies commented that `` At a certain point , there are deciding moments when we pick who we want to be . And that plays out for the rest of your life . '' McCanlies added that films can provide viewers with a sense of right and wrong , and expressed a wish that The Iron Giant would `` make us feel like we 're all part of humanity ( which ) is something we need to feel . '' When some critics compared the film to E.T. : The Extra-Terrestrial ( 1982 ) , Bird responded by saying `` E.T. does n't go kicking ass . He does n't make the Army pay . Certainly you risk having your hip credentials taken away if you want to evoke anything sad or genuinely heartfelt . '' Release ( edit ) Marketing ( edit ) `` We had toy people and all of that kind of material ready to go , but all of that takes a year ! Burger King and the like wanted to be involved . In April we showed them the movie , and we were on time . They said , `` You 'll never be ready on time . '' No , we were ready on time . We showed it to them in April and they said , `` We 'll put it out in a couple of months . '' That 's a major studio , they have 30 movies a year , and they just throw them off the dock and see if they either sink or swim , because they 've got the next one in right behind it . After they saw the reviews they ( Warner Bros . ) were a little shamefaced . '' -- Writer Tim McCanlies on Warner Bros . ' marketing approach The Iron Giant was a commercial failure during its theatrical release , resulting from poor promotion from Warner Bros . This was largely attributable to the reception of Quest for Camelot ; after its release , Warner would not give Bird and his team a release date for their film until April 1999 . After wildly successful test screenings , the studio was shocked by the response : the test scores were their highest for a film in 15 years , according to Bird . They had neglected to prepare a successful marketing strategy for the film -- such as cereal and fast food tie - ins -- with little time left before its scheduled release . Bird remembered that the studio produced only one teaser poster for the film , which became its eventual poster . Brad Ball , who had been assigned the role of marketing the film , was candid after its release , noting that the studio did not commit to a planned Burger King toy plan . In an interview with IGN , Bird stated that it was `` a mis - marketing campaign of epic proportions at the hands of Warner Bros. , they simply did n't realize what they had on their hands . '' The studio needed an $8 million opening to ensure success , but they were unable to properly promote it preceding the release . They nearly delayed the film by several months to better prepare . `` They said , ' we should delay it and properly lead up to its release , ' and I said ' you guys have had two and a half years to get ready for this , ' '' recalled Bird . Press outlets took note of its absence of marketing , with some reporting that the studio had spent more money on marketing for the intended summer blockbuster Wild Wild West instead . Warner Bros. scheduled Sunday sneak preview screenings for the film prior to its release , as well as a preview of the film on the online platform Webcastsneak . Box Office ( edit ) The Iron Giant premiered at Mann 's Chinese Theater in Los Angeles on July 31 , 1999 , with a special ceremony preceding the screening in which a concrete slab bearing the title character 's footprint was commemorated . The film opened in Los Angeles and New York on August 4 , 1999 , with a wider national release occurring on August 6 in the United States . It opened in 2,179 theaters in the U.S. , ranking at number nine at the box office accumulating $5,732,614 over its opening weekend . It was quick to drop out of the top ten ; by its fourth week , it had accumulated only $18.9 million -- far under its reported $70 million budget . According to Dave McNary of the Los Angeles Daily News , `` Its weekend per - theater average was only $2,631 , an average of $145 or perhaps 30 tickets per showing '' -- leading theater owners to quickly discard the film . At the time , Warner Bros. was shaken by the resignations of executives Bob Daly and Terry Semel , making the failure much worse . T.L. Stanley of Brandweek cited it as an example of how media tie - ins were now essential to guaranteeing a film 's success . The film went on to gross $23,159,305 domestically and $8,174,612 internationally for a total of $31,333,917 worldwide . Analysts deemed it a victim of poor timing and `` a severe miscalculation of how to attract an audience . '' Lorenzo di Bonaventura , president of Warner Bros. at the time , explained , `` People always say to me , ' Why do n't you make smarter family movies ? ' The lesson is , Every time you do , you get slaughtered . '' Home Media and television syndication ( edit ) Stung by criticism that it mounted an ineffective marketing campaign for its theatrical release , Warner Bros. revamped its advertising strategy for the video release of the film , including tie - ins with Honey Nut Cheerios , AOL and General Motors and secured the backing of three U.S. congressmen ( Ed Markey , Mark Foley and Howard Berman ) . Awareness of the film was increased by its February 2000 release as a pay - per - view title , which also increased traffic to the film 's web site . The Iron Giant was released on VHS and DVD on November 23 , 1999 , with a laserdisc release following on December 6 . The VHS edition came in three versions -- pan and scan , pan and scan with an affixed Giant toy to the clamshell case , and a widescreen version . All of the initial widescreen home video releases were in 1.85 : 1 , the incorrect aspect ratio for the film . In 2000 , television rights to the film were sold to Cartoon Network and TNT for three million dollars . Cartoon Network showed the film continuously for 24 consecutive hours in the early 2000s for such holidays as the Fourth of July and Thanksgiving . The Special Edition DVD was released on November 16 , 2004 . In 2014 , Bird entered discussions with Warner Bros. regarding the possibility of releasing The Iron Giant on Blu - ray . On April 23 , he wrote on Twitter that `` WB & I have been talking . But they want a bare - bones disc . I want better , '' and encouraged fans to send tweets to Warner Bros. Home Entertainment in favor of a Special Edition Blu - ray of the film . On September 6 , 2016 , the film was released on Blu - ray for the first time , titled the Signature Edition . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) The Iron Giant received widespread critical acclaim . Based on 135 reviews collected by the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , The Iron Giant received an overall 96 % approval rating ; the average score is 8.2 / 10 . The consensus reads : `` The endearing Iron Giant tackles ambitious topics and complex human relationships with a steady hand and beautifully animated direction from Brad Bird . '' On Metacritic , the film achieved an average score of 85 out of 100 based on 27 reviews , signifying `` universal acclaim '' . In addition to its response from film critics , CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an `` A '' grade . The Reel Source forecasting service calculated that `` 96 -- 97 % '' of audiences that attended recommended the film . As of 2015 , Rotten Tomatoes ranks it the third most positively reviewed animated film made in the 1990s . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called it `` straight - arrow and subversive , ( and ) made with simplicity as well as sophistication , '' writing , `` it feels like a classic even though it 's just out of the box . '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times compared it , both in story and animation , to the works of Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki , summarizing the film as `` not just a cute romp but an involving story that has something to say . '' The New Yorker reviewer Michael Sragow dubbed it a `` modern fairy tale , '' writing , `` The movie provides a master class in the use of scale and perspective -- and in its power to open up a viewer 's heart and mind . '' Time 's Richard Schickel deemed it `` a smart live - and - let - live parable , full of glancing , acute observations on all kinds of big subjects -- life , death , the military - industrial complex . '' Lawrence Van Gelder , writing for The New York Times , deemed it a `` smooth , skilled example of animated filmmaking . '' Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal felt it `` beautiful , oh so beautiful , as a work of coherent art , '' noting , `` be assured that the film is , before anything else , deliciously funny and deeply affecting . '' Both Hollywood trade publications were positive : David Hunter of The Hollywood Reporter predicted it to be a sleeper hit and called it `` outstanding , '' while Lael Loewenstein of Variety called it `` a visually appealing , well - crafted film ( ... ) an unalloyed success . '' Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly commented , `` I have long thought that I was born without the gene that would allow me to be emotionally drawn in by drawings . That is , until I saw The Iron Giant . '' Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed that the storytelling was far superior to other animated films , and cited the characters as plausible and noted the richness of moral themes . Jeff Millar of the Houston Chronicle agreed with the basic techniques as well , and concluded the voice cast excelled with a great script by Tim McCanlies . Amid the positive reviews , a mildly negative review came from The Washington Post 's Stephen Hunter , who opined , `` The movie -- as beautifully drawn , as sleek and engaging as it is -- has the annoyance of incredible smugness . '' WatchMojo.com ranked The Iron Giant number 6 on its Top 10 Animated Movies of the 1990s . Accolades ( edit ) The Hugo Awards nominated The Iron Giant for Best Dramatic Presentation , while the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America honored Brad Bird and Tim McCanlies with the Nebula Award nomination . The British Academy of Film and Television Arts gave the film a Children 's Award as Best Feature Film . In addition The Iron Giant won nine Annie Awards and was nominated for another six categories , with another nomination for Best Home Video Release at The Saturn Awards . IGN ranked The Iron Giant as the fifth favorite animated film of all time in a list published in 2010 . In 2008 , the American Film Institute nominated The Iron Giant for its Top 10 Animated Films list . Awards Award Date of ceremony Category Recipients and nominees Result Annie Awards November 6 , 1999 Best Animated Feature Film Allison Abbate , Des McAnuff , and John Walker Warner Bros. Pictures ; Warner Bros. Feature Animation Won Outstanding Individual Achievement in Effects Animation Allen Foster Michel Gagné Nominated Outstanding Individual Achievement in Character Animation Jim Van der Keyl Steve Markowski Won Dean Wellins Nominated Outstanding Individual Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production Brad Bird Won Outstanding Individual Achievement for Music in an Animated Feature Production Michael Kamen Outstanding Individual Achievement for Production Design in an Animated Feature Production Alan Bodner Mark Whiting Nominated Outstanding Individual Achievement in Storyboarding in an Animated Feature Production Mark Andrews Won Kevin O'Brien Nominated Dean Wellins Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production Eli Marienthal For playing `` Hogarth Hughes '' . Won Outstanding Individual Achievement for Writing in an Animated Feature Production Tim McCanlies ( screenplay ) and Brad Bird ( story ) BAFTA Children 's Award April 9 , 2000 Best Feature Film Brad Bird , Allison Abbate , Des McAnuff , and Tim McCanlies Florida Film Critics Circle January 9 , 2000 Best Animated Film Brad Bird Won Genesis Awards March 18 , 2000 Best Feature Film - Animated Hugo Award September 2 , 2000 Best Dramatic Presentation Brad Bird ( screen story and directed by ) , Tim McCanlies ( screenplay by ) , and Ted Hughes ( based on the book The Iron Man by ) Nominated Las Vegas Film Critics Society January 18 , 2000 Best Animated Film Won Los Angeles Film Critics Association January 20 , 2000 Best Animated Film Brad Bird Motion Picture Sound Editors Awards March 25 , 2000 Best Sound Editing - Animated Feature Best Sound Editing - Music - Animation Nominated New York Film Critics Circle January 10 , 2000 Best Animated Film 2nd place Santa Fe Film Critics Circle Awards January 9 , 2000 Best Animated Film Won Saturn Awards June 6 , 2000 Best Home Video Release Nominated Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America May 20 , 2000 Best Script Brad Bird and Tim McCanlies Young Artist Awards March 19 , 2000 Best Family Feature Film - Animated Best Performance in a Voice - Over ( TV or Feature Film ) - Young Actor Eli Marienthal Won Legacy ( edit ) The film has gathered a cult following since its original release . The Iron Giant appeared in Steven Spielberg 's 2018 film Ready Player One , once again voiced by Vin Diesel and replacing Ultraman from the book , where he fights alongside the RX - 78 - 2 Gundam against the antagonists Mechagodzilla . Signature Edition ( edit ) A remastered and extended cut of the film , named the Signature Edition , was shown in one - off screenings across the United States and Canada on September 30 , 2015 , and October 4 , 2015 . The edition is approximately two minutes longer than the original cut , and features a brief scene with Annie and Dean and the sequence of the Giant 's dream . Both scenes were storyboarded by Bird during the production on the original film but never finished due to time and budget constraints . Before they were fully completed for this new version , they were available as deleted storyboards on the 2004 DVD bonus features . They were animated in 2015 by Duncan Studio , which employed several animators that worked on the original film . The film 's Signature Edition was released on DVD and for digital download on February 16 , 2016 . An official Blu - ray release was available on September 6 , 2016 . Along with the additional scene , it also showcases abandoned ideas that were not initially used due to copyright reasons , specifically a nod to Disney via a Tomorrowland commercial , which was also a reference to his then - recently released film of the same name , and a reference regarding the film being shot with CinemaScope cameras . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant ( U ) '' . British Board of Film Classification . August 26 , 1999 . Retrieved August 18 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant '' . American Film Institute . Retrieved March 9 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Iron Giant ( 1999 ) '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Stanley , T.L. ( September 13 , 1999 ) . `` Iron Giant 's Softness Hints Tie - ins Gaining Make - or - Break Importance '' . Brandweek. 40 ( 34 ) . p. 13 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Iron Giant '' . The Numbers . Retrieved November 17 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Flores , Terry ( September 24 , 2015 ) . `` Duncan Studios Adds New ' Iron Giant ' Scenes for Remastered Re-release '' . Variety . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Brad Bird 's 1999 animated classic The Iron Giant ... Jump up ^ Rich , Jamie S. ( January 20 , 2014 ) . `` ' The Iron Giant , ' a modern classic of animation returns : Indie & art house films '' . OregonLive.com . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Released in 1999 , this modern classic of hand - drawn animation Jump up ^ Lyttelton , Oliver ( August 6 , 2012 ) . `` 5 Things You Might Not Know About Brad Bird 's ' The Iron Giant ' '' . IndieWire . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . is now widely recognized as a modern classic ^ Jump up to : `` Interview with Richard Bazley '' . Animation Artist . August 20 , 1999 . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Iron Giant - Making the Movie '' . Warner Bros. Retrieved July 27 , 2013 . What he does find is a 50 - foot giant with an insatiable appetite for metal and a childlike curiosity about its new world . ^ Jump up to : `` The Making of The Iron Giant '' . Warner Bros. Archived from the original on March 21 , 2006 . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : The Iron Giant : Special Edition ( DVD commentary ) ( Media notes ) . Brad Bird , Jeffrey Lynch . Warner Bros. 2004 . ^ Jump up to : Black , Lewis ( September 19 , 2003 ) . `` More McCanlies , Texas '' . The Austin Chronicle . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved January 15 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Desowitz , Bill ( October 29 , 2009 ) . `` Brad Bird Talks ' Iron Giant ' 10th Anniversary '' . Animation World Magazine . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Blackwelder , = Rob ( July 19 , 1999 ) . `` A `` Giant '' Among Animators `` . SplicedWire . Retrieved February 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Townshend , Pete . ( 2012 ) Who I Am : A Memoir , New York City : Harper Collins Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 212724 - 2 ^ Jump up to : Holleran , Scott ( October 16 , 2003 ) . `` Iron Lion : An Interview with Tim McCanlies '' . Box Office Mojo . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved January 15 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Miller , = Bob ( August 1999 ) . `` Lean , Mean Fighting Machine : How Brad Bird Made The Iron Giant '' . Animation World Magazine ( 4.5 ) . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Ward Biederman , Patricia ( October 29 , 1999 ) . `` Overlooked Film 's Animators Created a Giant '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Brad Bird ( 2004 ) . DVD commentary for The Iron Giant ( DVD ) . Warner Home Video . Jump up ^ Brad Bird , Jeffery Lynch et al. ( 2004 ) . The Iron Giant Special Edition . Special Features : Teddy Newton `` The X-Factor '' ( DVD ) . Warner Home Video . ^ Jump up to : `` Interview with Mark Whiting '' . Animation Artist . August 31 , 1999 . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Bird , Brad ( November 1998 ) . `` Director and After Effects : Storyboarding Innovations on The Iron Giant '' . Animation World Magazine ( 3.8 ) . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : `` Interview with Tony Fucile '' . Animation Artist . August 24 , 1999 . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` An Interview with ... Scott Johnston - Artistic Coordinator for The Iron Giant '' . Animation Artist . August 10 , 1999 . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Goldwasser , Dan ( September 4 , 1999 ) . `` Interview with Michael Kamen '' . SoundtrackNet . Retrieved February 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gill , Kevin ( Director , Writer ) , Diesel , Vin ( Presenter ) , Bird , Brad ( Presenter ) ( 10 July 2000 ) . The Making of ' The Iron Giant ' ( DVD ) . KG Productions . Retrieved 14 July 2016 . Jump up ^ Biederman , Patricia ( November 8 , 1999 ) . `` Giant Towers Over Its Rivals '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved February 25 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Sragow , Michael ( August 5 , 1999 ) . `` Iron Without Irony '' . Salon Media Group . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved January 15 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : `` Animation World News - Some Additional Announcements About The Iron Giant DVD '' . Animation World Magazine ( 4.8 ) . November 1999 . Retrieved May 5 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Bumbray , Chris ( October 1 , 2015 ) . `` Exclusive Interview : Brad Bird Talks Iron Giant , Tomorrowland Flop , & More ! '' . JoBlo.com . Retrieved October 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Eller , Claudia ; Bates , James ( June 24 , 1999 ) . `` Animators ' Days of Drawing Big Salaries Are Ending '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Solomon , Charles ( August 27 , 1999 ) . `` It 's Here , Why Are n't You Watching '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Lyman , Rick . `` That 'll Be 2 Adults And 50 Million Children ; Family Films Are Hollywood 's Hot Tickets '' . New York Times . Retrieved August 9 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Otto , Jeff ( November 4 , 2004 ) . `` Interview : Brad Bird '' . IGN . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Spelling , Ian ( July 27 , 1999 ) . `` He 's Big on Giant '' . Chicago Tribune . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . There 's very little `` Iron Giant '' merchandise ( no Happy Meals ! ) ... ^ Jump up to : McNary , Dave ( August 15 , 1999 ) . `` Giant Disappointment : Warner Bros. Blew a Chance to Market ' Terrific ' Film While Iron Was Still Hot '' . Los Angeles Daily News . ^ Jump up to : Kilmer , David ( August 4 , 1999 ) . `` Fans get another chance to preview THE IRON GIANT '' . Animation World Magazine . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Horowitz , Lisa D. ( August 5 , 1999 ) . `` ' Iron Giant ' takes whammo , concrete steps '' . Variety . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Fessler , Karen ( September 5 , 1999 ) . `` Warner Bros. takes Giant hit '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Jump up ^ Irwin , Lew ( August 30 , 1999 ) . `` The Iron Giant Produces A Thud '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Irwin , Lew ( November 23 , 1999 ) . `` Warner Revamps Ad Campaign For The Iron Giant '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant Lands on Capital Hill '' . Time Warner . November 4 , 1999 . Retrieved July 18 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Umstead , R. Thomas ( February 14 , 2000 ) . `` Warner Bros. Backs ' Iron Giant ' on Web '' . Multichannel News . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Godfrey , Leigh ( July 2 , 2002 ) . `` Iron Giant Marathon On Cartoon Network '' . Animation World Magazine . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Patrizio , Andy ( November 2 , 2004 ) . `` The Iron Giant : Special Edition - DVD Review at IGN '' . IGN . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved June 24 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Iron Giant SE Delayed '' . IGN . July 22 , 2004 . Retrieved May 5 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Lussier , Germain ( April 23 , 2014 ) . `` Brad Bird Fighting For Iron Giant Blu - ray '' . Slash Film . Retrieved May 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ R. Kinsey , Lowe ( October 7 , 2005 ) . `` Filmmakers push to rescue ' Duma ' '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . Some publications have compared the film 's studio experience to `` A Little Princess '' and `` Iron Giant , '' two other Warner Bros. family releases that famously failed to reach a broad audience in theaters despite widespread critical acclaim . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant ( 1999 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes ( Flixster ) . Retrieved April 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Iron Giant , The ( 1999 ) : Reviews '' . Metacritic ( CBS Interactive ) . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Fretts , Bruce ( August 12 , 1999 ) . `` The Iron Giant wins over kids and adults alike '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Top 100 animation movies '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved August 9 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Turan , Kenneth ( August 4 , 1999 ) . `` A Friend in High Places '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ebert , Roger ( August 6 , 1999 ) . `` The Iron Giant review '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Sragow , Michael ( December 7 , 2009 ) . `` The Film File : The Iron Giant '' . The New Yorker . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Schickel , Richard ( August 16 , 1999 ) . `` Cinema : The Iron King '' . Time . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Van Gelder , Lawrence ( August 4 , 1999 ) . `` ' The Iron Giant ' : Attack of the Human Paranoids '' . The New York Times . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Morgenstern , Joe ( August 6 , 1999 ) . `` Money Ca n't Spark Passion In ' Thomas Crown Affair ' '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hunter , David ( July 21 , 1999 ) . `` Iron Giant '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ Loewenstein , Lael ( July 21 , 1999 ) . `` The Iron Giant '' . Variety . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Stack , Peter ( August 6 , 1999 ) . `` ' Giant ' Towers Above Most Kid Adventures '' . San Francisco Chronicle . Archived from the original on August 12 , 2010 . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Millar , Jeff ( April 30 , 2004 ) . `` The Iron Giant '' . Houston Chronicle . Retrieved February 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Hunter , Stephen ( August 6 , 1999 ) . `` ' Iron Giant ' : Shaggy Dogma '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ TOP 10 ANIMATED MOVIES : 1990S Rebecca Beyton . Watchmojo.com Jump up ^ `` Hugo Awards : 2000 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Nebula Award : 2000 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` BAFTA Awards : 2000 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Annie Awards : 1999 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Saturn Awards : 2000 '' . Internet Movie Database . Retrieved January 14 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Top 25 Animated Movies of All Time '' . IGN . June 24 , 2010 . Retrieved September 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 10 Top 10 - Official Ballot '' ( PDF ) . AFI. 2008 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on July 16 , 2011 . Retrieved September 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Lang , Brent ( July 22 , 2017 ) . `` Steven Spielberg : Iron Giant Is Major Part of ' Ready Player One ' '' . Variety . Retrieved July 23 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Wolfe , Jennifer ( September 15 , 2015 ) . `` Duncan Studio Provides Animation for New ' Iron Giant ' Sequences '' . Animation World Network . Retrieved September 17 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant : Signature Edition '' . Fathom Events . Retrieved July 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Howard , Bill ( February 18 , 2016 ) . `` Box Office Buz : DVD and Blu - ray releases for February 16 , 2016 '' . Box Office Buz . Retrieved September 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant Ultimate Collector 's Edition Blu - ray '' . Blu-ray.com . Retrieved 2016 - 03 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` The Iron Giant Commentary '' . Warner Home Video . Missing or empty url = ( help ) ; access - date = requires url = ( help ) Further reading ( edit ) Hughes , Ted ( March 3 , 2005 ) . The Iron Man ( Paperback ) . Reprinting of novel on which this film is based . Faber Children 's Books . ISBN 0571226124 . Hughes , Ted ; Moser , Barry ( August 31 , 1995 ) . The Iron Woman ( Hardcover ) . Sequel to The Iron Man . Amazon Remainders Account . ISBN 0803717962 . James Preller The Iron Giant : A Novelization . Scholastic Paperbacks ( August 1999 ) . ISBN 0439086345 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : The Iron Giant Official website The Iron Giant on IMDb The Iron Giant at The Big Cartoon DataBase The Iron Giant at Don Markstein 's Toonopedia . Archived from the original on September 17 , 2016 . Brad Bird filmography Directed The Iron Giant ( 1999 ) The Incredibles ( 2004 ) Ratatouille ( 2007 ) Mission : Impossible -- Ghost Protocol ( 2011 ) Tomorrowland ( 2015 ) Incredibles 2 ( 2018 ) Short films Jack - Jack Attack ( 2005 ) Music videos `` Do the Bartman '' ( 1991 ) TV series created Family Dog ( 1993 ) Warner Bros. 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1985802993153740139 | Results of the War of 1812 | Results of the war of 1812 - wikipedia Results of the war of 1812 Jump to : navigation , search Results of the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States , 1812 - 1815 , involved with no geographical changes . The main result of the war was two centuries of peace between the United States and Britain . All the causes of the war had disappeared with the end of the war between Britain and France and with the destruction of the power of Indians to block American expansion into the Northwest . American fears of the Native Americans ended , as did British plans to create a buffer Native American state . The American quest for honor after its humiliations by the British were satisfied . The final collapse of the opposition Federalist Party opened an `` Era of good feelings '' with lessened partisanship and an exuberant spirit . The British paid little attention to the war , concentrating instead on their final defeat of Napoleon in 1815 . The U.S. failed to gain any territory from British North America , contrary to many American politicians ' hopes and expectations , but it did gain land from Spain . After Napoleon 's defeat in 1814 , Britain was no longer at war with France and there were no restrictions on trade ; the British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors , and never resumed it , but they insisted they still had the right to resume it . Americans believed they had regained their honour and proclaimed victory in what they called a `` second war of independence '' for the decisive defeat of the British invaders at New Orleans seemed to prove that Britain could never regain control of America ( although this had at no time during the war been either plausible or a British intention ) . The threat of secession by New England ended with the failure of the Hartford Convention . In Britain , the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs : Napoleon had returned from exile in March 1815 , and was finally defeated at Waterloo 100 days later . Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire . Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of American invasions . Francophone Canadians largely ignore the war . Contents ( hide ) 1 Efforts to end the war 2 Negotiations 3 Native American affairs 4 Canada 5 Britain 6 United States 6.1 Impact on U.S. military 7 Honor 8 Economic impact 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 11.1 Memory of the war 12 External links Efforts to end the war ( edit ) Efforts to end the war began in 1812 when the chief U.S. diplomat in London proposed an armistice in return for a renunciation of impressments ; the British refused . Later , in 1812 , when the British captured Detroit and news of the repeal of the Orders reached Washington , Sir George Prevost arranged an armistice with his counterpart Henry Dearborn . However , President James Madison decided to continue the war . In 1813 , Russia offered to mediate a peace , but London rejected the offer , because it might compromise British interests in Europe . Finally , Great Britain and the United States agreed to commence peace negotiations in January 1814 : the talks were delayed . Negotiations ( edit ) At last in August 1814 , peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent . Both sides began negotiations with unrealistic demands . The U.S. wanted an end to all British maritime practices it deemed objectionable and also demanded cessions of Canadian territory and guaranteed fishing rights off Newfoundland . The British announced as an essential element of the peace treaty their long - standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state , a large `` neutral '' Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest . It would be independent of the United States and under the tutelage of the British , who would use it to block American expansion and to build up their control of the fur trade . London dropped the demand when the Americans adamantly refused and indicated it would end the negotiations . The British had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh 's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and no longer controlled adequate supply lines to support an Indian barrier state . Britain also wanted to keep the far - northeastern parts of Maine that had been captured to provide a land corridor to Quebec from the maritime colonies . After months of negotiations , against the background of changing military victories , defeats and losses , the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war . Now each side was tired of the war . Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain , so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France , and it no longer needed more seamen . The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon . The negotiators agreed to return to the status quo ante bellum with no changes in boundaries . Both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24 , 1814 . The next and final step would be formal ratification by each government . The British -- but not the Americans -- knew , when they signed , that a battle was imminent at New Orleans ( it was fought on January 8 , 1815 ) . This treaty finally went into effect when it was formally ratified by both sides in February 1815 . The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgment of American maritime rights , but in the century of peace between the worlds naval powers from 1815 until World War I these rights were not seriously violated . The British navy ended the practices that angered Americans , for they were no longer needed after Napoleon . American pride and honor was built as a result of the Indian threat being ended , and through rejoicing surrounding American victory at New Orleans . In doing so , the United States had successfully created sense of becoming fully independent from Britain . Native American affairs ( edit ) A key reason that American frontiersmen were so much in favor of the war in the first place was the threat posed to their continued settlement of Native American - inhabited territory by various tribes , which they blamed on the arms and supplies provided by British agents in Canada . In addition , they wanted access to lands that the British acknowledged belonged to the U.S. but that the British were blocking expansion into by inciting and arming the Native Americans . The death of Tecumseh in battle in 1813 removed a powerful obstacle to expansion , although Native American involvement in the war continued , as did their resistance to American westward expansion after the war 's end . The natives were the main losers in the war , losing British protection , and never regained their influence . In the Southeast , Andrew Jackson 's destruction of Britain 's allies , the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814 , ended the threat of Native American hostilities in that region . It opened vast areas in Georgia and Alabama for settlement as plantations and farmlands . The U.S. occupied all of West Florida during the war and in 1819 purchased the rest of Florida from Spain , thus preventing the Spanish from arming hostile tribes there . Creek Indians who escaped to Spanish Florida joined the Seminoles there , and put up a long resistance known as the Seminole Wars . In the treaty , the British promised not to arm the Native Americans in the U.S. from Canada ( nor even trade with them ) , and the U.S. - Canada border was largely pacified . However , some Americans assumed that the British continued to conspire with their former Native American allies in an attempt to forestall U.S. hegemony in the Great Lakes region . Such perceptions were faulty , argues Calloway ( 1987 ) . After the Treaty of Ghent , the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region became an undesirable burden to British policymakers . Canada ( edit ) Some in Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the `` British yoke '' , but that did not happen . After 1815 , British officials , Anglican clergy and Canadians loyal to the Empire tried to spot and root out American ideals , such as democracy and republicanism . Thus , the British and Loyalist elite were able to set the different colonies , of what would later become Canada , on a different course from that of their former enemy . Canada discouraged further American immigration . When the United States attacked British North America , most of the British forces were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars . Thus , British North America had minimal troops to defend against the United States , who had a much larger ( though initially poorly trained ) military force . For most of the war , British North America stood alone against a much stronger American force . Reinforcements from the United Kingdom did not arrive until 1814 , the final year of the war . The repelling of the American force helped to foster British loyalties in the colonies that later became Canada . The nationalistic sentiment caused a suspicion of such American ideas as republicanism , which would frustrate political reform in Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837 . However , the War of 1812 started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867 . Canadian writer Pierre Berton has written that , although later events such as the rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more important , Canada would have become part of the United States if the War of 1812 had not taken place , because more and more American settlers would have arrived and Canadian nationalism would not have developed . The War of 1812 was highly significant in Britain 's North American colonies . After the war , British sympathizers portrayed the war as a successful fight for national survival against an American democratic force that threatened the peace and stability the Canadians desired . Throughout the war , most of Canada 's inhabitants assigned the war to an American desire to annex the British colonies , a perception reinforced by American Generals like William Hull , who issued proclamations stating that Canada would be annexed . An alleged Canadian myth from the war was that Canadian militiamen had performed admirably , while the British officers were largely ineffective . Jack Granatstein has termed this the `` militia myth '' , and he feels it has had a deep effect on Canadian military thinking , which placed more stress on a citizens ' militia than on a professional standing army . The United States suffered from a similar `` frontiersman myth '' at the start of the war , believing falsely that individual initiative and marksmanship could be effective against a well - disciplined British battle line . Granatstein argues that the militia was not particularly effective in the war and that any British military success was the work of British regular forces and the result of British domination over the sea . Isaac Brock , for example , was reluctant to trust the militia with muskets . Others argue that , in fact , the Canadian militia played important roles in several key engagements , including at the Battle of Chateauguay where they were central to defeating the American advance on Montreal in the fall of 1813 . Historian Robert Henderson has referred to this as `` The myth of the Militia myth '' . See : Canadian Units of the War of 1812 During the war , British officers constantly worried that the Americans would block the St. Lawrence River , which forms part of the Canada -- U.S. border . If the U.S. military had done so , there would have been no British supply route for Upper Canada , where most of the land battles took place , and British forces would likely have had to withdraw or surrender all western British territory within a few months . British officers ' dispatches after the war exhibited astonishment that the Americans never took such a simple step , but the British were not willing to count on the enemy repeating the mistake : as a result , Britain commissioned the Rideau Canal , an expensive project connecting Kingston , on Lake Ontario , to the Ottawa River , providing an alternative supply route that bypassed the part of the St. Lawrence River along the U.S. border . The settlement at the northeastern end of the canal , where it joins the Ottawa River , later became the city of Ottawa , Canada 's fourth - largest city and its capital ( placed inland to protect it from U.S. invasion -- known then as the ' defensible back - country ' ) . Because population away from the St. Lawrence shores was negligible , the British , in the years following the war , took great lengths to ensure that back - country settlement was increased . They settled soldiers and initiated assisted - immigration schemes , offering free land to farmers , mostly tenants of estates in the south of Ireland . The canal project was not completed until 1832 and was never used for its intended purpose . Britain ( edit ) In contrast to Canada , the War of 1812 is seldom remembered in Britain today , as the conflict was quickly forgotten by the British public . Chiefly , this is because it was overshadowed by the dramatic events of the contemporary Napoleonic wars , and because Britain herself neither gained nor lost anything by the peace settlement , except for the fact that it kept control of Canada . The Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the United States Navy had won single - ship duels during the war , even though they had no strategic effect . Particular attention was given these battles because American propaganda had projected them as battles of equal force , when actually the only single ship duel where the forces were equal was the Battle of Boston Harbor which the British won . Furthermore , Britain had effectively won the war on the ocean as almost the entire US Navy was blockaded and unable to fight . British honor was restored when the USS President was captured and taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships that participated in battles of so - called equal force where actually much larger than the British ships they were engaged with . American privateers and commerce raiders had captured approximately 1200 British merchant ships , sending insurance rates up and embarrassing the Admiralty . Nevertheless , 50 % of all American privateers were captured by the British while the privateers only captured 5 % to 7 % of British commerce . Meanwhile , for every 14 American merchant ships that traded before the start of the war only 1 ship dared leave port during the war despite the American effort to double maritime trade . Furthermore , of the few ships that left port , a total 1400 were captured . In addition , Britain did win many sea battles . The Royal Navy had been able to deploy overwhelming strength to American waters , annihilating rather than merely denting American maritime trade , and driving the American economy close to bankruptcy . The Royal Navy would emerge unchecked from the conflict . The British Army regarded the 1812 - 15 conflict in Canada and America as a sideshow . Only one regiment , the 41st , was awarded a battle honor ( Detroit ) from the war . The army was more interested in the lessons of the Peninsular War in Spain . The battle New Orleans could be conveniently attributed to poor leadership or insuperable physical obstacles and British attention was given to the Royal Navy 's successful capture of the American flagship which the Americans conveniently overlooked . If generalship had been better , it was believed , then British would have been successfully at New Orleans . Due to the huge , overwhelming success and pre-eminence of the Duke of Wellington in Europe , the British army was to make no change to its systems of recruitment , discipline and awards of commissions for more than half a century . The British suffered 5,000 killed or wounded soldiers and sailors in the war . United States ( edit ) The gloom in New England , which staunchly opposed the war , culminated in December 1814 , as delegates from five states met secretly in the Hartford Convention . It demanded constitutional amendments to protect New England 's interests against the West and the South . Secession talk was rife and the region might have threatened to secede from the Union , if their demands had been ignored , but the news of peace ended the movement . The United States had faced near - disaster in 1814 , but the victories at the Battle of New Orleans and the Battle of Baltimore and what seemed to be a successful fight against the United Kingdom increased to unite the United States into one nation . Meanwhile , the loss of the American flagship USS President was conveniently overlooked by the public . The best - known patriotic legacy of the war was The Star Spangled Banner . The words are by Francis Scott Key , who after the bombardment of Fort McHenry set them to the music of a British drinking song , `` To Anacreon in Heaven . '' In 1889 the U.S. Navy began using The Star Spangled Banner at flag - raising ceremonies , a practice copied by the Army . In 1931 , Congress made it the U.S. National Anthem . Although all of the original objectives of the war had failed , the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment . The war ushered in a period of American history that has frequently been called `` the Era of Good Feelings , '' a time when , at least on the surface , most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose . The War of 1812 convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home . With the collapse of the Hartford Convention and news of the triumph at the Battle of New Orleans , Americans had cause for celebration . In February , President James Madison sent Congress the treaty of peace . He congratulated the nation on the close of a war `` waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils , of the patriotism of the people , of the public spirit of the militia , and of the velour of the military and naval forces of the country . '' The spirit of nationalism and pride led to the collapse of the nay - sayer Federalist Party and the new Era of Good Feelings . One indirect result of the War of 1812 was the later election to the presidency of war heroes Andrew Jackson and of William Henry Harrison . Both of these men won military fame which had much to do with their elections . Another indirect result was the decline of Federalist power . Impact on U.S. military ( edit ) During the war a total of 2,260 American soldiers and sailors were killed . The war cost the United States about $200 million . Neither the United States nor Great Britain gained any military advantage . Indirectly the United States made some gains . A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on professionalism in the U.S. Army officer corps and in particular , the training of officers at the United States Military Academy ( `` West Point '' ) . This new professionalism would become apparent during the Mexican - American War ( 1846 -- 1848 ) . After the Texas Annexation by the U.S. , the term Manifest Destiny became a widely used political term for those who propagated American expansionism and military pride . In a related development , the United States officially abandoned its reliance on the militia for its defense . Moreover , Army Corps of Engineers ( which at that time controlled West Point ) , began building fortifications around New Orleans as a response to the British attack on the city during the war . This effort then grew into numerous civil river works , especially in the 1840s and 1850s under General Pierre Beauregard . The Corps remains the authority over Mississippi ( and other ) river works . The embarrassing defeat of Fort Madison in what is now Iowa and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien led to the fortification of the Mississippi , with the expansion of Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis , and the construction of Fort Armstrong ( 1816 ) and Fort Edwards ( 1816 ) in Illinois , Fort Crawford ( 1816 ) in Prairie du Chien , and Fort Snelling ( 1819 ) in Minnesota . Removal of all Indians from the Mississippi Valley became a top priority for the U.S. government . Honor ( edit ) Historian Norman Risjord has emphasized the central importance of honour as a cause the war . Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honour , and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third class nonentity . Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response . This quest for honour was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honour . Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair in which the HMS Leopard attacked the USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event . Historians have documented the importance of honour in shaping public opinion in a number of states , including Massachusetts , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Tennessee , as well as the territory of Michigan . Americans widely celebrated the conclusion of the war as successful , especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans , while conveniently overlooking the loss of their flagship the very next week . For the next century it was often called `` the Second American War for Independence '' and it propelled Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison to the White House . Americans felt they had restored their sense of honour . National honour , the reputation of republican government , and the continuing supremacy of the Republican party had seemed to be at stake ... National honour had ( now ) been satisfied , '' says historian Lance Banning , `` Americans celebrated the end of the struggle with a brilliant burst of national pride . They felt that they had fought a second war for independence , and had won . According to Historians such as Andrew Lambert and William James , British honor was challenged because deserters from the Royal Navy were granted citizenship in the United States . This led to the impressment of American citizens into the Royal Navy . In 1811 , the Little Belt Affair would anger the Admiraly and embarrass the United States . This would lead to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship USS President . Although the British would effectively disable the vast majority of the United States Navy during the war by having the ships blockaded , the single ship actions that the American 's won embarrassed the Admiralty . Specific attention was given to these battles as the American 's claimed there were between ships of equal force . The British effectively restored their honor by capturing the sloop of war USS Frolic and more importantly the flagship USS President . Both ships were taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships of the so - called engagements of equal force were much larger than the British ships they had fought in single ship duels . Furthermore , the United States failed at abolishing impressment when the treaty was signed , but the British did not continue the practice as the Napoleonic Wars had ended so they no longer needed as many sailors . In doing so British honor was restored , only for the entire conflict to be overshadowed by the defeat of Napoleon . Economic impact ( edit ) Although during the War of 1812 the United States ' economy was severely damaged by the British blockade , the aftermath gave a dramatic boost to the manufacturing capabilities of the United States . The British blockade of the American coast created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States , leading to the creation of a cotton - manufacturing industry , beginning at Waltham , Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell . The war also spurred on construction of the Erie Canal project , which was built to promote commercial links yet was also perceived as having military uses should the need ever arise . As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811 , the federal government was ill - prepared to finance the war and resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes . These actions set a precedent for future Federal responses to financial crises . Also , this exposure of the nation 's financial weaknesses explained in part the Congressional decision to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816 . The readiness of Southern leaders especially John C. Calhoun to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling . Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic - Republican Party , its long - time foes , the Federalists , vanishing from national politics . The result was an Era of Good Feelings with the lowest level of partisanship ever seen . Canadians , however , contrasted their post-war economic stagnation to the booming American economy , which Desmond Morton believes led to the Rebellions of 1837 . During the war , Bermudian privateers , with their fast Bermuda sloops , were to capture 298 ships ( the total captures by all British naval or privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels ) . See also ( edit ) Chronology of the War of 1812 Origins of the War of 1812 War of 1812 Treaty of Ghent Anglo - American Convention of 1818 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Taylor , Alan ( 2010 ) . The Civil War of 1812 . Random House . pp. 137 -- 139 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 679 - 77673 - 4 . Jump up ^ Bradford Perkins , ed . The Causes of the War of 1812 : National Honor or National Interest ? ( 1962 ) Jump up ^ Hickey p. 300 ; Barry Schwartz , `` The Social Context of Commemoration : A Study in Collective Memory . '' Social Forces 61 # 2 ( 1982 ) , p. 312 in JSTOR . Jump up ^ Benn ( 2002 ) , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Dwight L. Smith `` A North American Neutral Indian Zone : Persistence of a British Idea . '' Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 # 2 - 4 ( 1989 ) : 46 - 63 . Jump up ^ Francis M. Carroll ( 2001 ) . A Good and Wise Measure : The Search for the Canadian - American Boundary , 1783 - 1842 . U. of Toronto Press . p. 24 . Jump up ^ Robert V. Remini , Henry Clay : Statesman for the Union ( 1992 ) , pp. 94 - 122 . Jump up ^ Pratt ( 1955 ) , pp. 135 - 7 . Jump up ^ Bertram Wyatt - Brown , `` Andrew Jackson 's Honor , '' Journal of the Early Republic , Vol. 17 , No. 1 ( Spring , 1997 ) , pp. 1 - 36 in JSTOR Jump up ^ Watts ( 1989 ) Jump up ^ Walter R. Borneman , 1812 : The War That Forged a Nation ( 2005 ) , p. 269 . Jump up ^ Robert Remini , Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars ( 2002 ) , pp. 277 - 82 . Jump up ^ Colin G. Calloway , Crown and Calumet : British - Indian Relations , 1783 - 1815 ( 1987 ) Jump up ^ Alan Taylor , The Civil War of 1812 ( 2010 ) , p. 443 . Jump up ^ Taylor , Alan ( 2010 ) . The Civil War of 1812 . Random House . pp. 137 -- 139 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 679 - 77673 - 4 . Jump up ^ J.L. Granatstein , Canada 's army : waging war and keeping the peace ( 2004 ) , p. 4 . Jump up ^ http://www.warof1812.ca/lacolle1812.htm Jump up ^ http://www.warof1812.ca/chatgy.htm Jump up ^ Robert Henderson `` The myth of the ' Militia Myth ' Dorchester Review ( Volume 3 No. 1 Spring / Summer 2013 ) Jump up ^ J.L. Granatstein , Canada 's army : waging war and keeping the peace ( 2004 ) , p. 15 . Jump up ^ Jeremy Black , The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon ( 2009 ) , pp. 221 - 32 . Jump up ^ Lambert , Andrew : The Challege : Britain against America in The War of 1812 , Kindle edition Jump up ^ Lambert , Andrew : The Challege : Britain against America in The War of 1812 , Kindle edition Jump up ^ Lambert , Andrew : The Challege : Britain against America in The War of 1812 , Kindle edition Jump up ^ Benn , p. 84 . Jump up ^ George Dangerfield , The Era of Good Feelings ( 1952 ) , ch 1 . Jump up ^ War of 1812 . ( 2006 ) . Compton 's by Britannica . Retrieved April 1 , 2006 , from Encyclopædia Britannica Online . ( The Curious End of the War ) Jump up ^ Weigley ( 1973 ) Jump up ^ Prucha , Francis P. ( 1969 ) The Sword of the Republic : The United States Army on the Frontier 1783 -- 1846 . Macmillan , New York Jump up ^ Norman K. Risjord , `` 1812 : Conservatives , War Hawks and the Nation 's Honor . '' William and Mary Quarterly : A Magazine of Early American History ( 1961 ) : 196 - 210 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Robert L. Ivie , `` The metaphor of force in prowar discourse : The case of 1812 . '' Quarterly Journal of Speech 68 # 3 ( 1982 ) , pp. 240 - 253 . Jump up ^ Bradford Perkins , The causes of the War of 1812 : National honor or national interest ? ( 1962 ) . Jump up ^ Spencer Tucker , Injured Honor : The Chesapeake - Leopard Affair , June 22 , 1807 ( Naval Institute Press , 1996 ) Jump up ^ William Barlow and David O. Powell . `` Congressman Ezekiel Bacon of Massachusetts and the Coming of the War of 1812 . '' Historical Journal of Massachusetts 6 # 2 ( 1978 ) : 28 . Jump up ^ William R. Barlow , `` Ohio 's Congressmen and the War of 1812 . '' Ohio History 72 ( 1963 ) : 175 - 94 . Jump up ^ Victor Sapio , Pennsylvania and the War of 1812 ( University Press of Kentucky , 2015 ) Jump up ^ Martin Kaufman , `` War Sentiment in Western Pennsylvania : 1812 . '' Pennsylvania History ( 1964 ) : 436 - 448 . Jump up ^ William A. Walker , `` Martial Sons : Tennessee Enthusiasm for the War of 1812 . '' Tennessee Historical Quarterly 20.1 ( 1961 ) : 20 + Jump up ^ William Barlow , `` The Coming of the War of 1812 in Michigan Territory . '' Michigan History 53 ( 1969 ) : 91 - 107 . Jump up ^ Andrew Robertson ; et al. ( 2010 ) . Encyclopedia of U.S. Political History . SAGE Publications . p. 372 . Jump up ^ Lance Banning ( 1980 ) . The Jeffersonian Persuasion : Evolution of a Party Ideology . Cornell UP . p. 295 . Jump up ^ Lambert , Andrew : The Challege : Britain against America in The War of 1812 , Kindle edition Jump up ^ Lambert , Andrew : The Challege : Britain against America in The War of 1812 , Kindle edition Jump up ^ Stanley Engerman and Robert E. Gallman , eds . The Cambridge economic history of the United States : the colonial era : Volume 1 ( 2000 ) , p. 372 . Jump up ^ Wiltse ( 1944 ) Jump up ^ George Dangerfield , The Awakening of American Nationalism , 1815 - 1828 ( 1966 ) , ch. 1 . Jump up ^ Desmond Morton , A Military History of Canada ( 2007 ) , p. 71 . Jump up ^ Walter Brownell Hayward , Bermuda past and present ( 1910 ) , pp. 58 - 66 . Further reading ( edit ) Further information : List of books about the War of 1812 Berton , Pierre ; The Invasion of Canada : 1812 - 1813 ( 1980 ) . ISBN 0 - 7710 - 1244 - 6 ; Flames Across the Border : 1813 - 1814 ( 1981 ) ; reissued as Pierre Berton 's War of 1812 ( Toronto : Anchor Canada , 2011 ) ; popular Canadian narrative ; 928pp Bickham , Troy , The Weight of Vengeance : The United States , The British Empire , and the War of 1812 ( Oxford University Press , 2012 ) ISBN 978 - 0195391787 Black , Jeremy . The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon ( 2009 ) by English military historian Borneman , Walter R. 1812 : The War That Forged a Nation ( 2004 ) , popular American version Burt , A.L. The United States , Great Britain and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812 . ( 1940 ) online edition Heidler , Donald & Jeanne T. Heidler ( eds ) Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 ( 2nd ed 2004 ) 636pp ; most comprehensive guide ; 500 entries by 70 scholars from several countries Hickey , Donald R. Do n't Give Up the Ship ! Myths of the War of 1812 . ( 2006 ) ISBN 0 - 252 - 03179 - 2 Hickey , Donald R . The War of 1812 : A Forgotten Conflict . ISBN 0 - 252 - 06059 - 8 ( 1990 ) , standard scholarly history . Hickey , Donald R. 187 Things You Should Know about the War of 1812 ( Baltimore : Maryland Historical Society , 2012 ) , 170 pp . Hitsman , J.M. The Incredible War of 1812 ( 1965 ) , survey by Canadian scholar Jensen , Richard . `` Military History on the Electronic Frontier : Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812 , '' The Journal of Military History 76 # 4 ( October 2012 ) : 523 - 556 ; online version ; the debate here on Wikipedia Langguth , A.J. Union 1812 : The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence ( 2006 ) 495pp , popular history Latimer , Jon , 1812 : War with America ( Harvard , 2007 ) . A British naval perspective . Perkins , Bradford . Castelereagh and Adams : England and the United States , 1812 - 1823 . ( 1964 ) , the standard scholarly diplomatic history Remini , Robert Vincent , Henry Clay : Statesman for the Union ( 1991 ) , pp. 94 -- 122 . Stagg , J.C.A. The War of 1812 : Conflict for a Continent ( Cambridge Essential Histories , 2012 ) brief overview by New Zealand scholar Taylor , Alan . The Civil War of 1812 : American Citizens , British Subjects , Irish Rebels , & Indian Allies ( 2010 ) by Pulitzer Prize winner Tucker , Spencer C. , ed . The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 ( 3 vol : ABC - CLIO , 2012 ) , 1034pp . Zuehlke , Mark . For Honour 's Sake : The War of 1812 and the Brokering of an Uneasy Peace . ( 2007 ) by Canadian military historian . Memory of the war ( edit ) Austen , Ian . `` Canada Puts Spotlight on War of 1812 , With USA as Villain . '' New York Times 7 October 2012 . online Coates , Colin M. , and Cecilia Morgan . Heroines and History : Representations of Madeleine de Verchères and Laura Secord ( U of Toronto Press , 2002 ) . Eamon , Michael . `` The War Against Public Forgetfulness : Commemorating 1812 in Canada '' London Journal of Canadian Studies ( 2014 ) 29 # 1 pp. 134 -- 185 online Forest , Timothy S. `` Epic Triumph , Epic Embarrassment or Both ? Commemorations of the War of 1812 Today in Niagara Region , '' Ontario History 104 # 1 ( 2012 ) , pp. 96 + . Hammack Jr. , James W. ( 1976 ) . Kentucky and the Second American Revolution : The War of 1812 . University Press of Kentucky . pp. 107 -- 112 . Knowles , Norman . Inventing the Loyalists : the Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts ( U of Toronto Press , 1997 ) MacDonald , Heather . `` Heroes and Identity : Two - Hundred Years in the Making , '' The Great Lakes Journal of Undergraduate History ( 2013 ) 1 # 1 Article 6 online Morgan , Cecilia . `` '' Remembering 1812 in the 1840s : John Richardson and the Writing of the War `` , London Journal of Canadian Studies ( 2014 ) 29 # 1 pp. 39 -- 69 online Robertson , James Tyler . `` For God , King , and Country : Nineteenth - Century Methodist Interpretations of the War of 1812 '' London Journal of Canadian Studies ( 2014 ) 29 # 1 pp. 1 -- 38 ; Canadian Methodists online Sheppard , George . Plunder , Profit , and Paroles : A Social History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada ( McGill - Queen 's University Press , 1994 ) Tiro , Karim M. `` Now You See It , Now You Do n't : The War of 1812 in Canada and the United States in 2012 . '' Public Historian 35 # 1 ( 2013 ) : 87 - 97 . in JSTOR Wasson , Jeffrey . `` Inventing a Foundation Myth : Upper Canada in the War of 1812 '' ( Clark University , 2014 ) online External links ( edit ) A Question of Identity : War of 1812 , a 1966 National Film Board of Canada documentary on the war 's role in fostering a sense of Canadian identity ( hide ) War of 1812 Battles Campaigns Origins Chronology Results People Isaac Brock Andrew Jackson Francis Scott Key James Madison Laura Secord Tecumseh Places Fort Detroit / Shelby Illinois Indiana Kentucky Battles Baltimore Beaver Dams Chateauguay Crysler 's Farm Frenchtown Lundy 's Lane New Orleans Queenston Heights Spur 's Defeat Thames Washington Songs `` The Bold Canadian '' `` The Hunters of Kentucky '' `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' Other Books Opposition in United States War of 1812 Bicentennial Related Tecumseh 's War Creek War Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Results_of_the_War_of_1812&oldid=836579256 '' Categories : War of 1812 Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from April 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Talk Contents About Wikipedia 日本 語 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 April 2018 , at 17 : 12 . 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-6446904157802841918 | Southdale Center | Southdale Center - wikipedia Southdale Center Southdale Center View of the center court Wikimedia © OpenStreetMap Location Edina , Minnesota , U.S. Coordinates 44 ° 52 ′ 50 '' N 93 ° 19 ′ 34 '' W / 44.88056 ° N 93.32611 ° W / 44.88056 ; - 93.32611 Coordinates : 44 ° 52 ′ 50 '' N 93 ° 19 ′ 34 '' W / 44.88056 ° N 93.32611 ° W / 44.88056 ; - 93.32611 Address 6901 France Avenue South Opening date October 8 , 1956 Developer Dayton Company ( now Target Corporation ) Management Simon Property Group Owner Simon Property Group ( 50 % ) Architect Victor Gruen Associates No. of stores and services 123 No. of anchor tenants 4 ( 1 occupied , 3 vacant ) Total retail floor area 1,300,000 sq ft ( 120,000 m ) No. of floors Website Official website Southdale Center is a shopping mall located in Edina , Minnesota , a suburb of the Twin Cities . It opened in 1956 and is the oldest fully enclosed , climate - controlled shopping mall in the United States . Southdale Center comprises 1,300,000 sq ft ( 120,000 m ) of leasable retail space , and contains approximately 123 retail tenants . The mall is partially owned by Simon Property Group and is anchored by Macy 's . Victor Gruen , the center 's architect , designed the mall to challenge the `` car - centric '' America that was rising in the 1950s . Since its opening in 1956 , Southdale has suffered through high vacancy rates and several store closures , but has been able to recover in recent years . Several additions have been performed on the building , including a 2011 renovation which involved the construction of a brand new food court . Southdale Center continues to use much of its original structure despite these renovations , and has been the host of several charity and community events throughout the years . Contents 1 History 1.1 1954 -- 57 : Construction and grand opening 1.2 1958 -- 90 : Additions , JCPenney opens , and new competition 1.3 1991 -- 2008 : Expansion , Dayton 's merger , and store closures 1.4 2009 -- 2016 : Ongoing renovations 1.5 2017 -- present : Gordmans , JCPenney , and Herberger 's close 2 References 3 External links History ( edit ) 1954 -- 57 : construction and grand opening ( edit ) Southdale Center was developed by the Dayton Company and designed by Victor Gruen , an Austrian immigrant and socialist . Gruen was a European - style socialist ; he found individual stores in downtown venues to be inefficient , and the suburban lifestyle of 1950s America too `` car - centric '' and wanted to design a building that would be a communal gathering place , where people would shop , drink coffee , and socialize , as he remembered from his native Vienna . Southdale Center was loosely modeled on the arcades of several heavily populated European cities and purposely included `` eye - level display cases '' to `` lure customers into stores '' . Gruen imaged that Southdale would eventually include `` a medical center , schools and residences , not just a parade of glitzy stores . '' The first plans unveiled for the shopping center were announced in 1952 by Gruen and Minnesota native , Donald Dayton . Groundbreaking for Southdale took place on October 29 , 1954 ; 800 construction workers were needed to build the three - story , 800,000 sq ft ( 74,000 m ) , 500 acre center , which had 5,200 parking spaces , 72 available tenants , and cost $20 million to construct . Due to Minnesota 's harsh climate in the winter , Gruen constructed the center with a roof and air - conditioning system capable of maintaining a comfortable temperature of 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) year - round . The mall was originally anchored by Dayton 's , Donaldson 's , Walgreens , and Woolworth , the former of which also developed the center . Over 40,000 visitors attended the grand opening ceremony for the center on the morning of October 8 , 1956 . An additional 188,000 customers visited the mall throughout the following week . The center was constructed to successfully bring the community together by `` gathering art , culture and entertainment under one roof with retail . '' The Dayton 's store was modeled after Dayton 's flagship store in Minneapolis , Minnesota . In November 1956 , organic architect Frank Lloyd Wright visited the mall as part of a tour of new buildings in Minnesota ; he critiqued Southdale 's overall design , stating `` ( the ) garden court has all the evils of the village street and none of its charm , '' further criticizing several other buildings in nearby Minneapolis . He unfavorably added that Gruen `` should have left downtown , downtown . '' 1958 -- 90 : additions , JCPenney Opens , and new competition ( edit ) Over the early years of Southdale , several tenants and restaurants opened in the center . A restaurant called Sidewalk Cafe , was an `` outdoor '' - themed restaurant , even though the venue was fully enclosed ; Sidewalk Cafe was the first restaurant of its kind . JCPenney , a Plano , Texas - based department store , announced their interest in opening a location at Southdale Center . An addition to the mall was constructed , allowing JCPenney to open a 247,902 square feet ( 23,000 m ) store in 1972 ; it became Southdale 's third anchor store , following Dayton 's and Donaldson 's . Along with the new anchor store came an entire new mall corridor connecting JCPenney to the original structure of the mall . During 1976 , construction of a new shopping center directly across the street from Southdale occurred . The construction resulted in the Galleria Edina , an upscale shopping center ; the new shopping mall increased competition with neighboring shopping centers . In 1987 , Donaldson 's announced the discontinuation of their chain of stores , which would shut one of the mall 's original anchors . Instead , Donaldson 's merged with Chicago - based department chain Carson Pirie Scott . 1991 -- 2008 : expansion , Dayton 's merger , and store closures ( edit ) In 1991 , Dayton 's announced plans to construct a significantly larger store directly north of their current location . These plans included the demolition of the original Dayton 's store to be replaced with more stores , plus a larger `` garden court '' , and the construction of various multi-level parking garages ; these plans were eventually constructed and finalized in the early 1990s . On June 30 , 1997 , Southdale Center was sold to the O'Connor Group , a New York - based real estate company for $125 million , beating out a bid placed by General Growth Properties , a firm that owns several properties in the Twin Cities . Around this time , Southdale converted their basement into a singular anchor store , which became Marshalls ; surrounding the new anchor were several specialty shops and mall management offices . The former Trendz on Top area located on the third level During the early 2000s , following fear of competition from nearby Eden Prairie Center and Mall of America , Southdale announced further plans to renovate the center again . A complete remodeling of the center occurred in 2001 , followed by a large addition to the southern half of the property ; the addition included a sixteen screen movie theater along with an entertainment district of restaurants and shops called `` The District on France '' . `` The District on France '' included several `` upscale '' dining options , including California Pizza Kitchen , The Cheesecake Factory , and Maggiano 's Little Italy . A renovation of the less - traveled third floor also occurred , with the addition of teen - geared stores ; this addition was called `` Trendz on Top '' . Throughout the mid 2000s , Southdale began struggling with maintaining a low vacancy rate . Mervyn 's , one of Southdale 's four anchors , announced that they had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy , which would in turn close all of their Minnesota locations . After the closure of Mervyn 's in 2004 , several tenants followed and ended their leases as well ; national retailers like The Bombay Company , Crate & Barrel , Ritz Camera , and Select Comfort all announced closures of their Southdale locations . Talks of a Dick 's Sporting Goods filling the space formerly leased by Mervyn 's occurred , but those plans never took off and eventually dissolved . 2009 -- 2016 : ongoing renovations ( edit ) External video Buildings that Changed America # 8 Southdale Center , WTTW , In February 2011 , Simon Property Group announced that Southdale would soon be anchored by Herberger 's , a local department store chain , and would lease the space previously used by Mervyn 's . Along with this announcement came the mention of a brand new food court to replace the nearly vacant one on the less - traveled third floor , a housing development consisting of apartments and condominiums , and expanded retail . The food court 's construction would include six tenants , which was later increased to eight tenants . However , the new food court forced the closure of one of Southdale 's oldest tenants , Ralph 's Shoe Service , which originally opened at the mall in 1957 . Following several tenant terminations , the mall 's Marshalls anchor announced that their 40,000 square feet ( 3,700 m ) Southdale location would move to a different shopping center in Bloomington , Minnesota . The new food court located by JCPenney was completed in 2012 and featured `` upscale '' dining options , such as Qdoba Mexican Grill and Smashburger ; several other projects took place , such as cosmetic changes for the mall and the construction of new corridors . Since 2015 , several stores and businesses have opened up locations at Southdale Center . Gordmans , a Nebraska - based discount retailer , filled the vacancy previous leased by Marshalls in July 2015 , followed by the opening of a 41,500 square feet ( 3,900 m ) Dave and Buster 's restaurant , filling the vacancy of the original food court . A Homewood Suites by Hilton resort was approved by the City of Edina and will be constructed in the shopping center 's northeast parking lot in late 2016 . 2017 -- present : Gordmans , JCPenney , and Herberger 's close ( edit ) Of the six Gordmans stores located in Minnesota , the chain issued a press release in April 2017 stating that five of them would close in 2017 ; additionally , 48 out of their 98 locations nationwide would close . The Southdale location was expected to close soon after the release . Following the announcement of JCPenney closing nine stores throughout Minnesota , the Southdale Center location was listed as one of them on June 2 , 2017 . It closed on July 31 , 2017 . It will be replaced by a Life Time Fitness and additional retail tenants will replace the former location . Bon - Ton announced on April 17 , 2018 that they will be closing doors and begin liquidating all Herbergers stores and all 200 + locations after two liquidators , Great American Group and Tiger Capital Group , won an auction for the company . This will include the Southdale location . According to national retail reporter Mitch Nolen , stores will close within 10 to 12 weeks . On August 26th , 2018 , the Herbergers location closed . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` 40,000 Visitors See New Stores ; Weather - Conditioned Shopping Center Opens '' . The New York Times . October 9 , 1956 . Retrieved March 10 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Wholf , Tracy ( November 28 , 2014 ) . `` What did the shopping mall look like in 1956 ? '' . PBS . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Birth , Death and Shopping '' . The Economist . December 19 , 2007 . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Quito , Anne . `` The father of the American shopping mall hated what he created '' . Quartz . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Roberts , Kate . `` Southdale Center '' . MNopedia . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gladwell , Malcolm ( March 15 , 2004 ) . `` The Terrazzo Jungle '' . The New Yorker . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Southdale Center : The First Indoor Shopping Mall : Overview '' . Minnesota History Center : Gale Family Library . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Southdale Center '' . Walker Art Center . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Roberts , Karen ( September 4 , 2015 ) . `` Meet the new mall : trends shaping our shopping centers '' . lohud . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Johnston , Louis D. ( January 11 , 2013 ) . `` Lessons to learn from Dayton brothers ' fateful decision in St. Paul '' . MinnPost . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Welter , Ben ( November 28 , 1956 ) . `` Frank Lloyd Wright at Southdale '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Southdale Center '' . WTTW . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nelson , Rick ( February 7 , 2013 ) . `` Remembrances of restaurants past '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` How to Build a Better Lifestyle Center '' ( PDF ) . MallFinder. 2005 . p. 8 . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Aburia , Hebba ; Matson , Marcia ( March 2013 ) . `` Daytons vs. Donaldsons : Southdale Success '' . Edina Magazine . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Southdale Center Edina , MN '' . MallHistory . Retrieved 3 April 2016 . Jump up ^ `` About / History '' . Galleria Edina . Archived from the original on April 24 , 2012 . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Who Invented the Shopping Mall ? '' . Today I Found Out . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Transactions '' . National Real Estate Investor . May 1 , 2000 . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ehrlich , Jennifer ( July 6 , 1997 ) . `` Southdale sold to New York group '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Mattson - Teig , Beth ( May 1 , 1999 ) . `` The Grand Dame of Twin Cities Retail '' . National Real Estate Investor . Retrieved April 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Bjorhus , Jennifer ( January 4 , 2011 ) . `` Herberger 's likely to fill Southdale anchor hole '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Newmarker , Chris ( January 11 , 2010 ) . `` Maggiano 's Little Italy to leave Southdale '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Fhima closes Louis XIII '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . June 15 , 2006 . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Way , Prange . `` Southdale Center and Victor Gruen ; Edina , Minnesota '' . Labelscar . Retrieved 3 April 2016 . Jump up ^ Crabtree , Penni ( October 8 , 2008 ) . `` Mervyn 's says files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy '' . San Diego Union Tribune . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2008 . Retrieved October 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Kaplan , Allison ( March 1 , 2012 ) . `` Saving Southdale '' . Mpls St Paul . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2012 . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ DePass , Dee ( October 11 , 2012 ) . `` Select Comfort dialing up the plushness '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Ritz Camera closing 19 Minnesota stores '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . April 3 , 2009 . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Retail Outlook '' . United Properties . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` # 8 Southdale Center '' . 10 Buildings that Changed America . WTTW. 2013 . Retrieved December 12 , 2013 . Webpage features include a photo slide show , video from the televised program ( 5 : 11 ) , and `` web exclusive video '' ( 5 : 18 ) . Jump up ^ `` The Prototype : Southdale Center '' . National Real Estate Investor . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Buchta , Jim ( July 8 , 2013 ) . `` A first look at the luxury apartments under construction at Southdale Center '' . Star Tribune . Star Tribune . Retrieved November 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Herberger 's , New Food Court Coming To Southdale Center '' . WCCO - TV . February 10 , 2011 . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Randolph , Tori ( October 6 , 2006 ) . `` Uncertain future for America 's first mall at age 50 '' . MPR News . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Southdale 's oldest tenant Ralph 's Shoe Service said he was forced out '' . KARE . December 14 , 2011 . Archived from the original on April 3 , 2016 . Retrieved November 17 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Vomhof Jr. , John ( June 6 , 2013 ) . `` Marshalls to leave Southdale , move down the street '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Gauthier , Ryan ( August 31 , 2012 ) . `` Smashburger Coming to Southdale Center 's Food Court '' . Edina Patch . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ewoldt , John ( July 21 , 2015 ) . `` Discount chain Gordmans opens in Edina 's Southdale '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved April 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Lissarrague , Jennie ( June 22 , 2015 ) . `` Dave and Buster 's Opens in Edina '' . KSTP - TV . Retrieved April 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Black , Sam ( January 5 , 2016 ) . `` Hotel proposed near Southdale in Edina '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . Retrieved April 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Ewoldt , John ( April 3 , 2017 ) . `` Gordmans will close five stores in Minnesota '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved June 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ewoldt , John ( June 2 , 2017 ) . `` J.C. Penney will start closing sale at Southdale location on June 19 '' . Star Tribune . Retrieved June 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Reilly , Mark ( June 5 , 2017 ) . `` J.C. Penney confirms it 's leaving Southdale ; move makes way for Life Time ( slideshow ) '' . Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal . Retrieved June 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Bon - Ton Stores to close ( report ) '' . syracuse.com . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Liquidators to wind down US department store chain Bon - Ton '' . CNBC . Retrieved 2018 - 04 - 18 . External links ( edit ) Official Southdale Website The New Yorker on Gruen and Southdale James Lileks ' `` Flotsam Cave '' ( features vintage photos of the mall ) The indoor mall turns 50 . Twin Cities shopping centers North Metro Northtown Mall Riverdale Village East Metro Har Mar Mall Maplewood Mall Rosedale Center Woodbury Lakes South Metro Burnsville Center The Galleria Mall of America Southdale Center Southtown Center West Metro Albertville Premium Outlets Arbor Lakes Eden Prairie Center The Grove Ridgedale Center Shoppes at Knollwood Twin Cities Calhoun Square Cray Plaza Gaviidae Common Minneapolis City Center Nicollet Mall Saint Anthony Main Defunct Apache Plaza Bandana Square Brookdale Center Four Seasons Mall Wayzata Bay Center Simon Property Group Simon Property Group malls in the western United States Alaska Anchorage 5th Avenue Mall Arizona Arizona Mills California Brea Mall Coddingtown Mall Del Amo Fashion Center Fashion Valley Mall Great Mall of the Bay Area Ontario Mills The Outlets at Orange Santa Rosa Plaza The Shops at Mission Viejo The Shops at Montebello Stanford Shopping Center Stoneridge Shopping Center Colorado Colorado Mills Nevada The Forum Shops at Caesars Meadowood Mall New Mexico ABQ Uptown Washington Columbia Center Mall Northgate Mall Tacoma Mall Simon Property Group malls in the midwestern United States Illinois Gurnee Mills Orland Square Mall White Oaks Mall Woodfield Mall Indiana Castleton Square Circle Centre College Mall Fashion Mall at Keystone Greenwood Park Mall Hamilton Town Center Tippecanoe Mall University Park Mall Kansas Towne East Square Michigan Briarwood Mall Minnesota Miller Hill Mall Southdale Center Missouri Battlefield Mall Independence Center Ohio The Mall at Tuttle Crossing Summit Mall South Dakota Empire Mall Wisconsin Bay Park Square Southridge Mall Simon Property Group malls in the northeastern United States Connecticut Crystal Mall Maine Bangor Mall Massachusetts Auburn Mall Burlington Mall Cape Cod Mall Copley Place Emerald Square Liberty Tree Mall The Mall at Chestnut Hill Northshore Mall Solomon Pond Mall South Shore Plaza Square One Mall New Hampshire Mall at Rockingham Park Mall of New Hampshire Pheasant Lane Mall New Jersey Livingston Mall Menlo Park Mall Newport Centre Ocean County Mall Quaker Bridge Mall Rockaway Townsquare The Shops at Riverside The Mills at Jersey Gardens New York The Galleria at White Plains Roosevelt Field Smith Haven Mall Walt Whitman Shops The Shops at Nanuet The Westchester Pennsylvania King of Prussia Lehigh Valley Mall ( majority - owned by Pennsylvania Real Estate Investment Trust , managed by Simon ) Montgomery Mall Oxford Valley Mall Philadelphia Mills Ross Park Mall South Hills Village Springfield Mall ( co-owned with PREIT , managed by PREIT ) Simon Property Group malls in the southern United States Arkansas McCain Mall Delaware Dover Mall Florida Aventura Mall The Avenues Coconut Point Coral Square Cordova Mall Dadeland Mall The Falls The Florida Mall Miami International Mall Pier Park Sawgrass Mills St. Johns Town Center Town Center at Boca Raton Treasure Coast Square Tyrone Square Mall Georgia Lenox Square Mall of Georgia Phipps Plaza Sugarloaf Mills Town Center at Cobb Louisiana The Esplanade Prien Lake Mall Maryland Arundel Mills St. Charles Towne Center Mississippi Northpark Mall Oklahoma Penn Square Mall Woodland Hills Mall North Carolina Concord Mills Southpark Mall South Carolina Haywood Mall Tennessee Opry Mills West Town Mall Wolfchase Galleria Texas Barton Creek Square Broadway Square Mall Cielo Vista Mall The Domain Firewheel Town Center Grapevine Mills The Galleria Galleria Dallas ( managed with no ownership interest , owned by UBS AG ) Ingram Park Mall Katy Mills Lakeline Mall North East Mall La Plaza Mall Midland Park Mall Virginia Apple Blossom Mall The Fashion Centre at Pentagon City Potomac Mills Premium Outlets and Factory Stores outlet centers in the eastern United States All malls are suffixed with Premium Outlets unless noted otherwise . Florida Orlando International Premium Outlets Maryland Hagerstown Massachusetts Wrentham Village Michigan Birch Run New Hampshire Merrimack New York Woodbury Common Pennsylvania Grove City Philadelphia Virginia Norfolk Williamsburg Premium Outlets and Factory Stores outlet centers in the western United States All malls are suffixed with Premium Outlets unless noted otherwise . Southern California Las Americas Minnesota Albertville Nevada Las Vegas North Oregon Woodburn Texas Round Rock Premium Outlets and Factory Stores outlet centers in Canada Ontario Toronto Premium Outlets Quebec Premium Outlets Montreal David Simon Herbert Simon Melvin Simon Simon Property Group Headquarters List of properties Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southdale_Center&oldid=857031500 '' Categories : Buildings and structures in Edina , Minnesota Shopping malls in Minnesota Shopping malls established in 1956 Simon Property Group Shopping malls in Hennepin County , Minnesota Victor Gruen buildings Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from May 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Good articles Pages with maps Talk Contents About Wikipedia Français Edit links This page was last edited on 29 August 2018 , at 03 : 23 ( UTC ) . 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-7822295972668547449 | American Revolutionary War | American Revolutionary war - wikipedia American Revolutionary war This article is about military actions only . For political and social developments , including the origin and aftermath of the war , see American Revolution . American Revolutionary War Clockwise : Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the Siege of Yorktown , Battle of Trenton , The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill , Battle of Long Island , Battle of Guilford Court House Date April 19 , 1775 -- September 3 , 1783 ( 8 years , 4 months and 15 days ) Ratification effective : May 12 , 1784 ( 9 years and 23 days ) Location Eastern North America , Caribbean Sea , Indian subcontinent , Africa , the Atlantic Ocean , and the Indian Ocean Result Allied victory : Peace of Paris British recognition of American independence End of the First British Empire British retention of Canada and Gibraltar Territorial changes Great Britain cedes to the United States the area east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River Great Britain cedes East Florida , West Florida , and Menorca to Spain Great Britain cedes Tobago and Senegal to France Dutch Republic cedes Negapatnam to Great Britain Belligerents Thirteen Colonies ( before 1776 ) United States ( after 1776 ) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire Co-belligerents : Dutch Republic Mysore American Indians : ( show ) Oneida Tuscarora Catawba Lenape Chickasaw Choctaw Mahican Mi'kmaq Abenaki Cheraw Seminole Pee Dee Lumbee Watauga Association British Empire Hanover German mercenaries : Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst American Indians : ( show ) Onondaga Mohawk Cayuga Seneca Mi'kmaq Cherokee Odawa Muscogee Susquehannock Shawnee Commanders and leaders George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan full list ... George III Lord North Lord George Germain full list ... Strength United States : Army & Militia : 40,000 ( average ) 200,000 ( total served ) Navy : 5,000 sailors ( peak 1779 ) 53 frigates and sloops ( total served ) State Navies : 106 ships ( total served ) Privateers : 55,000 sailors ( total served ) 1,697 ships Allies : Army : 63,000 French and Spanish ( Gibraltar ) Navy : 146 ships - of - the - line ( 1782 ) American Indian Allies : Unknown Great Britain : Army : 48,000 ( America peak ) 121,000 ( global 1781 ) 7,500 ( Gibraltar ) Navy : 94 ships - of - the - line ( 1782 ) 104 frigates ( 1781 ) 37 sloops ( 1781 ) 171,000 sailors Loyalists : 25,000 ( total served ) Hanoverians : 2,365 ( total served ) German mercenaries : 29,875 ( total served ) American Indian Allies : 13,000 Casualties and losses United States : 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease France : at least 7,000 dead ( 2,112 in the United States ) Spain : 5,000 killed Netherlands : 500 killed Total : 37,000 -- 82,500 + soldiers dead Great Britain : Army : 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy : 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease ( 1776 -- 1780 ) 42,000 deserted Germans : 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted Loyalists : 7,000 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 5,300 died of disease ( estimated ) Total : 78,200 + soldiers dead American Revolutionary War Campaigns and theaters Boston Quebec New York and New Jersey Saratoga Philadelphia Western Northern Northern ( after Saratoga ) Southern Yorktown Caribbean Gulf Coast Gold Coast Naval The American Revolutionary War ( 1775 -- 1783 ) , also known as the American War of Independence , was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America . After 1765 , growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies . Patriot protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp Act and escalated into boycotts , which culminated in 1773 with the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor . Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts Bay Colony . Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves , and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown . Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance , establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power . British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia in Concord led to open combat on April 19 , 1775 . Militia forces then besieged Boston , forcing a British evacuation in March 1776 , and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army . Concurrently , an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British failed decisively . On July 2 , 1776 , the Continental Congress voted for independence , issuing its declaration on July 4 . Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive , capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb . However , victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence . In 1777 , the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne , intending to isolate the New England Colonies . Instead of assisting this effort , Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia , and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777 . Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences . France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778 , and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States . In 1780 , the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India , and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war . In North America , the British mounted a `` Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising , but too few came forward . Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens . He retreated to Yorktown , Virginia , intending an evacuation , but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape . A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and , with no sign of relief , he surrendered in October 1781 . Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament , and the surrender gave them the upper hand . In early 1782 , Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America , but the war continued in Europe and India . Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy . On September 3 , 1783 , the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war . French involvement had proven decisive , but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts . Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar . The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain . In India , the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes . Contents 1 Background 1.1 Taxation disputes 1.2 Colonial response 2 Course of the war 2.1 War breaks out ( 1775 -- 1776 ) 2.2 Political reactions 2.3 British counter-offensive ( 1776 -- 1777 ) 2.4 British northern strategy fails ( 1777 -- 1778 ) 2.5 Foreign intervention 2.6 International war breaks out ( 1778 -- 1780 ) 2.6. 1 Europe 2.6. 2 Americas 2.6. 3 India 2.7 Stalemate in the North ( 1778 -- 1780 ) 2.8 War in the South ( 1778 -- 1781 ) 2.9 British defeat in America ( 1781 ) 2.10 North Ministry collapses 2.11 Final years of the war ( 1781 -- 1783 ) 2.11. 1 Europe 2.11. 2 Americas 2.11. 3 India 3 Peace of Paris 4 Aftermath 4.1 Casualties and losses 4.1. 1 Americans and allies 4.1. 2 British and allies 4.2 Financial debts 5 Analysis of combatants 5.1 Great Britain 5.1. 1 Armed forces 5.1. 1.1 Recruitment 5.1. 1.1. 1 Loyalists and Hessians 5.1. 1.2 Leadership 5.1. 1.3 Logistics 5.1. 1.4 Discipline 5.1. 2 Strategic deficiencies 5.1. 2.1 William Howe 5.1. 2.2 Clinton and Cornwallis 5.1. 3 Campaign issues 5.2 United States 5.3 Intelligence and espionage 5.4 Soldiers and sailors 5.5 George Washington 's roles 5.6 African Americans 5.7 American Indians 5.8 Race and class 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 Reference literature 11 External links 11.1 Bibliographies Background Main article : American Revolution Taxation disputes Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 . Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives . Parliament argued that the colonies were `` represented virtually '' , an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire . Parliament did repeal the act in 1766 ; however , it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies . From 1767 , Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials , ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists , and opposition soon became widespread . This iconic 1846 lithograph by Nathaniel Currier was entitled `` The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor '' ; the phrase `` Boston Tea Party '' had not yet become standard . Contrary to Currier 's depiction , few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians . Enforcing the acts proved difficult . The seizure of the sloop Liberty in 1768 on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot . In response , British troops occupied Boston , and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England . Tensions rose after the murder of Christopher Seider by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre . In 1772 , colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner . Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea , passing the Tea Act in 1773 , attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid , thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy . The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies , but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor . So , the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests , an incident that later became known as the `` Boston Tea Party '' . Parliament then passed punitive legislation . It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter , taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council . Additionally , the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy . Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire , if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally . The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify , and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity . Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission . The colonists referred to the measures as the `` Intolerable Acts '' , and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated , viewing the acts as a threat to all of America . The acts were widely opposed , driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment . Colonial response The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress , effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston . Meanwhile , representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis . The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament ; instead , they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain . The Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters , but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire , and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott . The boycott was effective , as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774 . Parliament refused to yield . In 1775 , it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony . It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles . Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries , a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy . These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war . Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts , and he received orders on April 14 , 1775 to disarm the local militias . Course of the war War breaks out ( 1775 -- 1776 ) Main articles : Battles of Lexington and Concord ; Boston campaign ; Invasion of Quebec ( 1775 ) ; Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War § Early operations , 1775 -- 1778 ; and Battle of Nassau Major Campaigns of the American Revolutionary War On April 18 , 1775 , 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord . Fighting broke out , forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston . Overnight , the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston . On May 25 , 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe , John Burgoyne , and Henry Clinton . The British seized the Charlestown peninsula on June 17 after a costly frontal assault , leading Howe to replace Gage . Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack , which had gained them little , while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt . On July 3 , George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston . Howe made no effort to attack , much to Washington 's surprise . A plan was rejected to assault the city , and the Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in early March 1776 with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga . The British were permitted to withdraw unmolested on March 17 , and they sailed to Halifax , Nova Scotia . Washington then moved his army to New York . Starting in August 1775 , American Privateers began to raid villages in Nova Scotia , first at Saint John , then Charlottetown and Yarmouth . They continued in 1776 at Canso and then a land assault on Fort Cumberland . The British marching to Concord Meanwhile , British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to support them , while the Americans urged them to maintain their neutrality . In April 1775 , Congress feared an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada and authorized an invasion of Quebec . Quebec had a largely Francophone population and had been under British rule for only 12 years , and the Americans expected that they would welcome being liberated from the British . The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after an arduous march but were defeated . After a loose siege , the Americans withdrew on May 6 . 1776 . A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec . However , the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champlain . On October 11 , the British defeated the American squadron , forcing them to withdraw to Ticonderoga and ending the campaign . The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion , while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support . The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim , though no further attempts to invade were ever made . British soldiers and Provincial militiamen repulse the American assault at Sault - au - Matelot , Canada , December 1775 In Virginia , Royal governor Lord Dunmore had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased , although no fighting broke out . He issued a proclamation on November 7 , 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown . Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge , and Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk . Subsequent negotiations broke down , so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town . Fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias , and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony . Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South , but they were decisively defeated and Loyalist sentiment was subdued . A troop of British regulars set out to reconquer South Carolina and launched an attack on Charleston on June 28 , 1776 , but it failed and effectively left the South in Patriot control until 1780 . The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas colony in the British West Indies in order to secure ordnance there . On March 3 , 1776 , the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire , and the local militia offered no resistance . They confiscated all the supplies that they could load and sailed away on March 17 . The squadron reached New London , Connecticut on April 8 , after a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6 . Political reactions Main articles : Olive Branch Petition and United States Declaration of Independence After fighting began , Congress launched a final attempt to avert war , which Parliament rejected as insincere . King George then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23 , 1775 , which only served to embolden the colonists in their determination to become independent . After a speech by the King , Parliament rejected coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes . British Tories refused to compromise , while Whigs argued that current policy would drive the colonists towards independence . Despite opposition , the King himself began micromanaging the war effort . The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America , and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time . Irish Protestants favored the Americans , while Catholics favored the King . The initial hostilities provided a sobering military lesson for the British , causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability . The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage , and the British lost control over every colony . The army had been deliberately kept small in England since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King . Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops and sent an army of 32,000 men to America after a year , the largest that it had ever sent outside Europe at the time . In the colonies , the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence . On July 2 , Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention , issuing its declaration on July 4 . Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9 , invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King and melting it to make bullets . British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves . Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws , requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived , intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence . Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment , exile , or even death . American Tories were barred from public office , forbidden from practising medicine and law , forced to pay increased taxes , or even barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans . Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war . Some Quakers who remained neutral had their property confiscated . States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts that they were owed . British counter-offensive ( 1776 -- 1777 ) Main article : New York and New Jersey campaign American soldiers in combat at the Battle of Long Island , 1776 After regrouping at Halifax , William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans . He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2 . Due to poor military intelligence , Washington split his army to positions on Manhattan Island and across the East River in western Long Island , and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans . On August 27 , Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights . Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit , opting to besiege Washington instead . Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance . Following the withdrawal , the Staten Island Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace , as the British delegates did not possess the authority to recognize independence . Howe then seized control of New York City on September 15 , and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day . He attempted to encircle Washington , but the Americans successfully withdrew . On October 28 , the British fought an indecisive action against Washington , in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army , instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value . British warships forcing passage of the Hudson River Washington 's retreat left his forces isolated , and the British captured an American fortification on November 16 , taking 3,000 prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms `` the most disastrous defeat of the entire war '' . Washington 's army fell back four days later . Henry Clinton then captured Newport , Rhode Island , an operation which he opposed , feeling that the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington . The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous prison ships in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined . Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington , but Howe ordered him to halt , and Washington marched away unmolested . The outlook of the American cause was bleak ; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year . Popular support wavered , morale ebbed away , and Congress abandoned Philadelphia . Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat , especially in New York . Emanuel Leutze 's famous 1851 depiction of Washington Crossing the Delaware News of the campaign was well received in Britain . Festivities took place in London , public support reached a peak , and the King awarded the Order of the Bath to William Howe . The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year . The American defeat revealed what one writer views as Washington 's strategic deficiencies , such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one , his inexperienced staff misreading the situation , and his troops fleeing in disorder when fighting began . In the meantime , the British entered winter quarters and were in a good place to resume campaigning . On December 25 , 1776 , Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware River , and his army overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton , New Jersey the following morning , taking 900 prisoners . The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale and gave a new hope to the cause for independence . Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton , but his efforts were repulsed on January 2 . Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night , and defeated his rearguard the following day . The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies , as well as recovering morale in the army . Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown , New Jersey on January 6 , though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued . While encamped , Howe made no attempt to attack , much to Washington 's amazement . British northern strategy fails ( 1777 -- 1778 ) Main articles : Saratoga campaign and Philadelphia campaign In December 1776 , John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain . Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec , isolating New England . Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies , where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance . `` The Surrender at Saratoga '' shows General Daniel Morgan in front of a French de Vallière 4 - pounder . Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain , while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River , and both would rendezvous at Albany . Burgoyne set out on June 14 , 1777 , quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5 . Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison , Burgoyne continued the advance . Progress was slow ; the Americans blocked roads , destroyed bridges , dammed streams and denuded the area of food . Meanwhile , Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix . St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him . On August 16 , a Hessian foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington , and more than 700 troops were captured . Meanwhile , the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him and Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned , and would be unable to render aid . Burgoyne decided to continue the advance . On September 19 , he attempted to flank the American position , and clashed at Freeman 's Farm . The British won , but at the cost of 600 casualties . Burgoyne then dug in , but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters , and critical supplies were running low . On October 7 , a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses . Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit , and by October 13 , he was surrounded . With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted , Burgoyne surrendered on October 17 , and 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans . The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States , securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain , that of foreign assistance . Washington and Lafayette inspect the troops at Valley Forge . Meanwhile , Howe launched his campaign against Washington , though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed . Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey , or by sea via the Delaware Bay , even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary . Instead , he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay , leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne . This decision was so difficult to understand , Howe 's critics accused him of treason . Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11 , though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army . A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless , and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26 . Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown , north of Philadelphia . Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4 , which was eventually repulsed . Again , Howe did not follow - up on his victory , leaving the American army intact and able to fight . Later , after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh , Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia , astonishing both sides . Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear , where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies . On December 19 , Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge . Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops . Howe , only 20 miles ( 32 km ) away , made no effort to attack , which critics observed could have ended the war . The Continental Army was put through a new training program , supervised by Baron von Steuben , introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling . Meanwhile , Howe resigned and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24 , 1778 . Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war . On June 18 , the British departed Philadelphia , with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit . The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28 , with the Americans holding the field , greatly boosting morale and confidence . By July , both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior . Foreign intervention Main articles : France in the American Revolutionary War , Spain in the American Revolutionary War , and Carlisle Peace Commission The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention . The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands , although Lord North refused to grant independence . No positive reply was received from the Americans . French troops storming Redoubt 9 during the Siege of Yorktown French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British , and he sought a casus belli to go to war with Britain following the conquest of Canada in 1763 . The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war , proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign . The French public favored war , though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant , owing to the military and financial risk . The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile , but doing so also brought major concerns . The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted , and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean . To prevent this , France formally recognized the United States on February 6 , 1778 and followed with a military alliance . France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery , end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty , regain free trade in India , recover Senegal and Dominica , and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade . Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready , so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain . Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance , so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776 . Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment , owing to a lack of direct French involvement , the threat against their treasure fleets , and the possibility of war with Portugal , Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain . However , Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year , hoping to weaken Britain 's empire . In the Spanish - Portuguese War ( 1776 -- 77 ) , the Portuguese threat was neutralized . On 12 April 1779 , Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain . Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe , as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida , and also to expel the British from Central America . Meanwhile , George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight . He did not welcome war with France , but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic . Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France , leaving it isolated , preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater , and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America . Despite this , the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely , or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown . Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed , citing impossible mutual support , exposing the forces to defeat in detail . Since the outbreak of the conflict , Britain had appealed to her ally , the neutral Dutch Republic , to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America , but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request . Consequently , the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support , but the Republic still refused . Moreover , American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies . French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports . The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain , citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue . Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping , and even firing upon it . Consequently , the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status . The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans . Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780 . International war breaks out ( 1778 -- 1780 ) Main articles : France in the American Revolutionary War , Anglo - French War ( 1778 -- 1783 ) , Spain in the American Revolutionary War , Second Anglo - Mysore War , and Fourth Anglo - Dutch War Europe The Moonlight Battle of Cape St. Vincent , 16 January 1780 by Francis Holman , painted 1780 Soon after France declared war , French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778 . Spain entered the war on 12 April 1779 , with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar , Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock on 24 June . The naval blockade , however , was relatively weak , and the British were able to resupply the garrison . Meanwhile , a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland , but the expedition failed due to a combination of poor planning , disease , logistical issues , and high financial expenditures . However , a diversionary Franco - American squadron did meet with some success on 23 September under John Paul Jones . On 16 January 1780 , the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish , weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar . A Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off the Azores led by John Moutray on 9 August which was bound for the West Indies . The defeat was catastrophic for Britain , which lost 52 merchant ships , 5 East Indiamen , 80,000 muskets , equipment for 40,000 troops , 294 guns , and 3,144 men , making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made . The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million ( £ 181 million in today 's money ) , dealing a severe blow to British commerce . Americas The French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica , intending to damage British trade . French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778 in order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands and to strike a blow to privateering . The British defeated a French naval force on 15 December and captured St. Lucia on 28 December . Both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779 , but the French under the Comte d'Estaing had superiority in the Caribbean and began capturing British territories , seizing St. Vincent on 18 June and Grenada on 4 July . The British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated on July 6 , having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada , the worst loss that the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690 . Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780 , when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique . At New Orleans Governor Bernardo de Gálvez decided conquered West Florida and Mobile . In Central America , the defense of Guatemala was a priority for Spain . The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region . After inadequate first attempts , 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October , and they captured the fort on 20 October . However , the British suffered terribly due to disease and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November ; Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied it . In 1780 , Jamaica 's governor John Dalling planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two by capturing Granada , which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River . A British expedition set out on 3 February 1780 , led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson . They reached Fort San Juan on 17 March and laid siege , capturing it on 29 April . The British were ravaged by disease and were running low on food due to poor logistics . They withdrew on 8 November , the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat ; some 2,500 troops had perished , making it the costliest British disaster of the war . India Mysorean troops defeat the British at Pollilur , using rockets against closely massed British infantry The British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions in India when they learned about the hostilities with France , and they took Pondicherry on 19 October 1778 after a two - week siege . The Company resolved to drive the French completely out of India , and they captured the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779 where French ordnance passed through . Mahé was under the protection of Mysore 's ruler Hyder Ali ( the Tipu Sultan ) , and tensions were already inflamed because the British had supported Malabar rebels who had risen against him ; so the fall of Mahé precipitated war . Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region in July 1780 and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot . A British relief force of 7,000 men under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September , the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India at the time . Ali then renewed the siege at Arcot instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second British army at Madras , capturing it on 3 November . The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year . Stalemate in the North ( 1778 -- 1780 ) Main articles : Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga and Western theater of the American Revolutionary War `` Give ' em Watts , boys ! '' -- American troops repulse Wilhelm von Knyphausen 's attack at Springfield Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia , consolidating his forces in New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war . French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington , and he arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York . The Franco - American forces felt that New York 's defenses were too formidable for the French fleet , and they opted to attack Newport . This effort was launched on August 29 , but it failed when the French opted to withdraw , and this displeased the Americans . The war then ground down to a stalemate , with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes , such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor . In the summer of 1779 , the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook . In July , Clinton unsuccessfully attempted to coax Washington into a decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut . That month , a large American naval operation attempted to retake Maine , but it resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941 . The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a large number of Iroquois settlements , but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids . During the winter of 1779 -- 80 , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge . Morale was poor ; public support was being eroded by the long war ; the national currency was virtually worthless ; the army was plagued with supply problems ; desertion was common ; and whole regiments mutinied over the conditions in early 1780 . Hamilton surrenders at Vincennes , February 29 , 1779 In 1780 , Clinton launched an attempt to retake New Jersey . On June 7 , 6,000 men invaded under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen , but they met stiff resistance from the local militia . The British held the field , but Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army and withdrew . Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt two weeks later which was soundly defeated at Springfield , effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey . Meanwhile , American general Benedict Arnold had defected to the British , and he conspired to betray the key American fortress of West Point by surrendering it to the enemy . The plot was foiled when British spy master John André was captured , so Arnold fled to British lines in New York . He attempted to justify his betrayal by appealing to Loyalist public opinion , but the Patriots strongly condemned him as a coward and turncoat . The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids . An expedition of militia was halted due to adverse weather in February 1778 which had set out to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River . Later in the year , a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British . The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes , although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamilton , the British commander at Detroit . In early 1779 , the Americans counterattacked by undertaking a risky winter march , and they secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes , taking Hamilton prisoner . On May 25 , 1780 , the British launched an expedition into Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast . The expedition met with only limited success , though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured . The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success , but it did little to abate the Indian raids on the frontier . French militia attempted to capture Detroit , but it ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5 . The war in the west had become a stalemate ; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the hostile Indian tribes and occupy their land . War in the South ( 1778 -- 1781 ) Main article : Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War British troops besiege Charleston in 1780 , by Alonzo Chappel The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778 , after Loyalists in London assured them of a strong Loyalist base there . A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean , where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets . On December 29 , 1778 , an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah , and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support . There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779 , but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to recognize their dependence upon the British . The British , however , defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3 , and then launched an abortive assault on Charleston , South Carolina . The operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British troops , enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists . In October , a combined Franco - American effort failed to recapture Savannah . In May 1780 , Henry Clinton captured Charleston , taking over 5,000 prisoners and effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south . Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29 . American and British cavalry clash at the Battle of Cowpens ; from an 1845 painting by William Ranney Clinton returned to New York , leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort . Far fewer Loyalists than expected joined him . In the interim , the war was carried on by Patriot militias who effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County , Lincolnton , Huck 's Defeat , Stanly County , and Lancaster County . Congress appointed Horatio Gates , victor at Saratoga , to lead the American effort in the south . He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16 , 1780 , setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina . The British attempted to subjugate the countryside , and Patriot militia continued to fight against them , so Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north . This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7 , irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas . Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina . In the interim , Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate , Nathanael Greene . Greene was unable to confront the British directly , so he dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops . Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17 , 1781 at Cowpens . Cornwallis was criticized for having detached a substantial part of his army without adequate support , but he advanced into North Carolina despite the setbacks , gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support there . Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis , instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition . By March , Greene 's army had increased in size enough that he felt confident in facing Cornwallis . The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15 ; Greene was beaten , but Cornwallis ' army suffered irreplaceable casualties . Compounding this , far fewer Loyalists were joining than the British had previously expected . Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement , leaving the Patriots in control of the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia . Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South . The American troops suffered a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25 ; nonetheless , they continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area , capturing Fort Watson and Fort Motte . Augusta was the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah , but the Americans reclaimed possession of it on June 6 . A British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a final effort to stop Greene , but the British casualties were so high that they withdrew to Charleston . Minor skirmishes continued in the Carolinas until the end of the war , and British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict . British defeat in America ( 1781 ) Main article : Yorktown campaign The French ( left ) and British ( right ) lines exchange fire at the Battle of the Chesapeake Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of American supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia , and he had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade . Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South . Clinton strongly opposed the plan , favoring a campaign farther north in the Chesapeake Bay region . Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan and neglected to include Clinton in the decision - making , even though Clinton was Cornwallis ' superior officer , and Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton . Clinton , however , had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781 , owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart Marriot Arbuthnot . Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah , French planners realized that closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success . The French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed . Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options . Washington pushed for an attack on New York , while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia where the British were less well - established and thus easier to defeat . Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety , fearing an attack on the city . His instructions were vague to Cornwallis during this time , rarely forming explicit orders . However , Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base and to transfer troops to the north to defend New York . Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown and awaited the Royal Navy . Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by John Trumbull , 1797 Washington still favored an assault on New York , but he acquiesced to the French when they opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown . In August , the combined Franco - American army moved south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis . The British lacked sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French , but they dispatched a fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and attempt to gain naval dominance . On September 5 , the French fleet decisively defeated Graves , giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwallis from reinforcements and relief . Despite the continued urging of his subordinates , Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works , expecting that reinforcements would arrive from New York , and the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown on September 28 . Cornwallis continued to think that relief was imminent from Clinton , and he abandoned his outer defenses which were immediately occupied by American troops -- serving to hasten his subsequent defeat . The British then failed in an attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point when a storm hit . Cornwallis and his subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindling supplies ; they agreed that their situation was untenable and negotiated a surrender on October 17 , 1781 , and 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans . The same day as the surrender , 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York , sailing to relieve Yorktown . North ministry collapses The Gordon Riots , by John Seymour Lucas On 25 November 1781 , news arrived in London of the surrender at Yorktown . The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament , and a motion was proposed on December 12 to end the war which was defeated by only one vote . On 27 February 1782 , the House voted against further war in America by 19 votes . Lord Germain was dismissed and a vote of no confidence was passed against North . The Rockingham Whigs came to power and opened negotiations for peace . Rockingham died and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne . Despite their defeat , the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned in New York , Charleston , and Savannah . Henry Clinton was recalled and was replaced by Guy Carleton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations . Final years of the war ( 1781 -- 1783 ) Main articles : Anglo - French War ( 1778 -- 1783 ) , Spain in the American Revolutionary War , Second Anglo - Mysore War , and Fourth Anglo - Dutch War Europe The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar , September 13 , 1782 , by John Singleton Copley After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780 , Britain had moved quickly , enforcing a blockade across the North Sea . Within weeks , the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen , and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports , though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum . The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain ; however , the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts , hoping to secure an early peace . To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel . Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker , who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781 . Though the contest was tactically inconclusive , the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war , and their merchant fleet remained crippled . On 6 January 1781 , a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed . Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar , a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August . After a long siege of St. Philip 's , the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782 , securing a primary war goal for the Spanish . At Gibraltar , a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties . On 20 October 1782 , following a successful resupply of Gibraltar , British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova , denying Córdova dominance at sea . On 7 February 1783 , after 1,322 days of siege , the Franco - Spanish army withdrew , decisively defeated . Americas Spanish troops led by Bernardo de Gálvez in combat at Pensacola . Oil on canvas , Augusto Ferrer - Dalmau , 2015 . Sint Eustatius , a key supply port for the Patriots , was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1781 , who plundered the island 's wealth . Few operations were conducted against the Dutch , although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781 . After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez , an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane . Emboldened by the disaster , John Campbell , British commander at Pensacola , decided to recapture Mobile . Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781 . After re-grouping at Havana , Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February . Arriving on 9 March , siege operations did not begin until 24 March , owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay . After a 45 - day siege , Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison , securing the conquest of West Florida . In May , Spanish troops captured the Bahamas , although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April . In the West Indies , on 29 -- 30 April 1781 , a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French , led by the Comte de Grasse , who continued seizing British territories : Tobago fell on 2 June ; Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782 ; St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February , despite a British naval victory on 25 January ; and Montserrat on 22 February . In 1782 , the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica , whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined . On 7 April 1782 , de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue and invade Jamaica from the north . The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April . The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins , and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy . In Guatemala , Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras . Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782 , and then quickly took Black River . Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes , Archibald Campbell , the Royal governor of Jamaica , authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River , which he did on 22 August . However , with peace talks opening , and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar , no further offensive operations took place . India Following Dutch entry into the conflict , East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781 . Soon after , British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782 . The British ( right ) and the French ( left ) , with Admiral Suffren 's flagship Cléopâtre on the far left , exchange fire at Cuddalore , by Auguste Jugelet , 1836 . In March 1781 , French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts . Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782 , where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes , winning a narrow tactical victory . After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore , Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April . There was no clear victor , though Hughes ' fleet came off worse , and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee . Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British , and this task fell to Suffren . Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July . Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore , strategically defeated , and the British remained in control of Negapatam . Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore , Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September , and successfully engaged Hughes two days later . Meanwhile , Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped . Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive , defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781 , Pollilur on 27 August , and Sholinghur on 27 September , expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic . On 18 February 1782 , Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore , taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner . The war had , by this point , reached an uneasy stalemate . On 7 December 1782 , Hyder Ali died , and the rule of Mysore passed to his son , Tipu Sultan . Sultan advanced along the west coast , laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783 . Meanwhile , on the east coast , an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783 . On 20 June , key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore , and though narrow , the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India . On 25 June , the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines , though all assaults failed . On 30 June , news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers , and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege . Mangalore remained under siege , and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784 . Little fighting took place thereafter , and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March . Peace of Paris Main articles : Peace of Paris ( 1783 ) and Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) Benjamin West 's famous painting of the American delegations at the Treaty of Paris . The British delegation refused to pose , and the painting was never completed . Following the surrender at Yorktown , the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities . While peace negotiations were being undertaken , British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives . Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace , as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt , and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there . He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire , though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778 . Negotiations soon began in Paris . The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war , a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence . On April 19 , 1782 , the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power , enhancing American leverage at the negotiations . Spain initially impeded the negotiations , refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured . The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians ; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River , below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control . The United States fiercely opposed the proposal . Washington enters New York in triumph following the British evacuation of America . The Americans skirted their allies , recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London . They negotiated directly with Shelburne , who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France . To this end , Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River , north of Florida , and south of Quebec , while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery . Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population , creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London . As Vergennes commented , `` the English buy peace rather than make it '' . Throughout the negotiations , Britain never consulted her American Indian allies , forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty . However , the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States , the largest being the Northwest Indian War . Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812 . Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain , France , and the Dutch Republic . Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks ; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida , Menorca , and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar , terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused . Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida , West Florida , and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar , terms which were reluctantly accepted . However , in the long - term , the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain . France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa , after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty . Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty , in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam . Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782 , while preliminaries between Britain , Spain , France , and the Netherlands continued until September 1783 . The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14 , 1784 . Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved , the first reaching France in March 1784 . British ratification occurred on April 9 , 1784 , and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12 , 1784 . The war formally concluded on September 3 , 1783 . The last British troops departed New York City on November 25 , 1783 , marking the end of British rule in the new United States . Aftermath Casualties and losses Americans and allies The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown . As was typical in wars of the era , diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle . Between 1775 and 1782 , a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America , killing 40 people in Boston alone . Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions . Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service . Of these , approximately 6,800 were killed in battle , while at least 17,000 died from disease . The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British , mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor . If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots , it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War . Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease , as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone . The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000 . The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict ; of those , 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war . The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed , owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain . British and allies British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces . A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas ; 6,046 in North America ( 1775 -- 1779 ) , and 3,326 in the West Indies ( 1778 -- 1780 ) . In 1784 , a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war , encompassing Europe , the Caribbean and the East Indies . Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds . Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters ; of the former , it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat . Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war ; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service . Around 1,240 were killed in battle , while an estimated 18,500 died from disease ( 1776 -- 1780 ) . The greatest killer at sea was scurvy , a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency . It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors . Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war . The impact on merchant shipping was substantial ; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war ; of those , 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone . Financial debts Main article : Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War At the start of the war , the economy of the colonies was flourishing , and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world . The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies , however , this proved unsuccessful ; 90 % of the population worked in farming , not in coastal trade , and , as such , the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade . Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort . As the circulation of hard currency declined , the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers , France , Spain and the Netherlands , saddling the young nation with crippling debts . Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue . The effect was disastrous ; inflation skyrocketed , and the paper money became virtually worthless . The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was `` not worth a continental '' . By 1791 , the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million . The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s , when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts , and , in addition , created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts . Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million , ( £ 27.1 billion in today 's money ) , generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually . The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War . Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace , the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shilling in every pound , or 20 percent . The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans , accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs . Unlike Britain , which had a very efficient taxation system , the French tax system was highly unstable , eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786 . The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century . The debt continued to spiral ; on the eve of the French Revolution , the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres . Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war , from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779 . Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally , partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies ; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico , and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia . Analysis of combatants Great Britain See also : Hessian ( soldier ) and Loyalist ( American Revolution ) British redcoats at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million , while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million , including some 500,000 slaves . Theoretically , Britain had the advantage , however , many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army . Armed forces Main articles : British Army during the American Revolutionary War and Royal Navy Recruitment In 1775 , the standing British Army , exclusive of militia , comprised 45,123 men worldwide , made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry . The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot , some 8,500 men , stationed in North America . Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648 , the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell , and the overthrow of James II , and , as such , the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King . Despite this , eighteenth century armies were not easy guests , and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike , derided as enemies of liberty . An expression ran in the Navy ; `` A messmate before a shipmate , a shipmate before a stranger , a stranger before a dog , a dog before a soldier '' . Press gang at work , British caricature of 1780 Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower , and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set . The Army was a deeply unpopular profession , one contentious issue being pay . A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day , the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman , 130 years earlier . The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living , turning off potential recruits , as service was nominally for life . To entice people to enrol , Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit . As the war dragged on , Parliament became desperate for manpower ; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties , and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units . After the defeat at Saratoga , Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3 , and increased it again the following year , to £ 3.3 s , as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age . Impressment , essentially conscription by the `` press gang '' , was a favored recruiting method , though it was unpopular with the public , leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service . Attempts were made to draft such levies , much to the chagrin of the militia commanders . Competition between naval and army press gangs , and even between rival ships or regiments , frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit . Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs , while many deserted at the first opportunity . Pressed men were militarily unreliable ; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies , purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting . By 1781 , the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally , 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas . Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict , around a quarter were pressed . This same proportion , approximately 42,000 men , deserted during the conflict . At its height , the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line , 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service . Loyalists and Hessians Hessian soldiers of the Leibregiment In 1775 , Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia , and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic , such was the shortage of manpower . Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money , in exchange for mercenary troops . In total , 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states ; Brunswick ( 5,723 ) , Hesse - Kassel ( 16,992 ) , Hesse - Hannau ( 2,422 ) , Ansbach - Bayreuth ( 2,353 ) , Waldeck - Pyrmont ( 1,225 ) and Anhalt - Zerbst ( 1,160 ) . King George III , who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire , was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war . Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions , however , the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe . Without any major allies , the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war , forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas . Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity . To bolster numbers , the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them . Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war , and provided some of the best troops in the British service ; the British Legion , a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton , gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies , especially in the South . Leadership Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America . Thomas Gage , Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war , was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists . Jeffrey Amherst , who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778 , refused a direct command in America , due to unwillingness to take sides in the war . Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command , stating ; `` I can not draw the sword in such a cause '' . The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America , while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis . Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants , and were only following orders . As was the case in many European armies , except the Prussian Army , officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks . Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it , the practise was common in the Army . Values of commissions varied , but were usually in line with social and military prestige , for example , regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices . The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as `` plums for ( their ) consumption '' . Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education , or practical experience , often found their way into positions of high responsibility , diluting the effectiveness of a regiment . Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711 , it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions . Young boys , often orphans of deceased wealthy officers , were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments . Logistics Grenadier of the 40th Regiment of Foot in 1767 , armed with a Brown Bess musket Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best , and the British Army was no exception . No logistical corps existed in the modern sense ; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America , horses , wagons , and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals , often by impressment or by hire . No centrally organized medical corps existed . It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education , and no diploma or entry examination was required . Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons , but many were drafted from the women who followed the army . Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers . The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America , and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement . During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778 , the temperature exceeded 100 ° F ( 37.8 ° C ) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat . The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket . Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful , measured shots ( around two per minute ) , rather than rapid firing . A bayonet made firing difficult , as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel . British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously , resulting in inaccurate fire , a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign . Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations , which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time . Soldiers of the Black Watch armed with Brown Bess muskets , c. 1790 Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war , although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801 . Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather ; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan , while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge , ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire . Furthermore , flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality ; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening , while American flints could fire sixty . This led to a common expression among the British : `` Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog '' . Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge , as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain . The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land . Other factors also impeded this option ; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent , the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed , and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed . After France entered the war , the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America . Food supplies were frequently in bad condition . The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean , where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil . Life at sea was little better . Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration , largely consisting of hardtack and beer . The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames `` molar breakers '' and `` worm castles '' , and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot . Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages . The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy , one of the biggest killers at sea . Discipline Discipline was harsh in the armed forces , and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences -- and not used sparingly . For instance , two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign , while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer . Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors . Despite the harsh discipline , a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks of the British forces . Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling , reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms . Many drank heavily , and this was not exclusive to the lower ranks ; William Howe was said to have seen many `` crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York . John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign . The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command . During the Philadelphia campaign , British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses where they had been quartered . Some reports indicated that British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants . This is in contrast to diaries of Hessian soldiers , who recorded their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists , such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners . The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety among the colonists , both Patriot and Loyalist , who viewed them as brutal mercenaries . British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops , despite orders from General Howe that `` the English should treat the Germans as brothers '' . The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English , which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect . During peacetime , the Army 's idleness led to it being riddled with corruption and inefficiency , resulting in many administrative difficulties once campaigning began . Strategic deficiencies The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops , while underestimating those of the colonists , causing a sudden re-think in British planning . The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists , as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony . A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill . It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula , giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses . Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss , the British decided on repeated frontal attacks . The results were telling ; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults . The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic , believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts . Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome . Ferling argues that the odds were so long , the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle . Ellis , however , considers that the odds always favored the Americans , and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic . Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777 , and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans . Ellis concludes that , once Howe failed , the opportunity for a British victory `` would never come again '' . Conversely , the United States Army 's official textbook argues that , had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780 , a British victory was within the realms of possibility . William Howe A 1777 mezzotint of Sir William Howe , British Commander - in - Chief from 1775 -- 1778 Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that , under William Howe 's command , the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans . Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns , Howe made several strategic errors , errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory . At Long Island , Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington , and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army . At White Plains , he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army , and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage . After securing control of New York , Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport , a measure which Clinton was opposed to , on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army . Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats , Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters , much to their surprise . During planning for the Saratoga campaign , Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne , or capture Philadelphia , the revolutionary capital . Howe decided upon the latter , determining that Washington was of a greater threat . When Howe launched his campaign , he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay , rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey , or by sea through the Delaware Bay . The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him . The decision so angered Parliament , that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason . During the Philadelphia campaign , Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions ; once after the Battle of Brandywine , and again after the Battle of Germantown . At the Battle of White Marsh , Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear , and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes , astonishing both sides . While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away , Howe made no effort to attack their camp , which critics argue could have ended the war . Following the conclusion of the campaign , Howe resigned his commission , and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24 , 1778 . Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics , however , there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action . Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill . During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia , Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions , which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns . Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign , and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army , have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies . During the winter of 1776 -- 1777 , Howe split his army into scattered cantonments . This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail , as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other . This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton , and the concurrent Battle of Princeton . While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner , the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision . The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts . Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions . Clinton and Cornwallis General Charles Cornwallis led British forces in the southern campaign . In 1780 , the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south , for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible . After an encouraging success at Camden , Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina . However , any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain , and the British Legion , the cream of his army , had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens . Following both defeats , Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support . Despite the defeats , Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina , gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized . As a result , subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace , as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse , and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition . Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest . The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781 , effectively confining the British to the coast , and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year . In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South , Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia , in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas . Henry Clinton , Cornwallis ' superior , strongly opposed the plan , believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North . London had approved Cornwallis plan , however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making , despite his seniority over Cornwallis , leading to a muddled strategic direction . Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions . Clinton , however , had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year , owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot , his naval counterpart . As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown , he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected , despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers . Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton , Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences , which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers , serving to hasten the British defeat . These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army , and the end of major operations in North America . Like Howe before him , Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues . In 1778 , Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies , even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland . That winter , the supply issue had deteriorated so badly , that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed . Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779 , launching few major campaigns . This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food . By 1780 , the situation had not improved . Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain , voicing concern that a `` fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve . By October that year , Clinton again wrote to Germain , angered that the troops in New York had not received `` an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain . Campaign issues Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems . The key issue was distance ; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic , and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived . The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance . Traditionally , the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict , yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York , Philadelphia ( which was the Patriot capital ) , and Charleston . Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy , allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports . However , the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian , not urban . As a result , the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects . Black Loyalist soldiers fought alongside British regulars in the 1781 Battle of Jersey , from The Death of Major Peirson . The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland . For example , British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 , enraging both Patriots and Loyalists . Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war . Conversely , Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories , such as destroying property or tarring and feathering . The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory . One British statesman described the attempt as `` like trying to conquer a map '' . Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown . Consequently , British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists . Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population ( vs. 40 -- 45 % Patriots ) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780 . The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars , which presented them with a major dilemma . The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances . The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South , where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors . The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain , and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South . Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict , the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland . As a result , King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with . The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War , leaving them at a critical disadvantage . The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies , and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result , precariously exposing them to defeat . In North America , the immediate strategic focus of the French , Spanish , and British shifted to Jamaica , whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined . Following the end of the war , Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies . However , the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term , and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict . United States Main articles : Continental Army and Minutemen 1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the Battle of Guilford The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British . They had no national government , no national army or navy , no financial system , no banks , no established credit , and no functioning government departments , such as a treasury . The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees , which proved inefficient . The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience . In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping , but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel . However , the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced . The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies , while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean . The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France , located at a far distance from home ports . Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland . They were on their home ground , had a smoothly functioning , well organized system of local and state governments , newspapers and printers , and internal lines of communications . They had a long - established system of local militia , previously used to combat the French and Native Americans , with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias , and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress . Motivation was a major asset . The Patriots wanted to win ; over 200,000 fought in the war ; 25,000 died . The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting , but they did much less than expected . The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting . At the onset of the war , the Americans had no major international allies . Battles such as the Battle of Bennington , the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain , who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies , to overtly supporting them militarily , moving the war to a global stage . The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime , and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants . The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by a few senior officers . The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge , where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff . He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline , drills , tactics and strategy , and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual . When the Army emerged from Valley Forge , it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth . Population density in the American Colonies in 1775 When the war began , the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy . Each colony sponsored local militia . Militiamen were lightly armed , had little training , and usually did not have uniforms . Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time , were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations , and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience . If properly used , however , their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces , as at the battles of Concord , Bennington and Saratoga , and the siege of Boston . Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area . Seeking to coordinate military efforts , the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14 , 1775 , and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief . The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress , and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war . Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War ; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army , formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14 , 1775 . The United States Navy recognizes October 13 , 1775 as the date of its official establishment , the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy . The United States Marine Corps links to the Continental Marines of the war , formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10 , 1775 . However , in 1783 both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded . Intelligence and espionage Main articles : Intelligence operations in the American Revolutionary War and Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War Soldiers and sailors At the beginning of 1776 , Washington commanded 20,000 men , with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias . About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war , but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time . About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war . They used 1,700 ships , and they captured 2,283 enemy ships . John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero , capturing HMS Drake on April 24 , 1778 , the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters . Armies were small by European standards of the era , largely attributable , on the American side , to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities ; and , on the British side , to the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic , as well as the dependence on local supplies , which the Patriots tried to cut off . The largest force Washington commanded was certainly under 17,000 , and may have been no more than 13,000 troops , and even the combined American and French forces at the siege of Yorktown amounted to only about 19,000 . By comparison , Duffy notes that in an era when European rulers were generally revising their forces downward , in favor of a size that could be most effectively controlled ( the very different perspective of mass conscript armies came later , during the French Revolutionary and then the Napoleonic Wars ) , the largest army that Frederick the Great ever led into battle was 65,000 men ( at Prague in 1757 ) , and at other times he commanded between 23,000 and 50,000 men , considering the latter the most effective number . George Washington 's roles Main article : George Washington in the American Revolution General Washington assumed main five main roles during the war . First , he designed the overall strategy of the war , in cooperation with Congress . The goal was always independence . When France entered the war , he worked closely with the soldiers it sent -- they were decisive in the great victory at Yorktown in 1781 . Second , he provided leadership of troops against the main British forces in 1775 -- 77 and again in 1781 . He lost many of his battles , but he never surrendered his army during the war , and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war 's end . Washington worked hard to develop a successful espionage system to detect British locations and plans . In 1778 , he formed the Culper Ring to spy on enemy movements in New York City . In 1780 it discovered Benedict Arnold was a traitor . The British put a low value on intelligence , and its operations were of poor quality until 1780 , when it finally inserted some spies with Congress and with Washington 's command . Even then , however , British commanders ignored or downplayed threats that were revealed . The most serious intelligence failure came in 1781 when top commanders were unaware that The American and French armies at both left the Northeast and marched down to Yorktown , where they outnumbered Cornwallis by more than 2 to 1 . Third , he was charged selecting and guiding the generals . In June 1776 , Congress made its first attempt at running the war effort with the committee known as `` Board of War and Ordnance '' , succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777 , a committee which eventually included members of the military . The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees ( and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington 's input ) with state - appointments filling the lower ranks . The results of his general staff were mixed , as some of his favorites never mastered the art of command , such as John Sullivan . Eventually , he found capable officers such as Nathanael Greene , Daniel Morgan , Henry Knox ( chief of artillery ) , and Alexander Hamilton ( chief of staff ) . The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver , and they lost most of the pitched battles . The great successes at Boston ( 1776 ) , Saratoga ( 1777 ) , and Yorktown ( 1781 ) came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops . Fourth he took charge of training the army and providing supplies , from food to gunpowder to tents . He recruited regulars and assigned Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , a veteran of the Prussian general staff , to train them . He transformed Washington 's army into a disciplined and effective force . The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress , but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials . There was never nearly enough . Washington 's fifth and most important role in the war effort was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown , serving as the representative man of the Revolution . His long - term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times , and eventually this strategy worked . His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress , the army , the French , the militias , and the states all pointed toward a common goal . Furthermore , he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won , rather than declaring himself monarch . He also helped to overcome the distrust of a standing army by his constant reiteration that well - disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as poorly trained and led militias . African Americans 1780 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign shows a black infantryman from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment . African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war . The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation . Because of manpower shortages , George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776 . Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts ; many slaves were promised freedom for serving . Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters , after the war was over , out of political convenience . Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces . At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause . Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines ; others simply moved off in the chaos . For instance , in South Carolina , nearly 25,000 slaves ( 30 % of the enslaved population ) fled , migrated or died during the disruption of the war . This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war . When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston , the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists . Altogether , the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war . More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia ; other blacks were sold in the West Indies . American Indians A watercolor painting depicting a variety of Continental Army soldiers Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown , 1781 Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war , and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict . A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans , but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory . Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side , with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes , who fielded around 1,500 men . The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict , whatever side they took ; the Seneca , Onondaga , and Cayuga nations sided with the British . Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides . Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists . The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British . Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively , and this further exacerbated the split . Early in July 1776 , a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina . Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people , and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee , bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain . Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina . In 1778 , a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia . Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah . Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side . Thousands of Creeks , Chickasaws , and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte , the Battle of Mobile , and the Siege of Pensacola . Race and class Pybus ( 2005 ) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British , of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots . The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war ; of these 8000 remained in slavery . Including those who left during the war , a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom . About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves . Baller ( 2006 ) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts . He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible . Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life . Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation . A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment , as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm . A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization . Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders . Some relatives might be Loyalists , creating internal strains . On the whole , historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism . McDonnell ( 2006 ) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes , which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause . The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters , the middling yeomen ( some owning a few slaves ) , and landless indentured servants , among other groups . The Assembly used deferments , taxes , military service substitute , and conscription to resolve the tensions . Unresolved class conflict , however , made these laws less effective . There were violent protests , many cases of evasion , and large - scale desertion , so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels . With the British invasion of the state in 1781 , Virginia was mired in class division as its native son , George Washington , made desperate appeals for troops . See also American Revolutionary War portal United States Army portal Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War Bibliography of George Washington Commemoration of the American Revolution Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War British Army during the American War of Independence First Treaty of San Ildefonso First League of Armed Neutrality Fourth Anglo - Dutch War George Washington in the American Revolution Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War List of American Revolutionary War battles List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution List of plays and films about the American Revolution List of revolutions and rebellions Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War Treaty of El Pardo ( 1778 ) Notes Jump up ^ This article primarily refers to the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies who supported the American Revolution as `` Americans '' , with occasional references to `` Patriots '' or `` Revolutionaries '' . Colonists who supported the British and opposed the Revolution are referred to as `` Loyalists '' or `` Tories '' . The geographical area of the thirteen colonies is often referred to simply as `` America '' . References Jump up ^ ( from 1777 ) Jump up ^ ( from 1778 ) Jump up ^ The term `` French Empire '' colloquially refers to the empire under Napoleon , but it is used here for brevity to refer to France proper and to the colonial empire that the Kingdom of France ruled Jump up ^ ( from 1779 ) Jump up ^ ( 1780 -- 84 ) Jump up ^ ( 1780 -- 84 ) Jump up ^ ( until 1779 ) Jump up ^ Hanover supplied troops per Personal union treaty , not as mercenaries Jump up ^ Lowell , Edward J ( 1884 ) , `` The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War '' , Harper and Brothers Publishers , New York , Chapter II . Quote : `` Five battalions of the Hanoverian subjects of George III were despatched to Gibraltar and Menorca '' Jump up ^ ( from 1779 ) ^ Jump up to : Duncan , Louis C. Medical Men in the American Revolution ( 1931 ) . ^ Jump up to : Michael Lanning ( 2009 ) . American Revolution 100 : The Battles , People , and Events of the American War for Independence , Ranked by Their Significance . Sourcebooks . pp. 195 -- 96 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4022 - 4170 - 3 . ^ Jump up to : Jack P. Greene and J.R. Pole . A Companion to the American Revolution ( Wiley - Blackwell , 2003 ) , p. 328 . Jump up ^ Paullin , Charles Oscar ( 1906 ) . The navy of the American Revolution : its administration , its policy and its achievements . The Burrows Brothers Co . Jump up ^ `` Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War '' . Usmm.org . Retrieved May 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Howarth 1991 , p. 16 Jump up ^ Montero , Francisco Maria ( 1860 ) , Historia de Gibraltar y de su campo ( in Spanish ) , Imprenta de la Revista Médica , p. 356 Jump up ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006 , p. 79 . ^ Jump up to : Jonathan Dull , A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution ( Yale University Press , 1985 ) , p. 110 . ^ Jump up to : `` Red Coats Facts -- British Soldiers in the American Revolution '' . totallyhistory.com . ^ Jump up to : `` The British Army 1775 -- 1783 '' ( PDF ) . orbat . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on September 27 , 2013 . Retrieved September 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006 , p. 63 : `` Of 7,500 men in the Gibraltar garrison in September ( including 400 in hospital ) , some 3,430 were always on duty '' Jump up ^ Winfield , Rif , British Warships in the Age of Sail : 1714 -- 1792 ( Seaforth Publishing , 2007 ) ISBN 9781844157006 Jump up ^ Winfield , Rif , British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714 -- 1792 : Design , Construction , Careers and Fates ( Seaforth Publishing , 2007 ) ^ Jump up to : Mackesy ( 1964 ) , pp. 6 , 176 ( British seamen ) . ^ Jump up to : Savas and Dameron ( 2006 ) , p. xli Jump up ^ Knesebeck , Ernst von dem ( 1845 ) , `` Geschichte de churhannoverschen Truppen in Gibraltar , Menorca und Ostindien '' , Published by Im Verlage der Helwingschen Hof - Buchhandlung . Note : The strength of a Hanoverian battalion is listed as 473 men ^ Jump up to : Lowell , Edward J ( 1884 ) , `` The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War '' , Harper and Brothers Publishers , New York , Chapter II Jump up ^ Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , p. 393 ; Boatner ( 1974 ) , p. 545 . ^ Jump up to : Howard H. Peckham , ed. , The Toll of Independence : Engagements and Battle Casualties of the American Revolution ( Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1974 ) . ^ Jump up to : Burrows , Edwin G. ( Fall 2008 ) . `` Patriots or Terrorists '' . American Heritage . 58 ( 5 ) . Archived from the original on March 23 , 2013 . Retrieved November 29 , 2014 . ^ Jump up to : Dawson , Warrington . `` The 2112 Frenchmen who died in the United States from 1777 to 1783 while fighting for the American Independence '' . Washington - Rochambeau Revolutionary Route . Journal de la societe des Americanistes . Archived from the original on June 5 , 2017 . Retrieved June 4 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Spanish casualties in The American Revolutionary war '' . Necrometrics . ^ Jump up to : Annual Register , 1783 ( 1785 ) , pp. 199 -- 200 . ^ Jump up to : Parliamentary Register ( 1781 ) , pp. 263 -- 65 . Jump up ^ `` Eighteenth Century Death Tolls '' . necrometrics.com . Retrieved January 7 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Parliamentary Register ( 1781 ) , p. 269 . ^ Jump up to : Mackesy ( 1964 ) , pp. 6 , 176 ( British seamen ) Jump up ^ Burrows , Edwin . `` Forgotten Patriots : The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War . '' Basic Books . New York , 2008 . p. 203 . Jump up ^ Modern British writers generally favor `` American War of Independence '' , rather than `` American Rebellion '' or `` War of American Independence '' . `` National Curriculum England '' . Retrieved April 21 , 2016 . Jump up ^ The colony of Georgia joined later . Jump up ^ Brooks , Richard ( editor ) . Atlas of World Military History . HarperCollins , 2000 , p. 101 `` Washington 's success in keeping the army together deprived the British of victory , but French intervention won the war . '' Jump up ^ Gladney , Henry M. ( 2014 ) . No Taxation without Representation : 1768 Petition , Memorial , and Remonstrance ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on May 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Liberty and Property : Political Ideology in Eighteenth - century Britain -- H.T. Dickinson. 1977 . p. 218 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 416 - 72930 - 6 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 07 -- via Books.google.com . Jump up ^ Charles Howard McIlwain ( 1938 ) . The American Revolution : A Constitutional Interpretation . p. 51 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58477 - 568 - 3 . Jump up ^ Paul Boyer ; et al. ( 2014 ) . The Enduring Vision : A History of the American People . Cengage Learning . p. 142 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 285 - 19339 - 7 . Jump up ^ Knollenberg , Growth , 48 ; Thomas , Duties Crisis , 76 Jump up ^ Young , Shoemaker , 183 -- 85 . 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Conspiracy Theories in American History : An Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . pp. 184 -- 85 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 57607 - 812 - 9 . Jump up ^ Georgia did not attend Jump up ^ Ferling , John . ( 2003 ) . A Leap in the Dark . Oxford University Press . p. 112 . Jump up ^ Kindig , Thomas E. ( 1995 ) . `` Galloway 's Plan for the Union of Great Britain and the Colonies '' . Declaration of Independence . Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , USA : Independence Hall Association , publishing electronically as ushistory.org . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2015 . Retrieved March 14 , 2015 . The plan was considered very attractive to most of the members , as it proposed a popularly elected Grand Council which would represent the interests of the colonies as a whole , and would be a continental equivalent to the English Parliament . After a sincere debate , it was rejected by a six to five vote on October 22 , 1774 . It may have been the arrival of the Suffolk County ( Boston ) resolutions that killed it . ^ Jump up to : Kramnick , Isaac ( ed ) ; Thomas Paine ( 1982 ) . Common Sense . Penguin Classics . p. 21 . Jump up ^ `` Resolved , 4 . That the foundation of English liberty , and of all free government , is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council : and as the English colonists are not represented , and from their local and other circumstances , can not properly be represented in the British parliament , they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures , where their right of representation can alone be preserved , in all cases of taxation and internal polity , subject only to the negative of their sovereign , in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed : But , from the necessity of the case , and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries , we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament , as are bonfide , restrained to the regulation of our external commerce , for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country , and the commercial benefits of its respective members ; excluding every idea of taxation internal or external , for raising a revenue on the subjects , in America , without their consent . 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Jump up ^ War Office Papers , 1 : 1005 , Oughton to Jenkinson , 27 May 1779 Jump up ^ Andrews , Charles McLean ( 1912 ) , `` Guide to the materials for American history , to 1783 , in the Public record office of Great Britain '' , Washington , D.C. , Carnegie institution of Washington , Volume II , p. 32 Jump up ^ War Office Papers , 4 : 966 , Jenkinson to Amherst , 26 Oct. 1779 Jump up ^ Jonathan Dull , A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution ( Yale University Press , 1985 ) , p. 110 . Jump up ^ Winfield , Rif , British Warships in the Age of Sail : 1714 -- 1792 ( Seaforth Publishing , 2007 ) ISBN 9781844157006 Jump up ^ Winfield , Rif , British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714 -- 1792 : Design , Construction , Careers and Fates ( Seaforth Publishing , 2007 ) Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers . Manuscripts in the Public Record Office , 5 : 92 , Dartmouth to Howe , 5 Sept. 1775 Jump up ^ Edler 2001 , pp. 28 -- 32 Jump up ^ Knesebeck , Ernst von dem ( 1845 ) , `` Geschichte de churhannoverschen Truppen in Gibraltar , Menorca und Ostindien '' , Published by Im Verlage der Helwingschen Hof - Buchhandlung . Note : The strength of a Hanoverian battalion is listed as 473 men ^ Jump up to : Black ( 2001 ) , p. 59 . On militia see Boatner ( 1974 ) , p. 707 , and Weigley ( 1973 ) , ch. 2 . Jump up ^ `` Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation '' . Digital History . 2007 - 10 - 18 . Archived from the original on April 22 , 2008 . Retrieved 2007 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ Buchanan , 327 Jump up ^ Babits , p / 46 , `` British Legion Infantry strength at Cowpens was between 200 and 271 enlisted men '' . However , this statement is referenced to a note on pp. 175 -- 76 , which says , `` The British Legion infantry at Cowpens is usually considered to have had about 200 -- 250 men , but returns for the 25 December 1780 muster show only 175 . Totals obtained by Cornwallis , dated 15 January , show that the whole legion had 451 men , but approximately 250 were dragoons '' . There would therefore appear to be no evidence for putting the total strength of the five British Legion Light Infantry companies at more than 200 . Jump up ^ Review by : Hugh F. Rankin ; Reviewed Work : The Green Dragoon : The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson by Robert D. Bass , The North Carolina Historical Review , Vol. 34 , No. 4 ( October , 1957 ) , pp. 548 -- 50 Jump up ^ Bass , Robert. D ( August 1957 ) . `` The Green Dragoon : The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson `` . North Carolina Office of Archives and History . JSTOR 23517100 . Jump up ^ Agniel , Lucien ( June 1972 ) . `` The Late Affair Has Almost Broke My Heart : The American Revolution in the South , 1780 -- 1781 '' . Chatham Press . Retrieved 18 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Ketchum ( 1997 ) , p. 76 Jump up ^ Ketchum ( 1997 ) , p. 77 Jump up ^ Duffy , Christopher . The Military Experience in the Age of Reason . p. 61 . ISBN 1853266906 . Jump up ^ Forteseue , The British Army , 1783 -- 1802 , p. 34 Jump up ^ Armatys , John ; Cordery , Robert George ( 2005 ) . `` The Purchase of Officers ' Commissions in the British Army '' . Colonial Wargames . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2012 . Retrieved 10 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Belcher , Volume I , p. 270 Jump up ^ Michael Lanning ( 2009 ) . American Revolution 100 : The Battles , People , and Events of the American War for Independence , Ranked by Their Significance . Sourcebooks . pp. 193 -- 96 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4022 - 4170 - 3 . Jump up ^ Duncan , Volume II , p. 15 Jump up ^ Duncan , Francis ( 1879 ) . `` History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery '' , Volume 1 . J. Murray , pp. 131 , 303 , 309 Jump up ^ Sergeant Lamb , `` Journal of the American War '' , p. 75 Jump up ^ Duncan , History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery , Volume 2 , p. 15 Jump up ^ Burgoyne , State of the Expedition , p. 148 Jump up ^ `` Battle of Monmouth Courthouse '' . Robinson Library . Self - published . Retrieved 20 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Lloyd , Ernest Marsh ( 1908 ) , Review of the History of Infantry , p. 155 Jump up ^ Trevelyan , Volume III , p. 6 ; Volume IV , p. 158 Jump up ^ Fortescue , The British Army , 1783 -- 1802 , p. 83 . Jump up ^ Sawyer , Charles Winthrop ( 1910 ) , `` Firearms in American History '' , p. 99 Jump up ^ Trevelyan , Volume IV , pp. 224 , 34 Jump up ^ Minute Book of a Board of General Officers of the British Army in New York , 1781 . New York Historical Society Collections , 1916 , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 14 Jump up ^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North , Volume II , pp. 7 , 52 Jump up ^ Merril D. Smith ( 2015 ) . The World of the American Revolution : A Daily Life Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . p. 374 . Jump up ^ `` Ships Biscuits -- Royal Navy hardtack '' . Royal Navy Museum . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2009 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` 19th United States Infantry '' . 19thusregulars.com . Archived from the original on July 15 , 2012 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ Lowell , Edward J and Andrews , Raymond J ( June 15 , 1997 ) `` The Hessians in the Revolutionary War '' , Corner House Pub , ISBN 9780879281168 , p. 56 Jump up ^ Howe , ( Sir ) William , Orderly Book , edited by B.F. Stevens ( London , 1890 ) , pp. 263 , 288 Jump up ^ Burgoyne , John , Orderly Book , edited by E.B. O'Callaghan ( Albany , 1860 ) , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Howe , Orderly Book , pp. 263 , 288 Jump up ^ `` Life at sea in the age of sail '' . National Maritime Museum . Jump up ^ Lamb , Memoir , p. 74 Jump up ^ Riedesel , Mrs. General , Letters and Journals , translated from the original German by W.L. Stone ( Albany , 1867 ) p. 125 Jump up ^ Stedman , Charles , History of the American War ( London , 1794 ) , Volume I , p. 309 Jump up ^ Fortescue , The British Army , 1783 -- 1802 , p. 35 Jump up ^ Steven Schwamenfeld . `` The Foundation of British Strength : National Identity and the Common British Soldier . '' Ph. D. diss. , Florida State University 2007 , pp. 123 -- 24 Jump up ^ Schwamenfeld ( 2007 ) , pp. 123 -- 24 Jump up ^ Schwamenfeld ( 2007 ) , p. 123 Jump up ^ Clayton , Anthony ( 2007 ) . The British Officer : Leading the Army from 1660 to the Present . Routledge . ISBN 178159287X , p. 65 Jump up ^ French , pp. 263 -- 65 Jump up ^ Frothingham , p. 155 Jump up ^ Frothingham pp. 191 , 194 Jump up ^ Frothingham , p. 156 Jump up ^ Ferling , 2015 , pp. 127 -- 29 Jump up ^ John E. Ferling , Almost A Miracle : The American Victory in the War of Independence ( 2009 ) , pp. 562 -- 77 . ^ Jump up to : Joseph J. Ellis ( 2013 ) . Revolutionary Summer : The Birth of American Independence . Random House . ISBN 0 - 307 - 70122 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Richard W. Stewart , ed. , American Military History Volume 1 The United States Army And The Forging Of A Nation , 1775 -- 1917 '' ( 2005 ) ch 4 `` The Winning of Independence , 1777 -- 1783 '' ( 2005 ) , p. 103 . Jump up ^ Adams , Charles Francis , `` Battle of Long Island '' , in American Historical Review ( 1895 -- 1896 ) , pp. 668 -- 669 . Jump up ^ Fischer , pp. 138 -- 142 Jump up ^ Frothingham pp. 152 -- 53 Jump up ^ Jackson , Kenneth T ; Dunbar , David S ( 2005 ) . Empire City : New York Through the Centuries . Columbia University Press . ISBN 9780231109093 , p. 20 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , Manuscripts in the Public Record Office , 5 : 93 , Howe to Dartmouth , 1st December 1775 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 93 , Howe to Germain , 7 June and 7 July 1776 Jump up ^ A View of the Evidence ( London , 1783 ) , p. 13 Jump up ^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North , Volume II , p. 57 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 93 , Howe to Germain , 30 Nov 1776 Jump up ^ Stedman , American War , Volume I , p. 287 Jump up ^ Lumpkin , From Savannah to Yorktown : The American Revolution in the South ( 2000 ) . Jump up ^ Pancake , John ( 1985 ) . This Destructive War . University of Alabama Press . p. 221 Jump up ^ Clinton , H. ; The American Rebellion . Note : This lack of notification was one of Clinton 's main arguments in his own defense in the controversy that followed the surrender at Yorktown . Jump up ^ Lengel , Edward ( 2005 ) . General George Washington . New York : Random House Paperbacks . ISBN 0812969502 . p. 337 Jump up ^ Fleming , Thomas ( 1970 ) . The Perils of Peace . New York : The Dial Press . ISBN 9780061139116 , p. 16 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 96 , Clinton to Germain , 15 September 1778 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 97 , Clinton to Germain , 15 December 1778 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 98 , Haldimand to Clinton , 19 July and 29 August 1779 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 100 , Clinton to Germain , 31st October 1780 Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 39 ; Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , pp. 298 , 306 Jump up ^ Rossman , Vadim ( 2016 ) , `` Capital Cities : Varieties and Patterns of Development and Relocation '' , Taylor & Francis , ISBN 1317562852 , p. 2 Jump up ^ Edward E. Curtis , The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution , Conclusion , ( Yale U.P. 1926 ) , ( 3 ) Retrieved 10 June 2017 Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Wilson , David K ( 2005 ) . The Southern Strategy : Britain 's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia , 1775 -- 1780 . Columbia , SC : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 1570035733 . OCLC 232001108 . p. 112 Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , pp. 14 -- 16 ( Harsh methods ) , pp. 35 , 38 ( slaves and Indians ) , p. 16 ( neutrals into revolutionaries ) . Jump up ^ Leonard Woods Larabee , Conservatism in Early American History ( 1948 ) pp 164 -- 65 Jump up ^ Calhoon , Robert M. The Loyalists in Revolutionary America , 1760 -- 1781 ( 1973 ) Jump up ^ Curtis , `` The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution , Conclusion Jump up ^ C. Ritcheson , `` Loyalist Influence on British Policy Toward the United States After the American Revolution '' ; Eighteenth - Century Studies ; ( 1973 ) 7 # 1 p. 6 . Jstor link Jump up ^ Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , p. 235 Jump up ^ William Edward Hartpole Lecky ( 1891 ) . A History of England : In the Eighteenth Century . p. 139 . Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , pp. 13 -- 14 . Jump up ^ Ferling ( 2007 ) , p. 294 Jump up ^ Dull , ( 1985 ) p. 244 Jump up ^ Tellier , L. - N. ( 2009 ) . Urban World History : an Economic and Geographical Perspective . Quebec : PUQ . p. 463 . ISBN 2760515885 . Jump up ^ Pole and Greene , eds . Companion to the American Revolution , ch. 36 -- 39 . Jump up ^ Trevelyan , p. 249 . Jump up ^ Ketchum ( 1997 ) , pp. 405 -- 48 . Jump up ^ Philander D. Chase . `` Steuben , Friedrich Wilhelm von '' ; American National Biography Online ( 2000 ) . Accessed January 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ferling , John ( 2007 ) , pp. 294 -- 95 '' Jump up ^ `` Establishment of the Navy , 13 October 1775 '' . United States Navy . Retrieved November 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Crocker ( 2006 ) , p. 51 . Jump up ^ `` Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War '' . Usmm.org . Retrieved May 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Higginbotham ( 1983 ) , pp. 331 -- 46 . Jump up ^ Boatner ( 1974 ) , p. 264 . ^ Jump up to : Duffy , Christopher ( 2005 ) . Military Experience in the Age of Reason . London : Routledge . ISBN 0203976851 . p. 13 . In the original 1987 edition , p. 17 . Jump up ^ R. Don Higginbotham , George Washington and the American Military Tradition ( 1985 ) ch 3 Jump up ^ Robert Selig , March to victory : Washington , Rochambeau , and the Yorktown Campaign of 1781 ( 2005 ) online . Jump up ^ Alexander Rose , Washington 's Spies ( 2006 ) pp. 258 -- 61 . Jump up ^ Roger Kaplan , `` The Hidden War : British Intelligence Operations during the American Revolution . '' William and Mary Quarterly ( 1990 ) 47 # 1 : 115 -- 38 . online Jump up ^ William Gardner Bell ( 2005 ) . Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff , 1775 -- 2005 : Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army 's Senior Officer . pp. 3 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Douglas S. Freeman , and Richard Harwell , Washington ( 1968 ) p. 42 . Jump up ^ Higginbotham , George Washington and the American Military Tradition ( 1985 ) ch 3 Jump up ^ Arnold Whitridge , `` Baron von Steuben , Washington 's Drillmaster . '' History Today ( July 1976 ) 26 # 7 pp. 429 -- 36 . Jump up ^ E. Wayne Carp , To Starve the Army at Pleasure : Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture , 1775 -- 1783 ( 1990 ) p. 220 . Jump up ^ Edward G. Lengel , General George Washington : A Military Life ( 2005 ) pp. 365 -- 71 . Jump up ^ Kaplan and Kaplan ( 1989 ) , pp. 64 -- 69 . Jump up ^ Leslie Alexander ( 2010 ) . Encyclopedia of African American History . ABC - CLIO . p. 356 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85109 - 774 - 6 . Jump up ^ Peter Kolchin , American Slavery : 1619 -- 1877 , New York : Hill and Wang , 1994 , p. 73 Jump up ^ Kolchin , p. 73 Jump up ^ William Weir ( 2004 ) . The Encyclopedia of African American Military History . Prometheus Books . pp. 31 -- 32 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61592 - 831 - 6 . Jump up ^ Cassadra Pybus , `` Jefferson 's Faulty Math : the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution '' , William and Mary Quarterly ( 2005 ) 62 # 2 pp. 243 -- 64 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , p. 393 ; Boatner ( 1974 ) , p. 545 . Jump up ^ John Finger , Tennessee Frontiers : Three Regions in Transition ( Bloomington , Ind. : Indiana University Press , 2001 ) , pp. 43 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Ward , Harry M. ( 1999 ) . The war for independence and the transformation of American society . Psychology Press . p. 198 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85728 - 656 - 4 . Retrieved March 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Greg ( April 30 , 2008 ) . Pre-removal Choctaw history : exploring new paths . University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 123 -- 26 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 3916 - 6 . Retrieved March 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Cassandra Pybus , `` Jefferson 's Faulty Math : the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution '' , William and Mary Quarterly 2005 62 # 2 : 243 -- 264 . Jump up ^ John N. Grant , `` Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia , 1776 -- 1815 . '' Journal of Negro History ( 1973 ) : 253 -- 270 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ James W. St G. Walker , The Black Loyalists : The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone , 1783 -- 1870 ( 1992 ) . Jump up ^ William Baller , `` Farm Families and the American Revolution , '' Journal of Family History ( 2006 ) 31 ( 1 ) : 28 -- 44 . ISSN 0363 - 1990 . Fulltext : online in EBSCO . Jump up ^ Michael A. McDonnell , `` Class War : Class Struggles During the American Revolution in Virginia '' , William and Mary Quarterly 2006 63 ( 2 ) : 305 -- 44 . ISSN 0043 - 5597 Fulltext : online at History Cooperative . Further reading Black , Jeremy . War for America : The Fight for Independence , 1775 -- 1783 . 2001 . Analysis from a noted British military historian . Benn , Carl Historic Fort York , 1793 -- 1993 . Toronto : Dundurn Press Ltd. 1993 . ISBN 0920474799 . Boatner , Mark Mayo , III . Encyclopedia of the American Revolution . 1966 ; revised 1974 . ISBN 0811705781 . Military topics , references many secondary sources . Calloway , Colin G . The American Revolution in Indian Country : Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities ( Cambridge UP , 1995 ) . Chambers , John Whiteclay II , ed. in chief . The Oxford Companion to American Military History . Oxford University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0195071980 . Conway , Stephen . The British Isles and the War of American Independence ( 2002 ) doi : 10.1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199254552.001. 0001 online Crocker III , H.W. ( 2006 ) . Do n't Tread on Me . New York : Crown Forum . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 5363 - 6 . Curtis , Edward E. The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution ( Yale U.P. 1926 ) online Duffy , Christopher . The Military Experience in the Age of Reason , 1715 -- 1789 Routledge , 1987 . ISBN 9780710210241 . Edler , Friedrich . The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution . University Press of the Pacific , 1911 , reprinted 2001 . ISBN 0898752698 . Ellis , Joseph J. His Excellency : George Washington . ( 2004 ) . ISBN 1400040310 . David Hackett Fischer . Washington 's Crossing . New York : Oxford University Press , 2004 . ISBN 0195170342 . Fletcher , Charles Robert Leslie . An Introductory History of England : The Great European War , Volume 4 . E.P. Dutton , 1909 . OCLC 12063427 . Greene , Jack P. and Pole , J.R. , eds . The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution . Malden , Massachusetts : Blackwell , 1991 ; reprint 1999 . ISBN 1557865477 . Collection of essays focused on political and social history . Gilbert , Alan . Black Patriots and Loyalists : Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 2012 . ISBN 9780226293073 . Higginbotham , Don . The War of American Independence : Military Attitudes , Policies , and Practice , 1763 -- 1789 . Northeastern University Press , 1983 . ISBN 0930350448 . Overview of military topics ; online in ACLS History E-book Project . Morrissey , Brendan . Monmouth Courthouse 1778 : The Last Great Battle in the North . Osprey Publishing , 2004 . ISBN 1841767727 . Jensen , Merrill . The Founding of a Nation : A History of the American Revolution 1763 -- 1776 . ( 2004 ) Kaplan , Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan . The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution . Amherst , Massachusetts : The University of Massachusetts Press , 1989 . ISBN 0870236636 . Ketchum , Richard M. Saratoga : Turning Point of America 's Revolutionary War . Henry Holt , 1997 . ISBN 080504681X . Mackesy , Piers . The War for America : 1775 -- 1783 . London , 1964 . Reprinted University of Nebraska Press , 1993 . ISBN 0803281927 . Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership . McCullough , David . 1776 . New York : Simon & Schuster , 2005 . Middleton , Richard , The War of American Independence , 1775 -- 1783 . London : Pearson , 2012 . ISBN 9780582229426 Reynolds , Jr. , William R. ( 2012 ) . Andrew Pickens : South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War . Jefferson , NC : McFarland & Company , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 6694 - 8 . Riddick , John F. The History of British India : a Chronology . Greenwood Publishing Group , 2006 . ISBN 9780313322808 . Savas , Theodore P. and Dameron , J. David . A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution . New York : Savas Beatie LLC , 2006 . ISBN 193271412X . Schama , Simon . Rough Crossings : Britain , the Slaves , and the American Revolution , New York , NY : Ecco / HarperCollins , 2006 O'Shaughnessy , Andrew Jackson . The Men who Lost America : British Leadership , the American Revolution , and the Fate of the Empire ( Yale UP , 2014 ) . Shy , John . A People Numerous and Armed : Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence . New York : Oxford University Press , 1976 ( ISBN 0195020138 ) ; revised University of Michigan Press , 1990 ( ISBN 0472064312 ) . Collection of essays . Stephenson , Orlando W . `` The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776 '' , American Historical Review , 30 # 2 ( 1925 ) , pp. 271 -- 81 online free . Taylor , Alan . American Revolutions : A Continental History , 1750 -- 1804 ( WW Norton & Company , 2016 ) . Tombs , Robert and Isabelle . That Sweet Enemy : The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present Random House , 2007 . ISBN 9781400040247 . Trevelyan , George Otto . George the Third and Charles Fox : the concluding part of The American revolution Longmans , Green , 1912 . Watson , J. Steven . The Reign of George III , 1760 -- 1815 . 1960 . Standard history of British politics . Weigley , Russell F. The American Way of War . Indiana University Press , 1977 . ISBN 9780253280299 . Weintraub , Stanley . Iron Tears : America 's Battle for Freedom , Britain 's Quagmire : 1775 -- 1783 . New York : Free Press , 2005 ( a division of Simon & Schuster ) . ISBN 0743226879 . An account of the British politics on the conduct of the war . Reference literature Main articles : Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War and Bibliography of George Washington These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above ; books about specific campaigns , battles , units , and individuals can be found in those articles . Billias , George Athan . George Washington 's Generals and Opponents : Their Exploits and Leadership ( 1994 ) scholarly studies of key generals on each side. \ Black , Jeremy . `` Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence ? . '' Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research . ( Fall 1996 ) , Vol. 74 Issue 299 , pp 145 -- 154 . online video lecture , uses Real Player Conway , Stephen . The War of American Independence 1775 -- 1783 . Publisher : E. Arnold , 1995 . ISBN 0340625201 . 280 pp . Lowell , Edward J. The Hessians in the Revolution Williamstown , Massachusetts , Corner House Publishers , 1970 , Reprint Bancroft , George . History of the United States of America , from the discovery of the American continent . ( 1854 -- 78 ) , vol. 7 -- 10 . Bobrick , Benson . Angel in the Whirlwind : The Triumph of the American Revolution . Penguin , 1998 ( paperback reprint ) . Fremont - Barnes , Gregory , and Ryerson , Richard A. , eds . The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War : A Political , Social , and Military History ( ABC - CLIO , 2006 ) 5 volume paper and online editions ; 1000 entries by 150 experts , covering all topics Frey , Sylvia R . The British Soldier in America : A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period ( University of Texas Press , 1981 ) . Hibbert , Christopher . Redcoats and Rebels : The American Revolution through British Eyes . New York : Norton , 1990 . ISBN 039302895X . Kwasny , Mark V. Washington 's Partisan War , 1775 -- 1783 . Kent , Ohio : 1996 . ISBN 0873385462 . Militia warfare . Middlekauff , Robert . The Glorious Cause : The American Revolution , 1763 -- 1789 . Oxford University Press , 1984 ; revised 2005 . ISBN 0195162471 . online edition Savas , Theodore ; J. David Dameron ( 2006 ) . Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution . Savas Beatie . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61121 - 011 - 8 . Contains a detailed listing of American , French , British , German , and Loyalist regiments ; indicates when they were raised , the main battles , and what happened to them . Also includes the main warships on both sides , And all the important battles . Simms , Brendan . Three Victories and a Defeat : The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire , 1714 -- 1783 ( 2008 ) 802 pp. detailed coverage of diplomacy from London viewpoint Symonds , Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution ( 1989 ) , newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units Ward , Christopher . The War of the Revolution . ( 2 volumes . New York : Macmillan , 1952 . ) History of land battles in North America . Wood , W.J. Battles of the Revolutionary War , 1775 -- 1781 . ISBN 0306813297 ( 2003 paperback reprint ) . Analysis of tactics of a dozen battles , with emphasis on American military leadership . Men - at - Arms series : short ( 48pp ) , very well illustrated descriptions : Zlatich , Marko ; Copeland , Peter . General Washington 's Army ( 1 ) : 1775 -- 78 ( 1994 ) Zlatich , Marko . General Washington 's Army ( 2 ) : 1779 -- 83 ( 1994 ) Chartrand , Rene . The French Army in the American War of Independence ( 1994 ) May , Robin . The British Army in North America 1775 -- 1783 ( 1993 ) The Partisan in War , a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789 . External links Look up American Revolutionary War in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikimedia Commons has media related to American Revolutionary War . Liberty -- The American Revolution from PBS American Revolutionary War 1775 -- 1783 in the News Important battles of the American Revolutionary War Bibliographies Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution Bibliographies of the War of American Independence https://web.archive.org/web/20151101171424/http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar.htm compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History Political bibliography from Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture American Revolutionary War Origins of the American Revolution Philosophy American Enlightenment John Locke Colonial history Liberalism Republicanism Freedom of religion Rights of Englishmen Common Sense Spirit of ' 76 `` All men are created equal '' `` Life , Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness '' `` Consent of the governed '' Royalists Pitt -- Newcastle ministry Bute ministry Grenville ministry First Rockingham ministry Chatham ministry Grafton ministry North ministry Second Rockingham ministry Shelburne ministry Fox -- North coalition Loyalists Black Loyalist Related British Acts of Parliament Navigation Iron Molasses Royal Proclamation of 1763 Sugar Currency Quartering Stamp Declaratory Townshend Tea Quebec Intolerable Conciliatory Resolution Restraining Proclamation of Rebellion Prohibitory Colonials Stamp Act Congress Declaration of Rights and Grievances Virginia Association Sons of Liberty Patriots Committees of correspondence Committees of safety Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania Massachusetts Circular Letter First Continental Congress Continental Association Minutemen Second Continental Congress Olive Branch Petition Declaration of Independence Articles of Confederation Events French and Indian War Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) Boston Massacre Gaspee Affair Hutchinson Letters Affair Boston Tea Party Powder Alarm Combatants Campaigns Theaters Battles Events Colonies Combatants Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Army Navy Marines Kingdom of Great Britain Parliament British Army Royal Navy German allies Colonial allies France army navy Hortalez et Cie Campaigns and theaters Boston Canada New York and New Jersey Saratoga Philadelphia Northern Southern Western Yorktown Naval battles Major battles Lexington and Concord Boston Capture of Fort Ticonderoga Bunker Hill Quebec Valcour Island Long Island Harlem Heights Fort Washington Trenton Assunpink Creek Princeton Siege of Fort Ticonderoga Bennington Saratoga Brandywine Germantown Monmouth St. Lucia Grenada Stony Point Sullivan Expedition Savannah Gibraltar Cape St. Vincent Charleston Springfield Camden Kings Mountain Cowpens Guilford Court House Lochry 's Defeat Yorktown Saintes Cuddalore Other events Staten Island Peace Conference `` First Salute '' Washington 's crossing of the Delaware River Conway Cabal Valley Forge Entry of France into war Carlisle Peace Commission Gordon Riots Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1781 Sint Eustatius Newburgh Conspiracy Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 Related conflicts Cherokee -- American wars Fourth Anglo - 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915996541154690344 | Soccer-specific stadium | Soccer - specific stadium - Wikipedia Soccer - specific stadium Orlando City Stadium , home of Orlando City SC , is a soccer - specific stadium Soccer - specific stadium is a term used mainly in the United States and Canada to refer to a sports stadium either purpose - built or fundamentally redesigned for soccer and whose primary function is to host soccer matches , as opposed to a multipurpose stadium which is for a variety of sports . A soccer - specific stadium may host other sporting events ( such as lacrosse , American football and rugby ) and concerts , but the design and purpose of a soccer - specific stadium is primarily for soccer . Some facilities ( for example Toyota Park , Toyota Stadium and Mapfre Stadium ) have a permanent stage at one end of the stadium used for staging concerts . A soccer - specific stadium typically has amenities , dimensions and scale suitable for soccer in North America , including a scoreboard , video screen , luxury suites and possibly a roof . The field dimensions are within the range found optimal by FIFA : 110 -- 120 yards ( 100 -- 110 m ) long by 70 -- 80 yards ( 64 -- 73 m ) wide . These soccer field dimensions are wider than the regulation American football field width of 53 ⁄ yards ( 48.8 m ) , or the 65 - yard ( 59 m ) width of a Canadian football field . The playing surface typically consists of grass as opposed to artificial turf , as the latter is generally disfavored for soccer matches since players are more susceptible to injuries . However , some soccer specific stadiums , such as Portland 's Providence Park and Creighton University 's Morrison Stadium , do have artificial turf . The seating capacity is generally small enough to provide an intimate setting , between 18,000 and 30,000 for a Major League Soccer franchise , or smaller for college or minor league soccer teams . This is in comparison to the much larger American football stadiums that mostly range between 60,000 and 80,000 in which the original North American Soccer League teams played and most MLS teams occupied during the league 's inception . As opposed to gridiron - style football stadiums , where the front row of seats is elevated several feet above the field of play to allow spectators to see over the heads of substitute players and coaches on the sidelines , soccer - specific venues typically have the front row closer to the level of the pitch , providing a more intimate experience . Contents 1 History 2 Major League Soccer ( MLS ) 2.1 Current MLS soccer - specific stadiums 2.2 Future MLS soccer - specific stadiums 2.3 Proposed MLS soccer - specific stadiums 3 North American Soccer League ( NASL ) 3.1 Current NASL soccer - specific stadiums 4 United Soccer League ( USL ) 4.1 Current USL soccer - specific stadiums 5 Premier Development League ( PDL ) 5.1 Current PDL soccer - specific stadiums 6 NCAA ( Division I ) 7 Other soccer - specific stadiums 7.1 Past soccer - specific stadiums 8 Other countries 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References History ( edit ) In the 1980s and 1990s , Division I professional soccer leagues in the United States , such as the North American Soccer League and Major League Soccer , primarily used American football fields , many of which were oversized in terms of seating capacity , undersized in terms of width of the soccer field , and often used artificial turf ( none of which , at the time , were approved for international soccer under FIFA rules ) . Although many of the baseball parks had smaller capacities , natural grass and a wider field in which to place the field , these parks were generally in - use during the summer season , when North American -- based soccer leagues , such as Major League Soccer , also hold their seasons , and the irregular field dimensions and sightlines were often considered undesirable . Soccer - specific stadiums first came into use in the 1990s , after the multi-purpose stadium era . The term `` soccer - specific stadium '' was coined by Lamar Hunt , who financed the construction of the Columbus Crew Stadium , the first soccer specific stadium used in Major League Soccer . In the 2000s , other Major League Soccer teams in the United States began constructing their own stadiums . Canada 's first soccer - specific stadium was BMO Field in Toronto , home to Toronto FC . This stadium was renovated to accommodate Canadian football for the 2016 and subsequent seasons . The distinction is less prominent in Canada , where MLS 's attendance figures are comparable to those of the domestic Canadian Football League , and the CFL 's wider field means fewer compromises must be made to accommodate both ; Tim Hortons Field was built purposely to both soccer specifications and CFL regulations . Of the three Canadian cities that host both MLS and CFL teams , only one ( Montreal ) has separate stadiums for each . Major League soccer ( MLS ) ( edit ) See also : List of Major League Soccer stadiums Current MLS soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Club ( s ) City Capacity Opened Audi Field D.C. United Washington , D.C. 20,000 2018 Avaya Stadium San Jose Earthquakes San Jose , California 18,000 2015 BBVA Compass Stadium Houston Dynamo Houston , Texas 22,039 2012 Banc of California Stadium Los Angeles FC Los Angeles , California 22,000 2018 Children 's Mercy Park Sporting Kansas City Kansas City , Kansas 18,467 2011 Dick 's Sporting Goods Park Colorado Rapids Commerce City , Colorado 18,061 2007 Mapfre Stadium Columbus Crew SC Columbus , Ohio 19,968 1999 Orlando City Stadium Orlando City SC Orlando , Florida 25,500 2017 Providence Park Portland Timbers Portland , Oregon 21,144 1926 Red Bull Arena New York Red Bulls Harrison , New Jersey 25,000 Rio Tinto Stadium Real Salt Lake Sandy , Utah 20,213 2008 Saputo Stadium Montreal Impact Montreal , Quebec 20,801 2008 StubHub Center LA Galaxy Carson , California 27,000 2003 Talen Energy Stadium Philadelphia Union Chester , Pennsylvania 18,500 Toyota Park Chicago Fire Bridgeview , Illinois 20,000 2006 Toyota Stadium FC Dallas Frisco , Texas 20,500 2005 Future MLS soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Club ( s ) City Capacity Construction began Planned opening Allianz Field Minnesota United FC Saint Paul , Minnesota 19,400 2016 2019 Proposed MLS soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Club ( s ) Metro area Proposed capacity Miami MLS stadium Miami MLS team Miami , Florida 25,000 Nashville Fairgrounds Stadium Nashville MLS team Nashville , Tennessee 27,500 FC Cincinnati Stadium FC Cincinnati Cincinnati , Ohio 21,000 In 2011 Bob Lenarduzzi confirmed that the Vancouver Whitecaps are now committed to BC Place , and that plans for the waterfront stadium have been put on hold . North American Soccer League ( NASL ) ( edit ) See also : List of NASL stadiums Current NASL soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Club ( s ) City Capacity Opened Juan Ramón Loubriel Stadium Puerto Rico FC Bayamón , Puerto Rico 22,000 1974 ( 2012 renovation ) United Soccer League ( USL ) ( edit ) Current USL soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) All USL teams will be required to play in self - owned , soccer - specific stadiums by the 2020 season . The following is a list of current USL stadiums that are soccer - specific stadiums : Stadium Club ( s ) City Capacity Opened Al Lang Stadium Tampa Bay Rowdies St. Petersburg , Florida 7,227 1947 ( 2015 renovation ) Capelli Sport Stadium Rochester Rhinos Rochester , New York 13,768 2006 Champion Stadium Orange County SC Irvine , California 5,000 2017 H-E-B Park Rio Grande Valley FC Toros Edinburg , Texas 9,400 2017 Highmark Stadium Pittsburgh Riverhounds SC Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 5,000 2013 MSU Soccer Park at Pittser Field New York Red Bulls II Montclair , New Jersey 5,000 1998 ( Renovated 2016 , 2018 ) MUSC Health Stadium Charleston Battery Charleston , South Carolina 5,100 1999 Mecklenburg County Sportsplex Charlotte Independence Matthews , North Carolina 2,300 2017 Orlando City Stadium Orlando City B Orlando , Florida 25,500 2017 Papa Murphy 's Park Sacramento Republic FC Sacramento , California 11,242 2014 Phoenix Rising FC Soccer Complex Phoenix Rising FC Scottsdale , Arizona 6,200 2017 Providence Park Portland Timbers 2 Portland , Oregon 21,144 1926 StubHub Center Track and Field Stadium LA Galaxy II Carson , California 2,000 2003 Toyota Field San Antonio FC San Antonio , Texas 8,296 2013 Toyota Stadium Saint Louis FC Fenton , Missouri 5,500 1982 WakeMed Soccer Park North Carolina FC Cary , North Carolina 10,000 2002 Weidner Field Colorado Springs Switchbacks Colorado Springs , Colorado 5,000 2002 ( Renovated 2015 ) Zions Bank Stadium Real Monarchs Herriman , Utah 5,000 2018 Premier Development League ( PDL ) ( edit ) Current PDL soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Club ( s ) Division City Capacity Opened City Park Stadium Westchester Flames PDL New Rochelle , New York 1,845 1970s Lusitano Stadium Western Mass Pioneers PDL Ludlow , Massachusetts 3,000 1918 Macpherson Stadium Carolina Dynamo PDL Browns Summit , North Carolina 1,600 2002 Ncaa ( Division I ) ( edit ) This list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it . Stadium Team ( s ) City Capacity Opened Albert - Daly Field William & Mary Tribe Williamsburg , Virginia 1,000 Ambrose Urbanic Field Pittsburgh Panthers Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 735 2011 BBVA Compass Field UAB Blazers Birmingham , Alabama 5,000 2015 Belson Stadium St. John 's Red Storm Queens , New York 2,600 2001 Bill Armstrong Stadium Indiana Hoosiers Bloomington , Indiana 6,500 1981 Columbia Soccer Stadium Columbia Lions Manhattan , New York 3,500 1985 Dick Dlesk Soccer Stadium West Virginia Mountaineers Morgantown , West Virginia 1,600 Dr. Mark & Cindy Lynn Stadium Louisville Cardinals Louisville , Kentucky 5,300 2014 Elizabeth Lyle Robbie Stadium Minnesota Golden Gophers Falcon Heights , Minnesota 1,000 1999 Ellis Field Texas A&M Aggies College Station , Texas 3,500 1994 Eugene E. Stone III Stadium South Carolina Gamecocks Columbia , South Carolina 5,000 1981 Harder Stadium UC Santa Barbara Gauchos Santa Barbara , California 17,000 1966 Hermann Stadium Saint Louis Billikens St. Louis , Missouri 6,050 1999 Hofstra University Soccer Stadium Hofstra Pride Hempstead , New York 1,600 2003 Lamar Soccer Complex Lamar Lady Cardinals Beaumont , Texas 500 2009 Mazzella Field Iona Gaels New Rochelle , New York 2,400 Mean Green Village North Texas Mean Green Denton , Texas 1,000 2006 Mike Rose Soccer Complex Memphis Tigers Memphis , Tennessee 2,500 2001 Morrison Stadium Creighton Bluejays Omaha , Nebraska 6,000 2003 Morrone Stadium UConn Huskies Storrs , Connecticut 5,100 1969 Nicholls Soccer Complex Nicholls State Colonels Thibodaux , Louisiana 1,000 1998 Old Dominion Soccer Complex Old Dominion Monarchs and Lady Monarchs Norfolk , Virginia 4,000 1990 Riggs Field Clemson Tigers Clemson , South Carolina 6,500 1915 Roberts Stadium Princeton Tigers Princeton , New Jersey 2,356 2008 SU Soccer Stadium Syracuse Orange Syracuse , New York 1,500 University of Denver Soccer Stadium Denver Pioneers Denver , Colorado 2,000 2009 UNCG Soccer Stadium University of North Carolina at Greensboro Greensboro , North Carolina 3,540 1990 Veterans Memorial Soccer Complex Marshall Thundering Herd Huntington , West Virginia 1,006 2013 Waipio Peninsula Soccer Stadium Hawai ʻi Rainbow Wahine Waipi ʻo , Hawaii 4,500 2000 Yurcak Field Rutgers Scarlet Knights Piscataway , New Jersey 5,000 1994 Other soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Team ( s ) Division City Capacity Opened Atlanta Silverbacks Park Atlanta Silverbacks NPSL Atlanta , Georgia 5,000 2006 King George V Park National Stadium Memorial Sea - Hawks CONCACAF CIS St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador 10,000 1925 Kiwanis Municipal Park Stadium Williamsburg , Virginia Maryland SoccerPlex Washington Spirit NWSL Germantown , Maryland 5,128 2000 Metropolitan Oval Queens , New York 1,500 1925 ( 2001 renovation ) Orange Beach Sportsplex Local teams Local Orange Beach , Alabama 1,500 2001 Starfire Sports Tukwila , Washington 4,500 2002 Uihlein Soccer Park MSOE Raiders NCAA Milwaukee , Wisconsin 7,000 1994 Virginia Beach Sportsplex Virginia Beach City FC NPSL Virginia Beach , Virginia 10,500 1999 WRAL Soccer Center CASL teams CASL Raleigh , North Carolina 3,200 1990 Past soccer - specific stadiums ( edit ) Stadium Club ( s ) City Capacity Opened Years used Status Mark 's Stadium Fall River F.C. Tiverton ( CDP ) , Rhode Island 15,000 1922 1922 -- 1950s vacant grass lot BMO Field Toronto FC Toronto , Ontario 30,991 2007 2007 -- present converted to a multi-purpose stadium in 2016 after becoming the home of the CFL 's Toronto Argonauts Fifth Third Bank Stadium Kennesaw State Owls Kennesaw , Georgia 8,318 2010 -- present converted to a multi-purpose stadium in 2015 after Kennesaw State University launched their football program Other countries ( edit ) The term `` football - specific stadium '' is sometimes used in countries where the sport is known as football rather than soccer , although the term is not common in countries where football is the dominant sport and thus football - specific stadiums are quite common . The term tends to have a slightly different meaning in these countries , usually referring to a stadium without an athletics track surrounding the field . Some soccer stadiums in Europe are also used for other sports , including Rugby , American Football , and Field Hockey . The problem with oversized stadiums designed for another sport is particularly visible in European American Football leagues and conflicts between teams sharing the stadium ( a notable example are Eintracht Braunschweig and the Braunschweig Lions which share a stadium ) and ( often municipal ) owners of the stadiums sometimes arise , leading to attempts at single sport - specific venues . See also ( edit ) List of soccer stadiums in the United States List of soccer stadiums in Canada List of football ( soccer ) stadiums by capacity List of Major League Soccer stadiums List of NASL stadiums List of National Women 's Soccer League stadiums List of Women 's Professional Soccer stadiums Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Also used by the Houston Dash of the NWSL . Jump up ^ Also used by the Orlando Pride of the NWSL and Orlando City B of the USL . Jump up ^ Also used by the Utah Royals FC of the NWSL and Real Monarchs of the USL . Jump up ^ Was also used by the Los Angeles Sol of Women 's Professional Soccer in that team 's only season in 2009 . Jump up ^ Also used by the Chicago Red Stars of the NWSL . Jump up ^ Also home of Sky Blue FC of the NWSL . Jump up ^ The stadium is located in Germantown , but has a Boyds postal address . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Sakiewicz , Edward Paul ( 2006 ) . `` Chapter I : Introduction '' . A Comparative Study of Enterprise Risk Management and Decision Making Criteria Used in Developing Soccer - specific Stadiums for Major League Soccer . p. 24 . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 -- via Google Books . Jump up ^ `` Laws of the Game 2010 / 2011 '' ( PDF ) . FIFA . p. 7 . Retrieved October 9 , 2010 . Although the official Laws of the Game allow for pitches in adult matches to be 100 -- 130 yards ( 91 -- 119 m ) long by 50 -- 100 yards ( 46 -- 91 m ) wide . The more restrictive range is specified for international matches like the ones used in the FIFA World Cup . Jump up ^ Fox Sports ( September 10 , 2014 ) . `` USWNT stars not backing down on artificial playing surface stance '' . FOX Sports . Retrieved October 9 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Andrews , Phil ( December 31 , 2005 ) . `` Philadelphia 's Field of Dreams : MLS ' Newest Home '' . Bleacher Report . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` M.L.S. Continues to Bolster Growing Brand With New Stadium in Houston '' . The New York Times . Associated Press . May 12 , 2012 . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Schrotenboer , Brent ( January 12 , 2017 ) . `` Chargers plan to play in smallest ' NFL stadium ' for next two seasons '' . USA Today . Retrieved February 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Arace , Michael ( September 10 , 2013 ) . `` Michael Arace commentary : Aging Crew Stadium still has a big advantage '' . The Columbus Dispatch . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Granillo , Larry ( September 14 , 2009 ) . `` Football , Baseball , and the Era of the `` Superstadium '' `` . Wezen - Ball . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` BMO Field '' . The Stadium Guide . Retrieved August 1 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Weber , Mark ( May 14 , 2012 ) . `` Fenway Park and the Waterfront Stadium '' . The Vancouver Province . Retrieved February 27 , 2013 . Current stadiums of Major League Soccer Current Primary Audi Field Avaya Stadium Banc of California Stadium BBVA Compass Stadium BC Place BMO Field CenturyLink Field Children 's Mercy Park Dick 's Sporting Goods Park Gillette Stadium Mapfre Stadium Mercedes - Benz Stadium Orlando City Stadium Providence Park Red Bull Arena Rio Tinto Stadium Saputo Stadium StubHub Center Talen Energy Stadium TCF Bank Stadium Toyota Park Toyota Stadium Yankee Stadium Secondary Levi 's Stadium Olympic Stadium Stanford Stadium Future Allianz Field FC Cincinnati stadium Miami MLS stadium Nashville Fairgrounds Stadium Nippert Stadium North American Soccer League stadiums Current Hodges Stadium Juan Ramón Loubriel Stadium MCU Park Riccardo Silva Stadium Future Titan Stadium Proposed New York Cosmos Stadium Previous Al Lang Stadium Atlanta Silverbacks Park Carroll Stadium Central Broward Stadium Clarke Stadium Community First Park Foote Field George M. Steinbrenner Field Heroes Stadium Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome James M. Shuart Stadium Keith Harris Stadium Kezar Stadium Lockhart Stadium Miller Stadium National Sports Center Saputo Stadium Shell Place ( two regular season games ) TD Place Stadium Toyota Field WakeMed Soccer Park Current United Soccer League venues Eastern Conference Al Lang Stadium City Stadium Coolray Field First Tennessee Park FNB Field Goodman Stadium Highmark Stadium Lamport Stadium Louisville Slugger Field Lucas Oil Stadium MSU Soccer Park at Pittser Field MUSC Health Stadium Nippert Stadium Sportsplex at Matthews TD Place Stadium WakeMed Soccer Park Western Conference Cashman Field Champions Stadium Cheney Stadium Children 's Mercy Park Chukchansi Park Greater Nevada Field H-E-B Park ONEOK Field Papa Murphy 's Park Phoenix Rising FC Soccer Complex Providence Park StubHub Center Track and Field Stadium Taft Stadium Toyota Field Toyota Stadium Weidner Field Zions Bank Stadium Future AutoZone Park BBVA Compass Field Circuit of the Americas Dillon Stadium East Bay Stadium Isotopes Park Lincoln Yards Stadium Loudoun United Stadium Southwest University Park National Women 's Soccer League stadiums Current BBVA Compass Stadium Maryland SoccerPlex Memorial Stadium Orlando City Stadium Providence Park Rio Tinto Stadium Toyota Park WakeMed Soccer Park Yurcak Field Former Camping World Stadium Dilboy Stadium Durwood Soccer Stadium Harvard Stadium Rochester Rhinos Stadium Shawnee Mission District Stadium Sports Complex at Benedictine University Starfire Sports Swope Soccer Village Jordan Field Soccer in the United States U.S. Soccer Federation USASA USCS State Soccer Associations League system History Hall of Fame Awards Clubs International competition Champions Venues ( stadiums by capacity SSS ) Women 's soccer in the United States Men 's national teams Senior ( results players ) U23 U20 U18 U17 U15 Futsal Beach soccer Paralympic Cerebral palsy Women 's national teams Senior U23 U20 U18 U17 Men 's outdoor leagues Professional MLS Playoffs MLS Cup USL USL Cup NASL Soccer Bowl Proposed : NISA USL Division III Amateur / Semi-pro NPSL PDL APSL CSL EPLWA GCPL SFSFL SoCal UPSL USLPA Women 's outdoor leagues Professional NWSL NWSL Shield Playoffs Amateur / Semi-pro WPSL UWS Men 's indoor leagues MASL M2 PASL WISL Men 's futsal leagues PFL MLF Men 's Cup competitions U.S. Open Cup National Amateur Cup Hank Steinbrecher Cup Women 's Cup competitions SheBelieves Cup Tournament of Nations Women 's Open Men 's college soccer NCAA Championships ( Division I , Division II , Division III ) U.S. Soccer Spring Men 's College Program NAIA Championship Women 's college soccer NCAA Championships ( Division I , Division II , Division III ) NAIA Championship Youth soccer Leagues : AYSO NFHS USYSA U.S. Development Academy Super Y - 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-2468594188797716011 | Molly's Game | Molly 's Game - wikipedia Molly 's Game Jump to : navigation , search For the book on which the film is based , see Molly 's Game : The True Story of the 26 - Year - Old Woman Behind the Most Exclusive , High - Stakes Underground Poker Game in the World . Molly 's Game Theatrical release poster Directed by Aaron Sorkin Produced by Mark Gordon Amy Pascal Steven Segal Matt Jackson Screenplay by Aaron Sorkin Based on Molly 's Game : The True Story of the 26 - Year - Old Woman Behind the Most Exclusive , High - Stakes Underground Poker Game in the World by Molly Bloom Starring Jessica Chastain Idris Elba Kevin Costner Michael Cera Jeremy Strong Chris O'Dowd Bill Camp Music by Daniel Pemberton Cinematography Charlotte Bruus Christensen Edited by Alan Baumgarten Elliot Graham Josh Schaeffer Production company The Mark Gordon Company Pascal Pictures Ciwen Pictures Huayi Brothers Pictures Distributed by STXfilms Release date September 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 08 ) ( TIFF ) December 25 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 25 ) ( United States ) Running time 140 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $30 million Box office $53.4 million Molly 's Game is a 2017 American crime drama film written and directed by Aaron Sorkin ( in his directorial debut ) , based on the memoir Molly 's Game : The True Story of the 26 - Year - Old Woman Behind the Most Exclusive , High - Stakes Underground Poker Game in the World by Molly Bloom . It stars Jessica Chastain , Idris Elba , Kevin Costner , Michael Cera , Brian d'Arcy James , Chris O'Dowd , Bill Camp , Graham Greene , Claire Rankin , Joe Keery , and Jeremy Strong . The film follows Bloom ( Chastain ) , who becomes the target of an FBI investigation of the underground poker empire she runs for Hollywood celebrities , athletes , business tycoons , and the Russian mob . Principal photography began in November 2016 in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The film premiered on September 8 , 2017 , at the Toronto International Film Festival , and began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 25 , 2017 , by STXfilms , before expanding wide on January 5 , 2018 . Molly 's Game received positive reviews , with particular praise for Sorkin 's screenplay , as well as Chastain and Elba 's performances , with Chastain 's being called one of the best of her career by some critics . The film earned Chastain a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress -- Drama while Sorkin earned nominations for his screenplay at the Academy Awards , Golden Globes , Writers Guild of America Awards and BAFTA Awards . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Development 3.2 Casting 3.3 Filming 4 Release 5 Reception 5.1 Box office 5.2 Critical response 5.3 Accolades 6 References 7 External links Plot ( edit ) Molly Bloom is world - class mogul skier with Olympic aspirations , the result of years of enforced training from her overbearing father . In a qualifying event for the 2002 Winter Olympics , Molly is severely injured , ending her career . Instead of following her original plan of attending law school , Molly decides to take a year off and move to Los Angeles . Once she arrives , she becomes a bottle - service waitress at a club , where she meets Dean , an ostentatious but unsuccessful real estate developer . She becomes his office manager , and he soon involves her in running his underground poker games . Many famous and wealthy individuals , such as movie stars , investment bankers , and sports players are involved in Dean 's game . Molly earns large sums of money on tips alone . Molly is initially uninformed on poker topics , but quickly learns how to appeal to the players to gain tips . In particular , she hopes to please the most successful player , Player X , by attracting new players to the game . Dean , upon seeing that Molly is becoming increasingly independent in running the games , attempts to control her , and then fires her . Molly , having gained the contacts through years of running the game , decides to create her own poker games . She rents a penthouse at a hotel , and hires a staff to help her run games . Additionally , she contacts employees at clubs and casinos to try and spread word about her poker games . Player X , along with many other players , decide to leave Dean 's games to play for Molly . Molly becomes increasingly successful , gaining more money while being pressured by Player X to raise the stakes for her games . Harlan Eustice , a skilled , conservative and successful player , joins Molly 's table . One night , after accidentally losing a hand to the notorious worst player in Molly 's circle , Harlan becomes increasingly compulsive , suffering heavy losses ; later , Molly finds out that Player X , who enjoys ruining people 's lives more than the game itself , has been funding Harlan to keep him in the game . After Molly berates him for his unethical actions , Player X decides to change venue for his games , and the other players join him , leaving Molly . Molly moves to New York , with the hope of beginning a new underground poker game . After reaching out to many wealthy New Yorkers , Molly finds enough players for several weekly games . Despite continuous success , she is unable to cover her losses when players can not pay . Her dealer convinces her to begin taking a percentage of large pots , allowing her to recuperate her potential losses . One of her Los Angeles players is indicted for running a Ponzi scheme ; Molly is investigated and questioned as to who attended her games . At this time , Molly becomes increasingly addicted to drugs as the games have increasingly taken their toll . Her players also begin to include wealthy individuals from the Russian mafia , among others . She is approached by several Italian mafia members , who offer their services to extort money from non-paying players . After she declines , she is attacked in her home , where she is held at gunpoint and her mother 's life is threatened . As she is about to return to her poker games , the FBI conducts a raid , a result of Douglas Downey , one of her players , acting as an informant . Molly 's assets are seized , and she returns home to live with her mother . Two years later , Molly has published a book where she names few individuals that played in her games , and has recently moved out . She is arrested by the FBI , and indicted for involvement in illegal gambling with the mafia . She enlists the help of Charlie Jaffey , a high - profile and expensive lawyer in New York , who agrees to help after he learns that Molly has been protecting innocent people who were affected by her poker games . While in New York awaiting trial , Molly 's father , Larry , seeks her out , and attempts to reconcile with her . He admits that he was overbearing , and that he treated Molly differently than her brothers because she had known about his affairs . Charlie reads Molly 's book , and becomes interested in helping her case , as he feels she has not committed serious enough wrongdoing to merit a prison term . Charlie negotiates a deal for Molly to receive no sentence and her money returned in exchange for her hard drives and digital records from gambling . Molly declines this deal , fearing for the information about her players that would be released , and pleads guilty . The judge , arguing that she had committed no serious crimes , sentences her to community service , probation , and a $200,000 fine . Cast ( edit ) Jessica Chastain as Molly Bloom Samantha Isler as teenage Molly Piper Howell as 7 - year - old Molly Idris Elba as Charlie Jaffey , Molly 's lawyer . Kevin Costner as Larry Bloom , Molly 's father and a clinical psychologist . Michael Cera as Player X , a composite of several Hollywood celebrity gamblers from Molly 's ring , most notably Tobey Maguire . Brian d'Arcy James as Brad , a hedge fund manager . Chris O'Dowd as Douglas Downey , the man who introduces Molly to the Russian mob and brings them to the table . J.C. MacKenzie as Harrison Wellstone Bill Camp as Harlan Eustice , a card sharp who gets in over his head . Graham Greene as Judge Foxman Jeremy Strong as Dean Keith , the real estate developer who brings Molly into the world of underground poker . Matthew D. Matteo as Bobby Joe Keery as Cole Natalie Krill as Winston Claire Rankin as Charlene Bloom , Molly 's mother and Larry 's wife . Madison McKinley as Shelby Angela Gots as B Khalid Klein as Neal Victor Serfaty as Diego Jon Bass as Shelly Habib Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) Screenwriter Aaron Sorkin , who made his directorial debut on the film On November 12 , 2014 , Mark Gordon 's The Mark Gordon Company bought the feature film adaptation rights to Molly Bloom 's memoir , Molly 's Game , which Gordon produced . Aaron Sorkin was hired to adapt the memoir into a screenplay . Bloom had already approached Sorkin , as he was her `` favorite writer '' . On January 7 , 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would make his directorial debut on the film , for Sony Pictures Entertainment , while Amy Pascal also produced . On February 18 , 2016 , Sony exited the project , and on May 13 , 2016 , STX Entertainment came on board , and subsequently bought the film 's US and Chinese distribution rights for $9 million . Casting ( edit ) On February 18 , 2016 , Sorkin offered Jessica Chastain the lead role in the film , but the negotiations between them had then not yet begun . On May 6 , 2016 , Idris Elba joined the film to star alongside Chastain . Sorkin stated that `` the casting of Jessica and Idris in the two lead roles is any filmmaker 's dream come true , they 're two of the greatest actors of their generation , paired for the first time , and their chemistry will be electric . '' On September 7 , 2016 , Michael Cera joined the cast as Player X , a celebrity poker player . On October 17 , 2016 , Kevin Costner joined as Molly Bloom 's father , and on October 21 , 2016 , Brian d'Arcy James was added . On November 9 , 2016 , Chris O'Dowd , Jeremy Strong , Bill Camp , and Graham Greene joined the cast as well . Molly Bloom herself discussed Chastain 's portrayal of her character with ET Canada stating , `` We spent a little time together . She did n't have much time for prep or research , '' Bloom tells ET Canada 's Matte Babel . `` I was blown away by her performance by how right it was and how deep and understood I felt by her performance . '' Filming ( edit ) Principal photography began on November 9 , 2016 , in Toronto . Production concluded on February 9 , 2017 . Release ( edit ) Molly 's Game premiered on September 8 , 2017 , at the Toronto International Film Festival . It was also the closing film at AFI Fest on November 16 , 2017 , replacing All the Money in the World . It began a limited release in North America on December 25 , 2017 , before expanding wide on January 5 , 2018 . The film was previously slated to be released on November 22 , 2017 , before being moved to the Christmas date in October 2017 . Reception ( edit ) Box Office ( edit ) Molly 's Game grossed $28.8 million in the United States and Canada , and $24.6 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $53.4 million . On Christmas Day , the film debuted with $1.04 million from 271 theaters . In its first full weekend , the film grossed $2.3 million , finishing 13th at the box office . The film expanded wide on January 5 , 2018 , alongside the opening of Insidious : The Last Key , and was projected to gross around $6 million from 1,608 theaters in its opening weekend . It ended up debuting to $6.9 million , finishing 7th at the box office . The following weekend it dropped 44 % to $3.9 million , finishing 11th . In its third week of wide release the film grossed $1.7 million , finishing 19th . The film also grossed a total of $4.5 million in France and $5.3 million in the United Kingdom . Critical response ( edit ) On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 82 % based on 241 reviews , with an average rating of 7.2 / 10 . The website 's critical consensus reads , `` Powered by an intriguing story and a pair of outstanding performances from Jessica Chastain and Idris Elba , Molly 's Game marks a solid debut for writer - director Aaron Sorkin . '' On Metacritic , the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100 , based on 46 critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of `` A -- '' on an A+ to F scale . Peter Debruge of Variety praised Sorkin 's script , saying , `` ... Molly 's Game delivers one of the screen 's great female parts -- a dense , dynamic , compulsively entertaining affair , whose central role makes stunning use of Chastain 's stratospheric talent . '' Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film 9 / 10 , writing , `` Molly 's Game is a perfect story for Sorkin . There 's poker , the Russian mafia , the Italian mafia , celebrities , and sports . The only thing missing for Sorkin 's wheelhouse is President Bartlet . And at over two hours long , the film still feels tight and never fails to entertain . '' Writing for Rolling Stone , Peter Travers gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , saying , `` Molly 's Game bristles with fun zingers , electric energy and Sorkin 's brand of verbal fireworks -- all of which help enormously when the movie falters in fleshing out its characters . Still , in his first film with a female protagonist , the writer - director has hit on a timely theme : the tribulations of being a woman in a man 's world . '' Chastain 's portrayal of Molly Bloom was praised by The Hollywood Reporter , for `` Chastain roars through the performance with a force and take - no - prisoners attitude that keeps one rapt . '' The Hollywood Reporter also stated : `` Sorkin keeps things rolling relentlessly and gets fine results from the actors down the line ( ... ) . ( ... ) The film looks sharp and a trio of editors keeps thing pacey despite the 140 - minute running time . '' It concluded : `` One strong woman and many rich men make for a good show . '' Accolades ( edit ) Award Date of ceremony Recipient ( s ) and nominee ( s ) Result Ref . AARP 's Movies for Grownups Awards February 5 , 2018 Best Screenwriter Aaron Sorkin Won Academy Awards March 4 , 2018 Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Alliance of Women Film Journalists January 9 , 2018 Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated American Cinema Editors January 26 , 2018 Best Edited Feature Film -- Dramatic Alan Baumgarten , Elliot Graham and Josh Schaeffer Nominated British Academy Film Awards February 18 , 2018 Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Critics ' Choice Movie Awards January 11 , 2018 Best Actress Jessica Chastain Nominated Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Denver International Film Festival November 13 , 2017 Career Achievement Award Aaron Sorkin Won Detroit Film Critics Society December 7 , 2017 Best Actress Jessica Chastain Nominated Florida Film Critics Circle December 23 , 2017 Best Screenplay -- Adapted Aaron Sorkin Nominated Georgia Film Critics Association January 12 , 2018 Best Actress Jessica Chastain Nominated Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Golden Globe Awards January 7 , 2018 Best Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama Jessica Chastain Nominated Best Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Mill Valley Film Festival October 17 , 2017 Audience Favorite U.S. Cinema -- Gold Award Molly 's Game Won Palm Springs International Film Festival January 2 , 2018 Chairman 's Award Jessica Chastain Won Producers Guild of America Awards January 20 , 2018 Best Theatrical Motion Picture Mark Gordon , Amy Pascal and Matt Jackson Nominated San Francisco Film Critics Circle December 10 , 2017 Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Satellite Awards February 10 , 2018 Best Actress Jessica Chastain Nominated Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated USC Scripter Awards February 10 , 2018 Best Screenplay Aaron Sorkin and Molly Bloom Nominated Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association December 8 , 2017 Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Writers Guild of America Awards February 11 , 2018 Best Adapted Screenplay Aaron Sorkin Nominated Zurich Film Festival October 4 , 2017 Career Achievement Award Aaron Sorkin Won References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Molly 's Game '' . TIFF . Retrieved August 15 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : D'Alessandro , Anthony ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` ' Insidious : The Last Key ' To Scare Up Biz In Strong Holiday Holdover Period -- Box Office Preview '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved January 3 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Molly 's Game ( 2017 ) '' . The Numbers . Retrieved March 6 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Insidious : The Last Key Unlocks Few Scares '' . Rotten Tomatoes . January 4 , 2018 . Retrieved January 5 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Rubin , Rebecca ( December 11 , 2017 ) . `` Golden Globe Nominations : Complete List '' . Variety . Retrieved December 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Shape of Water leads Bafta nominations '' . BBC News . January 9 , 2018 . Retrieved January 9 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : McNary , Dave ( January 4 , 2018 ) . `` Writers Guild Awards : ' Get Out , ' ' Call Me by Your Name , ' ' Lady Bird ' Nab Nominations '' . Variety . Retrieved January 4 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Lewi , Hilary ( December 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' Molly 's Game ' Team Talks Making Timely Tale of Female Empowerment '' . Retrieved December 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Magaziner Steinfield , Jordan ( May 25 , 2017 ) . `` Jon Bass : From Bellaire to ' Baywatch ' '' . TheBuzzMagazines.com . Retrieved August 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Fleming Jr , Mike ( November 12 , 2014 ) . `` Mark Gordon & Aaron Sorkin Team On Molly Bloom High - Stakes Poker Memoir '' . Deadline . Retrieved January 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` ' Poker princess ' Molly Bloom on her stranger - than - fiction life '' . BBC . December 10 , 2017 . Retrieved January 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Ransome , Noel ( December 27 , 2017 ) . `` The true story behind `` Molly 's Game '' is wild `` . Vice . Retrieved January 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Kit , Borys ( January 7 , 2016 ) . `` Aaron Sorkin to Make Directorial Debut With Underground Poker Drama ' Molly 's Game ' '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 8 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ( May 6 , 2016 ) . `` Sony Drops Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game , ' Film to Be Shopped at Cannes '' . TheWrap . Retrieved May 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Donnelly , Matt ( May 13 , 2016 ) . `` STX Circles Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' Rights for $9 Million '' . TheWrap . Retrieved May 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ( February 18 , 2016 ) . `` Jessica Chastain Offered Lead in Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' '' . TheWrap . Retrieved May 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( May 6 , 2016 ) . `` Idris Elba in Talks to Join Jessica Chastain in Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved May 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Robinson , Will ( September 7 , 2016 ) . `` Michael Cera in talks for Aaron Sorkin 's poker biopic Molly 's Game '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved November 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Kroll , Justin ( October 17 , 2016 ) . `` Kevin Costner Eyes Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' With Jessica Chastain , Idris Elba '' . Variety . Retrieved November 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ N'Duka , Amanda ( October 21 , 2016 ) . `` ' Molly 's Game ' Adds Brian d'Arcy James ; Andrew J. West Cast In ' Antiquities ' '' . Deadline . Retrieved November 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Sneider , Jeff ( November 9 , 2016 ) . `` Chris O'Dowd joins Jessica Chastain and Idris Elba in Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' '' . Mashable . Jump up ^ West , Rachel ( January 16 , 2018 ) . `` Molly Bloom Talks Jessica Chastain 's Performance In ' Molly 's Game ' , Incident With Tobey Maguire '' . Jump up ^ `` PRINCIPAL PHOTOGRAPHY BEGINS ON AARON SORKIN 'S MOLLY 'S GAME STARRING JESSICA CHASTAIN AND IDRIS ELBA '' . Entertainment One . November 9 , 2016 . Archived from the original on November 27 , 2016 . Retrieved November 9 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Molly 's Game '' ( PDF ) . Directors Guild of America . Retrieved January 20 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Evans , Greg ( November 12 , 2017 ) . `` Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' Replaces Kevin Spacey Film At AFI Fest '' . Retrieved November 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( October 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' Molly 's Game ' To Open Christmas Day Instead Of Thanksgiving Stretch '' . Deadline . Retrieved October 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Knapp , JD ( July 1 , 2017 ) . `` STX Sets Dates for ' Molly 's Game , ' ' Happytime Murders ' With Melissa McCarthy '' . Variety . Retrieved July 2 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Anthony D'Alessandro ( December 26 , 2017 ) . `` ' Last Jedi ' Now At $99 M , ' Jumanji ' Huge At $72 M+ ; ' All The Money In The World ' Opens To $2.6 M -- Christmas Weekend '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved December 26 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Anthony D'Alessandro ( December 31 , 2017 ) . `` ' Last Jedi ' & ' Jumanji ' Duel For No. 1 Over New Year 's Weekend As 2017 Box Office Closes With $11.1 B -- Sunday Update '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved December 31 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Anthony D'Alessandro ( January 7 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jumanji ' Goes Wild With $36 M ; ' Insidious ' Rises To $29 M+ -- Sunday AM B.O. Update '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved January 7 , 2018 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( January 14 , 2018 ) . `` ' Jumanji ' Roars To $34 M ; ' The Post ' Still The Most With $22 M+ ; ' The Commuter ' Punches $16 M : MLK Weekend Box Office Update '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved January 15 , 2018 . Jump up ^ D'Alessandro , Anthony ( January 21 , 2018 ) . `` January Slows As ' Jumanji ' Takes No. 1 For 3rd Weekend With $19 M To $20 M ; Older Guy Pics ' 12 Strong ' & ' Den Of Thieves ' In Mid-Teens '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved January 21 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Molly 's Game - International Box Office '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved March 14 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Molly 's Game ( 2017 ) '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Fandango Media . Retrieved March 13 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Molly 's Game Reviews '' . Metacritic . CBS Interactive . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Debruge , Peter ( September 8 , 2017 ) . `` Toronto Film Review : ' Molly 's Game ' '' . Variety . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ryan , Mike ( September 8 , 2017 ) . `` TIFF Review : Jessica Chastain Absolutely Owns Aaron Sorkin 's ' Molly 's Game ' '' . Uproxx . Retrieved September 9 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Travers , Peter ( December 23 , 2017 ) . `` ' Molly 's Game ' Review : Jessica Chastain Turns Poker Biopic Into Royal Flush '' . Rolling Stone . Retrieved December 25 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` ' Molly 's Game ' : Film Review TIFF 2017 '' . The Hollywood Reporter . September 8 , 2017 . Archived from the original on March 10 , 2018 . Retrieved December 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lee , Ashley ( January 17 , 2018 ) . `` AARP 's Movies for Grownups Awards : ' The Post ' Leads Nominees '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 17 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Complete List of Winners at the 2018 Movies for Grownups Awards '' . AARP . Jump up ^ `` Oscars : ' Shape of Water ' Leads With 13 Noms '' . The Hollywood Reporter . January 23 , 2018 . Retrieved January 23 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 AWFJ EDA Award Nominees '' . Alliance of Women Film Journalists . January 3 , 2018 . Archived from the original on January 3 , 2018 . Retrieved January 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Giardina , Carolyn ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` ' Dunkirk , ' ' Shape of Water , ' ' Baby Driver ' Among ACE Eddie Awards Nominees '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 3 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Ritman , Alex ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` BAFTA Awards : ' Shape of Water , ' ' Three Billboards , ' ' Darkest Hour ' Lead Pack of Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2018 Critics ' Choice Awards : ' The Shape of Water ' Leads With 14 Nominations '' . The Hollywood Reporter . December 6 , 2017 . Retrieved December 6 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` DFF40 : 40th Denver Film Festival Announces Award Winners '' . Awards Circuit . November 13 , 2017 . Retrieved November 14 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Detroit Film Critics Society announce 2017 film nominations '' . Film Obsession . December 4 , 2017 . Retrieved December 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ' The Shape of Water ' Leads 2017 Florida Film Critics Awards Nominations '' . Florida Film Critics Circle . Retrieved December 21 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 FFCC Winners '' . Florida Film Critics Circle . Retrieved December 23 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 Awards '' . Georgia Film Critics Association . January 8 , 2018 . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Mill Valley Film Festival Names Mudbound and Molly 's Game among its Audience Favorites '' . awardsdaily . October 17 , 2017 . Retrieved October 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jessica Chastain Honored by Palm Springs Film Festival for ' Molly 's Game ' '' . Variety . December 5 , 2017 . Retrieved December 5 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pedersen , Erik ( January 5 , 2018 ) . `` PGA Awards Film & TV Nominations Unveiled '' . Deadline.com . Retrieved January 5 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 SAN FRANCISCO FILM CRITICS CIRCLE AWARDS '' . San Francisco Film Critics Circle . December 10 , 2017 . Retrieved December 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Pond , Steve ( November 29 , 2017 ) . `` ' Dunkirk , ' ' The Shape of Water ' Lead Satellite Award Nominations '' . The Wrap . Retrieved November 28 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Lewis , Hilary ( January 16 , 2018 ) . `` ' Disaster Artist , ' ' Logan , ' ' Wonder Woman ' Among USC Scripter Award Finalists '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The 2017 WAFCA Awards '' . Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association . December 8 , 2017 . Retrieved December 16 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` AARON SORKIN TO RECEIVE ZFF CAREER ACHIEVEMENT AWARD / MOLLY 'S GAME AS GALA PREMIERE '' . Zurich Film Festival . September 8 , 2017 . Retrieved October 22 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Official website Molly 's Game on IMDb Molly 's Game at Box Office Mojo ( hide ) Works by Aaron Sorkin Television series Sports Night ( 1998 -- 2000 ) The West Wing ( 1999 -- 2006 ) Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ( 2006 -- 07 ) The Newsroom ( 2012 -- 14 ) Feature films A Few Good Men ( 1992 ) Malice ( 1993 ) The American President ( 1995 ) Charlie Wilson 's War ( 2007 ) The Social Network ( 2010 ) Moneyball ( 2011 ) Steve Jobs ( 2015 ) Molly 's Game ( 2017 ) Stage plays Hidden in This Picture ( 1988 ) A Few Good Men ( 1989 ) The Farnsworth Invention ( 2007 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molly%27s_Game&oldid=837034040 '' Categories : 2017 films English - language films American films American crime drama films Directorial debut films Films based on biographies Films shot in Toronto Entertainment One films Nonlinear narrative films STX Entertainment films Screenplays by Aaron Sorkin 2010s crime drama films Films set in Los Angeles Films set in New York City Gambling films Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from January 2018 Pages using div col with deprecated parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Português Русский Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 9 more Edit links This page was last edited on 18 April 2018 , at 09 : 23 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who are the characters in molly's game based on | [
"Molly's Game is a 2017 American crime drama film written and directed by Aaron Sorkin (in his directorial debut), based on the memoir Molly's Game: The True Story of the 26-Year-Old Woman Behind the Most Exclusive, High-Stakes Underground Poker Game in the World by Molly Bloom. It stars Jessica Chastain, Idris Elba, Kevin Costner, Michael Cera, Brian d'Arcy James, Chris O'Dowd, Bill Camp, Graham Greene, Claire Rankin, Joe Keery, and Jeremy Strong. The film follows Bloom (Chastain), who becomes the target of an FBI investigation of the underground poker empire she runs for Hollywood celebrities, athletes, business tycoons, and the Russian mob."
] | [
"the memoir Molly's Game: The True Story of the 26-Year-Old Woman Behind the Most Exclusive, High-Stakes Underground Poker Game in the World by Molly Bloom"
] |
-7709606904667757989 | Mackenzie Foy | Mackenzie Foy - wikipedia Mackenzie Foy Mackenzie Foy Foy at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival . Mackenzie Christine Foy ( 2000 - 11 - 10 ) November 10 , 2000 ( age 17 ) Los Angeles , California , U.S. Occupation Model actress Years active 2009 -- present Mackenzie Christine Foy ( born November 10 , 2000 ) is an American model and actress . She is known for appearing as Renesmee Cullen in the 2012 film The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 , which earned her a Young Artist Award nomination as Best Supporting Young Actress in a Feature Film , and for her role as the young Murphy in the 2014 space epic Interstellar , for which she received critical acclaim , a Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor , and several other awards nominations . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 2 Career 3 Filmography 3.1 Film 3.2 Television 4 Awards and nominations 5 References 6 External links Early Life ( edit ) Mackenzie Foy was born on November 10 , 2000 . She was born and raised in Los Angeles . Foy began modeling at age 3 , and started acting at age 9 . Career ( edit ) Mackenzie Foy at the 2012 San Diego Comic Con International Foy began modeling in print ads in 2004 , working for Garnet Hill , Polo Ralph Lauren and Guess . From there , she modeled for companies such as The Walt Disney Company , Mattel and Gap . Foy 's acting career began when she was nine years old , when she guest - starred in television shows such as ' Til Death , FlashForward and Hawaii Five - 0 . In 2010 , she was cast as Renesmee Cullen in the film adaptation of Stephenie Meyer 's book Breaking Dawn , the fourth and final novel in the Twilight saga series . The first movie , The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 , in which Renesmee is shown only in a flash forward , was released on November 18 , 2011 , while the second , The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 , on November 16 , 2012 . In February 2012 , she joined the cast of James Wan 's horror film The Conjuring . Shooting started on February 21 in North Carolina , and the film was released in July 2013 . In February , she was also in the last episode of the second season of the horror TV series R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour , in which she played Natalie , a girl who goes to live with her grandfather and discovers that one of the dolls is alive and has bad intentions . On October 10 , 2012 , Foy joined Wish You Well , the film adaptation of David Baldacci 's book , where she played the lead . On November 17 , 2012 , Foy was in another episode of R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour , playing Georgia Lomin . In 2014 , Foy appeared in Erica Dunton 's movie Black Eyed Dog . Foy in 2014 Foy co-starred in Christopher Nolan 's Interstellar , about a team of explorers who travel through a wormhole in an attempt to ensure humanity 's survival . Her character as an adult woman was portrayed by Oscar nominee Jessica Chastain . Her character as an elderly woman was portrayed by Ellen Burstyn , who had played her grandmother the previous year in Wish You Well . She provided the voice of Celestine in the English dub of Ernest & Celestine ( 2012 ) , Violet in The Boxcar Children ( 2014 ) and The Little Girl in The Little Prince ( 2015 ) . In July , it was announced that Foy would play Clara in the 2018 film The Nutcracker and the Four Realms with Morgan Freeman and Misty Copeland . Filmography ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 2011 The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 Renesmee Cullen 2012 The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 Renesmee Cullen 2013 The Conjuring Cindy Perron 2013 Wish You Well Lou Cardinal 2014 Ernest & Celestine Celestine Voice role ( English dub ) 2014 The Boxcar Children Violet Voice role 2014 Black Eyed Dog Daisy 2014 Interstellar Young Murphy `` Murph '' Cooper 2015 The Little Prince The Little Girl Voice role 2018 The Nutcracker and the Four Realms Clara Post-production Television ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 2009 ' Til Death Little Girl Episode : `` No Complaints '' FlashForward Kate Erskine Episode : `` Blowback '' Hawaii Five - 0 Lily Wilson Episode : `` Ho'apono '' 2012 R.L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour : The Series Natalie / Georgia Lomin Episodes : `` The Return of Lilly D '' , `` Red Eye '' 2014 The Cookie Mobster Sally Television film 2015 Jesse Stone : Lost in Paradise Jenny Television film Awards and nominations ( edit ) Year Association Work Result Refs 2013 Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Screen Couple ( shared with Taylor Lautner ) The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 Won 2013 Golden Raspberry Award Worst Screen Ensemble ( shared with cast ) The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 Won 2013 Young Artist Award Best Performance in a Feature Film -- Supporting Young Actress The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 Nominated 2014 Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Best Youth Performance Interstellar Nominated 2014 St. Louis Film Critics Association Best Supporting Actress Interstellar Nominated 2014 Critics ' Choice Movie Awards Best Young Performer Interstellar Nominated 2015 Saturn Award Best Performance by a Younger Actor Interstellar Won 2015 Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie Actress -- Sci - Fi / Fantasy Interstellar Nominated References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Breaking Dawn Filming News : Mackenzie Foy To Appear In Breaking Dawn Part 1 and 2 ? '' . November 22 , 2011 . Archived from the original on January 3 , 2012 . Retrieved December 3 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : `` 34th Annual Young Artist Awards '' . YoungArtistAwards.org . Archived from the original on April 2 , 2013 . Retrieved March 31 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Meet Renesmee ! Mackenzie Foy of ' Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 ' '' . June 15 , 2012 . Retrieved August 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mackenzie Foy stands out in ' Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 ' '' . usatoday.com . Retrieved August 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Mackenzie Foy , ' Twilight ' Star , On Shootfhhfzing ' Breaking Dawn ' And Her Favorite Scene '' . July 13 , 2012 . Archived from the original on August 26 , 2012 . Retrieved August 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` ' Twilight ' Star Renesmee Revealed : 5 Things to Know About Mackenzie Foy '' . June 13 , 2012 . Retrieved August 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Meet Robert Pattinson and Kristen Stewart 's baby ( in Twilight ) '' . January 27 , 2011 . Archived from the original on February 9 , 2011 . Retrieved November 12 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Mackenzie Foy On For The Warren Files '' . Empire Online . February 6 , 2012 . Retrieved February 8 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Horror pic taps ' Twilight , ' ' Dark Knight ' kids '' . February 6 , 2012 . Retrieved October 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` '' Twilight '' star Mackenzie Foy battles an evil doll in `` The Haunting Hour '' `` . February 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mackenzie Foy of ' Breaking Dawn ' Joins Adaptation of ' Wish You Well ' '' . October 10 , 2012 . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2012 . Retrieved October 11 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Mackenzie Foy is Guest Starring in a Brand New ' Haunting Hour ' '' . November 12 , 2012 . Archived from the original on September 28 , 2013 . Retrieved November 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Disney 's Nutcracker Movie Finds Its Lead Actress , Adds A Legend - CINEMABLEND '' . 29 July 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` The 33rd Annual RAZZIE ® Awards '' . Razzies.com . Retrieved April 1 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Actress , Hoover native Savannah Lathem wins Young Artist Award for ' California Solo ' movie '' . Al.com . May 5 , 2013 . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` D.C. Wants to Have a Talk About the Birds and the Boys '' ( PDF ) . The Washington DC Area Film Critics Association . 8 December 2014 . Retrieved August 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Siede , Caroline ( December 15 , 2014 ) . `` The Critics ' Choice Awards enjoyed Birdman and Boyhood as well '' . The A.V. Club . Jump up ^ `` ' Interstellar ' sweeps Saturn Awards 2015 '' . Business Standard . June 27 , 2015 . Retrieved June 27 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Longeretta , Emily ( June 9 , 2015 ) . `` Teen Choice Awards Pit One Direction Against Zayn Malik '' . Hollywood Life . Retrieved June 14 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mackenzie Foy . Mackenzie Foy on IMDb hide Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor Noah Hathaway ( 1984 ) Barret Oliver ( 1985 ) Carrie Henn ( 1986 ) Kirk Cameron ( 1987 ) Fred Savage ( 1988 ) Adan Jodorowsky ( 1989 / 90 ) Edward Furlong ( 1991 ) Scott Weinger ( 1992 ) Elijah Wood ( 1993 ) Kirsten Dunst ( 1994 ) Christina Ricci ( 1995 ) Lucas Black ( 1996 ) Jena Malone ( 1997 ) Tobey Maguire ( 1998 ) Haley Joel Osment ( 1999 ) Devon Sawa ( 2000 ) Haley Joel Osment ( 2001 ) Tyler Hoechlin ( 2002 ) Jeremy Sumpter ( 2003 ) Emmy Rossum ( 2004 ) Dakota Fanning ( 2005 ) Ivana Baquero ( 2006 ) Freddie Highmore ( 2007 ) Jaden Smith ( 2008 ) Saoirse Ronan ( 2009 ) Chloë Grace Moretz ( 2010 ) Joel Courtney ( 2011 ) Suraj Sharma ( 2012 ) Chloë Grace Moretz ( 2013 ) Mackenzie Foy ( 2014 ) Ty Simpkins ( 2015 ) Tom Holland ( 2016 ) LCCN : no2014114273 VIAF : 310665658 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mackenzie_Foy&oldid=844736944 '' Categories : 2000 births 21st - century American actresses American child actresses American child models American film actresses Actresses from Los Angeles American television actresses American voice actresses Living people Hidden categories : Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 25 more Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2018 , at 20 : 20 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who plays the little girl in the conjuring | [] | [] |
-8757861839296241958 | P. V. Sindhu | PV Sindhu - Wikipedia PV Sindhu Jump to : navigation , search P.V. Sindhu Sindhu in 2016 Birth name Pusarla Venkata Sindhu Country India ( 1995 - 07 - 05 ) 5 July 1995 ( age 22 ) Hyderabad , Andhra Pradesh , India Residence Hyderabad , Telangana , India Height 1.79 m ( 5 ft 10 in ) Weight 65 kg ( 143 lb ) Years active 2009 -- present Handedness Right Coach Pullela Gopichand Mulyo Handoyo Women 's Singles Highest ranking 2 ( 4 April 2017 ) Current ranking 2 ( 2 / 11 / 2017 ) Medal record ( hide ) Women 's badminton Representing India Olympic Games 2016 Rio de Janeiro Women 's singles World Championships 2017 Glasgow Women 's Singles 2013 Guangzhou Women 's Singles 2014 Copenhagen Women 's Singles Uber Cup 2014 New Delhi Team 2016 Kunshan Team Asian Games 2014 Incheon Women 's team Commonwealth Games 2014 Glasgow Women 's Singles Asia Championships 2014 Gimcheon Women 's Singles South Asian Games 2016 Guwahati Women 's Team 2016 Guwahati Women 's Singles Asian Junior Championships 2012 Gimcheon Girls ' Singles 2011 Lucknow Girls ' Singles 2011 Lucknow Mixed Team Commonwealth Youth Games 2011 Douglas Girls ' Singles BWF profile Updated on 27 August 2017 . Pusarla Venkata Sindhu ( born 5 July 1995 ) is an Indian professional badminton player , who is currently world no 2 in the BWF World Ranking . At the 2016 Summer Olympics , she became the first Indian woman to win an Olympic silver medal . She is one of the two Indian badminton players to ever win an Olympic medal -- other being Saina Nehwal . She was also a silver medalist at the 2017 BWF World Championships and , in 2017 , became first Indian ever to win Korea Open Super Series . Sindhu came to international attention when she broke into the top 20 of the BWF World Ranking in September 2012 at the age of 17 . In 2013 , she became the first ever Indian women 's singles player to win a medal at the Badminton World Championships . In March 2015 , she is the recipient of India 's fourth highest civilian honor , the Padma Shri . Her silver medal win in the women 's singles event of the 2016 Summer Olympics made her the first Indian shuttler to reach the final of an Olympics badminton event and the youngest Indian to make a podium finish in an individual event at the Olympics . She is one among the top five shuttlers in women ' s singles category . Contents ( hide ) 1 Childhood and early training 2 Career 2.1 2012 2.2 2013 2.3 2014 2.4 2015 2.5 2016 2.5. 1 Rio Olympics 2016 2.6 2017 3 Honours 4 Achievements 4.1 Individual titles 4.2 Individual runners - up 5 Career overview 5.1 Singles performance timeline 5.2 Record against selected players 5.3 Summer Olympics 5.3. 1 2016 Summer Olympics 6 Personal life 7 Awards and recognition 7.1 National 7.2 Others 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Childhood and early training ( edit ) Pusarla Venkata Sindhu was born to P.V. Ramana of Eluru , West Godavari district and P. Vijaya of Vijayawada , Krishna district . She lives in Hyderabad . In 2000 , Ramana was awarded Arjuna Award for his sport . Though her parents played professional volleyball , Sindhu chose badminton over it because she drew inspiration from the success of Pullela Gopichand , the 2001 All England Open Badminton Champion . She eventually started playing badminton from the age of eight . Sindhu first learned the basics of the sport with the guidance of Mehboob Ali at the badminton courts of Indian Railway Institute of Signal Engineering and Telecommunications in Secunderabad . Soon after , she joined Pullela Gopichand 's Gopichand Badminton Academy . While profiling Sindhu 's career , a correspondent with The Hindu wrote : The fact that she reports on time at the coaching camps daily , travelling a distance of 56 km from her residence , is perhaps a reflection of her willingness to complete her desire to be a good badminton player with the required hard work and commitment . Gopichand seconded this correspondent 's opinion when he said that `` the most striking feature in Sindhu 's game is her attitude and the never - say - die spirit . '' After joining Gopichand 's badminton academy , Sindhu won several titles . In the under - 10 years category , she won the 5th Servo All India ranking championship in the doubles category and the singles title at the Ambuja Cement All India ranking . In the under - 13 years category , Sindhu won the singles title at the Sub-juniors in Pondicherry , doubles titles at the Krishna Khaitan All India Tournament , IOC All India Ranking , the Sub-Junior Nationals and the All India Ranking in Pune . She also won the under - 14 team gold medal at the 51st National School Games in India . Career ( edit ) In the international circuit , Sindhu was a bronze medallist at the 2009 Sub-Junior Asian Badminton Championships held in Colombo . At the 2010 Iran Fajr International Badminton Challenge , she won the silver medal in the singles category . Sindhu reached the quarterfinals of the 2010 Junior World Badminton Championships that was held in Mexico . She was a team member in India 's national team at the 2010 Uber Cup. . 2012 ( edit ) On 14 June 2012 , Sindhu lost to Germany 's Juliane Schenk in Indonesia Open , 21 -- 14 , 21 -- 14 . On 7 July 2012 , she won Asia Youth Under 19 Championship beating Japanese Player Nozomi Okuhara in final by 18 -- 21 , 21 -- 17 , 22 -- 20 . In the 2012 Li Ning China Masters Super Series tournament she stunned London 2012 Olympics gold medallist Li Xuerui of China , beating her 21 -- 19 , 9 -- 21 , 21 -- 16 and entered the semifinals but lost to 4th seeded Jiang Yanjiao of China by 10 -- 21 , 21 -- 14 , 19 -- 21 in the semifinals . A lot was expected from Sindhu in the Japan Open after her exploits in the China Open , given China pulled many of its players out of the tournament citing security reasons . But she bowed out in the second round to Korean shuttler Bae Yeon Ju for 21 -- 10 , 12 -- 21 , 18 -- 21 . Sindhu then went on to participate in the 77th Senior National Badminton Championships held at Srinagar . She was defeated in the finals by Sayali Gokhale for 15 -- 21 , 21 -- 15 , 15 -- 21 . It was later revealed that Sindhu injured her knee in the China Open and she carried this injury through the Japan Open and the nationals . She decided to skip the World Junior Championships so as not to aggravate the injury . Sindhu finished runner - up in the Syed Modi India Grand Prix Gold event held in Lucknow in December 2012 . She did n't lose a single set coming into the final , but was upset by the Indonesian Linda Weni Fanetri for 21 -- 15 , 18 -- 21 , 21 -- 18 . She reached her career best ranking of 15 . 2013 ( edit ) She won Malaysian open title 2013 , beating her opponent from Singapore , Gu Juan , by 21 -- 17 , 17 -- 21 , 21 -- 19 . This was Sindhu 's first Grand Prix Gold title . PV Sindhu on 8 August 2013 defeated the defending champion , second - seeded Wang Yihan of China , to enter the women 's quarterfinals at the BWF World Championships . The 18 - year - old , 10th - seeded Sindhu won 21 -- 18 , 23 -- 21 in 54 minutes to set - up a meeting with another Chinese player , Wang Shixian . She beat Wang Shixian 21 -- 18 , 21 -- 17 to become India 's first medalist in women 's singles at the World Championships . In the 2013 Indian Badminton League , Sindhu was the captain of the team Awadhe Warriors . Her team qualified for the semifinal , where they beat Mumbai Marathas , but lost in the final to Hyderabad HotShots . She won Macau Open Grand Prix Gold title by defeating Canada 's Michelle Li on December 1 , 2013 . The top - seeded 18 - year - old won the match 21 -- 15 , 21 -- 12 in 37 minutes . She was awarded Arjun Award by Government of India . 2014 ( edit ) PV Sindhu reached the semifinal stage of 2014 Commonwealth Games in the women 's singles competition , which she lost to Michelle Li of Canada . PV Sindhu later created history by becoming the first Indian to win two back - to - back medals in the BWF World Badminton Championships after her bronze medal finish in 2014 BWF World Championships held in Denmark . Sindhu defeated Wang Shixian in three sets 19 -- 21 , 21 -- 19 , 21 -- 15 , with the match lasting more than an hour . She had earlier defeated Bae Yeon - ju in the third round with 19 -- 21 , 22 -- 20 , and 25 -- 23 . However , she lost to the eventual gold medalist , Carolina Marin , in straight sets and had to settle with bronze medal together with Minatsu Mitani . 2015 ( edit ) In October , playing at the Denmark Open , Sindhu reached to her maiden final of a Super Series event . On her route to the final , she defeated three seeded players , namely Tai Tzu - ying , Wang Yihan and Carolina Marin . In the final , she lost to the defending champion Li Xuerui in straight games by 19 -- 21 , 12 -- 21 . In November , defending champion P.V. Sindhu won her third successive women 's singles title at the Macau Open Grand Prix Gold after defeating Japan 's Minatsu Mitani in the final by 21 -- 9 , 21 -- 23 , 21 -- 14 . 2016 ( edit ) In January , Sindhu won the Malaysia Masters Grand Prix Gold women 's singles title after beating Scotland 's Kirsty Gilmour in the final . She had also won this tournament in 2013 . In the 2016 Premier Badminton league , Sindhu was the captain of Chennai Smashers team . In the group league , she won all of the five matches to help her team qualify for the semifinal . However , in the semifinal . her team was beaten by Delhi Acers . Rio Olympics 2016 ( edit ) At the women 's singles event , Sindhu was drawn with Hungarian Laura Sárosi and Canadian Michelle Li in Group M. During the group stage matches , she beat Laura Sárosi ( 2 -- 0 ) and Michelle Li ( 2 -- 1 ) . Further she ousted Chinese Taipei 's Tai Tzu - ying ( 2 -- 0 ) in the round of 16 to meet the second seed Wang Yihan in the quarterfinals , whom she defeated in straight sets . Sindhu later faced the Japanese Nozomi Okuhara in the semifinals , won in straight sets , and ensuring her a podium finish . This set the stage for her final showdown with top seed from Spain , Carolina Marín . Marin managed to beat Sindhu in three sets in the 83 - minute match . With that result , Sindhu clinched the silver medal . She charted history of achieving the feat as she is youngest and first women individual to bag an Olympic Silver medal representing India . This was the second instance of podium finish at the Olympics by any Indian badminton player . 2017 ( edit ) In the India Open superseries , Sindhu won the title by defeating Carolina Marin in straight games . In the BWF World Championships held from 21 to 27 August 2017 at Emirates Arena in Glasgow , Scotland , Sindhu had to settle for silver after losing to Japan 's Nozomi Okuhara in the finals with scores 19 - 21 , 22 - 20 , 20 - 22 . Sindhu avenged her world championships loss to Okuhara by beating her in the final of the Victor Korea Open superseries , winning 22 - 20 , 11 - 21 , 21 - 18 . In August , she took charges as Deputy Collector in Krishna District in the Chief Commissioner of Land Administration ( CCLA ) office under the Revenue Department of the Government of Andhra Pradesh . Honours ( edit ) Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award for badminton in 2016 Arjuna Award for badminton in 2013 Padma Shri Award , the fourth highest civilian honor in 2015 Achievements ( edit ) Individual titles ( edit ) S. No . Year Tournament Opponent in final Score Result 2011 Indonesia International Fransisca Ratnasari 21 -- 16 , 21 -- 11 Won 2013 Malaysia Masters Gu Juan 21 -- 17 , 17 -- 21 , 21 -- 19 Won 2013 Macau Open Michelle Li 21 -- 15 , 21 -- 12 Won 2014 Macau Open Kim Hyo - min 21 -- 12 , 21 -- 17 Won 5 2015 Macau Open Minatsu Mitani 21 -- 9 , 21 -- 23 , 21 -- 14 Won 6 2016 Malaysia Masters Kirsty Gilmour 21 -- 15 , 21 -- 9 Won 7 2016 China Open Sun Yu 21 -- 11 , 17 -- 21 , 21 -- 11 Won 8 2017 Syed Modi International Gregoria Mariska 21 -- 13 , 21 -- 14 Won 9 2017 India Open Carolina Marin 21 -- 19 , 21 -- 16 Won 10 2017 Korea Open Nozomi Okuhara 22 -- 20 , 11 - 21 , 21 -- 18 Won Super Series Premier Super Series Grand Prix Gold International Challenge Individual runners - up ( edit ) S. No . Year Tournament Opponent in final Score 2011 Dutch Open Yao Jie 16 -- 21 , 17 -- 21 2012 Syed Modi International Lindaweni Fanetri 15 -- 21 , 21 -- 18 , 18 -- 21 2014 Syed Modi International Saina Nehwal 14 -- 21 , 17 -- 21 2015 Denmark Open Li Xuerui 19 -- 21 , 12 -- 21 6 2016 Hong Kong Open Tai Tzu - ying 15 -- 21 , 17 -- 21 7 2016 Olympics Carolina Marin 21 - 19 , 12 -- 21 , 15 - 21 8 2017 World Championships Nozomi Okuhara 19 - 21 , 22 -- 20 , 20 - 22 BWF Event Super Series Premier Super Series Grand Prix Gold Grand Prix Career overview ( edit ) Singles Played Wins Losses Balance Total * 326 227 99 + 128 Current year ( 2017 ) * 32 25 7 + 22 Doubles Played Wins Losses Balance Total * 17 9 8 + 1 Current year ( 2017 ) * 0 0 0 0 * Statistics were last updated on 16 September 2017 . Singles performance timeline ( edit ) Key SF QF # R RR Q # SF - B NH N / A Tournament 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 SR Best BWF events BWF World Junior Championships 2R QF 3R N / A 0 / 3 QF ( ' 10 ) BWF World Championships NH QF NH 0 / 4 F ( ' 17 ) Olympics NH DNQ NH NH 0 / 2 F ( ' 16 ) BWF Super Series All England Super Series Premier 1R 2R 1R 1R QF 0 / 5 QF ( ' 17 ) India Open Super Series N / A 1R QF SF 1R QF 1 / 6 W ( ' 17 ) Malaysia Super Series Premier Q1 1R 2R QF 1R 0 / 5 QF ( ' 16 ) Singapore Open Super Series 1R QF 2R QF 0 / 4 QF ( ' 14 , ' 17 ) Indonesia Super Series Premier 2R 1R 1R 2R 0 / 4 2R ( ' 12 , ' 17 ) Australian Open Super Series N / A QF 1R 1R QF 0 / 4 QF ( ' 14 , ' 17 ) Japan Open Super Series 2R 2R 1R 2R 0 / 4 2R ( ' 12 , ' 13 , ' 17 ) Korea Open Super Series Q2 2R 2R 1 / 4 W ( ' 17 ) Denmark Super Series Premier 1R QF 2R 0 / 4 F ( ' 15 ) French Open Super Series 2R 1R 1R 2R 0 / 4 2R ( ' 13 , ' 16 ) China Open Super Series Premier Q2 1R 2R 1 / 4 W ( ' 16 ) Hong Kong Open Super Series Q2 1R 1R 2R 1R 0 / 6 F ( ' 16 ) China Masters Super Series SF N / A 0 / 1 SF ( ' 12 ) BWF Super Series Masters Finals DNQ SF 0 / 1 SF ( ' 16 ) BWF Grand Prix Gold and Grand Prix Malaysia Masters Grand Prix Gold SF SF 2 / 4 W ( ' 13 , ' 16 ) Syed Modi Grand Prix Gold QF SF 2R NH SF 2R 1 / 8 W ( ' 17 ) German Open Grand Prix Gold 1R QF 0 / 2 QF ( ' 16 ) Swiss Open Grand Prix Gold N / A 1R 2R SF QF 0 / 4 SF ( ' 14 ) China Masters Grand Prix Gold N / A QF 0 / 1 QF ( ' 16 ) Chinese Taipei Grand Prix Gold 2R 0 / 1 2R ( ' 15 ) Vietnam Open Grand Prix QF 0 / 1 QF ( ' 11 ) Indonesian Masters Grand Prix Gold QF 0 / 1 QF ( ' 15 ) Thailand Open Grand Prix Gold 2R 0 / 1 2R ( ' 12 ) Dutch Open Grand Prix 0 / 1 F ( ' 12 ) Macau Open Grand Prix Gold 3 / 3 W ( ' 13 , ' 14 , ' 15 ) India Open Grand Prix Gold Q2 2R N / A 0 / 2 2R ( ' 10 ) Year - end Ranking 255 151 31 19 11 11 12 6 Record against selected players ( edit ) Record against the Super Series finalists , the World Championships semifinalists , and the Olympic quarterfinalists ( as of 20 November 2016 ) : Opponent Record Opponent Record Opponent Record Opponent Record He Bingjiao 4 -- 5 Jiang Yanjiao 0 -- 2 Li Xuerui 2 -- 3 Sun Yu 4 -- 4 Wang Lin 0 -- 1 Wang Shixian 4 -- 6 Wang Yihan 3 -- 4 Yao Xue 1 -- 1 Tai Tzu - ying 3 -- 6 Tine Baun 0 -- 1 Juliane Schenk 0 -- 2 Yip Pui Yin 2 -- 0 Saina Nehwal 1 -- 1 Lindaweni Fanetri 8 -- 2 Akane Yamaguchi 2 -- 1 Eriko Hirose 1 -- 3 Minatsu Mitani 3 -- 2 Nozomi Okuhara 4 -- 5 Yui Hashimoto 1 -- 1 Bae Yeon - ju 1 -- 3 Sung Ji - hyun 7 -- 4 Carolina Marin 5 -- 6 Porntip Buranaprasertsuk 5 -- 4 Ratchanok Intanon 1 -- 4 Summer Olympics ( edit ) 2016 Summer Olympics ( edit ) See also : Badminton at the 2016 Summer Olympics -- Women 's singles Stage Opponent Result Games Points Group Stage Michelle Li ( CAN ) Won 2 -- 1 19 -- 21 , 21 -- 15 , 21 -- 17 Group Stage Laura Sárosi ( HUN ) Won 2 -- 0 21 -- 4 , 21 -- 9 Pre-Quarter Finals Tai Tzu - ying ( TPE ) Won 2 -- 0 21 -- 13 , 21 -- 15 Quarter Finals Wang Yihan ( CHN ) Won 2 -- 0 22 -- 20 , 21 -- 19 Semi-finals Nozomi Okuhara ( JPN ) Won 2 -- 0 21 -- 19 , 21 -- 10 Finals Carolina Marín ( ESP ) Lost 1 -- 2 21 -- 19 , 12 -- 21 , 15 -- 21 Personal life ( edit ) P.V. Sindhu has been employed with Bharat Petroleum since July 2013 , as an assistant sports manager with their Hyderabad office . Following her silver - medal win at the Rio Olympics , she was promoted to deputy sports manager. She was appointed as first brand amabassador of Bridgestone India . Also , Andhra Pradesh Government appointed P.V. Sindhu as Deputy Collector ( Group - I ) . Awards and recognition ( edit ) National ( edit ) Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna , highest sporting honour of India ( 2016 ) Padma Shri , the fourth highest civilian award of India ( 2015 ) Arjuna Award ( 2013 ) Others ( edit ) FICCI Breakthrough Sportsperson of the Year 2014 NDTV Indian of the Year 2014 ₹ 10 lakh ( US $16,000 ) from the Badminton Association of India , for her victory in the 2015 Macau Open Badminton Championships . ₹ 5 lakh ( US $7,800 ) from the Badminton Association of India , for her victory in the 2016 Malaysia Masters Rewards for winning the silver medal at the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics ₹ 5 crore ( US $780,000 ) , and a land grant from the Government of Telangana . ₹ 3 crore ( US $470,000 ) , a Group A cadre job ( Deputy Collector of Andhra Pradesh ) and 1000 yd land grant from the Government of Andhra Pradesh . ₹ 2 crore ( US $310,000 ) from the Government of Delhi . ₹ 75 lakh ( US $120,000 ) from her employer , Bharat Petroleum Corporation , with promotion from assistant to deputy sports manager . ₹ 50 lakh ( US $78,000 ) from the Government of Haryana . ₹ 50 lakh ( US $78,000 ) from the Government of Madhya Pradesh . ₹ 50 lakh ( US $78,000 ) from the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports . ₹ 50 lakh ( US $78,000 ) from Badminton Association of India ₹ 50 lakh ( US $78,000 ) from NRI businessman , Mukkattu Sebastian ₹ 30 lakh ( US $47,000 ) from the Indian Olympic Association . ₹ 5 lakh ( US $7,800 ) from All India Football Federation . BMW car from the Hyderabad District Badminton Association and as well as Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar ₹ 1.01 lakh ( US $1,600 ) from Salman Khan , for qualifying as an Olympic participant . Miniature badminton racquet memento with gold and diamond from Kirtilals . Appointed as Deputy Collector of Andhra Pradesh . See also ( edit ) Badminton in India India national badminton team Gopichand Badminton Academy References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` bwf world superseries -- PV Sindhu Profile '' . Jump up ^ `` Badminton '' . Olympic Gold Quest . Retrieved 18 August 2016 . Jump up ^ http://bwfcontent.tournamentsoftware.com/ranking/player.aspx?id=12552&player=108519 Jump up ^ `` BWF World Rankings '' . bwfbadminton.org . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 23 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BWF - BWF World Rankings - Overview '' . bwf.tournamentsoftware.com . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu breaks into world top 20 ranking '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . 21 September 2012 . Retrieved 21 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Who is PV Sindhu -- India 's badminton heroine in Rio '' . The Hindu . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu Scripts History , Becomes First Indian Woman To Win Olympic Silver Medal '' . indiatimes.com . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Boys and girls with golden dreams '' . Deccan Chronicle. 30 December 2009 . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu will keep hopes of all Indians high , says her father PV Ramana '' . 2016 - 08 - 19 . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : V.V. , Subrahmanyam ( 10 April 2008 ) . `` Aiming for the stars '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ V.V. , Subrahmanyam ( 3 October 2010 ) . `` Shuttler Sindhu is the star to watch out for '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ N , Jagannath Das ( 3 September 2009 ) . `` Sindhu , a smash hit at 14 '' . The New Indian Express . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` SAI badminton coach returns with glory '' . The Tribune . 13 February 2010 . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` India won two bronze in Junior World Badminton c'ships '' . Zee News . 29 April 2010 . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu , emerging star on badminton horizon '' . Deccan Chronicle. 27 July 2010 . Retrieved 20 October 2010 . Jump up ^ Ratnakar , M ( 15 June 2012 ) . `` Kashyap upsets World No. 3 Chen at Indonesia Open '' . The Times of India . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` P.V. Sindhu -- Result '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu stuns Olympic gold medallist Xuerui in China Masters '' . ZeeNews . Retrieved 14 September 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Fighter PV Sindhu bows out of China Masters '' . The Times Of India . Jump up ^ `` China pull out players from Japan Open '' . NDTV. 2012 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu falls in Japan Open '' . Times of India . 2012 - 09 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Sayali stuns Sindhu '' . Hindustan Times . 2012 - 10 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu injured '' . Daily News and Analysis . 2012 - 10 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu loses in finals of India GPG '' . Business Standard . 2012 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` 2012 India Grand Prix Gold Women 's Singles results '' . tournamentsoftware.com . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 23 . Jump up ^ `` Kashyap becomes world No. 6 '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . 25 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu wins Malaysia Grand Prix '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . 4 May 2013 . Retrieved 5 May 2013 . Jump up ^ `` This year has been good for Sindhu , says father '' . The Times of India . Retrieved 1 December 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Glasgow 2014 : PV Sindhu lost in semifinal '' . Patrika Group ( 2 August 2014 ) . Retrieved 2 August 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Sindhu ends runner - up at Denmark Open Super Series '' . The Times of India . 18 October 2015 . Retrieved 24 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu completes hat - trick of Macau Open titles '' . Hindustan Times . 29 November 2015 . Retrieved 24 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu starts 2016 with a bang , wins Malaysia Masters '' . SportsCafe.in . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 10 . Jump up ^ `` Saina Nehwal seeded fifth , PV Sindhu gets ninth seed for Rio Games '' . Indian Express . 26 July 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu wins first group game : As it happened '' . Indian Express . 14 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu , Rio 2016 Olympics : PV Sindhu clinches win in second group clash '' . Indian Express . 14 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu enters badminton quarter - final : As it happened '' . Indian Express . 16 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Sukhwant , Basra ( 17 August 2016 ) . `` PV Sindhu enters Rio 2016 semis , defeats World No. 2 Wang Yihan '' . Hindustan Times . Rio de Janeiro . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Shirish , Nadkarni ( 19 August 2016 ) . `` Rio Olympics 2016 : How PV Sindhu stunned Nozomi Okuhara with a badminton blitzkrieg '' . Firstpost . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` I 'll give my heart for gold : PV Sindhu after her Rio 2016 semifinal victory '' . Hindustan Times . Rio de Janeiro. 19 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Carolina Marin stamps class as the World No. 1 '' . DD News . Doordarshan. 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` As it happened : Sindhu first Indian woman to win Olympic silver '' . The Hindu . 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Ashim , Sunam ( 19 August 2016 ) . `` Rio Olympics 2016 badminton final as it happened : PV Sindhu wins silver , Marin clinches gold in thrilling contest '' . IB Times . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rio 2016 : Sindhu becomes first Indian woman to win Olympic silver '' . Hindustan Times . Rio de Janeiro. 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Himanshu , Kapoor ( 20 August 2016 ) . `` PV Sindhu Did n't Lose Gold , She Became the First Indian to Win an Olympic Silver in Badminton '' . Daily Bhaskar . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ Kamesh , Srinivasan ( 19 August 2016 ) . `` Sindhu lends a silver lining to India 's Olympic campaign '' . The Hindu . Rio de Janeiro . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Korea Open Superseries : PV Sindhu Outlasts Nozomi Okuhara To Clinch Title -- NDTV Sports '' . NDTVSports.com . Jump up ^ http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/sindhu-takes-charge-as-deputy-collector/article19459741.ece Jump up ^ `` VICTOR INDONESIA INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGE 2011 : Matches '' . www.tournamentsoftware.com . Retrieved 18 October 2015 . Jump up ^ `` PUSARLA V. Sindhu -- Career overview '' . bwfbadminton.com . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 15 June 2017 . Jump up ^ `` MAYBANK Malaysia Open Presented by PROTON : Draws : WS -- Qualification '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Victor Korea Open 2012 : Draws : WS -- Qualification '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Li Ning China Open 2011 : Draws : WS -- Qualification '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Yonex Sunrise Hong Kong Open 2011 : Draws : WS -- Qualification '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` JAYPEE CUP SYED MODI MEMORIAL INDIA GRAND PRIX 2009 : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 3 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` India Grand Prix 2010 : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 3 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Yonex -- Sunrise Syed Modi Memorial India Open Grand Prix Gold : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 3 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` YONEX German Open GPG 2012 : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 2 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Yonex Sunrise Vietnam Grand Prix Open 2011 : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 2 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Yonex Dutch Open 2011 : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Yonex Sunrise India Open 2009 : Draws : WS -- Qualification '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 2 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` INDIA GRAND PRIX GOLD 2010 : Draws : WS '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 2 February 2016 . Jump up ^ `` BWF World Rankings '' . Badminton World Federation . Retrieved 4 February 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.tournamentsoftware.com/profile/selectheadtohead.aspx?id=0BF2D10A-66EB-4B90-BB4B-3F70D4ADAD99 ^ Jump up to : `` BPCL announces Rs 75 lakh cash award , promotion for PV Sindhu '' . Business Standard . 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Rajiv khel ratna '' . news 18.com . Archived from the original on 23 August 2016 . Retrieved 2 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Padma Awards 2015 '' . Press Information Bureau . Archived from the original on 26 January 2015 . Retrieved 25 January 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Arjuna Award for Virat Kohli , PV Sindhu ; Ronjan Sodhi gets Khel Ratna '' . NDTV Sports . 13 August 2013 . Retrieved 18 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` FICCI announces the Winners of India Sports Awards for 2014 '' . IANS . news.biharprabha.com . Retrieved 14 February 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Amjad Ali Khan , Satish Gujral honored with NDTV Indian of the Year Award '' . IANS . news.biharprabha.com . Retrieved 29 April 2014 . Jump up ^ `` BAI announces cash award of Rs. 10 lakh for Sindhu '' . The Hindu . 30 November 2015 . Retrieved 18 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Badminton Association of India Awards PV Sindhu Rs 5 lakh for winning Malaysia Masters '' . NDTV Sports . 24 January 2016 . Retrieved 18 August 2016 . Jump up ^ http://www.sakshipost.com/telangana/2016/08/20/telangana-govt-announces-rs-5-cr-to-pv-sindhu-rs-1-cr-to-gopichand Jump up ^ http://www.deccanherald.com/content/625014/p-v-sindhu-appointed-dy.html Jump up ^ http://zeenews.india.com/sports/rio-olympics-2016/andhra-pradesh-government-to-reward-sindhu-with-rs-3-cr-cash-prize-and-government-job_1920794.html ^ Jump up to : `` How rivalry between Andhra and Telangana has enriched PV Sindhu by crores '' . Hindustan Times . 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2016 . ^ Jump up to : http://indianexpress.com/sports/rio-2016-olympics/from-bmw-to-rs-1-60-crore-and-land-its-raining-gifts-for-rio-star-pv-sindhu-2985893/ Jump up ^ http://www.abplive.in/sports/rio-olympics-madhya-pradesh-government-announces-reward-for-pv-sindhu-silver-medal-401636 ^ Jump up to : `` PV Sindhu lauded with gifts : From BMW to Rs 2.05 crore and land '' . 2016 - 08 - 19 . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Rio 2016 : Dubai based indian man announces cash prize '' . 2016 - 08 - 21 . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Rio Olympics 2016 : Salman Khan to present Rs 1 lakh cheque to each Indian athelete '' . The Indian Express . 17 August 2016 . Retrieved 18 August 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu honoured with miniature gold , diamond racquet '' . Oneindia.in . Retrieved September 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` PV Sindhu appointed as Deputy Collector '' . https://sports.ndtv.com/ . Retrieved August 9 , 2017 . External link in publisher = ( help ) External links ( edit ) P.V. Sindhu at BWF.tournamentsoftware.com P.V. Sindhu at Olympic Gold Quest P.V. Sindhu at Gopichand Badminton Academy P.V. Sindhu at tournamentsoftware.com ( hide ) Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna awardees 1991 -- 2000 Viswanathan Anand ( 1991 -- 92 ) Geet Sethi ( 1992 -- 93 ) Homi Motivala and Pushpendra Kumar Garg ( 1993 -- 94 ) Karnam Malleswari ( 1994 -- 95 ) Kunjarani Devi ( 1995 -- 96 ) Leander Paes ( 1996 -- 97 ) Sachin Tendulkar ( 1997 -- 98 ) Jyotirmoyee Sikdar ( 1998 -- 99 ) Dhanraj Pillay ( 1999 -- 2000 ) Pullela Gopichand ( 2000 -- 01 ) 2001 -- 2010 Abhinav Bindra ( 2001 ) K.M. Beenamol and Anjali Bhagwat ( 2002 ) Anju Bobby George ( 2003 ) Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore ( 2004 ) Pankaj Advani ( 2005 ) Manavjit Singh Sandhu ( 2006 ) MS Dhoni ( 2007 ) No award ( 2008 ) Mary Kom , Vijender Singh , and Sushil Kumar ( 2009 ) Saina Nehwal ( 2010 ) 2011 -- present Gagan Narang ( 2011 ) Vijay Kumar and Yogeshwar Dutt ( 2012 ) Ronjan Sodhi ( 2013 ) No award ( 2014 ) Sania Mirza ( 2015 ) P.V. Sindhu , Dipa Karmakar , Jitu Rai , and Sakshi Malik ( 2016 ) Devendra Jhajharia and Sardara Singh ( 2017 ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P._V._Sindhu&oldid=810531913 '' Categories : 1995 births Living people Asian Games bronze medalists for India Asian Games medalists in badminton Badminton players at the 2014 Asian Games Badminton players at the 2014 Commonwealth Games Badminton players at the 2016 Summer Olympics Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for India Commonwealth Games competitors for India Indian female badminton players Olympic badminton players of India Olympic silver medalists for India Recipients of the Arjuna Award Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports Sportswomen from Hyderabad , India Telugu people Recipients of the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Commonwealth Games medallists in badminton 21st - century Indian sportswomen 21st - century Indian sportspeople Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games Hidden categories : CS1 errors : external links Use dmy dates from June 2013 Use Indian English from June 2013 All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English BWF template with ID same as Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia অসমীয়া বাংলা Català Deutsch Español Français ગુજરાતી हिन्दी Ido Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ मैथिली മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu नेपाली Norsk ଓଡ଼ିଆ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português தமிழ் తెలుగు ತುಳು اردو 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 15 November 2017 , at 21 : 00 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who won silver medal in world badminton championship | [
"Pusarla Venkata Sindhu (born 5 July 1995) is an Indian professional badminton player, who is currently world no 2[5] in the BWF World Ranking. At the 2016 Summer Olympics, she became the first Indian woman to win an Olympic silver medal. She is one of the two Indian badminton players to ever win an Olympic medal – other being Saina Nehwal. She was also a silver medalist at the 2017 BWF World Championships and, in 2017, became first Indian ever to win Korea Open Super Series."
] | [
"Pusarla Venkata Sindhu"
] |
-822923020571939349 | Article Two of the United States Constitution | Article two of the United States Constitution - wikipedia Article two of the United States Constitution Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Wikisource has original text related to this article : Article Two of the United States Constitution This article is part of a series on the Constitution of the United States of America Preamble and Articles of the Constitution Preamble II III IV V VI VII Amendments to the Constitution Bill of Rights II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Unratified Amendments Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Child Labor Equal Rights D.C. Voting Rights History Drafting and ratification timeline Convention Signing Federalism Republicanism Full text of the Constitution and Amendments Preamble and Articles I -- VII Amendments I -- X Amendments XI -- XXVII Unratified Amendments United States portal U.S. Government portal Law portal Wikipedia book Article Two of the United States Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government , which carries out and enforces federal laws . The executive branch includes the President , the Vice President , the Cabinet , executive departments , independent agencies , and other boards , commissions , and committees . Contents ( hide ) 1 Section 1 : President and Vice President 1.1 Clause 1 : Executive Power 1.2 Clause 2 : Method of choosing electors 1.3 Clause 3 : Electors 1.4 Clause 4 : Election day 1.5 Clause 5 : Qualifications for office 1.6 Clause 6 : Vacancy and disability 1.7 Clause 7 : Salary 1.8 Clause 8 : Oath or affirmation 2 Section 2 : Presidential powers 2.1 Clause 1 : Command of military ; Opinions of cabinet secretaries ; Pardons 2.2 Clause 2 : Advice and Consent Clause 2.2. 1 Treaties 2.2. 2 Appointments 2.3 Clause 3 : Recess appointments 3 Section 3 : Presidential responsibilities 3.1 Clause 1 : State of the Union 3.2 Clause 2 : Making recommendations to Congress 3.3 Clause 3 : Calling Congress into extraordinary session ; adjourning Congress 3.4 Clause 4 : Receiving foreign representatives 3.5 Clause 5 : Caring for the faithful execution of the law 3.6 Clause 6 : Officers ' commissions 4 Section 4 : Impeachment 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Section 1 : President and Vice President ( edit ) Clause 1 : executive power ( edit ) The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America . He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years , and , together with the Vice President , chosen for the same Term , be elected , as follows George Washington 's inauguration as the nation 's first President , April 30 , 1789 Section 1 begins with a vesting clause that confers federal executive power upon the President . Similar clauses are found in Article I and Article III . The former bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress , and the latter grants judicial power solely to the Supreme Court . These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government . In addition to separation of powers and equally important to limited government , each independent and sovereign branch also provides checks and balances on the operation and power of the other two branches . The President 's executive power is subject to two important limitations . First , the President lacks executive authority explicitly granted to Congress . Hence the President can not declare war , grant letters of marque and reprisal , or regulate commerce , even though executives had often wielded such authority in the past . In these instances , Congress retained portions of the executive power that the Continental Congress had wielded under the Articles of Confederation . In fact , because those actions require legislation passed by Congress which must be signed by the President to take effect , those powers are not strictly executive powers granted to or retained by Congress per se . Nor were they retained by the U.S. Congress as leftovers from the Articles of Confederation . The Articles of Confederation , Continental Congress and its powers were abolished at the time the new U.S. Congress was seated and the new federal government formally and officially replaced its interim predecessor . And although the President is not specifically granted the power to declare war , a declaration of war is not in and of itself a vehicle of executive power since it is literally just a public declaration that the U.S. government considers itself `` at war '' with a foreign political entity . Regardless of the inability to declare war , the President does have the power to unilaterally order military action in defense of the United States when he determines that a foreign political entity poses a clear and present danger to the safety and security of the United States . By U.S. law , the only limitation on that power is a requirement to notify specific members of Congress within 48 hours after the beginning of military operations . Once proper legal notification is given to the required members of Congress , military action can continue and remain secret so long as the President judges it necessary to national security . Second , specific constitutional provisions may check customary executive authority . Notwithstanding his executive power , the President can not make treaties or appointments without the advice and consent of the Senate . Likewise , the President 's pardon power is limited to offenses against the United States ( federal crimes ) and does not extend to impeachments or violations of state law . As treaties are by U.S. law official agreements with foreign governments recognized as such only after Senate ratification , the President obviously can not make treaties unilaterally . However , the President does determine and decide U.S. foreign policy and can enter into non-binding discussions and give conditional approval to agreements reached with foreign governments subject to Senate ratification at a future date . Additionally , since official treaties are specifically created under and by constitutional U.S. law and are entered into by both government and the people as a whole , in his capacity as head of state and as the single individual representative of the United States and its citizens , the President does have Coauthority and Constitutional duty to unilaterally withdraw the United States from treaties if he determines the best interests and well being of the U.S. and its citizens are benefited by doing so . As far as presidential appointments , as with treaties a person is not officially and legally appointed to a position until their appointment is approved by the Senate . Prior to Senate approval and publication of that approval along with an official date and time for their swearing - in and assumption of duties and responsibilities , they are nominees rather than appointees . And again , the President nominates people for specific positions at his pleasure and can do so without or in spite of Senate advice . Senate consent occurs when a supermajority of senators votes to approve and therefore appoint a nominee . The head of the Executive Branch is the President . Although also named in this first clause , the Vice President is not constitutionally vested with any executive power . Nonetheless , the Constitution dictates that the President and Vice President are to be elected at the same time , for the same term , and by the same constituency . The framers ' intent was to preserve the independence of the executive branch should the person who was Vice President succeed to the duties of the presidency . Clause 2 : method of choosing Electors ( edit ) Each State shall appoint , in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct , a Number of Electors , equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative , or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States , shall be appointed an Elector . Under the U.S. Constitution the President and Vice President are chosen by Electors , under a constitutional grant of authority delegated to the legislatures of the several states . The Constitution reserves the choice of the precise manner for creating Electors to the will of the state legislatures . It does not define or delimit what process a state legislature may use to create its state college of Electors . In practice , the state legislatures have generally chosen to create Electors through an indirect popular vote , since the 1820s . Most states have a `` winner - take - all '' system in which the candidate with the most votes in the state gets all the electoral votes . Maine and Nebraska allow individual congressional districts to elect one elector . In an indirect popular vote , it is the names of the candidates who are on the ballot to be elected . Most states do not put the names of the electors on the ballot . It is generally understood by the voters and the Electors themselves that they are the representative `` stand - ins '' for the candidates and are expected to cast their electoral college ballots for the President and Vice President who appeared on the ballot . The actual electors being voted for are usually selected by the candidate 's party . There are a few cases where some electors have refused to vote for the designated candidate . Many states have mandated in law that Electors shall cast their electoral college ballot for the designated Presidential Candidate . The constitutionality of such mandates is uncertain . Each state chooses as many Electors as it has Representatives and Senators representing it in Congress . Under the 23rd Amendment , the District of Columbia may choose no more electors than the state with the lowest number of electoral votes . No Senators , Representatives or federal officers may become Electors . Clause 3 : Electors ( edit ) The Electors shall meet in their respective States , and vote by Ballot for two Persons , of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves . And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for , and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify , and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States , directed to the President of the Senate . The President of the Senate shall , in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives , open all the Certificates , and the Votes shall then be counted . The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President , if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority , and have an equal Number of Votes , then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse ( sic ) by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority , then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse ( sic ) the President . But in chusing ( sic ) the President , the Votes shall be taken by States , the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States , and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice . In every Case , after the Choice of the President , the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President . But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes , the Senate shall chuse ( sic ) from them by Ballot the Vice President . ( Note : This procedure was changed by the 12th Amendment in 1804 . ) In modern practice , each state chooses its electors in popular elections . Once chosen , the electors meet in their respective states to cast ballots for the President and Vice President . Originally , each elector cast two votes for President ; at least one of the individuals voted for had to be from a state different from the elector 's . The individual with the majority of votes became President , and the runner - up became Vice President . In case of a tie between candidates who received votes from a majority of electors , the House of Representatives would choose one of the tied candidates ; if no person received a majority , then the House could again choose one of the five with the greatest number of votes . When the House voted , each state delegation cast one vote , and the vote of a majority of states was necessary to choose a President . If second - place candidates were tied , then the Senate broke the tie . A quorum in the House consisted of at least one member from two - thirds of the state delegations ; there was no special quorum for the Senate . This procedure was followed in 1801 after the electoral vote produced a tie , and nearly resulted in a deadlock in the House . The 12th Amendment introduced a number of important changes to the procedure . Now , Electors do not cast two votes for President ; rather , they cast one vote for President and another for Vice President . In case no Presidential candidate receives a majority , the House chooses from the top three ( not five , as before the 12th Amendment ) . The Amendment also requires the Senate to choose the Vice President from those with the two highest figures if no Vice Presidential candidate receives a majority of electoral votes ( rather than only if there 's a tie for second for President ) . It also stipulates that to be the Vice President , a person must be qualified to be the President . Clause 4 : election day ( edit ) Certificate for the vote for Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. Wheeler for the State of Louisiana The Congress may determine the Time of chusing ( sic ) the Electors , and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States . Congress sets a national Election Day . Currently , Electors are chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November ( the first Tuesday after November 1 ) , in the year before the President 's term is to expire . The Electors cast their votes on the Monday following the second Wednesday in December ( the first Monday after December 12 ) of that year . Thereafter , the votes are opened and counted by the Vice President , as President of the Senate , in a joint session of Congress . Clause 5 : qualifications for office ( edit ) Beginning of the clause in the 1787 document Section 1 of Article Two of the United States Constitution sets forth the eligibility requirements for serving as president of the United States : No Person except a natural born Citizen , or a Citizen of the United States , at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution , shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years , and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States . See also : President of the United States In this 1944 poster , Franklin Roosevelt ( left ) successfully campaigned for a fourth term . He was the only President who served more than two terms . At the time the President takes office he must be : a natural born citizen at least 35 years old an inhabitant of the United States for at least fourteen years . Eligibility for holding the office of President and Vice President were modified by subsequent amendments : The 12th Amendment ( 1804 ) requires the Vice President to meet all of the qualifications of being President . The 22nd Amendment ( 1951 ) prevents anyone from being elected to the presidency more than twice ( or once , if the person has completed at least two years of a presidential term to which someone else was originally elected ) . Clause 6 : vacancy and Disability ( edit ) 1888 illustration of new President John Tyler receiving the news of President William H. Harrison 's death from Chief Clerk of the State Department Fletcher Webster . In Case of the Removal of the President from Office , or of his Death , Resignation , or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office , the Same shall devolve on the Vice President , and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal , Death , Resignation or Inability , both of the President and Vice President , declaring what Officer shall then act as President , and such Officer shall act accordingly , until the Disability be removed , or a President shall be elected . ( Note : This clause was partially superseded by the 25th Amendment in 1967 . ) The wording of this clause caused much controversy at the time it was first used . When William Henry Harrison died in office , a debate arose over whether the Vice President would become President , or if he would just inherit the powers , thus becoming an Acting President . Harrison 's Vice President , John Tyler , believed that he had the right to become President . However , many Senators argued that he only had the right to assume the powers of the presidency long enough to call for a new election . Because the wording of the clause is so vague , it was impossible for either side to prove its point . Tyler took the Oath of Office as President , setting a precedent that made it possible for later Vice Presidents to ascend to the presidency unchallenged following the President 's death . The `` Tyler Precedent '' established that if the President dies , resigns or is removed from office , the Vice President becomes President . The Congress may provide for a line of succession beyond the Vice President . The current Presidential Succession Act establishes the order as the Speaker of the House of Representatives , the President pro tempore of the Senate and then the fifteen Cabinet Secretaries in order of that Department 's establishment . There are concerns regarding the constitutionality of having members of Congress in the line of succession , however , as this clause specifies that only an `` officer of the United States '' may be designated as a presidential successor . Constitutional scholars from James Madison to the present day have argued that the term `` officer '' excludes members of Congress . The 25th Amendment explicitly states that if the President dies , resigns or is removed from office , the Vice President becomes President , and also establishes a procedure for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President . The Amendment further provides that the President , or the Vice President and Cabinet , can declare the President unable to discharge his duties , in which case the Vice President becomes Acting President . If the declaration is done by the Vice President and Cabinet , the Amendment permits the President to take control back , unless the Vice President and Cabinet challenge the President and two - thirds of both Houses vote to sustain the findings of the Vice President and Cabinet . If the declaration is done by the President , he may take control back without risk of being overridden by the Congress . Clause 7 : salary ( edit ) `` Domestic Emoluments Clause '' redirects here . For other uses , see Emoluments Clause . The President shall , at stated Times , receive for his Services , a Compensation , which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected , and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States , or any of them . The President 's salary , currently $400,000 a year , must remain constant throughout the President 's term . The President may not receive other compensation from either the federal or any state government . Clause 8 : oath or Affirmation ( edit ) President Barack Obama being administered the oath of office by Chief Justice John Roberts for the second time at his first inauguration , on January 21 , 2009 . Further information : Oath of office of the President of the United States Before he enters the Execution of his Office , he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation : -- `` I do solemnly swear ( or affirm ) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States , and will to the best of my Ability , preserve , protect and defend the Constitution of the United States . '' According to the Joint Congressional Committee on Presidential Inaugurations , George Washington added the words `` So help me God '' during his first inaugural , though this has been disputed . There are no contemporaneous sources for this fact , and no eyewitness sources to Washington 's first inaugural mention the phrase at all -- including those that transcribed what he said for his oath . Also , the President - elect 's name is typically added after the `` I '' , for example , `` I , George Washington , do ... '' Normally , the Chief Justice of the United States administers the oath . It is sometimes asserted that the oath bestows upon the President the power to do whatever is necessary to `` preserve , protect and defend the Constitution . '' Andrew Jackson , while vetoing an Act for the renewal of the charter of the national bank , implied that the President could refuse to execute statutes that he felt were unconstitutional . In suspending the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus , President Abraham Lincoln claimed that he acted according to the oath . His action was challenged in court and overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court in Maryland ( led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ) in Ex Parte Merryman , 17 F. Cas. 144 ( C.C.D. Md. 1861 ) . Lincoln ignored Taney 's order . Finally , Andrew Johnson 's counsel referred to the theory during his impeachment trial . Otherwise , few have seriously asserted that the oath augments the President 's powers . The Vice President also has an oath of office , but it is not mandated by the Constitution and is prescribed by statute . Currently , the Vice Presidential oath is the same as that for Members of Congress . I do solemnly swear ( or affirm ) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies , foreign and domestic ; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same ; that I take this obligation freely , without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion ; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter . So help me God . Section 2 : Presidential powers ( edit ) In the landmark decision Nixon v. General Services Administration , Justice William Rehnquist , afterwards the Chief Justice , declared in his dissent the need to `` fully describe the preeminent position that the President of the United States occupies with respect to our Republic . Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States , and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are indeed a powerful and incredible responsibility but as well as a great honor . '' Clause 1 : command of military ; opinions of Cabinet Secretaries ; Pardons ( edit ) President Franklin D. Roosevelt as Commander in Chief , with his military subordinates during World War II . Left to right : General Douglas MacArthur , President Franklin Roosevelt , Admiral William D. Leahy , Admiral Chester W. Nimitz . The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States , and of the Militia of the several States , when called into the actual Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion , in writing , of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments , upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices , and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States , except in Cases of Impeachment . The Constitution vests the President with Executive Power . That power reaches its zenith when wielded to protect national security . And federal courts in the United States must pay proper deference to the Executive in assessing the threats that face the nation . The President is the military 's commander - in - chief ; however Article One gives Congress and not the President the exclusive right to declare war . Nevertheless , the power of the president to initiate hostilities has been subject to question . According to historian Thomas Woods , `` Ever since the Korean War , Article II , Section 2 ( ... ) has been interpreted ' The president has the power to initiate hostilities without consulting Congress ' ( ... ) But what the framers actually meant by that clause was that once war has been declared , it was the President 's responsibility as commander - in - chief to direct the war . Alexander Hamilton spoke in such terms when he said that the president , although lacking the power to declare war , would have `` the direction of war when authorized or begun . '' The president acting alone was authorized only to repel sudden attacks ( hence the decision to withhold from him only the power to `` declare '' war , not to `` make '' war , which was thought to be a necessary emergency power in case of foreign attack ) . Since World War II , every major military action has been technically a U.S. military operation or a U.N. `` police action '' , which are deemed legally legitimate by Congress , and various United Nations Resolutions because of decisions such as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution or the Resolution of The Congress Providing Authorization for Use of Force In Iraq . The President may require the `` principal officer '' of any executive department to tender his advice in writing . While the Constitution nowhere requires a formal Cabinet , it does authorize the president to seek advice from the principal officers of the various departments as he ( or she ) performs their official duties . George Washington found it prudent to organize his principal officers into a Cabinet , and it has been part of the executive branch structure ever since . Presidents have used Cabinet meetings of selected principal officers but to widely differing extents and for different purposes . Secretary of State William H. Seward advocated the use of a parliamentary - style Cabinet government to President Abraham Lincoln , but was rebuffed . Later , Woodrow Wilson advocated use of a parliamentary - style Cabinet while he was a professor , but as President he would have none of it in his administration . In recent administrations , cabinets have grown to include key White House staff in addition to department and agency heads . President Ronald Reagan formed seven subcabinet councils to review many policy issues , and subsequent Presidents have followed that practice . The President , furthermore , may grant pardon or reprieves , except in cases of impeachment . Originally , as ruled by the Supreme Court in United States v. Wilson ( 1833 ) , the pardon could be rejected by the convict . In Biddle v. Perovich 274 U.S. 480 ( 1927 ) , the Supreme Court reversed the doctrine , ruling that `` ( a ) pardon in our days is not a private act of grace from an individual happening to possess power . It is a part of the Constitutional scheme . When granted it is the determination of the ultimate authority that the public welfare will be better served by inflicting less than what the judgment fixed . '' Clause 2 : advice and consent Clause ( edit ) The President exercises the powers in the Advice and Consent Clause with the advice and consent of the Senate . He shall have Power , by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate , to make Treaties , provided two thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate , and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate , shall appoint Ambassadors , other public Ministers and Consuls , Judges of the supreme Court , and all other Officers of the United States , whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for , and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers , as they think proper , in the President alone , in the Courts of Law , or in the Heads of Departments . Treaties ( edit ) Main article : Treaty Clause The President may enter the United States into treaties , but they are not effective until ratified by a two - thirds vote in the Senate . In Article II however , the Constitution is not very explicit about the termination of treaties . The first abrogation of a treaty occurred in 1798 , when Congress passed a law terminating a 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France . In the nineteenth century , several Presidents terminated treaties after Congress passed resolutions requesting the same . In 1854 , however , President Franklin Pierce terminated a treaty with Denmark with the consent of the Senate alone . A Senate committee ruled that it was correct procedure for the President to terminate treaties after being authorized by the Senate alone , and not the entire Congress . President Pierce 's successors , however , returned to the former procedure of obtaining authorization from both Houses . Some Presidents have claimed to themselves the exclusive power of terminating treaties . The first unambiguous case of a President terminating a treaty without authorization , granted prior to or after the termination , occurred when Jimmy Carter terminated a treaty with the Republic of China . For the first time , judicial determination was sought , but the effort proved futile : the Supreme Court could not find a majority agreeing on any particular principle , and therefore instructed the trial court to dismiss the case . Appointments ( edit ) Main article : Appointments Clause The President may also appoint judges , ambassadors , consuls , ministers and other officers with the advice and consent of the Senate . By law , however , Congress may allow the President , heads of executive departments , or the courts to appoint inferior officials . The Senate has a long - standing practice of permitting motions to reconsider previous decisions . In 1931 , the Senate granted advice and consent to the President on the appointment of a member of the Federal Power Commission . The officer in question was sworn in , but the Senate , under the guise of a motion to reconsider , rescinded the advice and consent . In the writ of quo warranto proceedings that followed , the Supreme Court ruled that the Senate was not permitted to rescind advice and consent after the officer had been installed . After the Senate grants advice and consent , however , the President is under no compulsion to commission the officer . It has not been settled whether the President has the prerogative to withhold a commission after having signed it . This issue played a large part in the famous court case Marbury v. Madison . At times the President has asserted the power to remove individuals from office . Congress has often explicitly limited the President 's power to remove ; during the Reconstruction Era , Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act , purportedly preventing Andrew Johnson from removing , without the advice and consent of the Senate , anyone appointed with the advice and consent of the Senate . President Johnson ignored the Act , and was later impeached and acquitted . The constitutionality of the Act was not immediately settled . In Myers v. United States , 272 U.S. 52 ( 1926 ) , the Supreme Court held that Congress could not limit the President 's power to remove an executive officer ( the Postmaster General ) , but in Humphrey 's Executor v. United States , 295 U.S. 602 ( 1935 ) it upheld Congress 's authority to restrict the President 's power to remove officers of the Federal Trade Commission , an `` administrative body ( that ) can not in any proper sense be characterized as an arm or eye of the executive . '' Congress may repeal the legislation that authorizes the appointment of an executive officer . But it `` can not reserve for itself the power of an officer charged with the execution of the laws except by impeachment . '' Congress has from time to time changed the number of justices in the Supreme Court . Clause 3 : recess appointments ( edit ) President George W. Bush announcing the August 1 , 2005 recess appointment of John R. Bolton as the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations as U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice looks on . Main article : Recess appointment The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate , by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session . During recesses of the Senate , the President may appoint officers , but their commissions expire at the conclusion of the Senate 's next session . Section 3 : Presidential responsibilities ( edit ) He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union , and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may , on extraordinary Occasions , convene both Houses , or either of them , and in Case of Disagreement between them , with Respect to the Time of Adjournment , he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed , and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States . Clause 1 : State of the Union ( edit ) 2011 State of the Union Address given by former President Barack Obama The President must give the Congress information on the `` State of the Union '' `` from time to time . '' This is called the State of the Union Clause . Originally , Presidents personally delivered annual addresses to Congress . Thomas Jefferson , who felt that the procedure resembled the Speech from the Throne delivered by British monarchs , chose instead to send written messages to Congress for reading by clerks . Jefferson 's procedure was followed by future Presidents until Woodrow Wilson reverted to the former procedure of personally addressing Congress , which has continued to this day . Kesavan and Sidak explain the purpose of the State of the Union clause : `` The State of the Union Clause imposes an executive duty on the President . That duty must be discharged periodically . The President 's assessment of the State of the Union must be publicized to Congress , and thus to the nation . The publication of the President 's assessment conveys information to Congress - information uniquely gleaned from the President 's perspective in his various roles as Commander - in - Chief , chief law enforcer , negotiator with foreign powers , and the like - that shall aid the legislature in public deliberation on matters that may justify the enactment of legislation because of their national importance . '' Clause 2 : making recommendations to Congress ( edit ) The president has the power and duty to recommend , for the consideration of Congress , such measures which the president deems as `` necessary and expedient '' . At his inauguration George Washington declared in his Inaugural Address : `` By the article establishing the executive department it is made the duty of the President ' to recommend to your consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient . ' '' This is the Recommendation Clause . Kesavan and Sidak explain the purpose of the Recommendation clause : `` The Recommendation Clause also imposes an executive duty on the President . His recommendations respect the equal dignity of Congress and thus embody the anti-royalty sentiment that ignited the American Revolution and subsequently stripped the trappings of monarchy away from the new chief executive . Through his recommendations to Congress , the President speaks collectively for the People as they petition Government for a redress of grievances , and thus his recommendations embody popular sovereignty . The President tailors his recommendations so that their natural implication is the enactment of new legislation , rather than some other action that Congress might undertake . Finally , the President shall have executive discretion to recommend measures of his choosing . '' Sidak explained that there is a connection between the Recommendation clause and the Petition Clause of the 1st Amendment : `` Through his performance of the duty to recommend measures to Congress , the President functions as the agent of a diffuse electorate who seek the redress of grievances . To muzzle the President , therefore , is to diminish the effectiveness of this right expressly reserved to the people under the first amendment . '' Kesavan and Sidak also cited a Professor Bybee who stated in this context : `` The Recommendation Clause empowers the President to represent the people before Congress , by recommending measures for the reform of government , for the general welfare , or for the redress of grievances . The Right of Petition Clause prevents Congress from abridging the right of the people to petition for a redress of grievances . '' The Recommendation clause imposes a duty , but its performance rests solely with the President . Congress possesses no power to compel the President to recommend , as he alone is the `` judge '' of what is `` necessary and expedient . '' Unlike the Necessary and Proper Clause of Article I , which limits Congress 's discretion to carrying out only its delegated powers , the phrase `` necessary and expedient '' implies a wider range of discretion for the President . Because this is a political question , there has been little judicial involvement with the President 's actions under the clause as long as Presidents have not tried to extend their legislative powers . In Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer ( 1952 ) , the Supreme Court noted that the Recommendations Clause serves as a reminder that the President can not make law by himself : `` The power to recommend legislation , granted to the President , serves only to emphasize that it is his function to recommend and that it is the function of the Congress to legislate . '' The Court made a similar point in striking down the line - item veto in Clinton v. City of New York ( 1998 ) . When President Bill Clinton attempted to shield the records of the President 's Task Force on Health Care Reform as essential to his functions under the Recommendations Clause , a federal circuit court rejected the argument and noted in Ass'n of American Physicians & Surgeons v. Clinton ( 1993 ) : `` ( T ) he Recommendation Clause is less an obligation than a right . The President has the undisputed authority to recommend legislation , but he need not exercise that authority with respect to any particular subject or , for that matter , any subject . '' Clause 3 : calling Congress into extraordinary session ; adjourning Congress ( edit ) To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session , the President is permitted to call extraordinary sessions of one or both Houses of Congress . If the two Houses can not agree on a date for adjournment , the President may adjourn both Houses to such a time as befits the circumstances . The last time this power was exercised was in 1948 , when President Harry S Truman called a special session of Congress . That was the twenty - seventh time in American history that a president convened such a session . Following the widespread adoption of transcontinental air travel in the second half of the twentieth century , Congress began meeting year - round . Since that time , it has always been in session on every occasion when the President might otherwise have perceived the need to call Congress into extraordinary session . Clause 4 : receiving foreign Representatives ( edit ) The President receives all foreign Ambassadors . This clause of the Constitution , known as the Reception Clause , has been interpreted to imply that the President possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy , and to provide support for the President 's exclusive authority to grant recognition to a foreign government . Clause 5 : caring for the Faithful execution of the law ( edit ) The President must `` take care that the laws be faithfully executed . '' This clause in the Constitution imposes a duty on the President to enforce the laws of the United States and is called the Take Care Clause , also known as the Faithful Execution Clause or Faithfully Executed Clause . This clause is meant to ensure that a law is faithfully executed by the President even if he disagrees with the purpose of that law . Addressing the North Carolina ratifying convention , William Maclaine declared that the Faithful Execution Clause was `` one of the ( Constitution 's ) best provisions . '' If the President `` takes care to see the laws faithfully executed , it will be more than is done in any government on the continent ; for I will venture to say that our government , and those of the other states , are , with respect to the execution of the laws , in many respects mere ciphers . '' President George Washington interpreted this clause as imposing on him a unique duty to ensure the execution of federal law . Discussing a tax rebellion , Washington observed , `` it is my duty to see the Laws executed : to permit them to be trampled upon with impunity would be repugnant to ( that duty . ) '' According to former United States Assistant Attorney General Walter E. Dellinger III , the Supreme Court and the Attorneys General have long interpreted the Take Care Clause to mean that the President has no inherent constitutional authority to suspend the enforcement of the laws , particularly of statutes . The Take Care Clause demands that the President obey the law , the Supreme Court said in Humphrey 's Executor v. United States , and repudiates any notion that he may dispense with the law 's execution . In Printz v. United States , 521 U.S. 898 ( 1997 ) , the Supreme Court explained how the President executes the law : `` The Constitution does not leave to speculation who is to administer the laws enacted by Congress ; the President , it says , `` shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed , '' Art . II , § 3 , personally and through officers whom he appoints ( save for such inferior officers as Congress may authorize to be appointed by the `` Courts of Law '' or by `` the Heads of Departments '' with other presidential appointees ) , Art . II , § 2 . '' The President may not prevent a member of the executive branch from performing a ministerial duty lawfully imposed upon him by Congress . ( See Marbury v. Madison ( 1803 ) ; and Kendall v. United States ex rel . Stokes ( 1838 ) ) . Nor may the President take an action not authorized either by the Constitution or by a lawful statute . ( See Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer ( 1952 ) ) . Finally , the President may not refuse to enforce a constitutional law , or `` cancel '' certain appropriations , for that would amount to an extra-constitutional veto or suspension power . The President , while having to enforce the law , also possesses wide discretion in deciding how and even when to enforce laws . He also has a range of interpretive discretion in deciding the meaning of laws he must execute . When an appropriation provides discretion , the President can gauge when and how appropriated moneys can be spent most efficiently . Some Presidents have claimed the authority under this clause to impound money appropriated by Congress . President Jefferson , for example , delayed the expenditure of money appropriated for the purchase of gunboats for over a year . President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his successors sometimes refused outright to expend appropriated money . The Supreme Court , however , has held that impoundments without Congressional authorization are unconstitutional . It has been asserted that the President 's responsibility in the `` faithful '' execution of the laws entitles him to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus . Article One provides that the privilege may not be suspended save during times of rebellion or invasion , but it does not specify who may suspend the privilege . The Supreme Court ruled that Congress may suspend the privilege if it deems it necessary . During the American Civil War , President Abraham Lincoln suspended the privilege , but , owing to the vehement opposition he faced , obtained congressional authorization for the same . Since then , the privilege of the writ has only been suspended upon the express authorization of Congress . In Mississippi v. Johnson , 71 U.S. 475 ( 1867 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the judiciary may not restrain the President in the execution of laws . In that case the Supreme Court refused to entertain a request for an injunction preventing President Andrew Johnson from executing the Reconstruction Acts , which were claimed to be unconstitutional . The Court found that `` ( t ) he Congress is the legislative department of the government ; the President is the executive department . Neither can be restrained in its action by the judicial department ; though the acts of both , when performed , are , in proper cases , subject to its cognizance . '' Thus , the courts can not bar the passage of a law by Congress , though it may strike down such a law as unconstitutional . A similar construction applies to the executive branch . Clause 6 : officers ' commissions ( edit ) The President commissions `` all the Officers of the United States . '' These include officers in both military and foreign service . ( Under Article I , Section 8 , the States have authority for `` the Appointment of the Officers ... of the ( State ) Militia ... `` ) The presidential authority to commission officers had a large impact on the 1803 case Marbury v. Madison , where outgoing Federalist President John Adams feverishly signed many commissions to the judiciary on his final day in office , hoping to , as incoming Democratic - Republican President Thomas Jefferson put it , `` ( retire ) into the judiciary as a stronghold . '' However , in his haste , Adams ' Secretary of State neglected to have all the commissions delivered . Incoming President Jefferson was enraged with Adams , and ordered his Secretary of State , James Madison , to refrain from delivering the remaining commissions . William Marbury took the matter to the Supreme Court , where the famous Marbury was decided . Section 4 : impeachment ( edit ) Depiction of the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson , in 1868 , Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding . Main article : Impeachment in the United States The President , Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States , shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for , and Conviction of , Treason , Bribery , or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors . The Constitution also allows for involuntary removal from office . The President , Vice-President , Cabinet Secretaries , and other executive officers , as well as judges , may be impeached by the House of Representatives and tried in the Senate . Any official convicted by impeachment is immediately removed from office . The Senate may also choose to bar the removed official from holding any federal office in the future . No other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding , but the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges . See also ( edit ) Unitary executive theory References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The U.S. Constitution With Declaration of Independence , US Government Printing Office '' ( PDF ) . gpo.gov . Retrieved May 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Prakash , Sai Prakash . `` Essays on Article II : Executive Vesting Clause '' . The Heritage Foundation . ^ Jump up to : `` The Electoral College '' . ncsl.org . Retrieved May 17 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Joint Congressional Committee on Presidential Inaugurations '' . U.S. Senate . Retrieved November 10 , 2006 . Jump up ^ 5 U.S.C. § 3331 Jump up ^ Cf : Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer , 343 U.S. 579,637 ( 1952 ) ( Jackson , J. , concurring ) ( `` When the President acts pursuant to an express or implied authorization from Congress , '' his actions are `` supported by the strongest of presumptions and the widest latitude of judicial interpretation , and the burden of persuasion ... rest ( s ) heavily upon any who might attack it . '' ) . Jump up ^ Boumediene v. Bush , 553 U.S. 723 , 797 ( 2008 ) ( `` ( M ) ost federal judges ( do not ) begin the day with briefings that describe new and serious threats to our Nation and its people . '' ) . Jump up ^ Woods , Thomas ( July 7 , 2005 ) Presidential War Powers , LewRockwell.com Jump up ^ Woods , Thomas ( 2013 ) . `` Presidential War Powers : The Constitutional Answer '' . Liberty Classrooom . Retrieved September 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Gaziano , Todd . `` Essays on Article II : Opinion Clause '' . The Heritage Foundation . Jump up ^ Biddle , at 486 Jump up ^ United States Senate . `` Treaties '' . senate.gov . Jump up ^ United States Library of Congress ( February 15 , 2011 ) . `` Primary Documents in American History Treaty of Alliance with France '' . loc.gov . Jump up ^ John H. Haswell , University of Minnesota ; United States Department of State ( 2010 ) . Treaties and Conventions Concluded Between the United States of America Since July 4 , 1776 . google.books.com . pp. 1,232 . Jump up ^ Goldwater v. Carter , 444 U.S. 996 ( 1979 ) Jump up ^ Bowsher v. Synar , 478 U.S. 714 ( 1986 ) ^ Jump up to : Vasan Kesavan and J. Gregory Sidak ( 2002 ) . `` The Legislator - In - Chief '' . William and Mary Law Review . 44 ( 1 ) . Retrieved June 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Sidak , Gregory ( August 1989 ) . `` The Recommendation Clause '' . Georgetown Law Journal . 77 ( 6 ) : 2079 -- 2135 . SSRN 296114 . ^ Jump up to : Kesavan , Vasan . `` The Heritage Guide to the Constitution : Recommendations Clause '' . The Heritage Foundation . Retrieved October 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ U.S. Senate Turnip Day Session ( January 5 , 2011 ) . Jump up ^ United States v. Curtiss - Wright Export Corp. , 299 U.S. 304 ( 1936 ) , characterized the President as the `` sole organ of the nation in its external relations , '' an interpretation criticized by Louis Fisher of the Library of Congress . Jump up ^ Zivotofsky v. Kerry , 576 U.S. ___ ( 2015 ) . Jump up ^ `` Article II , Section 3 , U.S. Constitution '' . law.cornell.edu . Legal Information Institute . 2012 . Retrieved August 7 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Take Care Clause Law & Legal Definition '' . USLegal.com . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Take Care Clause . `` Take Care Clause '' . The Heritage Guide to the Constitution . The Heritage Foundation . Retrieved October 12 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Prepared by Devotion Garner . Updated by Cheryl Nyberg . `` Popular Names of Constitutional Provisions '' . Gallagher Library of the University of Washington School of Law . Retrieved November 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Chapter 12 - The Presidency Flashcards '' . Flashcard Machine . January 16 , 2012 . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Walter E. Dellinger III ( September 7 , 1995 ) . `` CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS ON FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PARTICIPATION IN BINDING ARBITRATION '' . United States Department of Justice . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kinkopf , Neil ( September -- October 2005 ) . `` FURIOUS GEORGE - The belligerence of the Bush Administration in pursuing expansive power has a long Republican pedigree '' . Legal Affairs - The magazine at the intersection of Law and Life . Retrieved July 5 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Sai Prakash . `` Take Care Clause '' . The Heritage Guide to the Constitution . The Heritage Foundation . Retrieved August 27 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Johnson , at 500 Jump up ^ An example of this is Alcee Hastings who was removed from a federal judgeship , but was not barred from serving in another federal office . He was later elected to , and currently serves in , the House of Representatives . Jump up ^ Cf . Ritter v. United States , 677 F. 2d 957 ( 2d . Cir. 19 ) 84 Ct . Cl. 293 , 300 ( Ct . Cl. 1936 ) ( `` While the Senate in one sense acts as a court on the trial of an impeachment , it is essentially a political body and in its actions is influenced by the views of its members on the public welfare . '' ) ; STAFF OF H. COMM . ON THE JUDICIARY , 93D CONG. , CONSTITUTIONAL GROUNDS FOR PRESIDENTIAL IMPEACHMENT 24 ( Comm . Print 1974 ) ( `` The purpose of impeachment is not personal punishment ; its function is primarily to maintain constitutional government . '' ) ( citation omitted ) , reprinted in 3 LEWIS DESCHLER , DESCHLER 'S PRECEDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES , H.R. DOC . NO . 94 ‒ 661 ch. 14 , app . at 2269 ( 1977 ) . External links ( edit ) Kilman , Johnny and George Costello ( Eds ) . ( 2000 ) . The Constitution of the United States of America : Analysis and Interpretation . CRS Annotated Constitution : Article 2 Mount , Steve . ( 2003 ) . `` Presidential Pardons . 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4195749532257619299 | The End of the F***ing World | The End of the F * * * ing World - wikipedia The End of the F * * * ing World The End of the F * * * ing World Title card from the premiere episode Genre Dark comedy Comedy - drama Based on The End of the Fucking World by Charles S. Forsman Written by Charlie Covell Directed by Jonathan Entwistle Lucy Tcherniak Starring Alex Lawther Jessica Barden Gemma Whelan Wunmi Mosaku Steve Oram Christine Bottomley Navin Chowdhry Barry Ward Composer ( s ) Graham Coxon Country of origin United Kingdom Original language ( s ) English No. of series No. of episodes 8 ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Ed Macdonald Murray Ferguson Andy Baker Petra Fried Dominic Buchanan Jonathan Entwistle Producer ( s ) Kate Ogborn Cinematography Justin Brown Ben Fordesman Running time 19 -- 22 minutes Production company ( s ) Clerkenwell Films Dominic Buchanan Productions Release Original network Channel 4 All 4 Picture format 1080i ( 16 : 9 HDTV ) 4K ( Ultra HD ) Audio format Stereo 5.1 Original release 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) -- present ( present ) External links Website The End of the F * * * ing World is a British dark comedy - drama television programme , based on a graphic novel of the same name by Charles Forsman . The eight - part programme premiered its first episode on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 24 October 2017 , after which all eight episodes were released on All 4 . It was a co-production with Netflix , who released it internationally on 5 January 2018 . The programme follows James ( Alex Lawther ) , a 17 - year - old who believes himself to be a psychopath , and Alyssa ( Jessica Barden ) , a rebellious classmate who sees in James a chance to escape from her tumultuous home life . The show is based on Forsman 's mini-comics The End of the Fucking World , which were collected into a book in 2013 . Series creator Jonathan Entwistle contacted him about making a film , and a short was made in 2014 . Instead , an eight - part serial was commissioned , with filming beginning in April 2017 . It was written by Charlie Covell , and episodes were directed by Entwistle and Lucy Tcherniak . In August 2018 , Netflix renewed the programme for a second series . The programme has been met with critical acclaim , and has been praised for its writing , execution and subject matter , as well as for Lawther and Barden 's performances . It was nominated for the 2018 British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series . Contents 1 Premise 2 Cast and characters 2.1 Main 2.2 Guest 3 Episodes 4 Production 4.1 Development 4.2 Filming 4.3 Continuation 5 Release 6 Reception 6.1 Critical response 6.2 Accolades 7 References 8 External links Premise ( edit ) James is a 17 - year - old who believes he is a psychopath . He kills animals as a hobby , but grows bored of the practice . He decides he wants to try killing a human . He settles on Alyssa , a mouthy , rebellious 17 - year - old classmate with issues of her own . She proposes they run away together , hoping for an adventure away from her turbulent home - life , and James agrees with the intention of finding an opportunity to kill her . They embark on a road trip across England , and begin to develop a relationship after a series of mishaps . Cast and characters ( edit ) Main ( edit ) Alex Lawther as James , a 17 - year - old who believes he is a psychopath ; the disturbed love interest of Alyssa . Jack Veal portrays a young James . Jessica Barden as Alyssa , a rebellious teenage girl . Initially James ' intended victim but later his love interest . Holly Beechey portrays a young Alyssa . Gemma Whelan as DC Eunice Noon , Darego 's police partner . Wunmi Mosaku as DC Teri Darego , Noon 's stern police partner . Steve Oram as Phil , James ' caring father . Christine Bottomley as Gwen , Alyssa 's mother . Navin Chowdhry as Tony , Alyssa 's abusive stepfather . Barry Ward as Leslie Foley , Alyssa 's estranged drug - dealing father . Guest ( edit ) Kierston Wareing as Debbie , Leslie 's ex-girlfriend with whom he has a child . Geoff Bell as Martin , a family man and creep who gives Alyssa and James a ride . Alex Sawyer as Topher , a young man Alyssa meets and attempts to engage in sexual activity with . Jonathan Aris as Dr. Clive Koch , an author , professor , serial killer and James ' first human victim . Eileen Davies as Flora , Clive 's mother . Earl Cave as Frodo , a miserable petrol station employee . Felicity Montagu as the manager of the petrol station . Alex Beckett as Jonno , one of Leslie 's buyers . Leon Annor as Emil , an imposing store security guard whom Alyssa is caught by . Matt King as DC Eddie Onslow . Kelly Harrison as James ' dead mother . Zerina Imsirovic as Alyssa 's baby sister . Episodes ( edit ) No . Episode Directed by Written by Original release date Episode 1 Jonathan Entwistle Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) James is a 17 - year - old who believes he is a psychopath , having once intentionally burned his hand in a deep fryer in order to feel something , and has been killing animals since he was 8 years old . At school , he encounters Alyssa , a rebellious new schoolmate and decides that he will kill her next . He gets closer to her by feigning romantic interest and the two start dating . When Alyssa asks James to perform cunnilingus on her the next day , he begins preparing his knife and working out how he will kill her . However she arrives late as she was stuck at a party at her house where her stepfather tells her how it will be better if she just left . After this incident , she reaches James 's home later than planned , and blurts out her desire to leave town with or without him and asks if he is in , wanting him to say yes . Resolving that he could kill her later , he accepts and steals his father Phil 's car and punches him in the face , something he has always wanted to do . Episode 2 Jonathan Entwistle Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) With their newfound freedom , Alyssa and James go play laser tag but end up having to dine and dash at a restaurant after realising they have spent all their money . After crashing their car , they hitchhike in the van of Martin , a middle - aged man who Alyssa does not take kindly to . While in the toilets of the restaurant they have stopped at for food , Martin follows James and asks about his burnt hand , before smelling it and putting it on his crotch ; James is submissive , despite being disgusted by it . Alyssa sees this and blackmails Martin into giving her his wallet . After booking a hotel room , Alyssa goes to the bathroom and cries , while James waits with his knife by the door , hesitantly . He does not try to kill her . Alyssa calls home and her stepfather Tony answers . He denies her request to speak to her mother , Gwen , implying his dominance over her mother . Alyssa asks James whether he wants her or just goes along with her ; he replies that he wants her . She decides to go see her biological father , Leslie , who she has not seen since she was 8 years old and James agrees to join her . Episode 3 Jonathan Entwistle Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) After leaving the hotel , Alyssa argues against buying train tickets to her father 's house , internally fearing that he will not recognise or welcome her . The duo break into the spacious and empty house of author Clive Koch . Later that day , Alyssa attempts to give James a blowjob but leaves , angrily , when a picture of Koch puts him off . During her walk , Alyssa meets Topher and brings him to the house , vindictively announcing to James that she will have sex with Topher . Distraught , he looks around the house and finds Polaroids and a camcorder with footage of victims , revealing Koch to be a serial rapist . Meanwhile , Alyssa becomes disinterested in Topher and stops before intercourse . Topher leaves angrily . While Alyssa is asleep , James tries to kill her , but he can not because he knows he is falling in love with her . Koch returns home and suspecting a break - in , arms himself ; James hides under the bed . When Koch questions Alyssa upon finding her in bed , she lies and says she is alone . Koch becomes malevolent , attempting to rape her . James stabs him in the neck with a knife , killing Koch , and saving Alyssa . Episode 4 Jonathan Entwistle Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) After unsuccessfully trying to move Koch 's body out of the bedroom , James and Alyssa meticulously clean the house to remove evidence of their stay . James shows Alyssa the Polaroids and footage proving that Koch might have hurt her , and they resolve to leave the evidence by his body . James hides the knife in the pool drain . When she questions him about the knife , he does not answer . Koch 's mother , Flora , arrives at the house and discovers his body ; she destroys the Polaroids but not the footage . The police , led by detective constables Eunice Noon and Teri Darego , investigate and later question Topher where he reveals Alyssa 's and James 's identity and presence at the house . They decide to put out a request for sightings or crimes `` involving two teenagers '' while putting Alyssa and James on the Missing Persons list . Despite James 's attempts , Alyssa becomes distrustful of him and deserts him . He begins to realise the increasing influence of his emotions . Paying a group of teenagers to beat him up , he also realises his growing interest in her . James decides to report a murder to police , coming to the realization that he is not in fact a psychopath . 5 Episode 5 Jonathan Entwistle & Lucy Tcherniak Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) At the police station , James changes his mind about reporting Koch 's murder and instead describes his mother 's suicide as the `` murder '' he was referring to . In a flashback , his mother , Vanessa , killed herself in front of him eleven years before by driving her car into a pond . Thinking of Alyssa , James leaves the police station and returns to the cafe . Meanwhile , Phil is questioned by Noon and Darego about James , as well as informed about his car . He also confirms the inclusion of Alyssa . They also question Tony , who is rather nonchalant and self - absorbed , before moving to Gwen about Alyssa . Concurrently , Alyssa is caught by Emil , a security officer , while attempting to shoplift clean underwear , but is eventually let go . She returns to the cafe to find James waiting . Although without money , both reconcile and decide to go to Leslie . Meanwhile , investigators find James 's knife at Koch 's house . 6 Episode 6 Lucy Tcherniak Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) James hotwires a car and the duo begin making their way to Alyssa 's father 's house . They stop at a petrol station after running low on fuel . When Jocelyn , the petrol station manager , begins suspecting that they stole the car and have no money , James fakes carrying a gun to lock her in the toilet with the help of Jocelyn 's co-worker , Frodo . However , when he wants to join , they wait until he is distracted to dash . Noon and Donaghue question Flora again about Clive , this time with years - old accusations of sexual assault against him . She rejects the allegations as lies and insists that the two leave . On their way to Leslie 's , Alyssa calls Gwen and tells her that she will never return home . At the police station , Flora gives Noon the camcorder , having a change of heart . When Noon raises the possibility that the killing was in self - defence , Darego says that this would result in a count of manslaughter instead . After finding Leslie has moved out of his previous home , James and Alyssa eventually make it to his coastside mobile home . 7 Episode 7 Lucy Tcherniak Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) James gives Alyssa and Leslie space while they reconcile with each other . Leslie is revealed to be a drug dealer , as well as a non-conforming individual himself . Meanwhile , Tony , Gwen and Phil are emotionally shaken after being shown CCTV footage of the petrol station robbery . Both Darego and Noon plan for the police to stakeout Leslie 's former residence , assuming that both have not arrived . On the drive to Leslie 's former residence , it becomes clear that Darego 's law - abiding morality and stubbornness are clashing against Noon 's open - minded and sympathetic morals . As Alyssa and Leslie reconnect at a nearby bar , James begins feeling distant to Alyssa . At Leslie 's former residence , Debbie denies seeing the duo or knowing Leslie 's whereabouts to Noon and Darego . She goes to the bar to demand support for their illegitimate son , Milton . When questioned by Alyssa , Leslie takes off in his truck , running over a dog in the process . Although he has killed many animals before , James is unable to euthanise it with a rock ; Alyssa does it instead . Bitter , Debbie reveals to Noon Leslie 's location , later , and she drives there without Darego . Leslie sees a news report about Alyssa and James on the television . 8 Episode 8 Lucy Tcherniak Charlie Covell 24 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 24 ) James and Alyssa bury the dog at the beach , then passionately and sincerely make out . At dawn , ruminating about their current situation , they decide to take the boat owned by Leslie and leave the country . When they ask Leslie for the boat keys , he reveals to them his knowledge of their crime then secretly calls 999 and tries to induce their confession . James deduces this and confesses while taking the blame upon himself . Noon , listening in , arrives at the scene and tries to convince both to be willingly arrested for manslaughter while Leslie tries to convince Alyssa to let James be arrested instead . Alyssa asks Noon if she were to go with her idea , would James and her still be together . When Noon tells that that would be unlikely , Alyssa knocks her out with Leslie 's shotgun , takes his boat keys and runs to the boat with James , only to find that the tide had gone out . With the police armed response unit closing in , James knocks Alyssa down with the gun in an attempt to take all the blame and runs across the beach . In a voiceover , James claims that he has realized what people mean to each other . A gunshot is heard as the episode then fades to black . Jump up ^ The first episode had a special premiere on Channel 4 alongside its release on All 4 with the rest of the programme . Production ( edit ) Development ( edit ) The series was based on the work of the same name by Charles Forsman . Originally self - published as a series of mini-comics , the series was published as a graphic novel by Fantagraphics Books in 2013 . It was republished in hardback in 2017 , in anticipation of the television series . While Forsman was publishing the mini-comics , Jonathan Entwistle contacted him about adapting it to a visual format -- the original idea was to make an American film , and later a web series was considered . A film was pitched to Film4 , and Entwistle was given funding for a short . Made in 2014 , it featured some cast and crew who continued their roles for the television series . Entwistle directed and Dominic Buchanan was producer ; Jessica Barden played Alyssa . However , instead of Alex Lawther , James was played by Craig Roberts . Though the short was well - received , no production companies wanted to invest in the idea as a full - length film . Entwistle and Buchanan decided to make a television series with Clerkenwell Films , following which Channel 4 and then Netflix became involved . Forsman had no official role in the show 's production , wanting to continue working on his comics , though Entwistle would regularly consult him and keep him updated . The programme 's plot differs from that of Forsman 's comics . In print , the two kill a satanist serial killer , whose wife was a police officer ; instead the television series features police officers Eunice Noon and Teri Darego , and does not show the serial killer to be a satanist . Another major difference is the ending of the graphic novel : the satanist police officer chases after James , and the two begin to attack each other , while police try to break up the fight . There is then a gunshot . In the final scene , Alyssa 's mother talks about her daughter being safe from James , while Alyssa is seen carving the name `` JAMES '' into her arm . Some critics interpreted this to mean that James was dead , but Forsman sees the ending as ambiguous . Filming ( edit ) The first series began filming in April 2017 and concluded a few weeks before the show 's release in October 2017 . Though filmed in England , the programme has an American tone to it ; Entwistle was inspired by Twin Peaks and Fargo . Episodes were filmed largely in suburban areas and across Surrey , with locations such as Woking , Bracknell and Longcross Studios . Another filming location was Leysdown - on - Sea on the Isle of Sheppey . Entwistle uses mostly close - up shots , particularly in early episodes where most frames feature only one character . He uses this for deadpan humour , by moving from face to face to get shots of characters ' reactions . The series is set in the present day , but Entwistle aimed to make it feel like it could have been set `` any time from 1988 to 2006 '' . Additionally , diners have a 1970s - style design , and the soundtrack features songs from the 1950s , 60s and 70s , along with original music from Graham Coxon , the founding member of Blur . Entwistle describes Coxon 's scores as `` guitar - based suburban noir '' , and notes that more of his music is used in later episodes for the police officers . Continuation ( edit ) The first series covered the entirety of the storyline in Forsman 's original comics . On 25 January 2018 , Jonathan Entwistle spoke of the potential for a second series . He confirmed that `` We 're exploring and we 're seeing what we can do to expand the world and see where we get to . '' Entwistle then went on to say that Netflix was enthusiastic about a second series of the show if one could be conceived . Writer Charlie Covell said `` I think there are a number of stories we could tell '' and that she would `` love to write more '' . Actor Alex Lawther stated in an interview that he would be `` very excited '' for a second series , as it would give Covell `` a chance to explore something from her imagination '' . A second series was announced on 21 August 2018 on the official Channel 4 Twitter account . Release ( edit ) The eight - part programme premiered its first episode on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 24 October 2017 , after which all eight episodes were released on All 4 . The End of the F * * * ing World was a co-production with Netflix who exclusively released it internationally on 5 January 2018 . On that weekend , sales of the graphic novel rose considerably , with Fantagraphics Books selling out of the current print run according to Forsman . Reception ( edit ) Critical response ( edit ) The End of the F * * * ing World currently holds an approval rating of 98 % on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 44 reviews , with an average rating of 8.21 / 10 . The site 's consensus states , `` Misanthropy and humor blend perfectly in this romantically nihilistic show that proves that falling in love can feel like The End of the F * * * ing World . '' Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 81 out of 100 , based on 12 critics , indicating `` universal acclaim '' . Reviewer Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter lauded the programme 's writing , characters , and soundtrack , as well as praising the performances of Alex Lawther and Jessica Barden , calling it a `` pitch - black , eight - episode comedy gem of a UK import '' . Kelly Lawler of USA Today called it `` batty fun '' , also praising Lawther and Barden 's performances while praising the programme 's surreal concept and execution . Accolades ( edit ) Year Award Result Ref . 2018 British Academy Television Awards Best Drama Series Nominated Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series ( Half - Hour ) Pending References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Bafta TV Awards 2018 '' . BAFTA . Retrieved 15 May 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` E4 and Netflix cast Black Mirror 's Alex Lawther in dark teen thriller The End of the F * * * ing World '' . Digital Spy. 24 September 2016 . Retrieved 24 September 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` The End of the F * * * ing World press pack '' . Channel 4 . 11 October 2017 . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The End of The F * * * ing World -- Reprinted ! '' . Fantagraphics Books . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Steven , Rachael ( 6 November 2017 ) . `` Making The End of the F * * * ing World '' . Creative Review . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` It 's the End Of The F * * * ing World for E4 '' . Chortle. 24 April 2017 . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Lockett , Dee ( 12 January 2018 ) . `` The End of the F * * * ing World Star Jessica Barden on Paying Homage to the Pulp Fiction Dance '' . Vulture . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . Jump up ^ McCreesh , Louise ( 8 January 2018 ) . `` Did you know that The End of the F * * * ing World on Netflix is based on a short film ? '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Riesman , Abraham ( 23 January 2018 ) . `` The End of the F * * * ing World 's Charles Forsman on His Indie Comic Turning Into a Netflix Hit '' . Vulture . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . ^ Jump up to : Sandwell , Ian ( 9 January 2018 ) . `` The End of the F * * * ing World had a darker alternate ending in the original comic '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Kent Film Office . `` Kent Film Office The End of the F * * * ing World Article '' . ^ Jump up to : Houghton , Rianne ( 11 January 2018 ) . `` The End of the F * * * ing World season 2 IS possible , says star Alex Lawther '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 14 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Foutch , Haleigh ( 20 January 2018 ) . `` ' The End of the F * * * ing World ' Creator on Season 2 Conversations and Expanding the Story '' . Collider . Retrieved 13 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Miller , Julie ( 26 January 2018 ) . `` The End of the F * * * king World 's Alyssa May Be the Best Teen Heroine of 2018 '' . Vanity Fair . Retrieved 14 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Robert ( 21 August 2018 ) . `` ' The End of the F * * * ing World ' Renewed for Second Season '' . Variety . Retrieved 21 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Joest , Mick ( 2 January 2018 ) . `` The End Of The F * * * ing World Trailer : First Look At Netflix 's New Dark Comedy '' . CinemaBlend . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The End of the F * * ing World : Series 1 '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Retrieved 21 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The End of the F * * * ing World '' , Metacritic , retrieved 6 January 2018 Jump up ^ Lynch , John ( 9 January 2018 ) . `` Critics are in love with a new Netflix show that its CEO calls the ' most engaging addictive original ' in a long time '' . Business Insider . Retrieved 21 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Fienberg , Daniel ( 5 January 2018 ) . `` ' The End of the F * * * ing World ' review '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 5 January 2018 . Jump up ^ Lawler , Kelly ( 4 January 2018 ) . `` Review : Why Netflix 's ' The End of the ... World ' is batty fun '' . USA Today . Retrieved 5 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Television Drama Series in 2018 '' . BAFTA.org . Retrieved 21 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` The End Of The F * * * Ing World '' . Emmys.com . Retrieved 21 August 2018 . 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | when did the end of the effing world come out | [
"The End of the F***ing World is a British dark comedy-drama television programme, based on a graphic novel of the same name by Charles Forsman. The eight-part programme premiered its first episode on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 24 October 2017, after which all eight episodes were released on All 4. It was a co-production with Netflix, who released it internationally on 5 January 2018. The programme follows James (Alex Lawther), a 17-year-old who believes himself to be a psychopath, and Alyssa (Jessica Barden), a rebellious classmate who sees in James a chance to escape from her tumultuous home life.\n"
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"24 October 2017"
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4535280796178158728 | A Series of Unfortunate Events | A series of Unfortunate Events - wikipedia A series of Unfortunate Events This article is about the book series . For the film , see Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events . For the TV series , see A Series of Unfortunate Events ( TV series ) . A Series of Unfortunate Events The Bad Beginning The Reptile Room The Wide Window The Miserable Mill The Austere Academy The Ersatz Elevator The Vile Village The Hostile Hospital The Carnivorous Carnival The Slippery Slope The Grim Grotto The Penultimate Peril The End The Blank Book Author Lemony Snicket Illustrator Brett Helquist Cover artist Brett Helquist Country United States Language English Genre Gothic fiction , absurdist fiction , mystery , steampunk , comedy - drama , children 's fiction , black comedy Publisher HarperCollins EgmontUK Published September 30 , 1999 -- October 14 , 2006 A Series of Unfortunate Events is a series of thirteen children 's novels by Lemony Snicket , the pen name of American author Daniel Handler . The books follow the turbulent lives of Violet , Klaus , and Sunny Baudelaire . After their parents ' death in a fire , the children are placed in the custody of a murderous relative , Count Olaf , who attempts to steal their inheritance and , later , orchestrates numerous disasters with the help of his accomplices as the children attempt to flee . As the plot progresses , the Baudelaires gradually confront further mysteries surrounding their family and deep conspiracies involving a secret society known as V.F.D. , with connections to both Olaf and their parents . The series is narrated by Snicket , who dedicates each of his works to his deceased love interest , Beatrice , and often attempts to dissuade the reader from reading the Baudelaires ' story . Characterized by Victorian Gothic tones and absurdist textuality , the books are noted for their dark humor , sarcastic storytelling , and anachronistic elements , as well as frequent cultural and literary allusions . They have been classified as postmodern and metafictional writing , with the plot evolution throughout the later novels being cited as an exploration of the psychological process of transition from the idyllic innocence of childhood to the moral complexity of maturity . Likewise , the final installments of the series are also acknowledged for their escalatingly intricate ethical ambiguity toward philosophical ambivalence , as the nature of some of the Baudelaires ' actions becomes increasingly harder to discern from those of their antagonist counterparts and more characters are revealed to be responsible for permanent wrongdoing , despite their identification with the self - proclaimed good side of the tale . Since the release of the first novel , The Bad Beginning , in September 1999 , the books have gained significant popularity , critical acclaim , and commercial success worldwide , spawning a film , a video game , assorted merchandise and a television series on Netflix . The main thirteen books in the series have collectively sold more than 60 million copies and have been translated into 41 languages . Several companion books set in the same universe of the series have also been released , including Lemony Snicket : The Unauthorized Autobiography , The Beatrice Letters and the noir prequel tetralogy All the Wrong Questions , which chronicles Snicket 's youth . Contents ( hide ) 1 Synopsis 1.1 Setting 1.2 Plot 2 Origins 3 Genre 4 Recurring themes and concepts 4.1 Narration style 4.2 Thematic approaches 4.3 Transtextuality 4.4 Allusions 5 Distribution 5.1 Books 5.2 All the Wrong Questions 6 In other media 6.1 Television 6.2 Film 6.3 Video games 6.4 Board games 6.5 Card games 6.6 Audio 6.6. 1 Audio books 6.6. 2 Album 7 Reception 7.1 Reviews 7.2 Criticism 7.3 Sales 7.4 Awards 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Synopsis ( edit ) Setting ( edit ) The books seem to be set in an alternate , `` timeless '' world with stylistic similarities to both the 19th century and the 1930s , though with contemporary , and seemingly anachronistic scientific knowledge . For instance , in The Hostile Hospital , the Baudelaire children send a message via Morse code on a telegraph , yet in the general store they are in , there is fiber - optic cable for sale . An `` advanced computer '' appears in The Austere Academy ; this computer 's exact functions are never stated , as its only use in the book is to show a picture of Count Olaf . In a companion book to the series , The Unauthorized Autobiography , the computer is said to be capable of advanced forgery . The setting of the world has been compared to Edward Scissorhands in that it is `` suburban gothic '' . Although the film version sets the Baudelaires ' mansion in the city of Boston , Massachusetts , real places rarely appear in the books , although some are mentioned . For example , in The Ersatz Elevator , a book in Jerome and Esmé Squalor 's library was titled Trout , In France They 're Out ; there are also references to the fictional nobility of North American regions , specifically the Duchess of Winnipeg and the King of Arizona , perhaps allusions to the setting of Kurt Vonnegut 's novel Slapstick , which features similar North American fictional nobility . Interestingly , Vonnegut 's novel focuses on artificial family as the cure for loneliness and strife , which seems to also be the aim of the `` artificial family '' of V.F.D. Plot ( edit ) See also : List of A Series of Unfortunate Events characters The series follows the adventures of three siblings called the Baudelaire orphans . Snicket explains that very few positive things happen to the children . Violet Baudelaire , the eldest , is fourteen when the series begins and is an inventor . Klaus Baudelaire , the middle child , is twelve when the series begins ; he loves books and is an extraordinary speed reader with a first - class eidetic memory . Sunny Baudelaire is a baby in the beginning of the series , and enjoys biting things with her abnormally large teeth ; she develops a love for cooking later in the series . The children are orphaned after their parents are killed in a fire at the family mansion . In The Bad Beginning , they are sent to live with a distant relative named Count Olaf after briefly living with Mr. Poe , a banker in charge of the orphans ' affairs . The siblings discover that Count Olaf intends to get his hands on the enormous Baudelaire fortune , which Violet is to inherit when she reaches 18 years of age . In the first book , he attempts to marry Violet , pretending it is the storyline for his latest play , but the plan falls through when Violet uses her non-dominant hand to sign the marriage document . In the following six books , Olaf disguises himself , finds the children and , with help from his many accomplices , tries to steal their fortune , committing arson , murder and other crimes . In the eighth through twelfth books , the orphans adopt disguises while on the run from the police after Count Olaf frames them for one of his murders . The Baudelaires routinely try to get help from Mr. Poe , but he , like many of the adults in the series , is oblivious to the dangerous reality of the children 's situation . As the books continue , the children uncover more of the mystery surrounding their parents ' deaths and find that their parents were in a secret organization , V.F.D. , along with several other adults they meet . After the acronym first appears at the end of The Austere Academy , the siblings find several red herrings that share the initials . They then start to meet `` volunteers '' and gradually learn about the organization , although they discover several mysteries that are never explained . In The End , the children find a diary written by their parents that answers many of their questions but also raises many more . The children leave with another young orphan on a boat from a remote island at the end of the series , their fates left unknown . Origins ( edit ) Author Daniel Handler The author of the series , Daniel Handler ( who uses the pseudonym Lemony Snicket ) , has said in an interview with The A.V. Club that he decided to write a children 's story when he was trying to find a publisher for his first novel , The Basic Eight . One of the publishers , HarperCollins , passed on The Basic Eight , but they were interested in him writing a story for children . Handler thought it was a terrible idea at first , but met with the publishers to discuss the book . They challenged him to write the book he wished he could have read when he was 10 . He retooled a manuscript he had for a mock - Gothic book for adults , which became `` the story of children growing through all these terrible things '' , a concept which the publishers liked , to Handler 's surprise . The first book in the series was The Bad Beginning , released September 30 , 1999 . When asked in a Moment Magazine interview about the Baudelaire children and Handler 's own Jewish heritage he replied , `` Oh yeah ! Yes . The Baudelaires are Jewish ! I guess we would not know for sure but we would strongly suspect it , not only from their manner but from the occasional mention of a rabbi or bar mitzvah or synagogue . The careful reader will find quite a few rabbis . '' Genre ( edit ) This series is most commonly classified as children 's fiction , but it has also been classified in more specific genres such as gothic fiction , or some variety thereof , whether it is mock - gothic , a satire of gothic literature , neo-Victorian or `` suburban gothic '' . Another genre that the series has been described as is absurdist fiction , because of its strange characters , improbable storylines , and black comedy . Recurring themes and concepts ( edit ) The plots of the first seven books follow the same basic pattern : the Baudelaires go to a new guardian in a new location , where Count Olaf appears and attempts to steal their fortune . The books following pick up where the previous book ended . There are thirteen books in the series and each book has thirteen chapters . The last book in the series , The End , contains two stories : The End , which has 13 chapters , and a separate `` book '' that is titled Chapter Fourteen . The location of each book 's events is usually identified in the book 's title ; the first twelve book titles are alliterative . In most books , the children 's skills are used to help them defeat Count Olaf 's plots ; for instance , Violet invents a lockpick in The Reptile Room . Occasionally , the children 's roles switch or other characters use their skills to assist the Baudelaires ( e.g. Quigley 's cartography skills help Violet and Klaus in The Slippery Slope ) . Narration style ( edit ) Lemony Snicket Lemony Snicket frequently explains words and phrases in incongruous detail . When describing a word the reader may not be aware of , he typically says `` a word which here means ... , '' sometimes with a humorous definition , or one that is relevant only to the events at hand ( for example , he describes `` adversity '' as meaning `` Count Olaf '' ) . Despite the general absurdity of the books ' storyline , Lemony Snicket continuously maintains that the story is true and that it is his `` solemn duty '' to record it . Snicket often goes off into humorous or satirical asides , discussing his opinions or personal life . The details of his supposed personal life are largely absurd , incomplete , and not explained in detail . For example , Snicket claims to have been chased by an angry mob for 16 miles . Some details of his life are explained somewhat in a supplement to the series , Lemony Snicket : The Unauthorized Autobiography . Lemony Snicket 's narration and commentary is characteristically cynical and despondent . In the blurb for each book , Snicket warns of the misery the reader may experience in reading about the Baudelaire orphans and suggests abandoning the books altogether . However , he also provides ample comic relief with wry , dark humor . In the excerpt for The Grim Grotto , he writes : `` ... the horrors ( the Baudelaire children ) encounter are too numerous to list , and you would n't even want me to describe the worst of it , which includes mushrooms , a desperate search for something lost , a mechanical monster , a distressing message from a lost friend and tap - dancing . '' Snicket 's narration has been described as `` self - conscious '' and `` post-modern '' . Snicket translates for the youngest Baudelaire orphan , Sunny , who in the early books almost solely uses words or phrases that make sense only to her siblings . As the series progresses , her speech often contains disguised meanings . Some words are spelled phonetically : ' surchmi ' in The Slippery Slope and ' Kikbucit ? ' in The End ; some are spelled backwards : ' edasurc ' in The Carnivorous Carnival , and ' cigam ' in The Miserable Mill . Some contain references to culture or people : for instance , when Sunny says `` Busheney '' ( combining the last names of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney , presumably ) , it is followed by the definition of `` you are a vile man who has no regard for anyone else '' . Some words Sunny uses are foreign , such as `` Shalom '' , `` Sayonara '' or `` Arrete '' . Some are more complex , such as when she says `` Akrofil , meaning , ' they were not afraid of heights ' '' , which phonetically translates to acrophile , meaning one who loves heights . She begins to use standard English words towards the end of the books ; one of her longer sentences being `` I 'm not a baby '' in The Slippery Slope . When describing a character whom the Baudelaires have met before , Snicket often describes the character first and does not reveal the name of the character until they have been thoroughly described . Lemony Snicket starts each book with a `` post-modern dissection of the reading experience '' before linking it back to how he presents the story of the Baudelaires and what their current situation is . Snicket often uses alliteration to name locations , as well as book titles , throughout the story . Many of the books start with a theme being introduced that is continually referenced throughout the book -- such as the repeated comparisons of the words `` nervous '' and `` anxious '' in The Ersatz Elevator , the consistent use of the phrase `` where there 's smoke , there 's fire '' in The Slippery Slope and the descriptions of the water cycle in The Grim Grotto . Thematic approaches ( edit ) A theme that becomes more prevalent as the series continues is the simultaneous importance and worthlessness of secrets . In the final book , The End , the concept is especially important , as demonstrated by a several - page - long discussion of the phrase `` in the dark . '' The children hear of a massive schism within the organization of V.F.D. , which was once noble but became filled with corruption and split into two sides , `` volunteers '' and `` villains . '' While many of the critical plot points are given answers , Snicket explains that no story can be fully devoid of questions as every story is intertwined with numerous others and every character 's history is shared in a great web of mysteries and unfortunate events that make up the world 's legacy , making it impossible for anyone to know all the answers to every question . The Baudelaire children and Count Olaf 's story is said to be merely a fragment of a much bigger story between numerous characters with the central connection being the organization of V.F.D. Social commentary is a major element in the books , which often comment on the seemingly inescapable follies of human nature . The books consistently present the Baudelaire children as free - thinking and independent , while the adults around them obey authority and succumb to mob psychology , peer pressure , ambition , and other social ills . A high account is given to learning : those who are `` well read '' are often sympathetic characters , while those who shun knowledge are villains . The books have strong themes of moral relativism , as the Baudelaires become more confused during the course of the series about the difference between right and wrong , feeling they have done wicked things themselves and struggling with the question of whether the end justifies the means . In the final book , in an allusion to the Book of Genesis , a snake offers the children a life - giving apple ( which the other characters in The End refuse to eat despite the fact that it is a cure for a fatal illness ) . Evil characters are shown to have sympathetic characteristics and often have led difficult lives . Similarly , good characters ' flaws become major problems . Almost every major character in the books has lived a life as difficult as that of the Baudelaires , especially the villains . The books highlight the inevitability of temptation and moral decision - making , regardless of external situation . This indicates that regardless of one 's outside influences , one always has the final choice in whether they will be good or bad . Characters that make brave decisions to fight back and take charge are almost always `` good , '' and characters that just go along end up as `` bad . '' However , some characters suggest that people are neither good nor bad , but a mix of both . Transtextuality ( edit ) There is a full page picture at the end of each book , showing a hint or clue about the content of the next book . This may be showing a flyer or piece of paper drifting by , though sometimes by a significant object : a snake appears at the end of The Bad Beginning , referring to Montgomery 's snake collection in the following book . The same picture is used at the start of the succeeding book . This practice continued at the end of The End which shows a boat sailing off into the sunset and at the start of Chapter Fourteen . The picture at the end of Chapter Fourteen includes a shape of a question mark . Following the picture is a letter to the editor , which explains to the editor how to get a manuscript of the next book . Snicket is writing from the location of the next book and usually reveals its title . Snicket notes that the editors will find various objects along with the manuscript , all of them having some impact in the story . Starting with the fourth book ( which previews the fifth ) , each letter has a layout relating to the next book , such as torn edges , fancy stationery , sopping wet paper , or telegram format . The letters change dramatically starting with the letter at the end of The Hostile Hospital -- for this preview letter , the letter is ripped to shreds and only a few scraps remain . The remaining letters are difficult to read , and some do not reveal the title . The final letter appears at the end of The End and simply has `` The end of THE END can be found at the end of THE END . '' There is no letter after Chapter Fourteen . Each book begins with a dedication to a woman named Beatrice , and references to her are made by Snicket throughout the series , describing her as the woman he still loves while emphasizing the fact that she apparently died long ago . At the end of the Chapter Fourteen epilogue , it is revealed that Beatrice was the Baudelaires ' late mother , who married their father after an unknown event caused her to return Snicket 's engagement ring , alongside a two - hundred page book explaining all the reasons she could not marry him . Allusions ( edit ) To see more examples of allusions to literature and the real world in A Series of Unfortunate Events , see the individual article for any book in the series . While the books are marketed primarily to children , they are written with adult readers in mind as well ; the series features numerous references more likely to make sense to adults , such as allusions to Monty Python ( the Baudelaire children 's uncle Monty has a large snake collection , including a python , and a reference to the Self Defense Against Fresh Fruit sketch ) . Many of the characters ' names allude to other fictional works or real people with macabre connections ; locations may also allude to fiction , or contain foreign or obscure words with negative connotations . Lake Lachrymose appears in The Wide Window ; `` lachrymose '' means `` tearful . '' As the series progresses , more literature appears in the series -- either through quotes , explicit mentions or both . For instance , T.S. Eliot 's The Waste Land is important to the plot of The Grim Grotto , the eleventh book . The Baudelaire orphans are named after Charles Baudelaire ; Violet 's name also comes from the T.S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , specifically its verses concerning the `` violet hour , '' and Sunny and Klaus take their first names from Claus and Sunny von Bülow , while Mr. Poe is a reference to Edgar Allan Poe ( his sons are named Edgar and Albert ) . In the seventh installment , The Vile Village , Count Olaf 's disguise , Detective Dupin , is an allusion to C. Auguste Dupin , a fictional detective created by Edgar Allan Poe . Isadora and Duncan Quagmire are named after Isadora Duncan , a notorious dancer also remembered for her unusual death by strangulation when her scarf entangled around the wheels of the open car in which she was a passenger . In the fourth book , The Miserable Mill , Dr. Georgina Orwell is a reference to British author George Orwell . Orwell finished his famous book 1984 in 1948 , and in the sixth book , The Ersatz Elevator , it is not clear if the skyscraper in which Esmé and Jerome Squalor live has 48 or 84 stories . The Squalors ' names reference Jerome David `` J.D. '' Salinger and his short story For Esmé -- with Love and Squalor , while in an auction on which the plot hinges , Lot 49 is skipped , i.e. not cried , an allusion to Thomas Pynchon 's The Crying of Lot 49 . Both Salinger and Pynchon were reputed at one time not to be actual persons . The ninth book in the series , The Carnivorous Carnival , takes place at Caligari Carnival ; the carnival 's name is a nod to the 1920 silent horror film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari . Subsequently , many of the inhabitants of the island in which the Baudelaires find themselves on in The End are named after characters from The Tempest , a play by William Shakespeare , while some are named after characters from Robinson Crusoe , Moby Dick and others after general nautical or island - based literature . The name of Beatrice , Snicket 's dedicatee , may be an allusion to the poem La Beatrice by Charles Baudelaire . The poem references an `` actor without a job , '' like the actor Count Olaf . The poem also begins with the line `` In a burnt , ash - grey land without vegetation , '' similar to the Baudelaire mansion burning down at the beginning of the series . The name Beatrice could also be an allusion to Italian poet Dante . Dante dedicated all of his works to `` Beatrice , '' with whom he was obsessed , and who was also dead , like Snicket 's Beatrice . Distribution ( edit ) Books ( edit ) The series includes thirteen novels as follows : The Bad Beginning ( 1999 ) The Reptile Room ( 1999 ) The Wide Window ( 2000 ) The Miserable Mill ( 2000 ) The Austere Academy ( 2000 ) The Ersatz Elevator ( 2001 ) The Vile Village ( 2001 ) The Hostile Hospital ( 2001 ) The Carnivorous Carnival ( 2002 ) The Slippery Slope ( 2003 ) The Grim Grotto ( 2004 ) The Penultimate Peril ( 2005 ) The End ( 2006 ) There are books that accompany the series , such as The Beatrice Letters , Lemony Snicket : The Unauthorized Autobiography , and The Puzzling Puzzles ; journals The Blank Book and The Notorious Notations ; and short materials such as The Dismal Dinner and 13 Shocking Secrets You 'll Wish You Never Knew About Lemony Snicket . The books were at one point published at the rate of three or four books per year . The endpapers were `` designed in a suitably Victorian style '' , with cloth binding on the spines matching the colors of the cover . A paperback release of the series , featuring restyled covers , new illustrations and a serial supplement entitled The Cornucopian Cavalcade happened with The Bad Beginning : or , Orphans ! , The Reptile Room : or , Murder ! , and The Wide Window : or , Disappearance ! , but stopped after the third . Humorous quotes from the series were used in a book published under the Snicket name , Horseradish : Bitter Truths You Ca n't Avoid . All the Wrong Questions ( edit ) Main article : All the Wrong Questions See also : Lemony Snicket bibliography Lemony Snicket 's All the Wrong Questions is a four - part young adult series focused on Snicket 's childhood working for V.F.D. It is set in the same universe as A Series of Unfortunate Events and features several of the same characters and locations . The first book was titled Who Could That Be at This Hour ? , and was released in October 2012 . The second , When Did You See Her Last ? , was released in October 2013 , and the third , Should n't You Be in School ? , was released in September 2014 . The final book , Why Is This Night Different from All Other Nights ? was released on September 29 , 2015 . In other media ( edit ) Television ( edit ) Main article : A Series of Unfortunate Events ( TV series ) Poster of the first season from the Netflix adaptation Netflix , in association with Paramount Television , announced in November 2014 its plans to adapt the books into an original TV series with 26 total episodes spanning 3 seasons , with 2 episodes dedicated to each book , with the exception of the 13th book , The End . Author Daniel Handler will serve as a writer and executive producer . On September 4 , 2015 , it was announced that filmmaker Barry Sonnenfeld and True Blood showrunner Mark Hudis had agreed to helm the series . Hudis would serve as showrunner , Sonnenfeld as director , and both as executive producers . Daniel Handler is penning the scripts . On December 3 , 2015 , an open casting call was announced for the roles of Violet and Klaus Baudelaire , with the casting call confirming that the series would begin production in March 2016 . In January 2016 , Netflix announced that Hudis had left the project and they have not yet named a replacement showrunner . However , it was announced that Sonnenfeld and Handler were both still on board , and that Neil Patrick Harris had been cast as Count Olaf and Malina Weissman and Louis Hynes are cast as Violet and Klaus . In March 2016 , K. Todd Freeman and Patrick Warburton were cast as Mr. Poe and Lemony Snicket respectively . The first season , consisting of eight episodes that cover the first four books , was released worldwide on Netflix on January 13 , 2017 . A Series of Unfortunate Events was renewed for a second season , which was released on March 30 , 2018 , and consisted of ten episodes that adapt books five through nine of the novel series . The television series was also renewed for a third and final season , which will air in early 2019 and will also adapt the four remaining books ( The Slippery Slope , The Grim Grotto , The Penultimate Peril , and The End . The last season will have 7 episodes , The End only being one episode instead of the standard two episodes . ( It is assumed Handler will remain on as screenwriter of the new seasons . Film ( edit ) Main article : Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events Jim Carrey as Count Olaf in the film adaptation Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events is a film adaptation of the first three titles in the series , mixing the various events and characters into one story . It was released on December 17 , 2004 . Directed by Brad Silberling , it stars Jim Carrey as Count Olaf , Meryl Streep as Aunt Josephine , Billy Connolly as Uncle Monty , Emily Browning as Violet , Liam Aiken as Klaus , Timothy Spall as Mr. Poe , and Jude Law as the voice of Lemony Snicket . The film was successful , however it was also criticized because the tone was comical , when the books were solemn and serious with occasional wry humor . Considering the success of the movie , the director and some of the lead actors hinted that they were keen on making a sequel , but no script was written . When I took the decision to take the movie I said I 'd obviously do it with the right to refusal , I 'm not going to give in to anything . I asked the studio how they were going to deal with the sequel . But they did n't want to talk about it until the first film was out . It 's amazing ; a script has not yet been worked on for the sequel , which I find a bit baffling . -- Brad Silberling , Browning has said that further films would have to be produced quickly , as the children do not age much throughout the book series . In 2008 , Daniel Handler stated in a Bookslut Interview that another film was in the works , but had been delayed by corporate shake - ups at Paramount Pictures . In June 2009 , Silberling confirmed he still talked about the project with Handler , and suggested the sequel be a stop motion film because the lead actors have grown too old . `` In an odd way , the best thing you could do is actually have Lemony Snicket say to the audience , ' Okay , we pawned the first film off as a mere dramatization with actors . Now I 'm afraid I 'm going to have to show you the real thing . ' '' Video Games ( edit ) Main article : Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events ( video game ) Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events is a video game based on the books and film ( more so the film , as the name and many plot elements seen in the movie but not the book are seen ) that was released in 2004 by Adrenium Games and Activision for PlayStation 2 , GameCube , Xbox , Game Boy Advance , and PC . The player plays as all three orphans at points in the game , and encounters characters such as Mr. Poe , Uncle Monty and Aunt Josephine , along with villains such as Count Olaf , the Hook - Handed Man , the White - Faced Women , and the Bald Man . The game , like the movie , follows only the first three books in the series . Although never mentioned in the game there are some references to V.F.D. such as while in the first level a package is delivered from the `` Very Fast Delivery Service . '' The note attached to the package also reads at the end `` P.S. The world is quiet here , '' which is the motto of V.F.D. and the way to confirm the allegiance of a V.F.D. member . Board Games ( edit ) A board game based on the books was distributed by Mattel in 2004 , prior to the movie . The Perilous Parlor Game is for 2 -- 4 players , ages 8 and up . One player assumes the role of Count Olaf , and the other players play the Baudelaire children . Count Olaf 's objective in the game is to eliminate the guardian , while the children try to keep the guardian alive . The game employs Clever Cards , Tragedy Cards , Secret Passage Tiles , and Disguise Tiles in play . Card Games ( edit ) The Catastrophic Card Game is the second game based on the books . In this card game , players are looking to complete sets of characters . There are 4 different sets : The Baudelaire Orphans , Count Olaf in Disguise , Olaf 's Henchmen and the Orphans Confidants . Players take turns drawing a card from either the draw pile or the top card from the discard pile in hopes of completing their sets . For 2 -- 4 players , ages 14 and under . Audio ( edit ) Audio books ( edit ) Most of the series of unabridged audio books are read by British actor Tim Curry , though Handler as Lemony Snicket reads books 3 to 5 . Of narrating the audio books , Handler has said : `` It was very , very hard . It was unbelievably arduous . It was the worst kind of arduous . '' As such , future narrating duties were handed back to Curry , of whom Handler states : `` he does a splendid job '' . The `` Dear Reader '' blurb is usually read by Handler ( as Snicket ) at the beginning , although it is missing in The Hostile Hospital . Handler usually reads the `` To my Kind Editor '' blurb about the next book at the end . Starting at The Carnivorous Carnival there is another actor who replaces Handler in reading the two blurbs , although they are skipped entirely in The Grim Grotto . All of the recordings include a loosely related song by The Gothic Archies , a novelty band of which Handler is a member , featuring lyrics by Handler 's Magnetic Fields bandmate Stephin Merritt . Album ( edit ) Main article : The Tragic Treasury : Songs from A Series of Unfortunate Events In October 2006 , The Tragic Treasury : Songs from A Series of Unfortunate Events by The Gothic Archies was released . The album is a collection of thirteen songs written and performed by Stephin Merritt ( of The Magnetic Fields ) , each one originally appearing on one of the corresponding thirteen audiobooks of the series . Two bonus songs are included . Reception ( edit ) Reviews ( edit ) Reviews for A Series of Unfortunate Events have generally been positive , with reviewers saying that the series is enjoyable for children and adults alike , and that it brings fresh and adult themes to children 's stories . The Times Online refer to the books as `` a literary phenomenon '' , and discuss how the plight of the Baudelaire orphans helps children cope with loss -- citing the rise in sales post September 11 , 2001 as evidence . Although the series has often been compared to Harry Potter due to the young heroes and the sales of the two series , reviewer Bruce Butt feels that the series ' tone is closer to Roald Dahl and Philip Ardagh . Handler acknowledges Edward Gorey and Roald Dahl as influences . Mackey attributes the series ' success to the `` topsy - turvy moral universe '' . Langbauer feels that the series `` offers a critique of the pieties '' of earlier generations and `` imparting its own vision of ethics '' . Criticism ( edit ) Czech translation The series has come under criticism from some school districts for its dark themes , citing objections to the suggested incest ( referring to Olaf 's attempt to marry his distant cousin Violet in The Bad Beginning , although his motivation was not sexual in nature , but rather an attempt to gain the Baudelaire fortune ) and the words `` damn '' and `` hell '' being said in The Reptile Room . Handler later commented that the word 's use was `` precipitated by a long discussion of how one should never say this word , since only a villain would do so vile a thing ! This is exactly the lily - liveredness of children 's books that I ca n't stand . '' Access to the books was similarly restricted at Katy ISD Elementary School in Katy , Texas . The series has also been criticized for formulaic and repetitive storytelling . Sales ( edit ) French translations A Series of Unfortunate Events has been printed in 41 different languages , selling at least sixty - five million copies as of 2015 . Awards ( edit ) In addition to its strong reviews , The Bad Beginning won multiple literary awards , including the Colorado Children 's Book Award , the Nevada Young Readers Award and the Nene Award . It was also a finalist for the Book Sense Book of the Year . Its sequels have continued this trend , garnering multiple awards and nominations . Among these are three IRA / CBC Children 's Choice Awards , which it received for The Wide Window , The Vile Village , and The Hostile Hospital ; a best book prize at the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards , and a 2006 Quill Book Award , both for The Penultimate Peril . While not technically awards , The Ersatz Elevator was named a Book Sense 76 Pick , and The Grim Grotto is an Amazon.com Customers ' Favorite . See also ( edit ) Lemony Snicket portal Lemony Snicket bibliography References ( edit ) Snicket , Lemony ( 2006 ) . The End . HarperColins . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 441016 - 8 . Jump up ^ Han , Angie ( November 5 , 2014 ) . `` Netflix Making Lemony Snicket 's ' A Series of Unfortunate Events ' Series '' ... Slashfilm . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Campbell , Jean . `` Steampunk Style Jewelry : Victorian , Fantasy , and Mechanical Necklaces , Bracelets , and Earrings '' ... Retrieved 15 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Noah Cruickshank and Kevin McFarland ( October 25 , 2012 ) . Dissecting the repetition and hidden messages of A Series Of Unfortunate Events . The A.V. Club . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Lemony Who ? '' . ansible.co.uk . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : Olson , Danel . 21st - Century Gothic : Great Gothic Novels Since 2000 . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Cross , Julie . Humor in Contemporary Junior Literature . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Charney , Maurice . Irony in Children 's Literature . Comedy : A Geographic and Historical Guide , Volume 2 . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Sadenwasser , Tim . The Gothic Fairy Tale in Young Adult Literature : Essays on Stories from Grimm to Gaiman . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Austin , Sara ( May / June 2013 ) . Performative Metafiction : Lemony Snicket , Daniel Handler and The End of A Series of Unfortunate Events . The Looking Glass : New Perspectives on Children 's Literature , Vol 17 , No 1 ( 2013 ) . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Cruz , Lenika ( October 23 , 2014 ) . Postmodernism -- for Kids . The Atlantic . Retrieved 10 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Pugh , Tison . Innocence , Heterosexuality , and the Queerness of Children 's Literature . What , Then , Does Beatrice Mean ? : Hermaphroditic Gender , Predatory Sexuality , and Promiscuous Allusion in Daniel Handler / Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events . Retrieved 19 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Ahlin , Charlotte ( February 18 , 2016 ) . What A Series Of Unfortunate Events Taught Me About Justice . Bustle.com . Retrieved 19 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Spangler , Todd . ( July 6 , 2015 ) . Fake Trailer for Netflix 's ' Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events ' Lights Up YouTube . Variety . Retrieved 26 November 2016 . Jump up ^ Lemony Snicket Sneaks Back with ' File Under : 13 Suspicious Incidents ' . Publisher 's Weekly . Retrieved July 11 , 2014 . Jump up ^ R. della Cava , Marco ( October 22 , 2012 ) . Daniel Handler 's new Snicket series dives into noir . USA Today . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Butt , Bruce ( December 2003 ) . `` ' He 's behind you ! ' : Reflections on Repetition and Predictability in Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events '' . Children 's Literature in Education . Springer . 34 ( 4 ) : 277 -- 286 . doi : 10.1023 / B : CLID. 0000004895.65809. 71 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( 2003 ) ( 2001 - 09 - 04 ) . The Hostile Hospital . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . p. 18 . ISBN 1 - 4052 - 0612 - 8 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( 2000 ) ( 2000 - 08 - 31 ) . The Austere Academy . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . ISBN 0 - 06 - 440863 - 9 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( 2001 ) ( 2001 - 02 - 19 ) . The Ersatz Elevator . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . p. 42 . ISBN 1 - 4052 - 0872 - 4 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( 1999 ) ( 1999 - 09 - 30 ) . The Bad Beginning . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . ISBN 0 - 06 - 440766 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Daniel Handler -- AVClub.com -- Interview by Tasha Robinson , November 16 , 2005 . Retrieved June 13 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Mysterious Mr. Snicket '' . Salon.com . Archived from the original on June 11 , 2010 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Nadine Epstein ( February 2007 ) . `` The Jewish Secrets of Lemony Snicket '' . Moment Magazine . Archived from the original on July 26 , 2011 . Retrieved June 20 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Leopold , Todd ( August 8 , 2002 ) . `` Author suggests you read something else -- Making light of ' A Series of Unfortunate Events ' '' . CNN . Retrieved October 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Redmond , Moira . `` Tales of a Seventh - Grade Scare Tactic -- The new Gothicism of children 's books '' . Slate Magazine . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Fierman , Daniel ( May 24 , 2002 ) . `` Lemony Snicket is the new Harry Potter '' . Entertainment Weekly . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Dargis , Manohla . `` Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events ( 2004 ) '' . New York Times . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( 2004 ) ( 2004 - 09 - 21 ) . The Grim Grotto . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . ISBN 0 - 06 - 441014 - 5 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( 2003 ) ( 2003 - 09 - 23 ) . The Slippery Slope . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . ISBN 0 - 06 - 441013 - 7 . Jump up ^ Snicket , Lemony ( October 4 , 2004 ) . The Grim Grotto . A Series of Unfortunate Events . HarperCollins . ISBN 1 - 4052 - 1527 - 5 . People are n't either wicked or noble , '' the hook - handed man said . `` They 're like chef 's salads , with good things and bad things chopped and mixed together in a vinaigrette of confusion and conflict . Jump up ^ Snicket 2006 , p. 325 . Jump up ^ Snicket 2006 , p . Chapter Fourteen page 15 . Jump up ^ Snicket 2006 , p. 329 . Jump up ^ Snicket 2006 , p . Chapter Fourteen page 13 . ^ Jump up to : Kramer , Melody Joy ( October 12 , 2006 ) . A Series Of Unfortunate Literary Allusions . National Public Radio . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Lemony Snicket '' . Quidditch.com . Archived from the original on December 31 , 2006 . Retrieved January 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Silverman 1991 , p. 171 Jump up ^ Weldy , Lance . Crossing Textual Boundaries in International Children 's Literature . Retrieved 13 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Bothersome Books '' . lemonysnicket.com . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events : The Beatrice Letters '' . lemonysnicket.com . Archived from the original on October 21 , 2006 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Lemony Snicket : The Unauthorized Autobiography '' . lemonysnicket.com . Archived from the original on March 11 , 2005 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events : The Puzzling Puzzles '' . lemonysnicket.com . Archived from the original on December 13 , 2005 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Blank Book '' . lemonysnicket.com . Archived from the original on December 13 , 2005 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events : The Notorious Notations '' . lemonysnicket.com . Archived from the original on March 28 , 2006 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Books by Lemony Snicket A Series of Unfortunate Events '' . Lemony Snicket . Retrieved 2018 - 02 - 12 . Jump up ^ `` Horseradish : Bitter Truths You Ca n't Avoid '' . lemonysnicket.com . Archived from the original on May 27 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` '' Why Is This Night Different from All Other Nights ? '' ( All the Wrong Questions ) : Lemony Snicket , Seth : 9780316123044 : Amazon.com : Books `` . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . ^ Jump up to : ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Netflix Adapting Lemony Snicket 's ' A Series of Unfortunate Events ' Into TV Show '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved November 5 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Littleton , Cynthia ( September 4 , 2015 ) . `` Netflix 's Lemony Snicket Series Taps ' True Blood 's ' Mark Hudis , Barry Sonnenfeld ( EXCLUSIVE ) '' . Variety . Retrieved September 4 , 2015 . Jump up ^ ( 2 ) Jump up ^ `` A Series Of Unfortunate Events Online Search '' . lemonysnicketcasting.com . Archived from the original on March 12 , 2016 . Retrieved December 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Gettell , Oliver ( January 26 , 2016 ) . `` Netflix 's Series Of Unfortunate Events casts its Violet and Klaus '' . Entertainment Weekly . Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 14 , 2016 ) . `` Neil Patrick Harris Set To Star In Netflix 's ' A Series Of Unfortunate Events ' Series '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( March 8 , 2016 ) . `` K. Todd Freeman Joins Netflix 's ' A Series Of Unfortunate Events ' ; Anna Torv in ' Mindhunter ' '' . Deadline . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Lesley ( March 14 , 2016 ) . `` Patrick Warburton to Star as Lemony Snicket in Netflix Drama '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Jump up ^ `` The Teaser for Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events , Coming to Netflix '' . ComingSoon.net . October 4 , 2016 . Retrieved October 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Loughrey , Clarisse ( January 1 , 2018 ) . `` New trailer and release date revealed for A Series of Unfortunate Events Season 2 '' . The Independent . Retrieved January 1 , 2018 . Jump up ^ Snetiker , Marc ( January 11 , 2017 ) . `` Lemony Snicket speaks out about Netflix 's Series of Unfortunate Events '' . Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved January 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ausiello , Michael ( April 4 , 2017 ) . `` A Series of Unfortunate Events Renewal Extended Through Season 3 at Netflix '' . TV Line . Retrieved April 4 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events ( 2004 ) '' . IMDb . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events '' . unfortunateeventsmovie.com . Archived from the original on September 8 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Bothersome Books -- The Bad Beginning : Movie Tie - in Edition '' . Archived from the original on 2009 - 07 - 10 . I 'm sorry to say that the book you are holding in your hands is extremely boring . If you are looking for a good time , you would have a better time watching a motion picture starring a handsome count . -- Count Olaf Jump up ^ `` The latest on Snicket sequel '' . moviehole.net. April 8 , 2005 . Archived from the original on September 19 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Interview Emily Browning -- Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events '' . darkhorizons.com . December 13 , 2004 . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Scott , Ronnie ( October 2008 ) . `` AN INTERVIEW WITH DANIEL HANDLER '' . Retrieved May 26 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ditzian , Eric ( June 3 , 2009 ) . `` Lemony Snicket Director Brad Silberling Plans To Do Each Film In Different Medium '' . MTV News . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2009 . Retrieved June 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events Game News '' . kidzworld.com . Archived from the original on September 8 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` Talking With Lemony Snicket '' . audiofilemagazine.com . Archived from the original on September 28 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Gothic Archies Theme Songs for Lemony Snicket Audio Books '' . houseoftomorrow.com . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Gothic Archies The Tragic Treasury : Songs From A Series Of Unfortunate Events '' . tragictreasury.co.uk . Archived from the original on October 8 , 2007 . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Bad Beginning '' . ypress.org . Archived from the original on September 27 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Jennifer Robinson . `` Life Is n't Fair : Adult Lessons for Children from Dahl and Snicket '' ( PDF ) . San Jose State University . Retrieved August 19 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Betts , Hannah ( December 18 , 2004 ) . `` Unhappily ever after '' . Times Online . London . Retrieved September 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Mackey , Margaret ( January 2003 ) . `` Risk , Safety , and Control in Young People 's Reading Experiences '' ( PDF ) . School Libraries Worldwide . Edmonton. 9 ( 1 ) : 50 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2015 - 02 - 25 . Retrieved 19 June 2015 . Jump up ^ Langbauer , Laurie ( March 2007 ) . `` The Ethics and Practice of Lemony Snicket : Adolescence and Generation X '' . PMLA. 122 ( 2 ) : 502 -- 521 . doi : 10.1632 / pmla. 2007.122. 2.502 . JSTOR 25501718 . Jump up ^ Vaux , Anna ( December 4 , 2001 ) . `` Move over Harry Potter '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved September 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` 2006 Banned Books Report '' ( PDF ) . ACLU TX . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on September 28 , 2007 . Retrieved September 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Snicket Letters '' . Books For Keeps . Archived from the original on October 14 , 2007 . Retrieved September 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Minzesheimer , Bob ( October 11 , 2006 ) . `` Friday the 13th closes the book on Lemony Snicket '' . USAToday . Retrieved September 6 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events # 1 : The Bad Beginning '' . HarperCollins . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` ABA : The Book Sense Book of the Year '' . bookweb.org . Archived from the original on July 16 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events # 3 : The Wide Window '' . HarperCollins . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events # 7 : The Vile Village '' . HarperCollins . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events # 8 : The Hostile Hospital '' . HarperCollins . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Kids ' Choice Awards 2005 '' . Nickelodeon . Archived from the original on September 30 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` The Quill Awards '' . thequills.org . Archived from the original on September 11 , 2007 . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events # 6 : The Ersatz Elevator '' . HarperCollins . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` A Series of Unfortunate Events # 11 : The Grim Grotto '' . HarperCollins . Retrieved September 5 , 2007 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : A Series of Unfortunate Events Official website A Series of Unfortunate Events at the Internet Book List Daniel Handler 's official website A Series of Unfortunate Events on Netflix hide Works by Lemony Snicket A Series of Unfortunate Events Novels The Bad Beginning The Reptile Room The Wide Window The Miserable Mill The Austere Academy The Ersatz Elevator The Vile Village The Hostile Hospital The Carnivorous Carnival The Slippery Slope The Grim Grotto The Penultimate Peril The End Related works The Unauthorized Autobiography The Beatrice Letters Horseradish : Bitter Truths You Ca n't Avoid Media Feature film Soundtrack Video game The Tragic Treasury TV series Other Characters All the Wrong Questions Who Could That Be at This Hour ? When Did You See Her Last ? Should n't You Be in School ? Why Is This Night Different From All Other Nights ? Other works The Latke Who Could n't Stop Screaming The Lump of Coal The Composer Is Dead Related Daniel Handler Brett Helquist Seth Portal Book Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Series_of_Unfortunate_Events&oldid=844617642 '' Categories : A Series of Unfortunate Events Absurdist fiction Black comedy books British Book Award - winning works American children 's novels Novels about orphans Series of children 's books HarperCollins books Hidden categories : All pages needing factual verification Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from June 2015 All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2010 Use mdy dates from March 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ქართული Кыргызча Magyar Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe 中文 29 more Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2018 , at 01 : 02 . 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4491776832530681227 | Flash (Barry Allen) | Flash ( Barry Allen ) - wikipedia Flash ( Barry Allen ) Jump to : navigation , search For other uses of Barry Allen , see Barry Allen ( disambiguation ) . ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary . It should be expanded to provide more balanced coverage that includes real - world context . Please edit the article to focus on discussing the work rather than merely reiterating the plot . ( October 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( August 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Barry Allen Barry Allen , the second Flash , on the cover of Flash vol. 4 , # 30 ( June 2014 ) . Art by Brett Booth . Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Showcase # 4 ( October 1956 ) Created by Robert Kanigher Carmine Infantino In - story information Alter ego Bartholomew Henry `` Barry '' Allen Species Lit - Human Place of origin Central City Team affiliations Justice League Partnerships Kid Flash / Flash ( Wally West ) Green Lantern ( Hal Jordan ) Batman Green Arrow Supergirl Abilities Immense superhuman speed , agility , and stamina Accelerated human physiology Body vibration to phase through objects Time travel via cosmic treadmill The Flash ( Barry Allen ) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . Barry Allen is the second character to be known as the Flash . The character first appeared in Showcase # 4 ( October 1956 ) , created by writer Robert Kanigher and penciler Carmine Infantino . His name combines talk show hosts Barry Gray and Steve Allen . Barry Allen is a reinvention of a previous character called the Flash that had appeared in 1940s comic books as the character Jay Garrick . His power consists mainly of superhuman speed . Various other effects such as intangibility are also attributed to his ability to control the speed of molecular vibrations . The Flash wears a distinct red and gold costume treated to resist friction and wind resistance , traditionally storing the costume compressed inside a ring . Barry Allen 's classic stories introduced the concept of the Multiverse to DC Comics , and this concept played a large part in DC 's various continuity reboots over the years . The Flash has traditionally always had a significant role in DC 's major company - wide reboot stories , and in 1985 's crossover Crisis on Infinite Earths , Barry Allen died saving the Multiverse , removing the character from the regular DC lineup for 23 years . His return to regular comics occurred subsequently in 2008 within the pages of Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis crossover story and Geoff Johns ' accompanying The Flash : Rebirth limited series . He has since played a pivotal role in the crossover stories Blackest Night ( 2009 ) , Flashpoint ( 2011 ) , Convergence ( 2015 ) , and DC Rebirth ( 2016 ) . The character has appeared in various adaptations in other media . John Wesley Shipp played Barry Allen in the 1990 CBS television series and Grant Gustin currently plays him in the 2014 The CW television series . The character is played by Ezra Miller in the DC Extended Universe , beginning with Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice and Suicide Squad in 2016 , followed by Justice League in 2017 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Character biography 1.1 Justice League 1.2 Tragedy 1.3 Crisis on Infinite Earths 1.3. 1 After death 1.4 Legacy 1.5 JLA / Avengers 1.6 Post-Crisis appearances 1.6. 1 Infinite Crisis 1.7 Return 1.7. 1 Final Crisis 1.7. 2 The Flash : Rebirth 1.7. 3 Blackest Night 1.8 The Flash Volume 3 1.8. 1 Flashpoint 1.9 The New 52 1.10 DC Rebirth 2 Powers and abilities 3 Rogues gallery 4 Other versions 5 In other media 5.1 Film 5.1. 1 Animation 5.2 Television 5.2. 1 Cartoons 5.2. 2 Live - action 5.2. 2.1 Arrowverse 5.2. 3 Abandoned Developments 5.3 Video games 5.3. 1 LEGO series 5.3. 2 Injustice series 5.4 Music 6 Reception 7 References 8 External links Character biography ( edit ) Showcase # 4 ( Oct. 1956 ) : First appearance of the Silver Age Flash . Art by Carmine Infantino and Joe Kubert . Barry Allen is a police scientist ( his job title was changed to a forensic scientist in The Flash : Iron Heights one - shot ) with a reputation for being very slow , and frequently late , which frustrates his fiancee , Iris West , as the result of being absent - minded and his devotion to crime - solving . One night , as he is working late , a lightning bolt shatters a case full of chemicals and spills all over Barry . As a result , Allen finds that he can run extremely fast and has matching reflexes and senses . He dons a set of red tights sporting a lightning bolt ( reminiscent of the original Fawcett Comics Captain Marvel ) , dubs himself the Flash ( after his childhood comic book hero , Jay Garrick ) , and becomes Central City 's resident costumed crimefighter . Central City University professor Ira West ( Iris ' adoptive father ) designed Allen 's costume and the ring which stores it while Allen is in his civilian identity . The ring can eject the compressed clothing when Allen needs it and suck it back in with the aid of a special gas that shrinks the suit . In addition , Allen invented the cosmic treadmill , a device that allowed for precise time travel and was used in many stories . Allen was so well liked that nearly all speedsters that come after him are often compared to him . Batman once said `` Barry is the kind of man that I would 've hoped to become if my parents had not been murdered . '' Justice League ( edit ) As presented in Justice League of America # 9 , when the Earth is infiltrated by alien warriors sent to conquer the planet , some of the world 's greatest heroes join forces , Allen among them . While the superheroes individually defeat most of the invaders , they fall prey to a single alien and only by working together are they able to defeat the warrior . Afterwards , the heroes decide to find the Justice League . During the years , he is depicted as feeling slightly attracted to Black Canary and Zatanna , but he never pursues a relationship because he feels his real love is Iris West , whom he ultimately marries . Allen also becomes a good friend with Green Lantern ( Hal Jordan ) , which would later be the subject of the limited series Flash and Green Lantern : The Brave and the Bold . In The Flash # 123 -- `` Flash of Two Worlds '' -- Allen is transported to Earth - Two where he meets Jay Garrick , the original Flash in DC Continuity ; it is revealed that Jay Garrick 's adventures were captured in comic book form on Earth - One . This storyline initiated DC 's multiverse and was continued in issues of Flash and in team - ups between the Justice League of America of Earth - One and the Justice Society of America of Earth - Two . In the classic story from Flash # 179 -- `` The Flash -- Fact or Fiction ? '' -- Allen is thrown into the universe eventually called Earth Prime , a representation of `` our '' universe , where he seeks the aid of the Flash comic book 's editor Julius Schwartz to build a cosmic treadmill so that he can return home . He also gains a sidekick and protégé in Iris ' nephew , Wally West , who gains super-speed in an accident similar to that which gave Allen his powers . Tragedy ( edit ) In time , he married his girlfriend Iris , who learned of his double identity because Allen talked in his sleep . She kept this secret , and he eventually revealed his identity to her of his own free will . Iris was eventually revealed to have been sent as a child from the 30th century and adopted . In the 1980s , Flash 's life begins to collapse . Iris is murdered by Professor Zoom ( a supervillain from the 25th century who had long loved her and been jealous of Allen ) , and when Allen prepares to marry another woman , Zoom tries the same trick again . Allen stops him , killing Zoom in the process by breaking his neck . Unfortunately , when Barry is unable to make an appearance at his own wedding , his fiancée eventually descends into madness . Placed on trial for murder in connection with Zoom 's death , Allen is found guilty by the jury . When he is told by a juror , who is being possessed by a mind from the future , that Reverse Flash ( whom Allen knows to be dead ) brainwashed the jury into this verdict , Flash flees his trial . The Flash is then attacked by Reverse Flash , and realizes that the answers to this mystery , and restoring his good name , lie in the future , so the juror uses a time device to send them forward . They discover that Abra Kadabra was disguised as Reverse Flash to ruin the Flash 's good name . Defeating Kadabra , he retreats to the future to be reunited with Iris , having learned that Iris ' spirit was in fact drawn to the 30th century , and given a new body ( and was in fact the mind inhabiting the juror ) . The final issue of The Flash ends with Flash and Iris kissing passionately and the caption `` And they lived happily ever after ... for a while '' . There are a few references in the final issue ( The Flash # 350 ) to the upcoming events , and Flash 's impending death . In the controversial storyline Identity Crisis ( sets within the post-Zero Hour continuity ) , it is revealed that Barry voted to allow Zatanna to edit Doctor Light 's mind with four of the members of the Justice League six months after Iris 's death , essentially lobotomizing him . When Batman discovers what the League was doing , they have his memories edited as well despite the opposition from Green Arrow . Both Doctor Light and Batman would eventually recover from their respective mindwipe , leading Doctor Light to swear vengeance to all heroes and Batman 's distrust towards his allies . Crisis on Infinite Earths ( edit ) Main article : Crisis on Infinite Earths Following the trial , Allen retires and joins Iris in the 30th century . However , after only a few weeks of happiness , the Crisis on Infinite Earths intervenes , and Allen is captured by the Anti-Monitor and brought to 1985 ; according to the Anti-Monitor , the Flash was the only being capable of traveling to other universes at will , so the Anti-Monitor could not allow him to stay free . Allen escapes and foils the Anti-Monitor's plan to destroy the Earth with an anti-matter cannon , creating a speed vortex to draw the power in , but dies in the process as the power becomes too much for his body . It has been said that Allen travels back through time and becomes the very same lightning bolt that gives him his powers , but later it is also strongly implied that the soul of Barry resides in the Speed Force , the mystical source and Valhalla open to all dead speedsters , and from which the living ones draw their amazing powers . After Allen 's death , Kid Flash Wally West , his nephew and sidekick , takes up the mantle of the Flash . After death ( edit ) Marv Wolfman , scribe for the Crisis on Infinite Earths , has repeatedly stated ( first hinted at in his introduction to the original Crisis collected edition hardcover ) , then fully explained on his website that he left a loophole in the script wherein the Barry Allen Flash could be reintroduced , without a retcon , into DC Universe continuity . This loophole would allow a writer to pull Barry out of his desperate run to annihilate the anti-matter cannon . However , Barry would know he must someday finish his death run , and would become more determined to use his speed to help others . It should also be noted that the way Barry Allen seemed to have `` died '' in Crisis on Infinite Earths , was that he ran so fast that he was able to stop the Anti-Monitor's anti-matter cannon from firing by catching the tachyon beam at the heart of the weapon . After this act , according to Secret Origins Annual # 2 ( 1988 ) , Barry Allen turns into a lightning bolt , goes back in time , becoming the lightning bolt that hit his lab , splashing his past - self with chemicals and transforming him into the Flash . In Deadman : Dead Again , Barry is one of the heroes whose spirit Deadman helps to enter Heaven , and the Green Arrow storyline `` Quiver '' depicts Barry Allen in Heaven . His spirit , however , seems to still be alive within the Speed Force , along with Max Mercury and other speedsters . Then he re appeares in DC Rebirth after escaping the speed force . Legacy ( edit ) Iris is pregnant , and she has two children who have super-speed powers , the Tornado Twins , who later meet the Legion of Super-Heroes . In the multiversal variant known as Earth - 247 , each of her children themselves have children with speed - based abilities . One , Jenni Ognats , grows up to become the Legionnaire XS , while the other , Bart Allen , is born with an accelerated metabolism that rapidly ages him , and is sent back to the 20th century where he is cured by Wally West . He remains there as the superhero Impulse under the tutelage of Max Mercury , and later becomes the second Kid Flash as a member of the Teen Titans . One year after the events of Infinite Crisis , Bart becomes the fourth Flash until he is abruptly killed by his clone Inertia and the Rogues . Wally then retook the identity of the Flash . Bart would later be resurrected as Kid Flash by the Legion of Super-Heroes in the 31st century to combat Superboy - Prime . JLA / avengers ( edit ) Barry Allen appears in issue 3 as the Flash in the JLA when the two realities start changing , along with Hal Jordan . When the two teams see their real futures , Barry witnesses his death during Crisis on Infinite Earths as the Grandmaster shows the heroes how reality should be , but nevertheless resolves to help restore the timeline as it is not his place to play God . He talks with Hal Jordan over the similarity of their situation , stating that dying could not be so bad so long as they have left a legacy for others ( Wally West and Kyle Rayner , in their cases ) to fight for what they believe . He helps the team get into Krona 's base by using his running on a treadmill to pass the ship through the dimensional barrier . With the Wasp , he is ordered by Captain America to find ways through Krona 's defences , and alerts the group to a probably lethal force field . During the final battle , Barry saves Hawkeye from being killed when the Absorbing Man breaks the ground beneath him , but both of them are blasted and apparently killed by Dreamslayer . At the end , it is revealed that Barry got the two of them out alive and at Captain America 's suggestion they laid low and because of this , Hawkeye is able to destroy Krona 's machine with a TNT arrow while Barry distracts him , then Barry takes the 12 items of power . As a result , reality is restored , Barry disappears and Wally returns . Post-Crisis appearances ( edit ) Wally West , wracked by grief for the loss of his unborn twins at the hands of Zoom , regrets the public knowledge of his identity . Barry appears from somewhere in time -- stating that he is from a period shortly before his death -- counseling his nephew , and talking the Spectre into granting his wish , erasing all public knowledge of Wally and Barry 's identities as the Flash ( Although Wally himself also loses his memory of his identity for a time ) . Barry then disappears , telling his nephew that he will come to his aid three times , on the three most difficult days of his life of which this is the first . In fact , when Zoom enlists the aid of the original Professor Zoom to make Wally relive the loss of his beloved twins , Barry is already there , trying to stop his own Reverse Flash ; Zoom apparently retrieved Eobard Thawne from the day that he attempted to kill Fiona Webb , with Barry following his nemesis . For the second time , he helps Wally to undo the damage dealt by Zoom , also allowing Wally to save his twins , and then he returns to his proper time , dragging his Zoom with him and breaking his enemy 's neck in his timeline . Infinite Crisis ( edit ) Main article : Infinite Crisis In the fourth issue of Infinite Crisis , Barry Allen comes out from the Speed Force , along with Johnny Quick and Max Mercury , to help his grandson Bart deal with Superboy - Prime , taking the villainous teen with him in the Speed Force . Bart Allen appears wearing Barry Allen 's costume in Tokyo near the end of Infinite Crisis # 5 to tell the heroes that Superboy - Prime has escaped the Speed Force . Bart again reappears in Infinite Crisis # 7 in Barry Allen 's costume to combat Superboy - Prime once more . In Flash : The Fastest Man Alive # 6 ( 2006 ) ( with a portion taking place shortly before Infinite Crisis # 5 ) it is told how Barry spent four years in an alternate Keystone City along with Max Mercury , Johnny Quick , and an alternate Jay Garrick , until he met Bart and Wally West , joining him after the battle against Superboy - Prime . After Superboy escapes , Barry suggests that someone has to absorb the whole Speed Force and cross the dimensional bridge back to Post-Crisis Earth . As Bart volunteers , Barry gives him his suit as a last gift , to keep the Force contained , and stays behind . Wally West did not go because of his wife and kids . Bart says he knows Barry would go if he could , but why Barry Allen could not make the journey himself is not stated . Return ( edit ) Barry Allen returns to the DC Universe , fleeing from the Black Racer . Art from Final Crisis # 2 by J.G. Jones . Twenty three years after his death in Crisis on Infinite Earths , Barry Allen 's essence made a return to the present DC Universe proper in DC Universe # 0 , preceding his full - time return in the pages of writer Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis . DC Universe # 0 features an unnamed narrator who initially associates himself with `` everything '' . As the story progresses , he begins to recall his past and association with Justice League members , particularly Hal Jordan and Superman . The lettering in which he speaks to the reader is yellow on backgrounds that are initially black . As the story moves forward , the background slowly begins turning red . In the final pages , the narration boxes feature a yellow lightning bolt . Over time , as he recalls friendships and connections with other people , his mind begins to narrow , remarking `` I ... know him . I am no longer everything . I am a shaft of light split through a prism '' . Yet he is still the only one able to see `` the shadow falling over everything '' , in the form of Darkseid . On the final page , the moon appears in front of a red sky , as a yellow lightning bolt strikes diagonally in front of it creating the logo of the Flash , as he remarks `` and now I remember '' . The title of the story is revealed to be `` Let There Be Lightning '' . A Daily News story released on the same day proclaimed that Barry Allen has returned to life , with issue co-writer Geoff Johns stating , `` When the greatest evil comes back to the DC Universe , the greatest hero needed to return . '' Final Crisis ( edit ) Main article : Final Crisis Barry makes his corporeal return in Final Crisis # 2 . On the second to last page , Jay Garrick and Wally West feel vibrations to which Jay remarks , `` but , do n't you recognize those vibrations ? It ca n't be ... Not after all these years ... Not after all this time . '' On the final page , Barry Allen is seen in hot pursuit of the bullet which kills Orion , outrunning the Black Racer and shouting to Jay and Wally to `` Run ! '' During Final Crisis # 3 , Jay Garrick speaks to Barry 's wife , Iris , and tells her that her husband is truly alive . Meanwhile , Wally and Barry run a few weeks into the future . When they come to rest , Wally asks Barry if it is really him . Lamenting on Orion 's death , which he was unable to stop , Barry wonders why he is now alive after being dead for so long . It is then that Barry and Wally are confronted by Wonder Woman , Batwoman , Catwoman , and Giganta , who have all been transformed into the new Female Furies following the release of the Anti-Life Equation . Despite the fact that this new version of the Female Furies is equipped with the ability to track down speedsters , perceived by Libra and Darkseid as the only obstacle left between them and world domination , Barry 's expertise allows him to overcome their foes and run through the ruined Earth . Barry stops to see his wife Iris and save her from the slavery of the Anti-Life Equation . Seeing his wife again for the first time in years , Barry is overcome with emotion and gives his brainwashed wife a deep kiss . While kissing her , the Speed Force sparkles out of his body , enveloping Iris and freeing her from the Equation . The Allens and Wally West are left to fend in a conquered world . In the seventh and final issue of Final Crisis , Barry and Wally lead the Black Racer to Darkseid , dealing the cosmic tyrant a blow that , coupled with Batman shooting him in the shoulder with the god - bullet , would facilitate his ultimate defeat . The Flash : Rebirth ( edit ) Main article : The Flash : Rebirth In 2009 , writer Geoff Johns and artist Ethan Van Sciver created The Flash : Rebirth , a 6 - issue miniseries bringing Barry Allen back to a leading role in the DC Universe as the Flash , much in the same vein as Green Lantern : Rebirth . When asked what Flashes would appear in the series , Johns and Van Sciver said , `` All of them . '' The series begins with the cities of Central and Keystone celebrating the return of , `` Central City 's Flash '' , Wonder Woman having used her government contacts to create the story that Barry was in witness protection to account for his resurrection . Avoiding the parades , parties , and other celebrations of his return , Barry instead contemplates why he is alive again . A visit to the Flash Museum and from his friend Hal Jordan is not enough to put his mind at ease as he runs off as the Flash . `` I ca n't be late , '' he says . When asked by Hal late for what , Flash replies , `` For whatever the rest of the world needs me for . '' It is then revealed that Flash 's mother was murdered when he was a child , and his father was arrested for the crime ( this is pointedly contrary to previous Flash stories , in which both his parents appear alive ) . Flash describes this as `` the only one open case I left behind . '' Before he can contemplate this any further , the speedster villain Savitar escapes the Speed Force through Flash . When Flash manages to put his hand on Savitar 's shoulder , the villain screams in agony and crumbles into dust , not before telling Flash , `` ... You were the beginning , Allen ... and you 're the end . '' At that moment , Wally West , West 's children Iris and Jai , Liberty Belle , Jay Garrick , and Kid Flash all experience painful convulsions and are engulfed in lightning . Barry 's conflict with the speed cult culminates in the death of their new leader who was attempting to avenge Savitar 's death . It causes pain once again to all the speedsters , though Wally West manages to catch a glimpse of Allen directly afterwards , and sees him as the new Black Flash . When he realizes that his presence could damage or kill other innocents , Barry flees back into the Speed Force , where he encounters old friends Johnny Quick and Max Mercury . Max attempts to tell Allen that his becoming the Black Flash is not his fault . When Max and Barry are pulled into another pocket of the Speed Force , the real culprit reveals himself : Professor Zoom . Zoom reveals his plan : after Barry briefly aided Kid Flash against Superboy - Prime during the Infinite Crisis , Thawne was able to send a subliminal pulse into the Speed Force to draw back what was left of Barry 's self - awareness . This led to the hero 's reappearance during the Final Crisis . Afterward , Zoom transformed himself into `` a new kind of speedster and created his negative Speed Force to contaminate Barry and the other heroic speedsters . Before Barry can fight any further , Zoom fades away . Wally enters the Speed Force to retrieve his uncle , and after venturing deeper into the Speed Force , Max reveals to Barry that it was Allen himself who created the Speed Force . Meanwhile , Wally manages to reach Barry and Max , and the three begin their escape . As the heroic speedsters are recharged with energy , Barry , Wally , Jay , Max , and Bart charge towards Zoom . The seven speedsters ( the 5 men plus Jesse Chambers and Iris West - Park ) battle against Zoom , and despite being outnumbered , Zoom pulls Barry away . He reveals that everything horrible that happened to Barry , including the murder of Barry 's mother , was caused by Zoom . Zoom then decides to destroy everything by killing Barry 's wife , Iris , before they met . Barry chases after Zoom , and is joined by Wally , who tells Barry to push as hard as he can to break the time barrier . They reach Thawne , becoming the lightning bolt that turns Barry into the Flash as they are able to stop Zoom from killing Iris . As the two Flashes push Zoom back through time to the present , they see that the Justice League , the Justice Society , and the Outsiders have built a device specifically for Thawne . Barry tosses him in and activates the device , severing his connection to the negative Speed Force . The Flashes tie Zoom up to stop him from running . With the threat ended , everyone celebrates by welcoming Barry back and the speedsters in general . Later , Barry closes the case on his mother 's death and opts to take all the other cold cases they had after his death . Barry spends some time with Iris before racing to Washington to celebrate his return with the Justice League , apologizing for being late . Blackest Night ( edit ) Main article : Blackest Night Barry Allen as a member of the Blue Lantern Corps during the Blackest Night event . Cover art to Blackest Night : The Flash # 3 by Scott Kolins . Barry Allen is one of the main characters in Blackest Night alongside Hal Jordan . Allen appears alongside Jordan in the Free Comic Book Day issue Blackest Night # 0 that acts as a prologue to the July company crossover . At the grave of Bruce Wayne in Gotham City , Hal and Barry reflect on Batman 's death and how the hero community is avoiding linking Wayne and Batman . This reflection turns to the pair looking at their own deaths , comparing the sadness that Barry 's death engendered in others while Hal 's death produced anger . Hal sums it up by telling Barry , `` I died a sinner . You died a saint . '' ( though he admits he 's not and reflecting of his past sins . ) The conversation moves on to the world becoming `` more dangerous '' after Barry 's death and observing that the deaths of Arthur Curry and Martian Manhunter cost the Justice League its `` heart and soul '' . As they leave the cemetery , Barry expresses hope that their dead comrades will be returned to them . He specifically cites Batman noting , `` If there 's an escape , you can bet Batman 's already planning it . '' Barry also appears alongside Hal in the July issues of Green Lantern tying into the event . Recently , in a fight with Black Lantern J'onn J'onzz , he found a mysterious black residue at Bruce Wayne 's grave -- a black form coagulating much like blood that started corrupting him by partly decaying his skin and muscle during the fight against his former friend , who is intent on killing both Hal and Barry , seeing how they both died , and in the eyes of the Black Lanterns , must return to that state to keep the universe in balance . After fighting off the undead Martian and the subsequent Black Lanterns with Hal and the arriving Atom , Mera , Firestorm , and two of the Indigo Tribe members , Barry , along with Wally and Bart , races across the globe to warn every superhero community across the planet . His message also inadvertently warns the Rogues . They all realize that their deceased members would come after them and decide to strike first at Iron Heights Penitentiary , unaware that the undead Rogues are ready for them . While doing so , Barry meets a Black Lantern version of Professor Zoom for a brief battle . Barry decides to go to Gorilla City to seek aid from its ruler Solovar , unaware the gorilla leader had been killed years before . Finding the city attacked , Barry assumed Grodd had struck only to be horrified to learn Solovar was now a Black Lantern . Their fight was shortened by Barry racing to Coast City . He stops at the city 's memorial , where he witnesses the arrival of the Black Lanterns ' demonic lord , Nekron , and his disciples Scar and Black Hand . The Justice League , the Titans , Wally , and Bart arrive to aid Barry to take a stand against Nekron . Nekron reveals however that all the resurrected heroes are tied to him , because he allowed them to rise again . As such they belong to him . Nekron then used a series of black rings to turn Superman , Wonder Woman , Troia , Green Arrow , Bart , and several other resurrected heroes into Black Lanterns . Barry and Hal find themselves being targeted by black rings and are forced to flee or risk joining the others as Black Lanterns . Barry manages to save himself and Hal through time travel two seconds forward , leaving the rings with no present targets . As Barry and Hal rejoin the heroes against Nekron and his army , Ganthet , one of the Guardians of the Universe and a leader of the Blue Lantern Corps , summons a blue power ring and Barry is chosen as a Blue Lantern so he would be more effective during the battle . After being chosen as a Blue Lantern , Barry joins forces with the veteran Blue Corps member Saint Walker to continue battling the Black Lanterns alongside the understanding of the potentials and limitations of his new power ring . During the battle , Barry is forced to fight his own grandson , who his ring detects is still alive but would eventually die if not free from the black ring soon . Barry is shown to be skilled with his ring in creating energy constructs based on his imagination and an ability of flight ( possibly because of the understanding with Hal 's ring ) , as he is able to create images of Bart as Impulse and Kid Flash against him in order to make him feel again . Barry 's plan almost works as Bart reacts to the images of his past and the constructs begin to attempt to take the black ring from him , but later is interrupted by the Black Lantern Professor Zoom and Solovar . Wally and Walker later join Barry to fight against them . Barry and Bart temporarily joined the White Lantern Corps during the final events of Blackest Night . The Flash volume 3 ( edit ) Main article : The Flash ( comic book ) # Volume 3 ( 2010 -- 2011 ) The new Flash series begins after the completion of Blackest Night and the beginning of Brightest Day . After the events of The Flash : Rebirth , Barry Allen is reintegrating himself into life in Central City . Under the cover of having been in witness protection , Allen returns to the Central City Police Department 's crime lab and returns to the streets as the Flash . While readjusting to life as the Flash , a man appears out of thin air in the costume of Flash rogue the Mirror Master , and promptly dies on the street . When Barry arrives on the scene to investigate , he sees the man is neither original Mirror Master Sam Scudder , or the current Rogue , Evan McCulloch . Hearing of another portal appearing , Barry transforms into the Flash and runs to investigate . When he arrives , a group of people in costumes similar to the Rogues , called The Renegades appear and tell Barry that they are from the 25th century , and that he is under arrest for murdering the `` Mirror Monarch '' . Barry tells the crew that he has not killed anyone , to which their leader , `` Commander Cold '' , tells him , `` Not yet . But you will . '' After a brief struggle , where Weather Warlock 's time disc was damaged , the Renegades were forced back to the 25th century , which also caused the destruction of an apartment building due to their uncontrolled jump back . Barry saves everyone in the building , even rebuilding the building in minutes , and goes on to search for the true killer of Mirror Monarch . He is attacked again by the Renegades , but only before Captain Boomerang shows up , now wielding explosive energy boomerangs . Boomerang fights both the Flash and the Renegades , and a confused Top ( one of the Renegades from the 25th century ) questions his teammates on whether or not Barry Allen is the man they are looking for , pointing out that in their timeline , Boomerang never showed up . The Renegades finally corner Captain Boomerang when the Rogues arrive with a giant mirror left by the previous Mirror Master that says `` In Case The Flash Returns Break Glass '' . An all out brawl ensues as the Rogues battle the Renegades . Meanwhile , Flash is confronted by Top who warns him that the reason he will eventually kill Mirror Monarch is because of Iris 's death , which he claims will be caused when the giant mirror breaks , releasing the Mirror Lords . Top tells Barry that one of the Mirror Lords will possess Iris and take her away from him . Barry races to stop the mirror from breaking , with Top at his side . However , when the White Lantern entity reaches out to Captain Boomerang , telling him to `` Throw the Boomerang '' , Boomerang responds by throwing dozens of boomerangs in every direction . One of them hits the glass and it begins to break . Top tells Flash to stop the Mirror Lords , while he goes and protects Iris . Flash questions does not make sense , but Top throws him into the mirror and flees . In the mirror , Flash is exposed to strange visions of his mother . Outside , the Rogue Mirror Master tells the others that the mirror is actually a slow acting poison and they flee . Barry escapes the mirror confused and asks , `` Where are the Mirror Lords ? '' He is then arrested by the Renegades , who realize that this was all a setup by Top to frame the Flash for his own personal gains . Barry is transported to a 25th - century court , while Top confronts Iris . The story concludes with Barry escaping the 25th century court and going after Top . Top reveals that the reason for all of his crimes is because Barry reopened a previously closed case . Barry felt that the person convicted was actually innocent . The person who is actually guilty of the crime is one of Top 's ancestors . Top reveals that they do not allow anyone in the Renegades who has any ancestors with a criminal record . The Flash is able to beat Top , and convict the right man for murder , letting go the innocent man who was sent to prison . Afterward , the 25th century court and the Renegades go over the facts , realizing that the Flash was right and that their entire record of history is wrong . This alludes to the upcoming Flash event , Flashpoint . Meanwhile , a man on a Speed Force - powered motorcycle ( later revealed to be a Speed Force police officer under the name of Hot Pursuit ) moves through the desert and says that if Barry does not find the flashpoint , it will destroy the world . As he continues through the desert , Speed Force lightning strikes in the distance . In a Green Lantern storyline , Barry becomes the latest host for the embodiment of fear , Parallax , after he joins Hal Jordan 's quest of locating all of the entities who each represent aspects of the power of the emotional spectrum . Barry was susceptible to the entity 's attacks due to his fear for Jordan 's safety . Barry is eventually freed after the embodiment of compassion , Proselyte , helps him remember his capability for benevolence over his fear . DC has also announced via the Flashpoint Friday Blog that Flash # 12 will be the last in the series despite a thirteenth issue originally having been announced for sale on May 25 , 2011 , but which has since been withdrawn . Flashpoint ( edit ) Main article : Flashpoint ( comics ) As the story begins , Barry Allen wakes up in his office and discovers that his mother is alive , with no trace of Superman , Wonder Woman and Aquaman leading their respective nations in a war , his wife Iris West is unmarried and himself currently powerless . Barry seeks the aid of Batman , driving to Gotham City and entering a run - down Wayne Manor . He explores what turns out to be a small Batcave until he is attacked by Batman . Barry tries to explain who he is by saying he knows Batman is Bruce Wayne , only to find that in this reality , Batman is Thomas Wayne . While Barry is being beat up by Batman , he explains about his secret identity as the Flash and his relation to Bruce Wayne . Barry 's memories spontaneously change and he realizes that the world of Flashpoint is not an alternate dimension , but his own . Barry uses his ring , which he uses to contain his Flash outfit , but the ring instead ejects Professor Zoom 's costume . Barry tells Batman that Zoom is taunting him with it . Barry explains that both he and Zoom have the ability to alter time , leading Batman to ask him about how Bruce was to have lived in his place and if he can really change the world . Barry states that he needs his speed first . Later , Barry and Batman create an electric chair - like device to try and recreate the accident that gave him his speed ; however , the first attempt meets with failure , leaving Barry severely burned . Barry awakes on an operating table in the Batcave and is covered in bandages and third degree burns . Despite Thomas ' advice , Barry sits back down in the electric chair device . When lightning strikes a second time , Barry 's super-speed returns , and he then saves the Batman from being impaled on a fence . Barry 's injuries are healing rapidly due to his speed - enhanced regeneration . He also makes a new copy of his Flash costume . The Flash researches the incarnations of heroes of the DC timeline , believing that Zoom deliberately changed their lives to prevent the Flash from creating a Justice League , and learns of a rocket that crashed into Metropolis which carried the infant Superman , who instead of being raised in Kansas was taken in by the government . They then contact Cyborg for his help in sneaking into the government bunker of `` Project : Superman '' that is ' raising ' Superman after his rocket destroyed Metropolis upon its arrival , only to be disappointed at Superman 's frail appearance . They head towards Project : Superman 's underground base via the sewer . The group comes across a giant vault door bearing the Superman logo . After they open the door , the three see a pale , weakened Kal - El . Despite his appearance , Barry says that no matter what , Superman will always be a good person . When the arrival of guards forces them to escape , Superman 's powers begin to manifest and he flies off leaving them at the hands of the guards . While they fend off the guards , they are rescued by Element Woman . Barry 's memories begin to change much more drastically , altering his past . He states that he is running out of time and soon he will not be able to restore the timeline to normal . After Barry is recovering , he asks the heroes to stop the Atlantean / Amazon war from creating more casualties , although the heroes are not willing to unless Batman wants to join them . Cyborg explains to him that they believe Batman was invincible . However , Barry convinces him that no one is invincible ; the Marvel Family and Batman agree to join him . The heroes arrive at New Themyscira to stop the Atlantean / Amazon war , and appear to be winning until Enchantress reveals herself as the Amazon spy and uses her magic to separate the Marvel Family and restore them to their mortal forms . Penthesilea kills Billy Batson just as Professor Zoom reveals himself to Barry . Professor Zoom reveals to him that the `` Flashpoint '' timeline was actually created by Barry himself , after he traveled back in time to stop Zoom from killing his mother , but the timeline diverted into the near - apocalyptic world they find themselves in . He continues to taunt Barry with this knowledge , but is suddenly stabbed in the back by Batman wielding an Amazonian sword . Before Barry returns the timeline to normal , Batman thanks him for all he 's done and gives him a letter addressed to his son . After this , Barry bids a farewell to his mother , knowing he must travel back in time to stop his younger self from altering time . Through the fusions of the time stream , Barry seemingly hears a voice explaining that the three timelines and worlds , need to become one again and would need his help to do this . After the ordeals , he visits the real Bruce Wayne and gives him the letter from his alternate father . Bruce is grateful to Barry of informing him of the events of the `` Flashpoint '' before the timeline was apparently returned to normal . The new 52 ( edit ) DC Comics relaunched The Flash with issue # 1 in September 2011 , with writing and art chores handled by Francis Manapul and Brian Buccellato as part of DC 's company - wide title relaunch , The New 52 . As with all of the books associated with the DC relaunch , Barry Allen appears to be about five years younger than the previous incarnation of the character . He gains his powers after getting frustrated and throwing a small machine at the window of his lab . The machine broke through the window , leaving a hole big enough for a bolt of lightning to charge through the hole and strike him . In the second issue of the new Justice League title ( the first released comic series of the New 52 initiative and `` opening shot '' of the new DC Universe ) , Flash is called to assist Green Lantern and Batman in wrangling an out - of - control Superman , and later assists with the pursuit of an alien , revealed to be an agent of Darkseid . In this new continuity , Barry 's marriage to Iris West never took place , and he is instead in a relationship with longtime co-worker Patty Spivot . In this new series , the Flash draws deeper into the Speed Force , enhancing his mental abilities while still trying to get a full grasp on his powers , which he does not yet exert total control over . As revealed in issue # 0 of the current series , Barry Allen 's father was placed in prison for the murder of his mother . The murder occurred shortly after Barry returned victorious from a school spelling bee , and Barry placed the trophy he won on his mother 's grave in her memory . While the evidence seems to indicate his father 's guilt , Barry makes proving his father 's innocence a priority . Barry is also part of the main cast of the relaunched Justice League series , making his debut in the series ' second issue . Following Convergence , Barry has a new suit in issue # 41 , which has a darker shade and features more streaks . DC Rebirth ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( March 2017 ) During DC Rebirth , Barry is no longer the only Flash . It is revealed that Wally West has been lost in the Speed Force for ten years , realizing during this time that Barry is not responsible of changing the timeline after the Flashpoint crisis , the unknown entity used Barry 's time travelling as an opportunity to fundamentally alter reality . The fallout of the recent Darkseid War allowed Wally to try and reach out to his former friends in the hopes of either returning or warning them of the truth , but each attempt caused him to fall further into the Speed Force . After realizing not even Linda ( his traditional `` lightning rod '' ) could remember him , Wally sank into desolation and chose to appear before Barry one last time to thank him for the life he had given him . Just before Wally disappeared , Barry remembered him and dragged him free of the Speed Force . Following a tearful reunion , Wally gave Barry his warning of the true source of the universal change and the dangers to come . Because of Wally , Barry is now aware that the timeline is not reset correctly after Flashpoint and thus another alternate timeline . However , he still can not remember his pre-Flashpoint life , such as people like Jay Garrick and the details of his feuds with the Reverse - Flash / Eobard Thawne ( who now remembers their pre-Flashpoint history ) , and remembers Wally from their new DC Rebirth timeline history . Despite being informed by Wally that another party is responsible , Barry remains in guilt over his mistakes , and seeks to find and stop them in hopes of making amends . Although the two decide to keep Wally 's return secret from Iris based on Wally 's own experience with Linda , Barry encourages him to return to the Teen Titans , but also recommends that he don a new costume to reflect that he is the Flash rather than ' Kid Flash ' . While Wally considers his options , Barry visits Batman to discuss the new evidence of some outside force attacking them , musing on how personal this assault appears , but despite the potential danger , Batman and Barry agree to keep their investigation to themselves until they know what they are up against . Later , when Eobard Thawne attacks Iris and Wally II , Iris had glimpses of her pre-Flashpoint life with Barry and learns his secrets as the Flash in the process . Knowing from Thawne that her entire life has been drastically altered and that Barry is indirectly responsible for it as the result of his time - traveling actions , Iris now distrusts Barry . To make matters worse for Barry , while he 's entering the Negative Speed Force , he becomes the Negative - Flash which is so lethal than the original , and mostly dangerous to control . Powers and abilities ( edit ) Barry Allen has the ability to run at super-human velocities . He was at times during the Silver Age described as faster than the speed of thought . He is also the fastest man to ever live , even defeating Wally West with no strain even though West was at his fastest . Flash # 150 , `` straining every muscle '' , he ran at ten times the speed of light . In Flash Rebirth # 6 is shown that after his ressurecrion Barry has become faster the Wally West . However , when he pushed himself further ( during the Crisis on Infinite Earths ) he appeared to waste away as he was converted into pure energy , traveled back in time , and was revealed in Secret Origins Annual # 2 to be the very bolt of lightning that gave him his powers . This was later retconned in The Flash : Rebirth # 1 , where Barry stated that he `` ran into the Speed Force '' , and that , `` When he stopped the Anti-Monitor , when ( he ) ran into the ' Speed Force ' and joined it , it was like shedding ( his ) identity . '' Allen possesses abilities that original Flash Jay Garrick has not always been able to duplicate , and most notably the ability to `` vibrate '' in such a way as to pass through solid matter . Allen regularly engaged in time travel by using his Cosmic Treadmill device ; however , on several occasions he has been able to time travel without using the Cosmic Treadmill . His speed also allows him , in certain circumstances , to `` vibrate '' between dimensions . Barry is unique among Flashes and most characters in the DC Universe in that he has complete control over every molecule in his body . In Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis , using the Speed Force , Allen was able to undo the effects of the Anti-Life Equation upon an individual : an ability he used on his wife Iris to free her from the bondage of Darkseid 's mind control. Barry has also shown the ability to fly by creating mini vortexes . Barry 's speed has numerous secondary applications . He can use it to generate cyclones by spinning his arms quickly , and in some depictions he can even channel the electric energy generated by the Speed Force into arcs of lightning . Barry is also immune to telepathic attacks and control as he can shift his thoughts at a speed faster than normal thought . Through `` speed - reading '' , he can absorb large amounts of information into his short - term memory , which remain in his mind just long enough for him to make use of it . Using this technique , Barry was able to learn enough about building work to rebuild a destroyed apartment building . Other aspects of Barry 's powers include an enhanced metabolism and faster - than - normal healing from injuries . In the New 52 Barry learned that his body is using the speed force to its full extent but his brain is not . With the help of Dr. Elias he was able to learn how to use the Speed Force to process more information , and make even quicker decisions , to the point where he feels like he can see everything before it happens . In terms of DC 's internal lexicon , Barry is classified as a metahuman : a human being who possesses extranormal abilities either through birth or ( as in Barry 's case ) as the result of some external event. . In The New 52 and DC Rebirth , Barry Allen is the fastest Flash . Rogues gallery ( edit ) Main article : Rogues ( comics ) The Flash has acquired a colorful rogues gallery of villains . Their number includes ( but is not limited to ) several who formed a loose association and refer to themselves as the Rogues , disdaining the use of the term `` supervillain '' or `` super-criminal '' . These criminals typically have unusually modest goals for their power level ( robbery or other petty crimes ) , and each have adopted a specific theme in his or her equipment and methods . Other versions ( edit ) Barry Allen is a supporting character in Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight Strikes Again . He has been kept by Lex Luthor as a power source for most of the East Coast , constantly running on a treadmill to provide cheap electrical power or else Iris will be executed . After being rescued , Barry wears a black version of his original Flash costume which Batman 's young assistants deemed as `` old '' -- `` Kids , these days , ca n't tell the difference between just plain old and classic '' , he mutters . He then aids Batman and other heroes in restoring order , though they clash when Barry wants to save people in danger while Batman is prepared to let them die for the sake of his long - term strategy . Barry Allen appears in JLA : Age of Wonder as a scientist working with Superman and a consortium of early twentieth - century scientists such as Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla . His uniform incorporates the Silver Age look with the Mercury - style helmet worn by Jay Garrick . In League of Justice , a Lord of the Rings - type story , Barry is recast as `` Phaeton '' , who wears a mystical brooch resembling Flash 's lightning - bolt chest emblem , and has bathed in dragon 's blood in order to protect himself from speed friction . In Batman : Holy Terror , Barry is one of a number of metahumans imprisoned by a theocratic state , discovered and released by Batman during a raid on the government . He then shows Batman some of the attempts to recreate his powers in others , ranging from a man who can not control his ability to vibrate to a woman whose brain operates at lightspeed while her body is still at normal speed or a man rapidly aging to death . While Barry and Batman are able to defeat the brainwashed Zatanna , Barry is then killed when his captor reveals that his research has included discovering how to deactivate the aura that protects Barry from being destroyed by the friction he generates while running . A version of Barry Allen aka Hot Pursuit appeared in the lead into Flashpoint . Little is known about the exact origins of Hot Pursuit , or how he came to be . The only thing known is the fact that he is a version of Barry Allen from the future , who goes back in time to warn himself about the upcoming events of Flashpoint . Hot Pursuit 's history is assumed to be the same as Barry Allen 's up until the single point in time , where a great anomaly altered the reality of the future all together . The unknown event that made Barry Allen don the role of Hot Pursuit is the same event he travels back in time to warn himself about , as well as the event that causes Flashpoint . With Flashpoint 's widespread time - altering effects , it is possible that Barry Allen lost his connection to the Speed Force , thus needing the cosmic motorcycle Hot Pursuit is seen riding to access the Speed Force and travel back in time . This motorcycle also needs to be charged constantly with mass amounts of electricity in order for it to continue to be able to access the Speed Force , thus it is unable to naturally access the Speed Force like Barry Allen or the rest of the Flash Family . `` Buried Alien '' A story in the Marvel comic book series Quasar , written four years after Crisis on Infinite Earths , has the Marvel Universe speedsters facing off in a competition set up by a being called the Runner . The contest is a race from the Earth to the Moon . During the race , a surge of energy hits the track , leaving a being with blonde hair and dressed in the remains of a red outfit with yellow boots . This being has no memory , but an enormous desire to run . He goes on to win the race , passing Marvel speedsters such as Quicksilver and Speed Demon in the process . When asked what his name is , the man replies , `` I 'm not sure . `` Buried Alien '' ... Something like that . '' When asked how it felt to be the fastest man alive , he replied , `` It feels ... right . '' The racer goes on to take the name Fast - Forward , disappearing into the universe in an attempt to help Makkari , who is stuck at hyper speed . In the Elseworlds tale Superman & Batman : Generations , Barry 's life is still the same , but heroes age in real time . This reality shows no sign of the Crisis ever happening , so an elderly Barry is seen to be alive and well in 2008 . The Elseworlds story Flashpoint shows an alternate reality where Barry Allen becomes the Flash in 1956 , the year he first appeared in comics . He is more involved in government affairs . By 1963 , he has ended the Cold War and pushed the communists out of Vietnam . However , his career is cut short as he takes a bullet aimed at John F. Kennedy . He is paralyzed from the neck down , but he still has the fastest mind on Earth and forms Allen Industries . By 1988 , he and Vandal Savage 's Immortality , Inc. have begun an exploration of Mars . In 1998 , Wally West leads an expedition to Mars , during which he finds the flashpoint , an object which killed all life on Mars . Savage reveals he is the one who shot Allen . Barry makes contact with Wally , who is going on a super speed rampage . Barry is cured and defeats Savage . He then enters the flashpoint , going into the Speed Force . In The Flash Annual # 7 , an alternate universe is shown where shortly after Wally West became Kid Flash , he became a superstar celebrity . However , Barry was tragically killed while battling Captain Cold . Ten years later , Wally is now a paraplegic and Captain Cold has written a supposedly `` true '' story about Barry that paints him as arrogant and incompetent . Wally decides to make a movie about his mentor that portrays the genuine Barry Allen . The resulting film is a success . Recently the Barry Allen of Earth - 51 , where secret identities are no longer needed by superheroes , is seen alive . He is subsequently killed by the Monitor of New Earth . In JLA : The Nail a version of Barry Allen is a member of a Justice League where Superman did not become a hero and join the team until much later . In lieu of Superboy 's adventures with the Legion of Super-Heroes , the Flash visited the 30th Century instead . Barry Allen of The Nail is almost identical to the pre-Crisis Earth - 1 version , except that his costume resembles Wally 's . His most prominent scene in the story is a confrontation with Amazo where he manages to defeat the android by turning intangible and removing his computerized brain before Amazo can process and mimic that attack . In the prequel comic to Injustice : Gods Among Us Barry joins Superman 's Regime in a more forceful approach to saving the world from crime . However , Barry remains one of the few ( alongside Shazam ) to maintain some sense of morality , as he is more prone to questioning some of Superman 's more drastic actions in the Year One series . Though Batman tries to convince Barry of the Regime 's negative influence , he chooses to stay with them , though still tries to convince Superman his more drastic actions will not go down well . In the game , Barry finally defects from the Regime after Superman murders Shazam for questioning his ethics . He joins the Insurgency and plays a critical role in stopping Superman 's dictatorship . While he and the other Regime members are arrested , he is pardoned thanks to Batman vouching for him and given a job at Luthor / Wayne climate research . His superior , Doctor Randall , convinces Barry to become the Flash again to aid the heroes in stopping Brainiac 's invasion . In other media ( edit ) Main article : Flash in other media Film ( edit ) Ezra Miller portrays Barry Allen / The Flash in the DC Extended Universe . Barry makes his debut in the 2016 film Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice where he appears in both Bruce Wayne 's vision and a sequence of footage that Lex Luthor secretly possessed . Miller reprises his role in Suicide Squad , in a flashback where he is shown apprehending Captain Boomerang . Miller is set to reprise his role as The Flash in his own standalone film `` Flashpoint '' and the Justice League films ( 2017 & 2019 respectively ) . Animation ( edit ) Barry Allen appears in the animated film adaptation of a Darwyn Cooke graphic novel entitled Justice League : The New Frontier , voiced by Neil Patrick Harris . Barry Allen appears in animated film Justice League : Trapped In Time . Barry Allen appears in the animated film Justice League : Doom , voiced by Michael Rosenbaum . Barry Allen appears in the animated film Lego Batman : The Movie - DC Super Heroes Unite , an adaptation of the video game of the same name , with Charlie Schlatter reprising his role . Barry Allen appears in The Lego Movie . He appears as a Master Builder that assisted Metal Beard in his earlier invasion on the Octan Tower which led to his capture . By the end of the movie , he is seen with his fellow DC superheroes celebrating Emmet Brickowski 's victory over the Kragle . Barry Allen appears in the animated film Justice League : The Flashpoint Paradox , voiced by Justin Chambers . Barry Allen appears in the animated film Justice League : War , voiced by Christopher Gorham . Barry Allen appears in the animated film Justice League : Throne of Atlantis , with Christopher Gorham reprising his role . Barry Allen appears in the animated film Justice League vs. Teen Titans , with Christopher Gorham reprising his role . Barry Allen appears in DC Super Hero Girls : Super Hero High as a student at Super Hero High . He is voiced by Josh Keaton . Barry Allen appears in The Lego Batman Movie , voiced by Adam DeVine . He appears as a member of the Justice League and was seen at Superman 's party which Superman forgot to invite Batman to . Television ( edit ) Cartoons ( edit ) He had small adventures in the rotating series of superheroes cartoons included in The Superman / Aquaman Hour of Adventure , with Kid Flash . He also was a founding member of the Justice League of America along with Superman , Green Lantern , Hawkman , and the Atom . He also appeared in Super Friends to help fellow Justice Leaguer Superman . JLA members Flash , Green Lantern , and Batman eventually joined forces with Superman and the rest of the Super Friends in Super Friends , The All - New Super Friends Hour , Challenge of the Super Friends , Super Friends , and The Super Powers Team : Galactic Guardians where he was an important member of the superteam . Barry Allen never officially appears in the DCAU series of animated projects by Bruce Timm and Paul Dini . However he is referenced and mentioned in several episodes . A police detective in the Justice League episode `` The Brave and the Bold '' has a passing resemblance to Barry Allen , acting as the `` good cop '' during the Flash 's interrogation . In the Justice League Unlimited episode `` Flash and Substance '' , the Wally West Flash mentions his uncle `` flying in '' to attend the dedication of a Flash Museum . There is also another character in the same episode who is Wally 's teacher at the forensic lab and bears a resemblance to Barry . Although the series ' Flash is Wally West in name and likeness , he has many of Barry Allen 's story elements , such as his origin , job , city , foes , and status as being the first scarlet speedster and co-founding the Justice League . In part 1 of the episode `` The Brave and the Bold '' when the Flash goes into a comatose state he has some strange dreams ; in one he has gained so much weight that he is too fat to run , a homage to the Silver Age issue of The Flash # 115 , and in another he has a giant head , a nod to another Silver Age comic , The Flash # 177 . He made a cameo appearance in `` The Joining , Part Two '' , the season 4 finale of The Batman . He also appeared in the season 5 episode `` A Mirror Darkly '' , portrayed by voice actor Charlie Schlatter , who reprised his role as the Flash from Superman : The Animated Series . Producer Alan Burnett said that while Flash had no distinct identity in the episodes , he considered this particular Flash to be Barry Allen . Barry Allen is featured in Batman : The Brave and the Bold , voiced by Alan Tudyk . In `` Sidekicks Assemble ! '' , he made a cameo with the other Justice League members when an asteroid threatens Earth . In `` Requiem for a Scarlet Speedster ! '' , he was thought dead when he was pursuing Professor Zoom , only to be found in another time period which Zoom had conquered . With help from Jay Garrick , Kid Flash ( Wally West ) , and Batman , he defeats Zoom and returns to his original time period . In a clip of `` four star spectacular ! '' , he saves Batman from Captain Boomerang , and tells him about an encounter he just had with Mirror Master and Abra Kadabra along the way . Barry Allen appears in the Young Justice animated series as a member of the JLA and Kid Flash 's mentor . He is voiced by George Eads and later by James Arnold Taylor in `` Endgame '' . He is shown wearing Wally 's costume rather than his original Silver Age outfit . Issue # 5 of the show 's tie - in comic book reveals that rather than gaining his powers from a freak accident , Barry deliberately recreated the lab explosion that gave Jay Garrick his speed abilities back in the 1940s . Barry 's death in Crisis on Infinite Earths is adapted and substituted with Wally 's for the series ' finale of the series , as the three Flashes band together to deactivate a Reach device . Wally dies in a manner reminiscent of Barry 's death battling the Anti-Monitor , and is referred to as casualty of an averted `` crisis '' . Grant Gustin reprises his role from The CW 's television series The Flash in the web series spin - off Vixen . Barry Allen appears in Justice League Action with Charlie Schlatter reprising his role . Live - action ( edit ) Actor Rod Haase appeared as Barry Allen 's Flash in 1979 's two - part special , Legends of the Superheroes . The unsuccessful 1997 Justice League of America pilot featured actor Kenny Johnston as a 20 - something , unemployed , Barry Allen . John Wesley Shipp as Barry Allen / The Flash in the CBS network television series , The Flash . Barry Allen was the Flash in the 1990s Flash live - action TV series , although this character incorporated elements of Wally 's social life , as well as previously non-existent characters such as a brother and nephew . He was played by John Wesley Shipp . This version of the Flash reaches maximum speed upon breaking the sound barrier , at which point he has to stop to rest . CBS originally wanted to cast Jack Coleman , who declined the role to pursue a career in Broadway . As a police forensic scientist , Barry was working in the crime lab at the Central City Police Department headquarters when a lightning bolt struck his lab , dousing him in a combination of electricity and chemicals nearby . He discovered the accident gave him superhuman speed . With the help of S.T.A.R. Labs scientist Dr. Christina McGee , Barry learned how to control his powers with the help of a special prototype deep - sea diving suit . When Barry 's older brother and police colleague Jay Allen was murdered by gang leader and Jay 's former police partner Nicholas Pike , Barry wore a masked version of the suit and called himself the Flash . After capturing Pike , Barry sees his potentials of accomplishing some differences with his powers in a crime - ridden Central City , and started helping to bring other criminals to justice and provide hope to people as a masked superhero . This version of Flash was seen in an episode of The Flash ( 2014 ) as Barry , Dr. Harrison Wells , and Cisco Ramon travel through the multiverse , implying that this Flash lives in a separate universe in the Arrowverse and a parallel universe counterpart of Arrowverse 's Barry 's father Henry Allen . The fifth episode of season 4 of Smallville , entitled `` Run '' , featured speedster Bart Allen ( Impulse ) . He is portrayed as a self - centered teenager who uses his powers for personal gain , although by the end of the episode , he was showing signs of changing his ways . Bart also carries around identification of Jay Garrick , Barry Allen and Wally West , the three Flashes in the main DC Universe . After an appearance in the season six episode `` Justice '' , Bart becomes a recurring character using the name Impulse . Arrowverse ( edit ) Main article : Arrowverse Grant Gustin as Barry Allen / The Flash in The CW network television series , The Flash . Barry Allen first appears in Arrow , played by Grant Gustin . In the episodes `` The Scientist '' and `` Three Ghosts '' , Barry comes to Starling City to investigate a crime which may assist him in solving his mother 's strange murder that occurred when he was 11 years old . He also hopes to meet his vigilante idol , the Arrow . Barry discovers that Oliver Queen is the Arrow after the archer 's friends recruit him to save his life , and eventually he and Oliver become friends . Barry would later have numerous crossover appearances on Arrow after he becomes the Flash , especially in the annual crossover between the CW shows , where the two superheroes will join forces against a common threat . Gustin later reprises his role in The CW 's The Flash , a spin - off of Arrow. which premiered in Fall 2014 . The series chronicles Barry 's journey to become a hero in his own right once he gained superhuman speed after being struck by lightning during a particle accelerator explosion . He fights to protect Central City from the escalating violence of metahuman criminals and occasionally teams with Oliver and other heroes . As the series unfolds , his nemesis remains Professor Eobard Thawne / Reverse - Flash , a metahuman speedster from the future . He gradually develops super-speed - related abilities such as vibrating through solid objects , temporarily absorbing knowledge through speed - reading , or traveling through time and parallel universes . Gustin reprised his role for a crossover with the television series Supergirl in the 18th episode of its first season `` Worlds Finest '' and the eighth episode of its second season `` Medusa '' . John Wesley Shipp , who portrayed Barry Allen / Flash in the 1990 television series , joined the cast in a recurring role as Barry 's father , Dr. Henry Allen , and Henry 's parallel universe equivalent Jay Garrick / The Flash . Gustin also portrayed a non-powered Earth - 2 version of Barry Allen in later episodes . In season three , Gustin portrays an evil alternate timeline future - Barry Allen who calls himself `` The God of Speed '' and is known by other speedsters as the legendary Savitar . Gustin portrays Barry , while Andre Tricoteux and Tobin Bell portray the character in the Savitar exoskeleton - suit through physical acting , and voice acting respectively . Abandoned developments ( edit ) In February 2007 it was announced that Warner Bros hired husband and wife duo Michele and Kieran Mulroney to write a script for a Justice League film . George Miller signed to direct in September 2007 . Titled Justice League Mortal , Adam Brody was cast as Barry Allen and the film nearly went into production , but the film was pushed back with Writers Guild Strike and the Australian Film Commission refusing to house filming over tax rebate disagreements . Video games ( edit ) A statue at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con International Barry Allen is the Flash in the crossover video game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , voiced by Taliesin Jaffe . He appears in a variant of his current costume . Although the character model contains green eyes , normally a sign of Wally West , as well as the dual lightning bolt belt ( instead of Allen 's single bolt belt ) , which is associated with West 's , the game 's `` Bios '' section confirms that it is indeed Allen . In Flash 's ending , Flash discovered that he had retained a psychic bond with the warrior Liu Kang as a result of his aura attunement . The two agreed to warn each other of any cross universal breaches . It was not long before Liu Kang appeared and warned the Flash about the impending attack by the sorcerer Quan Chi . Barry Allen appears as the Flash in the MMOG DC Universe Online , voiced by Dwight Schultz . In the exclusive `` Who do you trust '' trailer , he appears to be taking an order from Batman , and runs upon being told . While running , he stops to see Hal Jordan about to get killed by Black Adam . He runs there to save Hal . Before he can , though , Black Adam sets off an explosion that kills Barry , Hal , and other heroes . Barry Allen was a playable character in the multiplayer battle arena game Infinite Crisis , voiced by Michael Rosenbaum . Lego series ( edit ) Barry Allen appears a member of the Justice League in LEGO Batman 2 : DC Super Heroes , voiced by Charlie Schlatter . Barry Allen appears as a playable character in LEGO Batman 3 : Beyond Gotham , with Charlie Schlatter reprising his role . He serves as one of the main story characters . Barry Allen appears in Lego Dimensions , with the role reprised by Charlie Schlatter . In the quest `` Brawls without Borders , '' the player helps Flash fight criminals in Metropolis and Gotham City . Injustice series ( edit ) Barry Allen is a playable character in Injustice : Gods Among Us , voiced by Neal McDonough . He is seen at the beginning taking part in a battle against Lex Luthor and his villain allies . In the alternate reality , Flash is one of the heroes serving in Superman 's Regime , although he has doubts about Superman 's true intentions . After Superman kills Shazam when the latter questions his plan to destroy Metropolis and Gotham City to show humanity that he is ' needed ' , the Flash realizes that the heroes have officially gone too far and defects to Batman 's Insurgency . After the original Superman deposes the Regime , Barry surrenders himself due to his previous alliance with the Regime , but is assured by Green Arrow that his help in their defeat will be mentioned at the Regime 's trial . In Flash 's ending , he defeats Superman but is still overcome with guilt for his actions with the Regime and goes into exile . To make amends , he retakes his superhero mantle and begins fighting crime relentlessly in Central City where he is referred to as `` The Ghost '' . Barry Allen returns as a playable character in Injustice 2 , now with Taliesin Jaffe reprising his role from MK vs DC . In the story , Flash has been pardoned from prison in recognition of his aid in deposing Superman 's regime , and now seeks to make amends for his time as a regime member . In his playable chapter , Flash single - handedly defends Metropolis from Brainiac 's initial attack and briefly comes to blows with Hal Jordan , who is trying to atone for his misdeeds as a Regime partisan , much like Flash himself . The two put their differences aside and join Batman 's Insurgency . After Brainiac is defeated , he sides with Batman on allowing Brainiac to live so the captured and lost cities could be restored . Flash attempts to stop an enraged Superman but is easily defeated . In his arcade mode ending , Flash throws Brainiac into the end of time and enters the Speed Force , where he is reunited with other speedsters . Together , they set out to stop a crisis that threatens multiple universes . Music ( edit ) `` Ballad of Barry Allen '' -- A song by the band Jim 's Big Ego on their album , They 're Everywhere . The song portrays Barry as a tragic character , whose perception of the world is so accelerated that all of reality appears to proceed at a snail 's pace , causing him to gradually slip into depression . The band 's frontman , Jim Infantino , is the nephew of Flash ( Barry Allen ) co-creator Carmine Infantino , who provided the cover art for the same album . Reception ( edit ) IGN ranked this version of the Flash as the 49th greatest hero of all time stating that even in his 20 - year absence , Barry 's legacy as the greatest Flash of them all lived on . In 2013 , Barry Allen placed 8th on IGN 's Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics . References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jimenez , Phil ( 2008 ) . `` The Flash '' . In Dougall , Alastair . The DC Comics Encyclopedia . 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The Sydney Morning Herald . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe Flash Biographical Information Jump up ^ `` The Voices of Injustice : Gods Among Us ( 2013 , Video Game ) -- Voice Cast Listing at Voice Chasers '' . Voice Chasers . Archived from the original on 2016 - 03 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Barry Allen ( The Flash ) is number 49 '' . Archived from the original on May 8 , 2011 . Retrieved May 19 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Schedeen , Jesse ( 2013 - 11 - 19 ) . `` The Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics '' . IGN . Archived from the original on 2015 - 11 - 02 . Retrieved 2015 - 11 - 01 . External links ( edit ) Listen to this article ( info / dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` Flash ( Barry Allen ) '' dated 2008 - 04 - 16 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles Flash ( 1956 ) at Don Markstein 's Toonopedia. from the original on July 30 , 2016 . Kistler , Alan ( January 11 , 2006 ) . `` Profile On : The Flash -- Part 2 '' . MonitorDuty.com . Archived from the original on March 23 , 2006 . Arrowverse entry for The Flash The Flash Creators Gardner Fox Harry Lampert ( Jay Garrick ) Bob Kanigher Carmine Infantino John Broome ( Barry Allen ) John Broome Carmine Infantino ( Wally West ) Mark Waid Mike Wieringo ( Bart Allen ) The Flash Family The Flash Jay Garrick Barry Allen Wally West Bart Allen Kid Flash Wally West Bart Allen Iris West II Wally West II Associates Iris West Jesse Chambers Impulse Johnny Quick Max Mercury Linda Park Tornado Twins XS Supporting characters Green Lantern ( Hal Jordan ) Green Lantern ( Kyle Rayner ) Elongated Man Más y Menos Tina McGee Valerie Perez Pied Piper Red Trinity David Singh Solovar Patty Spivot Winky , Blinky , and Noddy Enemies General Doctor Alchemy Fiddler Godspeed Gorilla Grodd Rag Doll Rainbow Raider Savitar Shade Thinker Turtle / Turtle Man T.O. Morrow Reverse - Flashes Rival ( Edward Clariss ) Professor Zoom ( Eobard Thawne ) Zoom ( Hunter Zolomon ) Rival ( Thaddeus Thawne ) Reverse - Flash ( Danny West ) The Rogues Abra Kadabra Captain Boomerang Captain Cold Golden Glider Heat Wave Mirror Master Pied Piper Top Trickster Weather Wizard Publications Flash Comics All - Flash Comic Cavalcade The Flash The Flash : Rebirth ( 2009 ) Flashpoint Flashpoint ( Elseworlds ) The Flash Chronicles Locations Blue Valley Central City ( Central City Police Department ) Flash Museum Gorilla City Iron Heights Penitentiary Keystone City S.T.A.R. 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"In time, he married his girlfriend Iris, who learned of his double identity because Allen talked in his sleep. She kept this secret, and he eventually revealed his identity to her of his own free will.[5] Iris was eventually revealed to have been sent as a child from the 30th century and adopted."
] | [
"Iris"
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7433877893775616207 | Ancient Greece | Ancient Greece - wikipedia Ancient Greece civilization belonging to an early period of Greek history Hellas Ελλάς 12th / 9th century BC -- c. 600 AD The Parthenon , a temple dedicated to Athena , located on the Acropolis in Athens , is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks . Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods . Religion Ancient Greek religion Hegemon , Strategos Autokrator of Hellenic League 338 BC / 337 BC Philip II 336 BC Alexander III , the Great Historical era Greek Dark Ages - Classical antiquity 12th / 9th century BC c. 600 AD Currency See Ancient Greek coinage ISO 3166 code GR Part of a series on the History of Greece Neolithic Greece ( show ) Neolithic Greece Greek Bronze Age ( show ) Helladic Cycladic Minoan Mycenaean Ancient Greece ( show ) Greek Dark Ages Archaic Greece Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Medieval Greece ( show ) Byzantine Greece Frankish and Latin states Early modern Greece ( show ) Stato da Màr Ottoman Greece Modern Greece ( show ) Septinsular Republic War of Independence First Hellenic Republic Kingdom of Greece National Schism Second Hellenic Republic 4th of August Regime Axis occupation ( Collaborationist regime , Free Greece ) Civil War Military Junta Third Hellenic Republic History by topic ( show ) Art Constitution Economy Military Names Greece portal Ancient history Preceded by prehistory Near East Sumer Egypt Elam Akkad Assyria Babylonia Mitanni Hittites Minoan Mycenae Sea Peoples Syro - Hittite states Israel and Judah Arabia Urartu Medes Nuragic Phoenicia Phrygia Lydia Greece Persia Hellenism Rome Africa Parthia Sasanian Empire Late antiquity Eurasian Steppe Proto - Indo - Europeans Maykop Yamna Afanasievo Corded Ware Catacomb Sintashta Andronovo Cimmeria Scythia Sarmatia Huns Bulgar East Asia China Korea Japan Mongolia Vietnam South Asia Indus Valley Civilisation Vedic period Mahajanapada Nanda Empire Maurya Empire Sangam period Middle kingdoms of India Gupta Empire Mississippi Adena Hopewell Mississippian Mesoamerica Olmecs Epi - Olmec Zapotec Mixtec Maya Teotihuacan Toltec Empire Andes Norte Chico Sechin Chavín Paracas Nazca Moche Lima Tiwanaku Empire Wari Empire West Africa Dhar Tichitt Oualata Nok Senegambia Djenné - Djenno Bura Bantu expansion Ghana Empire Oceania Kuk Lapita Australia Melanesia Polynesia Nan Madol Tuʻi Tonga Empire See also History of the world Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Iron Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle of civilization Followed by Post-classical history Ancient Greece ( Greek : Ελλάς , translit . Ellas ) was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th -- 9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( c . AD 600 ) . Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era . Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece , Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC , ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin . This was followed by the period of Classical Greece , an era that began with the Greco - Persian Wars , lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC . Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia , Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea . The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic , which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece , and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire . Classical Greek culture , especially philosophy , had a powerful influence on ancient Rome , which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe . For this reason , Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization . Classical Greek culture gave a lot of importance to knowledge . Science and religion were not separate and getting closer to the truth meant getting closer to the gods . In this context , they understood the importance of mathematics as an instrument for obtaining more reliable ( `` divine '' ) knowledge . Greek culture , in a few centuries and with a limited population , managed to explore and make progress in many fields of science , mathematics , philosophy and knowledge in general . Contents 1 Chronology 2 Historiography 3 History 3.1 Archaic period 3.2 Classical Greece 3.3 Hellenistic Greece 3.4 Roman Greece 4 Geography 4.1 Regions 4.2 Colonies 5 Politics and society 5.1 Political structure 5.2 Government and law 5.3 Social structure 5.3. 1 Slavery 5.4 Education 5.5 Economy 5.6 Warfare 6 Culture 6.1 Philosophy 6.2 Literature and theatre 6.3 Music and dance 6.4 Science and technology 6.5 Art and architecture 6.6 Religion and mythology 7 Legacy 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Chronology Further information : Timeline of ancient Greece Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC ( around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer ) and ended in the 6th century AD . Classical Antiquity in Greece was preceded by the Greek Dark Ages ( c. 1200 -- c. 800 BC ) , archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery . Following the Dark Ages was the Archaic Period , beginning around the 8th century BC . The Archaic Period saw early developments in Greek culture and society which formed the basis for the Classical Period . After the Archaic Period , the Classical Period in Greece is conventionally considered to have lasted from the Persian invasion of Greece in 480 until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 . The period is characterized by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary , i.e. , `` classical '' , as shown in the Parthenon , for instance . Politically , the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century , but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC , before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon . This period saw the Greco - Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon . Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period ( 323 -- 146 BC ) , during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East . This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest . Roman Greece is usually considered to be the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330 . Finally , Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD , sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529 . Historiography Main article : Greek historiographers The Victorious Youth ( c. 310 BC ) , is a rare , water - preserved bronze sculpture from ancient Greece . The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography , while earlier ancient history or proto - history is known by much more circumstantial evidence , such as annals or king lists , and pragmatic epigraphy . Herodotus is widely known as the `` father of history '' : his Histories are eponymous of the entire field . Written between the 450s and 420s BC , Herodotus ' work reaches about a century into the past , discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia , Cambyses II and Psamtik III , and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules . Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides , Xenophon , Demosthenes , Plato and Aristotle . Most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian , which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities . Their scope is further limited by a focus on political , military and diplomatic history , ignoring economic and social history . History Further information : History of Greece Archaic period Main article : Archaic period in Greece Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period , or the beginning of the Archaic period , c. 750 BC . In the 8th century BC , Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization . Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten , but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet , modifying it to create the Greek alphabet . Objects with Phoenician writing on them may have been available in Greece from the 9th century BC , but the earliest evidence of Greek writing comes from graffiti on Greek pottery from the mid-8th century . Greece was divided into many small self - governing communities , a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography : every island , valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges . The Lelantine War ( c. 710 -- c. 650 BC ) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period . It was fought between the important poleis ( city - states ) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea . Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war , though Chalcis was the nominal victor . A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC , shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC . This seems to have introduced tension to many city - states . The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the poleis were threatened by the new - found wealth of merchants , who in turn desired political power . From 650 BC onwards , the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants . This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek τύραννος tyrannos , meaning ' illegitimate ruler ' , and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike . A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city - states . In Sparta , the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians , beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC , an act without precedent in ancient Greece . This practice allowed a social revolution to occur . The subjugated population , thenceforth known as helots , farmed and labored for Sparta , whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state . Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers ; this commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse the social conflict . These reforms , attributed to Lycurgus of Sparta , were probably complete by 650 BC . Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century BC , again resulting in civil strife . The Archon ( chief magistrate ) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC ( hence `` draconian '' ) , but these failed to quell the conflict . Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon ( 594 BC ) , improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power , gave Athens some stability . By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs : Athens , Sparta , Corinth , and Thebes . Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control , and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well . Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries BC had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia ( Southern Italy and Sicily ) , Asia Minor and further afield . The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century BC by which time the Greek world had , culturally and linguistically , become much larger than the area of present - day Greece . Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities , although they often retained religious and commercial links with them . The emigration process also determined a long series of conflicts between the Greek cities of Sicily , especially Syracuse , and the Carthaginians . These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC when the Roman Republic entered into an alliance with the Mamertines to fend off the hostilities by the new tyrant of Syracuse , Hiero II and then the Carthaginians . This way Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the Carthaginian supremacy in the region . One year later the First Punic War erupted . In this period , there was huge economic development in Greece , and also in its overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing . There was a great improvement in the living standards of the population . Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household , in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC , increased five times , which indicates a large increase in the average income of the population . In the second half of the 6th century BC , Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then of his sons Hippias and Hipparchos . However , in 510 BC , at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes , the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny . Afterwards , Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other , at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon . Eager to prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet , Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow citizens that Athens undergo a revolution : that all citizens share in political power , regardless of status : that Athens become a `` democracy '' . So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that , having overthrown Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes 's reforms , they were easily able to repel a Spartan - led three - pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras . The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a ' golden age ' for the Athenians . Classical Greece Main article : Classical Greece Early Athenian coin , depicting the head of Athena on the obverse and her owl on the reverse -- 5th century BC In 499 BC , the Ionian city states under Persian rule rebelled against the Persian - supported tyrants that ruled them . Supported by troops sent from Athens and Eretria , they advanced as far as Sardis and burnt the city down , before being driven back by a Persian counterattack . The revolt continued until 494 , when the rebelling Ionians were defeated . Darius did not forget that the Athenians had assisted the Ionian revolt , however , and in 490 he assembled an armada to conquer Athens . Despite being heavily outnumbered , the Athenians -- supported by their Plataean allies -- defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Marathon , and the Persian fleet withdrew . Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco - Persian Wars . Delian League ( `` Athenian Empire '' ) , immediately before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC Ten years later , a second invasion was launched by Darius ' son Xerxes . The city - states of northern and central Greece submitted to the Persian forces without resistance , but a coalition of 31 Greek city states , including Athens and Sparta , determined to resist the Persian invaders . At the same time , Greek Sicily was invaded by a Carthaginian force . In 480 BC , the first major battle of the invasion was fought at Thermopylae , where a small force of Greeks , led by three hundred Spartans , held a crucial pass into the heart of Greece for several days ; at the same time Gelon , tyrant of Syracuse , defeated the Carthaginian invasion at the Battle of Himera . The Persians were defeated by a primarily Athenian naval force at the Battle of Salamis , and in 479 defeated on land at the Battle of Plataea . The alliance against Persia continued , initially led by the Spartan Pausanias but from 477 by Athens , and by 460 Persia had been driven out of the Aegean . During this period of campaigning , the Delian league gradually transformed from a defensive alliance of Greek states into an Athenian empire , as Athens ' growing naval power enabled it to compel other league states to comply with its policies . Athens ended its campaigns against Persia in 450 BC , after a disastrous defeat in Egypt in 454 BC , and the death of Cimon in action against the Persians on Cyprus in 450 . While Athenian activity against the Persian empire was ending , however , conflict between Sparta and Athens was increasing . Sparta was suspicious of the increasing Athenian power funded by the Delian League , and tensions rose when Sparta offered aid to reluctant members of the League to rebel against Athenian domination . These tensions were exacerbated in 462 , when Athens sent a force to aid Sparta in overcoming a helot revolt , but their aid was rejected by the Spartans . In the 450s , Athens took control of Boeotia , and won victories over Aegina and Corinth . However , Athens failed to win a decisive victory , and in 447 lost Boeotia again . Athens and Sparta signed the Thirty Years ' Peace in the winter of 446 / 5 , ending the conflict . Despite the peace of 446 / 5 , Athenian relations with Sparta declined again in the 430s , and in 431 war broke out once again . The first phase of the war is traditionally seen as a series of annual invasions of Attica by Sparta , which made little progress , while Athens were successful against the Corinthian empire in the north - west of Greece , and in defending their own empire , despite suffering from plague and Spartan invasion . The turning point of this phase of the war usually seen as the Athenian victories at Pylos and Sphakteria . Sparta sued for peace , but the Athenians rejected the proposal . The Athenian failure to regain control at Boeotia at Delium and Brasidas ' successes in the north of Greece in 424 , improved Sparta 's position after Sphakteria . After the deaths of Cleon and Brasidas , the strongest objectors to peace on the Athenian and Spartan sides respectively , a peace treaty was agreed in 421 . The peace did not last , however . In 418 an alliance between Athens and Argos was defeated by Sparta at Mantinea . In 415 Athens launched a naval expedition against Sicily ; the expedition ended in disaster with almost the entire army killed . Soon after the Athenian defeat in Syracuse , Athens ' Ionian allies began to rebel against the Delian league , while at the same time Persia began to once again involve itself in Greek affairs on the Spartan side . Initially the Athenian position continued to be relatively strong , winning important battles such as those at Cyzicus in 410 and Arginusae in 406 . However , in 405 the Spartans defeated Athens in the Battle of Aegospotami , and began to blockade Athens ' harbour ; with no grain supply and in danger of starvation , Athens sued for peace , agreeing to surrender their fleet and join the Spartan - led Peloponnesian League . Greece thus entered the 4th century BC under a Spartan hegemony , but it was clear from the start that this was weak . A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched , and by 395 BC Athens , Argos , Thebes , and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance , resulting in the Corinthian War ( 395 -- 387 BC ) . Another war of stalemates , it ended with the status quo restored , after the threat of Persian intervention on behalf of the Spartans . The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years , until , when attempting to impose their will on the Thebans , the Spartans were defeated at Leuctra in 371 BC . The Theban general Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese , whereupon other city - states defected from the Spartan cause . The Thebans were thus able to march into Messenia and free the population . Deprived of land and its serfs , Sparta declined to a second - rank power . The Theban hegemony thus established was short - lived ; at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC , Thebes lost its key leader , Epaminondas , and much of its manpower , even though they were victorious in battle . In fact such were the losses to all the great city - states at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath . The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the Rise of Macedon , led by Philip II . In twenty years , Philip had unified his kingdom , expanded it north and west at the expense of Illyrian tribes , and then conquered Thessaly and Thrace . His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the Macedonian army . Phillip intervened repeatedly in the affairs of the southern city - states , culminating in his invasion of 338 BC . Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) , he became de facto hegemon of all of Greece , except Sparta . He compelled the majority of the city - states to join the League of Corinth , allying them to him , and preventing them from warring with each other . Philip then entered into war against the Achaemenid Empire but was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis early on in the conflict . Alexander the Great , son and successor of Philip , continued the war . Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia and completely destroyed the Achaemenid Empire , annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet ' the Great ' . When Alexander died in 323 BC , Greek power and influence was at its zenith . However , there had been a fundamental shift away from the fierce independence and classical culture of the poleis -- and instead towards the developing Hellenistic culture . Hellenistic Greece Main articles : Wars of Alexander the Great and Hellenistic period Alexander Mosaic , National Archaeological Museum , Naples . The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BC , which marked the end of the wars of Alexander the Great , to the annexation of Greece by the Roman Republic in 146 BC . Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture , which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity , it did mark the end of Greek political independence . The major Hellenistic realms included the Diadochi kingdoms : Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter Kingdom of Cassander Kingdom of Lysimachus Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator Epirus Also shown on the map : Greek colonies Carthage ( non-Greek ) Rome ( non-Greek ) The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BCE . The Attalid dynasty occupied some of this area . Not shown : Indo - Greek Kingdom . After the death of Alexander , his empire was , after quite some conflict , divided among his generals , resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom ( Egypt and adjoining North Africa ) , the Seleucid Empire ( the Levant , Mesopotamia and Persia ) and the Antigonid dynasty ( Macedonia ) . In the intervening period , the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom , although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom . During the Hellenistic period , the importance of `` Greece proper '' ( that is , the territory of modern Greece ) within the Greek - speaking world declined sharply . The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch , capitals of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Seleucid Empire , respectively . The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city - states . It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration , particularly of the young and ambitious , to the new Greek empires in the east . Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria , Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander 's wake , as far away as what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan , where the Greco - Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo - Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the first century BC . The city - states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues ; the Achaean League ( including Thebes , Corinth and Argos ) and the Aetolian League ( including Sparta and Athens ) . For much of the period until the Roman conquest , these leagues were usually at war with each other , and / or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi ( the successor states to Alexander 's empire ) . The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century . Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive , the Romans , in typical fashion , continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic ( by 149 BC ) . In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated , although a rump survived until 64 BC , whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC , when it too was conquered by the Romans . The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece , and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman -- Seleucid War ; when the Romans were victorious , the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic . Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon , it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC , bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece . Roman Greece Main article : Roman Greece Further information : Byzantine Greece The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth . Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia 's prefect ; however , some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation . The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC . Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC , and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla . The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further , until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC . Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire , as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco - Roman . The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy , and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome . Geography Regions Main article : Regions of ancient Greece Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece and adjacent `` barbarian '' lands . The territory of Greece is mountainous , and as a result , ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions each with its own dialect , cultural peculiarities , and identity . Regionalism and regional conflicts were a prominent feature of ancient Greece . Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains , or on coastal plains , and dominated a certain area around them . In the south lay the Peloponnese , itself consisting of the regions of Laconia ( southeast ) , Messenia ( southwest ) , Elis ( west ) , Achaia ( north ) , Korinthia ( northeast ) , Argolis ( east ) , and Arcadia ( center ) . These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece , though with somewhat different boundaries . Mainland Greece to the north , nowadays known as Central Greece , consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west , Locris , Doris , and Phocis in the center , while in the east lay Boeotia , Attica , and Megaris . Northeast lay Thessaly , while Epirus lay to the northwest . Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north , and consisted of Chaonia ( north ) , Molossia ( center ) , and Thesprotia ( south ) . In the northeast corner was Macedonia , originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions , such as Elimeia , Pieria , and Orestis . Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon , the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia , lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West , beyond the Axius river , into Eordaia , Bottiaea , Mygdonia , and Almopia , regions settled by Thracian tribes . To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north , the Thracians to the northeast , and the Illyrians , with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict , to the northwest . Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world , while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean , in Anatolia . Colonies See also : Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul , Magna Graecia , and List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia § Greek Greek cities & colonies c. 550 BC . During the Archaic period , the population of Greece grew beyond the capacity of its limited arable land ( according to one estimate , the population of ancient Greece increased by a factor larger than ten during the period from 800 BC to 400 BC , increasing from a population of 800,000 to a total estimated population of 10 to 13 million ) . From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion , settling colonies in all directions . To the east , the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first , followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace , the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea . Eventually Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present day Ukraine and Russia ( Taganrog ) . To the west the coasts of Illyria , Sicily and Southern Italy were settled , followed by Southern France , Corsica , and even northeastern Spain . Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya . Modern Syracuse , Naples , Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae ( Συρακούσαι ) , Neapolis ( Νεάπολις ) , Massalia ( Μασσαλία ) and Byzantion ( Βυζάντιον ) . These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long - distance trading networks between the Greek city - states , boosting the economy of ancient Greece . Politics and society Political structure Further information : History of citizenship § Ancient Greece Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city - states ( poleis ) . This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies , which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories . Undoubtedly the geography of Greece -- divided and sub-divided by hills , mountains , and rivers -- contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece . On the one hand , the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were `` one people '' ; they had the same religion , same basic culture , and same language . Furthermore , the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins ; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city - states by tribe . Yet , although these higher - level relationships existed , they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics . The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended ; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks . Even when , during the second Persian invasion of Greece , a group of city - states allied themselves to defend Greece , the vast majority of poleis remained neutral , and after the Persian defeat , the allies quickly returned to infighting . Thus , the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were firstly , its fragmentary nature , and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin , and secondly , the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states . The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea , which , though they might count a certain Greek polis as their ' mother ' ( and remain sympathetic to her ) , were completely independent of the founding city . Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors , but conquest or direct rule by another city - state appears to have been quite rare . Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues , membership of which was in a constant state of flux . Later in the Classical period , the leagues would become fewer and larger , be dominated by one city ( particularly Athens , Sparta and Thebes ) ; and often poleis would be compelled to join under threat of war ( or as part of a peace treaty ) . Even after Philip II of Macedon `` conquered '' the heartlands of ancient Greece , he did not attempt to annex the territory , or unify it into a new province , but simply compelled most of the poleis to join his own Corinthian League . Government and law Main article : Ancient Greek law Inheritance law , part of the Law Code of Gortyn , Crete , fragment of the 11th column . Limestone , 5th century BC Initially many Greek city - states seem to have been petty kingdoms ; there was often a city official carrying some residual , ceremonial functions of the king ( basileus ) , e.g. , the archon basileus in Athens . However , by the Archaic period and the first historical consciousness , most had already become aristocratic oligarchies . It is unclear exactly how this change occurred . For instance , in Athens , the kingship had been reduced to a hereditary , lifelong chief magistracy ( archon ) by c. 1050 BC ; by 753 BC this had become a decennial , elected archonship ; and finally by 683 BC an annually elected archonship . Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the aristocracy as a whole , and away from a single individual . Inevitably , the domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis . In many cities a tyrant ( not in the modern sense of repressive autocracies ) , would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will ; often a populist agenda would help sustain them in power . In a system wracked with class conflict , government by a ' strongman ' was often the best solution . Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6th century . When this tyranny was ended , the Athenians founded the world 's first democracy as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power . A citizens ' assembly ( the Ecclesia ) , for the discussion of city policy , had existed since the reforms of Draco in 621 BC ; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of Solon ( early 6th century ) , but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office . With the establishment of the democracy , the assembly became the de jure mechanism of government ; all citizens had equal privileges in the assembly . However , non-citizens , such as metics ( foreigners living in Athens ) or slaves , had no political rights at all . After the rise of the democracy in Athens , other city - states founded democracies . However , many retained more traditional forms of government . As so often in other matters , Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece , ruled through the whole period by not one , but two hereditary monarchs . This was a form of diarchy . The Kings of Sparta belonged to the Agiads and the Eurypontids , descendants respectively of Eurysthenes and Procles . Both dynasties ' founders were believed to be twin sons of Aristodemus , a Heraclid ruler . However , the powers of these kings were held in check by both a council of elders ( the Gerousia ) and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings ( the Ephors ) . Social structure Fresco of dancing Peucetian women in the Tomb of the Dancers in Ruvo di Puglia , 4th -- 5th century BC Only free , land owning , native - born men could be citizens entitled to the full protection of the law in a city - state . In most city - states , unlike the situation in Rome , social prominence did not allow special rights . Sometimes families controlled public religious functions , but this ordinarily did not give any extra power in the government . In Athens , the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth . People could change classes if they made more money . In Sparta , all male citizens were called homoioi , meaning `` peers '' . However , Spartan kings , who served as the city - state 's dual military and religious leaders , came from two families . Slavery Main article : Slavery in ancient Greece Gravestone of a woman with her slave child - attendant , c. 100 BC Slaves had no power or status . They had the right to have a family and own property , subject to their master 's goodwill and permission , but they had no political rights . By 600 BC chattel slavery had spread in Greece . By the 5th century BC slaves made up one - third of the total population in some city - states . Between forty and eighty per cent of the population of Classical Athens were slaves . Slaves outside of Sparta almost never revolted because they were made up of too many nationalities and were too scattered to organize . However , unlike later Western culture , the Ancient Greeks did not think in terms of race . Most families owned slaves as household servants and laborers , and even poor families might have owned a few slaves . Owners were not allowed to beat or kill their slaves . Owners often promised to free slaves in the future to encourage slaves to work hard . Unlike in Rome , freedmen did not become citizens . Instead , they were mixed into the population of metics , which included people from foreign countries or other city - states who were officially allowed to live in the state . City - states legally owned slaves . These public slaves had a larger measure of independence than slaves owned by families , living on their own and performing specialized tasks . In Athens , public slaves were trained to look out for counterfeit coinage , while temple slaves acted as servants of the temple 's deity and Scythian slaves were employed in Athens as a police force corralling citizens to political functions . Sparta had a special type of slaves called helots . Helots were Messenians enslaved during the Messenian Wars by the state and assigned to families where they were forced to stay . Helots raised food and did household chores so that women could concentrate on raising strong children while men could devote their time to training as hoplites . Their masters treated them harshly ( every Spartiate male had to kill a helot as a rite of passage ) , and helots often resorted to slave rebellions . Education Main article : Education in ancient Greece Mosaic from Pompeii depicting Plato 's academy For most of Greek history , education was private , except in Sparta . During the Hellenistic period , some city - states established public schools . Only wealthy families could afford a teacher . Boys learned how to read , write and quote literature . They also learned to sing and play one musical instrument and were trained as athletes for military service . They studied not for a job but to become an effective citizen . Girls also learned to read , write and do simple arithmetic so they could manage the household . They almost never received education after childhood . Boys went to school at the age of seven , or went to the barracks , if they lived in Sparta . The three types of teachings were : grammatistes for arithmetic , kitharistes for music and dancing , and Paedotribae for sports . Boys from wealthy families attending the private school lessons were taken care of by a paidagogos , a household slave selected for this task who accompanied the boy during the day . Classes were held in teachers ' private houses and included reading , writing , mathematics , singing , and playing the lyre and flute . When the boy became 12 years old the schooling started to include sports such as wrestling , running , and throwing discus and javelin . In Athens some older youths attended academy for the finer disciplines such as culture , sciences , music , and the arts . The schooling ended at age 18 , followed by military training in the army usually for one or two years . A small number of boys continued their education after childhood , as in the Spartan agoge . A crucial part of a wealthy teenager 's education was a mentorship with an elder , which in a few places and times may have included pederastic love . The teenager learned by watching his mentor talking about politics in the agora , helping him perform his public duties , exercising with him in the gymnasium and attending symposia with him . The richest students continued their education by studying with famous teachers . Some of Athens ' greatest such schools included the Lyceum ( the so - called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira ) and the Platonic Academy ( founded by Plato of Athens ) . The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia . Economy Main articles : Economy of ancient Greece , Agriculture of ancient Greece , and Slavery in ancient Greece At its economic height , in the 5th and 4th centuries BC , ancient Greece was the most advanced economy in the world . According to some economic historians , it was one of the most advanced preindustrial economies . This is demonstrated by the average daily wage of the Greek worker which was , in terms of wheat , about 12 kg . This was more than 3 times the average daily wage of an Egyptian worker during the Roman period , about 3.75 kg . Warfare Main articles : Ancient Greek warfare and Army of Macedon Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting , on an ancient kylix , 5th century BC At least in the Archaic Period , the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece , with many competing city - states , increased the frequency of conflict but conversely limited the scale of warfare . Unable to maintain professional armies , the city - states relied on their own citizens to fight . This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns , as citizens would need to return to their own professions ( especially in the case of , for example , farmers ) . Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer . When battles occurred , they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive . Casualties were slight compared to later battles , rarely amounting to more than 5 % of the losing side , but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front . The scale and scope of warfare in ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the Greco - Persian Wars . To fight the enormous armies of the Achaemenid Empire was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city - state . The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of city - states ( the exact composition changing over time ) , allowing the pooling of resources and division of labor . Although alliances between city - states occurred before this time , nothing on this scale had been seen before . The rise of Athens and Sparta as pre-eminent powers during this conflict led directly to the Peloponnesian War , which saw further development of the nature of warfare , strategy and tactics . Fought between leagues of cities dominated by Athens and Sparta , the increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale , and allowed the diversification of warfare . Set - piece battles during the Peloponnesian war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on attritionary strategies , naval battle and blockades and sieges . These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society . Athens owned one of the largest war fleets in ancient Greece . It had over 200 triremes each powered by 170 oarsmen who were seated in 3 rows on each side of the ship . The city could afford such a large fleet -- it had over 34,000 oars men -- because it owned a lot of silver mines that were worked by slaves . Culture The stadium of ancient Olympia , home of the Ancient Olympic Games Philosophy Main article : Ancient Greek philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry . In many ways , it had an important influence on modern philosophy , as well as modern science . Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers , to medieval Muslim philosophers and Islamic scientists , to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment , to the secular sciences of the modern day . Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Greeks . Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations , such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians , has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization . Some of the well - known philosophers of ancient Greece were Plato and Socrates , among others . They have aided in information about ancient Greek society through writings such as The Republic , by Plato . Literature and theatre Main articles : Ancient Greek literature , Ancient Greek comedy , and Theatre of ancient Greece The theatre of Epidauros , 4th century BC The earliest Greek literature was poetry , and was composed for performance rather than private consumption . The earliest Greek poet known is Homer , although he was certainly part of an existing tradition of oral poetry . Homer 's poetry , though it was developed around the same time that the Greeks developed writing , would have been composed orally ; the first poet to certainly compose their work in writing was Archilochus , a lyric poet from the mid-seventh century BC . tragedy developed , around the end of the archaic period , taking elements from across the pre-existing genres of late archaic poetry . Towards the beginning of the classical period , comedy began to develop -- the earliest date associated with the genre is 486 BC , when a competition for comedy became an official event at the City Dionysia in Athens , though the first preserved ancient comedy is Aristophanes ' Acharnians , produced in 425 . A scene from the Iliad : Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy ; detail from an Attic white - ground lekythos , ca . 440 BC . Like poetry , Greek prose had its origins in the archaic period , and the earliest writers of Greek philosophy , history , and medical literature all date to the sixth century BC . Prose first emerged as the writing style adopted by the presocratic philosophers Anaximander and Anaximenes -- though Thales of Miletus , considered the first Greek philosopher , apparently wrote nothing . Prose as a genre reached maturity in the classical era , and the major Greek prose genres -- philosophy , history , rhetoric , and dialogue -- developed in this period . The Hellenistic period saw the literary epicentre of the Greek world move from Athens , where it had been in the classical period , to Alexandria . At the same time , other Hellenistic kings such as the Antigonids and the Attalids were patrons of scholarship and literature , turning Pella and Pergamon respectively into cultural centres . It was thanks to this cultural patronage by Hellenistic kings , and especially the Museum at Alexandria , which ensured that so much ancient Greek literature has survived . The Library of Alexandria , part of the Museum , had the previously - unenvisaged aim of collecting together copies of all known authors in Greek . Almost all of the surviving non-technical Hellenistic literature is poetry , and Hellenistic poetry tended to be highly intellectual , blending different genres and traditions , and avoiding linear narratives . The Hellenistic period also saw a shift in the ways literature was consumed -- while in the archaic and classical periods literature had typically been experienced in public performance , in the Hellenistic period it was more commonly read privately . At the same time , Hellenistic poets began to write for private , rather than public , consumption . With Octavian 's victory at Actium in 31 BC , Rome began to become a major centre of Greek literature , as important Greek authors such as Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus came to Rome . The period of greatest innovation in Greek literature under Rome was the `` long second century '' from approximately AD 80 to around AD 230 . This innovation was especially marked in prose , with the development of the novel and a revival of prominence for display oratory both dating to this period . Music and dance Main article : Music of ancient Greece Music was present almost universally in Greek society , from marriages and funerals to religious ceremonies , theatre , folk music and the ballad - like reciting of epic poetry . There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music . Greek art depicts musical instruments and dance . The word music derives from the name of the Muses , the daughters of Zeus who were patron goddesses of the arts . Science and technology Main articles : List of Graeco - Roman geographers , Greek astronomy , Greek mathematics , Ancient Greek medicine , and Ancient Greek technology The Antikythera mechanism was an analog computer from 150 -- 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects . Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics , including the basic rules of geometry , the idea of formal mathematical proof , and discoveries in number theory , mathematical analysis , applied mathematics , and approached close to establishing integral calculus . The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians , including Pythagoras , Euclid , and Archimedes , are still used in mathematical teaching today . The Greeks developed astronomy , which they treated as a branch of mathematics , to a highly sophisticated level . The first geometrical , three - dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus . Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis . In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system . Archimedes in his treatise The Sand Reckoner revives Aristarchus ' hypothesis that `` the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved , while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle '' . Otherwise , only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus ' idea survive . Eratosthenes , using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions , estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy . In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions , including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes . The Antikythera mechanism , a device for calculating the movements of planets , dates from about 80 BC , and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer . It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera , between Kythera and Crete . The device became famous for its use of a differential gear , previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century , and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts , comparable to a clock made in the 18th century . The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens , accompanied by a replica . The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field . Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period , and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine . He is referred to as the `` father of medicine '' in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine . This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece , establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with ( notably theurgy and philosophy ) , thus making medicine a profession . Art and architecture Main articles : Ancient Greek art and Ancient Greek architecture The Temple of Hera at Selinunte , Sicily The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day , particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture . In the West , the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models . In the East , Alexander the Great 's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek , Central Asian and Indian cultures , resulting in Greco - Buddhist art , with ramifications as far as Japan . Following the Renaissance in Europe , the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists . Well into the 19th century , the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world . Religion and mythology Main articles : Religion in ancient Greece , Hellenistic religion , and Greek mythology Mount Olympus , home of the Twelve Olympians Greek mythology consists of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes , the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their religious practices . The main Greek gods were the twelve Olympians , Zeus , his wife Hera , Poseidon , Ares , Hermes , Hephaestus , Aphrodite , Athena , Apollo , Artemis , Demeter , and Dionysus . Other important deities included Hebe , Hades , Helios , Hestia , Persephone and Heracles . Zeus 's parents were Cronus and Rhea who also were the parents of Poseidon , Hades , Hera , Hestia , and Demeter . Legacy Further information : Classics The civilization of ancient Greece has been immensely influential on language , politics , educational systems , philosophy , science , and the arts . It became the Leitkultur of the Roman Empire to the point of marginalizing native Italic traditions . As Horace put it , Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis / intulit agresti Latio ( Epistulae 2.1. 156f . ) `` Captive Greece took captive her uncivilised conqueror and instilled her arts in rustic Latium . '' Via the Roman Empire , Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general . The Byzantine Empire inherited Classical Greek culture directly , without Latin intermediation , and the preservation of classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition further exerted strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age and the Western European Renaissance . A modern revival of Classical Greek learning took place in the Neoclassicism movement in 18th - and 19th - century Europe and the Americas . See also Ancient Greece portal Outline of ancient Greece Regions of ancient Greece Outline of ancient Rome Outline of ancient Egypt Outline of classical studies Regions in Greco - Roman antiquity Classical demography History of science in classical antiquity References Notes Jump up ^ Carol G. Thomas ( 1988 ) . Paths from ancient Greece . BRILL . pp. 27 -- 50 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 08846 - 7 . Retrieved 12 June 2011 . Jump up ^ Maura Ellyn ; Maura McGinnis ( 2004 ) . Greece : A Primary Source Cultural Guide . The Rosen Publishing Group . p. 8 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8239 - 3999 - 2 . Jump up ^ John E. Findling ; Kimberly D. Pelle ( 2004 ) . Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement . Greenwood Publishing Group . p. 23 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 32278 - 5 . Jump up ^ Wayne C. Thompson ; Mark H. Mullin . Western Europe , 1983 . Stryker - Post Publications . p. 337 . for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ... Jump up ^ https://rampages.us/smitha23/univ-112/science-and-religion-in-ancient-greece/ Jump up ^ Osborne , Robin ( 2009 ) . Greece in the Making : 1200 -- 479 BC . London : Routledge . p. xvii . Jump up ^ Shapiro 2007 , p. 1 Jump up ^ Shapiro 2007 , pp. 2 -- 3 Jump up ^ Hadas , Moses ( 1950 ) . A History of Greek Literature . Columbia University Press . p. 273 . ISBN 0 - 231 - 01767 - 7 . Jump up ^ Grant , Michael ( 1995 ) . Greek and Roman historians : information and misinformation . Routledge , 1995 . p. 74 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 11770 - 8 . Jump up ^ Osborne , Robin ( 2009 ) . Greece in the Making : 1200 -- 479 BC ( 2 ed . ) . London : Routledge . p. 101 . Jump up ^ Sealey , Raphael ( 1976 ) . A history of the Greek city states , ca . 700 -- 338 B.C. University of California Press . pp. 10 -- 11 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 22667 - 3 . Jump up ^ Slavoj Žižek ( 18 April 2011 ) . Living in the End Times . Verso . p. 218 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84467 - 702 - 3 . Retrieved 12 June 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Online Etymology Dictionary '' . Etymonline.com . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` tyrant -- Definitions from Dictionary.com '' . Dictionary.reference.com . Archived from the original on 25 January 2009 . Retrieved 2009 - 01 - 06 . Jump up ^ Holland T. Persian Fire p 69 -- 70 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 349 - 11717 - 1 Jump up ^ Holland T. Persian Fire p 131 -- 138 . 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BBC News . August 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Macedonia '' . Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . 2008 . Archived from the original on 8 December 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 11 - 03 . Jump up ^ The Cambridge Ancient History : The fourth century B.C. edited by D.M. Lewis et al. IES Edwards , Cambridge University Press , D.M. Lewis , John Boardman , Cyril John Gadd , Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond , 2000 , ISBN 0 - 521 - 23348 - 8 , pp. 723 -- 724 . Jump up ^ Population of the Greek city - states Archived March 5 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Holland , T. Persian Fire , Abacus , pp. 363 -- 370 ISBN 978 - 0 - 349 - 11717 - 1 Jump up ^ Holland T. Persian Fire , p94 ISBN 978 - 0 - 349 - 11717 - 1 Jump up ^ Slavery in Ancient Greece Archived 2008 - 12 - 01 at the Wayback Machine ... Britannica Student Encyclopædia . Jump up ^ Painter , Nell ( 2010 ) . The History of White People . New York , NY : W.W. Norton & Company . p. 5 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 04934 - 3 . Jump up ^ Angus Konstam : `` Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece '' , pp. 94 -- 95 . Thalamus publishing , UK , 2003 , ISBN 1 - 904668 - 16 - X Jump up ^ W. Schiedel , `` Real slave prices and the relative cost of slave labor in the Greco - Roman world '' , Ancient Society , vol. 35 , 2005 . 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Jump up ^ Hippocrates , Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 . Microsoft Corporation . Archived 2009 - 10 - 31 . Jump up ^ Garrison , Fielding H. ( 1966 ) . History of Medicine . Philadelphia : W.B. Saunders Company . pp. 92 -- 93 . Jump up ^ Nuland , Sherwin B. ( 1988 ) . Doctors . Knopf . p. 5 . ISBN 0 - 394 - 55130 - 3 . Bibliography Bowersock , G.W. ( 1985 ) . `` The literature of the Empire '' . In Easterling , P.E. ; Knox , Bernard M.W. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Bulloch , A.W. ( 1985 ) . `` Hellenistic Poetry '' . In Easterling , P.E. ; Knox , Bernard M.W. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Handley , E.W. ( 1985 ) . `` Comedy '' . In Easterling , P.E. ; Knox , Bernard M.W. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Hornblower , Simon ( 2011 ) . The Greek World : 479 -- 323 BC ( 4 ed . ) . Abingdon : Routledge . Kirk , G.S. ( 1985 ) . `` Homer '' . In Easterling , P.E. ; Knox , Bernard M.W. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . König , Jason ( 2016 ) . `` Literature in the Roman World '' . In Hose , Martin ; Schenker , David . A Companion to Greek Literature . John Wiley & Sons . Martin , Thomas R. ( 2013 ) . Ancient Greece : From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times ( 2 ed . ) . New Haven : Yale University Press . McGlew , James ( 2016 ) . `` Literature in the Classical Age of Greece '' . In Hose , Martin ; Schenker , David . A Companion to Greek Literature . John Wiley & Sons . Mori , Anatole ( 2016 ) . `` Literature in the Hellenistic World '' . In Hose , Martin ; Schenker , David . A Companion to Greek Literature . John Wiley & Sons . Power , Timothy ( 2016 ) . `` Literature in the Archaic Age '' . In Hose , Martin ; Schenker , David . A Companion to Greek Literature . John Wiley & Sons . Further reading Brock , Roger , and Stephen Hodkinson , eds. 2000 . Alternatives to Athens : Varieties of political organization and community in ancient Greece . Oxford and New York : Oxford Univ . Press . Cartledge , Paul , Edward E. Cohen , and Lin Foxhall. 2002 . Money , labour and land : Approaches to the economies of ancient Greece . London and New York : Routledge . Cohen , Edward . 1992 . Athenian economy and society : A banking perspective . Princeton , NJ : Princeton Univ . Press . Hurwit , Jeffrey . 1987 . The art and culture of early Greece , 1100 -- 480 B.C. Ithaca , NY : Cornell Univ . Press . Kinzl , Konrad , ed. 2006 . A companion to the Classical Greek world . Oxford and Malden , MA : Blackwell . Morris , Ian , ed. 1994 . Classical Greece : Ancient histories and modern archaeologies . Cambridge , UK , and New York : Cambridge Univ . Press . Pomeroy , Sarah , Stanley M. Burstein , Walter Donlan , and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts . 2008 . Ancient Greece : A political , social , and cultural history . 2d ed . New York : Oxford Univ . Press . Rhodes , Peter J. 2006 . A history of the Classical Greek world : 478 -- 323 BC . Blackwell History of the Ancient World . Malden , MA : Blackwell . Whitley , James . 2001 . The archaeology of ancient Greece . Cambridge , UK , and New York : Cambridge Univ . Press . External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Greece . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Ancient Greece . Library resources about Ancient Greece Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries The Canadian Museum of Civilization -- Greece Secrets of the Past Ancient Greece website from the British Museum Economic history of ancient Greece The Greek currency history Limenoscope , an ancient Greek ports database The Ancient Theatre Archive , Greek and Roman theatre architecture Illustrated Greek History , Dr. Janice Siegel , Department of Classics , Hampden -- Sydney College , Virginia Ancient Greece Outline Timeline History Geography Periods Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Mycenaean civilization Greek Dark Ages Archaic period Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Geography Aegean Sea Aeolis Alexandria Antioch Cappadocia Crete Cyprus Doris Ephesus Epirus Hellespont Ionia Ionian Sea Macedonia Magna Graecia Miletus Peloponnesus Pergamon Pontus Taurica Ancient Greek colonies City states Politics Military City states Argos Athens Byzantion Chalcis Corinth Eretria Kerkyra Larissa Megalopolis Megara Rhodes Samos Sparta Syracuse Thebes Politics Boule Koinon Proxeny Strategos Tagus Tyrant Amphictyonic League Athenian Agora Areopagus Ecclesia Graphe paranomon Heliaia Ostracism Spartan Apella Ephor Gerousia Macedon Synedrion Koinon Military Wars Athenian military Antigonid Macedonian army Army of Macedon Ballista Cretan archers Hellenistic armies Hippeis Hoplite Hetairoi Macedonian phalanx Phalanx Peltast Pezhetairos Sarissa Sacred Band of Thebes Sciritae Seleucid army Spartan army Toxotai Xiphos Xyston People List of ancient Greeks Rulers Kings of Argos Archons of Athens Kings of Athens Kings of Commagene Diadochi Kings of Lydia Kings of Macedonia Kings of Paionia Attalid kings of Pergamon Kings of Pontus Kings of Sparta Tyrants of Syracuse Philosophers Anaxagoras Anaximander Anaximenes Antisthenes Aristotle Democritus Diogenes of Sinope Empedocles Epicurus Gorgias Heraclitus Hypatia Leucippus Parmenides Plato Protagoras Pythagoras Socrates Thales Zeno Authors Aeschylus Aesop Alcaeus Archilochus Aristophanes Bacchylides Euripides Herodotus Hesiod Hipponax Homer Ibycus Lucian Menander Mimnermus Panyassis Philocles Pindar Plutarch Polybius Sappho Simonides Sophocles Stesichorus Theognis Thucydides Timocreon Tyrtaeus Xenophon Others Agesilaus II Agis II Alcibiades Alexander the Great Aratus Archimedes Aspasia Demosthenes Epaminondas Euclid Hipparchus Hippocrates Leonidas Lycurgus Lysander Milo of Croton Miltiades Pausanias Pericles Philip of Macedon Philopoemen Praxiteles Ptolemy Pyrrhus Solon Themistocles Groups Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants By culture Ancient Greek tribes Thracian Greeks Ancient Macedonians Society Culture Society Agriculture Calendar Clothing Coinage Cuisine Economy Education Festivals Funeral and burial practices Homosexuality Law Olympic Games Pederasty Philosophy Prostitution Religion Slavery Warfare Wedding customs Wine Arts and science Architecture Greek Revival architecture Astronomy Literature Mathematics Medicine Music Musical system Pottery Sculpture Technology Theatre Religion Funeral and burial practices Mythology mythological figures Temple Twelve Olympians Underworld Sacred places Eleusis Delphi Delos Dodona Mount Olympus Olympia Structures Athenian Treasury Lion Gate Long Walls Philippeion Theatre of Dionysus Tunnel of Eupalinos Temples Aphaea Artemis Athena Nike Erechtheion Hephaestus Hera , Olympia Parthenon Samothrace Zeus , Olympia Language Proto - 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Ukwu Ancient Greek and Roman wars Ancient Greece Trojan War First Messenian War Second Messenian War Lelantine War Greek -- Punic Wars ( Sicilian Wars ) Greco - Persian Wars Aeginetan War Wars of the Delian League Samian War Peloponnesian War Corinthian War First / Second / Third Sacred War Social War ( 357 -- 355 BC ) Rise of Macedon Wars of Alexander the Great Wars of the Diadochi Lamian War Chremonidean War Cleomenean War Social War ( 220 -- 217 BC ) Cretan War Aetolian War War against Nabis Maccabean Revolt Roman Republic Roman -- Latin wars ( First Latin War ( Battle of Lake Regillus ) Second Latin War ) Samnite Wars Pyrrhic War Punic Wars ( First Second Third ) Macedonian Wars ( Illyrian First Macedonian Second Macedonian Seleucid Third Macedonian Fourth Macedonian ) Jugurthine War Cimbrian War Roman Servile Wars ( First Second Third ) Social War ( 90 -- 88 BC ) Sulla 's civil wars ( First Second ) Mithridatic Wars ( First Second Third ) Gallic Wars Julius Caesar 's civil war Augustus ' rise to power ( Battle of Mutina Liberators ' civil war Sicilian revolt Perusine War ( Fulvia 's civil war ) Final War of the Roman Republic ) Roman Empire Germanic Wars ( Marcomannic Alemannic Gothic Visigothic ) Conquest of Britain Wars of Boudica Armenian War Four Emperors Jewish wars Domitian 's Dacian War Trajan 's Dacian Wars Parthian Wars Wars against Persia Third - century civil wars Decline and fall of the Western Empire Military history Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greece&oldid=856508233 '' Categories : Ancient Greece Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Articles containing Ancient Greek - language text Pages using infobox country with unknown parameters Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the symbol caption or type parameters Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism Articles containing Greek - language text Instances of Lang - el using second unnamed parameter All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2013 Articles which contain graphical timelines Talk View source Contents About Wikipedia Wikibooks Wikivoyage Afrikaans Alemannisch Aragonés অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Български བོད ་ ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 贛 語 客家 語 / Hak - 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | when did the ancient greece start and end | [
"Ancient Greece (Greek: Ελλάς, translit. Ellas) was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.[1] Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urban poleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire.\n"
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"from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. AD 600)"
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-2502175186683339213 | Cam (bootleg) | Cam ( bootleg ) - wikipedia Cam ( bootleg ) Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A cam ( camrip or camming , deriving from camcorder ) is a bootleg recording of a film . Unlike the more common DVD rip or screener recording methods which involve the duplication of officially distributed media , cam versions are original clandestine recordings made in movie theaters . Contents ( hide ) 1 Audience camming 2 Projectionist camming 3 Anti-piracy 4 Compared to other piracy methods 5 Origin 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Audience camming ( edit ) The most common type of cam is produced by a theater patron who smuggles a compact digital camcorder into the theater by hiding it in their clothing or in a container such as a handbag or backpack . The filmer then records the movie using the camcorder as unobtrusively as possible . They may try to pick a seat as far back in the theater as possible to avoid the attention of other patrons ( and to ensure proper framing of the screen ) and / or choose sparsely attended showtimes . The filmer may also rely on cinema employees who will overlook infringement activity because of an existing friend or family relationship , collusion , bribery , or apathy to the law . In an attempt to impede this practice ( as well as curb the smuggling in of non-theater food ) , some establishments now ban customers from carrying bags or other containers into theaters . As an additional form of deterrent , theaters may equip ushers with night vision goggles to discreetly catch a bootlegger in the act of recording . Cams produced in this way use the camera 's microphone to record audio , which tends to produce a recording that sounds `` muddy '' . In addition , the microphone may pick up ambient noises in the theater , such as the audience 's response to the film ( e.g. laughter , screaming ) or disruptive noises ( crying baby , mobile phone ring , people coughing , etc . ) . In older or poorly maintained theaters , other sounds such as air conditioning or sound from adjacent theater screens may also be audible . In other cases a tripod is used in the handicapped sections of a cinema while plugging the jack in a hard - of - hearing device . These recordings with better sound are called telesync . A camera situated in the audience area may record silhouettes of other audience members , especially those leaving the theater for the restroom or concession stand . In parts of the world where the video standard is PAL , such as most European countries and Australia , the standard frame rate is 50i or 25p , which may result in video problems due to frame rate conversion between the 24fps film projection and the PAL camera . Projectionist camming ( edit ) Sometimes cam versions are made by projectionists themselves , either for home use or to distribute ( with or without profit ) . This provides several advantages : first , the projection booth window has a central , unobstructed view of the screen . Second , the projectionist can bypass the built - in microphone and link the camcorder directly to the monitor output of the audio rack , resulting in a clear , well - separated stereo recording . The projectionist can also alleviate the frame rate conversion problem described above by speeding the projector up from film 's traditional 24 fps to 25 fps and then use a standard PAL video camera to record the film picture . However , these advantages come at the price of higher risk : a projectionist , if caught , will almost certainly be dismissed , and is more likely than the typical audience member to face prosecution . Anti-Piracy ( edit ) Main article : Coded Anti-Piracy Since 2001 , many major motion pictures have been shipped to theaters with watermarks of unique patterns of tiny dots embedded throughout the film , known as Coded Anti-Piracy technology . If the cammer is unable to catch and blur all of these sequences , the studio can determine at which theater the cam was recorded . Compared to other Piracy methods ( edit ) The overall quality of cam bootlegs is highly dependent upon the choice of theater ( and sometimes the individual screening ) , the quality of camera used , the skill of the operator in framing the screen and minimizing camera movement , and the method of encoding used before distribution ( most commonly Xvid ) . Cams are generally considered to be the lowest fidelity method for duplicating video and film content , somewhat behind Telesync and markedly worse than DVD rips or screeners . For newly released films , however , cams are often the first bootleg copies available . In the developing world , cam DVDs are often available from street vendors for prices equivalent to US $ 1 -- 2 ( PPP ) ; worldwide , they are swapped or sold on Internet pirate sites . Origin ( edit ) Around the start of the millennium , many first time camera recordings originated from Malaysia , recognizable by the burn - in Malay subtitles . VCDs often appeared 2 to 3 days before the theatrical release . In some cases , they were even available online 3 months before release . Robert Krulwich sees two possibilities as the main reason for such early availability of these illicit recordings . Someone in Hollywood shows movies a couple of days before they show them in America , or some people get prints sent to them from people in the Californian movie business . See also ( edit ) Analog hole Coded Anti-Piracy , an anti-copyright infringement technology for marking a movie with a pattern of dots to identify the source of illegal copies List of warez groups The Scene , an underground internet community that used to be very active in the creation and spreading of bootleg movie recordings `` The Little Kicks '' , a 1996 episode of the television series Seinfeld in which cam bootlegging is a major storyline Warez References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lasica , Joseph D. ( May -- June 2005 ) . `` The Prince of Darknet '' . Retrieved December 31 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Robert Krulwich ( 2001 - 02 - 09 ) . `` Internet Piracy '' . ABC News Nightline . Jump up ^ Lim , Audrey ( 2003 - 02 - 19 ) . `` Piracy : A Good or Bad Thing ? '' . ThingsAsian . External links ( edit ) The Prince of Darknet - feature story in Legal Affairs regarding movie copyright infringement , May / June 2005 . Information for cinema employees on how to fight CAM piracy Title 18 U.S. Code Section 2319B - Unauthorized recording of Motion pictures in a Motion picture exhibition facility ( United States law ) . 540.12 - Unlawful use of a recording device in a motion picture theater ( State of Florida law ) . ( hide ) Pirated movie release types Pre-release R5 Screener ( SCR ) Telecine ( TC ) Workprint ( WP ) In - cinema Cam Telesync ( TS ) Home video ripping Disk image PDTV Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cam_(bootleg)&oldid=792247244 '' Categories : Copyright law Warez Film and video technology Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from April 2014 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Dansk Deutsch Polski Русский Slovenčina 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 25 July 2017 , at 11 : 44 . About Wikipedia | is it illegal to film in a movie theater | [] | [] |
-7299670408952425473 | Social inequality | Social inequality - wikipedia Social inequality Sociology History Outline Portal Main theories Structural functionalism Conflict theory Symbolic interactionism Methods Quantitative Qualitative Historical Comparative Mathematical Computational Ethnography Ethnomethodology Network analysis Positivism Critical theory Subfields and other major theories Conflict Criminology Social constructionism Culture Development Deviance Demography Education Economic Environmental Family Feminist sociology Gender Health Immigration Industrial Inequality Knowledge Law Literature Medical Military Organizational Political Race and ethnicity Religion Rural Science Social change Social movements Social psychology in sociology Stratification Science and technology Technology Terrorism Urban Utilitarianism Browse Bibliography By country Index Journals Organizations People Timeline World map showing the Inequality - adjusted Human Development Index 2014 . This index captures theuman Development of the average person in society , which is less than when there is inequality in the distribution of health , education and income . Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly , typically through norms of allocation , that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons . It is the differentiation preference of access of social goods in the society brought about by power , religion , kinship , prestige , race , ethnicity , gender , age , sexual orientation , and class . The social rights include labor market , the source of income , health care , and freedom of speech , education , political representation , and participation . Social inequality linked to economic inequality , usually described on the basis of the unequal distribution of income or wealth , is a frequently studied type of social inequality . Though the disciplines of economics and sociology generally use different theoretical approaches to examine and explain economic inequality , both fields are actively involved in researching this inequality . However , social and natural resources other than purely economic resources are also unevenly distributed in most societies and may contribute to social status . Norms of allocation can also affect the distribution of rights and privileges , social power , access to public goods such as education or the judicial system , adequate housing , transportation , credit and financial services such as banking and other social goods and services . Many societies worldwide claim to be meritocracies -- that is , that their societies exclusively distribute resources on the basis of merit . The term `` meritocracy '' was coined by Michael Young in his 1958 dystopian essay `` The Rise of the Meritocracy '' to demonstrate the social dysfunctions that he anticipated arising in societies where the elites believe that they are successful entirely on the basis of merit , so the adoption of this term into English without negative connotations is ironic ; Young was concerned that the Tripartite System of education being practiced in the United Kingdom at the time he wrote the essay considered merit to be `` intelligence - plus - effort , its possessors ... identified at an early age and selected for appropriate intensive education '' and that the `` obsession with quantification , test - scoring , and qualifications '' it supported would create an educated middle - class elite at the expense of the education of the working class , inevitably resulting in injustice and -- eventually -- revolution . A modern representation of the sort of `` meritocracy '' Young feared may be seen in the series 3 % . Although merit matters to some degree in many societies , research shows that the distribution of resources in societies often follows hierarchical social categorizations of persons to a degree too significant to warrant calling these societies `` meritocratic '' , since even exceptional intelligence , talent , or other forms of merit may not be compensatory for the social disadvantages people face . In many cases , social inequality is linked to racial inequality , ethnic inequality , and gender inequality , as well as other social statuses and these forms can be related to corruption . The most common metric for comparing social inequality in different nations is the Gini coefficient , which measures the concentration of wealth and income in a nation from 0 ( evenly distributed wealth and income ) to 1 ( one person has all wealth and income ) . Two nations may have identical Gini coefficients but dramatically different economic ( output ) and / or quality of life , so the Gini coefficient must be contextualized for meaningful comparisons to be made . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Inequality and ideology 3 Inequality and social class 4 Patterns of inequality 4.1 Gender inequality 4.2 Racial and ethnic inequality 4.3 Age inequality 4.4 Inequalities in health 4.4. 1 Health care 4.4. 2 Food 5 Global inequality 6 Inequality and economic growth 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Overview ( edit ) Social inequality is found in almost every society . Social inequality is shaped by a range of structural factors , such as geographical location or citizenship status , and are often underpinned by cultural discourses and identities defining , for example , whether the poor are ' deserving ' or ' undeserving ' . In simple societies , those that have few social roles and statuses occupied by its members , social inequality may be very low . In tribal societies , for example , a tribal head or chieftain may hold some privileges , use some tools , or wear marks of office to which others do not have access , but the daily life of the chieftain is very much like the daily life of any other tribal member . Anthropologists identify such highly egalitarian cultures as `` kinship - oriented '' , which appear to value social harmony more than wealth or status . These cultures are contrasted with materially oriented cultures in which status and wealth are prized and competition and conflict are common . Kinship - oriented cultures may actively work to prevent social hierarchies from developing because they believe that could lead to conflict and instability . In today 's world , most of our population lives in more complex than simple societies . As social complexity increases , inequality tends to increase along with a widening gap between the poorest and the most wealthy members of society . Social inequality can be classified into egalitarian societies , ranked society , and stratified society . Egalitarian societies are those communities advocating for social equality through equal opportunities and rights hence no discrimination . People with special skills were not viewed as superior compared to the rest . The leaders do not have the power they only have influence . The norms and the beliefs the egalitarian society holds are for sharing equally and equal participation . Simply there are no classes . Ranked society mostly is agricultural communities who hierarchically grouped from the chief who is viewed to have a status in the society . In this society , people are clustered regarding status and prestige and not by access to power and resources . The chief is the most influential person followed by his family and relative , and those further related to him are less ranked . Stratified society is societies which horizontally ranked into the upper class , middle class , and lower class . The classification is regarding wealth , power , and prestige . The upper class are mostly the leaders and are the most influential in the society . It 's possible for a person in the society to move from one stratum to the other . The social status is also hereditable from one generation to the next . There are five systems / types of social inequality which include wealth inequality , treatment and responsibility inequality , political inequality , life inequality , and membership inequality . Political inequality is the difference brought about by the ability to access federal resources which therefore have no civic equality . In treatment and responsibility difference some people are more benefited and can quickly receive more privileged than others . In working stations , some are given more responsibilities and hence better compensations and more benefits than the rest even when equally qualified . Membership inequality this is the number of members in a family , nation or of faith . Life inequality is brought about by the disparity of opportunities if presented they improves a person life quality . Finally , the income and wealth inequality is the disparity due to what an individual can earn on a daily basis contributing to their total revenue either monthly or yearly . The major examples of social inequality include income gap , gender inequality , health care , and social class . In health care , some individuals receive better and more professional care compared to others . They are also expected to pay more for these services . Social class differential comes evident during the public gathering where upper - class people given the best places to seat , the hospitality they receive and the first priorities they receive . Status in society is of two types which are ascribed characteristics and achieved characteristics . Ascribed characteristics are those present at birth or assigned by others and over which an individual has little or no control . Examples include sex , skin colour , eye shape , place of birth , sexuality , gender identity , parentage and social status of parents . Achieved characteristics are those which we earn or choose ; examples include level of education , marital status , leadership status and other measures of merit . In most societies , an individual 's social status is a combination of ascribed and achieved factors . In some societies , however , only ascribed statuses are considered in determining one 's social status and there exists little to no social mobility and , therefore , few paths to more social equality . This type of social inequality is generally referred to as caste inequality . One 's social location in a society 's overall structure of social stratification affects and is affected by almost every aspect of social life and one 's life chances . The single best predictor of an individual 's future social status is the social status into which they were born . Theoretical approaches to explaining social inequality concentrate on questions about how such social differentiations arise , what types of resources are being allocated , what are the roles of human cooperation and conflict in allocating resources , and how do these differing types and forms of inequality affect the overall functioning of a society ? The variables considered most important in explaining inequality and the manner in which those variables combine to produce the inequities and their social consequences in a given society can change across time and place . In addition to interest in comparing and contrasting social inequality at local and national levels , in the wake of today 's globalizing processes , the most interesting question becomes : what does inequality look like on a worldwide scale and what does such global inequality bode for the future ? In effect , globalization reduces the distances of time and space , producing a global interaction of cultures and societies and social roles that can increase global inequities . Inequality and ideology ( edit ) Philosophical questions about social ethics and the desirability or inevitability of inequality in human societies have given rise to a spate of ideologies to address such questions . We can broadly classify these ideologies on the basis of whether they justify or legitimize inequality , casting it as desirable or inevitable , or whether they cast equality as desirable and inequality as a feature of society to be reduced or eliminated . One end of this ideological continuum can be called `` Individualist '' , the other `` Collectivist '' . In Western societies , there is a long history associated with the idea of individual ownership of property and economic liberalism , the ideological belief in organizing the economy on individualist lines such that the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals and not by collective institutions or organizations . Laissez - faire , free market ideologies -- including classical liberalism , neoliberalism , and libertarianism -- are formed around the idea that social inequality is a `` natural '' feature of societies , is therefore inevitable and , in some philosophies , even desirable . Inequality provides for differing goods and services to be offered on the open market , spurs ambition , and provides incentive for industriousness and innovation . At the other end of the continuum , collectivists place little to no trust in `` free market '' economic systems , noting widespread lack of access among specific groups or classes of individuals to the costs of entry to the market . Widespread inequalities often lead to conflict and dissatisfaction with the current social order . Such ideologies include Fabianism , socialism , and Marxism or communism . Inequality , in these ideologies , must be reduced , eliminated , or kept under tight control through collective regulation . Furthermore , in some views inequality is natural but should n't affect certain fundamental human needs , human rights and the initial chances given to individuals ( e.g. by education ) and is out of proportions due to various problematic systemic structures . Though the above discussion is limited to specific Western ideologies , it should be noted that similar thinking can be found , historically , in differing societies throughout the world . While , in general , eastern societies tend toward collectivism , elements of individualism and free market organization can be found in certain regions and historical eras . Classic Chinese society in the Han and Tang dynasties , for example , while highly organized into tight hierarchies of horizontal inequality with a distinct power elite also had many elements of free trade among its various regions and subcultures . Social mobility is the movement along social strata or hierarchies by individuals , ethnic group , or nations . There is a change in literacy , income distribution , education and health status . The movement can be vertical or horizontal . Vertical is the upward or downward movement along social strata which occurs due to change of jobs or marriage . Horizontal movement along levels that are equally ranked . Intra-generational mobility is a social status change in a generation ( single lifetime ) . For example , a person moves from a junior staff in an organization to the senior management . The absolute management movement is where a person gains better social status than their parents , and this can be due to improved security , economic development , and better education system . Relative mobility is where some individual are expected to have higher social ranks than their parents . Today , there is belief held by some that social inequality often creates political conflict and growing consensus that political structures determine the solution for such conflicts . Under this line of thinking , adequately designed social and political institutions are seen as ensuring the smooth functioning of economic markets such that there is political stability , which improves the long - term outlook , enhances labour and capital productivity and so stimulates economic growth . With higher economic growth , net gains are positive across all levels and political reforms are easier to sustain . This may explain why , over time , in more egalitarian societies fiscal performance is better , stimulating greater accumulation of capital and higher growth . Inequality and social class ( edit ) Main article : Social class Socioeconomic status ( SES ) is a combined total measure of a person 's work experience and of an individual 's or family 's economic and social position in relation to others , based on income , education , and occupation . It is often used as synonymous with social class , a set of hierarchical social categories that indicate an individual 's or household 's relative position in a stratified matrix of social relationships . Social class is delineated by a number of variables , some of which change across time and place . For Karl Marx , there exist two major social classes with significant inequality between the two . The two are delineated by their relationship to the means of production in a given society . Those two classes are defined as the owners of the means of production and those who sell their labour to the owners of the means of production . In capitalistic societies , the two classifications represent the opposing social interests of its members , capital gain for the capitalists and good wages for the labourers , creating social conflict . Max Weber uses social classes to examine wealth and status . For him , social class is strongly associated with prestige and privileges . It may explain social reproduction , the tendency of social classes to remain stable across generations maintaining most of their inequalities as well . Such inequalities include differences in income , wealth , access to education , pension levels , social status , socioeconomic safety - net . In general , social class can be defined as a large category of similarly ranked people located in a hierarchy and distinguished from other large categories in the hierarchy by such traits as occupation , education , income , and wealth . In modern Western societies , inequalities are often broadly classified into three major divisions of social class : upper class , middle class , and lower class . Each of these classes can be further subdivided into smaller classes ( e.g. `` upper middle '' ) . Members of different classes have varied access to financial resources , which affects their placement in the social stratification system . Class , race , and gender are forms of stratification that bring inequality and determines the difference in allocation of societal rewards . Occupation is the primary determinant of a person class since it affects their lifestyle , opportunities , culture , and kind of people one associates with . Class based families include the lower class who are the poor in the society . They have limited opportunities . Working class are those people in blue - collar jobs and usually , affects the economic level of a nation . The Middle classes are those who rely mostly on wives ' employment and depends on credits from the bank and medical coverage . The upper middle class are professionals who are strong because of economic resources and supportive institutions . Additionally , the upper class usually are the wealthy families who have economic power due to accumulative wealth from families but not and not hard earned income . Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of society about social class , wealth , political influence . A society can be politically stratified based on authority and power , economically stratified based on income level and wealth , occupational stratification about one 's occupation . Some roles for examples doctors , engineers , lawyers are highly ranked , and thus they give orders while the rest receive the orders . There are three systems of social stratification which are the caste system , estates system , and class system . Castes system usually ascribed to children during birth whereby one receives the same stratification as of that of their parents . The caste system has been linked to religion and thus permanent . The stratification may be superior or inferior and thus influences the occupation and the social roles assigned to a person . Estate system is a state or society where people in this state were required to work on their land to receive some services like military protection . Communities ranked according to the nobility of their lords . The class system is about income inequality and socio - political status . People can move the classes when they increase their level of income or if they have authority . People are expected to maximize their innate abilities and possessions . Social stratification characteristics include its universal , social , ancient , it 's in diverse forms and also consequential . The quantitative variables most often used as an indicator of social inequality are income and wealth . In a given society , the distribution of individual or household accumulation of wealth tells us more about variation in well - being than does income , alone . Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) , especially per capita GDP , is sometimes used to describe economic inequality at the international or global level . A better measure at that level , however , is the Gini coefficient , a measure of statistical dispersion used to represent the distribution of a specific quantity , such as income or wealth , at a global level , among a nation 's residents , or even within a metropolitan area . Other widely used measures of economic inequality are the percentage of people living with under US $1.25 or $2 a day and the share of national income held by the wealthiest 10 % of the population , sometimes called `` the Palma '' measure . Patterns of inequality ( edit ) There are a number of socially defined characteristics of individuals that contribute to social status and , therefore , equality or inequality within a society . When researchers use quantitative variables such as income or wealth to measure inequality , on an examination of the data , patterns are found that indicate these other social variables contribute to income or wealth as intervening variables . Significant inequalities in income and wealth are found when specific socially defined categories of people are compared . Among the most pervasive of these variables are sex / gender , race , and ethnicity . This is not to say , in societies wherein merit is considered to be the primary factor determining one 's place or rank in the social order , that merit has no effect on variations in income or wealth . It is to say that these other socially defined characteristics can , and often do , intervene in the valuation of merit . Gender inequality ( edit ) Gender as a social inequality is whereby women and men are treated differently due to masculinity and femininity by dividing labor , assigning roles , and responsibilities and allocating social rewards . Sex - and gender - based prejudice and discrimination , called sexism , are major contributing factors to social inequality . Most societies , even agricultural ones , have some sexual division of labour and gender - based division of labour tends to increase during industrialization . The emphasis on gender inequality is born out of the deepening division in the roles assigned to men and women , particularly in the economic , political and educational spheres . Women are underrepresented in political activities and decision making processes in most states in both the Global North and Global South . Gender discrimination , especially concerning the lower social status of women , has been a topic of serious discussion not only within academic and activist communities but also by governmental agencies and international bodies such as the United Nations . These discussions seek to identify and remedy widespread , institutionalized barriers to access for women in their societies . By making use of gender analysis , researchers try to understand the social expectations , responsibilities , resources and priorities of women and men within a specific context , examining the social , economic and environmental factors which influence their roles and decision - making capacity . By enforcing artificial separations between the social and economic roles of men and women , the lives of women and girls are negatively impacted and this can have the effect of limiting social and economic development . Cultural ideals about women 's work can also affect men whose outward gender expression is considered `` feminine '' within a given society . Transgender and gender - variant persons may express their gender through their appearance , the statements they make , or official documents they present . In this context , gender normativity , which is understood as the social expectations placed on us when we present particular bodies , produces widespread cultural / institutional devaluations of trans identities , homosexuality and femininity . Trans persons , in particular , have been defined as socially unproductive and disruptive . A variety of global issues like HIV / AIDS , illiteracy , and poverty are often seen as `` women 's issues '' since women are disproportionately affected . In many countries , women and girls face problems such as lack of access to education , which limit their opportunities to succeed , and further limits their ability to contribute economically to their society . Women are underrepresented in political activities and decision making processes throughout most of the world . As of 2007 , around 20 percent of women were below the $1.25 / day international poverty line and 40 percent below the $2 / day mark . More than one - quarter of females under the age of 25 were below the $1.25 / day international poverty line and about half on less than $2 / day . Women 's participation in work has been increasing globally , but women are still faced with wage discrepancies and differences compared to what men earn . This is true globally even in the agricultural and rural sector in developed as well as developing countries . Structural impediments to women 's ability to pursue and advance in their chosen professions often result in a phenomenon known as the glass ceiling , which refers to unseen - and often unacknowledged barriers that prevent minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder , regardless of their qualifications or achievements . This effect can be seen in the corporate and bureaucratic environments of many countries , lowering the chances of women to excel . It prevents women from succeeding and making the maximum use of their potential , which is at a cost for women as well as the society 's development . Ensuring that women 's rights are protected and endorsed can promote a sense of belonging that motivates women to contribute to their society . Once able to work , women should be titled to the same job security and safe working environments as men . Until such safeguards are in place , women and girls will continue to experience not only barriers to work and opportunities to earn , but will continue to be the primary victims of discrimination , oppression , and gender - based violence . Women and persons whose gender identity does not conform to patriarchal beliefs about sex ( only male and female ) continue to face violence on global domestic , interpersonal , institutional and administrative scales . While first - wave Liberal Feminist initiatives raised awareness about the lack of fundamental rights and freedoms that women have access to , second - wave feminism ( see also Radical Feminism ) highlighted the structural forces that underlie gender - based violence . Masculinities are generally constructed so as to subordinate femininities and other expressions of gender that are not heterosexual , assertive and dominant . Gender sociologist and author , Raewyn Connell , discusses in her 2009 book , Gender , how masculinity is dangerous , heterosexual , violent and authoritative . These structures of masculinity ultimately contribute to the vast amounts of gendered violence , marginalization and suppression that women , queer , transgender , gender variant and gender non-conforming persons face . Some scholars suggest that women 's underrepresentation in political systems speaks the idea that `` formal citizenship does not always imply full social membership '' . Men , male bodies and expressions of masculinity are linked to ideas about work and citizenship . Others point out that patriarchal states tend top scale and claw back their social policies relative to the disadvantage of women . This process ensures that women encounter resistance into meaningful positions of power in institutions , administrations , and political systems and communities . Racial and ethnic inequality ( edit ) Racial or ethnic inequality is the result of hierarchical social distinctions between racial and ethnic categories within a society and often established based on characteristics such as skin color and other physical characteristics or an individual 's place of origin or culture . Racism is whereby some races are more privileged and are allowed to venture into the labor market and are better compensated than others . Ethnicity is the privilege one enjoys for belonging to a particular ethnic group . Even though race has no biological connection , it has become a socially constructed category capable of restricting or enabling social status . Racial inequality can also result in diminished opportunities for members of marginalized groups , which in turn can lead to cycles of poverty and political marginalization . Racial and ethnic categories become a minority category in a society . Minority members in such a society are often subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies , including assimilation , exclusion , oppression , expulsion , and extermination . For example , during the run - up to the 2012 federal elections in the United States , legislation in certain `` battleground states '' that claimed to target voter fraud had the effect of disenfranchising tens of thousands of primarily African American voters . These types of institutional barriers to full and equal social participation have far - reaching effects within marginalized communities , including reduced economic opportunity and output , reduced educational outcomes and opportunities and reduced levels of overall health . In the United States , Angela Davis argues that mass incarceration has been a modern tool of the state to impose inequality , repression , and discrimination upon African American and Hispanics . The War on Drugs has been a campaign with disparate effects , ensuring the constant incarceration of poor , vulnerable , and marginalized populations in North America . Over a million African Americans are incarcerated in the US , 15 % of whom have been convicted of a non-violent drug possession charge . With the States of Colorado and Washington having legalized the possession of marijuana , drug reformists and anti-war on drugs lobbyists are hopeful that drug issues will be interpreted and dealt with from a healthcare perspective instead of a matter of criminal law . In Canada , Aboriginal , First Nations , and Indigenous persons represent over a quarter of the federal prison population , even though they only represent 3 % of the country 's population . Age inequality ( edit ) Age discrimination is defined as the unfair treatment of people with regard to promotions , recruitment , resources , or privileges because of their age . It is also known as ageism : the stereotyping of and discrimination against individuals or groups based upon their age . It is a set of beliefs , attitudes , norms , and values used to justify age - based prejudice , discrimination , and subordination . One form of ageism is adultism , which is the discrimination against children and people under the legal adult age . An example of an act of adultism might be the policy of a certain establishment , restaurant , or place of business to not allow those under the legal adult age to enter their premises after a certain time or at all . While some people may benefit or enjoy these practices , some find them offensive and discriminatory . Discrimination against those under the age of 40 however is not illegal under the current U.S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act ( ADEA ) . As implied in the definitions above , treating people differently based upon their age is not necessarily discrimination . Virtually every society has age - stratification , meaning that the age structure in a society changes as people begin to live longer and the population becomes older . In most cultures , there are different social role expectations for people of different ages to perform . Every society manages people 's ageing by allocating certain roles for different age groups . Age discrimination primarily occurs when age is used as an unfair criterion for allocating more or less resources . Scholars of age inequality have suggested that certain social organizations favor particular age inequalities . For instance , because of their emphasis on training and maintaining productive citizens , modern capitalist societies may dedicate disproportionate resources to training the young and maintaining the middle - aged worker to the detriment of the elderly and the retired ( especially those already disadvantaged by income / wealth inequality ) . In modern , technologically advanced societies , there is a tendency for both the young and the old to be relatively disadvantaged . However , more recently , in the United States the tendency is for the young to be most disadvantaged . For example , poverty levels in the U.S. have been decreasing among people aged 65 and older since the early 1970s whereas the number children under 18 in poverty has steadily risen . Sometimes , the elderly have had the opportunity to build their wealth throughout their lives , younger people have the disadvantage of recently entering into or having not yet entered into the economic sphere . The larger contributor to this , however is the increase in the number of people over 65 receiving Social Security and Medicare benefits in the U.S. When we compare income distribution among youth across the globe , we find that about half ( 48.5 percent ) of the world 's young people are confined to the bottom two income brackets as of 2007 . This means that , out of the three billion persons under the age of 24 in the world as of 2007 , approximately 1.5 billion were living in situations in which they and their families had access to just nine percent of global income . Moving up the income distribution ladder , children and youth do not fare much better : more than two - thirds of the world 's youth have access to less than 20 percent of global wealth , with 86 percent of all young people living on about one - third of world income . For the just over 400 million youth who are fortunate enough to rank among families or situations at the top of the income distribution , however , opportunities improve greatly with more than 60 percent of global income within their reach . Although this does not exhaust the scope of age discrimination , in modern societies it is often discussed primarily with regards to the work environment . Indeed , non-participation in the labour force and the unequal access to rewarding jobs means that the elderly and the young are often subject to unfair disadvantages because of their age . On the one hand , the elderly are less likely to be involved in the workforce : At the same time , old age may or may not put one at a disadvantage in accessing positions of prestige . Old age may benefit one in such positions , but it may also disadvantage one because of negative ageist stereotyping of old people . On the other hand , young people are often disadvantaged from accessing prestigious or relatively rewarding jobs , because of their recent entry to the work force or because they are still completing their education . Typically , once they enter the labour force or take a part - time job while in school , they start at entry level positions with low level wages . Furthermore , because of their lack of prior work experience , they can also often be forced to take marginal jobs , where they can be taken advantage of by their employers . As a result , many older people have to face obstacles in their lives . Inequalities in health ( edit ) Further information : Health equity , Inequality in disease , Social determinants of health in poverty , and Diseases of poverty Health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the distribution of health determinants between different population groups . Health care ( edit ) Health inequalities are in many cases related to access to health care . In industrialized nations , health inequalities are most prevalent in countries that have not implemented a universal health care system , such as the United States . Because the US health care system is heavily privatized , access to health care is dependent upon one 's economic capital ; Health care is not a right , it is a commodity that can be purchased through private insurance companies ( or that is sometimes provided through an employer ) . The way health care is organized in the U.S. contributes to health inequalities based on gender , socioeconomic status and race / ethnicity . As Wright and Perry assert , `` social status differences in health care are a primary mechanism of health inequalities '' . In the United States , over 48 million people are without medical care coverage . This means that almost one sixth of the population is without health insurance , mostly people belonging to the lower classes of society . While universal access to health care may not completely eliminate health inequalities , it has been shown that it greatly reduces them . In this context , privatization gives individuals the ' power ' to purchase their own health care ( through private health insurance companies ) , but this leads to social inequality by only allowing people who have economic resources to access health care . Citizens are seen as consumers who have a ' choice ' to buy the best health care they can afford ; in alignment with neoliberal ideology , this puts the burden on the individual rather than the government or the community . In countries that have a universal health care system , health inequalities have been reduced . In Canada , for example , equity in the availability of health services has been improved dramatically through Medicare . People do n't have to worry about how they will pay health care , or rely on emergency rooms for care , since health care is provided for the entire population . However , inequality issues still remain . For example , not everyone has the same level of access to services . Inequalities in health are not , however , only related to access to health care . Even if everyone had the same level of access , inequalities may still remain . This is because health status is a product of more than just how much medical care people have available to them . While Medicare has equalized access to health care by removing the need for direct payments at the time of services , which improved the health of low status people , inequities in health are still prevalent in Canada . This may be due to the state of the current social system , which bear other types of inequalities such as economic , racial and gender inequality . A lack of health equity is also evident in the developing world , where the importance of equitable access to healthcare has been cited as crucial to achieving many of the Millennium Development Goals . Health inequalities can vary greatly depending on the country one is looking at . Health equity is needed in order to live a healthier and more sufficient life within society . Inequalities in health lead to substantial effects , that is burdensome or the entire society . Inequalities in health are often associated with socioeconomic status and access to health care . Health inequities can occur when the distribution of public health services is unequal . For example , in Indonesia in 1990 , only 12 % of government spending for health was for services consumed by the poorest 20 % of households , while the wealthiest 20 % consumed 29 % of the government subsidy in the health sector . Access to health care is heavily influenced by socioeconomic status as well , as wealthier population groups have a higher probability of obtaining care when they need it . A study by Makinen et al. ( 2000 ) found that in the majority of developing countries they looked at , there was an upward trend by quintile in health care use for those reporting illness . Wealthier groups are also more likely to be seen by doctors and to receive medicine . Food ( edit ) There has been considerable research in recent years regarding a phenomenon known as food deserts , in which low access to fresh , healthy food in a neighborhood leads to poor consumer choices and options regarding diet . It is widely thought that food deserts are significant contributors to the childhood obesity epidemic in the United States and many other countries . This may have significant impacts on the local level as well as in broader contexts , such as in Greece , where the childhood obesity rate has skyrocketed in recent years heavily as a result of the rampant poverty and the resultant lack of access to fresh foods . Global inequality ( edit ) See also : International inequality Gross domestic product in 2011 US dollars per capita , adjusted for inflation and purchasing power parity ( log scale ) from 1860 to 2011 , with population ( disk area ) for the US ( yellow ) , UK ( orange ) , Japan ( red ) , China ( red ) , and India ( blue ) . The economies of the world have developed unevenly , historically , such that entire geographical regions were left mired in poverty and disease while others began to reduce poverty and disease on a wholesale basis . This was represented by a type of North -- South divide that existed after World War II between First world , more developed , industrialized , wealthy countries and Third world countries , primarily as measured by GDP . From around 1980 , however , through at least 2011 , the GDP gap , while still wide , appeared to be closing and , in some more rapidly developing countries , life expectancies began to rise . However , there are numerous limitations of GDP as an economic indicator of social `` well - being . '' If we look at the Gini coefficient for world income , over time , after World War II the global Gini coefficient sat at just under . 45 . Between around 1959 to 1966 , the global Gini increased sharply , to a peak of around . 48 in 1966 . After falling and leveling off a couple of times during a period from around 1967 to 1984 , the Gini began to climb again in the mid-eighties until reaching a high or around . 54 in 2000 then jumped again to around . 70 in 2002 . Since the late 1980s , the gap between some regions has markedly narrowed -- between Asia and the advanced economies of the West , for example -- but huge gaps remain globally . Overall equality across humanity , considered as individuals , has improved very little . Within the decade between 2003 and 2013 , income inequality grew even in traditionally egalitarian countries like Germany , Sweden and Denmark . With a few exceptions -- France , Japan , Spain -- the top 10 percent of earners in most advanced economies raced ahead , while the bottom 10 percent fell further behind . By 2013 , a tiny elite of multibillionaires , 85 to be exact , had amassed wealth equivalent to all the wealth owned by the poorest half ( 3.5 billion ) of the world 's total population of 7 billion . Country of citizenship ( an ascribed status characteristic ) explains 60 % of variability in global income ; citizenship and parental income class ( both ascribed status characteristics ) combined explain more than 80 % of income variability . Inequality and economic growth ( edit ) Of the factors influencing the duration of economic growth in both developed and developing countries , income equality has a more beneficial impact than trade openness , sound political institutions , and foreign investment . The concept of economic growth is fundamental in capitalist economies . Productivity must grow as population grows and capital must grow to feed into increased productivity . Investment of capital leads to returns on investment ( ROI ) and increased capital accumulation . The hypothesis that economic inequality is a necessary precondition for economic growth has been a mainstay of liberal economic theory . Recent research , particularly over the first two decades of the 21st century , has called this basic assumption into question . While growing inequality does have a positive correlation with economic growth under specific sets of conditions , inequality in general is not positively correlated with economic growth and , under some conditions , shows a negative correlation with economic growth . Milanovic ( 2011 ) points out that overall , global inequality between countries is more important to growth of the world economy than inequality within countries . While global economic growth may be a policy priority , recent evidence about regional and national inequalities can not be dismissed when more local economic growth is a policy objective . The recent financial crisis and global recession hit countries and shook financial systems all over the world . This led to the implementation of large - scale fiscal expansionary interventions and , as a result , to massive public debt issuance in some countries . Governmental bailouts of the banking system further burdened fiscal balances and raises considerable concern about the fiscal solvency of some countries . Most governments want to keep deficits under control but rolling back the expansionary measures or cutting spending and raising taxes implies an enormous wealth transfer from tax payers to the private financial sector . Expansionary fiscal policies shift resources and causes worries about growing inequality within countries . Moreover , recent data confirm an ongoing trend of increasing income inequality since the early nineties . Increasing inequality within countries has been accompanied by a redistribution of economic resources between developed economies and emerging markets . Davtyn , et al. ( 2014 ) studied the interaction of these fiscal conditions and changes in fiscal and economic policies with income inequality in the UK , Canada , and the US . They find income inequality has negative effect on economic growth in the case of the UK but a positive effect in the cases of the US and Canada . Income inequality generally reduces government net lending / borrowing for all the countries . Economic growth , they find , leads to an increase of income inequality in the case of the UK and to the decline of inequality in the cases of the US and Canada . At the same time , economic growth improves government net lending / borrowing in all the countries . Government spending leads to the decline in inequality in the UK but to its increase in the US and Canada . Following the results of Alesina and Rodrick ( 1994 ) , Bourguignon ( 2004 ) , and Birdsall ( 2005 ) show that developing countries with high inequality tend to grow more slowly , Ortiz and Cummings ( 2011 ) show that developing countries with high inequality tend to grow more slowly . For 131 countries for which they could estimate the change in Gini index values between 1990 and 2008 , they find that those countries that increased levels of inequality experienced slower annual per capita GDP growth over the same time period . Noting a lack of data for national wealth , they build an index using Forbes list of billionaires by country normalized by GDP and validated through correlation with a Gini coefficient for wealth and the share of wealth going to the top decile . They find that many countries generating low rates of economic growth are also characterized by a high level of wealth inequality with wealth concentration among a class of entrenched elites . They conclude that extreme inequality in the distribution of wealth globally , regionally and nationally , coupled with the negative effects of higher levels of income disparities , should make us question current economic development approaches and examine the need to place equity at the center of the development agenda . Ostry , et al. ( 2014 ) reject the hypothesis that there is a major trade - off between a reduction of income inequality ( through income redistribution ) and economic growth . If that were the case , they hold , then redistribution that reduces income inequality would on average be bad for growth , taking into account both the direct effect of higher redistribution and the effect of the resulting lower inequality . Their research shows rather the opposite : increasing income inequality always has a significant and , in most cases , negative effect on economic growth while redistribution has an overall pro-growth effect ( in one sample ) or no growth effect . Their conclusion is that increasing inequality , particularly when inequality is already high , results in low growth , if any , and such growth may be unsustainable over long periods . Piketty and Saez ( 2014 ) note that there are important differences between income and wealth inequality dynamics . First , wealth concentration is always much higher than income concentration . The top 10 percent of wealth share typically falls in the 60 to 90 percent range of all wealth , whereas the top 10 percent income share is in the 30 to 50 percent range . The bottom 50 percent wealth share is always less than 5 percent , whereas the bottom 50 percent income share generally falls in the 20 to 30 percent range . The bottom half of the population hardly owns any wealth , but it does earn appreciable income : The inequality of labor income can be high , but it is usually much less extreme . On average , members of the bottom half of the population , in terms of wealth , own less than one - tenth of the average wealth . The inequality of labor income can be high , but it is usually much less extreme . Members of the bottom half of the population in income earn about half the average income . In sum , the concentration of capital ownership is always extreme , so that the very notion of capital is fairly abstract for large segments -- if not the majority -- of the population . Piketty ( 2014 ) finds that wealth - income ratios , today , seem to be returning to very high levels in low economic growth countries , similar to what he calls the `` classic patrimonial '' wealth - based societies of the 19th century wherein a minority lives off its wealth while the rest of the population works for subsistence living . He surmises that wealth accumulation is high because growth is low . See also ( edit ) Civil rights Digital divide Educational inequality Gini coefficient Global justice Health equity Horizontal inequality List of countries by income inequality List of countries by distribution of wealth LGBT social movements Social apartheid Social equality Social justice Social exclusion Social mobility Social stratification Structural violence Tax evasion Triple oppression References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Wade , Robert H. ( 2014 ) . `` The Piketty phenomenon and the future of inequality '' ( PDF ) . Real World Economics Review ( 69 -- 7 ) : 2 -- 17 . 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( 2003 ) . `` Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Care Use : Does Universal Coverage Reduce Inequalities in Health ? '' . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health . 57 ( 6 ) : 107 -- 119 . doi : 10.1136 / jech. 57.6. 424 . PMC 1732477 . Jump up ^ Hacker , Jacob S. ( 2006 ) . The Great Risk Shift : The Assault on American Jobs , Families , Health Care , and Retirement - and How You Can Fight Back . Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Grant , Karen R. ( 1994 ) . Health and Health Care in Essentials of Contemporary Sociology . Toronto : Copp Clark Longman . p. 275 . Jump up ^ Grant , K.R. ( 1998 ) . The Inverse Care Law in Canada : Differential Access Under Universal Free Health Insurance . Toronto : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich . pp. 118 -- 134 . Jump up ^ World Bank ( 1993 ) . World Development Report . New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Mankinen , M. ; et al. ( January 2000 ) . `` Inequalities in Health Care Use and Expenditures : Empirical Data from Eight Developing Countries and Countries in Transition '' . Bulletin of the World Health Organization 38 : 1 . doi : 10.1590 / S0042 - 96862000000100006 . Jump up ^ `` USDA Defines Food Deserts '' . American Nutrition Association . American Nutrition Association . Retrieved 30 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Eisenhauer , Elizabeth ( 2001 ) . `` In poor health : Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition '' . GeoJournal. 53 ( 2 ) : 125 -- 133 . doi : 10.1023 / a : 1015772503007 . Jump up ^ Manios , Y. , Vlachopapadopoulou , E. , Moschonis , G. , Karachaliou , F. , Psaltopoulou , T. , Koutsouki , D. , ... Michalacos , S. ( 2016 ) . `` Utility and applicability of the `` Childhood Obesity Risk Evaluation '' ( CORE ) - index in predicting obesity in childhood and adolescence in Greece from early life : The `` National Action Plan for Public Health '' `` . 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Science . 344 ( 6186 ) : 838 -- 43 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1251936 . PMID 24855258 . Jump up ^ Piketty , Thomas ( 2014 ) . Capital in the 21st century . Belknap Press . ISBN 978 - 0674430006 . Further reading ( edit ) Abel , T ( 2008 ) . `` Cultural capital and social inequality in health '' . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health . 62 ( 7 ) : e13 . doi : 10.1136 / jech. 2007.066159 . Acker , Joan ( 1990 ) . `` Hierarchies , jobs , bodies : a theory of gendered organizations '' . Gender and Society . 4 ( 2 ) : 139 -- 58 . doi : 10.1177 / 089124390004002002 . Bourdieu , Pierre . 1996. The State Nobility : Elite Schools in the Field of Power , translated by Lauretta C. Clough . Stanford : Stanford University Press . Brennan , S ( 2009 ) . `` Feminist Ethics and Everyday Inequalities '' . Hypatia. 24 ( 1 ) : 141 -- 159 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1527 - 2001.2009. 00011. x . Brenner , N ( 2010 ) . `` Variegated neoliberalization : geographies , modalities , pathways '' . Global networks . 10 ( 2 ) : 182 -- 222 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1471 - 0374.2009. 00277. x . Coburn , D ( 2004 ) . `` Beyond the income inequality hypothesis : class , neo-liberalism , and health inequalities '' . Social Science & Medicine . 58 ( 1 ) : 41 -- 56 . doi : 10.1016 / s0277 - 9536 ( 03 ) 00159 - x . Esping - Andersen , Gosta. 1999 . `` The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism . '' In The Welfare State Reader edited by Christopher Pierson and Francis G. Castles . Polity Press . Wilkinson , Richard ; Pickett , Kate ( 2009 ) . The Spirit Level : Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better . Allen Lane . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84614 - 039 - 6 . Frankfurt , H ( 1987 ) . `` Equality as a Moral Ideal '' . Ethics. 98 ( 1 ) : 21 -- 43 . doi : 10.1086 / 292913 . Cruz , Adrienne and Sabine Klinger ( 2011 ) . Gender - based violence in the world of work International Labour Organization Goldthorpe , J.H. ( 2010 ) . `` Analysing Social Inequality : A Critique of Two Recent Contributions from Economics and Epidemiology '' . European Sociological Review . 26 ( 6 ) : 731 -- 744 . doi : 10.1093 / esr / jcp046 . Irving , D ( 2008 ) . `` Normalized transgressions : Legitimizing the transsexual body as productive '' . Radical History Review . 100 ( 100 ) : 38 -- 59 . doi : 10.1215 / 01636545 - 2007 - 021 . Jin , Y. ; Li , H. ; et al. ( 2011 ) . `` Income inequality , consumption , and social - status seeking '' . Journal of Comparative Economics . 39 ( 2 ) : 191 -- 204 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jce. 2010.12. 004 . Lazzarato , M ( 2009 ) . `` Neoliberalism in Action : Inequality , Insecurity and the Reconstitution of the Social '' . Theory , Culture & Society . 26 ( 6 ) : 109 -- 133 . doi : 10.1177 / 0263276409350283 . Mandel , Hadas ( 2012 ) . `` Winners and Losers : The Consequences of Welfare State Policies for Gender Wage Inequality '' . European Sociological Review . 28 ( 2 ) : 241 -- 262 . doi : 10.1093 / esr / jcq061 . Ortiz , Isabel & Matthew Cummins. 2011 . Global Inequality : Beyond the Bottom Billion -- A Rapid Review of Income Distribution in 141 Countries . United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) , New York . Pakulski , J. ; Waters , M. ( 1996 ) . `` The Reshaping and Dissolution of Social Class in Advanced Society '' . Theory and Society . 25 ( 5 ) : 667 -- 691 . doi : 10.1007 / bf00188101 . Piketty , Thomas ( 2014 ) . Capital in the Twenty - First Century . Belknap Press . Scheidel , Walter ( 2017 ) . The Great Leveler : Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty - First Century . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0691165028 . Sernau , Scott ( 2013 ) . Social Inequality in a Global Age ( 4th edition ) . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage . Stanley , E.A. 2011 . `` Fugitive flesh : Gender self - determination , queer abolition , and trans resistance . '' In E.A. Stanley & N. Smith ( Eds . ) , Captive genders : Trans embodiment and the prison industrial complex ( pp. 1 -- 14 ) . Edinburgh , UK : AK Press . Stiglitz , Joseph . 2012 . The Price of Inequality . New York : Norton . United Nations ( UN ) Inequality - adjusted Human Development Report ( IHDR ) 2013 . United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) . Weber , Max . 1946 . `` Power . '' In Max Weber : Essays in Sociology . Translated and Edited by H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills . New York : Oxford University Press . Weeden , K.A. ; Grusky , D.B. ( 2012 ) . `` The Three Worlds of Inequality '' . American Journal of Sociology. 117 ( 6 ) : 1723 -- 1785 . doi : 10.1086 / 665035 . Wright , E.O. ( 2000 ) . `` Working - Class Power , Capitalist - Class Interests , and Class Compromise '' . American Journal of Sociology. 105 ( 4 ) : 957 -- 1002 . doi : 10.1086 / 210397 . External links ( edit ) Library resources about Social inequality Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Inequality watch `` Wealth Gap '' - A Guide ( January 2014 ) , AP News Guardian.com/business/2015/jan/19/global-wealth-oxfam-inequality-davos-economic-summit-switzerland New Oxfam report says half of global wealth held by the 1 % ( 2015 - 01 - 19 ) . `` Oxfam warns of widening inequality gap . '' The Guardian How Much More ( Or Less ) Would You Make If We Rolled Back Inequality ? ( January 2015 ) . `` How much more ( or less ) would families be earning today if inequality had remained flat since 1979 ? '' National Public Radio OECD - Education GPS : Gender differences in education Discrimination in the Workplace GND : 4055736 - 4 HDS : 8538 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_inequality&oldid=847955509 '' Categories : Social inequality Social systems Distribution of wealth Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Use dmy dates from June 2018 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017 All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from November 2017 Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with HDS identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Asturianu Avañe'ẽ भोजपुरी Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Português Русский Shqip Српски / srpski தமிழ் Українська Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 20 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 June 2018 , at 22 : 19 ( UTC ) . 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698624662874665564 | List of National Basketball Association single-game scoring leaders | List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 24 October 2018 . This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game . This feat has been accomplished 68 times in NBA history . Twenty - five different players have scored 60 or more points in a game . Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion : Wilt Chamberlain ( 32 times ) , Kobe Bryant ( 6 times ) , Michael Jordan ( 5 times ) , and Elgin Baylor ( 4 times ) . Chamberlain holds the single - game scoring record , having scored 100 points in a game in 1962 . Jordan ( 63 ) and Baylor ( 61 ) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs , each accomplishing this once . Contents 1 Key 2 List 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Key ( edit ) Denotes player who is currently active in the NBA * Denotes player who has been inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Occurred in playoff competition Player 's team lost the game MP Minutes played FGM Field goals made FGA Field goal attempts 3PM 3 - point field goals made 3PA 3 - point field goal attempts DNP Did not play FTM Free throws made FTA Free throw attempts List ( edit ) Rank Points Player Date 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Team Opponent Score MP FGM FGA 3PM 3PA FTM FTA Notes Ref . Scoring by quarter 100 Wilt Chamberlain * March 2 , 1962 23 18 28 31 Philadelphia Warriors New York Knicks 169 -- 147 48 36 63 -- -- 28 32 81 Kobe Bryant January 22 , 2006 14 12 27 28 Los Angeles Lakers Toronto Raptors 122 -- 104 41 : 56 28 46 7 13 18 20 78 Wilt Chamberlain * December 8 , 1961 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Los Angeles Lakers 147 -- 151 63 31 62 -- -- 16 31 73 Wilt Chamberlain * January 13 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Chicago Packers 135 -- 117 48 29 48 -- -- 15 25 73 Wilt Chamberlain * November 16 , 1962 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors New York Knicks 127 -- 111 48 29 43 -- -- 15 19 73 David Thompson * April 9 , 1978 32 21 9 11 Denver Nuggets Detroit Pistons 137 -- 139 43 28 38 -- -- 17 20 7 72 Wilt Chamberlain * November 3 , 1962 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Los Angeles Lakers 115 -- 127 -- 29 48 -- -- 14 18 8 71 Elgin Baylor * November 15 , 1960 -- -- -- -- Los Angeles Lakers New York Knicks 123 -- 108 45 28 48 -- -- 15 18 71 David Robinson * April 24 , 1994 18 6 19 28 San Antonio Spurs Los Angeles Clippers 112 -- 97 44 26 41 18 25 10 70 Wilt Chamberlain * March 10 , 1963 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Syracuse Nationals 148 -- 163 48 27 38 -- -- 16 22 70 Devin Booker ^ March 24 , 2017 10 9 23 28 Phoenix Suns Boston Celtics 120 -- 130 45 21 40 11 24 26 12 69 Michael Jordan * March 28 , 1990 16 15 20 18 Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers 117 -- 113 50 23 37 6 21 23 13 68 Wilt Chamberlain * December 16 , 1967 14 15 15 24 Philadelphia 76ers Chicago Bulls 143 -- 123 -- 30 40 -- -- 8 22 68 Pete Maravich * February 25 , 1977 17 14 17 20 New Orleans Jazz New York Knicks 124 -- 107 43 26 43 -- -- 16 19 15 67 Wilt Chamberlain * March 9 , 1961 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors New York Knicks 135 -- 126 -- 27 37 -- -- 13 17 67 Wilt Chamberlain * February 17 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors St. Louis Hawks 121 -- 128 48 26 44 -- -- 15 20 67 Wilt Chamberlain * February 25 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors New York Knicks 135 -- 149 48 25 38 -- -- 17 22 67 Wilt Chamberlain * January 11 , 1963 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Los Angeles Lakers 129 -- 134 -- 28 47 -- -- 11 17 19 66 Wilt Chamberlain * February 9 , 1969 17 17 22 10 Los Angeles Lakers Phoenix Suns 134 -- 116 48 29 35 -- -- 8 18 20 65 Wilt Chamberlain * February 13 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Cincinnati Royals 132 -- 152 48 24 40 -- -- 17 30 65 Wilt Chamberlain * February 27 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors St. Louis Hawks 147 -- 137 48 25 43 -- -- 15 20 65 Wilt Chamberlain * February 7 , 1966 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia 76ers Los Angeles Lakers 132 -- 125 -- 28 43 -- -- 9 20 65 Kobe Bryant March 16 , 2007 19 9 24 Los Angeles Lakers Portland Trail Blazers 116 -- 111 49 : 58 23 39 8 12 11 12 24 64 Elgin Baylor * November 8 , 1959 13 12 17 22 Minneapolis Lakers Boston Celtics 136 -- 115 -- 25 47 -- -- 14 19 64 Rick Barry * March 26 , 1974 -- -- 23 22 Golden State Warriors Portland Trail Blazers 143 -- 120 43 30 45 -- -- 5 64 Michael Jordan * January 16 , 1993 22 8 11 16 Chicago Bulls Orlando Magic 124 -- 128 47 27 49 5 9 11 27 63 Joe Fulks * February 10 , 1949 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Indianapolis Jets 108 -- 87 -- 27 56 -- -- 9 14 63 Elgin Baylor * December 8 , 1961 -- -- -- -- Los Angeles Lakers Philadelphia Warriors 151 -- 147 -- 23 55 -- -- 17 24 63 Jerry West * January 17 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Los Angeles Lakers New York Knicks 129 -- 121 39 22 36 -- -- 19 22 63 Wilt Chamberlain * December 14 , 1962 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Los Angeles Lakers 118 -- 120 -- 24 41 -- -- 15 20 63 Wilt Chamberlain * November 26 , 1964 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Philadelphia 76ers 117 -- 128 -- 27 58 -- -- 9 20 63 George Gervin * April 9 , 1978 20 33 10 DNP San Antonio Spurs New Orleans Jazz 132 -- 153 33 23 49 -- -- 17 20 63 Michael Jordan * April 20 , 1986 17 6 13 18 Chicago Bulls Boston Celtics 131 -- 135 53 22 41 0 0 19 21 34 62 Wilt Chamberlain * January 14 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Boston Celtics 136 -- 145 48 27 45 -- -- 8 10 62 Wilt Chamberlain * January 17 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors St. Louis Hawks 136 -- 130 53 24 48 -- -- 14 20 62 Wilt Chamberlain * January 21 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Syracuse Nationals 139 -- 132 53 25 42 -- -- 12 17 62 Wilt Chamberlain * January 29 , 1963 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors New York Knicks 123 -- 103 -- 27 44 -- -- 8 17 62 Wilt Chamberlain * November 15 , 1964 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Cincinnati Royals 122 -- 106 -- 26 44 -- -- 10 21 62 Wilt Chamberlain * March 3 , 1966 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia 76ers San Francisco Warriors 135 -- 125 -- 26 39 -- -- 10 19 62 Tracy McGrady * March 10 , 2004 7 21 24 10 Orlando Magic Washington Wizards 108 -- 99 45 : 50 20 37 5 14 17 26 62 Kobe Bryant December 20 , 2005 15 17 30 DNP Los Angeles Lakers Dallas Mavericks 112 -- 90 32 : 53 18 31 10 22 25 62 Carmelo Anthony ^ January 24 , 2014 20 17 19 6 New York Knicks Charlotte Bobcats 125 -- 96 38 : 39 23 35 6 11 10 10 43 61 George Mikan * January 20 , 1952 18 18 -- -- Minneapolis Lakers Rochester Royals 91 -- 81 -- 22 45 -- -- 17 21 61 Wilt Chamberlain * December 9 , 1961 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Chicago Packers 135 -- 113 48 28 48 -- -- 5 10 61 Wilt Chamberlain * February 22 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors St. Louis Hawks 139 -- 121 48 21 36 -- -- 19 34 61 Wilt Chamberlain * February 28 , 1962 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Chicago Packers 128 -- 119 48 24 46 -- -- 13 17 61 Elgin Baylor * April 14 , 1962 18 15 13 15 Los Angeles Lakers Boston Celtics 126 -- 121 -- 22 46 -- -- 17 19 61 Wilt Chamberlain * November 21 , 1962 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Cincinnati Royals 139 -- 143 -- 27 52 -- -- 7 15 61 Wilt Chamberlain * December 11 , 1962 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors Syracuse Nationals 136 -- 124 -- 27 57 -- -- 7 11 61 Wilt Chamberlain * December 18 , 1962 -- -- -- -- San Francisco Warriors St. Louis Hawks 130 -- 110 -- 26 53 -- -- 9 14 61 Michael Jordan * March 4 , 1987 14 10 7 26 Chicago Bulls Detroit Pistons 125 -- 120 43 22 39 0 0 17 18 61 Michael Jordan * April 16 , 1987 15 17 16 13 Chicago Bulls Atlanta Hawks 114 -- 117 41 22 38 0 17 21 61 Karl Malone * January 27 , 1990 17 13 20 11 Utah Jazz Milwaukee Bucks 144 -- 96 33 21 26 0 0 19 23 61 Shaquille O'Neal * March 6 , 2000 10 16 16 19 Los Angeles Lakers Los Angeles Clippers 123 -- 103 44 : 52 24 35 0 0 13 22 61 Kobe Bryant February 2 , 2009 18 16 12 15 Los Angeles Lakers New York Knicks 126 -- 117 36 : 48 19 31 6 20 20 61 LeBron James ^ March 3 , 2014 11 13 25 12 Miami Heat Charlotte Bobcats 124 -- 107 41 : 12 22 33 8 10 9 12 57 60 Wilt Chamberlain * December 1 , 1961 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Los Angeles Lakers 138 -- 117 48 22 47 -- -- 16 26 60 Wilt Chamberlain * December 29 , 1961 -- -- -- -- Philadelphia Warriors Los Angeles Lakers 123 -- 118 48 24 43 -- -- 12 19 60 Wilt Chamberlain * January 26 , 1969 18 9 10 23 Los Angeles Lakers Cincinnati Royals 126 -- 113 -- 22 36 -- -- 16 24 60 Bernard King * December 25 , 1984 21 19 11 9 New York Knicks New Jersey Nets 114 -- 120 41 19 30 0 0 22 26 60 Larry Bird * March 12 , 1985 12 11 19 18 Boston Celtics Atlanta Hawks 126 -- 115 43 22 36 15 16 60 Tom Chambers March 24 , 1990 14 21 14 11 Phoenix Suns Seattle SuperSonics 121 -- 95 42 22 32 0 0 16 18 60 Allen Iverson * February 12 , 2005 17 12 11 20 Philadelphia 76ers Orlando Magic 112 -- 99 42 : 01 17 36 5 24 27 60 Gilbert Arenas December 17 , 2006 12 5 12 15 Washington Wizards Los Angeles Lakers 147 -- 141 49 : 00 17 32 5 12 21 27 60 Kobe Bryant March 22 , 2007 13 11 19 17 Los Angeles Lakers Memphis Grizzlies 121 -- 119 45 : 11 20 37 7 17 18 60 Kobe Bryant April 13 , 2016 15 7 15 23 Los Angeles Lakers Utah Jazz 101 -- 96 42 22 50 6 21 10 12 60 Klay Thompson ^ December 5 , 2016 17 23 20 DNP Golden State Warriors Indiana Pacers 142 -- 106 29 21 33 8 14 10 11 60 James Harden ^ January 30 , 2018 16 13 13 18 Houston Rockets Orlando Magic 114 -- 107 46 : 26 19 30 5 14 17 18 See also ( edit ) National Basketball Association portal NBA regular season records List of National Basketball Association single - game playoff scoring leaders List of NCAA Division I men 's basketball players with 60 or more points in a game List of basketball players who have scored 100 points in a single game Notes ( edit ) Chamberlain set the following , still - standing ( as of the 2018 - 19 season ) single - game NBA records : points scored ( 100 ) , points scored in a half ( 59 ) , shots made ( 36 ) , shots attempted ( 63 ) , and free throws made ( 28 ) . Also set a then - record for points scored in a quarter ( 31 ) . Last game in a streak in which Chamberlain scored 60 points or more in four straight games . Game played at Hershey Sports Arena in Hershey , Pennsylvania . Outscored the Raptors 55 - 41 in the second half . Led Lakers from an 18 - point deficit . Bryant was in the middle of a free throw scoring streak which came to an end at 62 . Scored 28 of the Lakers ' 31 points in the fourth quarter . Scored 19 consecutive Laker points between the end of the first half and the middle of the third quarter . 3 OT ; set a then - record for points in a game . Most points scored in a losing effort . Also recorded 43 rebounds . Set a then - record for points in a regulation game . Most points scored in an opposing arena . Last game of the season ; George Gervin scored 63 on the same night to win the scoring title by a . 07 margin . Set a then - record for points in a game . Last game of regular season to win a scoring title over Shaquille O'Neal . Youngest player to score at least 60 points in a game . 8 points in overtime . OT victory ; also recorded his regular season career - high for rebounds in this game with 18 . Last time Chamberlain scored 60 . Scored basket that sent game in OT . Scored nine in extra period . Set a then - record for points in a game . Scored 7 points in OT . Pre-shot clock era ; set a then - record for points in a game . 3 OT . Scored a then - record 33 points in the second quarter . Lost game but won the scoring title on last game of the season over David Thompson . NBA Playoffs record . 5 points in first OT , 4 points in second OT . OT ; Game played at Detroit , Michigan . OT ; Game played at Utica , New York . Sat out the fourth quarter ; outscored Dallas alone through three quarters , 62 -- 61 . Anthony made a half - court buzzer - beater at the end of the first half . 2 OT ; Mikan scored 67 % of his team 's points . NBA Finals record ( game 5 victory ) ; most points in a regulation playoff game . Scored four points in OT . Part of a streak in which Jordan scored 50 or more points in three consecutive games to become the only player besides Wilt Chamberlain with a 3,000 point season . On his 28th birthday . Made his first 8 three - pointers . Chamberlain 's seventh straight 50 + point game ( an NBA record ) and 13th straight 40 + point game ( he would push this streak to 14 the next evening ) . Game played at Hershey Sports Arena in Hershey , Pennsylvania . Game played at Cleveland , Ohio . Scored last basket at the buzzer . Game played at Lakefront Arena in New Orleans , Louisiana . Scored 16 of his team 's 21 points in OT , setting an NBA record . 3rd game of a four - game 50 + streak ; Bryant 's 50 + streak exceeded only by Chamberlain 's streaks of seven ( twice ) , six , and five ( four times ) . Final game of Bryant 's career . Oldest player to score 60 . Sat out the fourth quarter . New Rockets franchise single - game scoring record , as well as setting the record for highest scoring triple double in league history . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lawrence , Mitch . `` Chamberlain 's feats the stuff of legend '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` This Date in History - March '' . NBA.com . Turner Sports Interactive , Inc . Retrieved 2009 - 03 - 18 . Jump up ^ hoophall.com ( 2007 - 02 - 10 ) . `` The Story Behind Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game '' . Archived from the original on 2006 - 11 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Wilt 's 100 - Point Game Box Score '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : `` Wilt Chamberlain 1961 - 62 game log '' . Basketball-Reference.com . Retrieved 4 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kobe 's 81 - point game second only to Wilt '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 18 March 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Toronto Raptors @ Los Angeles Lakers Box Score '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved 8 February 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Kobe 's 81 point game highlights '' . Retrieved 9 February 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Wilt Chamberlain 1962 - 63 game log '' . Basketball-Reference.com . Retrieved 5 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` ROBINSON GETS 71 , SCORING TITLE '' . Chicago Tribune . April 25 , 1994 . p . C10 . Jump up ^ `` Robinson Wins Title with 71 Big Ones '' . The Washington Post . April 25 , 1994 . p . B8 . Jump up ^ `` Basketball ; 69 Points F > or Jordan '' . The New York Times . March 29 , 1990 . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Smith , Sam ( March 29 , 1990 ) . `` Jordan pours in 69 His ` best game ever ' beats Cavs in OT '' . Chicago Tribune . p . C1 . Jump up ^ `` Michael Jordan top rebounding regular season games '' . Basketball - Reference . Retrieved 4 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Portland Trail Blazers @ Los Angeles Lakers - Friday , March 16th , 2007 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Povtak , Tim ( January 17 , 1993 ) . `` Jordan 's 64 ca n't stop Magic Anderson steals show in overtime '' . Orlando Sentinel . p . C1 . Jump up ^ `` T - Mac has first 60 - point game since 2000 '' . ESPN.com . March 10 , 2004 . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Washington Wizards @ Orlando Magic - Wednesday , March 10th , 2004 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Kobe 's night as Mavs have no answers '' . ESPN.com . December 20 , 2005 . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Dallas Mavericks @ Los Angeles Lakers - Tuesday , December 20th , 2005 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bobcats at Knicks - Game Preview , Play - by - Play , Scores and Recap on NBA.com '' . ESPN.com . January 24 , 2014 . Retrieved January 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Jordan Lights Up Silverdome With 61 Points '' . Jump up ^ `` MICHAEL JORDAN : 61 pts vs Detroit Pistons ( 1987.03. 04 ) '' . Jump up ^ `` Michael Jordan 61 Points vs Pistons & Isiah Thomas 31Pts 18Assists ( 1987 ) MUST Watch ! '' . Jump up ^ `` 61 for Jordan , 23 in a Row '' . The New York Times . April 17 , 1987 . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Sakamoto , Bob ( April 17 , 1987 ) . `` Jordan triumphant in Bulls ' defeat '' . Chicago Tribune . p . C1 . Jump up ^ `` Michael Jordan 61pts vs Hawks part 1 '' . Jump up ^ `` Michael Jordan 61pts vs Hawks part 2 '' . Jump up ^ `` Michael Jordan 61pts vs Hawks part 3 '' . Jump up ^ Enlund , Tom ( January 28 , 1990 ) . `` Malone answers all - star snub with 61 points against Bucks '' , The Milwaukee Journal , p. 1C . Jump up ^ `` Los Angeles Lakers @ Los Angeles Clippers - Monday , March 6th , 2000 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Los Angeles Lakers @ New York Knicks - Monday , February 2nd , 2009 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Bobcats at Heat - March 3 , 2014 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved March 3 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Bobcats vs Heat game recap '' . Retrieved 4 January 2017 . Jump up ^ Goldpaper , Sam ( December 26 , 1984 ) . `` King Scores Knick - Record 60 Points in Loss to Nets '' . The New York Times . p . D9 . Jump up ^ `` ' It Was Like Living in a Video Game ' : An Oral History of Larry Bird 's 60 - Point Game '' . archive.boston.com . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Nosedive Persists For Nets '' . The New York Times . March 25 , 1990 . p . S4 . Jump up ^ `` Suns ' Chambers lights up Sonics for 60 points '' . Chicago Tribune . March 25 , 1990 . p . C15 . Jump up ^ `` On This Day In History ( 3.24. 90 ) Tom Chambers scored a franchise high 60 points vs the Sonics '' . Ballislife.com . Retrieved 2016 - 02 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Chambers Lights It Up '' . www.nba.com . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Three - time scoring champ hits career high '' . ESPN.com . February 12 , 2005 . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Orlando Magic @ Philadelphia 76ers - Saturday , February 12th , 2005 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Washington Wizards @ Los Angeles Lakers - Sunday , December 17th , 2006 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Los Angeles Lakers @ Memphis Grizzlies - Thursday , March 22nd , 2007 '' . NBA.com . Retrieved May 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Jazz vs. Lakers - Box Score - April 13 , 2016 '' . Retrieved April 13 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Kobe scores 60 in unbelievable farewell victory '' . NBA.com . Retrieved 4 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Pacers vs. Warriors - Box Score - December 5 , 2016 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Magic vs. Rockets - Box Score - January 30 , 2018 - ESPN '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved 2018 - 01 - 30 . External links ( edit ) Top single - game scorers ( 60 - plus ) from NBA.com NBA Almanac : Most Points Historical NBA Box Scores Wilt Chamberlain Career Retrospective Harvey Pollack 's Statistical Yearbook National Basketball Association statistical leaders Players Career Regular season Points Franchise Rebounds Assists Steals Blocks Turnovers Three - point field goals Free throws Seasons Games Minutes Playoffs Points Rebounds Assists Steals Blocks Turnovers Three - point field goals Free throws Games Minutes Annual Points Rebounds Assists Steals Blocks Minutes Field goal percentage Three - point field goals Three - point field goal percentage Free throw percentage Season Points Rookie Rebounds Rookie Game Points Playoffs Rebounds Assists Steals Blocks Misc Entire career with one franchise Tallest players Shortest players Oldest and youngest players Highest - paid players Teams Winningest teams All - time win - loss records Winning streaks Losing streaks Misc Highest - scoring games Records Regular season Playoffs All - Star Game Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_National_Basketball_Association_single-game_scoring_leaders&oldid=865528849 '' Categories : National Basketball Association statistical leaders Hidden categories : Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Articles with hCards Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2018 , at 13 : 45 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | most points by michael jordan in a game | [
"\n\n\nRank\n\nPoints\n\nPlayer\n\nDate\n\n1st\n\n2nd\n\n3rd\n\n4th\n\nTeam\n\nOpponent\n\nScore\n\nMP\n\nFGM\n\nFGA\n\n3PM\n\n3PA\n\nFTM\n\nFTA\n\nNotes\n\nRef.\n\nScoring by quarter\n\n\n\n1\n\n100\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nMarch 2, 1962\n\n23\n\n18\n\n28\n\n31\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n169–147\n\n48\n\n36\n\n63\n\n—\n\n—\n\n28\n\n32\n\n[A]\n\n[1][2] [3][4][5]\n\n\n2\n\n81\n\nKobe Bryant\n\nJanuary 22, 2006\n\n14\n\n12\n\n27\n\n28\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nToronto Raptors\n\n122–104\n\n41:56\n\n28\n\n46\n\n7\n\n13\n\n18\n\n20\n\n[B]\n\n[6][7][8]\n\n\n3\n\n78\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 8, 1961\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n147–151\n\n63\n\n31\n\n62\n\n—\n\n—\n\n16\n\n31\n\n[C]\n\n[5]\n\n\n4\n\n73\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 13, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nChicago Packers\n\n135–117\n\n48\n\n29\n\n48\n\n—\n\n—\n\n15\n\n25\n\n[D]\n\n[5]\n\n\n73\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nNovember 16, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n127–111\n\n48\n\n29\n\n43\n\n—\n\n—\n\n15\n\n19\n\n[E]\n\n[9]\n\n\n73\n\nDavid Thompson*\n\nApril 9, 1978\n\n32\n\n21\n\n9\n\n11\n\nDenver Nuggets\n\nDetroit Pistons\n\n137–139\n\n43\n\n28\n\n38\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n20\n\n[F]\n\n\n\n\n7\n\n72\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nNovember 3, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n115–127\n\n—\n\n29\n\n48\n\n—\n\n—\n\n14\n\n18\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n8\n\n71\n\nElgin Baylor*\n\nNovember 15, 1960\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n123–108\n\n45\n\n28\n\n48\n\n—\n\n—\n\n15\n\n18\n\n[G]\n\n\n\n\n71\n\nDavid Robinson*\n\nApril 24, 1994\n\n18\n\n6\n\n19\n\n28\n\nSan Antonio Spurs\n\nLos Angeles Clippers\n\n112–97\n\n44\n\n26\n\n41\n\n1\n\n2\n\n18\n\n25\n\n[H]\n\n[10][11]\n\n\n10\n\n70\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nMarch 10, 1963\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nSyracuse Nationals\n\n148–163\n\n48\n\n27\n\n38\n\n—\n\n—\n\n16\n\n22\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n70\n\nDevin Booker^\n\nMarch 24, 2017\n\n10\n\n9\n\n23\n\n28\n\nPhoenix Suns\n\nBoston Celtics\n\n120–130\n\n45\n\n21\n\n40\n\n4\n\n11\n\n24\n\n26\n\n[I]\n\n\n\n\n12\n\n69\n\nMichael Jordan*\n\nMarch 28, 1990\n\n16\n\n15\n\n20\n\n18\n\nChicago Bulls\n\nCleveland Cavaliers\n\n117–113\n\n50\n\n23\n\n37\n\n2\n\n6\n\n21\n\n23\n\n[J]\n\n[12][13][14]\n\n\n13\n\n68\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 16, 1967\n\n14\n\n15\n\n15\n\n24\n\nPhiladelphia 76ers\n\nChicago Bulls\n\n143–123\n\n—\n\n30\n\n40\n\n—\n\n—\n\n8\n\n22\n\n\n\n\n\n\n68\n\nPete Maravich*\n\nFebruary 25, 1977\n\n17\n\n14\n\n17\n\n20\n\nNew Orleans Jazz\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n124–107\n\n43\n\n26\n\n43\n\n—\n\n—\n\n16\n\n19\n\n\n\n\n\n\n15\n\n67\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nMarch 9, 1961\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n135–126\n\n—\n\n27\n\n37\n\n—\n\n—\n\n13\n\n17\n\n\n\n\n\n\n67\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 17, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nSt. Louis Hawks\n\n121–128\n\n48\n\n26\n\n44\n\n—\n\n—\n\n15\n\n20\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n67\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 25, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n135–149\n\n48\n\n25\n\n38\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n22\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n67\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 11, 1963\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n129–134\n\n—\n\n28\n\n47\n\n—\n\n—\n\n11\n\n17\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n19\n\n66\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 9, 1969\n\n17\n\n17\n\n22\n\n10\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nPhoenix Suns\n\n134–116\n\n48\n\n29\n\n35\n\n—\n\n—\n\n8\n\n18\n\n[K]\n\n\n\n\n20\n\n65\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 13, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nCincinnati Royals\n\n132–152\n\n48\n\n24\n\n40\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n30\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n65\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 27, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nSt. Louis Hawks\n\n147–137\n\n48\n\n25\n\n43\n\n—\n\n—\n\n15\n\n20\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n65\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 7, 1966\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia 76ers\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n132–125\n\n—\n\n28\n\n43\n\n—\n\n—\n\n9\n\n20\n\n\n\n\n\n\n65\n\nKobe Bryant\n\nMarch 16, 2007\n\n4\n\n19\n\n9\n\n24\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nPortland Trail Blazers\n\n116–111\n\n49:58\n\n23\n\n39\n\n8\n\n12\n\n11\n\n12\n\n[L]\n\n[15]\n\n\n24\n\n64\n\nElgin Baylor*\n\nNovember 8, 1959\n\n13\n\n12\n\n17\n\n22\n\nMinneapolis Lakers\n\nBoston Celtics\n\n136–115\n\n—\n\n25\n\n47\n\n—\n\n—\n\n14\n\n19\n\n[M]\n\n\n\n\n64\n\nRick Barry*\n\nMarch 26, 1974\n\n—\n\n—\n\n23\n\n22\n\nGolden State Warriors\n\nPortland Trail Blazers\n\n143–120\n\n43\n\n30\n\n45\n\n—\n\n—\n\n4\n\n5\n\n\n\n\n\n\n64\n\nMichael Jordan*\n\nJanuary 16, 1993\n\n22\n\n8\n\n11\n\n16\n\nChicago Bulls\n\nOrlando Magic\n\n124–128\n\n47\n\n27\n\n49\n\n1\n\n5\n\n9\n\n11\n\n[N]\n\n[16]\n\n\n27\n\n63\n\nJoe Fulks*\n\nFebruary 10, 1949\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nIndianapolis Jets\n\n108–87\n\n—\n\n27\n\n56\n\n—\n\n—\n\n9\n\n14\n\n[O]\n\n\n\n\n63\n\nElgin Baylor*\n\nDecember 8, 1961\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\n151–147\n\n—\n\n23\n\n55\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n24\n\n[P]\n\n[17]\n\n\n63\n\nJerry West*\n\nJanuary 17, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n129–121\n\n39\n\n22\n\n36\n\n—\n\n—\n\n19\n\n22\n\n\n\n\n\n\n63\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 14, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n118–120\n\n—\n\n24\n\n41\n\n—\n\n—\n\n15\n\n20\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n63\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nNovember 26, 1964\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nPhiladelphia 76ers\n\n117–128\n\n—\n\n27\n\n58\n\n—\n\n—\n\n9\n\n20\n\n\n\n\n\n\n63\n\nGeorge Gervin*\n\nApril 9, 1978\n\n20\n\n33\n\n10\n\nDNP\n\nSan Antonio Spurs\n\nNew Orleans Jazz\n\n132–153\n\n33\n\n23\n\n49\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n20\n\n[Q]\n\n\n\n\n63\n\nMichael Jordan*\n\nApril 20, 1986\n\n17\n\n6\n\n13\n\n18\n\nChicago Bulls\n\nBoston Celtics\n\n131–135\n\n53\n\n22\n\n41\n\n0\n\n0\n\n19\n\n21\n\n[R]\n\n\n\n\n34\n\n62\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 14, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nBoston Celtics\n\n136–145\n\n48\n\n27\n\n45\n\n—\n\n—\n\n8\n\n10\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n62\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 17, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nSt. Louis Hawks\n\n136–130\n\n53\n\n24\n\n48\n\n—\n\n—\n\n14\n\n20\n\n[S]\n\n[5]\n\n\n62\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 21, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nSyracuse Nationals\n\n139–132\n\n53\n\n25\n\n42\n\n—\n\n—\n\n12\n\n17\n\n[T]\n\n[5]\n\n\n62\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 29, 1963\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n123–103\n\n—\n\n27\n\n44\n\n—\n\n—\n\n8\n\n17\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n62\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nNovember 15, 1964\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nCincinnati Royals\n\n122–106\n\n—\n\n26\n\n44\n\n—\n\n—\n\n10\n\n21\n\n\n\n\n\n\n62\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nMarch 3, 1966\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia 76ers\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\n135–125\n\n—\n\n26\n\n39\n\n—\n\n—\n\n10\n\n19\n\n\n\n\n\n\n62\n\nTracy McGrady*\n\nMarch 10, 2004\n\n7\n\n21\n\n24\n\n10\n\nOrlando Magic\n\nWashington Wizards\n\n108–99\n\n45:50\n\n20\n\n37\n\n5\n\n14\n\n17\n\n26\n\n\n\n[18]\n\n\n62\n\nKobe Bryant\n\nDecember 20, 2005\n\n15\n\n17\n\n30\n\nDNP\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nDallas Mavericks\n\n112–90\n\n32:53\n\n18\n\n31\n\n4\n\n10\n\n22\n\n25\n\n[U]\n\n[19][20]\n\n\n62\n\nCarmelo Anthony^\n\nJanuary 24, 2014\n\n20\n\n17\n\n19\n\n6\n\nNew York Knicks\n\nCharlotte Bobcats\n\n125–96\n\n38:39\n\n23\n\n35\n\n6\n\n11\n\n10\n\n10\n\n[V]\n\n[21]\n\n\n43\n\n61\n\nGeorge Mikan*\n\nJanuary 20, 1952\n\n18\n\n18\n\n—\n\n—\n\nMinneapolis Lakers\n\nRochester Royals\n\n91–81\n\n—\n\n22\n\n45\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n21\n\n[W]\n\n\n\n\n61\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 9, 1961\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nChicago Packers\n\n135–113\n\n48\n\n28\n\n48\n\n—\n\n—\n\n5\n\n10\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n61\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 22, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nSt. Louis Hawks\n\n139–121\n\n48\n\n21\n\n36\n\n—\n\n—\n\n19\n\n34\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n61\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nFebruary 28, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nChicago Packers\n\n128–119\n\n48\n\n24\n\n46\n\n—\n\n—\n\n13\n\n17\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n61\n\nElgin Baylor*\n\nApril 14, 1962\n\n18\n\n15\n\n13\n\n15\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nBoston Celtics\n\n126–121\n\n—\n\n22\n\n46\n\n—\n\n—\n\n17\n\n19\n\n[X]\n\n\n\n\n61\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nNovember 21, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nCincinnati Royals\n\n139–143\n\n—\n\n27\n\n52\n\n—\n\n—\n\n7\n\n15\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n61\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 11, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nSyracuse Nationals\n\n136–124\n\n—\n\n27\n\n57\n\n—\n\n—\n\n7\n\n11\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n61\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 18, 1962\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSan Francisco Warriors\n\nSt. Louis Hawks\n\n130–110\n\n—\n\n26\n\n53\n\n—\n\n—\n\n9\n\n14\n\n\n\n[9]\n\n\n61\n\nMichael Jordan*\n\nMarch 4, 1987\n\n14\n\n10\n\n7\n\n26\n\nChicago Bulls\n\nDetroit Pistons\n\n125–120\n\n43\n\n22\n\n39\n\n0\n\n0\n\n17\n\n18\n\n[Y]\n\n[22][23][24]\n\n\n61\n\nMichael Jordan*\n\nApril 16, 1987\n\n15\n\n17\n\n16\n\n13\n\nChicago Bulls\n\nAtlanta Hawks\n\n114–117\n\n41\n\n22\n\n38\n\n0\n\n3\n\n17\n\n21\n\n[Z]\n\n[25][26][27][28][29]\n\n\n61\n\nKarl Malone*\n\nJanuary 27, 1990\n\n17\n\n13\n\n20\n\n11\n\nUtah Jazz\n\nMilwaukee Bucks\n\n144–96\n\n33\n\n21\n\n26\n\n0\n\n0\n\n19\n\n23\n\n\n\n[30]\n\n\n61\n\nShaquille O'Neal*\n\nMarch 6, 2000\n\n10\n\n16\n\n16\n\n19\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nLos Angeles Clippers\n\n123–103\n\n44:52\n\n24\n\n35\n\n0\n\n0\n\n13\n\n22\n\n[AA]\n\n[31]\n\n\n61\n\nKobe Bryant\n\nFebruary 2, 2009\n\n18\n\n16\n\n12\n\n15\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nNew York Knicks\n\n126–117\n\n36:48\n\n19\n\n31\n\n3\n\n6\n\n20\n\n20\n\n\n\n[32]\n\n\n61\n\nLeBron James^\n\nMarch 3, 2014\n\n11\n\n13\n\n25\n\n12\n\nMiami Heat\n\nCharlotte Bobcats\n\n124–107\n\n41:12\n\n22\n\n33\n\n8\n\n10\n\n9\n\n12\n\n[AB]\n\n[33][34]\n\n\n57\n\n60\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 1, 1961\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n138–117\n\n48\n\n22\n\n47\n\n—\n\n—\n\n16\n\n26\n\n\n\n[5]\n\n\n60\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nDecember 29, 1961\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPhiladelphia Warriors\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n123–118\n\n48\n\n24\n\n43\n\n—\n\n—\n\n12\n\n19\n\n[AC]\n\n[5]\n\n\n60\n\nWilt Chamberlain*\n\nJanuary 26, 1969\n\n18\n\n9\n\n10\n\n23\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nCincinnati Royals\n\n126–113\n\n—\n\n22\n\n36\n\n—\n\n—\n\n16\n\n24\n\n[AD]\n\n\n\n\n60\n\nBernard King*\n\nDecember 25, 1984\n\n21\n\n19\n\n11\n\n9\n\nNew York Knicks\n\nNew Jersey Nets\n\n114–120\n\n41\n\n19\n\n30\n\n0\n\n0\n\n22\n\n26\n\n\n\n[35]\n\n\n60\n\nLarry Bird*\n\nMarch 12, 1985\n\n12\n\n11\n\n19\n\n18\n\nBoston Celtics\n\nAtlanta Hawks\n\n126–115\n\n43\n\n22\n\n36\n\n1\n\n4\n\n15\n\n16\n\n[AE]\n\n[36]\n\n\n60\n\nTom Chambers\n\nMarch 24, 1990\n\n14\n\n21\n\n14\n\n11\n\nPhoenix Suns\n\nSeattle SuperSonics\n\n121–95\n\n42\n\n22\n\n32\n\n0\n\n0\n\n16\n\n18\n\n\n\n[37][38][39][40]\n\n\n60\n\nAllen Iverson*\n\nFebruary 12, 2005\n\n17\n\n12\n\n11\n\n20\n\nPhiladelphia 76ers\n\nOrlando Magic\n\n112–99\n\n42:01\n\n17\n\n36\n\n2\n\n5\n\n24\n\n27\n\n\n\n[41][42]\n\n\n60\n\nGilbert Arenas\n\nDecember 17, 2006\n\n12\n\n5\n\n12\n\n15\n\nWashington Wizards\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\n147–141\n\n49:00\n\n17\n\n32\n\n5\n\n12\n\n21\n\n27\n\n[AF]\n\n[43]\n\n\n60\n\nKobe Bryant\n\nMarch 22, 2007\n\n13\n\n11\n\n19\n\n17\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nMemphis Grizzlies\n\n121–119\n\n45:11\n\n20\n\n37\n\n3\n\n7\n\n17\n\n18\n\n[AG]\n\n[44]\n\n\n60\n\nKobe Bryant\n\nApril 13, 2016\n\n15\n\n7\n\n15\n\n23\n\nLos Angeles Lakers\n\nUtah Jazz\n\n101–96\n\n42\n\n22\n\n50\n\n6\n\n21\n\n10\n\n12\n\n[AH]\n\n[45][46]\n\n\n60\n\nKlay Thompson^\n\nDecember 5, 2016\n\n17\n\n23\n\n20\n\nDNP\n\nGolden State Warriors\n\nIndiana Pacers\n\n142–106\n\n29\n\n21\n\n33\n\n8\n\n14\n\n10\n\n11\n\n[AI]\n\n[47]\n\n\n60\n\nJames Harden^\n\nJanuary 30, 2018\n\n16\n\n13\n\n13\n\n18\n\nHouston Rockets\n\nOrlando Magic\n\n114–107\n\n46:26\n\n19\n\n30\n\n5\n\n14\n\n17\n\n18\n\n[AJ]\n\n[48]\n"
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4091496254607221286 | Piece of My Heart | Piece of My Heart - wikipedia Piece of My Heart Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Piece of My Heart ( disambiguation ) . `` Piece of My Heart '' Single by Erma Franklin B - side `` Baby , What You Want Me to Do '' Released 1967 Format 7 '' single Recorded 1967 Genre Soul Length 2 : 35 Label Shout Songwriter ( s ) Jerry Ragovoy , Bert Berns Erma Franklin singles chronology `` Big Boss Man '' ( 1967 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' ( 1967 ) `` Open up Your Soul '' ( 1967 ) `` Big Boss Man '' ( 1967 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' ( 1967 ) `` Open up Your Soul '' ( 1967 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' is a romantic funk / soul love song written by Jerry Ragovoy and Bert Berns , originally recorded by Erma Franklin in 1967 . The song came to greater mainstream attention when Big Brother and the Holding Company ( featuring Janis Joplin on lead vocals ) covered the song in 1968 and had a much bigger hit with it . The song has since been remade by several singers , including Dusty Springfield on her 1968 album Dusty ... Definitely , Bryan Ferry on his solo debut album These Foolish Things in 1973 , Faith Hill in 1994 and Melissa Etheridge in 2005 . In 2004 , the Big Brother and the Holding Company version was ranked number 353 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . The song is also included among The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . Contents ( hide ) 1 Erma Franklin 's original recording : 1967 2 Big Brother and the Holding Company version : 1968 3 Faith Hill version : 1994 4 Melissa Etheridge / Joss Stone version : 2005 5 Beverley Knight version : 2006 5.1 Personnel 6 Other versions of cultural significance 7 References 8 External links Erma Franklin 's original recording : 1967 ( edit ) The original version of `` Piece of My Heart '' was recorded by Aretha Franklin 's older sister Erma in 1967 for producer Bert Berns ' Shout label with the same song on both sides of the 7 '' vinyl single . The song reached number 10 on the R&B charts in the US , and also peaked at number sixty - two on the U.S. Pop Singles chart . Bert Berns wanted Van Morrison , who he was producing at the time , to record the song , but Morrison decIined , wanting to do his own material instead . In the UK , the single was re-released in 1992 , due to a successful Levi 's jeans commercial ( `` Cinderella '' AKA `` Night and Day '' directed by Tarsem Singh ) , when it peaked in the UK Singles Chart at number nine . Big Brother and the Holding Company version : 1968 ( edit ) `` Piece of My Heart '' Cover of the 1968 Dutch single Single by Big Brother and the Holding Company from the album Cheap Thrills B - side `` Turtle Blues '' Released August 1968 ( 1968 - 08 ) Format 7 - inch single Recorded March 2 -- May 20 , 1968 Genre Psychedelic rock blues rock Length 4 : 15 Label Columbia Songwriter ( s ) Jerry Ragovoy Bert Berns Producer ( s ) John Simon The song became a bigger pop hit when recorded by Big Brother and the Holding Company in 1968 with lead singer Janis Joplin . The song was taken from the group 's album Cheap Thrills , recorded in 1968 and released on Columbia Records . This 2 minutes 43 seconds rendition made it to number twelve on the U.S. pop chart . The album release was the culmination of a hugely successful year for Joplin with acclaimed performances at the Monterey Pop Festival , Anderson Theater in New York , Wake For Martin Luther King Jr. ( with Jimi Hendrix ) in New York and on TV 's prime - time The Dick Cavett Show . The song 's instrumentation was arranged by Sam Andrew , who also performed three distorted , loud guitar solos giving the song a psychedelic touch . The B - side was `` Summertime '' . Another version had the B - side `` Turtle Blues '' . Franklin said in an interview that when she first heard Joplin 's version on the radio , she did n't recognize it because of the vocal arrangement . Noted cultural writer Ellen Willis wrote of the difference : `` When Franklin sings it , it is a challenge : no matter what you do to me , I will not let you destroy my ability to be human , to love . Joplin seems rather to be saying , surely if I keep taking this , if I keep setting an example of love and forgiveness , surely he has to understand , change , give me back what I have given '' . In such a way , Joplin used blues conventions not to transcend pain , but `` to scream it out of existence '' . Until her death in 1970 , `` Piece of My Heart '' was Joplin 's biggest chart success and best - known song . ( `` Me and Bobby McGee '' , which Kris Kristofferson wrote , eclipsed `` Piece of My Heart '' when it appeared after her death in 1970 . It went to # 1 in 1971 ) . `` Piece of My Heart '' remains most associated with Joplin and continued to get airplay long after her death . Berns never got to hear Joplin 's Version , dying of a heart attack on December 30 , 1967 . Region Certification Certified units / Sales United States ( RIAA ) Gold 500,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Faith Hill version : 1994 ( edit ) `` Piece of My Heart '' Single by Faith Hill from the album Take Me as I Am B - side `` I Would Be Stronger Than That '' Released January 13 , 1994 Format CD single Recorded Genre Country Length 4 : 01 Label Warner Bros. Nashville Songwriter ( s ) Jerry Ragovoy , Bert Berns Producer ( s ) Gary Burr Faith Hill singles chronology `` Wild One '' ( 1993 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' ( 1994 ) `` But I Will '' ( 1994 ) `` Wild One '' ( 1993 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' ( 1994 ) `` But I Will '' ( 1994 ) Country artist Faith Hill included the song on her debut album , Take Me as I Am ( 1993 ) . It was a number one hit for her in 1994 . Hill 's version took on a more passive tone coupled with traditional country instrumentation . Prior to recording the track , Hill had never heard Janis Joplin 's rendition . Hill 's producers refused to allow her to listen to the Joplin version until she had completed her own recording . Hill re-recorded the track for the soundtrack to the TV series King of the Hill , released in 1998 . This edgier version can also be found on the 1998 international pressing of her third album , Faith ( re-titled `` Love Will Always Win '' outside the U.S. ) and 2001 international greatest hits album There You 'll Be . Her original version was included in her 2007 greatest hits album The Hits . Chart ( 1994 ) Peak position Canada Country Tracks ( RPM ) US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles ( Billboard ) 15 US Hot Country Songs ( Billboard ) Chart ( 1994 ) Position Canada Country Tracks ( RPM ) 13 US Country Songs ( Billboard ) 22 Melissa Etheridge / Joss Stone version : 2005 ( edit ) A live medley of this song with Janis Joplin and the Full Tilt Boogie Band 's 1971 song `` Cry Baby '' became a hit duet for American rock singer Melissa Etheridge and English soul singer Joss Stone when it was released to iTunes Store after they performed it at the 47th Grammy Awards on February 13 , 2005 , in tribute to Joplin . She had previously sung it at Woodstock ' 94 as part of a four - song medley of Joplin tunes . Etheridge 's medley with Joss Stone made number 32 in the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Hot Digital Tracks in April 2005 . The performance also signaled Etheridge 's first public return from her battle with breast cancer ; appearing with her head bald from the effects of chemotherapy . Etheridge also recorded a solo version of `` Piece of My Heart '' on her 2005 greatest hits album Greatest Hits : The Road Less Traveled . `` Piece of My Heart '' CD single cover Single by Beverley Knight from the album Voice - The Best of Beverley Knight Released March 13 , 2006 Format CD single , DVD single , 12 '' single , digital download Recorded Genre R&B , soul Length 4 : 17 ( album version ) 3 : 36 ( radio edit ) Label Parlophone Songwriter ( s ) Jerry Ragovoy , Bert Berns Producer ( s ) Jimmy Hogarth Beverley Knight singles chronology `` Keep This Fire Burning '' ( 2005 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' ( 2006 ) `` No Man 's Land '' ( 2007 ) `` Keep This Fire Burning '' ( 2005 ) `` Piece of My Heart '' ( 2006 ) `` No Man 's Land '' ( 2007 ) Beverley Knight version : 2006 ( edit ) On her 2005 Affirmation Tour , English soul singer Beverley Knight performed the song with Ronnie Wood , which encouraged her to make a studio recording of the song . `` Piece of My Heart '' was the lead single from her 2006 best - of compilation Voice - The Best of Beverley Knight . It peaked inside the top ten of the UK radio airplay chart . The physical single was released on March 13 , 2006 . Due to a change in the UK chart rules which allowed singles to chart purely on downloads a week before their physical release , `` Piece of My Heart '' entered the UK chart at number ninety - three , becoming one of the first singles to do so . It ranked at number sixteen after its physical commercial release . It was her first single to be released as a DVD . It is her longest - running single to date on the UK Singles Chart , spending eleven weeks inside the top seventy - five . It was her thirteenth top forty entry and her seventh top twenty hit on the UK Singles Chart . Personnel ( edit ) Written by Bert Berns and Jerry Ragovoy Produced by Jimmy Hogarth Engineered by Pom ( Pierre - Olivier Magerand ) Mixed by Phillip Bodger Lead vocals by Beverley Knight Backing vocals by Bryan Chambers , Billie Godfrey , Louise Marshall Wurlitzer & Hammond organ by Martin Slatterty Bass by Sam Dixon Drums by Jeremy Stacey Guitars & percussion by Jimmy Hogarth Other versions of cultural significance ( edit ) The song appeared on Home , the debut album of Delaney & Bonnie , released in 1969 . It was also released by Sammy Hagar . In 1997 , Shaggy recorded a version . Norway 's Liv Marit Wedvik , released her rendition on Showtime Records ( 2004 ) . In January 2009 , Daryl Hall included a version by Company of Thieves with Genevieve on vocals and chair dancing , on Live from Daryl 's House . CeeLo Green once sang the song . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Erma Franklin - Piece Of My Heart '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ Cad , Saint . `` Top 10 Famous Songs With Unknown Originals '' . listverse.com . Retrieved June 21 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Whitburn , Joel , The Billboard Book of TOP 40 R&B and Hip Hop Hits , Billboard Books , New York 2006 Jump up ^ `` Erma Franklin - ( Take A Little ) Piece Of My Heart '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` The Janis and Tupac Show '' . Hits . February 27 , 2015 . Retrieved July 20 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Nick Talevski ( April 7 , 2010 ) . Rock Obituaries - Knocking on Heaven 's Door . Omnibus Press . p. 183 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 85712 - 117 - 2 . Jump up ^ Gilliland , John ( 1969 ) . `` Show 52 - The Soul Reformation : Phase three , soul music at the summit . ( Part 8 ) : UNT Digital Library '' ( audio ) . Pop Chronicles . University of North Texas Libraries . Jump up ^ 1945 - , Dalton , David , ( 1991 ) . Piece of my heart : a portrait of Janis Joplin . New York , N.Y. : Da Capo Press . ISBN 0306804468 . OCLC 23868679 . Jump up ^ `` Erma Franklin '' . Bluesmusicnow.com . June 28 , 1990 . Retrieved October 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll , `` Janis Joplin '' . Random House , 1980 Jump up ^ `` Piece Of My Heart by Big Brother & the Holding Company Songfacts '' . Songfacts.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications -- Janis Joplin -- Piece of My Heart '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ Faith Hill . `` Piece of My Heart - Amazon.com Music '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved October 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Top RPM Country Tracks : Issue 2461 . '' RPM . Library and Archives Canada . May 2 , 1994 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Faith Hill Chart History ( Bubbling Under Hot 100 ) '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` Faith Hill Chart History ( Hot Country Songs ) '' . Billboard . Jump up ^ `` RPM Top 100 Country Tracks of 1994 '' . RPM . December 12 , 1994 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Best of 1994 : Country Songs '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . 1994 . Retrieved August 4 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Piece Of My Heart by Big Brother & the Holding Company Songfacts '' . Songfacts.com . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Melissa Etheridge Talks About Breast Cancer - ABC News '' . Abcnews.go.com . October 19 , 2005 . Retrieved October 1 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Beverley Knight - Piece Of My Heart '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Delaney & Bonnie - Home '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Sammy Hagar - Piece Of My Heart '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Shaggy featuring Marsha ( 3 ) - Piece Of My Heart '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Liv Marit Wedvik - Whatever You Say '' . Discogs . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Company of Thieves Piece of My Heart Live from Daryl 's House '' . YouTube . 2012 - 10 - 29 . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . Jump up ^ Christopher Merino ( 2015 - 03 - 23 ) . `` Cee Lo Green `` Piece Of My Heart '' Cover ( Parenthood Show ) `` . YouTube . Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 30 . External links ( edit ) Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics Preceded by `` If the Good Die Young '' by Tracy Lawrence Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks number - one single ( Faith Hill version ) April 30 , 1994 Succeeded by `` A Good Run of Bad Luck '' by Clint Black RPM Country Tracks number - one single May 2 , 1994 Janis Joplin Studio albums Big Brother & the Holding Company ( 1967 ) Cheap Thrills ( 1968 ) I Got Dem Ol ' Kozmic Blues Again Mama ! ( 1969 ) Pearl ( 1971 ) Live albums In Concert ( 1972 ) Live at Winterland ' 68 ( 1998 ) The Woodstock Experience ( 2009 ) Live at the Carousel Ballroom 1968 ( 2012 ) Compilations Janis Joplin 's Greatest Hits ( 1973 ) Janis ( 1975 ) Wicked Woman ( 1976 ) Farewell Song ( 1982 ) Janis ( 1993 ) This Is Janis Joplin ( 1995 ) 18 Essential Songs ( 1995 ) Love , Janis ( 2001 ) The Lost Tapes ( 2008 ) Move Over ! ( 2011 ) Blow All My Blues Away ( 2012 ) Songs `` Ball and Chain '' `` Careless Love '' `` Cry Baby '' `` Down on Me '' `` Flower in the Sun '' `` Hesitation Blues '' `` Kozmic Blues '' `` Mary Jane '' `` Me and Bobby McGee '' `` Mercedes Benz '' `` Move Over '' `` Nobody Knows You When You 're Down and Out '' `` Piece of My Heart '' `` See See Rider '' `` Silver Threads and Golden Needles '' `` Summertime '' `` Tell Mama '' `` To Love Somebody '' `` Trouble in Mind '' `` What Good Can Drinkin ' Do '' `` Work Me , Lord '' Related Big Brother and the Holding Company Full Tilt Boogie Band Janis ( 1974 documentary ) Love , Janis ( 2001 musical ) Nine Hundred Nights ( 2001 documentary ) Janis : Little Girl Blue ( 2015 documentary ) Sam Andrew Jorma Kaukonen Gabriel Mekler Michael Monarch Book Bonnie Tyler Discography Awards and nominations Studio albums The World Starts Tonight Natural Force Diamond Cut Goodbye to the Island Faster Than the Speed of Night Secret Dreams and Forbidden Fire Hide Your Heart Bitterblue Angel Heart Silhouette in Red Free Spirit All in One Voice Heart Strings Simply Believe Wings Rocks and Honey Extended plays Bonnie Tyler Live albums Bonnie Tyler Live Live in Germany 1993 Compilations The Very Best of Bonnie Tyler The Greatest Hits Heaven & Hell ( with Meat Loaf ) Here Am I The Very Best of Bonnie Tyler : Volume 1 The Best Gold The Very Best of Bonnie Tyler : Volume 2 Comeback : Single Collection ' 90 -- ' 94 The Definitive Collection Straight from the Heart -- The Very Best of Bonnie Tyler Greatest Hits Total Eclipse Anthology From the Heart : Greatest Hits Best of 3 CD All the Hits The Collection DVDs Bonnie on Tour Live in Germany 1993 Concert tours Hide Your Heart Silhouette in Red Free Spirit Heart Strings South Africa Tour 2013 Greatest Hits Tour Principal collaborators Ronnie Scott Jim Steinman Desmond Child Dieter Bohlen Giorgio Moroder Television Never Mind the Buzzcocks Hollyoaks Later Eurovision Song Contest Related articles 26th Annual Grammy Awards 27th Annual Grammy Awards United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 Book : Bonnie Tyler Melissa Etheridge Albums Melissa Etheridge Brave and Crazy Never Enough Yes I Am Your Little Secret Breakdown Skin Lucky The Awakening Fearless Love 4th Street Feeling This Is M.E. Compilations Greatest Hits : The Road Less Traveled Other albums A New Thought For Christmas Notable singles `` Bring Me Some Water '' `` Like the Way I Do '' `` No Souvenirs '' `` I 'm the Only One '' `` Come to My Window '' `` If I Wanted To '' `` Your Little Secret '' `` I Want to Come Over '' `` Angels Would Fall '' `` Scarecrow '' `` I Need to Wake Up '' `` Message to Myself '' `` Fearless Love '' Featured singles `` Cry Baby '' / `` Piece of My Heart '' `` Just Stand Up ! '' `` Sing '' Related articles Discography Julie Cypher Tammy Lynn Michaels Linda Wallem Faith Hill singles Discography Take Me as I Am `` Wild One '' `` Piece of My Heart '' `` But I Will '' `` Take Me as I Am '' It Matters to Me `` Let 's Go to Vegas '' `` It Matters to Me '' `` Someone Else 's Dream '' `` You Ca n't Lose Me '' `` I Ca n't Do That Anymore '' Faith `` This Kiss '' `` Just to Hear You Say That You Love Me '' ( with Tim McGraw ) `` Let Me Let Go '' `` Love Ai n't Like That '' `` The Secret of Life '' Breathe `` Breathe '' `` The Way You Love Me '' `` Let 's Make Love '' ( with Tim McGraw ) `` If My Heart Had Wings '' Cry `` Cry '' `` When the Lights Go Down '' `` You 're Still Here '' Fireflies `` Mississippi Girl '' `` Like We Never Loved at All '' ( with Tim McGraw ) `` The Lucky One '' `` Sunshine and Summertime '' `` Stealing Kisses '' The Hits `` Lost '' `` Red Umbrella '' Joy to the World `` A Baby Changes Everything '' The Rest of Our Life ( with Tim McGraw ) `` Speak to a Girl '' `` The Rest of Our Life '' Collaborations `` It 's Your Love '' ( with Tim McGraw ) `` I Need You '' ( with Tim McGraw ) `` Sing '' ( with Annie Lennox ) `` Meanwhile Back at Mama 's '' ( with Tim McGraw ) Other singles `` There You 'll Be '' `` Where Are You , Christmas ? '' `` Give In to Me '' `` Come Home '' `` American Heart '' Beverley Knight Studio albums The B - Funk Prodigal Sista Who I Am Affirmation Music City Soul 100 % Soul UK Soulsville Compilation albums Voice -- The Best of Beverley Knight The Collection 100 % -- The Remixes Soul UK -- The Remixes The Collection 1995 -- 2007 Extended plays Love Soul : Soul UK Live EP Singles `` Flavour of the Old School '' `` Down for the One '' `` Moving On Up ( on the Right Side ) '' `` Mutual Feeling '' `` Cast All Your Cares '' `` Made It Back '' `` Rewind ( Find a Way ) '' `` Greatest Day '' `` Sista Sista '' `` Get Up ! '' `` Shoulda Woulda Coulda '' `` Gold '' `` Shape Of You ( Reshaped ) '' `` Come As You Are '' `` Not Too Late for Love '' `` Keep This Fire Burning '' `` Piece of My Heart '' `` No Man 's Land '' `` After You '' `` The Queen of Starting Over '' `` Every Step '' `` Beautiful Night '' `` In Your Shoes '' `` Soul Survivor '' `` Mama Used to Say '' `` Cuddly Toy '' `` One More Try '' `` Round and Around '' `` He Ai n't Heavy , He 's My Brother '' `` Middle of Love '' `` Private Number '' `` I Ca n't Stand the Rain '' Studio albums with Leading Ladies Songs from the Stage Singles with Leading Ladies One Night Only I 'm Every Woman / Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas Related articles Discography Who I Am Tour Affirmation Tour Voice - The Best of Tour Ultimate Tour 2006 Music City Soul Tour 100 % Tour Soul UK Tour Soulsville Tour I Love Soulsville Tour Joss Stone Discography Studio albums The Soul Sessions Mind Body & Soul Introducing Joss Stone Colour Me Free ! LP1 The Soul Sessions Vol. 2 Water for Your Soul Compilation albums The Best of Joss Stone 2003 -- 2009 Video albums Mind Body & Soul Sessions : Live in New York City Other albums SuperHeavy Singles `` Fell in Love with a Boy '' `` Super Duper Love '' `` You Had Me '' `` Right to Be Wrong '' `` Spoiled '' `` Cry Baby / Piece of My Heart '' `` Do n't Cha Wanna Ride '' `` Tell Me ' bout It '' `` Tell Me What We 're Gonna Do Now '' `` L-O-V-E '' `` Baby Baby Baby '' `` Free Me '' `` While You 're Out Looking for Sugar '' `` Pillow Talk '' `` Teardrops '' `` No Man 's Land ( Green Fields of France ) '' Featured singles `` Cry Baby Cry '' `` Sing '' `` I Put a Spell on You `` The Best Thing About Me Is You '' Other songs `` Stalemate '' Related articles Tours SuperHeavy Stone 'd Records Etta James Studio albums At Last ! The Second Time Around Etta James Etta James Sings for Lovers Etta James Top Ten The Queen of Soul Call My Name Tell Mama Etta James Sings Funk Losers Weepers Etta James Come a Little Closer Etta Is Betta Than Evvah ! Deep in the Night Changes Seven Year Itch Stickin ' to My Guns The Right Time Mystery Lady : Songs of Billie Holiday Time After Time Love 's Been Rough on Me Life , Love & the Blues 12 Songs of Christmas Heart of a Woman Matriarch of the Blues Blue Gardenia Let 's Roll Blues to the Bone All the Way The Dreamer Live albums Etta James Rocks the House Red - Hot & Live Jazzvisions : Jump The Blues Away Burnin ' Down the House : Live at the House of Blues Compilation albums My Greatest Songs Miss Etta James : The Complete Modern and Kent Recordings Gold Singles `` The Wallflower ( Dance with Me , Henry ) '' `` Spoonful '' `` All I Could Do Was Cry '' `` At Last '' `` Trust in Me '' `` Seven Day Fool '' `` Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' `` Baby What You Want Me to Do '' `` I Got You Babe '' `` Almost Persuaded '' `` Sound of Love '' `` Piece of My Heart '' `` I Just Want to Make Love to You '' Related articles Etta James discography Book : Etta James Big Brother and the Holding Company Peter Albin Dave Getz Ben Nieves Cathy Richardson Sam Andrew James Gurley Chuck Jones Janis Joplin Nick Gravenites Kathi McDonald Dave Schallock Mike Finnigan Tom Finch Studio albums Big Brother and the Holding Company Cheap Thrills Be a Brother How Hard It Is Ca n't Go Home Again Live / compilation albums In Concert Cheaper Thrills Live at Winterland ' 68 The Lost Tapes Live at the Carousel Ballroom 1968 Singles `` Piece of My Heart '' Related Nine Hundred Nights ( documentary ) Monterey Pop Festival Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piece_of_My_Heart&oldid=822985384 '' Categories : 1967 songs 1967 singles 1968 singles 1982 singles 1994 singles 2005 singles 2006 singles Beverley Knight songs Bonnie Tyler songs Erma Franklin songs Etta James songs Faith Hill songs Jenny Morris ( musician ) songs Janis Joplin songs Joss Stone songs Melissa Etheridge songs Songs written by Bert Berns Songs written by Jerry Ragovoy Song recordings produced by Scott Hendricks Song recordings produced by John Simon ( record producer ) Music videos directed by Deaton - Flanigen Productions Billboard Hot Country Songs number - one singles RPM Country Tracks number - one singles Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Columbia Records singles Parlophone singles Shout Records singles Warner Bros. Records singles Country ballads Rhythm and blues ballads Soul ballads Vocal duets Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from June 2017 Articles with hAudio microformats Certification Table Entry usages for United States All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2012 Singlechart usages for Canadacountry Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for Billboardbubbling100 Singlechart usages for Billboardcountrysongs Talk Contents About Wikipedia Eesti Ελληνικά Español Italiano Norsk Norsk nynorsk Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 29 January 2018 , at 17 : 15 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who wrote take another little piece of my heart | [
"\"Piece of My Heart\" is a romantic funk/soul love song written by Jerry Ragovoy and Bert Berns, originally recorded by Erma Franklin in 1967.",
"\"Piece of My Heart\" is a romantic funk/soul love song written by Jerry Ragovoy and Bert Berns, originally recorded by Erma Franklin in 1967."
] | [
"Jerry Ragovoy",
"Bert Berns"
] |
7223274740955263287 | Would I Lie to You? (TV series) | Would I Lie to You ? ( TV series ) - wikipedia Would I Lie to You ? ( TV series ) Jump to : navigation , search Would I Lie to You ? Titles used since series 3 Genre Comedy Panel game Directed by Barbara Wiltshire ( 2007 -- 2008 , 2011 -- ) David Coyle ( 2009 -- 2010 ) Presented by Angus Deayton ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Rob Brydon ( 2009 -- ) Starring David Mitchell Lee Mack Voices of David de Keyser ( 2007 ) Paul Ridley ( 2008 -- 2010 ) Country of origin United Kingdom Original language ( s ) English No. of series 11 No. of episodes 91 + 2 specials ( list of episodes ) Production Executive producer ( s ) Peter Holmes Ruth Phillips Gilly Hall ( 2011 -- ) Producer ( s ) Andrew Westwell ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Derek McLean ( 2007 -- 2009 ) Fiona McDermott ( 2009 -- 2010 ) Rachel Ablett ( 2011 -- ) Kate Staples ( 2011 ) Stephanie McIntosh ( 2012 -- ) Location ( s ) The Fountain Studios ( 2007 ) BBC Television Centre ( 2008 ) Pinewood Studios ( 2009 -- ) Editor ( s ) Steve Andrews ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Tim Ellison ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Bex Murray ( 2007 -- 2008 ) Steve Nayler ( 2009 -- ) Tom Munden ( 2011 -- ) Running time 30 minutes Production company ( s ) Zeppotron Distributor Endemol UK Release Original network BBC One Picture format PAL ( 576i ) ( 2007 -- 2010 ) HDTV ( 1080i ) ( 2011 -- ) Audio format Stereo Original release 16 June 2007 ( 2007 - 06 - 16 ) -- present External links Official website www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007r3n8 Would I Lie to You ? is a British comedy panel show aired on BBC One , made by Zeppotron for the BBC . It was first broadcast on 16 June 2007 . It is hosted by Rob Brydon and stars David Mitchell and Lee Mack as the team captains . The show is currently airing its eleventh series . Contents ( hide ) 1 Format 1.1 Rounds 1.1. 1 Current rounds 1.1. 2 Former rounds 2 Guest appearances 3 Ratings 4 Awards 5 International sales 6 Official merchandise 7 Transmissions 7.1 Series 7.2 Specials 8 International editions 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Format ( edit ) The show was presented by Angus Deayton in 2007 and 2008 , and by Rob Brydon ( who had appeared as a guest panellist in the second series ) from 2009 onwards . The team captains are comedians David Mitchell and Lee Mack . As revealed by Lee Mack on Alan Carr : Chatty Man on 19 September 2014 , Alan Carr was a team captain in the pilot but subsequently turned down an offer to appear on later shows . For each show , two celebrity guests join each of the team captains . The teams compete as each player reveals unusual facts and embarrassing personal tales for the evaluation of the opposing team . Some of these are true ; some are not , and panellists ' task is to decide which is which . The first series was recorded at Fountain Studios in Wembley during March and April 2007 , and aired at 21 : 55 between 16 June and 28 July 2007 on BBC One ( missing a week for coverage of the Concert for Diana memorial event ) . Filming for the second series took place between 15 November and 18 December 2007 . The second series was filmed at BBC Television Centre in White City , West London , because Fountain Studios were being used for The X Factor at the time . The second series aired at 21 : 00 between 11 July 2008 and 29 August 2008 on BBC One , and contained eight shows , an increase of two from series one . A compilation episode featuring some previously unaired material was aired on 19 September 2008 at 21 : 30 on BBC One . Filming of a third series of eight episodes took place at Pinewood Studios during March and April 2009 , and was broadcast between 10 August 2009 and 29 September 2009 on BBC One at 22 : 35 . A compilation episode was also recorded . The airdate was 17 December 2009 , due to the addition of Match of the Day to the BBC One schedule . Filming of a fourth series of eight episodes took place at Pinewood Studios again during April and May 2010 , and was broadcast between 23 July 2010 and 10 September 2010 on BBC One at 22 : 35 . The compilation episode aired on 17 September 2010 . The fifth series was filmed during March 2011 and started airing from 9 September at 21 : 30 . The sixth series of the show was recorded in March 2012 and began its broadcast on 13 April 2012 . This series was aired in a pre-watershed slot , at 20 : 30 , for the first time . Rounds ( edit ) In all rounds , the scoring system is the same : teams gain a point for correctly guessing whether a statement is true or not , but if they guess incorrectly the opposing team gets a point . It is impossible for viewers to follow the scores until they are read out at the end of each round , as some questions are edited out . However , from the sixth series the scores were re-recorded to reflect what had made the edit and not the whole recording . Current rounds ( edit ) `` Home Truths '' : Panellists read out a statement about themselves . The opposing team has to decide whether it is true or false by asking the panellist questions . The first series used all six panellists ; from the second series onwards , the round tended to focus on the four guests . In series two a ' possessions ' element was introduced ; the panellist takes an item out of a box along with a statement from a card , and has to convince the opposing team that it belongs to them . `` This is My ... '' : A guest person is introduced . Panellists on one of the teams tell the opposing team about their relationship to the guest person ; only one is genuine , and the opposing team has to work out which it is . `` Quick - Fire Lies '' : The second questioning round , with the panellists chosen at random . Originally featured limited questioning time and quicker rounds , but became similar to `` Home Truths '' by the later series . This round often features Mitchell and Mack , and from the fourth series onwards , Brydon became an occasional participant , with both teams questioning him at once . Former rounds ( edit ) `` Ring of Truth '' : A celebrity fact is read out by the host , each team have to reach a joint decision whether it is true or false . This round was generally edited out of the fourth series ; as of series five , it is no longer being played . `` Telly Tales '' : Clips from a TV show are shown , a statement is read out about the show by a member of one team and the other team has to guess whether it is true or false . This round was only played in the first series . Guest appearances ( edit ) The following have all appeared multiple times as one of the guest panelists on the show , up to and including any unbroadcast episodes of Series 11 . This list does not include the special Comic Relief episode . 7 appearances Rhod Gilbert 6 appearances Jason Manford Bob Mortimer Richard Osman 5 appearances Miranda Hart Gabby Logan Stephen Mangan Claudia Winkleman 4 appearances Jo Brand Jimmy Carr Greg Davies Mel Giedroyc Miles Jupp Sarah Millican Dara Ó Briain 3 appearances Frankie Boyle Hugh Dennis Russell Howard Jon Richardson Henning Wehn Jack Whitehall Josh Widdicombe a . Including an appearance where he substituted for Lee Mack as captain Ratings ( edit ) The first show of Series 1 had 3.8 million viewers , a 19 % audience share at the time it was broadcast . The first show of Series 2 had 3 million viewers and a 14 % audience share . Later episodes indicated ratings of 2.7 - 3.2 million , with the final show of the series getting 3.3 million viewers and a 15 % audience share . The first show of Series 3 had 2.8 million viewers , the lowest number for a series opener so far ; however , this equated to a 17 % audience share . The final show attracted only 2.5 million viewers , but with a 19 % audience share overall . The first show of series 4 had 3.12 million viewers and a 19.7 % audience share , the best performance for a series opener since series 1 . The series 5 premiere had the show 's highest ratings to date , with 4 million viewers and a 17.2 % audience share . Series 6 began with an audience share of 14.9 % and peak viewing figures of 3.53 million . These figures were above the seventh series figures of 2.83 million / 12.8 % audience share , although these rose to 3.17 million by the end of the series with a 14.7 % share . Awards ( edit ) The show came second place in the British Comedy Guide 's 2010 awards for the category `` Best British TV Panel Show '' , losing out to QI . The following year , it won the same category . It also won the category in 2013 , and also won the `` Comedy of the Year 2013 '' award , making it the first non-scripted show to do so . It won the `` Panel Show '' category for the third time at the 2014 awards . The show won the British Comedy Award for `` Best British TV Panel Show '' in 2010 . It was nominated in the same category at the following year 's ceremony , but lost to Shooting Stars . It won the award twice in a row at the 2013 and 2014 ceremonies . The programme was nominated for its first BAFTA in 2014 , for the category `` Comedy and Comedy Entertainment Programme '' , losing to A League of Their Own . It was nominated again in the same category the following year , but lost to The Graham Norton Show ; it went on to receive a third nomination at the 2016 awards . International sales ( edit ) The show airs on ABC1 and ABC2 in Australia , and began screening on BBC UKTV in New Zealand from November 2014 . Official merchandise ( edit ) A DVD of the complete fourth series was released in September 2011 . A board game based on the show was released in 2012 . A DVD of the complete fifth series was released in October 2012 . A DVD of the complete sixth series was released in October 2013 . A book based on the series , Would I Lie to You ? Presents the 100 Most Popular Lies of All Time , will be published in October 2015 . The publishers , Faber and Faber , have also ordered a second book . Series 4 to 7 were released individually on DVD in Australia across July and August 2015 . Transmissions ( edit ) Main article : List of Would I Lie to You ? episodes The coloured backgrounds denote the result of each of the series : -- indicates David 's team won the series . -- indicates Lee 's team won the series . -- indicates the series ended in a draw . Series ( edit ) Series Start date End date Episodes 16 June 2007 28 July 2007 6 11 July 2008 29 August 2008 8 10 August 2009 28 September 2009 8 23 July 2010 10 September 2010 8 5 9 September 2011 28 October 2011 8 6 13 April 2012 22 June 2012 8 7 3 May 2013 28 June 2013 8 8 12 September 2014 8 January 2015 8 9 31 July 2015 13 January 2016 8 10 2 September 2016 21 October 2016 8 11 20 November 2017 19 January 2018 8 Specials ( edit ) Date Entitle 19 September 2008 The Best & Unseen Bits from Series 2 17 December 2009 The Best & Unseen Bits from Series 3 17 September 2010 The Unseen Bits from Series 4 5 March 2011 24 Hour Panel People Comic Relief Special 25 November 2011 The Unseen Bits from Series 5 29 June 2012 The Unseen Bits from Series 6 6 September 2013 The Unseen Bits from Series 7 23 December 2013 Christmas Special 22 December 2014 Christmas Special 18 February 2015 The Unseen Bits from Series 8 24 December 2015 Christmas Special 27 January 2016 The Unseen Bits from Series 9 28 October 2016 The Unseen Bits from Series 10 18 November 2016 Children in Need : Children 's Special 19 December 2016 Christmas Special 18 December 2017 Christmas Special International editions ( edit ) A New Zealand version of the show , presented by broadcaster Paul Henry , and featuring team captains Jesse Mulligan and Jon Bridges , began airing on TV3 in 2012 . It followed the Rob Brydon era UK format very closely but was short lived . The Czech version of this show was to be broadcast from January 2013 on ČT , a public television broadcaster . The Malaysian version , Betul ke Bohong ( English : Truth or Lie ) is presented by AC Mizal and airs on Astro Warna . A Swedish version , Tror du jag ljuger ? , presented by Anna Mannheimer with team captains Johan Glans and Fredrik Lindström . See also ( edit ) To Tell the Truth , American TV panel show References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Filming Location '' . Jump up ^ Parker , Robin ( 11 March 2009 ) . `` Brydon to host BBC1 quiz '' . Broadcastnow . Retrieved 11 March 2009 . Jump up ^ `` TV Listings - Friday 19th September '' . Radio Times . 13 -- 19 September 2008 . p. 110 . access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie to You ? '' . digiguide.tv . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You ? - Episode 6.1 . Episode One - British Comedy Guide '' . comedy.co.uk . Retrieved 28 March 2012 . Jump up ^ Powder Blue Internet Business Solutions . `` Would we lie to you ? The show 's returning '' . chortle.co.uk . Jump up ^ Tryhorn , Chris . ( 18 June 2007 ). `` Tiswas does the business '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Plunkett , John . ( 14 July 2008 ) . `` TV ratings : Over a million cheer on Five 's Superstars '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Holmwood , Leigh . ( 21 July 2008 ) . `` TV ratings : 3.6 m see Belinda get Big Brother boot '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Holmwood , Leigh . ( 4 August 2008 ) . `` BBC2 's Tudors bow to Big Brother '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Holmwood , Leigh . ( 18 August 2008 . ) `` TV ratings : Poirot retains power over 4m viewers '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Plunkett , John . ( 1 September 2008 . ) `` TV ratings : Superstars final watched by 900,000 '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Holmwood , Leigh . ( 11 August 2009 . ) `` TV ratings : On Tour with the Queen sets out with 1.7 m '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ Holmwood , Leigh . ( 29 September 2009 . ) `` TV ratings : Channel Five 's FlashForward debuts with 3.2 m '' . The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You ? - Episode 4.1 '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Digital Spy Forums - View Single Post - The Ratings Thread ( Part 24 ) '' . digitalspy.co.uk . Jump up ^ John Plunkett . `` Have I Got News For You sees off Piers Morgan '' . the Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You ? '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You ? '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` The Comedy.co.uk Awards 2010 '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` The Comedy.co.uk Awards 2011 '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` The Comedy.co.uk Awards 2013 '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` The Comedy.co.uk Awards 2014 '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Miranda leads winners at British Comedy Awards 2010 '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` British Comedy Awards 2011 winners announced '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` British Comedy Awards 2013 winners '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` British Comedy Awards 2014 results '' . comedy.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` 2014 Television Comedy and Comedy Entertainment Programme '' . bafta.org . Jump up ^ `` BAFTA TV awards 2015 : Winners in full - BBC News '' . bbc.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` BAFTA TV Awards 2016 : Full nominations list '' . bbc.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You - Series 4 ( DVD ) '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You ? Board Game '' . Endemol UK . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ Roberts , Katie ( 30 September 2011 ) . `` Esdevium grabs Would I Lie to You licence '' . ToyNews . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Would I Lie To You - Series 5 3 DVD Box Set '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 18 April 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Would I lie To You Series 6 ( As seen on BBC1 ) ( 3 DVD ) '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 7 September 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Book Trade Announcements - Faber Acquire 2 Books From The Team Behind Would I Lie To You ? '' . booktrade.info . Jump up ^ `` New shows coming to TV3 in 2012 - Shows - TV3 '' . tv3.co.nz . Jump up ^ `` Copak bych vám lhal ? '' . Česká televize . External links ( edit ) Would I Lie to You ? at BBC Programmes Would I Lie To You ? on IMDb Would I Lie to You ? at British Comedy Guide Would I Lie to You ? at TV.com Would I Lie to You ? at epguides.com Would I Lie to You ? at UKGameshows.com Zeppotron Website - Show Details Digital Spy - Angus Deayton Returns To The BBC Endemol UK Announces show details Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_(TV_series)&oldid=817782749 '' Categories : 2007 British television programme debuts 2000s British comedy television series 2010s British comedy television series BBC panel games BBC television comedy British panel games English - language television programs Television series by Zeppotron Hidden categories : Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL Use British English from November 2013 Use dmy dates from December 2012 Pages using infobox television with editor parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français Nederlands Simple English Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2017 , at 15 : 19 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | would i lie to you tv theme tune | [] | [] |
7310679610689185235 | Delayed Entry Program | Delayed Entry Program - wikipedia Delayed Entry Program This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia 's layout guidelines . Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure . ( July 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Delayed Entry Program ( DEP ) , also called the Delayed Enlistment Program ( or called the Future Soldiers Program in the Army ) , is a program whereby individuals going into active duty in the United States Armed Forces enlist first in the DEP before they ship out to Basic Training , or `` boot camp . '' While those who join the DEP have signed an enlistment agreement to report on a certain date for training , they are not yet members of the United States Armed Forces until they enlist in the regular component of their selected branches on their ship dates . DEP members who change their mind and decide not to enter the military before they begin active duty will be separated with no adverse consequences . The Army DEP regulation , as an example , states that `` under no circumstances will any member of ( the recruiting force ) threaten , coerce , manipulate , or intimidate FSs ( future soldiers ) , nor may they obstruct separation requests '' ( USAREC Reg. 601 - 56 , 3 - 1c ) . While the DEP enlistment agreement states that the military can technically order any DEP recruit to active duty in the event that they do not fulfill their commitment by reporting to training on their specified date , no recruit has been involuntarily ordered to active duty in decades . While Marine Corps , Navy , Air Force , and Army recruits are in the DEP , they will be encouraged to spend a significant amount of time at their local recruiting offices with their recruiter who will begin to train them in military fundamentals such as drill and ceremony , first aid , chain of command , and rank structure prior to leaving for recruit training and active duty service . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Members of the recruiting force must respond positively to any inquiry from FSs concerning separations from the FSP . Under no circumstances will any member of this command threaten , coerce , manipulate , or intimidate FSs , nor may they obstruct separation requests . When such an inquiry is received , local recruiting personnel will attempt to resell the FS on an Army enlistment . When an attempt is not successful ( not later than 14 days from the original request ) , advise the FS of the provisions governing separation from the FSP and tell them a written request for separation may be forwarded to the Rctg Bn commander . Emphasize that the FS may submit a request for separation even though his or her reason for it does not fall within an expressed category , such as hardship , dependency , apathy , and / or personal reasons . A request for separation must be personally signed by the FS who initiates it . His or her request should include complete justification for separation and the documents required by AR 135 - 178 , AR 601 - 210 , and as outlined in appendix D of this regulation . If the FS can not be resold , his or her Recruit Quota System ( REQUEST ) reservation will be canceled . '' References ( edit ) Jump up ^ From Paragraph 3 - 1c of USAREC Reg. 601 - 56 Jump up ^ `` Waiver , Future Soldier Program Separation , and Void Enlistment Processing Procedures '' ( PDF ) . United States Army Recruiting Command . Jump up ^ Powers , Rod . `` The Delayed Enlistment Program ( DEP ) '' . About.com . External links ( edit ) About the DEP Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delayed_Entry_Program&oldid=811002727 '' Categories : United States military policies Hidden categories : Wikipedia articles needing reorganization from July 2014 Talk About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 18 November 2017 , at 22 : 26 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | when can you join the delayed entry program | [] | [] |
-3537573600670805804 | Electron transport chain | Electron transport chain - wikipedia Electron transport chain Jump to : navigation , search The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes . The NADH and succinate generated in the citric acid cycle are oxidized , providing energy to power ATP synthase . Photosynthetic electron transport chain of the thylakoid membrane . An electron transport chain ( ETC ) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox ( both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously ) reactions , and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons ( H ions ) across a membrane . This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds . The molecules of the chain include peptides , enzymes ( which are proteins or protein complexes ) , and others . The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration . Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or , such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars , cellular respiration . In eukaryotes , an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the use of ATP synthase . It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes . In bacteria , the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane . In chloroplasts , light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP to NADPH with transfer of H ions across chloroplast membranes . In mitochondria , it is the conversion of oxygen to water , NADH to NAD and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient . Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen , generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 2 In mitochondria 2.1 Mitochondrial redox carriers 2.1. 1 Complex I 2.1. 2 Complex II 2.1. 3 Complex III 2.1. 4 Complex IV 2.2 Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation 2.3 Summary 3 In bacteria 3.1 Electron donors 3.2 Dehydrogenases 3.3 Quinone carriers 3.4 Proton pumps 3.5 Cytochrome electron carriers 3.6 Terminal oxidases and reductases 3.7 Electron acceptors 3.8 Summary 4 Photosynthetic 5 Summary 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Background ( edit ) The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule . The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products . The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ( `` free '' ) to do work . Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous . The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions . If protons flow back through the membrane , they enable mechanical work , such as rotating bacterial flagella . ATP synthase , an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life , converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP , which powers most cellular reactions . A small amount of ATP is available from substrate - level phosphorylation , for example , in glycolysis . In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains , while only some obtain ATP by fermentation . In mitochondria ( edit ) Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria , which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle , fatty acid oxidation , and amino acid oxidation . At the mitochondrial inner membrane , electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen , which is reduced to water . The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors . Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor , which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor , a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen , the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain . Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy , which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively `` pumping '' protons into the intermembrane space , producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work . The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation , since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps . A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen , resulting in the formation of the free - radical superoxide , a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging . Mitochondrial redox carriers ( edit ) Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space , creating an electrochemical proton gradient ( ΔpH ) across the inner mitochondrial membrane ( IMM ) . This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential ( ΔΨ ) . It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate ( ADP ) and inorganic phosphate . Complex I ( NADH coenzyme Q reductase ; labeled I ) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NADH ) , and passes them to coenzyme Q ( ubiquinone ; labeled Q ) , which also receives electrons from complex II ( succinate dehydrogenase ; labeled II ) . Q passes electrons to complex III ( cytochrome bc complex ; labeled III ) , which passes them to cytochrome c ( cyt c ) . Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV ( cytochrome c oxidase ; labeled IV ) , which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water . Four membrane - bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria . Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane . Three of them are proton pumps . The structures are electrically connected by lipid - soluble electron carriers and water - soluble electron carriers . The overall electron transport chain : NADH + H → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → H O ↑ Complex II ↑ Succinate Complex I ( edit ) In Complex I ( NADH : ubiquinone oxidoreductase , NADH - CoQ reductase , or NADH dehydrogenase ; EC 1.6. 5.3 ) , two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid - soluble carrier , ubiquinone ( UQ ) . The reduced product , ubiquinol ( UQH ) , freely diffuses within the membrane , and Complex I translocates four protons ( H ) across the membrane , thus producing a proton gradient . Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs , thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide . The pathway of electrons is as follows : NADH is oxidized to NAD , by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH in one two - electron step . FMNH is then oxidized in two one - electron steps , through a semiquinone intermediate . Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an Fe - S cluster , from the Fe - S cluster to ubiquinone ( Q ) . Transfer of the first electron results in the free - radical ( semiquinone ) form of Q , and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form , QH . During this process , four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space . As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane . This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH . This complex is inhibited by Alkylguanides ( Example : Guanethidine ) , Rotenone , Barbiturates , Chlorpromazine , Piericidin . Complex II ( edit ) In Complex II ( succinate dehydrogenase or succinate - CoQ reductase ; EC 1.3. 5.1 ) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool ( Q ) originating from succinate and transferred ( via flavin adenine dinucleotide ( FAD ) ) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits : succinate dehydrogenase , ( SDHA ) ; succinate dehydrogenase ( ubiquinone ) iron - sulfur subunit , mitochondrial , ( SDHB ) ; succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C , ( SDHC ) and succinate dehydrogenase complex , subunit D , ( SDHD ) . Other electron donors ( e.g. , fatty acids and glycerol 3 - phosphate ) also direct electrons into Q ( via FAD ) . Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1 , but unlike complex 1 , no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway . Therefore , the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process . This complex is inhibited by Carboxin . Complex III ( edit ) In Complex III ( cytochrome bc complex or CoQH - cytochrome c reductase ; EC 1.10. 2.2 ) , the Q - cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption / release of protons . Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c , a water - soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space . The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol . A proton gradient is formed by one quinol ( 2H + 2e - ) oxidations at the Q site to form one quinone ( 2H + 2e - ) at the Q site . ( in total four protons are translocated : two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules ) . QH2 + 2 cytochrome c ( FeIII ) + 2 H + in → Q + 2 cytochrome c ( FeII ) + 4 H + out When electron transfer is reduced ( by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A ) , Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen , resulting in superoxide formation . This complex is inhibited by British Antilewisite ( BAL ) , Napthoquinone and Antimycin . Complex IV ( edit ) In Complex IV ( cytochrome c oxidase ; EC 1.9. 3.1 ) , sometimes called cytochrome AA3 , four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen ( O ) , producing two molecules of water . At the same time , eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix ( although only four are translocated across the membrane ) , contributing to the proton gradient . The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide , carbon monoxide , azide , hydrogen sulphide ( H S ) . Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation ( edit ) Depiction of ATP synthase , the site of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP . According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis , proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell , the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane . The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient ( proton gradient ) . This gradient is used by the F F ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation . ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain . The F component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix . It is composed of a , b and c subunits . Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel . Then protons move to the c subunits . The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the F turn one full revolution . For example , in humans , there are 8 c subunits , thus 8 protons are required . After c subunits , protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix . This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers ( NAD and Q ) . The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis , catalyzed by the F component of the complex . Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production . However , in specific cases , uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful . The uncoupling protein , thermogenin -- present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue -- provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix . Thyroxine is also a natiral uncoupler . This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production . Synthetic uncouplers ( e.g. , 2 , 4 - dinitrophenol , 2 , 4 - dinitrocresol , CCCP ) also exist , and , at high doses , are lethal . Summary ( edit ) In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor ( NADH or QH ) to a terminal electron acceptor ( O ) via a series of redox reactions . These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane . There are three proton pumps : I , III , and IV . The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase . The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium . This means that these reactions are readily reversible , by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants ( for example , by increasing the proton gradient ) . ATP synthase is also readily reversible . Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient , which in turn can be used to make NADH . This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains . In bacteria ( edit ) In eukaryotes , NADH is the most important electron donor . The associated electron transport chain is NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O where Complexes I , III and IV are proton pumps , while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers . The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen . In prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) the situation is more complicated , because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors . The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is : Donor Donor Donor ↓ ↓ ↓ dehydrogenase → quinone → bc → cytochrome ↓ ↓ oxidase ( reductase ) oxidase ( reductase ) ↓ ↓ Acceptor Acceptor Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels : at the level of a dehydrogenase , at the level of the quinone pool , or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier . These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials , or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor . In other words , they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor . Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains , often simultaneously . Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors , a number of different dehydrogenases , a number of different oxidases and reductases , and a number of different electron acceptors . For example , E. coli ( when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source ) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases , for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously . A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient . Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps , like mitochondria , or they may contain only one or two . They always contain at least one proton pump . Electron donors ( edit ) In the present day biosphere , the most common electron donors are organic molecules . Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs . Organotrophs ( animals , fungi , protists ) and phototrophs ( plants and algae ) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms . Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source . Such an organism is called a lithotroph ( `` rock - eater '' ) . Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen , carbon monoxide , ammonia , nitrite , sulfur , sulfide , manganese oxide , and ferrous iron . Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth . Because of their volume of distribution , lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere . The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution . This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source . Dehydrogenases ( edit ) Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors . When organic matter is the energy source , the donor may be NADH or succinate , in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase ( similar to Complex I in mitochondria ) or succinate dehydrogenase ( similar to Complex II ) . Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources : formate dehydrogenase , lactate dehydrogenase , glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase , H dehydrogenase ( hydrogenase ) , etc . Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps ; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool . Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow . Quinone carriers ( edit ) Quinones are mobile , lipid - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons ( and protons ) between large , relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane . Bacteria use ubiquinone ( the same quinone that mitochondria use ) and related quinones such as menaquinone . Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10 . Proton pumps ( edit ) A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane . Protons can be physically moved across a membrane ; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV . The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction . The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm . Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump , which is mediated by a quinone ( the Q cycle ) . Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps ; others are not . Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps , but some are not . Cytochrome bc is a proton pump found in many , but not all , bacteria ( it is not found in E. coli ) . As the name implies , bacterial bc is similar to mitochondrial bc ( Complex III ) . Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process . They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP . Cytochrome electron carriers ( edit ) Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron . They are found in two very different environments . Some cytochromes are water - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large , immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane . The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c . Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers . Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV . They also function as electron carriers , but in a very different , intramolecular , solid - state environment . Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier . For example , electrons from inorganic electron donors ( nitrite , ferrous iron , etc . ) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level . When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH , the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary , higher - energy molecule . Terminal oxidases and reductases ( edit ) When bacteria grow in aerobic environments , the terminal electron acceptor ( O ) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase . When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments , the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase . In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex ( Complex IV ) is cytochrome oxidase . Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases . For example , E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc complex . Under aerobic conditions , it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases ( both proton pumps ) to reduce oxygen to water . Anaerobic bacteria , which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor , have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor . For example , E. coli can use fumarate reductase , nitrate reductase , nitrite reductase , DMSO reductase , or trimethylamine - N - oxide reductase , depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment . Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible . They are synthesized by the organism as needed , in response to specific environmental conditions . Electron acceptors ( edit ) Just as there are a number of different electron donors ( organic matter in organotrophs , inorganic matter in lithotrophs ) , there are a number of different electron acceptors , both organic and inorganic . If oxygen is available , it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor , because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy . In anaerobic environments , different electron acceptors are used , including nitrate , nitrite , ferric iron , sulfate , carbon dioxide , and small organic molecules such as fumarate . Since electron transport chains are redox processes , they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs . For example , the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD / NADH redox pair and the O / H O redox pair . NADH is the electron donor and O is the electron acceptor . Not every donor - acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible . The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor . Furthermore , actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions ( 1 molar concentrations , 1 atm partial pressures , pH = 7 ) , which apply to standard redox potentials . For example , hydrogen - evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10 atm . The associated redox reaction , which is thermodynamically favorable in nature , is thermodynamic impossible under `` standard '' conditions . Summary ( edit ) Bacterial electron transport pathways are , in general , inducible . Depending on their environment , bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes . Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases , terminal oxidases and terminal reductases . The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched , modular , and inducible . Photosynthetic ( edit ) In oxidative phosphorylation , electrons are transferred from a low - energy electron donor ( e.g. , NADH ) to an acceptor ( e.g. , O ) through an electron transport chain . In photophosphorylation , the energy of sunlight is used to create a high - energy electron donor and an electron acceptor . Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain . Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above . They use mobile , lipid - soluble carriers ( quinones ) and mobile , water - soluble carriers ( cytochromes , etc . ) . They also contain a proton pump . It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III . Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation , Photosynthesis , Photosynthetic reaction center and Light - dependent reaction . Summary ( edit ) Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor . The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane , producing a proton gradient . The proton gradient is used to produce useful work . About 30 work units are produced per electron transport . See also ( edit ) CoRR hypothesis Electron equivalent Hydrogen hypothesis Respirasome References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Murray , Robert K. ; Daryl K. Granner ; Peter A. Mayes ; Victor W. Rodwell ( 2003 ) . Harper 's Illustrated Biochemistry . New York , NY : Lange Medical Books / MgGraw Hill . p. 96 . ISBN 0 - 07 - 121766 - 5 . Jump up ^ Karp , Gerald ( 2008 ) . Cell and Molecular Biology ( 5th ed . ) . Hoboken , NJ : John Wiley & Sons . p. 194 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 04217 - 5 . Jump up ^ Lauren , Biochemistry , Johnson / Cole , 2010 , pp 598 - 611 Jump up ^ Garrett & Grisham , Biochemistry , Brooks / Cole , 2010 , pp 598 - 611 Jump up ^ Garret and Grisham ( 2016 ) . biochemistry . University of Virginia . p. 687 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 305 - 57720 - 6 . Jump up ^ Jonckheere , An I. ; Smeitink , Jan A.M. ; Rodenburg , Richard J.T. ( 2017 - 03 - 10 ) . `` Mitochondrial ATP synthase : architecture , function and pathology '' . Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease . 35 ( 2 ) : 211 -- 225 . doi : 10.1007 / s10545 - 011 - 9382 - 9 . ISSN 0141 - 8955 . PMC 3278611 . PMID 21874297 . ^ Jump up to : Garrett , Reginald H. ; Grisham , Charles M. ( 2012 ) . Biochemistry ( 5th ed . ) . Cengage learning . p. 664 . ISBN 1 - 133 - 10629 - 3 . Jump up ^ Fillingame , Robert H ; Angevine , Christine M ; Dmitriev , Oleg Y ( 2003 - 11 - 27 ) . `` Mechanics of coupling proton movements to c - ring rotation in ATP synthase '' . FEBS Letters. 555 ( 1 ) : 29 -- 34 . doi : 10.1016 / S0014 - 5793 ( 03 ) 01101 - 3 . ISSN 1873 - 3468 . Jump up ^ Berg , Jeremy M. ; Tymoczko , John L. ; Stryer , Lubert ( 2002 - 01 - 01 ) . `` A Proton Gradient Powers the Synthesis of ATP '' . Jump up ^ Cannon , Barbara ; Nedergaard , Jan ( 2004 - 01 - 01 ) . `` Brown Adipose Tissue : Function and Physiological Significance '' . Physiological Reviews . 84 ( 1 ) : 277 -- 359 . doi : 10.1152 / physrev. 00015.2003 . ISSN 0031 - 9333 . PMID 14715917 . Jump up ^ Alberts , Bruce ; Johnson , Alexander ; Lewis , Julian ; Raff , Martin ; Roberts , Keith ; Walter , Peter ( 2002 - 01 - 01 ) . `` Electron - Transport Chains and Their Proton Pumps '' . Fenchel T ; King GM ; Blackburn TH ( September 2006 ) . Bacterial Biogeochemistry : The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling ( 2nd ed . ) . Elsevier . ISBN 978 - 0 - 12 - 103455 - 9 . Lengeler JW ( January 1999 ) . Drews G ; Schlegel HG , eds . Biology of the Prokaryotes . Blackwell Science . ISBN 978 - 0 - 632 - 05357 - 5 . Nelson DL ; Cox MM ( April 2005 ) . Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry ( 4th ed . ) . W.H. Freeman . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7167 - 4339 - 2 . Nicholls DG ; Ferguson SJ ( July 2002 ) . Bioenergetics 3 . Academic Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 12 - 518121 - 1 . Stumm W ; Morgan JJ ( 1996 ) . Aquatic Chemistry ( 3rd ed . ) . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 471 - 51185 - 4 . Thauer RK ; Jungermann K ; Decker K ( March 1977 ) . `` Energy conservation in chemotrophic anaerobic bacteria '' . Bacteriol Rev. 41 ( 1 ) : 100 -- 80 . PMC 413997 . PMID 860983 . White D. ( September 1999 ) . The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes ( 2nd ed . ) . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 512579 - 5 . Voet D ; Voet JG ( March 2004 ) . Biochemistry ( 3rd ed . ) . John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 - 0 - 471 - 58651 - 7 . Kim HS. ; Patel , K ; Muldoon - Jacobs , K ; Bisht , KS ; Aykin - Burns , N ; Pennington , JD ; Van Der Meer , R ; Nguyen , P ; et al. ( January 2010 ) . `` SIRT3 is a mitochondria - localized tumor suppressor required for maintenance of mitochondrial integrity and metabolism during stress '' . Cancer Cell. 17 ( 1 ) : 41 -- 52 . doi : 10.1016 / j. ccr. 2009.11. 023 . PMC 3711519 . PMID 20129246 . External links ( edit ) Electron Transport Chain Complex Proteins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH ) Khan Academy , video lecture UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families / superfamily - 3 - Complexes with cytochrome b - like domains UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families / superfamily - 4 - Bacterial and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidases UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families / superfamily - 2 - Photosynthetic reaction centers and photosystems UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families / superfamily - 78 - Cytochrome PORN renodoxin reductase UMich Orientation of Proteins in Membranes families / superfamily - 130 - Electron transfer flavoproteins Metabolism , catabolism , anabolism General Metabolic pathway Metabolic network Primary nutritional groups Energy metabolism Aerobic respiration Glycolysis → Pyruvate decarboxylation → Citric acid cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation ( electron transport chain + ATP synthase ) Anaerobic respiration Electron acceptors are other than oxygen Fermentation Glycolysis → Substrate - level phosphorylation ABE Ethanol Lactic acid Specific paths Protein metabolism Protein synthesis Catabolism Carbohydrate metabolism ( carbohydrate catabolism and anabolism ) Human Glycolysis ⇄ Gluconeogenesis Glycogenolysis ⇄ Glycogenesis Pentose phosphate pathway Fructolysis Galactolysis Glycosylation N - linked O - linked Nonhuman Photosynthesis Anoxygenic photosynthesis Chemosynthesis Carbon fixation Xylose metabolism Radiotrophism Lipid metabolism ( lipolysis , lipogenesis ) Fatty acid metabolism Fatty acid degradation ( Beta oxidation ) Fatty acid synthesis Other Steroid metabolism Sphingolipid metabolism Eicosanoid metabolism Ketosis Reverse cholesterol transport Amino acid Amino acid synthesis Urea cycle Nucleotide metabolism Purine metabolism Nucleotide salvage Pyrimidine metabolism Other Metal metabolism Iron metabolism Ethanol metabolism Metabolism : Citric acid cycle enzymes Cycle Citrate synthase Aconitase Isocitrate dehydrogenase Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase Succinyl CoA synthetase Succinate dehydrogenase ( SDHA ) Fumarase Malate dehydrogenase and ETC Anaplerotic to acetyl - CoA Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex ( E1 , E2 , E3 ) ( regulated by Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase and Pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase ) to α - ketoglutaric acid Glutamate dehydrogenase to succinyl - CoA Methylmalonyl - CoA mutase to oxaloacetate Pyruvate carboxylase Aspartate transaminase Mitochondrial electron transport chain / oxidative phosphorylation Primary Complex I / NADH dehydrogenase Complex II / Succinate dehydrogenase Coenzyme Q Complex III / Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase Cytochrome c Complex IV / Cytochrome c oxidase Coenzyme Q10 synthesis : COQ2 COQ3 COQ4 COQ5 COQ6 COQ7 COQ9 COQ10A COQ10B PDSS1 PDSS2 Other Alternative oxidase Electron - transferring - flavoprotein dehydrogenase Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electron_transport_chain&oldid=827178580 '' Categories : Cellular respiration Integral membrane proteins Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2011 Articles with unsourced statements from April 2015 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Magyar Bahasa Melayu 日本 語 Norsk Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 23 February 2018 , at 05 : 26 . 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7640135040709921771 | Kabul | Kabul - wikipedia Kabul Jump to : navigation , search For other places with the same name , see Kabul ( disambiguation ) . Kabul کابل Metropolis From top left to right : Overview of a section of the city ; Presidential Palace ; Square ; Abdul Rahman Mosque ; Gardens of Babur ; Wazir Akbar Khan ; Serena Hotel Kabul Kabul Show map of Afghanistan Show map of Asia Show all Coordinates : 34 ° 32 ′ N 69 ° 10 ′ E / 34.533 ° N 69.167 ° E / 34.533 ; 69.167 Coordinates : 34 ° 32 ′ N 69 ° 10 ′ E / 34.533 ° N 69.167 ° E / 34.533 ; 69.167 Country Afghanistan Province Kabul No. of districts 22 Government Mayor Abdullah Habibzai Area Metropolis 275 km ( 106 sq mi ) Metro 425 km ( 164 sq mi ) Elevation 1,791 m ( 5,876 ft ) Population ( 2015 ) Metropolis 4.6 million Demonym Kabuli Time zone Afghanistan Standard Time ( UTC + 4 : 30 ) Area code ( s ) ( + 93 ) 20 Climate BSk Kabul ( Pashto / Dari : کابل , Kâbol , pronounced ( ˈkɒːbul ) ; English : / ˈkɑːbʊl / ) is the capital of Afghanistan as well as its largest city , located in the eastern section of the country . According to latest estimates , the population of the city is about 4.6 million , which includes all the major ethnic groups . Rapid urbanization had made Kabul the world 's 64th largest city and the fifth fastest - growing city in the world . Kabul is said to be over 3,500 years old , mentioned since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire . The city is at a strategic location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia , and a key location of the ancient Silk Road . It has been part of the Achaemenids , Seleucids , Mauryans , Kushans , Kabul Shahis , Saffarids , Ghaznavids , and Ghurids . Later , it was controlled by the Mughal Empire until finally becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747 . The city is located high up in a narrow valley between the Hindu Kush mountains . Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani ( reigned 1772 -- 1793 ) , the son of Ahmad Shah Durrani . In the early 19th century , the British occupied the city but were compelled to abandon it . Relations between Afghanistan and Great Britain were later established . The city was occupied by the Soviets in 1979 but they too abandoned it after the 1988 Geneva Accords were signed . A civil war in the 1990s between various rebel groups destroyed much of the city , resulting in many casualties . Since the removal of the Taliban from power in late 2001 , the city gradually began rebuilding itself with assistance from the international community . Despite the many terrorist attacks by anti-state elements , the city is growing and developing . The city is divided into about 18 districts . Contents ( hide ) 1 Toponymy 2 History 2.1 Antiquity 2.2 Islamization and Mongol invasion 2.3 Timurid and Mughal era 2.4 Durrani Empire 2.5 20th century Kabul 2.6 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 2.7 Civil war and Taliban regime 2.8 21st century 3 Geography , climate and environment 3.1 Neighbourhoods 4 Government and politics 5 Demographics 6 Economy 6.1 Development plans 7 Communications 8 Health care 9 Education 9.1 Universities 10 Transportation 10.1 Airports 10.2 Railways 10.3 Road 10.4 Trolleybuses 11 Tourism 12 Twin towns -- sister cities 13 See also 14 References and footnotes 15 Further reading 16 External links Toponymy ( edit ) Kabul ( / ˈkɑːbəl , ˈkɑːbuːl / ; Pashto : کابل Kâbəl , IPA : ( kɑˈbəl ) ; Persian : کابل Kābol , IPA : ( kɒːˈbol ) ) , also spelled Cabool , Caubul , Kabol , or Cabul . History ( edit ) It has been suggested that this section be merged with History of Kabul . ( Discuss ) Proposed since June 2015 . See also : History of Kabul and Timeline of Kabul Antiquity ( edit ) The word `` Kubhā '' is mentioned in the Rigveda ( circa 1500 -- 1200 BCE ) , one of the four canonical sacred texts ( śruti ) of Hinduism , and the Avesta , the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism , refers to the Kabul River . The Rigveda praises it as an ideal city , a vision of paradise set in the mountains . The area in which the Kabul valley sits was ruled by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids . There is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire . It became a center of Zoroastrianism followed by Buddhism and Hinduism . Alexander the Great explored the Kabul valley after his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC but no record has been made of Kabul , which may have been only a small town and not worth writing about . The region became part of the Seleucid Empire but was later given to the Indian Maurya Empire . `` Alexander took these away from the Aryans and established settlements of his own , but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus ( Chandragupta ) , upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants . '' -- Strabo , 64 BC -- 24 AD Kushan Empire The Greco - Bactrians captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BC , then lost the city to their subordinates in the Indo - Greek Kingdom around the mid-2nd century BC . Indo - Scythians expelled the Indo - Greeks by the mid 1st century BC , but lost the city to the Kushan Empire about 100 years later . Some historians ascribe Kabul the Sanskrit name of Kamboja ( Kamboj ) . It is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in some classical writings . Hsuan Tsang refers to the name as Kaofu in the 7th century AD , which is the appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi who had migrated from across the Hindu Kush into the Kabul valley around the beginning of the Christian era . It was conquered by Kushan Emperor Kujula Kadphises in about 45 AD and remained Kushan territory until at least the 3rd century AD . The Kushans were Indo - European - speaking Tocharians from the Tarim Basin . Around 230 AD , the Kushans were defeated by the Sassanid Empire and replaced by Sassanid vassals known as the Indo - Sassanids . During the Sassanian period , the city was referred to as `` Kapul '' in Pahlavi scripts . In 420 AD the Indo - Sassanids were driven out of Afghanistan by the Xionite tribe known as the Kidarites , who were then replaced in the 460s by the Hephthalites . It became part of the surviving Turk Shahi Kingdom of Kapisa , also known as Kabul - Shahan . According to Táríkhu - l Hind by Al - Biruni , Kabul was governed by princes of Turkic lineage whose rule lasted for about 60 generations . `` Kábul was formerly governed by princes of Turk lineage . It is said that they were originally from Tibet . The first of them was named Barhtigín ... and the kingdom continued with his children for sixty generations ... The last of them was a Katormán , and his minister was Kalar , a Bráhman . This minister was favored by fortune , and he found in the earth treasures which augmented his power . Fortune at the same time turned her back upon his master . The Katormán 's thoughts and actions were evil , so that many complaints reached the minister , who loaded him with chains , and imprisoned him for his correction . In the end the minister yielded to the temptation of becoming sole master , and he had wealth sufficient to remove all obstacles . So he established himself on the throne . After him reigned the Bráhman ( s ) Samand , then Kamlúa , then Bhím , then Jaipál , then Anandpál , then Narda - janpál , who was killed in A.H. 412 . His son , Bhímpál , succeeded him , after the lapse of five years , and under him the sovereignty of Hind became extinct , and no descendant remained to light a fire on the hearth . These princes , notwithstanding the extent of their dominions , were endowed with excellent qualities , faithful to their engagements , and gracious towards their inferiors ... '' -- Abu Rayhan Biruni , 978 -- 1048 AD The Kabul rulers built a long defensive wall around the city to protect it from enemy raids . This historical wall has survived until today . It was briefly held by Tibetan Empire between 801 and 815 . Islamization and Mongol invasion ( edit ) Further information : Islamic conquest of Afghanistan The Islamic conquest of Afghanistan began from Herat , which was one of the important cities of Khorasan , and made its way to Kabul in the late 600 's . The Islamic conquest reached modern - day Afghanistan in 642 AD , at a time when Kabul was independent . A number of failed expeditions were made to Islamize the region . In one of them , Abdur Rahman bin Samana arrived to Kabul from Zaranj in the late 600s and managed to convert 12,000 local inhabitants to Islam before abandoning the city . Muslims were a minority until Ya'qub bin Laith as - Saffar of Zaranj conquered Kabul in 870 and established the first Islamic dynasty in the region . It was reported that the rulers of Kabul were Muslims with non-Muslims living close by . `` Kábul has a castle celebrated for its strength , accessible only by one road . In it there are Musulmáns , and it has a town , in which are infidels from Hind . '' -- Istahkrí , 921 AD Over the following centuries , the city was successively controlled by the Samanids , Ghaznavids , Ghurids , Khwarazmshahs , Qarlughids , and Khaljis . In the 13th century , the Mongol horde passed through and massively destroyed the area . Report of a massacre in the close by Bamiyan is recorded around this period , where the entire population of the valley was annihilated by the Mongol troops as a revenge for the death of Genghis Khan 's grandson . During the Mongol invasion , many natives of Afghanistan fled to India where some established dynasties in Delhi . It was also ruled by Chagatai Khanate and Kartids , were vassals of Ilkhanate till dissolution of latter in 1335 . Following the era of the Khalji dynasty in 1333 , the famous Moroccan scholar Ibn Battuta was visiting Kabul and wrote : `` We travelled on to Kabul , formerly a vast town , the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans . They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength , and are mostly highwaymen . Their principal mountain is called Kuh Sulayman . '' -- Ibn Battuta , 1304 -- 1369 AD Timurid and Mughal era ( edit ) Further information : Timurid dynasty and Mughal Empire Humayun with his father Babur , emperors of the Mughal Empire In the 14th century , Kabul became a major trading center under the kingdom of Timur ( Tamerlane ) . In 1504 , the city fell to Babur from the north and made into his headquarters , which became one of the principal cities of his later Mughal Empire . In 1525 , Babur described Kabulistan in his memoirs by writing that : `` In the country of Kābul there are many and various tribes . In the city and the greater part of the villages , the population consists of Tājiks ( called `` Sarts '' by Babur ) . Many other of the villages and districts are occupied by Pashāis , Parāchis , Tājiks , Berekis , and Afghans . In the hill - country to the west , reside the Hazāras and Nukderis . Among the Hazāra and Nukderi tribes , there are some who speak the Moghul language . In the hill - country to the north - east lies Kaferistān , such as Kattor and Gebrek . To the south is Afghanistān ... There are eleven or twelve different languages spoken in Kābul : Arabic , Persian , Tūrki , Moghuli , Hindi , Afghani , Pashāi , Parāchi , Geberi , Bereki , and Lamghāni ... '' -- Baburnama , 1525 Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat , a poet from Hindustan who visited at the time wrote : `` Dine and drink in Kabul : it is mountain , desert , city , river and all else . '' It was from here that Babur began his 1526 conquest of Hindustan , which was ruled by the Afghan Lodi dynasty and began east of the Indus River in what is present - day Pakistan . Babur loved Kabul due to the fact that he lived in it for 20 years and the people were loyal to him , including its weather that he was used to . His wish to be buried in Kabul was finally granted . The inscription on his tomb contains the famous Persian couplet , which states : اگرفردوس روی زمین است همین است و همین است و همین است ( If there is a paradise on earth , it is this , it is this , it is this ! ) Durrani Empire ( edit ) Further information : Durrani dynasty and Barakzai dynasty Shujah Shah Durrani , the last Durrani King , sitting at his court inside the Bala Hissar . Nine years after Nader Shah and his forces invaded and occupied the city as part of the more easternmost parts of his Empire , he was assassinated by his own officers , causing the rapid disintegration of it . Ahmad Shah Durrani , commander of 4,000 Abdali Afghans , asserted Pashtun rule in 1747 and further expanded his new Afghan Empire . His ascension to power marked the beginning of Afghanistan . His son Timur Shah Durrani , after inheriting power , transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776 , and used Peshawar in what is today Pakistan as the winter capital . Timur Shah died in 1793 and was succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani . Kabul 's first visitor from Europe was Englishman George Forster , who described 18th - century Kabul as `` the best and cleanest city in South Asia '' . In 1826 , the kingdom was claimed by Dost Mohammad Khan but in 1839 Shujah Shah Durrani was re-installed with the help of British India during the First Anglo - Afghan War . In 1841 a local uprising resulted in the killing of the British resident and loss of mission in Kabul and the 1842 retreat from Kabul to Jalalabad . In 1842 the British returned to Kabul , plundering Bala Hissar in revenge before fleeing back to British India ( now Pakistan ) . Akbar Khan took to the throne from 1842 to 1845 and was followed by Dost Mohammad Khan . The British - led Indian forces invaded in 1879 when Kabul was under Sher Ali Khan 's rule , as the Afghan king initially refused to accept British diplomatic mission and later the British residents were again massacred . The British partially destroyed Bala Hissar fortress before retreating to British India . 20th century Kabul ( edit ) In the early 20th century King Amanullah Khan rose to power . His reforms included electricity for the city and schooling for girls . He drove a Rolls - Royce , and lived in the famous Darul Aman Palace . In 1919 , after the Third Anglo - Afghan War , Amanullah announced Afghanistan 's independence from foreign affairs at Eidgah Mosque . In 1929 King Ammanullah left Kabul due to a local uprising orchestrated by Habibullah Kalakani . After nine months rule , Kalakani was imprisoned and executed by King Nader Khan . Three years later , in 1933 , the new king was assassinated by a Hazara student Abdul Khaliq during an award ceremony inside a school in Kabul . The throne was left to his 19 - year - old son , Zahir Shah , who became the last King of Afghanistan . Afghan men and women in the 1920s . During the inter-war period France and Germany worked to help develop the country and maintained high schools and lycees in the capital , providing education for the children of the city 's elite families . Kabul University opened in 1932 and by the 1960s western educated Afghans made up the majority of teachers . By the 1960s the majority of instructors at the university had degrees from Western universities . When Zahir Shah took power in 1933 Kabul had the only 10 kilometers ( 6 miles ) of rail in the country and the country had few internal telegraphs , phone lines or roads . Zahir turned to the Japanese , Germans and Italians for help developing a modern transportation and communication network . A radio tower built by the Germans in 1937 in Kabul allowing instant communication with outlying villages . A national bank and state cartels were organized to allow for economic modernization . Textile mills , power plants , carpet and furniture factories were also built in Kabul , providing much needed manufacturing and infrastructure . In 1955 , the Soviet Union forwarded $100 million in credit to Afghanistan , which financed public transportation , airports , a cement factory , mechanized bakery , a five - lane highway from Kabul to the Soviet border and dams . Men and women entering a public transport bus in the 1950s . In the 1960s the first Marks & Spencer store in Central Asia was built in the city . Kabul Zoo was inaugurated in 1967 , which was maintained with the help of visiting German zoologists . Many foreigners began flocking to Kabul and the nation 's tourism industry was starting to pick up speed . Kabul experimented with liberalization , dropping laws requiring women to wear burkas , restrictions on speech and assembly were loosened which led to student politics in the capital . Socialist , Maoist and liberal factions demonstrated daily in Kabul while more traditional Islamic leaders spoke out against the failure to aid the Afghan countryside . From the 1960s until the late 1970s , Kabul was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail . Kabul in 1976 In 1969 a religious uprising at the Pul - e Khishti Mosque protested the Soviet Union 's increasing influence over Afghan politics and religion . This protest ended in the arrest of many of its organizers , including Mawlana Faizani , a popular Islamic scholar . In the early 1970s Radio Kabul began to broadcast in other languages besides Pashto which helped to unify those minorities that often felt marginalized . However , this was put to a stop after Daoud Khan 's revolution in 1973 . In July 1973 , while King Zahir Shah was visiting Europe , his cousin Daoud Khan who served as Prime Minister launched a coup d'état and took over power . This was supported by the People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA ) , a pro-Soviet political party . Daoud named himself President and planned to institute reforms . The BBC has described the period before the April 1978 Revolution as an era when different ethnic groups of Afghanistan lived together harmoniously , intermarried and mixed socially . By 1975 , the young Ahmad Shah Massoud and his followers initiated an uprising in Panjshir but were forced to flee to neighboring Pakistan where they received recruitment from Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to create unrest in Afghanistan with the help of Pakistan 's Inter-Services Intelligence . It is claimed that Bhutto paved the way for the April 1978 Saur Revolution in Kabul by making Daoud spread his armed forces to the countryside . `` To launch this plan , Bhutto recruited and trained a group of Afghans in the Bala - Hesar of Peshawar , in Pakistan 's North - west Frontier Province . Among these young men were Massoud , Gulbuddin Hekmatyar , and other members of Jawanan - e Musulman . Massoud 's mission to Bhutto was to create unrest in northern Afghanistan . It served Massoud 's interests , which were apparently opposition to the Soviets and independence for Afghanistan . Later , after Massoud and Hekmatyar had a terrible falling - out over Massoud 's opposition to terrorist tactics and methods , Massoud overthrew from Jawanan - e Musulman . He joined Rabani 's newly created Afghan political party , Jamiat - i - Islami , in exile in Pakistan . '' Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ( edit ) Further information : Soviet war in Afghanistan The day after the April 1978 Saur Revolution On April 28 , 1978 , President Daoud and his family along with many of his supporters were assassinated in Kabul . Pro-Soviet PDPA under Hafizullah Amin seized power and slowly began to institute reforms . Private businesses were nationalized in the Soviet manner . Education was modified into the Soviet model , with lessons focusing on teaching Russian , Leninism - Marxism and learning of other countries belonging to the Soviet bloc . Foreign - backed rebel groups and army deserters took up arms in the name of Islam . In February 1979 , U.S. Ambassador Adolph Dubs was murdered after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnappers . In neighboring Pakistan , President Zulfiqar Bhutto was executed in April 1979 . In September 1979 Afghan President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated by a team of Soviet Spetsnaz inside the Tajbeg Palace in Kabul . On December 24 , 1979 , the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and Kabul was heavily occupied by Soviet Armed Forces . Following this invasion , Pakistani President Zia - ul - Haq chaired a meeting in Islamabad and was told by several cabinet members to refrain from interfering in Afghanistan , owing to the vastly superior military power of the Soviet Union . However , Zia - ul - Haq , fearing that the Soviets may be advancing into Pakistan , particularly Balochistan , made no secret about his intentions of aiding the mujahideen rebel groups . During this meeting , Director - General of the ISI Akhtar Abdur Rahman advocated for the idea of covert operation in Afghanistan by arming the Islamic extremists . General Rahman was heard loudly saying : `` Kabul must burn ! Kabul must burn ! '' , and mastered the idea of proxy war in Afghanistan . President Zia - ul - Haq authorised this operation under General Rahman , and it was later merged with Operation Cyclone , a programme funded by the United States . Kabul in 1982 during the Soviet - Afghan War The Soviets turned the city of Kabul into their command center during the Soviet war in Afghanistan . Kabul was considered moderately safe during that period , as fighting was mostly in the countryside and in other major cities . Kabul was still economically active and women made up 40 % of the workforce . However the city was not necessarily calm . Political crime , such as assassinations of PDPA party members and guerilla attacks on military and government targets were quite common . The Soviet Embassy , for example , was attacked 4 times with arms fire in the first five years of the war . In 1983 , a report from Izvestia said that most public places such as hospitals and state banks had `` people with guns in their hands '' , which was not the case before 1979 . A Western correspondent revisiting Kabul in December 1983 after a year , said that the city was `` converted into a fortress bristling with weapons '' , suggesting the increasing sight of guns . But the city 's image was n't negative in everyone 's view . American diplomat Charles Dunbar said that the Soviet troops ' presence was `` surprisingly modest '' . He said in a July 1983 article that whilst Soviet troops are a common sight , they `` do not give the impression of invaders who are enforcing their occupation at the point of a bayonet '' . Soviet men and women were very common in the city 's shopping roads , with the large availability of Western products . An December 1983 article from Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , where the author stayed two weeks in the city , said that the Soviet soldiers had a friendly atmosphere in which they would greet friends and have a chat with the population . Most Soviet civilians ( numbering between 8,000 and 10,000 ) lived in the north eastern Makroyan ( microraion ) suburb , in an apartment housing complex . It was surrounded by barbed - wire and armed tanks , for their safety . The residents were often unsafe when walking through the streets , receiving verbal abuse , rude gestures and even kidnappings from anti-PDPA / anti-Soviet Afghan civilians . Life for PDPA politicians and their families were also insecure . The city 's population increased from around 500,000 in 1978 to 2 million in 1988 , due to rural refugees but also the return of Afghan refugees from neighboring Pakistan and Iran under President Najibullah , who came into power in 1985 . Civil War and Taliban regime ( edit ) A section of Kabul during the civil war in 1993 . Main articles : Civil war in Afghanistan ( 1989 -- 1992 ) and Civil war in Afghanistan ( 1992 -- 1996 ) After the fall of Najibullah 's Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in April 1992 , leaders of the different mujahideen factions were unable to form a government . Despite the 1992 Peshawar Accords , fighting started as Hekmatyar 's party refused to sign the accords and started shelling the city for power . This marked the start of a dark period of the city , in which over 50,000 civilians were killed . About 80 percent of the city was devastated and destroyed by 1996 . A The New York Times analyst said in 1996 that the city was more devastated than Sarajevo , which was similarly destroyed during the Bosnian War in those years . The city suffered heavily under a bombardment campaign between rival militias . Its geographic location in a narrow valley made it an easy target from rockets fired by militias who based themselves in the surrounding mountains . Initially the factions in the city aligned to fight off Hekmatyar 's forces , but diplomacy inside the capital quickly broke down . For the following two years in particular , much of Kabul would be laid to waste , the majority of infrastructure destroyed , and a massive exodus of the population leaving to the countryside or abroad . In December 1992 , the last of the 86 city trolley buses in Kabul came to a halt because of the conflict . A system of 800 public buses continued to provide transportation services to the city . By 1993 electricity and water in the city was completely out . Additionally to the bombardment campaign conducted by Hekmatyar and Dostum , tension between the Shi'a Hazara forces of Abdul Ali Mazari and the Wahabi Ittihad - i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf soon escalated into a second violent conflict . The fighting between the two factions quickly took on aspects of `` ethnic cleansing '' . One such example was the Afshar Operation in 1993 , in which many ethnic Hazara and Pashtun civilians were murdered . In January 1994 , Dostum joined an alliance with Hekmatyar and conducted bombardment of Kabul during that period , but were eventually repelled by Massoud 's forces who also bombarded the city to gain control . In late 1994 , bombardment of the capital came to a temporary halt . These forces took steps to restore law and order . Courts started to work again , convicting individuals inside government troops who had committed crimes . Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections , also inviting the Taliban to join the process but the idea was rejected by them . By 1995 the university opened its doors once again . The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were repelled at first by Massoud 's forces . Amnesty International , referring to the Taliban offensive , wrote in a 1995 report that `` This is the first time in several months that Kabul civilians have become the targets of rocket attacks and shelling aimed at residential areas in the city . '' On September 26 , 1996 , as the Taliban prepared for another major offensive , Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul and fled north . The next day the Taliban seized Kabul and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan . They imposed a strict form of Sharia ( Islamic law ) , restricting women from work and education . They also conducted amputations against common thieves . Their hit - squads from the infamous `` Ministry for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice '' watched the streets conducting public beatings of people . The al - Qaeda of Osama bin Laden and Ayman al - Zawahiri became a state within the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan , with bin Laden controlling Kabul and the eastern city of Jalalabad . During the hardline Taliban regime , Kabul was a deserted city with many residents having long left , most infrastructure destroyed and little to no education or public services . The regime 's lack of interest in development meant that the city remained barren during their rule . On a positive note the Taliban 's rule , which would last for five years , gave relative calm to Kabul after years of violence between warlords . 21st century ( edit ) Further information : Presidency of Hamid Karzai and List of terrorist attacks in Kabul since 2008 An American soldier standing with children at Freedom Circle ( 2011 ) In November 2001 , the Northern Alliance captured Kabul after the Taliban had abandoned it . A month later a new government under President Hamid Karzai began to assemble . In the meantime , a NATO - led International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) was deployed in Afghanistan . The war - torn city began to see some positive development as many expatriate Afghans returned to the country . The city 's population grew from about 500,000 in 2001 to over 3 million in recent years . Many foreign embassies re-opened . As of 2014 , the Afghan National Security Forces ( ANSF ) have been in charge of security in and around the city . Kabul is periodically the scene of deadly suicide bombings carried out by the Haqqani network , the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant -- Khorasan Province , the Taliban 's Quetta Shura , Hezbi Islami , al - Qaeda , and other anti-state groups . Government employees , soldiers and ordinary civilians have all been targets of attacks . The Afghan government called the actions of the terrorists war crimes . Geography , climate and environment ( edit ) Further information : Geography of Afghanistan Kabul serves as the nation 's cultural and learning center , situated 1,791 meters ( 5,876 feet ) above sea level in a narrow valley , wedged between the Hindu Kush mountains along the Kabul River . It is linked with Kandahar , Herat and Mazar - e Sharif via the circular Highway 1 that stretches across Afghanistan . It is also the start of the main road to Jalalabad and further to Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . The Kabul International Airport is located about 16 km ( 9.9 mi ) from the center of the city , next to the Wazir Akbar Khan neighborhood . Bagram Airfield is about 40 km ( 25 mi ) northeast of Kabul . Kabul has a cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ) with precipitation concentrated in the winter ( almost exclusively falling as snow ) and spring months . Temperatures are relatively cool compared to much of Southwest Asia , mainly due to the high elevation of the city . Summer has very low humidity , providing relief from the heat . Autumn features warm afternoons and sharply cooler evenings . Winters are cold , with a January daily average of − 2.3 ° C ( 27.9 ° F ) . Spring is the wettest time of the year , though temperatures are generally amiable . Sunny conditions dominate year - round . The annual mean temperature is 12.1 ° C ( 53.8 ° F ) . ( hide ) Climate data for Kabul ( 1956 -- 1983 ) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high ° C ( ° F ) 18.8 ( 65.8 ) 18.4 ( 65.1 ) 26.7 ( 80.1 ) 28.7 ( 83.7 ) 33.5 ( 92.3 ) 36.8 ( 98.2 ) 37.7 ( 99.9 ) 37.3 ( 99.1 ) 35.1 ( 95.2 ) 31.6 ( 88.9 ) 24.4 ( 75.9 ) 20.4 ( 68.7 ) 37.7 ( 99.9 ) Average high ° C ( ° F ) 4.5 ( 40.1 ) 5.5 ( 41.9 ) 12.5 ( 54.5 ) 19.2 ( 66.6 ) 24.4 ( 75.9 ) 30.2 ( 86.4 ) 32.1 ( 89.8 ) 32.0 ( 89.6 ) 28.5 ( 83.3 ) 22.4 ( 72.3 ) 15.0 ( 59 ) 8.3 ( 46.9 ) 19.5 ( 67.1 ) Daily mean ° C ( ° F ) − 2.3 ( 27.9 ) − 0.7 ( 30.7 ) 6.3 ( 43.3 ) 12.8 ( 55 ) 17.3 ( 63.1 ) 22.8 ( 73 ) 25.0 ( 77 ) 24.1 ( 75.4 ) 19.7 ( 67.5 ) 13.1 ( 55.6 ) 5.9 ( 42.6 ) 0.6 ( 33.1 ) 12.1 ( 53.8 ) Average low ° C ( ° F ) − 7.1 ( 19.2 ) − 5.7 ( 21.7 ) 0.7 ( 33.3 ) 6.0 ( 42.8 ) 8.8 ( 47.8 ) 12.4 ( 54.3 ) 15.3 ( 59.5 ) 14.3 ( 57.7 ) 9.4 ( 48.9 ) 3.9 ( 39 ) − 1.2 ( 29.8 ) − 4.7 ( 23.5 ) 4.3 ( 39.7 ) Record low ° C ( ° F ) − 25.5 ( − 13.9 ) − 24.8 ( − 12.6 ) − 12.6 ( 9.3 ) − 2.1 ( 28.2 ) 0.4 ( 32.7 ) 3.1 ( 37.6 ) 7.5 ( 45.5 ) 6.0 ( 42.8 ) 1.0 ( 33.8 ) − 3.0 ( 26.6 ) − 9.4 ( 15.1 ) − 18.9 ( − 2 ) − 25.5 ( − 13.9 ) Average precipitation mm ( inches ) 34.3 ( 1.35 ) 60.1 ( 2.366 ) 67.9 ( 2.673 ) 71.9 ( 2.831 ) 23.4 ( 0.921 ) 1.0 ( 0.039 ) 6.2 ( 0.244 ) 1.6 ( 0.063 ) 1.7 ( 0.067 ) 3.7 ( 0.146 ) 18.6 ( 0.732 ) 21.6 ( 0.85 ) 312.0 ( 12.283 ) Average rainy days 10 11 8 48 Average snowy days 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Average relative humidity ( % ) 68 70 65 61 48 36 37 38 39 42 52 63 52 Mean monthly sunshine hours 177.2 178.6 204.5 232.5 310.3 353.4 356.8 339.7 303.9 282.6 253.2 182.4 3,175.1 Source : NOAA Neighbourhoods ( edit ) Main article : Neighborhoods of Kabul A family park in the Bibi Mahro neighborhood The city of Kabul is one of the 15 districts of Kabul Province , which is divided into 22 city districts . Each city district covers several neighborhoods . Government and politics ( edit ) Further information : Politics of Afghanistan The current mayor of the city is Abdullah Habibzai who was appointed in May 2016 as the acting mayor . Kabul 's Chief of Police is Lt. Gen. Abdul Rahman Rahimi . The police are part of the Afghan National Police ( ANP ) under the Ministry of Interior and are arranged by city districts . The Police Chief is selected by the Interior Minister and is responsible for all law enforcement activities throughout the Kabul province . Demographics ( edit ) Further information : Demographics of Afghanistan and Afghan diaspora Young Afghan men and women at a rock music festival inside the Gardens of Babur . Kabul 's population was estimated in 2015 at about 4.6 million , which possibly includes the people of the province as well . Another 2015 estimate has put it at 3,678,034 . The city 's population has long fluctuated due to the wars . A large number of Afghans from other provinces moved to Kabul in the last decade , mainly due to the war between rebel groups and Afghan government forces in their native areas . Kabul 's population was around 500,000 in 1979 , whilst another source claims 337,715 as of 1976 . This figure rose to about 2 million by 1988 , before dramatically dropping in the 1990s . Kabul became one of the fastest growing cities in the world , with its population growing fourfold from 2001 to 2014 . However the city could not keep up with the rapid urbanization and today many residents live in informal settlements . In 2003 , the National Geographic Channel reported that Kabul 's population was composed of the following ethnic groups : 45 % Tajik , 25 % Hazara , 25 % Pashtun , 2 % Uzbek , 1 % Baloch , 1 % Turkmen , and 1 % Afghan Hindu . Dari and Pashto language are widely used in the region although Dari ( Afghan Persian ) serves as the lingua franca . Multilingualism is common throughout the area , particularly among the Pashtun people . About 74 % of the city 's population follows Sunni Islam while 25 % are Shiites ( mainly the Hazaras ) . The remaining 1 % are followers of Sikhism and Hinduism . The city also has one Jewish resident . Economy ( edit ) Further information : Economy of Afghanistan A commercial area in the city Kabul 's main products include fresh and dried fruit , nuts , beverages , Afghan rugs , leather and sheep skin products , furniture , antique replicas , and domestic clothes . The world bank authorized US $ 25 million for the Kabul Urban Reconstruction Project which closed in 2011 . Over the last decade , the United States has invested approximately $9.1 billion into urban infrastructure in Afghanistan . The wars since 1978 have limited the city 's economic productivity but after the establishment of the Karzai administration . Since late 2001 , local economic development has included a number of indoor shopping centers . About 6 km ( 4 mi ) from downtown Kabul , in Bagrami , a 9 - hectare ( 22 - acre ) industrial complex has completed with modern facilities , which will allow companies to operate businesses there . The park has professional management for the daily maintenance of public roads , internal streets , common areas , parking areas , 24 hours perimeter security , access control for vehicles and persons . A number of factories operate there , including the $25 million Coca - Cola bottling plant and the Omaid Bahar juice factory . According to Transparency International , the government of Afghanistan is the third most - corrupt in the world . Experts believe that the poor decisions of Afghan politicians contribute to the unrest in the region . This also prevents foreign investment in Afghanistan , especially by Western countries . In 2012 , there were reportedly $3.9 billion paid to public officials in bribes which contributed to these issues . Da Afghanistan Bank , the nation 's central bank , is headquartered in Kabul . In addition , there are several commercial banks in the city . Development plans ( edit ) A $1 billion USD contract was signed in 2013 to commence work on the `` New Kabul City '' , which is a major residential scheme that would accommodate 1.5 million people . In the meantime , many high rise buildings are being constructed in order to control the overcrowding and also to modernize the city . An initial concept design called the City of Light Development , envisioned by Dr. Hisham N. Ashkouri , for the development and the implementation of a privately based investment enterprise has been proposed for multi-function commercial , historic and cultural development within the limits of the Old City of Kabul , along the southern side of the Kabul River and along Jade Meywand Avenue , Communications ( edit ) Further information : Communications in Afghanistan As of November 2015 , there are more than 24 television stations based out of Kabul . In Kabul , Minister Amir Zai Sangin of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology maintains statistics regarding telecommunications in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan . Afghanistan Information Management Services ( AIMS ) provides software development , capacity development , information management , and project management services to the Afghan Government and other NGOs , thereby supporting their on - the - ground activities . GSM / GPRS mobile phone services in the city are provided by Afghan Wireless , Etisalat , Roshan , MTN and Salaam Network . As of 2012 , all of them provide 3G services as well . In November 2006 , the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a $64.5 million US dollar deal with ZTE on the establishment of a countrywide fibre optical cable network to help improve telephone , internet , television and radio broadcast services not just in Kabul but throughout the country . Internet cafes were introduced in 2002 and has been expanding throughout the country . As of 2012 , 3G services are also available . There are a number of post offices throughout the city . Package delivery services like FedEx , TNT N.V. , and DHL are also available . Health care ( edit ) Further information : Health in Afghanistan Health care in Afghanistan is relatively poor . The wealthy Afghans usually go abroad when seeking treatment . Presently , there are several hospitals in Kabul which include ; Sardar Mohammad Daud Khan Hospital French Medical Institute for Children Kabul City Hospital Indira Gandhi Children 's Hospital Jamhuriat Hospital Sardar Mohammad Daud Khan Hospital Jinnah Hospital ( under construction ) Wazir Akbar Khan Hospital Malalai Maternity Hospital Rabia - I - Balki Maternity Hospital Maywand Hospital Afshar Hospital Noor Eye Hospital Atatürk Children 's Hospital American Medical Center Afghanistan DK - German Medical Diagnostic Center CURE International Hospital KIA ISAF Role 3 Hospital Education ( edit ) Further information : List of schools in Kabul and Education in Afghanistan Kabul Medical University The Ministry of Education led by Ghulam Farooq Wardak is responsible for the education system in Afghanistan . Public and private schools in the city have reopened since 2002 after they were shut down or destroyed during fighting in the 1980s to the late 1990s . Boys and girls are strongly encouraged to attend school under the Karzai administration but many more schools are needed not only in Kabul but throughout the country . The Afghan Ministry of Education has plans to build more schools in the coming years so that education is provided to all citizens of the country . The most well known high schools in Kabul include : Habibia High School , a British - Afghan school founded in 1903 by King Habibullah Khan Lycée Esteqlal , a Franco - Afghan school founded in 1922 Malalai High School , a Franco - Afghan school for girls Amani High School , a German - Afghan school for boys founded in 1924 Aisha - i - Durani School , a German - Afghan school for girls Rahman Baba High School , an American - Afghan school for boys International School of Kabul , an American - Afghan school Afghan Turk High Schools , Turkish - Afghan schools Ghulam Haider Khan High School , a school for boys Abdul Hadi Dawi High School , a school for boys Nazo Ana High School , a school for girls Universities ( edit ) Further information : List of universities in Afghanistan The city 's colleges and universities were renovated after 2002 . Some of them have been developed recently , while others have existed since the early 20th century . Transportation ( edit ) Further information : Transport in Afghanistan Flightline at Hamid Karzai International Airport ( Kabul International Airport ) Airports ( edit ) The Hamid Karzai International Airport ( Kabul International Airport ) is located 25 km ( 16 mi ) from the center of Kabul , which always served as the country 's main airport . It is a hub to Ariana Afghan Airlines , the national carrier of Afghanistan , as well as private airlines such as Afghan Jet International , East Horizon Airlines , Kam Air , Pamir Airways , and Safi Airways . Regional airlines such as Air India , SpiceJet , flydubai , Emirates , Gulf Air , Mahan Air , Pakistan International Airlines , Turkish Airlines and others also have regularly scheduled flights to the airport . A new international terminal was built by the government of Japan and began operation in 2008 . Railways ( edit ) Kabul has no train service but the government plans to build rail lines to connect the city with Mazar - i - Sharif in the north and Jalalabad - Torkham in the east . It also plans to build a metro rail in the future . Afghanistan 's only railway service , the Kabul -- Darulaman Tramway , operated for only six years from 1923 to 1929 . Road ( edit ) Long distance road journeys are made by private Mercedes - Benz coach buses or various types of vans , trucks and cars . Although a nationwide bus service is available from Kabul , flying is safer , especially for foreigners . The city 's public bus service ( Milli Bus / `` National Bus '' ) was established in the 1960s to take commuters on daily routes to many destinations . The service currently has about 800 buses , but it is gradually expanding and upgrading the fleet . The Kabul bus system has recently discovered a new source of revenue in whole - bus advertising from MTN similar to `` bus wrap '' advertising on public transit in more developed nations . There is also an express bus that runs from downtown to Kabul International Airport for Safi Airways passengers . Private vehicles are on the rise in Kabul , with several dealerships in the city . It has been reported that up to 90 % of cars in Kabul are Corollas . Gas stations are mainly private - owned . Bicycles on the road are a common sight in the city as are white and yellow older model Toyota Corolla taxicab used cars . Trolleybuses ( edit ) Kabul 's main form of public transport was an electric trolleybus service that was built by the Czechoslovak Elektrizace železnic Praha ( Electrification of railways , Prague ) from 1976 . The service launched on February 9 , 1979 with 25 Škoda 9TrH23 trolleybuses in a blue and white livery , eventually rising to 86 fleet by 1988 . The initial line ran between Cinema Pamir and Silo , later expanded to three lines amounting a total of 12.5 km ( 7.8 mi ) . The trolleybus service was highly popular mainly due to its low price compared to the Milli Bus bus service . After months of warfare in the city , the last trolleybus came to a halt at the end of 1992 . The copper overhead wires were subsequently looted and sold to scrap dealers . Some of the steel poles can still be seen in Kabul today . In 2004 there were plans for a resurrected trolleybus service but the proposal never made it to life . Tourism ( edit ) Each year about 20,000 foreign tourists visit Afghanistan . Major hotels in Kabul include ; the Serena Hotel , the Inter-Continental , and the Safi Landmark Hotel above the Kabul City Center . There are a number of other less - known hotels . Most visitors prefer lodging at guest houses , which are found all over the city . The better and safer ones are in the Wazir Akbar Khan neighborhood where the embassies are located . The old part of Kabul is filled with bazaars nestled along its narrow , crooked streets . Cultural sites include : the National Museum of Afghanistan , notably displaying an impressive statue of Surya excavated at Khair Khana , the ruined Darul Aman Palace , the tomb of Mughal Emperor Babur at Bagh - e Babur , and Chehlstoon Park , the Minar - i - Istiqlal ( Column of Independence ) built in 1919 after the Third Afghan War , the tomb of Timur Shah Durrani , and the imposing Id Gah Mosque ( founded 1893 ) . Bala Hissar is a fort destroyed by the British in 1879 , in retaliation for the death of their envoy , now restored as a military college . The Minaret of Chakari , destroyed in 1998 , had Buddhist swastika and both Mahayana and Theravada qualities . Other places of interest include Kabul City Center , which is Kabul 's first shopping mall , the shops around Flower Street and Chicken Street , Wazir Akbar Khan district , Kabul Golf Club , Kabul Zoo , Abdul Rahman Mosque , Shah - Do Shamshira and other famous mosques , the National Gallery of Afghanistan , the National Archives of Afghanistan , Afghan Royal Family Mausoleum , the OMAR Mine Museum , Bibi Mahro Hill , Kabul Cemetery , and Paghman Gardens . The Aga Khan Development Network ( AKDN ) was also involved in the restoration of the Bagh - e Babur ( Babur Gardens ) . Tappe - i - Maranjan is a nearby hill where Buddhist statues and Graeco - Bactrian coins from the 2nd century BC have been found . Outside the city proper is a citadel and the royal palace . Paghman and Jalalabad are interesting valleys north and east of the city . Ghazi Stadium National Museum of Afghanistan National Gallery of Afghanistan Hotel Inter-Continental Sports complexes Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground Ghazi Stadium Olympic Committee Gymnasium Parks Bagh - e Babur ( Gardens of Babur ) Baghi Bala Park Zarnegar Park Shahr - e Naw Park Bagh - e Zanana Chaman - e-Hozori Bibi Mahro Park Lake Qargha Mosques Abdul Rahman Mosque Id Gah Mosque Abu Fazl Mosque in Murad Khane Pul - e Khishti Mosque Shah - Do Shamshira Mosque Mausoleums Mausoleum of Timur Shah Durrani Mausoleum of Abdur Rahman Khan Mausoleum of Zahir Shah and Nadir Shah Mausoleum of Jamal - al - Din al - Afghani Museums National Museum of Afghanistan National Archives of Afghanistan National Gallery of Afghanistan Negaristani Milli Hotels Serena Hotel Inter-Continental Safi Landmark Hotel Kabul Star Hotel Heetal Plaza Hotel Tours There are local travel agencies developing their activity in the country . Looking toward Mausoleum of Mohammed Zahir Shah and Mohammed Nadir Shah on Maranjan Hill in the far distant Tajbeg Palace Bagh - e Babur ( Gardens of Babur ) Twin towns -- sister cities ( edit ) Istanbul , Turkey Kazan , Russia Ankara , Turkey ( 2003 ) See also ( edit ) Afghanistan portal List of cities in Afghanistan 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes Kabul Province References and footnotes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` The World Factbook '' . CIA . Retrieved 2015 - 09 - 13 . ^ Jump up to : `` 2003 National Geographic Population Map '' ( PDF ) . Thomas Gouttierre , Center For Afghanistan Studies , University of Nebraska at Omaha ; Matthew S. Baker , Stratfor . National Geographic Society . November 2003 . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Largest cities in the world and their mayors -- 1 to 150 '' . City Mayors. 2012 - 05 - 17 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` World 's fastest growing urban areas ( 1 ) '' . City Mayors. 2012 - 05 - 17 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : Nancy Hatch Dupree / Aḥmad ʻAlī Kuhzād ( 1972 ) . `` An Historical Guide to Kabul -- The Story of Kabul '' . American International School of Kabul . Archived from the original on 2010 - 08 - 30 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Louis Dupree , Nancy Hatch Dupree ; et al . `` Last Afghan empire '' . Online Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` History of Kabul '' . Lonely Planet . Retrieved 2013 - 05 - 27 . Jump up ^ See National Review , November 20 , 2002 , Merriam - Webster : Kabul ^ Jump up to : Nancy Hatch Dupree / Aḥmad ʻAlī Kuhzād ( 1972 ) . `` An Historical Guide to Kabul -- The Name '' . American International School of Kabul . Archived from the original on 2010 - 08 - 30 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kabul : City of lost glories '' . BBC News . November 12 , 2001 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Houtsma , Martijn Theodoor ( 1987 ) . E.J. Brill 's first encyclopaedia of Islam , 1913 -- 1936 . 2 . BRILL . p. 159 . ISBN 90 - 04 - 08265 - 4 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 23 . Jump up ^ Levi , P. ; Jules Bloch ; Jean Przyluski ( 1993 ) . Pre-Aryan and pre-Dravidian in India . Asian Educational Services . p. 87 . ISBN 81 - 206 - 0772 - 4 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 ... they apply to a population of the north - western frontier of India designated by the nickname of `` shaved heads , '' and especially to the Kamboja of the country of Kabul . Jump up ^ Watson , John Forbes ; Sir John William Kaye ( 2007 ) . The people of India : a series of photographic illustrations , with descriptive letterpress , of the races and tribes of Hindustan. 1 . Pagoda Tree Press . p. 276 . ISBN 1 - 904289 - 44 - 4 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . The Sanskrit name of Cabul is Kamboj , and a slight transition of sound renders this name so similar to Kumboh . Jump up ^ Mookerji , Radhakumud ( 1966 ) . Chandragupta Maurya and his times ( 4 ed . ) . Motilal Banarsidass Publ . p. 173 . ISBN 81 - 208 - 0405 - 8 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` A. -- The Hindu Kings of Kábul ( p. 2 ) '' . Sir H.M. Elliot . London : Packard Humanities Institute . 1867 -- 1877 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Hill , John E. 2004 . The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏 略 by Yu Huan 魚 豢 : A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD . Draft annotated English translation ... Link Jump up ^ Hill ( 2004 ) , pp. 29 , 352 -- 352 . Jump up ^ A.D.H. Bivar , KUSHAN DYNASTY , in Encyclopaedia Iranica , 2010 ^ Jump up to : `` A. -- The Hindu Kings of Kábul '' . Sir H.M. Elliot . London : Packard Humanities Institute . 1867 -- 1877 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Horace Hayman ( 1998 ) . Ariana antiqua : a descriptive account of the antiquities and coins of . Asian Educational Services . p. 133 . ISBN 81 - 206 - 1189 - 6 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` A. -- The Hindu Kings of Kábul ( p. 3 ) '' . Sir H.M. Elliot . London : Packard Humanities Institute . 1867 -- 1877 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Ibn Battuta ( 2004 ) . Travels in Asia and Africa , 1325 -- 1354 ( reprint , illustrated ed . ) . Routledge . p. 180 . ISBN 0 - 415 - 34473 - 5 . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 10 . Jump up ^ Zahir ud - Din Mohammad Babur ( 1525 ) . `` Events Of The Year 910 '' . Memoirs of Babur . Packard Humanities Institute . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ Gall , Sandy ( 2012 ) . War Against the Taliban : Why It All Went Wrong in Afghanistan . Bloomsbury Publishing . p. 165 . ISBN 14 - 08 - 80905 - 2 . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Kabul '' . Online Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2010 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Anthony Hyman , `` Nationalism in Afghanistan '' in International Journal of Middle East Studies , 34 : 2 ( Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 2002 ) 305 . ^ Jump up to : Hyman , 305 . Jump up ^ Nick Cullather , `` Damming Afghanistan : Modernization in a Buffer State '' in The Journal of American History 89 : 2 ( Indiana : Organization of American Historians , 2002 ) 518 . Jump up ^ Cullather , 518 . ^ Jump up to : Cullather , 519 . Jump up ^ Cullather , 530 . ^ Jump up to : Cullather , 534 . Jump up ^ `` The Lonely Planet Journey : The Hippie Trail '' . The Independent . 5 Nov 2011 . Retrieved 14 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Hyman , `` Nationalism in Afghanistan '' , 307 . Jump up ^ John E. Haynes , `` Keeping Cool About Kabul '' in World Affairs , 145 : 4 ( Washington , D.C. : Heldref Publications , 1983 ) , 371 . ^ Jump up to : Bowersox , Gary W. ( 2004 ) . The Gem Hunter : The Adventures of an American in Afghanistan . United States : GeoVision , Inc. , . p. 100 . ISBN 0 - 9747 - 3231 - 1 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 22 . Jump up ^ Haynes , 372 . ^ Jump up to : Haynes , 373 . Jump up ^ `` Nur Muhammad Taraki '' . Notable Names Database . ^ Jump up to : Yousaf , PA , Brigadier General ( retired ) Mohammad ( 1991 ) . Silent soldier : the man behind the Afghan jehad General Akhtar Abdur Rahman . Karachi , Sindh : Jang Publishers , 1991 . p. 106 . Jump up ^ Kakar , Hassan M. ( 1997 ) . Afghanistan : The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response , 1979 -- 1982 . University of California Press . p. 291 . ISBN 0 - 5202 - 0893 - 5 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 08 . Jump up ^ `` Kabul at War ( 1992 -- 1996 ) : State , Ethnicity and Social Classes '' . samaj.revues.org . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 25 . Jump up ^ Afghanistan : The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation , By J. Bruce Amstutz -- Page 139 Jump up ^ Afghanistan : The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation , By J. Bruce Amstutz -- Page 139 & 140 Jump up ^ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists -- December 1983 issue Jump up ^ Afghanistan : The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation , By J. Bruce Amstutz -- Page 140 Jump up ^ Afghanistan : The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan , by Amin Saikal , William Maley -- Page 48 Jump up ^ Kolhatkar , S. ; Ingalls , J. ; Barsamian , D. ( 2011 ) . Bleeding Afghanistan : Washington , Warlords , and the Propaganda of Silence . Seven Stories Press . ISBN 9781609800932 . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 25 . Jump up ^ Bowersox ( p. 192 ) Jump up ^ http://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/05/world/afghan-capital-grim-as-war-follows-war.html Jump up ^ Nazif M Shahrani , `` War , Factionalism and the State in Afghanistan '' in American Anthropologist 104 : 3 ( Arlington , Virginia : American Anthropological Association , 2008 ) , 719 . Jump up ^ Sidky , `` War , Changing Patterns of Warfare , State Collapse , and Transnational Violence in Afghanistan : 1978 -- 2001 '' , 870 . Jump up ^ Amin Saikal . Modern Afghanistan : A History of Struggle and Survival ( 2006 1st ed . ) . I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. , London New York . p. 352 . ISBN 1 - 85043 - 437 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` Casting Shadows : War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity : 1978 -- 2001 '' ( PDF ) . Afghanistan Justice Project . 2005 . ^ Jump up to : Amnesty International . `` DOCUMENT -- AFGHANISTAN : FURTHER INFORMATION ON FEAR FOR SAFETY AND NEW CONCERN : DELIBERATE AND ARBITRARY KILLINGS : CIVILIANS IN KABUL . '' 16 November 1995 Accessed at : `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2014 - 07 - 07 . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Afghanistan : escalation of indiscriminate shelling in Kabul '' . International Committee of the Red Cross . 1995 . Jump up ^ BBC Newsnight 1995 on YouTube Jump up ^ Marcela Grad . Massoud : An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader ( March 1 , 2009 ed . ) . Webster University Press . p. 310 . Jump up ^ Coll , Ghost Wars ( New York : Penguin , 2005 ) , 14 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Taliban 's War on Women . A Health and Human Rights Crisis in Afghanistan '' ( PDF ) . Physicians for Human Rights . 1998 . Jump up ^ `` BOOK REVIEW : The inside track on Afghan wars by Khaled Ahmed '' . Daily Times . 2008 . Archived from the original on 2013 - 10 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. blames Pakistan agency in Kabul attack '' . Reuters . September 22 , 2011 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. links Pakistan to group it blames for Kabul attack '' . Reuters . September 17 , 2011 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Clinton Presses Pakistan to Help Fight Haqqani Insurgent Group '' . Fox News . September 18 , 2011 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` Pakistan condemns US comments about spy agency '' . Associated Press . September 23 , 2011 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 23 . Jump up ^ Baktash , Hashmat ; Rodriguez , Alex ( December 7 , 2008 ) . `` Two Afghanistan bombings aimed at Shiites kill at least 59 people '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ RUBIN , ALISSA . `` U.S. Embassy and NATO Headquarters Attacked in Kabul '' . nytimes.com . Jump up ^ Holehouse , Matthew ( 13 September 2011 ) . `` Kabul US embassy attack : September 13 as it happened '' . London : telegraph.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` At least 55 killed in Kabul suicide bombing '' . The Hindu . Chennai , India . December 7 , 2008 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Photos of the Day : Dec. 8 '' . The Wall Street Journal . December 7 , 2008 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Rocket Attack on U.S. Base in Afghanistan Kills 2 Troops , Wounds 6 Americans '' . Foxnews.com. 2009 - 06 - 21 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Kabul Climate Normals 1956 -- 1983 '' . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Retrieved 2013 - 03 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` GeoHive - Afghanistan extended population statistics '' . Archived from the original on 2015 - 07 - 21 . ^ Jump up to : http://www.spvd.cz/index.php/component/content/article/181-clanky/svet/af/217-afghanistan-en Jump up ^ Rasmussen , Sune Engel ( 11 December 2014 ) . `` Kabul -- the fifth fastest growing city in the world -- is bursting at the seams '' -- via The Guardian . Jump up ^ `` Projects : Kabul Urban Reconstruction Project The World Bank '' . Worldbank.org . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` DVIDS -- News -- US Forces -- Afghanistan adjusts its $9.1 billion infrastructure program to meet Afghans ' near - term needs '' . Dvidshub.net . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Kabul 's Tax Levies Raise Flags From U.S. Watchdog -- WSJ '' . online.wsj.com . Retrieved 2014 - 10 - 25 . Jump up ^ Afghanistan Industrial Parks Development Authority ... Kabul ( Bagrami ) Jump up ^ `` Corruption Perceptions Index 2010 Results '' . Transparency International . 2010 . Retrieved 2011 - 02 - 27 . Jump up ^ 09.08. 13 . `` Afghanistan 's Million Dollar Minister '' . The Daily Beast . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Licensed banks in Kabul include : Afghanistan International Bank , Kabul Bank , Azizi Bank , Pashtany Bank , Afghan United Bank , Standard Chartered Bank , Punjab National Bank , Habib Bank and Western Union Jump up ^ Muhammad Hassan Khetab , ed. ( 4 September 2013 ) . `` $1 b contract signed to begin work on New Kabul City plan '' . Pajhwok Afghan News - . Retrieved 2013 - 09 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Welcome to our Official Website '' . DCDA . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Onyx Construction Company '' . Onyx.af . Archived from the original on 2012 - 04 - 27 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 17 . Jump up ^ Kabul -- City of Light Project ... link Jump up ^ Micallef , Joseph V. ( 8 November 2015 ) . `` Afghanistan 2015 : The View From Kabul '' . Jump up ^ Pajhwok Afghan News -- Ministry signs contract with Chinese company Jump up ^ Rivera , Ray ; Sahak , Sharifullah ( 2011 - 05 - 21 ) . `` Blast Hits Military Hospital in Afghan Capital '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ S. Hakim Hamdani . `` DK -- German Medical Diagnostic Center Ltd . -- Experience , Quality , Excellence '' . medical-kabul.com . Retrieved 27 July 2015 . Jump up ^ CURE International . `` CURE Afghanistan '' . CURE . Retrieved 27 July 2015 . Jump up ^ `` دپوھنی وزارت '' . Moe.gov.af . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 18 . Jump up ^ Nakamura , David ( 2010 - 08 - 27 ) . `` In Afghanistan , a car for the masses '' . The Washington Post . Jump up ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation , Dodgy cars clogging Kabul 's roads Jump up ^ `` Catherine Lytle : From Gerbils to Trolleybus '' . Jump up ^ `` Trolley Buses to Ease Kabul 's Tangled Traffic '' . Jump up ^ Navid Ahmad Barakzai , ed. ( September 27 , 2016 ) . `` 20,000 foreign tourists visit Afghanistan annually '' . Pajhwok Afghan News ( PAN ) . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 15 . Jump up ^ `` Landmark Hotels and Suites '' . Lmhotelgroup.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Kabul Star Hotel '' . State Group . Retrieved 2015 - 10 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Heetal Group of companies '' . Heetal.com . Retrieved 2010 - 06 - 27 . Jump up ^ For example : Lets 's be friends -- Afghanistan . Jump up ^ `` Sister Cities of Istanbul '' . Greater Istanbul . Retrieved 10 April 2015 . Jump up ^ Cultures and Globalization : Cities , Cultural Policy and Governance by Helmut K Anheier , p. 376 Jump up ^ `` Sister Cities of Ankara '' . Further reading ( edit ) Canadian Press ( October 14 , 2007 ) . `` Afghanistan Struggles to Preserve Rich Past Despite Ongoing War '' . Canadian Press . Tang , Alisa ( Associated Press ) ( January 21 , 2008 ) . `` Kabul 's Old City Getting Face Lift '' . The Boston Globe . Hill , John E. ( 2009 ) . Through the Jade Gate to Rome : A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty , 1st to 2nd Centuries CE . BookSurge , Charleston , South Carolina . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4392 - 2134 - 1 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kabul . Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Kabul . People of Kabul -- report by Radio France Internationale in English Fourteen largest cities in Afghanistan by population Kabul Kandahar Herat Mazari Sharif Kunduz Jalalabad Lashkar Gah Taloqan Puli Khumri Khost Ghazni Sheberghan Sari Pol Farah Capitals of Asia Dependent territories and states with limited recognition are in italics North and Central Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West and Southwest Asia Ashgabat , Turkmenistan Astana , Kazakhstan * Bishkek , Kyrgyzstan Dushanbe , Tajikistan Moscow , Russia * Tashkent , Uzbekistan East Asia Beijing , China Hong Kong , Hong Kong ( China ) Macau , Macau ( China ) Pyongyang , North Korea Seoul , South Korea Taipei , Taiwan ( ROC ) Tokyo , Japan Ulaanbaatar , Mongolia Kabul , Afghanistan Dhaka , Bangladesh Diego Garcia , BIOT ( UK ) Islamabad , Pakistan Kathmandu , Nepal Kotte , Sri Lanka Malé , Maldives New Delhi , India Thimphu , Bhutan Bandar Seri Begawan , Brunei Bangkok , Thailand Dili , East Timor Flying Fish Cove , Christmas Island ( Australia ) Hanoi , Vietnam Jakarta , Indonesia * Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia Manila , Philippines Naypyidaw , Myanmar Phnom Penh , Cambodia Central Area , Singapore Vientiane , Laos West Island , Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands ( Australia ) Abu Dhabi , United Arab Emirates Amman , Jordan Ankara , Turkey * Baghdad , Iraq Baku , Azerbaijan * Beirut , Lebanon Cairo , Egypt * Sana'a , Yemen Stepanakert , Nagorno - Karabakh * Sukhumi , Abkhazia * Tbilisi , Georgia * Tehran , Iran Tskhinvali , South Ossetia * Yerevan , Armenia * * Transcontinental country . † See : Positions on Jerusalem . Both Israel and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as capital . Jerusalem contains the Israeli parliament and almost all Israeli government ministries . Tel Aviv contains most foreign embassies in Israel ; Ramallah is the administrative seat of the Palestinian Authority . Kabul Province Capital Kabul Districts Bagrami Char Asiab Deh Sabz Farza Guldara Istalif Kabul Kalakan Khaki Jabbar Mir Bacha Kot Mussahi Paghman Qarabagh Shakardara Surobi Cities Bagrami Qalai Naeem Tarakhel Dehnawe Farza Guldara Istalif Kabul Kalakan Khak - i Jabbar Mir Bacha Kot Mussahi Paghman Qara Bagh Shakar Dara Surobi Landmarks Presidential Palace Darul Aman Palace Bala Hissar Gardens of Babur InterContinental Hotel Safi Landmark Hotel Kabul Serena Hotel Kabul 's Irish Pub Kabul Library National Museum of Afghanistan Abdul Rahman Mosque Pul - e Khishti Mosque Id Gah Mosque Shah - Do Shamshira Mosque Gurdwara Karte Parwan VIAF : 150371535 LCCN : n80056678 GND : 4029127 - 3 BNF : cb153034962 ( data ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kabul&oldid=807178811 '' Categories : Kabul 2nd - millennium BC establishments Capitals in Asia Cities in Afghanistan Kabul Shahi Places in Shahnameh Populated places along the Silk Road Populated places established in the 2nd millennium BC Populated places in Kabul Province Hidden categories : Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Dari - language text Articles containing Pashto - language text Articles containing Persian - language text Articles to be merged from June 2015 All articles to be merged All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011 Articles with unsourced statements from January 2013 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2014 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Articles with unsourced statements from November 2014 Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2012 All articles containing potentially dated statements Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikivoyage Acèh Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Aragonés Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Bikol Central Български བོད ་ ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego Gĩkũyũ ગુજરાતી 客家 語 / Hak - kâ - ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Kalaallisut ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kinyarwanda Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Ligure Lingála Lumbaart Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური Bahasa Melayu Mìng - dĕ̤ng - ngṳ̄ Мокшень Монгол Dorerin Naoero Nederlands नेपाली 日本 語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk Norsk nynorsk Novial Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu پښتو ភាសា ខ្មែរ Piemontèis Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русский Davvisámegiella Scots Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taqbaylit Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vepsän kel ' Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 डोटेली Edit links This page was last edited on 26 October 2017 , at 11 : 53 . 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-7135581401397123801 | Parthenon (Nashville) | Parthenon ( Nashville ) - wikipedia Parthenon ( Nashville ) Jump to : navigation , search The Parthenon U.S. National Register of Historic Places The Parthenon in Nashville 's Centennial Park is a full - scale copy of the original Parthenon in Athens . Show map of Tennessee Show map of the US Show all Location Nashville , Tennessee Coordinates 36 ° 8 ′ 59 '' N 86 ° 48 ′ 48 '' W / 36.14972 ° N 86.81333 ° W / 36.14972 ; - 86.81333 Coordinates : 36 ° 8 ′ 59 '' N 86 ° 48 ′ 48 '' W / 36.14972 ° N 86.81333 ° W / 36.14972 ; - 86.81333 Built 1897 ( original structure ) 1925 -- 1931 ( permanent version ) Architect William Crawford Smith Architectural style Neoclassical NRHP reference # 72001236 Added to NRHP February 23 , 1972 Confederate veteran William Crawford Smith , who designed the Parthenon . The Parthenon in Centennial Park , Nashville , Tennessee is a full - scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens . It was designed by Confederate veteran William Crawford Smith and built in 1897 as part of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition . Today the Parthenon , which functions as an art museum , stands as the centerpiece of Centennial Park , a large public park just west of downtown Nashville . Alan LeQuire 's 1990 re-creation of the Athena Parthenos statue is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece . The statue of Athena Parthenos within is a reconstruction of the long - lost original to careful scholarly standards : she is cuirassed and helmeted , carries a shield on her left arm and a small 6 - foot - high ( 1.8 m ) statue of Nike ( Victory ) in her right palm , and stands 42 feet ( 13 m ) high , gilt with more than 8 pounds ( 3.6 kg ) of gold leaf ; an equally colossal serpent rears its head between her and her shield . Since the building is complete and its decorations were polychromed ( painted in colors ) as close to the presumed original as possible , this replica of the original Parthenon in Athens serves as a monument to what is considered the pinnacle of classical architecture . The plaster replicas of the Parthenon Marbles found in the naos ( the east room of the main hall ) are direct casts of the original sculptures which adorned the pediments of the Athenian Parthenon , dating back to 438 BC . The surviving originals are housed in the British Museum in London and at the Acropolis Museum in Athens . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 In popular culture 3 Gallery 4 References 5 External links History ( edit ) The reproduction Athena Parthenos statue Nashville 's moniker , the `` Athens of the South '' , influenced the choice of the building as the centerpiece of the 1897 Centennial Exposition . A number of buildings at the Exposition were based on ancient originals , however the Parthenon was the only one that was an exact reproduction . It was also the only one that was preserved by the city , although the Knights of Pythias Pavilion building was purchased and moved to nearby Franklin , Tennessee . Major Eugene Castner Lewis was the director of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition and it was at his suggestion that a reproduction of the Parthenon be built in Nashville to serve as the centerpiece of Tennessee 's Centennial Celebration . Lewis also served as the chief civil engineer for the Nashville , Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad . Originally built of plaster , wood , and brick , the Parthenon was not intended to be permanent , but the cost of demolishing the structure combined with its popularity with residents and visitors alike resulted in it being left standing after the Exposition . In 1895 George Julian Zolnay was `` employed to make models for the ornamentation '' for the building . Within the next 20 years , weather had defaced the landmark ; it was then rebuilt on the same foundations , in concrete , in a project that started in 1920 ; the exterior was completed in 1925 and the interior in 1931 . Some of the most elaborate events that occurred at the Parthenon were the Spring Pageants of 1913 and 1914 . These extravaganzas were theatrical productions on a massive scale . With casts of up to 500 , the Pageants brought in audiences from surroundings states and rail prices were lowered to encourage attendance . The entire city of Nashville reveled in the opportunity to celebrate the `` Athens of the South . '' The 1913 performance was entitled The Fire Regained , a play written by Sidney Mttron Hirsch , and featured a mythological storyline enhanced by theatrical spectacle popular in that era . The 1914 production , `` The Mystery at Thanatos , '' had a similarly mythological plot , but was shorter and better received . A copy of the script is on file at the Nashville Public Library . The most impressive thing about these Pageants was the incredible use of visual spectacle . Both shows featured impressive displays ranging from chariot races to huge dance numbers to thousands of live birds to set pieces that shot flames , all set against the backdrop of the majestic Nashville Parthenon . As an art museum , the Parthenon 's permanent collection is a group of 63 paintings by 19th - and 20th - century American artists donated by James M. Cowan . Additional gallery spaces provide a venue for a variety of temporary shows and exhibits . In the summertime , local theatre productions use the building as a backdrop for classic Greek plays such as Euripides ' Medea and Sophocles ' Antigone , performing ( usually for free ) on the steps of the Parthenon . Other performances , such as Mary Zimmerman 's Metamorphoses , have been done inside , at the foot of Athena 's statue . It contains a replica , completed in 1990 , of the Athena Parthenos statue which was in the original Parthenon in Athens . The Parthenon got a full makeover in 2002 with a much needed cleaning and restoration to the exterior . The exterior lighting was upgraded to allow the columns of the building to be illuminated with different colors than the facade , allowing a uniquely versatile display of effects for events . In popular Culture ( edit ) The Parthenon served as the location for the political rally in the climactic scene of Robert Altman 's 1975 film Nashville . It was also used as a backdrop for the battle against the Hydra in the 2010 film Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief . It features in the title and lyrics of the song Nashville Parthenon from the album Etiquette , by Casiotone for the Painfully Alone . It was used in the 2000 PBS series Greeks : Crucible of Civilization . A poem titled `` Ganymede '' in Heather Ross Miller 's Celestial Navigator : Writing Poems with Randall Jarrell features the Parthenon . The structure also figures in the climax of the Hector Lassiter novel , `` Three Chords & The Truth , '' by Craig McDonald . Gallery ( edit ) Statue of Athena Statues The center of the statues View from the corner References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` National Register of Historical Places - Tennessee ( TN ) , Davidson County '' . National Register of Historic Places . National Park Service . 2007 - 03 - 03 . Jump up ^ Coleman , Christopher K. ( Fall 1990 ) . `` From Monument to Museum : The Role of the Parthenon in the Culture of the New South '' . Tennessee Historical Quarterly . 49 ( 3 ) : 140 . Retrieved November 23 , 2015 -- via JSTOR . ( Registration required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` Valor 's Reward Paid His Memory . Tablet Unveiled to the Memory of Col. C.W. Smith . On Walls of the Parthenon . Rare Tribute Paid the Name of Soldier - Architect . Tully Brown and Lieut . Caruthers Deliver Addresses of Occasion Before Several Hundred People , Among Whom Were Comrades of Two Wars '' . The Nashville American . Nashville , Tennessee . July 6 , 1903 . pp. 5 ; 7 . Retrieved November 22 , 2015 -- via Newspapers.com . Jump up ^ Creighton , Wilbur F. , ' ' The Parthenon In Nashville : Athens of the South , From a personal viewpoint ' ' , JM Press , Brentwood TN , 1989 , revised edition 1991 Jump up ^ Creighton , Wilbur F. , ' ' The Parthenon In Nashville : From a personal viewpoint ' ' , 1968 , self published p. 21 - 22 Jump up ^ `` Timeline at the Parthenon '' . Metro Parks and Recreation Department , Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County , Tennessee . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 13 . Jump up ^ Stewart , John Lincoln ( 1965 ) . The Burden of Time : The Fugitives and Agrarians . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . pp. 3 -- 34 . OCLC 859825119 . Retrieved November 29 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nashville Parthenon . Nashville Parthenon website 1909 Panoramic photograph of the Nashville Parthenon from the Library of Congress ( hide ) Nashville landmarks Existing AT&T Building Belmont Mansion Bicentennial Capitol Mall State Park Bluebird Café Bridgestone Arena Centennial Park Cheekwood Country Music Hall of Fame First Tennessee Park Fort Nashborough Fort Negley Frist Center for the Visual Arts Gaylord Opryland Resort Grand Ole Opry Greer Stadium The Hermitage Life & Casualty Tower Memorial Gymnasium Music City Center Nashville City Cemetery Nashville International Airport Nashville Zoo at Grassmere Nissan Stadium Parthenon Ryman Auditorium Schermerhorn Symphony Center John Seigenthaler Pedestrian Bridge Tennessee Performing Arts Center Tennessee State Capitol Tennessee State Museum Tennessee Tower Union Station Vanderbilt Stadium Former Opryland USA Starwood Amphitheatre Sulphur Dell Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parthenon_(Nashville)&oldid=815281745 '' Categories : Museums in Nashville , Tennessee Art museums in Tennessee Buildings and structures in Nashville , Tennessee Buildings and structures completed in 1925 Greek Revival architecture in Tennessee Replica buildings World 's fair architecture in Tennessee Museums of Ancient Greece Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition Temples of Athena National Register of Historic Places in Nashville , Tennessee Hidden categories : Pages with login required references or sources Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Aragonés Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Latina Nederlands 日本 語 Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 December 2017 , at 22 : 28 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | when was the parthenon in nashville tennessee built | [
"The Parthenon in Centennial Park, Nashville, Tennessee is a full-scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens. It was designed by Confederate veteran William Crawford Smith and built in 1897 as part of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition."
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"1897"
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-3700178625965666837 | BIG3 | BIG3 - wikipedia BIG3 For other uses , see Big Three ( disambiguation ) . BIG3 BIG3 official logo Sport Basketball Founded January 11 , 2017 ; 21 months ago ( 2017 - 01 - 11 ) Founder Ice Cube Jeff Kwatinetz Inaugural season 2017 Commissioner Clyde Drexler No. of teams 8 Country United States Headquarters Los Angeles , California Venue ( s ) 10 Continent FIBA Americas ( Americas ) Most recent champion ( s ) Power ( 1st title ) Most titles Power ( 1 title ) Trilogy ( 1 title ) TV partner ( s ) Fox , FS1 Official website BIG3.com BIG3 is a 3 - on - 3 basketball league , featuring mostly retired National Basketball Association ( NBA ) players . The league was created by rapper / actor Ice Cube and entertainment executive Jeff Kwatinetz . Contents 1 History 2 Rules 3 Current teams 4 Draft 4.1 2018 draft 4.2 Player selections 5 Most recent season recap 5.1 2018 BIG3 season 6 Awards 6.1 Champions 6.2 Most Valuable Player 6.3 Coach of the Year 6.4 Captain of the Year 7 Broadcasting 8 References 9 External links History ( edit ) On January 11 , 2017 , Ice Cube and Jeff Kwatinetz announced their new 3 - on - 3 basketball league at the Sheraton Times Square Hotel , in New York City . After the conclusion of the inaugural season , awards were voted on by the players . The MVP was won by 3 Headed Monsters forward Rashard Lewis after he averaged 21.3 points per game . Trilogy 's undefeated season led to several awards for members of the team including DPOY won by James White and Coach of the Year awarded to Rick Mahorn . Adidas and the BIG3 league announced on April 3 , 2018 , that they agreed upon a three - year deal for Adidas to provide uniforms , apparel , and fan merchandise including tees , hoodies , and hats for The BIG3 League . Rules ( edit ) The rules of BIG3 differ considerably from FIBA - sanctioned 3 - on - 3 ( branded as 3x3 ) games . They are as follows : Like FIBA - sanctioned 3x3 , games are played on a half - court . Standard two - and three - point shots apply ; the three - point line is the same distance as in the NBA . ( 3x3 uses the FIBA arc , with shots from outside the arc worth 2 points and all others worth 1 . ) Unique to BIG3 are three `` four - point zones '' on a circle 30 feet away from the basket . One is on the midline of the court ; the other two are 40 degrees away from the midline . To score four points , a player 's foot must be touching any part of a circle . Instead of a jump ball to start the game , the `` home '' team inbounds first . The home team is determined by a do - or - die 4 - point shootout . Compare with 3x3 , in which the first possession is determined by a pregame coin toss , with the winner choosing whether to take possession at the start of a game or the start of a potential overtime . The shot clock runs 14 seconds , as opposed to 12 in 3x3 . Additional free throw is taken if a player is fouled while making a shot . A shooting foul awards one free throw , worth the same number of points as the fouled shot . Two - point shots are taken from the free throw line , three - point shots from the three - point line , four - point shots from the midline four - point circle . The free throw is awarded whether or not the fouled shot hits the basket . 3x3 follows standard FIBA rules for free throws after shooting fouls , with the exception of bonus situations ( see next item ) . Normally , if the basket attempt was made , one free throw is awarded , and if the basket attempt was missed , a number of free throws equal to the value of the shot attempt is awarded . Additionally , all free throws in 3x3 are worth 1 point , as they are in standard full - court basketball . Similar to 3x3 , fouls are ascribed to the team ; players can not foul out . However , the bonus free throw rules differ between the two rule sets . In BIG3 , after the fifth team foul in each half , opponents are guaranteed two one - point free throws and possession of the ball . Teams do not enter the bonus in 3x3 until the 7th team foul in a game , at which point the non-fouling team receives two free throws , but not possession . Only on the 10th team foul does the non-fouling team receive two free throws and possession . Under FIBA 3x3 rules , the normal rules for free throws on shooting fouls are specifically superseded by the bonus rules . A team 's first technical foul results in one two - point free throw and possession . Additional technical fouls , as well as all flagrant fouls , result in two two - point free throws and possession . In 3x3 , fouls classified as `` technical '' result in one ( 1 - point ) free throw and possession during open play , and `` unsportsmanlike '' fouls ( essentially the same as `` flagrant '' fouls in BIG3 ) result in two free throws and possession . To win , a team must score 50 or more points and lead by at least two points . This also means that overtime is not used in BIG3 . In 3x3 , the game ends by rule after 10 minutes of play , or if a team reaches at least 21 points , with no required victory margin . If the teams are tied , 3x3 uses an untimed overtime with the shot clock enforced , and the first team that scores 2 points in the overtime wins . Halftime happens after one team reaches 25 points . 3x3 has only a single period of 10 minutes . Each team receives two timeouts -- a 60 - second and a 30 - second -- per half . Unused timeouts do not carry over . 3x3 allows only one timeout per team . Substitutions can be made on a dead ball or by calling a timeout . After a score , a referee must touch the ball . After giving the defense 3 seconds to set , the opposing team must take the ball beyond the top out - of - bounds line . Player has 5 seconds to return the ball inbounds . In 3x3 , a referee is not required to be involved in a change of possession after the score . Instead , the non-scoring team takes possession of the ball directly under the basket , and at that point is free to dribble or pass the ball , but no shot is legal until the ball has been cleared beyond the arc . Defensive rebounds must be cleared if the ball touched the rim . If the ball did not touch the rim , defensive rebounds do not need to be cleared . In 3x3 , all defensive rebounds must be cleared . Steals do not have to be cleared , unlike in 3x3 . The ball is cleared when the player with the ball establishes both feet behind the 3 - point line . The ball can be cleared by dribbling or passing . This rule is identical to 3x3 . A defensive rebounder who makes a direct pass that clears the ball must clear the lane and re-establish himself before his team 's shot or pass hits the rim . If , following a defensive rebound after the ball touches the rim , the rebounding team shoots or passes before clearing the ball and the ball hits the rim , it results in a turnover . This rule is identical to 3x3 , and in that variant also extends to all changes of possession . Once a team has cleared the ball and establishes itself on offense , the normal `` 3 seconds in the key '' rule applies . There is no defensive `` 3 - second '' rule , unlike in 3x3 . Instant replay applies and can be used to determine 3 and 4 - point shots , out - of - bounds , flagrant fouls , goaltending , basket interference and clearance . All defensive strategies are allowed , including hand - checking , which is banned in the NBA . The ball used in BIG3 is the size 7 ball used in the men 's full - court game ( standard circumference 29.5 in / 75 cm , standard weight 22 oz / 620 g ) . All adult 3x3 competitions , whether for men , women , or mixed teams , use a ball unique to that game . The weight is the same as that of a size 7 ball , but the circumference is that of the size 6 ball ( 28.5 in / 72 cm ) used in the women 's full - court game . Current teams ( edit ) Team Coach Players 3 's Company Michael Cooper DerMarr Johnson ( captain ) Baron Davis ( co-captain ) Drew Gooden ( co-captain ) Andre Emmett Jason Maxiell Dahntay Jones Keith Bogans 3 Headed Monsters Gary Payton Rashard Lewis ( captain ) Reggie Evans ( co-captain ) Mahmoud Abdul - Rauf ( co-captain ) Jamario Moon Kwame Brown Salim Stoudamire Qyntel Woods Ball Hogs Rick Barry Brian Scalabrine ( captain ) Josh Childress ( co-captain ) DeShawn Stevenson ( co-captain ) Andre Owens Corsley Edwards Jermaine Taylor Ghost Ballers George Gervin Mike Bibby ( captain ) Ricky Davis ( co-captain ) Carlos Boozer ( co-captain ) Lee Nailon Marcus Banks Mario West Ivan Johnson Killer 3 's Charles Oakley Chauncey Billups ( captain ) Stephen Jackson ( co-captain ) Metta World Peace ( co-captain ) Alan Anderson Ryan Hollins Mike James Josh Powell Power Nancy Lieberman Corey Maggette ( captain ) Cuttino Mobley ( co-captain ) Glen Davis ( co-captain ) Chris Andersen Quentin Richardson Ryan Gomes Xavier Silas Trilogy Rick Mahorn Kenyon Martin ( captain ) Al Harrington ( co-captain ) Rashad McCants ( co-captain ) James White Dion Glover Al Thornton Derrick Byars Tri-State Julius Erving Jermaine O'Neal ( captain ) Nate Robinson ( co-captain ) Amar'e Stoudemire ( co-captain ) David Hawkins Robert Hite Bonzi Wells Draft ( edit ) 2018 draft ( edit ) The draft lottery was held on April 3 , 2018 when BIG3 co-founder Ice Cube and commissioner Clyde Drexler joined Skip Bayless , Shannon Sharpe and Joy Taylor on Fox Sports 1 's Skip and Shannon : Undisputed to make the announcement . The Ball Hogs came up with the winning ping pong ball and landed the first overall pick . The draft was held on April 12 , 2018 with 19 players selected . Player selections ( edit ) Round Pick Player Team NBA experience Last team Last played Andre Owens Ball Hogs 2 years BC Zepter Vienna 2015 Andre Emmett 3 's Company 2 years Jeonju KCC Egis Active Alan Anderson Killer 3 's 8 years Lakeland Magic Active Chris Andersen Power 15 years Cleveland Cavaliers 2017 5 David Hawkins Tri-State none Galatasaray 2013 6 Lee Nailon Ghost Ballers 6 years Panteras de Aguascalientes 2014 7 Corsley Edwards Ball Hogs 1 year İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi B.K. 2014 8 Jason Maxiell 3 's Company 10 years Detroit Pistons 2017 9 Ryan Hollins Killer 3 's 10 years Auxilium Pallacanestro Torino 2017 10 Quentin Richardson Power 13 years New York Knicks 2013 11 Salim Stoudamire 3 Headed Monsters 3 years Guaros de Lara 2013 12 Robert Hite Tri-State 1 year Canton Charge 2013 13 Marcus Banks Ghost Ballers 8 years Al - Gharafa SC 2016 14 Jermaine Taylor Ball Hogs 2 years Salt Lake City Stars 2018 15 Derrick Byars 3 's Company 1 year Delaware 87ers 2017 16 Mike James Killer 3 's 12 years Texas Legends 2015 17 Ryan Gomes Power 8 years Los Angeles D - Fenders 2016 18 Bonzi Wells Tri-State 10 years Capitanes de Arecibo 19 Mario West Ghost Ballers 4 years Juventud Sionista 2015 Notes Last team does not only refer to NBA teams , it also refers to overseas play such as Euroleague , NBL or any other major international league Last played refers to last year of being active in any basketball league Most recent season recap ( edit ) 2018 BIG3 season ( edit ) Main article : 2018 BIG3 season Advance to playoff # Team Pct . PF PA GP C Power 7 . 875 399.2 326.4 8 Y 3 Headed Monsters 7 . 875 392.2 359.2 8 Y 3 's Company 5 . 625 390.4 332.8 8 Y Tri-State 5 . 625 371.2 350.4 8 5 Killer 3 's 5 . 375 342.4 380.8 8 6 Trilogy 5 . 375 360 378.4 8 7 Ball Hogs 7 . 125 323.8 394.4 8 8 Ghost Ballers 7 . 125 336.8 394.4 8 Notes Top 4 teams advance to the playoffs C BIG3 champions Z clinched best record Y clinched playoffs spot Awards ( edit ) Champions ( edit ) Year Team Players Coach 2017 Trilogy 3 Al Harrington 4 Kenyon Martin 8 James White 22 Dion Glover 32 Rashad McCants ( MVP ) Rick Mahorn 2018 Power 0 Glen Davis 3 Quentin Richardson 5 Cuttino Mobley 11 Chris Andersen 50 Corey Maggette ( MVP ) Ryan Gomes Xavier Silas Nancy Lieberman Most Valuable Player ( edit ) Year Team Player Ref 2017 3 Headed Monsters Rashard Lewis 2018 Power Corey Maggette Coach of the Year ( edit ) Year Team Player Ref 2017 Trilogy Rick Mahorn 2018 Power Nancy Lieberman Captain of the Year ( edit ) Year Team Player Ref 2017 Trilogy Kenyon Martin 2018 Power Corey Maggette Broadcasting ( edit ) For the 2017 season , Fox Sports 1 carried the 8 weeks of the regular season and the playoffs on tape delay , while Fox broadcast the championship game live . In 2018 , all games will be broadcast live on Friday nights with 4 weeks of games including the semifinals and championship will be aired on Fox , with the remaining weeks airing on FS1 . In 2017 Gus Johnson was the regular play - by - play announcer , though Brian Custer filled - in occasionally , Jim Jackson handled color commentary and Michael Rapaport was the sideline reporter . For 2018 Custer was promoted to be the regular play - by - play announcer while Jackson and Rapaport returned . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Nicholas Parco ( January 11 , 2017 ) . `` Ice Cube announces BIG3 basketball league for former NBA stars , will feature Allen Iverson as player and coach '' . New York Daily News . Jump up ^ Big 3 - Fox Sports.com Jump up ^ `` NEW TEAM : Allen Iverson and Dermarr Johnson will Lead 3 's Company '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved March 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NEW TEAM : Rashard Lewis & Jason Williams Reunite on 3 Headed Monsters '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved February 3 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Mike Bibby & Ricky Davis Unite for Ghost Ballers in the # BIG3 '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved February 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` NEW TEAM : Chauncey Billups & Stephen Jackson unite for KILLER3s '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved February 15 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Corey Maggette & Cuttino Mobley Join Forces on POWER '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved March 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/21/sports/basketball/nancy-lieberman-big3-league.html Jump up ^ `` NEW TEAM : Kenyon Martin reunites with Al Harrington for TRILOGY '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved February 8 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Jermaine O'Neal and Bonzi Wells to lead team TRI-STATE '' . BIG3.com . Retrieved March 1 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Ellenport , Craig . `` BIG3 Draft Lottery '' . BIG3 . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . Jump up ^ Ellenport , Craig . `` BIG3 Season 2 Draft Review '' . BIG3 . Retrieved 13 August 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Rashard Lewis wins first - ever BIG3 MVP ; Stephen Jackson named Best Trash Talker '' . Jump up ^ `` Corey Maggette named Big3 MVP , Nancy Lieberman Coach of Year '' . Jump up ^ `` Rashard Lewis wins first - ever BIG3 MVP ; Stephen Jackson named Best Trash Talker '' . Jump up ^ `` Corey Maggette named Big3 MVP , Nancy Lieberman Coach of Year '' . Jump up ^ `` BIG3 2017 PLAYER AWARDS '' . Jump up ^ `` 2018 BIG3 Basketball awards : Corey Maggette takes home MVP ; ' Birdman ' wins Defensive Player of the Year '' . Jump up ^ Fox 's Big 3 basketball broadcast team : Gus Johnson , Jim Jackson and ... Michael Rapaport ? awfulannouncing.com . Retrieved June 15 , 2017 . External links ( edit ) Basketball portal Official website BIG3 Founders Ice Cube Jeff Kwatinetz Seasons 2017 2018 Teams 3 's Company 3 Headed Monsters Ball Hogs Ghost Ballers Killer 3 's Power Trilogy Tri-State Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BIG3&oldid=862440067 '' Categories : BIG3 3x3 basketball competitions in the United States Basketball leagues in the United States Sports leagues established in 2017 2017 establishments in the United States Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from July 2017 Pages using infobox sports league with unknown parameters Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español Français 한국어 עברית Русский 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 October 2018 , at 11 : 25 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who won the big 3 championship basketball game | [
"\n\n#\n\nTeam\n\nW\n\nL\n\nPct.\n\nPF\n\nPA\n\nGP\n\n\n1\n\nC Power\n\n7\n\n1\n\n.875\n\n399.2\n\n326.4\n\n8\n\n\n2\n\nY 3 Headed Monsters\n\n7\n\n1\n\n.875\n\n392.2\n\n359.2\n\n8\n\n\n3\n\nY 3's Company\n\n5\n\n3\n\n.625\n\n390.4\n\n332.8\n\n8\n\n\n4\n\nY Tri-State\n\n5\n\n3\n\n.625\n\n371.2\n\n350.4\n\n8\n\n\n5\n\nKiller 3's\n\n3\n\n5\n\n.375\n\n342.4\n\n380.8\n\n8\n\n\n6\n\nTrilogy\n\n3\n\n5\n\n.375\n\n360\n\n378.4\n\n8\n\n\n7\n\nBall Hogs\n\n1\n\n7\n\n.125\n\n323.8\n\n394.4\n\n8\n\n\n8\n\nGhost Ballers\n\n1\n\n7\n\n.125\n\n336.8\n\n394.4\n\n8\n"
] | [
"Power"
] |
8866573585798855059 | Hustle & Flow (soundtrack) | Hustle & Flow ( soundtrack ) - Wikipedia Hustle & Flow ( soundtrack ) Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2008 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Hustle & Flow : Music From and Inspired by the Motion Picture Soundtrack album by Various artists Released July 12 , 2005 Genre Crunk , gangsta rap , hardcore hip hop Length 73 : 22 Label Grand Hustle , Atlantic Producer Clifford Harris , John Singleton , Detral Treadwell , Jason Geter , Kevin Liles ( Executive Producers ) Professional ratings Review scores Source Rating Allmusic HipHopDX RapReviews Hustle & Flow : Music From and Inspired by the Motion Picture is the soundtrack album for the motion picture , Hustle & Flow . It features music by P $ C featuring T.I. & Lil Scrappy , Mike Jones featuring Nicole Wray , Trillville , Juvenile featuring Skip & Wacko , Nasty Nardo , 8Ball & MJG , Lil ' Boosie & Webbie and other artists . Also featured on the album are tracks performed by the film 's star , Terrence Howard , in his lead role as the street hustler - turned - rapper , Djay . The skits on the soundtrack are sound clips from the film . It was released on July 12 , 2005 on Grand Hustle and Atlantic Records . The first single off the collection was the Lil Jon - produced `` I 'm a King ( Remix ) '' by P $ C featuring T.I. and Lil Scrappy . A music video was released for the song which featured all three rappers in the city of Atlanta and clips from Hustle & Flow . The second single was the remix of Webbie 's `` Bad Bitch , '' featuring Trina . The soundtrack has sold over 300,000 copies . The chorus to Nasty Nardo 's track entitled `` Lets Get a Room '' samples Project Pat 's song entitled `` Make Dat Azz Clap ( Back Clap ) '' . The song number 4 in the track list `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' produced by Three 6 Mafia won the Oscar for Best Original Song at the 78th Academy Awards ceremony and was performed on stage by the members of Three 6 Mafia . Contents ( hide ) 1 Track listing 1.1 Album Position 1.2 Songs 2 Trivia 3 See also 4 References Track listing ( edit ) # Title Artist 1 . `` I 'm a King ( Remix ) '' P $ C featuring T.I. & Lil Scrappy 2 . `` Swerve '' Lil Boosie & Webbie 3 . `` Microphone ( Skit ) '' Djay & Pawn Shop Owner 4 . `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' Three 6 Mafia 5 . `` Tell Me Why '' 8Ball & MJG 6 . `` Pussy Niggaz '' E-40 featuring Bohagon & Lil Scrappy 7 . `` Whoop That Trick '' Djay 8 . `` Bum Guy ( Skit ) '' Djay & Arnel 's Drunk 9 . `` Man Up '' Trillville 10 . `` Carbon 15 's , A.K. 's & Mac 11 's '' Boyz N Da Hood 11 . `` Lil ' Daddy '' Young City a.k.a. Chopper 12 . `` Let 's Get a Room '' Nasty Nardo 13 . `` Booty Language '' Juvenile featuring Skip & Wacko 14 . `` Bad Bitch ( Remix ) '' Webbie featuring Trina 15 . `` We in Charge ( Skit ) '' Djay & Nola 16 . `` Hustle & Flow ( It Ai n't Over ) '' Djay 17 . `` Still Tippin ' ( It 's a Man 's World Remix ) '' Mike Jones featuring Nicole Wray 18 . `` Murder Game '' P $ C 19 . `` Get Crunk , Get Buck '' Al Kapone 20 . `` Man Ai n't Like a Dog ( Skit ) '' Djay Album Position ( edit ) Chart ( 2005 ) Peak position U.S. Billboard 200 30 Songs ( edit ) Title Chart ( 2005 ) Peak position `` I 'm A King '' U.S. Billboard Hot 100 67 `` Bad Bitch ( Remix ) '' U.S. Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs 48 Trivia ( edit ) Terrence Howard was to perform the Oscar - nominated song `` It 's Hard out Here for a Pimp '' at the Oscars , but he declined . The writers of the song Jordan Houston , Paul Beauregard , of Three 6 Mafia and Frayser Boy Frayser Boy decided to perform the song along with Howard 's co-star Taraji P. Henson and member Crunchy Black instead . The group won the Oscar for Best Original Song making them the first African American hip - hop group to win one . They also appeared in the movie . During the 2013 NBA Playoffs , the song Whoop that Trick has become very popular in Memphis during Memphis Grizzlies home games . See also ( edit ) Hustle & Flow Hustler ( disambiguation ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Kellman , Andy ( 21 November 2016 ) . `` Hustle & Flow soundtrack '' . AllMusic . Retrieved 21 November 2016 . Jump up ^ Allmusic review Jump up ^ HipHopDX review Jump up ^ RapReviews review ( hide ) Grand Hustle Records Founder Clifford `` T.I. '' Harris In - house producers DJ Toomp Lil ' C Nard & B Compilations Hustle & Flow : Music from the Motion Picture In da Streetz Volume 4 G.D.O.D. ( Get Dough or Die ) G.D.O.D. II We Want Smoke Singles `` Top Back ( Remix ) '' `` Memories Back Then '' This 2000s hip hop album -- related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hustle_%26_Flow_(soundtrack)&oldid=791251682 '' Categories : Film soundtracks Hip hop soundtracks 2005 soundtracks Atlantic Records soundtracks Grand Hustle Records soundtracks Albums produced by Lil Jon Albums produced by Ryan Leslie Gangsta rap soundtracks 2000s hip hop album stubs Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from January 2008 All articles needing additional references Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters All stub articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 19 July 2017 , at 02 : 18 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who wrote the lyrics for hustle and flow | [] | [] |
4635879389730308756 | United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 | United Kingdom in the Eurovision song Contest 2018 - wikipedia United Kingdom in the Eurovision song Contest 2018 Eurovision Song Contest 2018 Country United Kingdom National selection Selection process Eurovision : You Decide Selection date ( s ) 7 February 2018 Selected entrant SuRie Selected song `` Storm '' Selected songwriter ( s ) Nicole Blair Gil Lewis Sean Hargreaves Finals performance Final result 24th , 48 points United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest ◄ 2017 2018 The United Kingdom participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 . The British entry for the 2018 contest in Lisbon , Portugal , was selected via the national final Eurovision : You Decide , organised by the British broadcaster BBC . On 16 November 2017 , it was announced that Måns Zelmerlöw , winner of the 2015 contest for Sweden , would join the show as co-host alongside Mel Giedroyc . The national final took place on 7 February 2018 at the Brighton Dome . Six acts competed in the national final , with the song `` Storm '' performed by SuRie being selected the winner . As a member of the `` Big 5 '' , the United Kingdom automatically qualified to compete in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest . Contents 1 Background 2 Before Eurovision 2.1 Eurovision : You Decide 2.1. 1 Competing entries 2.1. 2 Final 3 At Eurovision 3.1 Grand Final 3.2 Points awarded to United Kingdom 3.2. 1 Points awarded by United Kingdom 3.3 Split voting results 4 References 5 External links Background ( edit ) Main article : United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest Prior to the 2018 contest , the United Kingdom has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest sixty times . Thus far , the United Kingdom has won the contest five times : in 1967 with the song `` Puppet on a String '' performed by Sandie Shaw , in 1969 with the song `` Boom Bang - a-Bang '' performed by Lulu , in 1976 with the song `` Save Your Kisses for Me '' performed by Brotherhood of Man , in 1981 with the song `` Making Your Mind Up '' performed by Bucks Fizz and in 1997 with the song `` Love Shine a Light '' performed by Katrina and the Waves . To this point , the nation is noted for having finished as the runner - up in a record fifteen contests . Up to and including 1998 , the UK had only twice finished outside the top 10 , in 1978 and 1987 . Since 1999 , the year in which the rule was abandoned that songs must be performed in one of the official languages of the country participating , the UK has had less success , thus far only finishing within the top ten twice : in 2002 with the song `` Come Back '' performed by Jessica Garlick and in 2009 with the song `` It 's My Time '' performed by Jade Ewen . For the 2017 contest , the United Kingdom finished in fifteenth place out of twenty - six competing entries with the song `` Never Give Up on You '' performed by Lucie Jones amassing a total of 111 points . The British national broadcaster , BBC , broadcasts the event within the United Kingdom and organises the selection process for the nation 's entry . BBC announced that the United Kingdom would participate in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 on 29 September 2017 . Between 2011 and 2015 , BBC opted to internally select the British entry . For their 2016 entry , the broadcaster announced that a national final would be organised featuring a competition among several artists and songs to choose the British entry for Eurovision . The same process was used in 2017 . Before Eurovision ( edit ) Eurovision : You Decide ( edit ) Main article : Eurovision : You Decide Eurovision : You Decide is the national final that was used to select the 2018 entrant , being previously used in the past two years . Six acts competed in a televised show on 7 February 2018 which was held at the Brighton Dome and once again hosted by Mel Giedroyc , being joined this year by Eurovision Song Contest 2015 winner Måns Zelmerlöw . The winner was selected via the combination of a public televote , consisting of televoting and online voting , and the votes of a professional jury panel . As in 2017 , the show was broadcast live on BBC Two . The national final was watched by 900,000 viewers in the United Kingdom with a market share of 4.8 % . Competing entries ( edit ) On 29 September 2017 , BBC announced an open submission for interested artists to submit their songs . The submission period lasted until 27 October 2017 . The BBC invited the UK branch of the international OGAE fan club to assist in shortlisting the open entries and also revived its partnership with the British Academy of Songwriters , Composers and Authors ( BASCA ) who ran a songwriting competition amongst its members . The BBC also consulted with music industry experts including writers , producers , artist managers and members of the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Former music director of RCA Records and founder of Innocent Records , Hugh Goldsmith , acted as music consultant to the BBC . As in 2017 , multiple songwriting camps were also held to promote the submission of entries . Songs from all entry methods were included in a final shortlist which was presented to a professional panel , who ultimately selected six finalists to compete in the national final . The six songs were announced on 24 January 2018 . Final ( edit ) Six acts competed in the televised final on 7 February 2018 . A combination of the votes from the public and the votes from an eight - member professional jury selected the winner , SuRie , with `` Storm '' . The three members of the panel , who provided feedback regarding the songs during the show , were : Rylan Clark - Neal -- singer , television presenter , television personality and model Rochelle Humes -- singer and television presenter Tom Fletcher -- singer - songwriter and guitarist The eight - member jury panel consisted of the following : music journalist Caroline Sullivan , music correspondent Roisin O'Connor , regional radio promoter Steve Tandy , Spotify music editor Sara Sesardic , A&R manager Alastair Webber , MTV Music editor Marco Sensi , singer Kele Le Roc and head judge , vocal coach David Grant . Zelmerlöw and the United Kingdom 's 2017 representative , Lucie Jones , opened the show performing an ABBA medley . Draw Artist Song Songwriter ( s ) RAYA `` Crazy '' Emil Rosendal Lei , Greta Salóme Stefánsdóttir , Samir Salah Elshafie Liam Tamne `` Astronaut '' Ashley Hicklin , Jacob Pedersen , Jeanette Bonde , Rune Braager Asanda `` Legends '' Christopher Wortley , Laurell Barker , Roel Rats Jaz Ellington `` You '' Ashley Hicklin , Herman Gardarfve , Laura White 5 SuRie `` Storm '' Nicole Blair , Gil Lewis , Sean Hargreaves 6 Goldstone `` I Feel the Love '' Eric Lumiere , Joakim Buddee , Laura White , Roel Rats At Eurovision ( edit ) The Eurovision Song Contest 2018 took place at the Altice Arena in Lisbon , Portugal and consisted of two semi-finals on 8 and 10 May and the final on 12 May 2018 . According to Eurovision rules , all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the `` Big 5 '' ( France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom ) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final ; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final . As a member of the `` Big 5 '' , the United Kingdom automatically qualifies to compete in the final . In addition to their participation in the final , the United Kingdom is also required to broadcast and vote in one of the two semi-finals . During the semi-final allocation draw on 29 January 2018 , the United Kingdom was assigned to broadcast and vote in the first semi-final on 8 May 2018 . In the United Kingdom , the semi-finals were broadcast on BBC Four with commentary by Scott Mills and Rylan Clark - Neal , while the final was televised on BBC One with commentary by Graham Norton . Mel Giedroyc announced the United Kingdom jury results . Grand final ( edit ) SuRie performed 9th in the running order during the Grand Final . In the middle of her performance , a stage invader grabbed her microphone and shouted : `` Modern Nazis of The UK media , we demand freedom ! War is not peace ! '' , before being removed by security and taken into police custody . SuRie was without her microphone for about 10 seconds , but was nevertheless able to finish her performance . She was offered the opportunity to perform again by the EBU after the final country , Italy , had performed , but declined , claiming she and her team were `` proud of her performance '' . After returning to The UK , in an interview on This Morning , SuRie revealed she had some bruises on her hands where the invader had grabbed her and also on her shoulder where he had barged into her , but she said that she had not been seriously harmed by the incident . Points awarded to United Kingdom ( edit ) Points awarded to United Kingdom ( Final ) Televote 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points Ireland Australia 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point Albania Denmark Germany Malta San Marino Jury 12 points 10 points 8 points 7 points 6 points Israel Italy 5 points 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point France Croatia Latvia Montenegro Points awarded by United Kingdom ( edit ) Semi-final 1 Score Televote Jury 12 points Lithuania Bulgaria 10 points Ireland Austria 8 points Cyprus Israel 7 points Finland Albania 6 points Bulgaria Estonia 5 points Israel Croatia 4 points Estonia Switzerland 3 points Greece Finland 2 points Czech Republic Armenia 1 point Albania Ireland Final Score Televote Jury 12 points Lithuania Austria 10 points Ireland Israel 8 points Cyprus Bulgaria 7 points Israel Albania 6 points Bulgaria Estonia 5 points Czech Republic Norway 4 points Moldova Finland 3 points Germany Ireland 2 points Denmark Sweden 1 point Australia Spain Split voting results ( edit ) The following five members comprised the British jury : Richard Beadle -- Chairperson -- musical director , orchestrator , composer Natalie Shay - singer - songwriter Michelle Escoffery -- singer - songwriter Toby Lawrence -- club and radio DJ Eady Crawford -- singer show Split voting results from United Kingdom ( Semi-final 1 ) Draw Country Jury Televote R. Beadle M. Escoffery N. Shay T. Lawrence E. Crawford Average Rank Points Rank Points 01 Azerbaijan 11 18 18 16 7 16 15 02 Iceland 9 19 14 17 14 17 16 03 Albania 10 5 7 10 04 Belgium 5 8 16 15 15 11 13 05 Czech Republic 19 15 8 6 19 13 9 06 Lithuania 18 17 15 19 16 19 12 07 Israel 7 5 8 6 5 08 Belarus 12 14 17 9 8 14 14 09 Estonia 8 5 14 6 5 6 7 10 Bulgaria 12 5 6 11 Macedonia 13 16 19 12 12 18 17 12 Croatia 6 6 9 13 6 5 19 13 Austria 5 10 11 14 Greece 17 7 7 18 13 12 8 15 Finland 16 11 11 10 8 7 16 Armenia 10 9 6 8 11 9 18 17 Switzerland 12 12 11 18 7 12 18 Ireland 14 13 10 9 10 10 19 Cyprus 15 10 13 7 17 15 8 show Split voting results from United Kingdom ( Final ) Draw Country Jury Televote R. Beadle M. Escoffery N. Shay T. Lawrence E. Crawford Average Rank Points Rank Points 01 Ukraine 23 19 10 13 14 18 23 02 Spain 17 17 11 24 10 22 03 Slovenia 12 18 21 5 11 13 24 04 Lithuania 16 8 12 23 12 17 12 05 Austria 8 12 19 06 Estonia 15 7 16 5 6 11 07 Norway 21 11 7 6 5 15 08 Portugal 21 15 19 19 13 23 18 09 United Kingdom 10 Serbia 24 22 24 14 9 20 25 11 Germany 22 12 23 21 10 19 8 12 Albania 5 8 7 16 13 France 19 13 17 15 15 22 21 14 Czech Republic 6 23 8 10 16 11 6 5 15 Denmark 20 24 22 12 24 24 9 16 Australia 13 11 16 22 23 21 10 17 Finland 11 7 13 6 6 7 14 18 Bulgaria 14 5 8 5 6 19 Moldova 8 9 18 9 22 14 7 20 Sweden 16 20 20 19 9 20 21 Hungary 9 6 14 18 25 15 12 22 Israel 5 5 10 7 23 Netherlands 10 20 6 17 20 16 13 24 Ireland 18 10 9 18 8 10 25 Cyprus 7 14 15 7 21 12 8 26 Italy 25 25 25 25 17 25 17 References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jordan , Paul ( 29 September 2017 ) . `` BBC opens public song submissions for Eurovision 2018 ! '' . eurovision.tv . European Broadcasting Union . Retrieved 22 October 2017 . Jump up ^ Jordan , Paul ( 16 November 2017 ) . `` UK national selection to be held in Brighton - with a Swedish twist ! '' . eurovision.tv . European Broadcasting Union . Retrieved 16 November 2017 . Jump up ^ Granger , Andy ( 8 February 2018 ) . `` United Kingdom : Less Than 1 Million Viewers Watched Eurovision : You Decide '' . eurovoix.com . Eurovoix . Retrieved 11 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` UK : BBC opens song submissions for Eurovision 2018 ... as Greta Salóme joins songwriting camp '' . wiwibloggs.com. 29 September 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Six acts and songs revealed for Eurovision : You Decide 2018 '' . BBC . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Jump up ^ `` BBC reveals six Eurovision : You Decide hopefuls '' . ESCXTRA.com . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . Jump up ^ McCaig , Ewan ( 6 February 2018 ) . `` United Kingdom : You Decide panelists revealed '' . eurovoix.com . Eurovoix . Retrieved 6 February 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Voting - Eurovision : You Decide '' . BBC Eurovision . Retrieved 8 February 2018 . Jump up ^ Jordan , Paul ( 25 July 2017 ) . `` Lisbon revealed as Host City of the 2018 Eurovision Song Contest ! '' . eurovision.tv . European Broadcasting Union . Retrieved 17 November 2017 . Jump up ^ https://eurovision.tv/story/results-of-the-semi-final-allocation-draw Jump up ^ Groot , Evert ( 30 April 2018 ) . `` Exclusive : They are the expert jurors for Eurovision 2018 '' . eurovision.tv . European Broadcasting Union . Retrieved 30 April 2018 . External links ( edit ) BBC 's official Eurovision website hide United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest Participation 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1997 1998 2017 2018 Artists 1950s 1956 Patricia Bredin 1958 Pearl Carr & Teddy Johnson 1960s Bryan Johnson The Allisons Ronnie Carroll Ronnie Carroll Matt Monro Kathy Kirby Kenneth McKellar Sandie Shaw Cliff Richard Lulu 1970s Mary Hopkin Clodagh Rodgers The New Seekers Cliff Richard Olivia Newton - John The Shadows Brotherhood of Man Lynsey de Paul & Mike Moran Co-Co Black Lace 1980s Prima Donna Bucks Fizz Bardo Sweet Dreams Belle and the Devotions Vikki Watson Ryder Rikki Scott Fitzgerald Live Report 1990s Emma Samantha Janus Michael Ball Sonia Frances Ruffelle Love City Groove Gina G Katrina and the Waves Imaani Precious 2000s Nicki French Lindsay Jessica Garlick Jemini James Fox Javine Hylton Daz Sampson Scooch Andy Abraham Jade Ewen 2010s Josh Dubovie Blue Engelbert Humperdinck Bonnie Tyler Molly Electro Velvet Joe and Jake Lucie Jones SuRie Songs 1950s 1956 `` All '' 1958 `` Sing , Little Birdie '' 1960s `` Looking High , High , High '' `` Are You Sure ? '' `` Ring - A-Ding Girl '' `` Say Wonderful Things '' `` I Love the Little Things '' `` I Belong '' `` A Man Without Love '' `` Puppet on a String '' `` Congratulations '' `` Boom Bang - a-Bang '' 1970s `` Knock , Knock Who 's There ? '' `` Jack in the Box '' `` Beg , Steal or Borrow '' `` Power to All Our Friends '' `` Long Live Love '' `` Let Me Be the One '' `` Save Your Kisses for Me '' `` Rock Bottom '' `` The Bad Old Days '' `` Mary Ann '' 1980s `` Love Enough for Two '' `` Making Your Mind Up '' `` One Step Further '' `` I 'm Never Giving Up '' `` Love Games '' `` Love Is '' `` Runner in the Night '' `` Only the Light '' `` Go '' `` Why Do I Always Get It Wrong ? '' 1990s `` Give a Little Love Back to the World '' `` A Message to Your Heart '' `` One Step Out of Time '' `` Better the Devil You Know '' `` Lonely Symphony ( We Will Be Free ) '' `` Love City Groove '' `` Ooh Aah ... Just a Little Bit '' `` Love Shine a Light '' `` Where Are You ? '' `` Say It Again '' 2000s `` Do n't Play That Song Again '' `` No Dream Impossible '' `` Come Back '' `` Cry Baby '' `` Hold On to Our Love '' `` Touch My Fire '' `` Teenage Life '' `` Flying the Flag ( for You ) '' `` Even If '' `` It 's My Time '' 2010s `` That Sounds Good to Me '' `` I Can '' `` Love Will Set You Free '' `` Believe in Me '' `` Children of the Universe '' `` Still in Love with You '' `` You 're Not Alone '' `` Never Give Up on You '' `` Storm '' Note : Entries scored out are when United Kingdom did not compete hide Eurovision Song Contest 2018 Countries Finalists ( by final results ) Israel ( winner ) Cyprus Austria Germany Italy Czech Republic Sweden Estonia Denmark Moldova Albania Lithuania France Bulgaria Norway Ireland Ukraine Netherlands Serbia Australia Hungary Slovenia Spain United Kingdom Finland Portugal Semi-final 1 Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Croatia Greece Iceland Macedonia Switzerland Semi-final 2 Georgia Latvia Malta Montenegro Poland Romania Russia San Marino Artists Finalists ( by final results ) Netta Barzilai Eleni Foureira Cesár Sampson Michael Schulte Ermal Meta & Fabrizio Moro Mikolas Josef Benjamin Ingrosso Elina Nechayeva Rasmussen DoReDoS Eugent Bushpepa Ieva Zasimauskaitė Madame Monsieur Equinox Alexander Rybak Ryan O'Shaughnessy Mélovin Waylon Sanja Ilić & Balkanika Jessica Mauboy AWS Lea Sirk Amaia & Alfred SuRie Saara Aalto Cláudia Pascoal Semi-final 1 Aisel Alekseev Ari Ólafsson Eye Cue Franka Gianna Terzi Sennek Sevak Khanagyan Zibbz Semi-final 2 Christabelle Gromee feat . Lukas Meijer Iriao Jessika feat . Jenifer Brening Julia Samoylova Laura Rizzotto The Humans Vanja Radovanović Songs Finalists ( by final results ) `` Toy '' `` Fuego '' `` Nobody but You '' `` You Let Me Walk Alone '' `` Non mi avete fatto niente '' `` Lie to Me '' `` Dance You Off '' `` La forza '' `` Higher Ground '' `` My Lucky Day '' `` Mall '' `` When We 're Old '' `` Mercy '' `` Bones '' `` That 's How You Write a Song '' `` Together '' `` Under the Ladder '' `` Outlaw in ' Em '' `` Nova deca '' `` We Got Love '' `` Viszlát nyár '' `` Hvala , ne ! '' `` Tu canción '' `` Storm '' `` Monsters '' `` O jardim '' Semi-final 1 `` A Matter of Time '' `` Crazy '' `` Forever '' `` Lost and Found '' `` Oneiro Mou '' `` Our Choice '' `` Qami '' `` Stones '' `` X My Heart '' Semi-final 2 `` For You '' `` Funny Girl '' `` Goodbye '' `` I Wo n't Break '' `` Inje '' `` Light Me Up '' `` Taboo '' `` Who We Are '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Kingdom_in_the_Eurovision_Song_Contest_2018&oldid=846313081 '' Categories : Countries in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018 2018 in British music United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest Hidden categories : All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français Nederlands Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 17 June 2018 , at 22 : 32 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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-6649493423666260862 | Harichavank Monastery | Harichavank monastery - wikipedia Harichavank monastery Jump to : navigation , search Harichavank Հառիճավանք Rear view of the monastery . Basic information Location Harich , Shirak Province , Armenia Geographic coordinates 40 ° 36 ′ 23 '' N 43 ° 59 ′ 58 '' E / 40.606464 ° N 43.999422 ° E / 40.606464 ; 43.999422 Coordinates : 40 ° 36 ′ 23 '' N 43 ° 59 ′ 58 '' E / 40.606464 ° N 43.999422 ° E / 40.606464 ; 43.999422 Affiliation Armenian Apostolic Church Architectural description Architectural style Armenian Completed 7th century , 13th century The Harichavank ( Armenian : Հառիճավանք ; transliterated as Harijavank or Harichavank ) is 7th century Armenian monastery located near the village of Harich ( Armenian : Հառիճ ) in the Shirak Province of the Republic of Armenia . The village is 3 km southeast of the town of Artik . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Gallery 3 References 4 Bibliography 5 External links History ( edit ) Harichavank known as one of the most famous monastic centers in Armenia and it was especially renowned for its school and scriptorium . Archaeological excavations of 1966 indicate that Harich was in existence during the 2nd century BC , and was one of the more well known fortress towns in Armenia . The oldest part of this Armenian monastery is the Church of St. Gregory the Enlightener ( Սբ . Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչ ) ; it is a domed structure that is usually placed in the category of so - called `` Mastara - style '' churches ( named after the fifth century church of St. Hovhannes in the village of Mastara , in the southern part of Shirak ) . The founding date of the monastery is unknown , but probably it was built no later than the 7th century , when St. Gregory was erected . The Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God ( Սբ . Աստվածածին ) that dominates the monastic complex was built by the orders of Zakare Zakarian , Amirspasalar ( commander - in - chief ) and Prince who ruled Eastern Armenia in the 13th century together with his brother Ivane Zakarian . Prince Zakare started the Cathedral after he bought Harich from a family representing the Pahlavuni dynasty . Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God , Harichavank Monastery ( 1201 ) The Cathedral is a cruciform church with two - story sacristies in each of the four extensions of the building . The tall 20 - hedral drum of the cupola is of original style . Initially tent - roofed , it acquired triple columns on its facets and large rosettes in the piers which , together with platbands , form an unusual decorative girder around the middle of the drum height . Later , the cupola drum of the Gandzasar Monastery ( 1216 - 1238 ) was decorated in the same way . The eastern facade of the Cathedral features a relief carving depicting the Zakarian brothers holding a model of the Cathedral in their hands . This theme can be found in many other Armenian churches of the time e.g. on the Memorial Cathedral of the Dadivank Monastery in Nagorno Karabakh , as well as on main churches of the Sanahin and Haghartsin monasteries in Armenia . This relief was covered in 1895 with a marble plaque featuring Madonna ; when the plaque was removed , the original carving showed beneath . Haritchavank 's Cathedral belongs to the category of `` Gandzasar - style '' ecclesiastical edifices that were built approximately at the same time in different parts of Armenia , and were endowed with similar compositional and decorative characteristics ( another example -- Cathedral of the Hovhannavank Monastery ) . Those include umbrella - shaped dome , cruciform floor plan , narthex ( often with stalactite - ornamented ceiling ) , and high - relief of a large cross on one of church 's walls . The privileges granted by the princes to the monastery contributed towards its becoming a large cultural and enlightenment center of medieval Armenia . At the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century , two monumental gavits ( narthexes ) were built of big stones , some measuring 3.5 meters . The larger narthex ( gavit ) is adjacent to the western facade of the Cathedral and is linked to the northern apse of the Church of St. Gregory . It is a rectangular building supported by four pillars , with a stalactite carving in the central part of the ceiling . Over 800 years the monastery was repeatedly reconstructed . Damages inflicted on it were repaired and small annexes and chapels were added to it at various times . The largest of these dates back to the second half of the 19th century , when Harich was made the summer audience of the Katholikos of Echmiadzin in 1850 . The monastery grounds expanded northwards and were encircled with walls and towers . New one - and two - storey structures were erected : Katholikos ' offices , a refectory with a kitchen and a bakery , a school , a hostel for monks and disciples , an inn , stores and cattlesheds . Greenery was planted in the yards . South of the monastery , on a steep cliff , stands the Hermitage Chapel . In the cemetery there are ruins of a small single - nave basilica of the fifth century with annexes in the sides of the altar apse and interesting tombstones with ornamented slabs dating from the 5th - 6th centuries ( now at Armenia 's State History Museum in Yerevan ) . Gallery ( edit ) Harichavank Narthex view of the monastery Intricately detailed tympanum above the rear portal Church of the Holy Mother of God ( 1201 ) Dome of church of the Holy Mother of God ( 1201 ) Harichavank , general view References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Thierry , Jean . Eglises et Couvents du Karabagh . Antelais , Lebanon , 1991 , pages 161 - 165 Bibliography ( edit ) Armenia : 1700 years of Christian Architecture . Moughni Publishers , Yerevan , 2001 Tom Masters and Richard Plunkett . Georgia , Armenia & Azerbaijan , Lonely Planet Publications ; 2 edition ( July 2004 ) Nicholas Holding . Armenia with Nagorno Karabagh , Bradt Travel Guides ; Second edition ( October , 2006 ) External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Harichavank . Armeniapedia.org : Harichavank Monastery Armenica.org : Haritchavank Monastery Ancient , medieval , and historical Armenian churches and monasteries Armenia Aghjots Vank Akhtala Arakelots of Kirants Areni Artavazik Aruchavank Arshakid Mausoleum Bgheno - Noravank Byurakan Ddmashen Dvin Etchmiadzin Garnahovit Gayane Geghard Gharghavank Gladzor Gndevank Goshavank Haghartsin Haghpat Harichavank Havuts Tar Hayravank Hnevank Horomayri Hovhannavank Hripsime Jukhtak Vank Karbi Karmravor Kasagh Katoghike Katoghike Tsiranavor of Avan Kecharis Khor Virap Kirants Kobayr Kotavank Kristapori Vank Lmbatavank Makaravank Makenyats Vank Makravank Marmashen Mashtots Hayrapet Mastara Matosavank Neghutsi Vank Nor Varagavank Noratus Noravank Odzun Oshakan Pemzashen Ptghavank Saghmosavank Saint Paul and Peter Saint Gevork of Mughni Samsoni Sanahin Sevanavank Shoghakat Spitakavor of Ashtarak Spitakavor of Vayots Dzor Surp Astvatsatsin of Vagharshapat Surp Hakob of Kanaker Surp Mariane of Ashtarak Surp Sarkis of Ashtarak Talin Tanahat Targmanchats Vank Tatev Tatevi Anapat Tegher Tsakhats Kar Tsiranavor of Ashtarak Tsovinar Ushi Vahanavank Vahramashen Vanevan Vorotnavank Voskepar Voskevaz Yeghipatrush Yeghvard Yererouk Zoravor Zvartnots Artsakh Amaras Dadivank Gandzasar Gtichavank Katarovank Tsitsernavank Yeghishe Arakyal Yerits Mankants Azerbaijan Saint Sarkis Monastery of Gag Targmanchats List of Armenian churches in Azerbaijan Cyprus Sourp Magar Monastery Notre Dame de Tyre Ganchvor monastery Georgia Arants Vank Betlehemi Chugureti Ejmiatsnetsots Surp Gevork S. Grigor Lusavorich Jigrasheni Avetyats Kamoyants Karapet Karapi Karmir Avetaran Khojivank Krtsanits Tsiranavor ( Geghardavank ) Mughni Norashen Surp Nshan Saint Sarkis Surp Stepanos Zrkinyants Iran Saint Stepanos Monastery Saint Thaddeus Monastery Surp Asdvadsadsin Church of Darashamb Surp Asdvadsadsin Church of Tabriz Chapel of Chupan Saint Gevorg Church of Haftvan Chapel of Dzordzor Surp Asdvadzadzin Surp Amenaprkich Vank Surp Bethlehem Church Surp Asdvadsadsin of New Julfa Surp Gevorg Church of New Julfa Jerusalem , Palestine & Israel Armenian Quarter Cathedral of St. James Church of Saint Toros Church of the Holy Archangels Chapel of Saint Helena Saint Nicholas Monastery Turkey Aghperig Monastery Aghtamar Ani Cathedral Arakelots Monastery Arapgir Cathedral Arter Holy Mother of God Cathedral Horomos Karmravank Kars Cathedral Khtzkonk Ktuts Lim Monastery of the All - Saviour ( Trebizond ) Mren Diyarbakir Soradir Narekavank Saint Bartholomew Monastery Surb Nshan Monastery Saint George of Samatya , Istanbul Saint Hakob of Akori Monastery Surb Karapet Monastery Surp Gevork of Goms Surp Marineh Church , Mush Tekor Basilica Varagavank Varzahan Monastery Yerazgavors Ukraine Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Surp Khach Monastery Armenia Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harichavank_Monastery&oldid=803233257 '' Categories : Christian monasteries in Armenia Tourist attractions in Shirak Province Christian monasteries established in the 7th century Oriental Orthodox congregations established in the 7th century Buildings and structures in Shirak Province Hidden categories : Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox religious building with unsupported parameters Articles containing Armenian - language text Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Esperanto فارسی Français Հայերեն ქართული Русский Українська Edit links This page was last edited on 1 October 2017 , at 08 : 30 . 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-5306572392674888341 | Grammy Award records | Grammy Award records - wikipedia Grammy Award records Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Throughout the history of the Grammy Awards , many significant records have been set . This page only includes the competitive awards which have been won by various artists . This does not include the various special awards that are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences such as Lifetime Achievement Awards , Trustees Awards , Technical Awards or Legend Awards . The page however does include other non-performance related Grammys ( known as the Craft & Production Fields ) that may have been presented to the artist ( s ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Awards 1.1 Most Grammys won 1.2 Most Grammys won by a male artist 1.3 Most Grammys won by a female artist 1.4 Most Grammys won by a group 1.5 Most Grammys won by a producer 1.6 Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer 1.7 Youngest winners 1.8 Youngest artists to win Album of the Year 1.9 Oldest winners 1.10 Most honored albums 1.11 Most Album of the Year wins 1.12 Most Record of the Year wins 1.13 Most Grammys won for consecutive albums 1.14 Most consecutive Grammys won for the same category 1.15 Artists who have won all four General Field awards 2 Single ceremony 2.1 Most Grammys won in one night 2.2 Most Grammys won by a male artist in one night 2.3 Most Grammys won by a female artist in one night 2.4 Most Grammys won by a group in one night 2.5 Most Grammys won by a record producer in one night 2.6 Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night 2.7 Artist who has won all four General Field Awards at a single ceremony 2.8 Artists who have won Record , Album and Song of the Year in one night 2.9 Most Grammys won by an album in one night 2.10 Most posthumous Grammys won in one night 3 Nominations 3.1 Most Grammy nominations 3.2 Most nominations in one night 3.3 Most nominations without winning 3.4 Most nominations in one night without winning 3.5 Grammy nominations in the most fields 3.6 Artists who had been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night 3.7 Youngest nominees 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Awards ( edit ) Most Grammys won ( edit ) The record for the most Grammy Awards won in a lifetime is held by Sir Georg Solti , a Hungarian - British conductor who conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for twenty - two years . He has won a total of 31 competitive Grammy Awards out of 74 nominations and was awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996 . Rank Artist Awards Georg Solti 31 Quincy Jones 27 Alison Krauss Pierre Boulez 26 5 Vladimir Horowitz 25 Stevie Wonder 7 John Williams 24 8 U2 22 Chick Corea Beyoncé 11 Jay - Z 21 Kanye West Vince Gill 14 Henry Mancini 20 Pat Metheny Bruce Springsteen Al Schmitt Most Grammys won by a Male artist ( edit ) Georg Solti has won a total of 31 Grammy Awards . Rank Artist Awards Georg Solti 31 Quincy Jones 27 Pierre Boulez 26 Vladimir Horowitz 25 Stevie Wonder 6 John Williams 24 7 Chick Corea 22 8 Kanye West 21 Vince Gill Jay Z 11 Henry Mancini 20 Pat Metheny Al Schmitt Bruce Springsteen 15 Tony Bennett 18 Jimmy Sturr Yo - Yo Ma Paul McCartney Most Grammys won by a female artist ( edit ) Alison Krauss has , as a solo artist , collaborator and producer , won 27 Grammy Awards . Rank Artist Awards Alison Krauss 27 Beyoncé 22 Aretha Franklin 18 Adele 15 Alicia Keys 6 Ella Fitzgerald 13 Leontyne Price Emmylou Harris 9 CeCe Winans 12 10 Shirley Caesar 11 11 Chaka Khan 10 Bonnie Raitt Linda Ronstadt Taylor Swift 15 Mary J. Blige 9 Natalie Cole Sheryl Crow Norah Jones Hillary Scott Rihanna Most Grammys won by a Group ( edit ) U2 holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a group . They have won 22 awards . Rank Artists Awards U2 22 Alison Krauss and Union Station 14 Dixie Chicks 13 Foo Fighters 12 5 Pat Metheny Group 10 6 The Manhattan Transfer 9 The Beatles Emerson String Quartet Asleep At The Wheel 10 Blackwood Brothers 8 Metallica Santana Take 6 14 Coldplay 7 Kentucky Thunder Lady Antebellum Simon & Garfunkel Los Tigres del Norte Most Grammys won by a producer ( edit ) Quincy Jones with 27 awards holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a producer ( and eleven of those were awarded for production duties . Jones also received Grammys as an arranger and a performing artist ) . Some producers have also won awards as engineers , mixers and / or mastering engineers . Rank Producer Awards Quincy Jones 27 Kanye West 21 David Foster 16 James Mallinson David Frost 6 Steven Epstein 15 7 Phil Ramone 14 8 T Bone Burnett 13 Robert Woods Jay David Saks 11 Arif Mardin 11 Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer ( edit ) Al Schmitt , with 20 awards , has won more Grammy Awards than any other engineer or mixer . Youngest winners ( edit ) The Peasall Sisters are the youngest Grammy winners , when they were credited artists on the O Brother , Where Art Thou ? soundtrack , which won Album of the Year in 2002 . LeAnn Rimes is the youngest individual winner . She was 14 years old when she won her first two awards in 1997 . She was also the first Country artist to win the Best New Artist Grammy . Rank Age Artist 7 years Leah Peasall 9 years Hannah Peasall 13 years Sarah Peasall 14 years , 182 days LeAnn Rimes 5 14 years , 313 days Luis Miguel 6 17 years , 81 days Lorde 7 18 years , 105 days Daya 8 18 years , 123 days Monica 9 19 years , 67 days Christina Aguilera 10 19 years , 112 days LaTavia Roberson Youngest artists to win Album of the Year ( edit ) Taylor Swift is the youngest artist to win Album of the Year . She was 20 years old when she won in 2010 for her album Fearless . Rank Age Artist 20 years , 49 days Taylor Swift 21 years , 242 days Alanis Morissette 22 years , 18 days Barbra Streisand 23 years , 274 days Lauryn Hill 5 23 years , 283 days Adele 6 23 years , 293 days Stevie Wonder 7 23 years , 330 days Norah Jones Oldest winners ( edit ) Pinetop Perkins is the oldest person to win a Grammy . In 2011 he was awarded Best Traditional Blues Album for Joined At The Hip at 97 years of age . Rank Age Artist 97 years , 221 days Pinetop Perkins 95 years , 31 days George Burns 91 years , 137 days Jimmy Carter 90 years , 52 days Elizabeth Cotten 5 90 years , 26 days Betty White Note : Sources vary on the birth year of Elizabeth Cotten , with some stating it as 1893 , while others say 1895 . The above information credits it as 1895 . With either year , Cotten is the oldest female Grammy winner . Most honored albums ( edit ) Santana 's Supernatural and U2 's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb hold the record for most honoured album having won nine awards . Supernatural won nine awards in 2000 and How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb won three awards in 2005 and won a further six in 2006 giving it a total of nine awards . Rank Albums and artists Awards How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb -- U2 9 Supernatural -- Santana Come Away With Me -- Norah Jones 8 Genius Loves Company -- Ray Charles Thriller -- Michael Jackson 6 All That You Ca n't Leave Behind -- U2 7 Back on the Block -- Quincy Jones 24K Magic -- Bruno Mars 9 21 -- Adele 6 Back To Black -- Amy Winehouse The Blueprint 3 -- Jay Z Bridge Over Troubled Water -- Simon & Garfunkel Raising Sand -- Robert Plant & Alison Krauss The Return of Roger Miller -- Roger Miller Taking the Long Way -- Dixie Chicks To Pimp a Butterfly -- Kendrick Lamar Toto IV -- Toto Unforgettable ... with Love -- Natalie Cole Unplugged -- Eric Clapton Most Album of the Year wins ( edit ) The record for most Album of the Year wins is four . Tom Coyne , mastering engineer -- 21 ( 2012 ) , 1989 ( 2016 ) , 25 ( 2017 ) , 24K Magic ( 2018 ) Three recording artists , four record producers , two mastering engineers and three engineer / mixers have won the award three times . Frank Sinatra , artist -- Come Dance with Me ! ( 1960 ) , September of My Years ( 1966 ) , A Man and His Music ( 1967 ) Stevie Wonder , artist -- Innervisions ( 1974 ) , Fulfillingness ' First Finale ( 1975 ) , Songs in the Key of Life ( 1977 ) Paul Simon , artist -- Bridge over Troubled Water ( 1971 ) , Still Crazy After All These Years ( 1976 ) , Graceland ( 1987 ) David Foster , producer -- Unforgettable ... with Love ( 1992 ) , The Bodyguard : Original Soundtrack Album ( 1994 ) , Falling into You ( 1997 ) Phil Ramone , producer -- Still Crazy After All These Years ( 1976 ) , 52nd Street ( 1980 ) , Genius Loves Company ( 2005 ) Daniel Lanois , producer -- The Joshua Tree ( 1988 ) , Time Out of Mind ( 1998 ) , How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb ( 2006 ) Bob Ludwig , mastering engineer -- Babel ( 2013 ) , Random Access Memories ( 2014 ) , Morning Phase ( 2015 ) Tom Elmhirst , engineer / mixer -- 21 ( 2012 ) , Morning Phase ( 2015 ) , 25 ( 2017 ) Ryan Tedder , producer -- 21 ( 2012 ) , 1989 ( 2016 ) , 25 ( 2017 ) Serban Ghenea , engineer / mixer -- 1989 ( 2016 ) , 25 ( 2017 ) , 24K Magic ( 2018 ) John Hanes , engineer / mixer -- 1989 ( 2016 ) , 25 ( 2017 ) , 24K Magic ( 2018 ) Most record of the Year wins ( edit ) Tom Coyne won Record of the Year four consecutive times as a mastering engineer . Most Grammys won for consecutive albums ( edit ) Pat Metheny and his band the Pat Metheny Group have won 20 Grammy Awards in total , including seven consecutive awards for seven consecutive albums . Metheny held the record for Grammy wins in the most different categories as of the 2005 Grammy Awards : Best Jazz Fusion Performance ( 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1988 , 1990 ) Best Instrumental Composition ( 1991 ) Best Contemporary Jazz Performance / Album ( 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1999 , 2003 , 2005 ) Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Individual or Group ( 1998 , 2000 , 2013 ) Best Rock Instrumental Performance ( 1999 ) Best Jazz Instrumental Solo ( 2001 ) Best New Age Album ( 2004 , 2012 ) Most consecutive Grammys won for the same category ( edit ) Aretha Franklin holds the record for winning the most consecutive Grammys in the same category . She won the Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance every year from 1968 to 1975 , for an eight - year winning streak . She also won in this category in 1982 , 1986 , and 1988 , giving her 11 wins in the category . After Franklin , Jimmy Sturr , Bill Cosby and John Williams are tied for second place for consecutive Grammy wins in the same category : Sturr won six years in a row between 1987 and 1992 for Best Polka Album . He also won for three runs of four consecutive years ( 1996 -- 1999 , 2001 -- 2004 , and 2006 -- 2009 . ) He won 18 out of the 24 Best Polka Album Grammys that were awarded since that category was added in 1985 . The award was discontinued in 2009 . Cosby won six years in a row between 1965 and 1970 for Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album . Williams won six years in a row between 1978 and 1983 for Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media . Lenny Kravitz won the Best Male Rock Vocal Performance award four years in a row ( 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 ) . Tom Coyne won Record of the Year four years in a row ( 2015 -- 2018 ) . Artists who have won all four General Field awards ( edit ) There have been only two artists who have won all four General Field awards . In 1981 , Christopher Cross won Record , Album and Song of the Year as well as Best New Artist . Adele is the second artist to win all four , and the first female to do so . In 2009 , she won Best New Artist and in 2012 and 2017 , she won Record , Album and Song of the Year . Single ceremony ( edit ) Most Grammys won in one night ( edit ) The Record for Most Grammys won in one night is eight . Michael Jackson won eight in 1984 and Santana tied Jackson 's record in 2000 . Rank Artist ( s ) Awards Michael Jackson ( 1984 ) 8 Santana ( 2000 ) Roger Miller ( 1966 ) 6 Paul Simon ( 1971 ) Quincy Jones ( 1991 ) Eric Clapton ( 1993 ) Beyoncé ( 2010 ) Adele ( 2012 ) Bruno Mars ( 2018 ) Most Grammys won by a male artist in one night ( edit ) Michael Jackson won eight in 1984 . Rank Artist ( s ) Awards Michael Jackson ( 1984 ) 8 Roger Miller ( 1966 ) 6 Paul Simon ( 1971 ) Quincy Jones ( 1991 ) Eric Clapton ( 1993 ) Bruno Mars ( 2018 ) Most Grammys won by a female artist in one night ( edit ) The record most Grammys won by a female artist in one night is six . Beyoncé and Adele each won six in 2010 and 2012 , respectively . Rank Artist Awards Beyoncé ( 2010 ) 6 Adele ( 2012 ) Lauryn Hill ( 1999 ) 5 Alicia Keys ( 2002 ) Norah Jones ( 2003 ) Beyoncé ( 2004 ) Amy Winehouse ( 2008 ) Alison Krauss ( 2009 ) Adele ( 2017 ) Most Grammys won by a Group in one night ( edit ) In 2000 , Santana was awarded a total of 8 awards . They won the awards for Record of the Year , Album of the Year , Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals , Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals , Best Pop Instrumental Performance , Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals , Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album . Rank Artists Awards Santana ( 2000 ) 8 Simon & Garfunkel ( 1971 ) 5 U2 ( 2006 ) Dixie Chicks ( 2007 ) Lady Antebellum ( 2011 ) Foo Fighters ( 2012 ) Most Grammys won by a record producer in one night ( edit ) The record for most awards won by a producer in one night is five . Rick Rubin won five awards in 2007 including Record of the Year , Album of the Year and Best Country Album for the Dixie Chicks , Best Rock Album for the Red Hot Chili Peppers as well as Producer of the Year , Non Classical . Most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night ( edit ) The most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night is six . At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017 , Tom Elmhirst won Record of the Year , Album of the Year , Best Pop Vocal Album , Best Engineered Album Non Classical , Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Album for his work on Adele 's ' 25 ' , David Bowie 's ' Blackstar ' and Cage The Elephant 's ' Tell Me I 'm Pretty ' . Artist who has won all four General Field awards at a single ceremony ( edit ) Christopher Cross ( 1981 ) received all four General Field awards in one night . Cross won the Record of the Year ( `` Sailing '' ) , Album of the Year ( `` Christopher Cross '' ) , Song of the Year ( `` Sailing '' ) , and Best New Artist Grammys in a single ceremony . Artists who have won record , Album and Song of the Year in one night ( edit ) The three biggest Grammy Awards are Record of the Year , Album of the Year and Song of the Year . Seven artists have won all three in one night . Adele is the only artist in Grammy history to accomplish this twice . Year Artist 1971 Paul Simon 1972 Carole King 1981 Christopher Cross 1993 Eric Clapton 2007 Dixie Chicks 2012 Adele 2017 2018 Bruno Mars Most Grammys won by an Album in one night ( edit ) The most awards awarded to an album in one night is nine . In 2000 Santana 's Supernatural was awarded nine awards . It won Record of the Year , Album of the Year , Song of the Year , Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals , Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals , Best Pop Instrumental Performance , Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals , Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album . Most posthumous Grammys won in one night ( edit ) Ray Charles holds the record for most posthumous awards won in one night . He was awarded five Grammy Awards in 2005 including Album of the Year . Nominations ( edit ) Most Grammy nominations ( edit ) Quincy Jones holds the record for the most Grammy nominations with 79 . Rank Artist Nominations Quincy Jones 79 Paul McCartney 78 Georg Solti 74 Stevie Wonder Jay Z 6 Henry Mancini 72 7 Kanye West 68 8 Pierre Boulez 67 John Williams 10 Chick Corea 64 11 Leonard Bernstein 63 Beyoncé 13 Jay David Saks 53 14 Thomas Z . Shepard 50 Bruce Springsteen 16 Willie Nelson 49 James Mallinson Babyface Most nominations in one night ( edit ) Michael Jackson holds the record for most Grammy nominations in one night with 12 nominations . Rank Artist Nominations Year Michael Jackson 12 1984 Kendrick Lamar 11 2016 Lauryn Hill 10 1999 Kanye West 2005 Beyoncé Eminem 2011 7 Roger Miller 9 1966 Paul McCartney 1966 The Manhattan Transfer 1986 Jay Z 2014 Beyoncé 2017 Most nominations without winning ( edit ) The record for most Grammy nominations without a win is 24 , held by Morten Lindberg . Rank Artist Nominations Morten Lindberg 24 Snoop Dogg 17 Brian McKnight Joe Satriani 15 5 Toshiko Akiyoshi 14 Martina McBride Dierks Bentley Björk 9 Katy Perry 13 Nas Spyro Gyra Musiq Soulchild 13 Diana Ross 12 Alan Parsons Busta Rhymes Ledisi Lenny Gomulka Fred Hersch Keith Jarrett Most nominations in one night without winning ( edit ) Rank Artist Nominations Paul McCartney ( 1966 ) 9 Kanye West ( 2017 ) 8 Rihanna ( 2017 ) Jay - Z ( 2018 ) 5 Stevie Wonder ( 1983 ) 7 India. Arie ( 2002 ) Kendrick Lamar ( 2014 ) 8 Henry Mancini ( 1959 ) 6 Thomas Z . Shepard ( 1970 ) Mariah Carey ( 1996 ) 50 Cent ( 2006 ) Bruno Mars ( 2012 ) 13 Robert M. Jones ( 1961 ) 5 Elvis Presley ( 1961 ) Frank Sinatra ( 1961 ) James Taylor ( 1971 ) Eugene Ormandy ( 1971 ) Paul McCartney ( 1983 ) Sting ( 1986 ) Jay David Saks ( 1986 ) Leonard Bernstein ( 1989 ) Joan Osborne ( 1996 ) Avril Lavigne ( 2003 ) 50 Cent ( 2004 ) Alicia Keys ( 2006 ) Gwen Stefani ( 2006 ) Prince ( 2007 ) James Blunt ( 2007 ) Jazmine Sullivan ( 2009 ) B.o.B ( 2011 ) Lil Wayne ( 2012 ) Drake ( 2014 , 2016 ) Khalid ( 2018 ) No I.D. ( 2018 ) SZA ( 2018 ) Grammy nominations in the most fields ( edit ) Rank Artist Number Fields Quincy Jones 15 Spoken word , arranging , music video / film , jazz , pop , rap , general field , r&b , children 's , musical theatre , disco , composition , gospel / contemporary christian music , music for visual media and production , non-classical Paul McCartney 11 General field , pop , arranging , rock , traditional , music for visual media , music video / film , spoken word , historical , alternative music and rap David Foster 10 R&b , arranging , composition , music for visual media , production , music video / film , pop , traditional , musical theatre and general field Bob Dylan Country , general field , gospel / contemporary christian music , rock , music video / film , music for visual media , folk pop , american roots , and traditional 5 Jack White 9 Rock , general field , alternative , country , pop , package , music video / film , american roots and engineered album Béla Fleck Country , pop , jazz , american roots , world music , classical , folk , spoken word , composition and arranging Janet Jackson General field , pop , r&b , rock , arranging , rap , music video / film , dance and production , non-classical 8 Cyndi Lauper 8 Rock , pop , general field , music video / film , disco , arranging , american roots and musical theatre Prince General field , pop , r&b , rock , engineered album , music video / film , music for visual media and production , non-classical Michael Jackson General field , pop , r&b , rock , disco , children 's , music video / film and production , non-classical Danger Mouse General field , pop , r&b , rock , rap , alternative , music video / film and production , non-classical Herbie Hancock General field , pop , r&b , rock , jazz , music video / film , music for visual media and composition Lionel Richie General field , pop , r&b , music for visual media , dance , arranging , gospel / contemporary christian music and production , non-classical Justin Timberlake General field , pop , r&b , country , rap , music for visual media , dance and music video / film Stevie Wonder General field , pop , r&b , arranging , composition , music for visual media , music video / film and production , non-classical Beyoncé General field , pop , r&b , rock , rap , music for visual media , surround sound and music video / film Pharrell Williams General field , pop , r&b , dance , rap , music for visual media , music video / film and production , non-classical Artists who had been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night ( edit ) Only ten artists have been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night . Year Artist 1968 Bobbie Gentry 1980 Christopher Cross 1985 Cyndi Lauper 1989 Tracy Chapman 1991 Mariah Carey 1998 Paula Cole 2002 India. Arie 2008 Amy Winehouse 2013 Fun . 2015 Sam Smith Youngest nominees ( edit ) Leah Peasall of the Peasall sisters is the youngest ever Grammy nominee ( and winner ) as one of the credited artists on the O Brother , Where Art Thou ? ( soundtrack ) in 2002 . Deleon Richards is the youngest performer to receive an individual nomination , for Best Soul / Gospel performance . Rank Age Artist 7 years Leah Peasall 8 years , 161 days Deleon Richards 9 years Hannah Peasall 12 years , 126 days Zac Hanson 5 12 years , 155 days Joey Alexander 6 12 years , 199 days Michael Jackson 7 12 years , 273 days Billy Gilman 8 13 years Sarah Peasall 9 14 years , 45 days Chris `` Daddy Mac '' Smith 10 14 years , 182 days LeAnn Rimes 11 14 years , 197 days Chris `` Mac Daddy '' Kelly 12 14 years , 313 days Luis Miguel 13 14 years , 348 days Taylor Hanson See also ( edit ) Latin Grammy Award records List of Academy Award records List of people who have won Academy , Emmy , Grammy , and Tony Awards Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Includes 14 awards as part of Union Station Jump up ^ Includes 3 awards as part of Destiny 's Child Jump up ^ Includes 7 awards as part of Lady Antebellum Jump up ^ Includes 41 nominations as part of The Beatles Jump up ^ Includes 13 nominations as part of Destiny 's Child References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Georg Solti - Biography '' . Retrieved 19 January 2016 . Jump up ^ `` WHO ARE THE TOP GRAMMY WINNERS OF ALL TIME ? '' . Grammy.com . Retrieved March 12 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` U2 dominates Grammy night '' , CBC News , February 9 , 2006 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : `` Past winners search 2001 '' . Grammy.Com . Retrieved 27 February 2014 . Jump up ^ Jazz Legends Pat Metheny Group Improvise on Austin City Limits : : eJazzNews.com : The Number One Jazz News Resource On The Net : : Jazz News Daily Jump up ^ 2003 Grammy Awards Jump up ^ `` Adele To Michael Jackson : Who 's Won The Most GRAMMYs In A Night ? '' . Grammy.com . Retrieved January 29 , 2018 . Jump up ^ `` A Virtual College of Grammy Knowledge '' , by Wook Kim , Entertainment Weekly , 2007 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` 2008 NEA Jazz Master : Quincy Jones '' , National Endowment for the Arts , 2008 . Retrieved 2008 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` Artist With The Most Grammy Nominations for 2017 '' . Billboard . December 6 , 2016 . Retrieved March 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) , Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 02 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Grammy Awards . Official Grammy Awards website ( hide ) Grammy Award Categories Grammy Nominees Records Locations EGOT Special awards Legend Award Lifetime Achievement Award Trustees Award Special Merit / Technical Grammy Award Hall of Fame MusiCares Person of the Year Ceremony year 1959 May Nov 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 2017 2018 Related Grammy Museum By Country American Argentine Australian Austrian Brazilian British Canadian Chinese Cuban French Indian Irish Italian Japanese Malian Mexican Nigerian New Zealand Peruvian Polish Senegalese South African Spanish Grammy Award Record of the Year Song of the Year Album of the Year Best New Artist The Recording Academy Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grammy_Award_records&oldid=836553575 '' Categories : Grammy Awards Records Hidden categories : Articles needing additional references from March 2014 All articles needing additional references Commons category without a link on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Español فارسی Italiano Polski Русский Tiếng Việt Edit links This page was last edited on 15 April 2018 , at 13 : 49 . 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4677212338962647330 | Chicago Bears | Chicago Bears - wikipedia Chicago Bears Jump to : navigation , search Chicago Bears Current season Established 1919 ; 98 years ago ( 1919 ) First season : 1920 Play in Soldier Field Chicago , Illinois Headquartered in Halas Hall Lake Forest , Illinois Logo Wordmark League / conference affiliations Independent ( 1919 ) National Football League ( 1920 -- present ) Western Division ( 1933 -- 1949 ) National Conference ( 1950 -- 1952 ) Western Conference ( 1953 -- 1969 ) Central Division ( 1967 -- 1969 ) National Football Conference ( 1970 -- present ) Central Division ( 1970 -- 2001 ) North Division ( 2002 -- present ) Current uniform Team colors Dark Navy Blue , Orange , White Fight song `` Bear Down , Chicago Bears '' Mascot Staley Da Bear Personnel Owner ( s ) Virginia Halas McCaskey Chairman George McCaskey President Ted Phillips General manager Ryan Pace Head coach John Fox Team history Decatur Staleys ( 1919 -- 1920 ) Chicago Staleys ( 1921 ) Chicago Bears ( 1922 -- present ) Team nicknames Da Bears The Monsters of the Midway Championships League championships ( 9 ) NFL Championships ( pre-1970 AFL -- NFL merger ) ( 8 ) 1921 , 1932 , 1933 , 1940 , 1941 , 1943 , 1946 , 1963 Super Bowl championships ( 1 ) 1985 ( XX ) Conference championships ( 4 ) NFL Western : 1956 , 1963 NFC : 1985 , 2006 Division championships ( 18 ) NFL Western : 1933 , 1934 , 1937 , 1940 , 1941 , 1942 , 1943 , 1946 NFC Central : 1984 , 1985 , 1986 , 1987 , 1988 , 1990 , 2001 NFC North : 2005 , 2006 , 2010 Playoff appearances ( 26 ) NFL : 1932 , 1933 , 1934 , 1937 , 1940 , 1941 , 1942 , 1943 , 1946 , 1950 , 1956 , 1963 , 1977 , 1979 , 1984 , 1985 , 1986 , 1987 , 1988 , 1990 , 1991 , 1994 , 2001 , 2005 , 2006 , 2010 Home fields Staley Field ( 1919 -- 1920 ) Wrigley Field ( 1921 -- 1970 ) Soldier Field ( 1971 -- 2001 , 2003 -- present ) Memorial Stadium ( 2002 ) Team owner ( s ) A.E. Staley Company ( 1919 -- 1921 ) George Halas and Dutch Sternaman ( 1921 -- 1932 ) George Halas ( 1932 -- 1983 ) Virginia Halas McCaskey ( 1983 -- present ) Team president ( s ) George Halas ( 1921 -- 1953 ) George Halas Jr. ( 1963 -- 1979 ) Michael McCaskey ( 1983 -- 1999 ) Ted Phillips ( 1999 -- present ) The Chicago Bears are a professional American football team based in Chicago , Illinois . The Bears compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference ( NFC ) North division . The Bears have won nine NFL Championships , including one Super Bowl , and hold the NFL record for the most enshrinees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the most retired jersey numbers . The Bears have also recorded more victories than any other NFL franchise . The franchise was founded in Decatur , Illinois , in 1919 , and moved to Chicago in 1921 . It is one of only two remaining franchises from the NFL 's founding in 1920 , along with the Arizona Cardinals , which was originally also in Chicago . The team played home games at Wrigley Field on Chicago 's North Side through the 1970 season ; they now play at Soldier Field on the Near South Side , next to Lake Michigan . The Bears have a long - standing rivalry with the Green Bay Packers . The team headquarters , Halas Hall , is in the Chicago suburb of Lake Forest , Illinois . The Bears practice at adjoining facilities there during the season . Since 2002 , the Bears have held their annual training camp , from late July to mid-August , at Ward Field on the campus of Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais , Illinois . Contents ( hide ) 1 Franchise history 1.1 1919 -- 1939 : Early Bears 1.2 1940s : The Monsters of the Midway 1.3 1950s -- 1968 : Late - Halas era 1.4 1969 -- 1982 : Struggles 1.5 1985 : Super Bowl Champions 1.6 1986 -- 2003 : Post-Super Bowl 1.7 2004 -- 2012 : Lovie Smith era 1.8 2013 -- 2014 : Marc Trestman era 1.9 2015 -- present : John Fox era 2 Ownership 3 Sponsorships 4 Logos , uniforms , mascots , and cheerleaders 4.1 Logo 4.2 Uniforms 4.3 Mascots 4.4 Cheerleaders 5 Rivals 5.1 Divisional rivals 5.1. 1 Green Bay Packers 5.1. 2 Minnesota Vikings 5.1. 3 Detroit Lions 5.2 Historic rivals 5.2. 1 Arizona Cardinals 5.3 Other rivals 6 Stadium 7 In popular culture 8 Broadcast media 8.1 Radio 8.2 Television 9 Statistics and records 9.1 Season - by - season results 9.2 Records 10 Players of note 10.1 Current roster 10.2 Pro Football Hall of Famers 10.3 Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame 10.4 Retired numbers 11 Coaching staff 12 Partnership with ' A Safe Place ' 13 Notes and references 14 Sources 15 External links Franchise history ( edit ) Main article : History of the Chicago Bears 1919 -- 1939 : early Bears ( edit ) In March of 1920 a man telephoned me ... George Chamberlain and he was general superintendent of the A.E. Staley Company ... In 1919 , ( the company 's Fellowship Club ) had formed a football team . It had done well against other local teams but Mr. Staley wanted to build it into a team that could compete successfully with the best semi-professional and industrial teams in the country ... Mr. Chamberlain asked if I would like to come to Decatur and work for the Staley Company . -- George Halas , in his book Halas by Halas . The team 's founder George Halas ( right ) with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle Originally named the Decatur Staleys , the club was established by the A.E. Staley food starch company of Decatur , Illinois in 1919 as a company team . This was the typical start for several early professional football franchises . The company hired George Halas and Edward `` Dutch '' Sternaman in 1920 to run the team . The 1920 Decatur Staleys season was their inaugural regular season completed in the newly formed American Professional Football Association ( later renamed the National Football League ( NFL ) in 1922 ) . Full control of the team was turned over to Halas and Sternaman in 1921 . Official team and league records cite Halas as the founder as he took over the team in 1920 when it became a charter member of the NFL . The team relocated to Chicago in 1921 , where the club was renamed the Chicago Staleys . Under an agreement reached by Halas and Sternaman with Staley , Halas purchased the rights to the club from Staley for US $100 . In 1922 , Halas changed the team name from the Staleys to the Bears . The team moved into Wrigley Field , which was home to the Chicago Cubs baseball franchise . As with several early NFL franchises , the Bears derived their nickname from their city 's baseball team ( some directly , some indirectly -- like the Bears , whose young are called `` cubs '' ) . Halas liked the bright orange - and - blue colors of his alma mater , the University of Illinois , and the Bears adopted those colors as their own , albeit in a darker shade of each ( the blue is Pantone 5395 , navy blue , and the orange is Pantone 1665 , similar to burnt orange ) . The Staleys / Bears dominated the league in the early years . Their rivalry with the Chicago Cardinals , the oldest in the NFL ( and a crosstown rival from 1920 to 1959 ) , was key in four out of the first six league titles . During the league 's first six years , the Bears lost twice to the Canton Bulldogs ( who took two league titles over that span ) , and split with their crosstown rival Cardinals ( going 4 -- 4 -- 2 against each other over that span ) , but no other team in the league defeated the Bears more than a single time . During that span , the Bears posted 34 shutouts . The Bears ' rivalry with the Green Bay Packers is one of the oldest and most storied in American professional sports , dating back to 1921 ( the Green Bay Packers were an independent team until they joined the NFL in 1921 ) . In one infamous incident that year , Halas got the Packers expelled from the league in order to prevent their signing a particular player , and then graciously got them re-admitted after the Bears had closed the deal with that player . The 1924 team photo The franchise was an early success under Halas , capturing the NFL Championship in 1921 and remaining competitive throughout the decade . In 1924 the Bears claimed the Championship after defeating the Cleveland Bulldogs on December 7 , even putting the title `` World 's Champions '' on their 1924 team photo . But the NFL had ruled that games after November 30 did not count towards league standings , and the Bears had to settle for second place behind Cleveland . Their only losing season came in 1929 . During the 1920s the club was responsible for triggering the NFL 's long - standing rule that a player could not be signed until his college 's senior class had graduated . The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears ' aggressive signing of famous University of Illinois player Red Grange within a day of his final game as a collegian . Despite much of the on - field success , the Bears were a team in trouble . They faced the problem of increased operating costs , but flatlined attendance . The Bears would only draw roughly 5,000 -- 6,000 fans a game , while a University of Chicago game would draw 40,000 -- 50,000 fans a game . By adding top college football draw Red Grange to the roster , the Bears knew that they found something to draw more fans to their games . C.C. Pyle was able to secure a $2,000 per game contract for Grange , and in one of the first games , the Bears defeated the Green Bay Packers , 21 -- 0 . However , Grange remained on the sidelines while learning the team 's plays from Bears quarterback Joey Sternaman . Later in 1925 , The Bears would go on a barnstorming tour , showing off the best football player of the day . 75,000 people paid to see Grange lead the Bears to a 17 -- 7 victory over the Los Angeles Tigers , who were a quickly put together team of West Coast college all - stars . After a loss to San Francisco , the Bears cruised to a 60 -- 3 over a semi-pro team called the Portland All Stars . Any hopes that Grange would lead the Bears to glory in 1926 were quickly dashed . A failed contract talk led to Grange bolting to the AFL 's New York Yankees , owned by Pyle . The Bears also lost star quarterback Joey Sternaman , who joined the Chicago Bulls of the AFL . The Bears replaced Grange with Paddy Driscoll , a star football player in his own right . The Bears used the money made from the Grange barn - storming tour to sign the man that replaced him . Grange split his time between making movies and playing football . However , the time was not right to have two competing pro football leagues , and the AFL folded after only one season . Grange would return to the Bears . After the financial losses of the 1932 Championship season , Halas ' partner Dutch Sternaman left the organization . Halas maintained full control of the Bears until his death in 1983 . He also coached the team off - and - on for forty seasons , an NFL record . In the 1932 `` Unofficial '' NFL Championship , the Bears defeated the Portsmouth Spartans in the first indoor American football game at Chicago Stadium . The success of the playoff game led the NFL to institute a championship game . In the very first NFL Championship , the Bears played against the New York Giants , defeating them 23 -- 21 . The teams met again in the 1934 NFL Championship where the Giants , wearing sneakers defeated the Bears 30 -- 13 on a cold , icy day at the Polo Grounds . 1940s : the Monsters of the Midway ( edit ) The 1946 NFL Championship team photo From 1940 -- 1947 , quarterback Sid Luckman led the Bears to victories in four out of the five NFL Championship Games in which they appeared . The team acquired the University of Chicago 's discarded nickname `` Monsters of the Midway '' and their now - famous helmet `` C '' , as well as a newly penned theme song that declared them `` The Pride and Joy of Illinois '' . One famous victory during that period was their 73 -- 0 victory over the favored Washington Redskins at Griffith Stadium in the 1940 NFL Championship Game ; the score is still an NFL record for lopsided results . The secret behind the one - sided outcome was the introduction of a new offensive formation by Halas . The T - formation , as Halas named it , involved two running backs instead of the traditional one in the backfield . Luckman established himself as one of the franchise 's most elite quarterbacks . Between 1939 and 1950 , He set the Bears ' passing records for most career touchdowns , yards , and completions . Many of Luckman 's records stood for decades before they were eclipsed by Jay Cutler in 2014 . Cutler then went on to break Luckman 's franchise record for most career passing touchdowns a year later in 2015 . 1950s -- 1968 : late - Halas era ( edit ) Bears Hall of Famer Mike Ditka is the only person in the modern era to win an NFL championship as a player and coach for the Chicago Bears . After declining throughout the 1950s , the team rebounded in 1963 to capture its eighth NFL Championship , which would be its last until 1985 . The late 1960s and early - 1970s produced notable players like Dick Butkus , Gale Sayers , and Brian Piccolo , who died of embryonal carcinoma in 1970 . The American television network ABC aired a movie about Piccolo in 1971 entitled Brian 's Song , starring James Caan and Billy Dee Williams in the roles of Piccolo and Sayers respectively ; Jack Warden won an Emmy Award for his performance as Halas . The movie was later released for theater screenings after first being shown on television . Despite Hall of Fame careers , Butkus and Sayers would also have their careers cut short due to injuries , hamstringing the Bears of this era . Halas retired as coach in 1967 and spent the rest of his days in the front office . He became the only person to be involved with the NFL throughout the first 60 years of its existence . He was also a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's first induction class in 1963 . As the only living founder of the NFL at the February 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League , the owners honored Halas by electing him the first President of the National Football Conference , a position that he held until his death in 1983 . In his honor , the NFL named the NFC Championship trophy as the George Halas Memorial Trophy . 1969 -- 1982 : struggles ( edit ) Payton set several franchise and NFL records in rushing during his 13 - season career with the Bears After the merger , the Bears finished the 1970 season last place in their division , a repeat of their placing in the 1969 season . In 1975 , the Bears drafted Walter Payton from Jackson State University with their first pick . He won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award in the 1977 -- 78 season . Payton would go on to eclipse Jim Brown 's NFL career rushing record in 1984 before retiring in 1987 , and would hold the mark until 2002 , when Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys surpassed it . Payton 's career and personality would capture the hearts of Bear fans , who called him `` Sweetness '' . He died from a rare form of liver cancer in 1999 at the age of 45 . On November 1 , 1983 , a day after the death of George Halas , his oldest daughter , Virginia McCaskey , took over as the majority owner of the team . Her husband , Ed McCaskey , succeeded her father as the Chairman of the Board . Their son Michael became the third president in team history . Mrs. McCaskey holds the honorary title of `` secretary of the board of directors '' , but the 90 - year -- old matriarch has been called the glue that holds the franchise together . Mrs. McCaskey 's reign as the owner of the Bears was not planned , as her father originally earmarked her brother , George `` Mugs '' Halas Jr. as the heir apparent to the franchise . However , he died of a massive heart attack in 1979 . Her impact on the team is well - noted as her own family has dubbed her `` The First Lady of Sports '' , and the Chicago Sun - Times has listed her as one of Chicago 's most powerful women . 1985 : Super Bowl Champions ( edit ) The Bears making a rushing play in the end zone against the Patriots during Super Bowl XX . Mike Ditka , a tight end for the Bears from 1961 to 1966 , was hired to coach the team by George Halas in 1982 . His gritty personality earned him the nickname `` Iron Mike '' . In the 1985 season the fire in the Bears -- Packers rivalry was relit when Ditka used 315 pound defensive tackle `` Refrigerator '' Perry as a running back in a touchdown play at Lambeau Field , against the Packers . The Bears won their ninth NFL Championship , first since the AFL - NFL merger , in Super Bowl XX after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then - revolutionary 46 defense and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song `` The Super Bowl Shuffle '' . The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss , the `` unlucky 13th '' game of the season , a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the Miami Dolphins . At the time , much was made of the fact that the 1972 Dolphins were the only franchise in history to have had an undefeated season and post-season . The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the Super Bowl , but lost to the New England Patriots in the AFC title game . `` The Super Bowl Shuffle '' was videotaped the day after that Monday night loss in Miami . 1986 -- 2003 : post-super Bowl ( edit ) After the 1985 Championship season , the Bears remained competitive throughout the 1980s but failed to return to the Super Bowl under Ditka . Between the firing of Ditka and the hiring of Lovie Smith , the Bears had two head coaches , Dick Jauron and Dave Wannstedt . While both head coaches led the team to the playoffs once ( Wannstedt in 1994 and Jauron in 2001 ) , neither was able to accumulate a winning record or bring the Bears back to the Super Bowl . Therefore , the 1990s was largely considered to be a disappointment . Before the Bears hired Jauron in January 1999 , Dave McGinnis ( Arizona 's defensive coordinator , and a former Bears assistant under Ditka and Wannstedt ) backed out of taking the head coaching position . The Bears scheduled a press conference to announce the hiring before McGinnis agreed to contract terms . Soon after Jauron 's hiring , Mrs. McCaskey fired her son Michael as president , replacing him with Ted Phillips and promoting Michael to chairman of the board . Phillips , the current Bears president , became the first man outside of the Halas - McCaskey family to run the team . 2004 -- 2012 : Lovie Smith era ( edit ) Lovie Smith accomplished his first objective as the team 's head coach by sweeping the Green Bay Packers during the 2005 season . Lovie Smith , hired on January 15 , 2004 , is the third post-Ditka head coach . Joining the Bears as a rookie head coach , Smith brought the highly successful Tampa 2 defensive scheme with him to Chicago . Before his second season with the Bears , the team rehired their former offensive coordinator and then Illinois head coach Ron Turner to improve the Bears ' struggling offense . In 2005 , the Bears won their division and reached the playoffs for the first time in four years . Their previous playoff berth was earned by winning the NFC Central in 2001 . The Bears improved upon their success the following season , by clinching their second consecutive NFC North title during Week 13 of the 2006 season , winning their first playoff game since 1995 , and earning a trip to Super Bowl XLI . However , they fell short of the championship , losing 29 -- 17 to the Indianapolis Colts . Following the 2006 season , the club decided to give Smith a contract extension through 2011 , at roughly $5 million per year . This comes a season after being the lowest paid head coach in the National Football League . The club has played in over a thousand games since becoming a charter member of the NFL in 1920 . Through the 2010 season , they led the NFL in overall franchise wins with 704 and had an overall record of 704 -- 512 -- 42 ( going 687 -- 494 -- 42 during the regular season and 17 -- 18 in the playoffs ) . On November 18 , 2010 the Bears recorded franchise win number 700 in a win against the Miami Dolphins . The Bears made one of the biggest trades in team history by acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler in 2009 . The Bears made one of the biggest trades in franchise history , acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler from the Denver Broncos in exchange for Kyle Orton and draft picks on April 2 , 2009 . After a disappointing 2009 campaign with the team going 7 -- 9 , Mike Martz was hired as the team 's offensive coordinator on February 1 , 2010 . On March 5 , 2010 , the Bears signed defensive end Julius Peppers , running back Chester Taylor , and tight end Brandon Manumaleuna , spending over $100 million on the first day of free agency . Also during the 2010 offseason , Michael McCaskey was replaced by brother George McCaskey as chairman of the Bears . With a 38 -- 34 win against the New York Jets , the Bears clinched the No. 2 seed and a first - round bye for the 2010 -- 11 NFL playoffs . In their first Playoff game since Super Bowl XLI , The Bears defeated the No. 4 seed Seattle Seahawks 35 -- 24 in the Divisional Round . The Bears reached the NFC Championship Game , where they played Green Bay Packers at Soldier Field -- only the second playoff meeting between the two storied rivals , the only other game played in 1941 . The Bears lost the game , 21 -- 14 . The team started the 2011 season strong with a 7 -- 3 record , and running back Matt Forté led the NFL in total yards from scrimmage . Eventually , quarterback Jay Cutler fractured his thumb , and Forté also was lost for the season against the Kansas City Chiefs after spraining his MCL , and the Bears , with Caleb Hanie playing , lost five straight before winning against the Minnesota Vikings with Josh McCown starting in favor over Hanie . At season 's end , general manager Jerry Angelo was fired , and former Chiefs director of scouting and former Bears scout Phil Emery was brought in . Offensive coordinator Mike Martz resigned , and eventually retired , and was replaced by offensive line coach Mike Tice . The Bears made another notable move by trading for Miami Dolphins receiver and Pro Bowl MVP Brandon Marshall . The Bears became the first team in NFL history to return six interceptions for touchdowns in the first seven games of the season , with another pick - six by Brian Urlacher in Week 9 bringing Chicago two behind the record set by the 1961 San Diego Chargers . However , the Bears missed the playoffs with a record of 10 -- 6 ( after starting the season 7 -- 1 , the first team to start with the record and miss the playoffs since the 1996 Washington Redskins ) , and Smith was fired on December 31 . 2013 -- 2014 : Marc Trestman era ( edit ) Then - CFL head coach and former NFL journeyman Marc Trestman was hired to succeed Smith after an exhaustive search that included at least 13 known candidates . On March 20 , 2013 , Brian Urlacher 's 13 - year tenure with the Bears ended when both sides failed to agree on a contract . The Trestman era began on September 8 with a 24 -- 21 win over the Cincinnati Bengals , making Trestman the fourth head coach in Bears history to win in his coaching debut , after George Halas ( 1920 ) , Neill Armstrong ( 1978 ) and Dick Jauron ( 1999 ) . The Bears ended the 2013 season 8 -- 8 . The following season was a disaster for the Bears , as they finished 5 -- 11 and last in the NFC North . Trestman and Emery were fired after the season ended . 2015 -- present : John Fox era ( edit ) The Bears hired Ryan Pace of the New Orleans Saints to be their new general manager on January 8 , 2015 . On January 16 , 2015 , John Fox accepted a four - year deal to become head coach . In Fox 's first season as head coach , the Bears saw improvements from 2014 ; after USA Today projected the Bears to win three games , they doubled that total and finished the season with a 6 -- 10 record , including a Thanksgiving win over the Packers at Lambeau Field . However , during the 2016 season , the Bears regressed heavily , compiling a 3 -- 13 record , their worst since the NFL 's change to 16 - game seasons in 1978 . The season included several injuries to starters and secondary players , including Jay Cutler , who only played five games as a result of two separate injuries . The team 's backup quarterback Brian Hoyer would then start the next three games before being out for the season with a broken arm and being replaced by Matt Barkley , who earned his first career start with the Bears . Ownership ( edit ) Halas Hall in Lake Forest , Illinois is the Bears ' headquarters . Virginia Halas McCaskey , her children , and grandchildren control 80 percent of the team , and Mrs. McCaskey votes her children 's stock as well as her own . Patrick Ryan , executive chairman of Aon Corp. , and Aon director Andrew McKenna own 19.7 % of the club . In a Crain 's Chicago Business article , one businessman described his wishes for the team to maximize its potential . In 2009 , Yahoo ! Sports listed the McCaskeys as the third worst owner in the NFL , stating `` ( T ) hey get less for what they 've got than any team in our league . '' There have been rumors that the McCaskey family might split up over the team . In 2012 , Forbes magazine reported that the franchise is worth $1.19 billion , making it the eighth richest franchise in the NFL . Chicago is the third largest media market in the United States . Sponsorships ( edit ) The team has major sponsorship deals with Dr Pepper Snapple Group , Miller Brewing Company , PNC Financial Services , United Airlines , Verizon , Xfinity and Proven IT . The team was the first in the NFL to have a presenting sponsor , with the 2004 season advertised as `` Bears Football presented by BankOne ( now Chase ) '' . Additionally , the Bears have an agreement with WFLD ( the Fox owned - and - operated station in Chicago ) to broadcast pre-season football games . Logos , uniforms , Mascots , and cheerleaders ( edit ) Main article : Chicago Bears logos , uniforms , and mascots Logo ( edit ) One of the original logos ( 1962 -- 1973 ) The club 's first logo was introduced in the early 1950s as a black bear on top of a football . They kept this until 1962 , when the Bears trademark ' C ' logo was first introduced . The change in their logo from the black bear was due to the addition of logos on helmets , which pro football teams started adding in the late 1950s and early 1960s . Unlike some NFL franchises that have had many different looks over time , the Bears have kept the wishbone ' C ' for over 40 years . In 1974 , the team decided to keep the same ' C ' logo but change the color from white to orange with white trim . This is the current logo ; however , the club has since introduced alternate logos , including a black bear inside of the orange wishbone ' C ' , introduced in 1995 , and an orange bear head , introduced in 1999 . Uniforms ( edit ) In 1920 the team introduced uniforms containing brown and blue stripes . In the 1930s , the franchise 's uniform underwent substantial alterations . By 1933 the Bears donned all - orange jerseys with navy numbers and matching navy blue helmets . In 1936 , they modified this design into `` an early version of psychedelia '' by adding three orange stripes to their helmets , changing the color of the jerseys from orange to white , complementing the new white jerseys with 14 navy and orange alternating stripes on the sleeves , and introducing socks with a similar striped pattern extending from ankle to knee . Because of poor response from the fans and the media , this design lasted only one season . By 1949 , the team was wearing the familiar navy blue shirts with white , rounded numbers . In 1956 , the team added `` TV numbers '' to the sleeves . The Bears ' C ' logo first appeared on the helmets in 1962 . The logo changed from white to a white - bordered orange logo 11 years later , and has remained unchanged ever since . The Bears added the initials GSH to the left sleeve of their jerseys in 1984 in memory of George Halas . For decades , the team was known as the only NFL team to wear jersey numbers that were not the traditional block - style numbers ( though during the 1971 season , the Bears ' road jerseys used the block - style numbers ) . Although a handful of other NFL teams and the Houston Oilers during their early AFL days experimented with rounder jersey numbers , by the mid-1960s the Bears were the only team left to continue wearing rounded jersey numbers . Since the mid-1990s , however , several teams have shifted away from the block numbers in favor of numbers that match a specific team font ( e.g. Denver Broncos , Baltimore Ravens , Philadelphia Eagles , etc . ) or in the case of the Pittsburgh Steelers , match the jersey number font with the helmet numbers while otherwise leaving the jersey design alone . Other variations to the Bears uniforms over the years include the addition of navy blue pants as a part of the road kit in 1984 . During the 1994 season , the Bears -- with most of the other NFL franchises -- introduced throwback uniforms to be worn in the honor of the NFL 's 75th anniversary . These uniforms with brown and blue stripes resemble the original Bears uniforms worn in the 1920s . On October 7 , 2002 the Bears wore navy blue pants with their navy blue home jerseys for the first time , and lost at home to Green Bay before a national Monday Night Football audience . The Bears did not wear the all - blue combination again until the 2006 regular season finale against the Packers , also a loss , on December 31 . A variation of the all - blue look , this time featuring blue socks with orange stripes , was used on October 20 , 2016 against the Packers as part of the NFL Color Rush initiative , a game the Bears also lost . Then on September 10 , 2017 , the Bears played the Atlanta Falcons at home in their all - blue uniforms and lost , giving the combination an 0 -- 4 all - time record . On November 13 , 2005 and October 29 , 2006 ( both times in games against the San Francisco 49ers ) , the Bears introduced an orange alternate home jersey . The orange swaps roles with the navy blue on this alternate jersey , as it becomes the dominant color while the navy complements . The orange jerseys were worn again on October 19 , 2008 at home against the Minnesota Vikings in a 48 -- 41 victory . The Bears also wore the orange jerseys against the Detroit Lions in 2007 , a 2009 game vs. the Cleveland Browns , as well as in 2011 against the Packers and Lions . The Bears previously wore orange jerseys as part of a throwback uniform in a Thanksgiving Day game at the Dallas Cowboys in 2004 . Their uniforms , especially for their classic look , have been cited as one of the best in the league . Since 2005 , the Bears have worn their alternate orange jerseys for one home game a season that is near Halloween . For the 2005 -- 07 and 2010 home openers , the team wore the white jerseys with the navy blue pants . The team is 4 -- 0 in these games , beating the Lions in 2005 , 2006 , and 2010 , and beating the Chiefs in 2007 . The Bears honored the original Monsters of the Midway during the 2010 season by wearing throwback uniforms of the era for selected games . The uniforms are a nod to the 1940s when the Bears won four NFL titles with Hall of Famers Danny Fortman , Sid Luckman , George McAfee , George Musso , Bronko Nagurski , Joe Stydahar and Clyde `` Bulldog '' Turner . The Bears wore the throwbacks once again for the 2012 season . In 2012 , after Nike took over the NFL uniform supplier from Reebok , the Bears uniform received changes . One of the changes include moving the numbers on the sleeves onto the shoulder pad , as well as enlarging the GSH on the stripes . Mascots ( edit ) Main article : Staley Da Bear Staley Da Bear in 2008 . The team 's official mascot , Staley Da Bear , made his debut at Soldier Field in 2003 . He is named after A.E. Staley , the team 's founder . Cheerleaders ( edit ) Main article : Chicago Honey Bears The team also formerly had their own cheerleading squad called the Chicago Honey Bears . However , Bears owner Virginia Halas McCaskey terminated them after the 1985 season . The squad 's uniforms have changed 3 times : from 1977 -- 1979 was a white bodysuit with navy blue sleeves , from 1980 -- 1984 was also a white bodysuit , but with orange sleeves and the navy was moved to the trim , and in the squad 's final season in 1985 , the uniform was redesigned with an orange sequin vest . Rivals ( edit ) Divisional rivals ( edit ) Green Bay Packers ( edit ) Main article : Bears -- Packers rivalry The Green Bay Packers are the Bears ' biggest rivals since their team 's inception in 1920 . The series is currently tied at 94 -- 94 -- 6 , and the teams have met twice in the postseason . The Bears won the 1941 meeting , 33 -- 14 , and eventually defeated the New York Giants in the 1941 NFL Championship Game , and the Packers won the 2011 meeting , 21 -- 14 , en route to a Super Bowl XLV win over the Pittsburgh Steelers . The teams ' first meeting was a victory for the Bears ( known as the Staleys at the time ) in 1921 in a shutout , 20 -- 0 . The Packers claimed their first win over the Bears in 1925 , 14 -- 10 . The 1924 matchup ( which ended in a 3 -- 0 win for Chicago ) was notable for featuring the first ever ejection of players in a game in NFL history , as Frank Hanny of the Bears and Walter Voss of the Packers were ejected for punching each other . The rivalry also featured one of the last successful fair catch kicks in 1968 , when Bears kicker Mac Percival kicked the game - winning field goal . Minnesota Vikings ( edit ) Main article : Bears -- Vikings rivalry Chicago and Minnesota took each other on in the Vikings ' inaugural game , with the Vikings defeating the Bears in a 37 -- 13 rout , and Minnesota currently holds the series lead 54 -- 50 -- 2 . Detroit Lions ( edit ) Main article : Bears -- Lions rivalry The Detroit Lions and Bears have faced off since the Lions ' inception in 1930 , when they were known as the Portsmouth Spartans , with the Spartans winning , 7 -- 6 , and Chicago winning the second meeting , 14 -- 6 . Since then , the Bears have led the series , 95 -- 66 -- 5 . The rivalry grew in 1932 , when the Bears and Spartans met in the first ever postseason game in NFL history , with the Bears winning the game 9 -- 0 . The game also was known as the first `` indoor football '' game , as the game took place in indoor Chicago Stadium due to a blizzard at the time . The game also started the forward pass . Historic rivals ( edit ) Arizona Cardinals ( edit ) Former cross-town rivals , the Bears and the Cardinals have faced each other more times than any other teams not currently in the same division . Highlights of the rivalry include Ernie Nevers scoring 40 points against the Bears in 1929 in a 40 -- 7 rout . In 2006 , the Bears defeated the Cardinals in a 24 -- 23 comeback from a 20 - point deficit in the 2nd half , which resulted in Cardinals coach Dennis Green 's famous rant . The Bears currently lead the all - time series , 57 -- 27 -- 6 . Other rivals ( edit ) Cleveland Browns : Since 2005 , the Bears and Browns have met in the final game of the preseason , after the two teams made an agreement to play each other in alternating cities due to their close proximity . The Browns won the 2005 game 16 -- 6 , but the Bears have since gone 7 -- 5 , winning in their 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2011 , 2012 , 2015 , and 2016 matchups . In their all - time series , the Browns lead 6 -- 9 ( as the current expansion team ) . Indianapolis Colts : Despite not meeting as often , the Bears and Colts are known as being geographic rivals , with NFL.com analyst Dave Dameshek calling the game the I - 65 Bowl , after Interstate 65 , which connects between Chicago and Indianapolis . The Colts ( while in Baltimore ) won the first meeting in 1953 13 -- 9 . Both teams have shared various moments in the past , with the Bears suffering their worst loss in franchise history 52 -- 0 to the Colts during their time in Baltimore . The Bears later won 57 -- 0 in 1962 against the Colts , which is the highest scoring differential in team history for a regular - season game . The most notable moment between the two teams was Super Bowl XLI , with Indianapolis pulling away with the win despite Chicago dominance in the first half , which was also known for being the first ever Super Bowl to be played in rain . The teams also share various relations with each other , including the relationship between former Colts coach Tony Dungy and Bears coach Lovie Smith , who both were on the Tampa Bay Buccaneers team in the late 1990s and early 2000s , and both coaches met in Super Bowl XLI . The Colts currently lead the series , 23 -- 19 , though the Bears have won the last two meetings both in 2008 , 23 - 19 and in 2012 , 41 -- 21 . Because of the NFL 's scheduling formula , The Bears and Colts will meet again in 2016 at Lucas Oil Stadium . San Francisco 49ers : In the 1980s , the Bears and San Francisco 49ers have met twice in the postseason , as well as many times in the regular season . In the teams ' first meeting in 1950 , the Bears triumphed , 17 -- 0 . In the 1980s , the Bears went 3 -- 4 , including 2 postseason meetings . The 49ers won the first meeting in a 23 -- 0 shutout , as well as the next meeting , 28 -- 3 . In 1985 , the Bears claimed their revenge for their humiliating loss by sending in rookie William `` The Refrigerator '' Perry in at fullback in a 26 -- 10 rout . Since the game , the Bears have lost all eight games at Candlestick Park , the last being a 32 -- 7 loss in 2012 . In the 49ers ' new stadium Levi 's Stadium 's opening game against the Bears , the Bears triumphed 28 -- 20 . However , the 49ers won the most recent meeting on December 6 , 2015 at Soldier Field , defeating the Bears 26 -- 20 . Because both teams finished in last place in their respective divisions , the Bears and 49ers will meet again in 2016 . New York Giants : In a newer preseason rivalry ( as well as an old rivalry ) , the Bears and Giants have taken each other on frequently in the preseason against each other since 2009 , and since 2011 , has been the 3rd game in the preseason ( both teams did n't meet in 2010 ) . The 2 teams have also shared some bad blood before the AFL - NFL merger , as the Bears defeated the Giants in the inaugural NFL Championship Game . The Giants would claim their revenge in the infamous `` Sneakers Game '' over the undefeated Bears . The Bears would defeat New York in the 1963 NFL Championship Game . In the recent decade , the Bears defeated the Giants in 2006 , 38 -- 20 , and Bears rookie Devin Hester showed his ability to return on special teams when he tied a Bears record for longest play when he ran a missed field goal back 108 yards for a touchdown on Sunday Night Football . The Giants would claim their revenge in 2010 , when they defeated the Bears in a 17 -- 3 victory , in which the Giants sacked Bears quarterback Jay Cutler nine times in the first half . The Bears eventually won in 2013 , 27 -- 21 . Because of the NFL 's scheduling formula , the Bears and Giants will meet again in 2016 at MetLife Stadium . Stadium ( edit ) Main articles : Wrigley Field and Soldier Field Soldier Field in 2011 , as seen from the lakeshore Soldier Field , located on Lake Shore Drive in Chicago , is the current home of the Bears . The Bears moved to Soldier Field in 1971 after outgrowing Wrigley Field , the team 's home for 50 years . Northwestern University 's residential neighbors objected to their playing at Dyche Stadium , now called Ryan Field . After the AFL - NFL Merger , the newly merged league wanted their teams to play in stadiums that could hold at least 50,000 fans . Even with the portable bleachers that the team brought into Wrigley , the stadium could still only hold 46,000 . Soldier Field 's playing turf was changed from natural grass to astroturf before the 1971 season , and then back to natural grass in time for the start of the 1988 season . The stadium was the site of the infamous Fog Bowl playoff game between the Bears and Philadelphia Eagles . In 2002 , the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall of the stadium being preserved . It was closed on Sunday , January 20 , 2002 , a day after the Bears lost in the playoffs . It reopened on September 27 , 2003 after a complete rebuild ( the second in the stadium 's history ) . Many fans refer to the rebuilt stadium as `` New Soldier Field '' . During the 2002 season , the Bears played their home games at the University of Illinois ' Memorial Stadium in Champaign , where they went 3 -- 5 . Many critics have negative views of the new stadium . They believe that its current structure has made it more of an eyesore than a landmark ; some have dubbed it the `` Mistake on the Lake '' . Soldier Field was stripped of its National Historic Landmark designation on February 17 , 2006 . In the 2005 season , the Bears won the NFC North Division and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs , entitling them to play at least one home game in the postseason . The team hosted ( and lost ) their divisional round match on January 15 , 2006 against the Carolina Panthers . This was the first playoff game at Soldier Field since the stadium reopened . The stadium 's end zones and midfield were not painted until the 1982 season . The design sported on the field included the bolded word `` Chicago '' rendered in Highway Gothic in both end zones . In 1983 , the end zone design returned , with the addition of a large wishbone `` C '' Bears logo painted at midfield . These field markings remained unchanged until the 1996 season . In 1996 the midfield wishbone `` C '' was changed to a large blue Bears head , and the end zone design were painted with `` Bears '' in cursive . This new design remained until the 1999 season , at which point the artwork was returned to the classic `` Chicago '' and the `` C '' . In the new Soldier Field , the artwork was tweaked to where one end zone had the word `` Chicago '' bolded and the other had `` Bears '' . In popular culture ( edit ) The CNA Center in Chicago flashes a `` GO BEARS '' window display before a Bears Sunday Night Football game While the Super Bowl XX Champion Bears were a fixture of mainstream American pop culture in the 1980s , the Bears made a prior mark with the 1971 American TV movie Brian 's Song starring Billy Dee Williams as Gale Sayers and James Caan as Brian Piccolo . The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league 's best players , and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian 's fatal illness . A 2001 remake of the movie for ABC starred Sean Maher as Piccolo and Mekhi Phifer as Sayers . The 1985 team is also remembered for recording the song `` The Super Bowl Shuffle '' , which reached number forty - one on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Grammy Award . The music video for the song depicts the team rapping that they are `` not here to start no trouble '' but instead `` just here to do the Super Bowl Shuffle '' . The team took a risk by recording and releasing the song before the playoffs had even begun , but were able to avoid embarrassment by going on to win Super Bowl XX by a then - record margin of 46 -- 10 . That game was one of the most watched television events in history according to the Nielsen ratings system ; the game had a rating of 48.3 , ranking it 7th in all - time television history . In addition to the `` Super Bowl Shuffle '' rap song , the Bears ' success in the 1980s -- and especially the personality of head coach Mike Ditka -- inspired a recurring sketch on the American sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live , called `` Bill Swerski 's Superfans '' . The sketch featured Cheers co-star George Wendt , a Chicago native , as host of a radio talk - show ( similar in tone to WGN radio 's `` The Sportswriters '' ) , with co-panelists Carl Wollarski ( Robert Smigel ) , Pat Arnold ( Mike Myers ) and Todd O'Connor ( Chris Farley ) . To hear them tell it , `` Da Bears '' and Coach Ditka could do no wrong . The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993 . The sketch usually showed the panelists drinking lots of beer and eating lots of Polish sausage , and often featured Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears that he suffered a heart attack , but quickly recovered ( through self - administered CPR ) . The sketch also features the cast predicting unrealistic blowout victories for Bears games . Da Super Fan sketch has not been brought back by SNL , with the exception of a single appearance by Horatio Sanz as a Super Fan for the Cubs on `` Weekend Update '' in 2003 . Outside of SNL , George Wendt reprised his role of Swerski in the opening promo of Super Bowl XL on ABC . On TV shows based in Chicago such as The Bob Newhart Show , Married ... with Children , Family Matters , Still Standing , According to Jim , Early Edition and The Bernie Mac Show , the main characters are all Bears fans , and have worn Bears ' jerseys and T - shirts on some occasions . Some episodes even show them watching Bears games . Roseanne is another TV show based in Illinois ( albeit not in Chicago itself ) to feature the Bears as the consensus household favorite , as ' Dan Connor ' John Goodman is seen wearing Bears hats in several episodes . That ' 70s Show featured several Bears references , as it was based in Wisconsin , home of the Packers . On one episode while the gang is at a Bears vs. Packers game , Eric comes to the seat in a Walter Payton jersey and is booed by the surrounding Packers fans . In an episode of the Disney Channel show Shake It Up , based in Chicago , recurring character Dina Garcia ( Ainsley Bailey ) sold scalped Chicago Bears tickets . More recently , Modern Family character Cameron Tucker has been shown as a Bears fan . In an episode of the Disney Channel show `` I Did n't Do It '' , based in Chicago , Lindy Watson ( Olivia Holt ) and Logan Watson ( Austin North ) try to get a football signed by NFL Hall of Famer Dick Butkus after destroying their fathers Butkus signed ball , Alshon Jeffery also makes a cameo appearance as well . Ditka 's success and popularity in Chicago has led him to land analyst roles on various American football pregame shows . Ditka worked for both the NFL on NBC and CBS 's The NFL Today , and he currently works on ESPN 's Sunday NFL Countdown and provided Friday night analysis on the Bears on WBBM - TV 's 2 on Football with former WBBM - TV sports director Mark Malone . He is also the color analyst for all local broadcasts of Bears preseason games . Ditka also co-starred himself alongside actor Will Ferrell in the 2005 comedy film Kicking & Screaming . Also , Ditka , Dick Butkus , Walter Payton , Jim McMahon , William `` Refrigerator '' Perry and Brian Urlacher are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials . Urlacher , whose jersey was among the league 's best - selling in 2002 , was featured on Nike commercials with former Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick . In the 1961 Hanna - Barbera animated short `` Rah Rah Bear '' , Yogi Bear helps the Bears beat the New York Giants . The Bears were later depicted in an episode of the 1985 cartoon version of the NBC sitcom Punky Brewster , where the Bears are playing the Green Bay Packers . Clark Griswold ( Chevy Chase ) from the National Lampoon 's Vacation series appears in some scenes wearing a navy blue with burnt orange scripting Chicago Bears ball cap . He wears the same Chicago Bears cap throughout all four Vacation movies . Broadcast media ( edit ) Chicago Bears Network Radio ( edit ) Map of radio affiliates . Currently , WBBM ( 780 AM ) and its simulcasting partner , WCFS - FM ( 105.9 FM ) broadcast Bears games with Jeff Joniak doing the play - by - play , along with color commentator Tom Thayer , who played for the Bears from 1985 -- 1992 , and sideline reporter Zach Zaidman . Over the years , many Bears play - by - play broadcasters have included play - by - play announcers Jack Brickhouse , Joe McConnell and Wayne Larrivee , and color commentators Hub Arkush , Dick Butkus , Jim Hart and Irv Kupcinet . Spanish radio station WLEY - FM aired the Bears games from 2012 to 2014 . Since 2015 , WRTO and WVIV - FM air Bears games in Spanish . Chicago Bears Network Radio affiliates Market Station Notes Chicago WBBM ( 780 AM ) / WCFS - FM ( 105.9 FM ) All games Bears Insider WRTO ( 1200 AM ) / WVIV - FM ( 93.5 FM ) All games ( in Spanish ) WSCR ( 670 AM ) Bears All - Access Television ( edit ) Their current preseason TV announcers on WFLD ( channel 32 ) , which also carries the majority of the team 's regular season games through the NFL on Fox , are Sam Rosen ( play - by - play ) , Erik Kramer ( color commentary ) and Lou Canellis ( sideline reporter ) . When the games are played against an AFC team , it can be aired on the CBS O&O station , WBBM - TV . Sunday Night games are broadcast on WMAQ - TV , the NBC O&O station . Chicago Bears Network Television affiliates Market Station Notes Regional cable Comcast SportsNet Chicago Bears Recap Bears Huddle Bears Blitz Chicago WFLD Preseason and Fox regional / national games Bears Gameday Live Bears Gamenight Live Cedar Rapids , Iowa KFXA Preseason and Fox regional / national games Champaign -- Urbana WCCU Preseason and Fox regional / national games Peoria WMBD - TV Preseason and CBS regional / national games Quad Cities KLJB Preseason and Fox regional / national games Rockford WIFR Preseason and CBS regional / national games Rockford WQRF Preseason and Fox regional / national games Springfield WRSP - TV Preseason and Fox regional / national games South Bend WSBT - TV Preseason and CBS regional / national games Statistics and records ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see Chicago Bears statistics . Patrick Mannelly holds the record for the most seasons in a Bears uniform with 16 . On the other hand , Steve McMichael holds the record for most consecutive games played by a Bear with 191 ; he accomplished the feat from 1981 to 1993 . In second place is Payton , who played 186 games from 1975 to 1987 at running back , a position considered to be conducive to injury , only missing one game in a span of 13 seasons . Kicker Robbie Gould became the Bears ' all - time scoring leader in Week 5 of 2015 season overtaking placekicker Kevin Butler who previously held the club record for scoring the most points in his ten - year Bear career . He scored 1,116 points as the Bears kicker from 1985 to 1995 . He is followed by running back Walter Payton , with 750 points . Payton holds the team record for career rushing yards with 16,726 . That was an NFL record until Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys broke it in 2002 . Current Bears running back Matt Forte , who started playing for the Bears in 2008 , is the closest to Payton 's record with 6,985 yards . Forte also holds the team 's single season record for rookies in rushing attempts , rushing yards and receptions . Mark Bortz holds the record for most Bear playoff appearances , with 13 between 1983 and 1994 , and is followed by Kevin Butler , Dennis Gentry , Dan Hampton , Jay Hilgenberg , Steve McMichael , Ron Rivera , Mike Singletary , and Keith Van Horne , who have each played in 12 playoff games . The 1940 Chicago Bears team holds the record for the biggest margin of victory in an NFL game ( playoff or regular season ) with a 73 -- 0 victory over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL Championship Game . The largest home victory for the Bears came in a 61 -- 7 result against the Green Bay Packers in 1980 . The largest defeat in club history was a 52 -- 0 loss against the Baltimore Colts in 1964 . The club recorded undefeated regular seasons in 1934 and 1942 , but ( unlike the 1972 Dolphins ) did not win the championship game in either season . In 1934 , the club completed a 13 -- 0 record but were defeated by the New York Giants , and in 1942 the club completed an 11 -- 0 record but were defeated by the Redskins . Had the Bears won either championship , the club would have completed a championship three - peat -- a feat completed only by the Packers ( twice ) , although no team has done it since the AFL - NFL merger . Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40 and for having the most career victories of 324 . Halas ' victories record stood until Don Shula surpassed Halas in 1993 . Ditka is the closest Bears coach to Halas , with 112 career victories . No other Bears coach has recorded over 100 victories with the team . During the 2006 season , return specialist Devin Hester set several kick return records . He currently holds the franchise record for most return yards with 2,261 . He had six touchdown returns , setting a record for most returns in a single season . In 2007 , he recorded another six touchdown season from returns . One of the most notable of these returns came on November 12 , 2006 , when he returned a missed field goal for a 108 - yard touchdown . The record tied former teammate Nathan Vasher 's previous record , which was set almost a year earlier . Additionally , Hester set a Super Bowl record by becoming the first player to return an opening kick of a Super Bowl for a touchdown . On December 20 , 2010 , Hester set an NFL record for most touchdowns on a punt or kickoff return with his 14th career return coming against the Minnesota Vikings . In 2011 , Hester broke the record for the most punt returns against the Carolina Panthers . In 2012 , Charles Tillman has the record for most forced fumbles in a single game with 4 against the Tennessee Titans . Also against the Titans , Chicago became the first team in league history to score a touchdown pass , a touchdown run , an interception return for a touchdown , and a blocked kick / punt for a score in the same quarter . Tillman and teammate Lance Briggs became the first pair in NFL history to return an interception for a touchdown in consecutive games against the Jacksonville Jaguars and Dallas Cowboys . Season - by - season results ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see List of Chicago Bears all - time record versus NFL . This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed or in progress by the Bears . For the full season - by - season franchise results , see List of Chicago Bears seasons . Note : The Finish , Wins , Losses , and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play . Record as of December 28 , 2014 Super Bowl Champions Conference Champions Division Champions Wild Card Berth Season Team League Conference Division Regular season Post Season Results Ref Finish Wins Losses Ties 2012 2012 NFL NFC North 3rd 10 6 0 2013 2013 NFL NFC North 2nd 8 8 0 2014 2014 NFL NFC North 4th 5 11 0 2015 2015 NFL NFC North 4th 6 10 0 2016 2016 NFL NFC North 4th 13 0 All - time regular season record ( 1920 -- 2010 ) -- 722 526 42 -- -- All - time postseason record ( 1932 -- 2010 ) -- 17 18 -- -- -- All - time regular season and postseason record ( 1920 -- 2010 ) -- 739 542 42 -- -- Records ( edit ) All - Time Bears Leaders Leader Player Record Number Years with Bears Passing Jay Cutler 23,443 passing yards 2009 -- 2016 Rushing Walter Payton 16,726 rushing yards 1975 -- 1987 Receiving Johnny Morris 5,059 receiving yards 1958 -- 1967 Points Robbie Gould 1,142 points 2005 -- 2015 Coaching Wins George Halas 318 wins 1920 -- 29 , 1933 -- 1942 , 1946 -- 1955 , 1958 -- 1967 Players of note ( edit ) For more details on this topic , see List of Chicago Bears players . Current roster ( edit ) Chicago Bears roster view talk Quarterbacks 8 Mike Glennon 6 Mark Sanchez 10 Mitchell Trubisky Running backs 46 Michael Burton FB 29 Tarik Cohen 30 Benny Cunningham 24 Jordan Howard 33 Taquan Mizzell Wide receivers 15 Josh Bellamy 14 Deonte Thompson 12 Markus Wheaton 13 Kendall Wright Tight ends 85 Daniel Brown 86 Zach Miller 87 Adam Shaheen 88 Dion Sims Offensive linemen 76 Tom Compton T 55 Hroniss Grasu C 72 Charles Leno Jr . T 75 Kyle Long G 70 Bobby Massie T 71 Josh Sitton G 79 Bradley Sowell T 65 Cody Whitehair C Defensive linemen 90 Jonathan Bullard DE 91 Eddie Goldman NT 96 Akiem Hicks DE 73 John Jenkins NT 95 Roy Robertson - Harris DE 98 Mitch Unrein DE Linebackers 93 Sam Acho OLB 58 Jonathan Anderson ILB 94 Leonard Floyd OLB 52 Christian Jones ILB 44 Nick Kwiatkoski ILB 92 Pernell McPhee OLB 53 John Timu ILB 59 Danny Trevathan ILB 97 Willie Young OLB Defensive backs 38 Adrian Amos FS 20 Prince Amukamara CB 26 Deon Bush FS 37 Bryce Callahan CB 31 Marcus Cooper CB 21 Quintin Demps SS 23 Kyle Fuller CB 39 Eddie Jackson FS 36 DeAndre Houston - Carson FS 22 Cre'Von LeBlanc CB 27 Sherrick McManis CB Special teams 4 Connor Barth K 49 Andrew DePaola LS 16 Pat O'Donnell P Reserve lists 50 Jerrell Freeman ILB ( IR ) 32 Deiondre ' Hall FS ( IR ) 64 Eric Kush C ( IR ) 81 Cameron Meredith WR ( IR ) 67 Jordan Morgan G ( IR ) 48 Patrick Scales LS ( IR ) 11 Kevin White WR ( IR ) Practice squad 83 Mario Alford WR 84 Ben Braunecker TE 68 Rashaad Coward DE 19 Tanner Gentry WR 35 Doran Grant CB 60 Brandon Greene T 47 Isaiah Irving OLB 63 Cameron Lee G 18 Tre McBride WR 68 Mike Purcell NT Rookies in italics Roster updated September 26 , 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active , 7 Inactive , 10 Practice squad → AFC rosters → NFC rosters AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA Pro Football Hall of Famers ( edit ) Main article : List of Chicago Bears in the Pro Football Hall of Fame In the Pro Football Hall of Fame , the Bears have the most enshrined primary members with 27 , however the club also have had five Hall of Famers spend a minor portion of their career with the franchise . Founder , owner , head coach , and player George Halas , halfback Bronko Nagurski , and Red Grange were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963 . The franchise saw 14 individuals inducted into the Hall of Fame from 1963 -- 1967 . Defensive end Richard Dent , a member of the Super Bowl XX team is the most recent Bear inducted , a part of the Class of 2011 . Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame ( edit ) Main article : Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame Retired numbers ( edit ) The Bears have retired 14 uniform numbers , which is the most in the NFL , and ranks fourth behind the basketball Boston Celtics ( 21 ) , baseball New York Yankees ( 21 ) , and hockey Montreal Canadiens ( 15 ) for the most in North American professional sports . The Bears retired Mike Ditka 's number 89 jersey on December 9 , 2013 . It is the last number that the Bears retired . Chicago Bears retired numbers view talk Bronko Nagurski FB / LB / T 1930 -- 1937 , 1943 Minnesota George McAfee RB / DB / PR 1940 -- 1941 , 1945 - 1950 Duke George Halas End / HC Owner / Founder 1920 -- 1983 Illinois Willie Galimore RB 1957 -- 1963 Florida A&M Walter Payton RB 1975 -- 1987 Jackson State Gale Sayers RB / KR 1965 -- 1971 Kansas Brian Piccolo RB / FB 1965 -- 1969 Wake Forest Sid Luckman QB / DB / P 1939 -- 1950 Columbia Dick Butkus MLB 1965 -- 1973 Illinois Bill Hewitt End 1932 -- 1936 Michigan Bill George MG / MLB 1952 -- 1965 Wake Forest Clyde Turner C / LB 1940 -- 1952 Hardin - Simmons Red Grange RB / DB 1925 , 1929 -- 1934 Illinois Mike Ditka TE 1961 -- 1966 HC 1982 -- 1992 Pittsburgh Coaching staff ( edit ) For a more in - depth look into the history of the head coaches of the Bears , see List of Chicago Bears head coaches . Chicago Bears staff Front Office Secretary of the Board of Directors -- Virginia Halas McCaskey Chairman -- George McCaskey President / CEO -- Ted Phillips General Manager -- Ryan Pace Vice President & General Counsel -- Cliff Stein Director of Player Personnel -- Josh Lucas Director of College Scouting -- Mark Sadowski Director of Pro Personnel -- Anthony Kelly Director of Football Administration -- Joseph Laine Head Coaches Head Coach -- John Fox Offensive Coaches Offensive Coordinator -- Dowell Loggains Quarterbacks -- Dave Ragone Running Backs -- Curtis Modkins Wide Receivers -- Zach Azzanni Tight Ends -- Frank Smith Offensive Line -- Jeremiah Washburn Assistant Offensive Line -- Ben Wilkerson Offensive Assistant -- John Dunn Offensive Assistant -- Ben McDaniels Defensive Coaches Defensive Coordinator -- Vic Fangio Defensive Line -- Jay Rodgers Inside Linebackers -- Glenn Pires Outside Linebackers -- Brandon Staley Defensive Backs -- Ed Donatell Assistant Defensive Backs -- Roy Anderson Defensive Quality Control -- Sean Desai Special Teams Coaches Special Teams Coordinator -- Jeff Rodgers Assistant Special Teams -- Derius Swinton II Strength and Conditioning Strength and Conditioning -- Jason George Assistant Strength and Conditioning -- Rick Perry Assistant Strength and Conditioning -- Pierre Ngo → Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs AFC East BUF MIA NE NYJ North BAL CIN CLE PIT South HOU IND JAX TEN West DEN KC LAC OAK NFC East DAL NYG PHI WAS North CHI DET GB MIN South ATL CAR NO TB West ARI LAR SF SEA Partnership with ' a Safe place ' ( edit ) Since 1998 , the Bears have partnered with ' A Safe Place , ' a domestic violence shelter in Waukegan , Illinois . In June 2017 , current and former Bears employees helped with renovations at the shelter by ripping up carpet , painting walls , demolishing a kitchen and building a fence . The Bears have also provided financial support throughout the years . Notes and references ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Team Capsule '' ( PDF ) . 2016 Official National Football League Record and Fact Book . National Football League . July 15 , 2016 . Retrieved August 4 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Brand Book '' ( PDF ) . Chicago Bears . March 31 , 2011 . Retrieved April 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` George Halas , Jr '' . Chicago Bears Official Website . Archived from the original on 11 December 2006 . Retrieved December 13 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Franchise Encyclopedia '' . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved August 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Green Bay Packers Franchise Encyclopedia '' . Sports Reference LLC . Retrieved August 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` All - Time Win - Loss Records By Team '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved August 15 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Halas , George ; Morgan , Gwen ; Veysey , Arthur ( 1979 ) . Halas By Halas . McGraw Hill . pp. 53 -- 54 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Team Encyclopedia '' . Pro-Football-Reference.com . Retrieved December 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Training Camp Locations - Pro-Football-Reference.com '' . Pro-Football-Reference.com . Jump up ^ `` 1920 Decatur Staleys '' . Independentfootball.site90.com . Retrieved November 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` The Decatur Staleys '' . Local Website . Archived from the original on 23 February 2004 . Retrieved June 15 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` George Halas : Hall of Fame Member '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved May 14 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Highlights from the 1920s '' . Chicago Bears . Retrieved 19 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Exoo , Thales ( 31 January 2007 ) . `` Ask Chicagoist : Why Are They Called the Bears ? '' . Chicagoist . Gothamist . Retrieved 19 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Uniform History '' . Chicago Bears . Retrieved 18 December 2016 . Jump up ^ `` The Chicago Bears Brand '' ( PDF ) . Chicago Bears . Retrieved 18 December 2016 . Jump up ^ Peterson , Brian ( September 28 , 2000 ) . `` Love - Hate Relationship : Bears - Packers Rivalry Always Bittersweet '' . Green Bay Packers . Archived from the original on 7 January 2010 . Retrieved June 8 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 1924 : The Third Time is Charmed '' . PFRA . Archived from the original on October 13 , 2007 . Retrieved February 7 , 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Galloping Ghost scared opponents '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved December 1 , 2005 . ^ Jump up to : Whittingham , Richard ; Ditka , Mike . The Chicago Bears : From George Halas to Super Bowl XX . ISBN 978 - 0 - 671 - 62885 - 7 . OCLC 13795870 . Jump up ^ See 1934 NFL Championship Game for more information on how the Giants wore sneakers and defeated the Bears Jump up ^ `` General History -- Chronology ( 1940 to 1959 ) '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved January 1 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Sid Luckman '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved July 12 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Cutler sets Bears record with 138th TD pass '' . Jump up ^ the subject of the film Brian 's Song Jump up ^ `` Walter Payton 's Statistics '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 3 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Remembering Walter Payton '' . Daily Herald . Archived from the original on August 13 , 2006 . Retrieved June 11 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Smith passes Payton as NFL 's career rushing leader '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved June 16 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Ed McCaskey '' . Cook County Clerk . Archived from the original on September 1 , 2006 . Retrieved December 13 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Mike McCaskey '' . ChicagoBears Official Website . Archived from the original on 21 January 2007 . Retrieved December 13 , 2006 . ^ Jump up to : `` McCaskey '' . Cranes Chicago Business . Retrieved July 12 , 2006 . 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Chicagobears.com . March 13 , 2012 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Bears picking on history '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . 2012 - 10 - 29 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 01 . Jump up ^ Trister , Noah ( 2012 - 12 - 30 ) . `` Bears miss playoffs despite 26 -- 24 win over Lions '' . Boston.com . Archived from the original on 2 October 2013 . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 30 . Jump up ^ Rosenthal , Gregg ( 2012 - 12 - 31 ) . `` Lovie Smith fired as Chicago Bears coach '' . National Football League . Retrieved 2012 - 12 - 31 . Jump up ^ Biggs , Brad ; Pompei , Dan ( 2013 - 01 - 16 ) . `` Marc Trestman chosen to be Bears ' new coach '' . Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on 16 January 2013 . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 16 . Jump up ^ Isaacson , Melissa ( 2013 - 01 - 11 ) . `` Emery ca n't wait too long '' . ESPN . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 16 . 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Archived from the original on 3 November 2011 . Retrieved September 4 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Bears rated as eighth most valuable NFL franchise '' . Chicago Tribune . Reuters. 2012 - 09 - 05 . Archived from the original on 6 September 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 09 - 30 . Jump up ^ Ariens , Chris ( 2015 - 09 - 04 ) . `` In 2016 DMA Rankings , D.C. Moves Up One Spot , Tampa Up Two '' . AdWeek . Retrieved 2017 - 01 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Corporate Partners '' . Chicago Bears . Retrieved 2017 - 08 - 13 . Jump up ^ `` Dr. Pepper Wins Exclusive Sponsorship Rights With Bears '' CBS Chicago `` . WBBM - TV . April 17 , 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears Feel at Home on WFLD - TV '' . TVWeek . Retrieved April 23 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` History of the Chicago Bears Logo '' . Chicago Bears . Archived from the original on May 20 , 2005 . Retrieved August 1 , 2005 . Jump up ^ `` History of the Chicago Bears Uniform -- Chicago Bears official website '' . Chicagobears.com . Archived from the original on 11 August 2010 . Retrieved December 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Yahoo ! Sports `` Bears hang on against Minnesota '' Jump up ^ `` Jay Mohr : Breaking down the best and worst NFL uniforms '' . Sports Illustrated . November 9 , 2005 . Retrieved November 9 , 2005 . Jump up ^ `` Bears unveil new throwback uniforms '' . Chicago Breaking Sports . Archived from the original on 22 April 2010 . Retrieved April 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Will Bears wear orange jerseys this season ? '' . Chicagobears.com. 2012 - 04 - 20 . Archived from the original on 29 May 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Nike unveils brand new NFL uniforms '' . Chicagobears.com. April 3 , 2012 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears - Staley 's Page '' . Jump up ^ Taylor , Roy . `` The Honey Bears and Chicago Bears Mascots '' . Bearshistory.com . Retrieved 2012 - 07 - 06 . Jump up ^ `` Chicago Honey Bears.net '' . 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Jump up ^ `` NFL Game Center : Chicago Bears at New York Giants -- 2010 Week 4 '' . Nfl.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 03 . ^ Jump up to : `` Soldier Field History '' . BearsHistory.com . Retrieved July 16 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Flashback : Eagles fly into fog '' . NFL.com . Archived from the original on October 10 , 2004 . Retrieved September 28 , 2004 . Jump up ^ `` Soldier Field History '' . ChicagoBears.com . Archived from the original on 5 December 2005 . Retrieved July 16 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Mistake on the Lake '' . The Times of Northwest Indiana . Archived from the original on September 13 , 2012 . Retrieved September 1 , 2003 . Jump up ^ `` Weekly List of Actions Taken on Properties , 4 / 17 / 06 through 4 / 21 / 06 '' . National Register of Historic Places Listings . Jump up ^ `` Bears History `` Bits '' `` . Bears History.com . Retrieved July 16 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` Bears Midfield Logo '' . Bears History.com . Retrieved July 16 , 2006 . Jump up ^ `` New Soldier Field Art '' . 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WBBM - TV . Archived from the original on 14 February 2007 . Retrieved July 14 , 2004 . Jump up ^ `` Kicking and Screaming ( 2005 ) '' . IMDb . Retrieved April 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Urlacher 's not going anywhere '' . USA Today . June 4 , 2003 . Retrieved June 3 , 2003 . Jump up ^ Elliott , Stuart ( February 24 , 2004 ) . `` A Different Campaign for Nike '' . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 19 April 2005 . Retrieved February 24 , 2004 . Jump up ^ `` YouTube Video '' . Retrieved March 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` It 's Punky Brewster '' . Retrieved September 2009 . Check date values in : access - date = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` YouTube Video '' . Retrieved December 16 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Vacation ( 1983 ) -- Trivia '' IMDb.com Jump up ^ Taylor , Roy . `` 1985 Chicago Bears '' . Bearshistory.com . Retrieved December 5 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chicago Bears Team Records '' . Chicago Bears . Archived from the original on 2006 - 08 - 13 . Retrieved August 1 , 2005 . 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Retrieved on February 5 , 2007 Jump up ^ `` Chicago Bears win big , gain steam in NFC playoff race '' . National Football League . 2012 - 11 - 04 . Retrieved 2012 - 11 - 04 . Jump up ^ Jensen , Sean ( 2012 - 10 - 08 ) . `` Charles Tillman and Lance Briggs enter NFL history books together '' . Chicago Sun - Times . Archived from the original on 2012 - 10 - 15 . Retrieved 2012 - 10 - 12 . Jump up ^ Roy Taylor . `` 2012 Chicago Bears '' . Bearshistory.com . Retrieved November 27 , 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Roy Taylor . `` 2013 Chicago Bears '' . Bearshistory.com . Retrieved January 16 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` All Time Records of Current NFL Franchises '' ( PDF ) . Pro-Football Hall of Fame . Pro-Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved 2011 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Hall of Famers by Team '' . Pro Football Hall of Fame . Retrieved June 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Mayer , Larry ( 24 May 2013 ) . `` Bears to retire Mike Ditka 's number '' . ChicagoBears.com . Retrieved 24 May 2013 . Jump up ^ Biggs , Brad ( 2013 - 05 - 24 ) . `` Ditka 's 89 final number Bears will retire '' . Chicago Tribune . ^ Jump up to : `` Bears volunteer at ' A Safe Place ' shelter '' . Retrieved 2017 - 06 - 26 . Sources ( edit ) Taylor , Roy ( 2004 ) . Chicago Bears History . Arcadia Publishing ( SC ) . ISBN 0 - 7385 - 3319 - X . External links ( edit ) Chicago portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chicago Bears . 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1977434791091011565 | London Bridge (Lake Havasu City) | London bridge ( Lake Havasu City ) - wikipedia London bridge ( Lake Havasu City ) Jump to : navigation , search London Bridge in Lake Havasu London Bridge in Lake Havasu City Coordinates 34 ° 28.3 ′ N 114 ° 20.8 ′ W / 34.4717 ° N 114.3467 ° W / 34.4717 ; - 114.3467 Coordinates : 34 ° 28.3 ′ N 114 ° 20.8 ′ W / 34.4717 ° N 114.3467 ° W / 34.4717 ; - 114.3467 Carries McCulloch Boulevard Crosses Bridgewater Channel Canal Locale Lake Havasu City , Arizona , United States Characteristics Design Arch bridge Material Clynelish ( Brora ) sandstone and various granite mixes Total length 930 feet ( 280 m ; 167 sm ) Longest span 45.6 metres ( 150 ft ) No. of spans 5 History Designer John Rennie Construction start 1968 Construction end 1971 ( reconstructed ) Closed 1967 ( pre-move ) Statistics Toll None London Bridge is a bridge in Lake Havasu City , Arizona . It was built in the 1830s and formerly spanned the River Thames in London , England . It was dismantled in 1967 and relocated to Arizona . The Arizona bridge is a reinforced concrete structure clad in the original masonry of the 1830s bridge , which was purchased by Robert P. McCulloch from the City of London . McCulloch had exterior granite blocks from the original bridge numbered and transported to America to construct the present bridge in Lake Havasu City , a planned community he established in 1964 on the shore of Lake Havasu . The bridge was completed in 1971 ( along with a canal ) , and links an island in the Colorado River with the main part of Lake Havasu City . The song `` London Bridge is Falling Down '' is a nursery rhyme that predates the bridge 's original 19th - century construction . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 In popular culture 3 Image gallery 4 References 5 External links History ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( October 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The 1831 London Bridge was the last project of engineer John Rennie and was completed by his son , John Rennie the Younger . By 1962 , the bridge was not sound enough to support the increased load of modern traffic , and it was sold by the City of London . The purchaser , Robert P. McCulloch , the chairman of McCulloch Oil Corporation , was the founder of Lake Havasu City , his retirement real estate development on the east shore of Lake Havasu , a large reservoir on the Colorado River . McCulloch purchased the bridge as a tourist attraction for Lake Havasu , which was then far from the usual tourist track . The idea was successful , bringing interested tourists and retirement home buyers to the area . Originally , the deserted Lake Havasu vacant land was given to the state of Arizona by the U.S. Federal Government . The federal property was an abandoned military landing strip . McCulloch made a deal with the state government and received the property for free with a promise to develop the land . But the real estate agents could not bring in prospective buyers , because the land was far from centers of population and had a very hot , arid climate . McCulloch 's real estate agent , Robert Plumer , learned that London Bridge was for sale and convinced McCulloch to buy it and bring it to the area to attract potential land buyers . The initial response from McCulloch was , `` That 's the craziest idea I have ever heard , '' but after consideration , he decided to go ahead with the purchase . Plumer then arranged with a cargo shipping company that was going to sail a newly - built ship from Great Britain to the United States without any cargo . Plumer said they would pay for all operating costs of the sailing , which was far less than the going rate shipping costs . The bridge 's facing stones were disassembled , and each was numbered . After the bridge was dismantled , it was transported to Merrivale Quarry where 15 to 20 cm ( 5.9 to 7.9 inches ) were sliced off many of the original stones . The bridge arrived in pieces at the Port of Long Beach , California and was transported overland to Lake Havasu City , where re-assembly began in 1968 . On 23 September 1968 , the foundation stone was relaid by Sir Gilbert Inglefield , Lord Mayor of London . The original stonework was used to clad a new concrete structure . The reconstruction took slightly over three years and was completed in late 1971 . The bridge was not reconstructed over a river , but rather it was rebuilt on land in a position between the main part of the city and Pittsburgh Point , at that time a peninsula jutting into Lake Havasu . Once completed , the Bridgewater Channel Canal was dredged under the bridge and flooded , separating Pittsburgh Point from the city , creating an island . As a result , the bridge now traverses a navigable shortcut between the Thompson Bay part of Lake Havasu south of Pittsburgh Point , and the remainder of Lake Havasu to the north . London Bridge in 1972 , showing the canal After the bridge was reconstructed , prospective buyers of land were attracted to visit the bridge and take a tour of properties for sale . Land sales improved , and McCulloch recouped all his expenses on the purchase and shipping of the bridge . Since he had obtained the land at no cost , the sale of the properties paid for the bridge and more . Recent years have seen much development in the area of the bridge to increase tourist interest . The original `` English Village '' , a quaint English - style open - air mall with hedge maze and historical museum deteriorated , with sections leveled . A revitalization of the English Village was undertaken by the Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau . Condos were proposed in 2011 by the owner , Virtual Realty Enterprises . In popular culture ( edit ) It is a popular rumor that the bridge was bought in the belief that it was London 's more recognizable Tower Bridge , but this was ardently denied by McCulloch himself and by Ivan Luckin , who sold the bridge . American soft rock band Bread recorded a song called `` London Bridge '' on their first album Bread in 1969 , when lead singer David Gates learned that London Bridge was sold and to be relocated in Lake Havasu City , Arizona . His thought at the time , according to the liner notes on Bread 's album Retrospective was , `` is nothing sacred anymore ? '' The live country - western album Viva Terlingua , by Jerry Jeff Walker , includes an amusing song written by Gary P. Nunn entitled `` London Homesick Blues . '' It is the lament of a Texan trapped in London and quite out of his element . A line in the song is `` and even London Bridge has fallen down and moved to Arizona '' . In the 1970 song P.F. _Sloan_ ( song ) from the album `` Words and Music '' by American singer - songwriter Jimmy Webb he refers to the relocation of London Bridge in the lines `` The London Bridge was finally found , they moved it to another town , and now all the people gather ' round to watch the bridge fall down , but I do n't think it will no more . '' Image gallery ( edit ) London Bridge in the early 1890s London Bridge around 1900 with traffic Bridge reconstruction at Lake Havasu in March 1971 The rebuilt London Bridge in 2003 Sign on the bridge Numbered stone still visible Aerial photo of the bridge in 2011 A panoramic view of the entire bridge . London Bridge in about 1870 when it crossed the River Thames in London References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jackson , Donald C. ( 1988 ) . Great American Bridges and Dams . Wiley . p. 245 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 14385 - 5 . Jump up ^ London Bridge ( 1831 ) at Structurae Jump up ^ John Murray 1874 `` Handbook to London As It Is '' , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Elborough , Travis ( 2013 - 02 - 07 ) . London Bridge in America : The Tall Story of a Transatlantic Crossing . Random House . pp. 211 -- 212 . ISBN 9781448181674 . Retrieved 30 July 2014 . Jump up ^ Frederic B. Wildfang ( 29 September 2005 ) . Lake Havasu City . Chicago : Arcadia Publishing . pp. 105 -- 122 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7385 - 3012 - 3 . Retrieved 2 May 2013 . Jump up ^ https://golakehavasu.com/activities/attractions/london-bridge/the-english-village/ the - english - village Jump up ^ http://www.havasunews.com/news/english-village-owner-in-lake-havasu-city-to-present-big/article_ae609cba-2423-5beb-b1dd-f48ca2c674ce.html Jump up ^ Polaris EX2100 / LE2100 Sport Boats Popular Mechanics , December 2003 , archived on September 30 , 2007 from Polaris EX2100 / LE2100 the original Jump up ^ Oliver , Mark ( 2004 - 12 - 14 ) . `` Bridges '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2010 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ ' If That 's The Acropolis , How Come It Do n't Chime ? ' in Alan Coren The Sanity Inspector Coronet Books , 1974 . ISBN 0 - 340 - 19912 - 1 Jump up ^ How London Bridge Was Sold To The States This Is Local London , March 27 , 2002 Jump up ^ http://www.albumlinernotes.com/Bread_-_Retrospective.html Jump up ^ http://www.allmusic.com/song/pf-sloan-mt0034428498 Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Webb External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to London Bridge Lake Havasu . London Bridge ( 1971 ) at Structurae Historic American Engineering Record ( HAER ) No . AZ - 57 , `` London Bridge , Spanning manmade channel ( moved from London , UK ) , Lake Havasu City , Mohave County , AZ '' , 3 photos , 5 data pages , 1 photo caption page Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau about London Bridge RoadTrip America about London Bridge Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=London_Bridge_(Lake_Havasu_City)&oldid=796176537 '' Categories : Road bridges in Arizona Bridges completed in 1831 Bridges completed in 1971 Landmarks in Arizona Lower Colorado River Valley Former buildings and structures in the City of London Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United States Relocated buildings and structures in Arizona Transportation in Mohave County , Arizona 1968 establishments in Arizona Tourist attractions in Mohave County , Arizona Buildings and structures in Mohave County , Arizona Lake Havasu City , Arizona Historic American Engineering Record in Arizona Hidden categories : Structurae ID different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Articles needing additional references from October 2012 All articles needing additional references Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Français 한국어 Magyar Edit links This page was last edited on 19 August 2017 , at 00 : 59 . About Wikipedia | who bought london bridge thinking it was tower bridge | [
"It is a popular rumor that the bridge was bought in the belief that it was London's more recognizable Tower Bridge,[8][9][10] but this was ardently denied by McCulloch himself and by Ivan Luckin, who sold the bridge.[11]"
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"McCulloch"
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-3792313556029712814 | List of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic characters | List of My Little pony : Friendship is Magic characters - Wikipedia List of My Little pony : Friendship is Magic characters Jump to : navigation , search A 2011 Comic - Con poster depicting many characters from the first season . My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic is an animated television series based on the My Little Pony toyline , created by American toy and game manufacturer Hasbro . It features characters and settings developed by Lauren Faust , who sought to create more in - depth characters than the stereotypical `` girly '' icons used in previous iterations of the franchise . The series began airing on October 10 , 2010 in the United States on the Hub Network cable channel , which was re-branded as Discovery Family in October 2014 . The show follows a studious unicorn pony named Twilight Sparkle as her mentor Princess Celestia guides her to learn about friendship in the town of Ponyville . Twilight becomes best friends with five other ponies : earth ponies Applejack and Pinkie Pie , pegasus ponies Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy , and unicorn Rarity . Each represents a different facet of friendship , and Twilight discovers herself to be a key part of the magical artifacts , the Elements of Harmony . The six ponies -- collectively known as the `` Mane Six '' -- share adventures and help out other residents of Ponyville , while working out the troublesome moments in their own friendships , eventually leading to Twilight 's ascension as a winged unicorn known as an alicorn . Several episodes focus on the exploits of Spike , Twilight 's baby dragon assistant , and a younger trio of pony characters ( Apple Bloom , Scootaloo , and Sweetie Belle ) who call themselves the `` Cutie Mark Crusaders '' and share their own adventures trying to discover their talents in life and receive their `` cutie marks '' -- a central theme of the show -- until the season five episode `` Crusaders of the Lost Mark '' . Beginning in season six , the reformed villain Starlight Glimmer also becomes a focus character . The characters have been well received by critics , and are cited as one of the reasons the series ' older fans , called `` bronies '' , became attracted to the show . Several background characters have been popularized by fans as well , and are further incorporated as in - jokes within the show . The series later spawned numerous spin - off media , including a comic book and children 's book series expanding some of the characters ' roles , and a spin - off film series titled My Little Pony : Equestria Girls , where several of the television series ' characters are re-envisioned as humanoids in a high school setting . Contents ( hide ) 1 Creation and conception 2 Main characters 2.1 Twilight Sparkle 2.2 Rainbow Dash 2.3 Pinkie Pie 2.4 Rarity 2.5 Applejack 2.6 Fluttershy 2.7 Spike 3 Secondary characters 3.1 Princess Celestia 3.2 Princess Luna 3.3 Cutie Mark Crusaders 3.4 Discord 3.5 Princess Cadance and Shining Armor 3.6 Starlight Glimmer 4 Recurring characters 4.1 Ponyville characters 4.2 Canterlot characters 4.3 Cloudsdale characters 4.4 Major antagonists 4.5 Other characters 4.6 Background characters 5 Reception 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Creation and conception ( edit ) Faust was initially hired by Hasbro to create a pitch bible for the show , allowing her to get additional help with conceptualization . Faust said she was `` extremely skeptical '' about taking the job at first because she had always found shows based on girls ' toys to be boring and unrelatable . She was disappointed that her imagination of the toys at the time was nothing like the animated shows , in which the characters , according to Faust , had `` endless tea parties , giggled over nothing and defeated villains by either sharing with them or crying . '' With the chance to work on My Little Pony , one of her favorite childhood toys , but , she hoped to prove that `` cartoons for girls do n't have to be a puddle of smooshy , cutesy - wootsy , goody - two - shoeness . '' To do this , she incorporated into the design of the characters and the show many elements that contradicted idealized stereotypes of girls , such as diverse personalities , the message that friends can be different and can get into arguments but still be friends , and the idea that girls should not be limited by what others say they can or can not do . Elements of the characters ' personalities and the show 's settings were based on her own childhood imagination of the ponies ' adventures , in part inspired by the animated shows that her brothers would watch while growing up , such as Transformers and G.I. Joe . Faust still aimed for the characters to be `` relatable '' characters , using stereotypical `` icons of girliness '' ( such as the waif or the bookworm ) , as to broaden the appeal of the characters for the young female audience . Main characters ( edit ) My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic focuses on six core characters , also identified as the `` Mane Six '' , a group of friends who are brought together by the `` Elements of Harmony '' , a set of six mystical jewels and an `` unstoppable force of good '' that are used to defend Equestria against powerful threats . Each character was designed to represent a different element and positive aspect of friendship -- honesty ( Applejack ) , kindness ( Fluttershy ) , laughter ( Pinkie Pie ) , generosity ( Rarity ) , and loyalty ( Rainbow Dash ) -- which come together to form the sixth element of `` magic '' ( Twilight Sparkle ) . Twilight Sparkle ( edit ) Voiced by Tara Strong , singing voice by Rebecca Shoichet Twilight Sparkle is the central character of the series , based on the first generation or `` G1 '' unicorn toy Twilight . She is depicted in the show 's first three seasons as a purple unicorn with a pink - streaked indigo mane , and as a winged unicorn called an `` alicorn '' in later seasons . She takes charge of the Mane Six during their adventures and helps resolve her friends ' differences . She is an intelligent , dutiful , and accomplished scholar with an avid love of learning and a studied prowess in unicorn magic such as levitation , teleportation , and the creation of force fields . Director Jayson Thiessen describes her as `` kind of a neurotic perfectionist '' who has `` a touch OCD '' , prone to suffering from nervous breakdowns when confronted with a problem that goes against her understanding . Twilight begins the story as the protégée of Princess Celestia , who tasks her with studying the magical properties of friendship in Ponyville and reporting her findings . Twilight resents her assignment in the opening episodes , owing her reclusiveness to her obsession with books , but she comes to form strong friendships with the rest of the Mane Six , which she realizes is key to harnessing the Elements of Harmony . She resides with her assistant Spike and pet owl named Owlowiscious ( pronounced the same way as Aloysius / æləwɪʃəs / ) in Ponyville 's Golden Oak Library , where she also serves as town librarian . Her apprenticeship to Celestia ends in the season three finale `` Magical Mystery Cure '' when , by creating new magic based on her studies of friendship , Twilight transforms into an alicorn and is crowned a princess of Equestria . Assuming the title of `` Princess of Friendship '' , Twilight becomes responsible for spreading her teachings to propagate friendships across Equestria from the Castle of Friendship , a mystical castle that replaces the library after its destruction in the season four finale `` Twilight 's Kingdom '' . Rainbow Dash ( edit ) Voiced by Ashleigh Ball Rainbow Dash is a sky blue pegasus with a rainbow - colored mane and tail who is based on Faust 's `` G1 '' Firefly toy , and shares her name with the `` G3 '' earth pony . She is an `` act first and ask questions later '' pegasus obsessed with speed and adventure . Her goal at the series ' beginning is to join her heroes , the elite Wonderbolts aerobatic team , which is accomplished in the season six episode `` Newbie Dash '' after she impresses them with her multiple heroic feats across the first five seasons . Apart from helping other pegasi manage the weather around Ponyville , she spends her time practicing flight maneuvers such as the `` Sonic Rainboom '' , a rainbow - hued sonic boom ; it is shown in the episode `` The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' that Rainbow Dash 's first Sonic Rainboom as a filly produced not only her own cutie mark , but also the rest of the Mane Six 's marks . She lives with a propeller - fitted pet tortoise named Tank in a floating condominium of clouds called the Cloudominium , which is sparingly seen in the show because she `` does n't sit still for very long '' , according to director Jim Miller . Faust struggled to find a suitable aspect for Rainbow Dash 's Element of Harmony , seeing the character as `` self - absorbed and rather irresponsible . '' She eventually settled on `` loyalty '' because it `` brought out ( Rainbow Dash 's ) positive traits . '' Pinkie Pie ( edit ) Voiced by Andrea Libman , singing voice by Shannon Chan - Kent Pinkie Pie ( fully named Pinkamena Diane Pie ) is a pink earth pony based on the `` G3 '' toy of the same name . Her character , which Thiessen summarized as `` a frenetic sugar rush '' , was inspired by the `` G1 '' pegasus toy Surprise . She is a live - in party planner at Sugarcube Corner , a bakery and confectionery store in Ponyville that resembles a gingerbread house , where she also keeps a toothless baby alligator named Gummy . A comedic character raised on a `` dreary rock farm '' , Pinkie is cheerful , energetic , and talkative . She is defined by her desire to entertain her friends by throwing parties at random times and acting as outlandish as possible ; however , she demonstrates a lack of confidence and a fear of being rejected by others , which is occasionally expressed by her balloon - like mane deflating . Pinkie is a source of much of the series ' humor , and several of the show 's `` wacky gags '' are kept exclusive to her . Her running gags include breaking the fourth wall and `` appearing suddenly in unexpected places '' , as well as an ability to predict future events through various body reactions , which she calls the `` Pinkie Sense '' . In early episodes , Faust worked to depict Pinkie as a `` free spirit '' to address concerns of the character being seen as too `` hyper '' and `` ditzy '' . As the creative team grew more comfortable with Pinkie 's character and humor , she became `` really over-the - top strange and bordering on crazy , with a wacky cartoonish magic all her own . '' Rarity ( edit ) Voiced by Tabitha St. Germain , singing voice by Kazumi Evans Rarity is a white unicorn with a violet , curled mane , based on the `` G1 '' ponies Glory and Sparkler , and named after the `` G3 '' pony . She is a ladylike fashionista who speaks with a Mid-Atlantic accent and runs a haute couture salon in Ponyville called Carousel Boutique . Despite her vain and melodramatic tendencies , she has a generous spirit and strives to create dresses that capture their wearers ' inner beauty . She owns a pet Persian cat named Opalescence , commonly nicknamed Opal . Faust 's original idea for Rarity 's Element of Harmony was `` inspiration '' , but it was changed to `` generosity '' after the production team deemed the former `` too much of a thinker , especially for kids . '' Faust was pleased with the change , saying it `` really helped pull ( Rarity ) away from the stereotypical , unlikable debutante . '' She cites Audrey Hepburn as her biggest influence for Rarity , and also says that Tabitha St. Germain 's performance `` added a humor to Rarity that was unexpected and wonderful . '' Applejack ( edit ) Voiced by Ashleigh Ball Applejack is an orange , blonde - haired earth pony based on the `` G1 '' character of the same name . She is characterized as a `` farm gal '' who sports a cowboy hat and lasso , and speaks with a Southern accent . She works as an apple farmer at the Sweet Apple Acres orchard in Ponyville , using her great physical strength to `` buck '' apples out of trees . She lives with her grandmother Granny Smith , older brother Big McIntosh , younger sister Apple Bloom , and pet collie Winona ; according to Faust , Applejack 's parents -- first depicted in season seven 's `` The Perfect Pear '' as Bright Mac ( voiced by Bill Newton ) and Pear Butter ( voiced by Felicia Day ) -- are deceased . Applejack is honest , reliable , and the most `` down - to - earth '' of the Mane Six . She also has a stubborn streak , with several episodes focusing on her taking up some sort of `` herculean task '' . Author Begin says that her apple - themed cutie mark `` not only represents her name , but also is a symbol of the down - home simplicity found in a classic and common fruit . '' Fluttershy ( edit ) Voiced by Andrea Libman Fluttershy is a yellow pegasus with a long , pink mane , based on the `` G1 '' earth pony Posey . True to her name , she is `` defined by her shy sweetness ; soft , whispery voice ; and tender , nurturing nature '' , as described by author Begin . She possesses a unique affinity for animals that allows her to understand and communicate with them . She lives in a secluded meadow cottage in Ponyville , where she cares for multiple woodland creatures such as her `` conniving and willful '' pet rabbit Angel Bunny . In many episodes , Fluttershy exhibits a more authoritative personality that emerges whenever a friend or animal is harmed in some way , in contrast to her normally fearful and submissive self . Her most prominent ability is known as `` the Stare '' , which causes any creature that meets her gaze to become `` powerless and moved to meekness '' while it is in effect . Faust enjoyed writing for Fluttershy the most out of the show 's characters due to her `` relatable '' struggles with fear , which Faust says brings potential `` not just for great storytelling but ( also for ) great filmmaking '' . Spike ( edit ) Voiced by Cathy Weseluck Spike the Dragon is a purple baby dragon with green spines , based on the `` G1 '' and `` G3 '' character of the same name . Hatched from an egg by a young Twilight Sparkle as part of her entrance exam for Celestia 's academy , he fulfills the role of Twilight 's `` number one assistant '' , named so for his loyalty and skill at helping Twilight solve problems and learn lessons . He is also described as having `` an incurable crush on Rarity , an insatiable appetite for sparkly gems , and the uniquely comical ability to messenger letters via his fiery dragon breath . '' Author Begin calls Spike a foil to the Mane Six in terms of personality , size , and shape , which `` provides plenty of opportunity for exploring this difference in story lines . '' He adopts a newborn phoenix named Peewee as a pet in the second - season episode `` Dragon Quest '' , later returning Peewee to his family in season three 's `` Just for Sidekicks '' . Faust envisioned the character as `` the sensitive little boy who has a lot of sisters and just seems to get along better with girls . '' On Spike 's role as a dragon outsider living among ponies , Meghan McCarthy says , `` He 's trying to figure out who he is . What beyond being Twilight 's assistant is his role in this world ? I think he really reflects how everybody feels at some point in their life . '' Secondary characters ( edit ) Princess Celestia ( edit ) Voiced by Nicole Oliver Princess Celestia , based on the `` G1 '' unicorn Majesty , is a regal white alicorn depicted as the benevolent ruler of Equestria . Her design is larger , more mature , and more horse - like than the standard pony character , and she has a flowing , multicolored mane and tail resembling a celestial body . As detailed in The Journal of the Two Sisters , Celestia has ruled Equestria for over one thousand years due to her kind 's slowed aging , and her status as an alicorn is seen as a symbol of harmony between unicorns , pegasi and earth ponies . She is responsible for magically raising the sun each day in the show 's setting from her castle in Canterlot . She also acts as a mentor and , as described by Faust , `` a bit of a surrogate parent '' to Twilight Sparkle , guiding her throughout the series ' first three seasons to her eventual destiny as a princess of Equestria . She owns a mischievous pet phoenix named Philomena , who appears to be a `` squaking old bird '' before bursting into flames and renewing herself . Faust 's original concept for Celestia was a queen rather than a princess , reflecting her status as the `` highest authority '' in the series ' setting . The change was made at Hasbro 's statement that `` girls assume that Queens are evil ( ... ) and Princesses are good , '' and that `` the perceived youth of a Princess is preferable to consumers . '' Princess Luna ( edit ) Voiced by Tabitha St. Germain , singing voice by Kazumi Evans ( `` Twilight 's Kingdom '' ) and Aloma Steele ( `` A Hearth 's Warming Tail '' ) Princess Luna , also named `` Selena '' in earlier drafts , is a dark - blue alicorn and Princess Celestia 's younger sister , designed and developed by Lynne Naylor . She serves as co-ruler of Equestria alongside Celestia , using her magic to maintain the moon and safeguard her subjects ' dreams during nighttime . Luna is introduced as the opening episodes ' antagonist Nightmare Moon , transformed into a malevolent , black - coated mare by bitterness and jealousy towards her more beloved sister ; as expounded in the comic series , her alter ego is a creation of the Nightmare Forces , a dark lunar miasma that preys on Luna 's insecurities to convince her to become their host . Banished to the moon by the reluctant Celestia in the series ' past , Nightmare Moon returns from a millennial exile to evoke eternal night - time . The Mane Six use the Elements of Harmony to purify and reform Luna , who reconciles with her sister and resumes her royal duties in a weakened state . She sports a different design in later episodes with a darker coloration and starry mane , which represent her dominion over the night . Several episodes depict Luna 's `` difficulty living in her older sister 's shadow '' , such as adapting to modern Equestrian customs and repairing her public image . Outside the television series , Luna owns a pet opossum named Tiberius that appears in several comics and chapter books . Cutie Mark Crusaders ( edit ) The Cutie Mark Crusaders are a trio of fillies who are bonded by their desire to earn their `` cutie marks '' , symbols that adorn a pony 's flank once they discover their special talents in life . They are each depicted as younger sibling figures to the main cast except Scootaloo . Several episodes of the series focus on the Crusaders ' misadventures in trying to earn their marks in `` the most unorthodox and sometimes less - than - productive ways . '' This goal is achieved in the season five episode `` Crusaders of the Lost Mark '' , where the members gain similarly - themed cutie marks when they recognize their true purpose in life is helping other ponies discover or interpret their own cutie marks . Apple Bloom ( voiced by Michelle Creber ) -- Apple Bloom is a yellow earth pony filly with red mane and a pink mane bow , and is named for being `` full of potential '' and having `` a lot of growing to do '' . She is the sassy younger sister of Applejack and Big McIntosh who formulates and spearheads most of the Cutie Mark Crusaders ' `` missions '' . Scootaloo ( voiced by Madeleine Peters ) -- Scootaloo is an orange pegasus filly with purple mane , based on the `` G3 '' pony of the same name . She suffers from an inability to fly , and instead uses her wings to propel her specially fashioned scooter . She idolizes Rainbow Dash as an older sister figure , often trying to imitate Rainbow Dash 's `` too cool '' attitude and athletic skill . Sweetie Belle ( voiced by Claire Corlett , singing voice for seasons 1 -- 3 by Michelle Creber ) -- Sweetie Belle is a `` sweet - natured and sometimes spacey '' unicorn filly with a white coat and a lavender and pink - striped mane , based on the `` G3 '' pony of the same name . She has `` a blossoming talent for singing '' , and strives to become a fashion designer and gain the approval of her older sister , Rarity . In addition to the main trio , there are others who are accepted into the Cutie Mark Crusaders across the series : Babs Seed ( voiced by Brynna Drummond ) -- Babs is an earth pony filly and `` tough - talkin ' Apple cousin from Manehattan '' , debuting in the third - season episode `` One Bad Apple '' . The character was created as a `` blank flank '' bully of the Cutie Mark Crusaders `` whose behavior was the result of an insecurity that the Crusaders could relate to and ultimately help her overcome . '' She joins the Crusaders and forms her own branch of the club in Manehattan because , according to McCarthy , `` We 've got our three Crusaders in Ponyville and did n't want to add a permanent fourth . '' Babs earns her cutie mark as a hairstylist in the season five episode `` Bloom & Gloom '' . Gabby ( voiced by Erin Mathews ) -- Gabby is a friendly and enthusiastic female griffon featured in the show 's sixth season . Introduced as a social outcast from the griffon city of Griffonstone , she joins the Crusaders at the end of her debut episode , `` The Fault in Our Cutie Marks '' , following her failed attempts to obtain her own cutie mark . Discord ( edit ) Actor John de Lancie ( pictured at BronyCon , 2012 ) voices Discord , a character based on his television role as Q from Star Trek : The Next Generation . Voiced by John de Lancie Discord is a spirit of chaos who first appeared as the antagonist of the season two premiere `` The Return of Harmony '' . Primarily characterized as a nonsensical trickster , he is a Greek mythology - inspired creature called a `` draconequus '' / drəˈkɒnɛkwʌs / ( from the Latin words meaning `` dragon horse '' ) , a serpentine being with a pony 's head and numerous different animal parts , which is meant to symbolize his inharmonious nature . He is shown to be opposed by Princesses Celestia and Luna in the series ' distant past for tormenting ponies with his reality - bending powers , and he similarly faces the Mane Six during the premiere ; both times , the ponies use the Elements of Harmony to turn him into stone . In the season three episode `` Keep Calm and Flutter On '' , Discord is released under Celestia 's decree to reform himself , which he does after Fluttershy treats him like a friend . He appears in later episodes as a reluctant ally of the Mane Six , occasionally causing mischief while struggling to become a better friend to them . Faust based Discord 's character on Q , an omnipotent trickster played by John de Lancie on the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . The production team considered casting a soundalike of de Lancie to voice the character , and were surprised to learn that de Lancie himself was available . The creative team developed Discord as `` the one character who could break all of the rules of the show '' by including more modern or contemporary references than usual in the series ' `` fantasy storybook '' setting . He was not intended to have a recurring role ; according to McCarthy , `` ' reforming ' him allows us to tell new stories with his character . He gets to be the not - always - reliable ally instead of the known enemy . '' Author Begin commented on the `` chaotic '' settings that accompany the character , such as his home dimension called Chaosville , likening them to `` dream - inspired Salvador Dalí paintings . '' Princess Cadance and Shining Armor ( edit ) Voiced by Britt McKillip ( Princess Cadance ) and Andrew Francis ( Shining Armor ) Princess Cadance and Shining Armor are Twilight Sparkle 's older sister - in - law and brother , respectively , who both debuted in the season two finale `` A Canterlot Wedding '' . Cadance , a kindhearted alicorn who is fully named Princess Mi Amore Cadenza , is Princess Celestia 's adopted niece and Twilight 's childhood `` foal - sitter '' ( babysitter ) ; according to her backstory presented in Twilight Sparkle and the Crystal Heart Spell , Cadance is a former pegasus who turned into an alicorn after reversing an evil sorceress 's love - stealing spell . She marries the unicorn Shining Armor , who is the captain of Canterlot 's royal guard and has a close relationship with his sister , for which he is nicknamed her `` Big Brother Best Friend Forever '' ( B.B.B.F.F. ) . In the third - season premiere , Celestia appoints Shining Armor and Cadance to rule the Crystal Empire , an `` ancient city '' that Cadance protects using the power of love so that their subjects , the shimmering coated `` crystal ponies '' , may magically project their feelings of hope and love across Equestria . In the season six premiere `` The Crystalling '' , Cadance gives birth to an alicorn filly named Flurry Heart ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain ) . Starlight Glimmer ( edit ) Voiced by Kelly Sheridan Starlight Glimmer is a unicorn who debuted in the season five premiere `` The Cutie Map '' . Initially appearing as a `` perfectly pleasant - looking unicorn '' , Starlight proves to be a sinister figure who wishes to build a `` perfectly equal society '' by using her magic to remove other ponies ' cutie marks ; she cites her reasons as believing that differing degrees of ability cause disharmony between friends , stemming from her estrangement from her childhood friend Sunburst ( voiced by Ian Hanlin ) after he earns his cutie mark before her . She later appears in the season finale `` The Cutie Re-Mark '' to take revenge against the Mane Six by traveling to the past and preventing their friendship before it starts . After realizing the catastrophic changes this causes in the present , Starlight is convinced to change her ways and make new friends . She appears in season six as Twilight 's pupil who studies friendship alongside the Mane Six in Ponyville , a role she graduates from in the season seven episode `` Celestial Advice '' . According to Miller , Starlight 's design was chosen to parallel her role as a `` proto - Twilight character '' . Her original name during production was `` Aurora Glimmer '' , which was changed due to the Walt Disney Company 's trademark of the character name `` Aurora '' . Recurring characters ( edit ) Ponyville characters ( edit ) Ponyville is the primary setting of the television series and home of the show 's main characters . The town 's unique locales were designed to reflect their characters , while the overall style of the town was largely influenced by Pennsylvania Dutch design , steampunk artwork , and European and Bavarian folklore . The town also incorporates pony design elements such as horseshoes , hay bales , and troughs . Big McIntosh ( voiced by Peter New ) -- Big McIntosh , commonly called Big Mac , is a large earth pony stallion who is Applejack and Apple Bloom 's older brother . He `` generally does n't have much to say '' , and often speaks only by replying `` eeyup '' and `` nope '' . Granny Smith ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain ) -- Granny Smith is an earth pony whos is the grandmother of Applejack , Apple Bloom , and Big McIntosh . She is depicted as a `` wise matriarch '' who has sharp wit and a `` fuzzy '' memory , and she is stated to be one of Ponyville 's first settlers . Mayor Mare ( voiced by Cathy Weseluck ) -- Mayor Mare is an earth pony who is the mayor of Ponyville . Cake family -- Mr. Carrot Cake ( voiced by Brian Drummond ) and Mrs. Cup Cake ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain ) , both earth ponies , are the owners of the Sugarcube Corner bakery . In the season two episode `` Baby Cakes '' , Mrs. Cake gives birth to twin foals , a pegasus colt named Pound ( voiced by St. Germain ) , and a unicorn filly named Pumpkin ( voiced by Andrea Libman ) . Cheerilee ( voiced by Nicole Oliver ) -- Cheerilee is an earth pony based on the `` G3 '' toy of the same name , appearing as a school - teacher at the Ponyville Schoolhouse . Snips and Snails ( voiced by Lee Tockar and Richard Ian Cox ) -- Snips and Snails are a pair of dimwitted unicorn colts who creates mischief in Ponyville . The short and pudgy Snips is `` known for his enthusiasm '' , while the taller Snails is `` slightly more relaxed '' . Diamond Tiara and Silver Spoon ( voiced by Chantal Strand and Shannon Chan - Kent ) -- Diamond Tiara and her cohort Silver Spoon are two wealthy , snobbish earth pony fillies who tease the Cutie Mark Crusaders for not having their cutie marks , calling them `` blank flanks '' . It is shown in `` Crusaders of the Lost Mark '' that Diamond Tiara 's behavior stems from her stress about meeting the expectations of her father Filthy Rich ( voiced by Brian Drummond ) and mother Spoiled Rich ( voiced by Strand ) , who are practically the reason for her snobbiness . By the episode 's end , she and Silver Spoon make peace with the Crusaders . Pipsqueak ( voiced by William Lawrenson in `` Luna Eclipsed '' and Graham Verchere in all other appearances ) -- Pipsqueak , also named Pip , is a pinto earth pony colt who hails from Trottingham , a location outside of Ponyville . He speaks with a Cockney accent in most of his appearances . Cranky Doodle and Matilda ( voiced by Richard Newman and Brenda Crichlow ) -- Cranky Doodle Donkey is a donkey and `` crotchety old grouch '' who rejects Pinkie Pie 's friendship until she re-unites him with his long - lost `` special friend '' Matilda , a female donkey . The two marry in the one - hundredth episode `` Slice of Life '' . Bulk Biceps ( voiced by Jayson Thiessen / Michael Dobson ) -- Bulk Biceps is a muscular pegasus stallion with small wings . His design was partially based on John Kricfalusi 's animation style . He first appears as a nameless gag character in the season two episode `` Hurricane Fluttershy '' , where his shouts of `` Yeah ! '' ( attributed to `` pony walla '' ) are recorded by Thiessen . Dobson performs the character in full speaking appearances starting with season four 's `` Rainbow Falls '' . Canterlot characters ( edit ) Canterlot is the mountainside capital of Equestria , named after the castle Camelot of Arthurian legend . The city is home to the country 's upper - class elite , including Princess Celestia and Princess Luna , who reside in the local castle . Canterlot was designed to give the sense of its residents ' royalty and nobility . Prince Blueblood ( voiced by Vincent Tong ) -- Blueblood is Princess Celestia 's unicorn nephew and an object of Rarity 's affections in the first season until he proves to be `` quite vain '' and `` a pompous fool '' . Hoity Toity ( voiced by Trevor Devall ) -- Hoity Toity is an earth pony `` fashion guru '' who gives make - or - break critiques to designers . Photo Finish ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain ) -- Photo Finish is a famed earth pony fashion photographer who speaks with an Austrian accent . Sapphire Shores ( voiced by Rena Anakwe ) -- Sapphire is an earth pony singer known as the `` Pony of Pop '' , based on the `` G3 '' toy of the same name . Fancy Pants ( voiced by Trevor Devall ) -- Fancy Pants is a good - natured unicorn socialite with the highest position in elite Canterlot society , often appearing with a readily agreeable entourage . Sassy Saddles ( voiced by Kelly Sheridan ) -- Sassy is a unicorn who is the manager of `` Canterlot Carousel '' , Rarity 's boutique in Canterlot that opens in the season five episode `` Canterlot Boutique '' . Her design was inspired by Emily Blunt 's character Emily Charlton in The Devil Wears Prada . Cloudsdale characters ( edit ) Cloudsdale is the home and birthplace of several pegasus characters such as Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy . It is depicted as a floating city of clouds where pegasi produce Equestria 's clouds , weather and rainbows inside a specialized `` weather factory '' . The city 's design was influenced by Greek and Roman architecture , which author Begin states `` harks back to the original Olympic Games , ( ... ) a fitting reference for Rainbow Dash . '' The Wonderbolts -- The Wonderbolts are a squad of pegasi that perform `` aerial feats of wonder '' , based on the Blue Angels . They are captained by Spitfire ( voiced by Nicole Oliver in the episode `` Sonic Rainboom '' and Kelly Metzger in all other appearances ) , a `` spirited competitor '' and `` no - nonsense instructor '' at the Wonderbolts ' training academy , and her second - in - command Soarin ( voiced by Matt Hill ) . Their costumes were designed by Craig McCracken . According to writer Amy Keating Rogers , the name of the Wonderbolts ' founder , General Firefly , is a tribute to Faust 's online username `` fyre - flye '' , in turn named after the `` G1 '' toy Firefly . Boy Bullies -- A trio of pegasus stallions introduced in `` Sonic Rainboom '' serve as Rainbow Dash 's childhood bullies . They consist of Hoops ( voiced by Kathleen Barr in `` Sonic Rainboom '' and Terry Klassen in all other appearances ) and two nameless ponies nicknamed `` Billy / Dumb - Bell '' ( voiced by Richard Ian Cox in `` Sonic Rainboom '' and Brian Drummond in `` The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' ) and the unvoiced `` Score '' . Major antagonists ( edit ) Nightmare Moon ( see Princess Luna ) Discord ( see above ) Queen Chrysalis ( voiced by Kathleen Barr ) -- Chrysalis is the leader of the changelings , a race of `` grotesque shape - shifting ponies '' that gain power by feeding off of ponies ' love for each other . She appears as the antagonist of `` A Canterlot Wedding '' , where she leads an invasion of Canterlot by impersonating Princess Cadance to control her fiancé Shining Armor , only for the changelings to be driven off by the couple 's combined magic . She also features in `` To Where and Back Again '' , where she is deposed by Thorax ( voiced by Kyle Rideout ) , a benevolent changeling who persuades the rest of their kind to share love rather than steal it . Chrysalis makes additional appearances in the comic series , seeking revenge against the ponies responsible for her defeat from the television series . Character designer Rebecca Dart drew Chrysalis and the other changelings with an insect - like design after reading the character 's name in the script , drawing inspiration from manga artists Junko Mizuno and Hideshi Hino . King Sombra ( voiced by Jim Miller ) -- Sombra is the antagonist of `` The Crystal Empire '' . Described as a `` snarling black - hearted monster '' , he is a tyrant unicorn king said to have enslaved the crystal ponies until Celestia and Luna banished him as a shadowy mass during Equestria 's history . His efforts to reclaim the Crystal Empire are thwarted when he is destroyed by the magical Crystal Heart that protects the city . The comics explore Sombra 's role as an `` umbrum '' , a shadow pony who embraced his kind 's monstrous nature after being rejected by the crystal ponies , only to be restored to life and redeemed by Radiant Hope , his childhood friend . Miller based his performance on the vocals of Mastodon song `` Crystal Skull '' . Lord Tirek ( voiced by Mark Acheson ) -- Tirek is a red - skinned , bull - like centaur who appears as the antagonist of `` Twilight 's Kingdom '' . Based on the character of the same name from the animated My Little Pony special Rescue at Midnight Castle , he is depicted in Friendship Is Magic as an ancient and diabolical tyrant who escapes from the prison realm of Tartarus , manipulating Discord to help him steal all magic from Equestria 's ponies . The Mane Six eventually defeat and reimprison him with their `` Rainbow Power '' , a more formidable magic acquired from the Tree of Harmony . Character designer Phil Caesar strove to make Tirek appear as intimidating as he could without being deemed `` too scary '' for younger audiences , giving him design elements such as a black upper body to `` tone down the intensity '' . Starlight Glimmer ( see above ) Pony of Shadows ( voiced by Bill Newton ) -- First mentioned in `` Castle Mane - ia '' as the subject of a ghost story , the Pony of Shadows serves as the antagonist of `` Shadow Play '' . He is the alter ego of Stygian , a resentful unicorn who is mistaken for a traitor and shunned by his allies , the Pillars of Old Equestria , and bonded with a malevolent entity that takes the form of a shadowy , alicorn - like monster . He is inadvertently freed alongside the Pillars by the Mane Six , thwarting the heroes ' millennium - long effort to contain him in limbo . Stygian 's innocence is eventually recognized by the Pillars , who work alongside the Mane Six to separate him from the shadow creature , which is returned to limbo in his place . Other characters ( edit ) Gilda ( voiced by Maryke Hendrikse ) -- Gilda is a female griffon featured in the season one episode `` Griffon the Brush Off '' . She is introduced as a childhood friend of Rainbow Dash , who later ends their friendship when Gilda tries to assert herself over Rainbow Dash 's pony friends by bullying them . The two later reconnect in the season five episode `` The Lost Treasure of Griffonstone '' . Trixie ( voiced by Kathleen Barr ) -- Trixie is a traveling unicorn magician and braggart who exaggerates her magical abilities , calling herself `` The Great and Powerful Trixie '' . She makes appearances in the show and various spin - offs as either an anti-hero or villain , beginning as a rival to Twilight Sparkle in the season one episode `` Boast Busters '' , but becoming more apologetic after seeing the error of her vengeful actions in season three 's `` Magic Duel '' . She appears in various episodes during seasons six and seven , forming a friendship with Starlight Glimmer , another reformed unicorn . Dragons -- The dragons that appear throughout the series are generally depicted as selfish and reclusive creatures , and their level of greed determines their physical size . They are governed by a Dragon Lord , the gargantuan Torch ( voiced by Matt Cowlrick ) , who is succeeded by his moody yet compassionate daughter , Princess Ember ( voiced by Ali Milner ) , in the season six episode `` Gauntlet of Fire '' . A teenage dragon , Garble ( voiced by Vincent Tong ) , leads a gang of `` bad - natured bullies '' and becomes an adversary of Spike . Begin describes the dragon designs used in the show as `` traditional '' , while finding that their `` exaggerated noses and large heads resting on exceptionally skinny necks '' is evocative of the show 's humor . Zecora ( voiced by Brenda Crichlow ) -- Zecora is a zebra shaman and herbalist who always speaks in rhyme and lives in the Everfree Forest , a `` mysterious '' forest on the edge of Ponyville . The townsfolk misjudge her as an `` evil enchantress '' until the Mane Six befriend her in the episode `` Bridle Gossip '' , often turning to her for her wisdom afterwards . Her appearance and mannerisms are influenced by African tribal cultures . Apple family -- The Apples are Applejack 's extended family of earth ponies that live throughout Equestria . Family members include Braeburn ( voiced by Michael Daingerfield ) , Applejack 's cousin from Appleloosa , a `` Wild West '' town ; her `` high - society '' Aunt and Uncle Orange ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain and Brian Drummond ) from the `` bustling city '' of Manehattan ; Hayseed Turnip Truck ( voiced by Trevor Devall ) , a yokel - type odd - job worker ; Babs Seed ( see Cutie Mark Crusaders ) ; Auntie Applesauce and Apple Rose ( voiced by St. Germain and Ashleigh Ball ) , two older relatives and friends of Granny Smith ; Goldie Delicious ( voiced by Peter New ) , an old cat lady who hoards family heirlooms ; and Grand Pear ( voiced by William Shatner ) , Applejack 's maternal grandfather and patriarch of the rival Pear family . A possible distant relationship between the Apple and Pie families is uncovered in the season four episode `` Pinkie Apple Pie '' , but is never confirmed . Pie family -- The Pies are Pinkie Pie 's family who live on a rock farm outside of Ponyville . They are depicted as a clan of dour , drably colored earth ponies in contrast to Pinkie 's bright appearance and personality . They consist of Pinkie 's father Igneous Rock ( voiced by Terry Klassen in `` The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' and Peter New in `` Hearthbreakers '' ) , mother Cloudy Quartz ( voiced by Andrea Libman in `` Hearthbreakers '' ) , and three sisters ( all voiced by Ingrid Nilson ) : Limestone Pie , the surly oldest sister ; Marble Pie , Pinkie 's withdrawn , younger twin ; and Maud Pie , an older sister who rarely expresses emotion and is obsessed with rocks , introduced in the show 's fourth season . Starswirl the Bearded ( voiced by Christopher Britton ) -- Starswirl is a unicorn and historical figure in the series , originally envisioned as an archetypal wizard character with a prominent beard , similar to Merlin . As detailed in the series and various tie - in media , he mentored Equestria 's co-founder Clover the Clever and served as Celestia and Luna 's royal adviser in their youth . Starswirl 's spellbook is a key figure in `` Magical Mystery Cure '' , where Twilight is directed by Princess Celestia to finish Starswirl 's `` unfinished masterpiece '' written within , resulting in her ascension as an alicorn princess of Equestria . He is depicted in the seventh season finale `` Shadow Play '' and the accompanying Legends of Magic comic series as the leader of the Pillars of Old Equestria , six legendary ponies responsible for creating the Elements of Harmony . He and the other Pillars are brought into the present era after being released from a millennial imprisonment in limbo alongside the Pony of Shadows , forming a tense alliance with the Mane Six to defeat and ultimately rekindle his friendship with the villain . Flim Flam Brothers ( voiced by Samuel Vincent and Scott McNeil ) -- Flim and his mustachioed brother Flam are two traveling unicorn `` salesponies '' and con artists who use song and dance to enthrall ponies into buying their usually faulty wares . Writer M.A. Larson said he `` particularly enjoyed '' writing for Flim and Flam , saying that `` their energy and optimism infuses the actual writing '' . Daring Do ( voiced by Chiara Zanni ) -- Daring Do is a pegasus and main character of the fictional Daring Do adventure novel series parodying Indiana Jones . Author Begin describes her as `` essentially a different - colored Rainbow Dash in a hat '' . In the season four episode `` Daring Do n't '' , the books ' author A.K. Yearling ( a parody of J.K. Rowling ) is discovered to be Daring Do herself , who writes her books after her real adventures , such as her encounters with the Aztec mythology - based villain Ahuizotl ( voiced by Brian Drummond ) and criminal pony Dr. Caballeron ( voiced by Michael Dobson ) . Coco Pommel ( voiced by Cathy Weseluck ) -- Coco is an earth pony fashion designer who works in Manehattan . She is introduced in the season four episode `` Rarity Takes Manehattan '' as the assistant to Suri Polomare ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain ) , Rarity 's chief rival in a fashion competition , and quits after observing Suri 's unscrupulous tactics for winning . Her name is a reference to fashion designer Coco Chanel ; it was later changed to `` Miss Pommel '' prior to the show 's sixth season for `` legal reasons '' . Young Six -- The `` Young Six '' are six adolescent creatures who attend the School of Friendship run by the Mane Six in season eight . They consist of Smolder ( voiced by Shannon Chan - Kent ) , a cocky and competitive dragon ; Ocellus ( voiced by Devyn Dalton ) , a timid changeling who prefers to assume other creatures ' forms ; Silverstream ( voiced by Lauren Jackson ) , Queen Novo 's hyperactive niece who can alternate between the forms of a hippogriff and seapony ; Yona ( voiced by Katrina Salisbury ) , a friendly and clumsy yak ; Gallus ( voiced by Gavin Langelo ) , a sarcastic griffon ; and Sandbar ( voiced by Vincent Tong ) , a laid - back earth pony . Background characters ( edit ) The show features an extensive cast of over 200 minor characters , also designated `` background ponies '' , that are used to fill out crowd scenes and serve as visual gags in episodes . Several background ponies have been well received by the show 's brony fanbase , who have assigned names and more detailed personalities to them . As a response to fan interest , the series ' creative team have given these characters expanded roles in later episodes and media , such as the show 's one - hundredth episode `` Slice of Life '' , which presents the characters ' daily lives as the episode 's central focus . Derpy / Muffins ( voiced by Tabitha St. Germain ) -- `` Derpy '' is the name assigned to a cross-eyed pegasus who makes several background appearances in the show . Originally the subject of an overlooked animator 's joke in the first episode , the character was dubbed `` Derpy Hooves '' ( based on the Internet slang word `` derp '' ) and characterized as a well - meaning klutz by 4chan board users . The creators have since recognized `` Derpy '' as the fandom 's mascot and included her in scripted easter eggs throughout the show . She was addressed by name and given lines during the initial broadcast of the second - season episode `` The Last Roundup '' as a direct call - out to the fandom . Following complaints from viewers who felt her appearance and actions negatively reflected those of mentally handicapped people , the scene was modified to remove the character 's name , alter her voice , and reduce the degree to which her eyes are crossed . Amidst concerns that Derpy would be removed from the series due to these responses , the character was re-introduced in the fourth season as a `` surprise '' for fans after having been reduced to background cameos in previous episodes . According to Miller , the character was renamed `` Muffins '' for `` legal reasons that I do n't understand '' prior to her credited appearance in `` Slice of Life '' . DJ Pon - 3 / Vinyl Scratch -- DJ Pon - 3 ( / poʊnˈθriː / ) is a silent unicorn disc jockey rarely seen without headphones and sunglasses , first seen in `` Suited for Success '' . The names `` DJ Pon - 3 '' and `` Vinyl Scratch '' were created by the fan community , with the former being used in official products , such as the `` Equestria Girls '' music video parodying Katy Perry 's song `` California Gurls '' . Dr. Hooves / Time Turner ( voiced by Peter New ) -- An earth pony background character , his name was coined as `` Doctor Whooves '' by fans for his purported resemblance to David Tennant 's portrayal of the Tenth Doctor in the British television series Doctor Who . He appears in later episodes as Ponyville 's eccentric timekeeper , and he exhibits similarities to his namesake in episodes such as `` Slice of Life '' . He is voiced by various actors besides New , who performs him in his major speaking appearance in `` Slice of Life '' . Lyra Heartstrings and Bon Bon / Sweetie Drops ( voiced by Ashleigh Ball and Andrea Libman ) -- The unicorn Lyra and earth pony Sweetie Drops ( also named Bon Bon after the `` G1 '' pony ) are two incidental characters who appear together as best friends in several scenes ; one such scene in `` Slice of Life '' outs Sweetie Drops as a disavowed secret agent living in Ponyville under the assumed identity `` Bon Bon '' . They are voiced by various actresses , with Ball voicing Lyra and Libman as Sweetie Drops in `` Slice of Life '' and the Friendship Games film and shorts . Minuette , Twinkleshine , and Lemon Hearts ( voiced by Rebecca Husain , Tabitha St. Germain and Ashleigh Ball ) -- Often appearing separately as incidental characters , these three unicorns are given focus in the series premiere and season five episode `` Amending Fences '' as Twilight Sparkle 's often neglected friends from before her move to Ponyville , while Minuette and Twinkleshine appear alongside Lyra Heartstrings as Princess Cadance 's bridesmaids in `` A Canterlot Wedding '' . Among various other actresses , they are voiced by Husain ( Minuette ) , St. Germain ( Twinkleshine ) , and Ball ( Lemon Hearts ) in `` Amending Fences '' . Octavia Melody ( voiced by Kazumi Evans ) -- Octavia is an earth pony who plays the cello , originally seen in `` The Best Night Ever '' . She is featured in a scene in `` Slice of Life '' where she rehearses an `` electric cello dubstep '' number with fellow musician DJ Pon - 3 for Cranky and Matilda 's wedding ; Octavia 's portion of the song was performed by Tina Guo . Reception ( edit ) The characters of My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic have received praise , and are cited as one of the reasons the series ' older fans , called `` bronies '' , became attracted to the show . In his review of the show , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club complimented the characters ' stylized appearance and defined personalities , while favorably noting that `` the show uses them well to come up with fun stories and bounce solid jokes off of each other . '' Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media , an organization focusing on the parenting aspect of children 's media , felt the characters posed a positive influence on children with themes tolerance and respect for one another , and that they `` do n't let their diverse personalities keep them from forging relationships . '' However , she advised parents to be wary of the `` influence the characters might have on their kids ' desires , since it 's rooted in a well - known product line of books , toys , and just about everything in between . '' Los Angeles Times critic Robert Lloyd praised the show 's diverse female characterization , but noted the smaller male cast by comparison , calling them `` largely beside the point '' . Kathleen Richter of Ms. was dismissive of the characters in her critique of the show in comparison to other girls ' shows , which she considered `` so sexist and racist and heteronormative '' . For example , she suggested that the character of Rainbow Dash was used to promote the stereotype that `` all feminists are angry , tomboyish lesbians . '' She also considered that the only darker - colored ponies shown at the time were in positions of servitude towards the `` white pony overlord '' . Lauren Faust responded to these claims by stating that while Rainbow Dash was a tomboy , `` nowhere in the show is her sexual orientation ever referenced '' and `` assuming ( tomboys ) are lesbians is extremely unfair to both straight and lesbian tomboys '' , and further stating that `` Color has never , ever been depicted as a race indicator for the ponies . '' The portrayal of the character Derpy in the second season episode `` The Last Roundup '' received a negative response from some viewers , who felt her crossed eyes and klutzy mannerisms were insulting to mentally handicapped persons ; Hasbro 's subsequent modifications to the scene to reduce such character traits were also received poorly . Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ Libman provides Pinkie Pie 's singing voice for some songs . References ( edit ) General Snider , Brandon T. ( 2013 ) . The Elements of Harmony : My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic : The Official Guidebook . New York : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 24754 - 2 . Begin , Mary Jane ( 2015 ) . My Little Pony : The Art of Equestria . New York : Abrams . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4197 - 1577 - 8 . Specific Jump up ^ `` Tekaramity '' ( September 15 , 2011 ) . `` Exclusive Season 1 Retrospective Interview with Lauren Faust '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved September 16 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Faust , Lauren ( December 24 , 2010 ) . `` My Little NON-Homophobic , NON-Racist , NON-Smart - Shaming Pony : A Rebuttal '' . Ms. Retrieved July 6 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Strike , Joe ( July 5 , 2011 ) . `` Of Ponies and Bronies '' . Animation World Network . Retrieved July 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ohanesian , Liz ( May 21 , 2012 ) . `` Lauren Faust on Her Favorite Childhood Toy and Pitching Animated Shows for Girls '' . LA Weekly . Retrieved May 21 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Melody ( July 3 , 2012 ) . `` Why do These Grown Men Love ' My Little Pony ? ' '' . Slate . Retrieved July 3 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 47 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 80 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 80 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Twilight 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 48 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 18 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 52 ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 54 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Rainbow Dash 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved October 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 183 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 56 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 70 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Pinkie Pie 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 5 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 73 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 20 ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 182 ^ Jump up to : `` Tekaramity '' ( September 16 , 2011 ) . `` Exclusive Season 1 Retrospective Interview with Lauren Faust '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved November 8 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 76 -- 77 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Rarity 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 22 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 181 Jump up ^ `` Sethisto '' ( May 27 , 2013 ) . `` Lauren Faust Answers a Bunch of Questions '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved November 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Applejack 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 11 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 23 Jump up ^ `` Sethisto '' ( June 8 , 2013 ) . `` Lauren Faust Ponychan Q&A Compiled '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved November 8 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 186 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 62 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Fluttershy 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 58 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 24 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 47 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 180 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 60 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 19 ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 76 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 79 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( November 29 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on Celestia 's inspiration ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 11 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 79 ^ Jump up to : Rogers , Amy Keating ( 2014 ) . My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic : The Journal of the Two Sisters : The Official Chronicles of Princesses Celestia and Luna . Boston , New York : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 28224 - 6 . Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 48 Jump up ^ Beck , Koa ( February 15 , 2012 ) . `` ' Oh , My Hair Looks Beautiful ! ' and Other Crap Girls Can Learn from My Little Pony Princess Celestia '' . Mommyish . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 36 Jump up ^ Heather Nuhfer ( w ) , Amy Mebberson ( a ) . `` Nightmare Rarity '' My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic v2 , 5 ( March 27 , 2013 ) , IDW Publishing , ISBN 978 - 1 - 61377 - 760 - 2 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 81 ^ Jump up to : VanDerWerff , Todd ( April 29 , 2011 ) . `` My Little Pony Friendship Is Magic '' . The A.V. Club . Retrieved April 30 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 87 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 38 -- 39 Jump up ^ Corlett , Ian James ( May 5 , 2013 ) . `` ( Ian James Corlett on Sweetie Belle 's singing voice ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved June 25 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 98 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 54 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 31 -- 32 Jump up ^ `` Cereal Velocity '' ( September 24 , 2011 ) . `` Massive Jayson Thiessen Q&A From Bronycon '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved September 23 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 96 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 9 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 97 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 27 Jump up ^ Berrow , G.M. ( 2013 ) . My Little Pony : Twilight Sparkle and the Crystal Heart Spell. Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 316 - 24755 - 9 . Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 71 Jump up ^ Heldman , Breanne L. ( January 28 , 2016 ) . `` ' My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic ' : First Look at Baby Flurry Heart Will Warm Your Soul '' . Yahoo !. Retrieved January 28 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 108 Jump up ^ `` Sethisto '' ( March 25 , 2016 ) . `` Starlight Glimmer was Originally Aurora Glimmer '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved March 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 140 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 142 -- 143 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 28 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 29 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 40 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 44 -- 45 Jump up ^ Sabrina Alberghetti and Raven Molisee ( July 6 , 2013 ) . Everfree Northwest 2013 : Meet the Storyboardists . Seatac , Washington : Everfree Network . Event occurs at 0 : 12 : 00 . Retrieved November 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Morrow , Cindy ( September 18 , 2012 ) . `` ( Cindy Morrow on Bulk Biceps ' creation ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 162 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 33 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 135 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 32 Jump up ^ Rogers , Amy Keating ( September 13 , 2015 ) . `` ( Amy Keating Rogers on Sassy Saddles ' design ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 70 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 150 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 90 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 34 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 200 Jump up ^ Faust , Lauren ( March 15 , 2013 ) . `` ( Lauren Faust on the Wonderbolts ' design ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Rogers , Amy Keating ( April 15 , 2014 ) . `` ( Amy Keating Rogers on General Firefly 's name ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved November 12 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 35 ^ Jump up to : Miller , Jim ( May 14 , 2014 ) . `` ( Jim Miller on Hoops ' voice actor ( '' Sonic Rainboom `` ) ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved May 10 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Vincent , Samuel ( May 14 , 2014 ) . `` ( Samuel Vincent on Hoops ' voice actor ( '' The Cutie Mark Chronicles `` ) ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved May 10 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 53 Jump up ^ `` Sethisto '' ( August 20 , 2012 ) . `` Interview with Rebecca Dart - Queen Chrysalis Designer '' . Equestria Daily . Retrieved February 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Miller , Jim ( November 13 , 2012 ) . `` ( Jim Miller on the voice of King Sombra ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved February 19 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 106 -- 107 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 55 Jump up ^ McNeil , Sheena ( August 26 , 2013 ) . `` My Little Pony Fair 2013 '' . Sequential Tart . Retrieved November 14 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 155 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 57 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 124 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , pp. 70 -- 71 Jump up ^ Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 44 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 88 ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 72 Jump up ^ `` kefkafloyd '' ( October 11 , 2012 ) . `` New York Comic Con Panel Details '' . The Round Stable . Retrieved November 12 , 2015 . ^ Jump up to : Snider ( 2013 ) , p. 56 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 190 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 188 Jump up ^ Nguyen , Hanh ( December 6 , 2013 ) . `` Exclusive Video : My Little Pony Pays Tribute to Harry Potter Author J.K. Rowling '' . TV Guide . Retrieved December 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 103 Jump up ^ Miller , Jim ( May 24 , 2016 ) . `` ( Jim Miller on Coco Pommel 's name change ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved June 16 , 2016 . Jump up ^ @ TheBiggestJim ( March 25 , 2018 ) . `` We refer to them as the `` Young Six '' internally '' ( Tweet ) . Retrieved March 27 , 2018 -- via Twitter . ^ Jump up to : Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 75 Jump up ^ Begin ( 2015 ) , p. 92 -- 93 Jump up ^ `` The Last Roundup '' . My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic . Season 2 . Episode 14 . January 21 , 2012 . The Hub . Jump up ^ `` Slice of Life '' . My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic . Season 5 . Episode 9 . June 13 , 2015 . Discovery Family . Jump up ^ Turner , James ( March 20 , 2012 ) . `` Is TV paying too much attention to fans ? '' . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved March 20 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Chen , Adrien ( February 28 , 2012 ) . `` Bronies Furious After Minor My Little Pony Character Is Changed to Seem Less Mentally Disabled '' . Gawker . Archived from the original on March 1 , 2012 . Retrieved February 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Miller , Jim ( 2014 - 01 - 18 ) . `` Jim Miller on Derpy '' . Twitter . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 18 . Jump up ^ Miller , Jim ( June 13 , 2015 ) . `` ( Jim Miller on Derpy 's name change ) '' . Twitter . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved August 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ von Hoffman , Constantine ( May 31 , 2011 ) . `` My Little Pony : the Hip , New Trend Among the Geekerati '' . CBS News . Retrieved May 31 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Bancroft , Christine ( April 10 , 2013 ) . `` Into The Hive Mind : The Fandom That Traveled Through Time And Space '' . Neon Tommy . Retrieved October 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Guo , Tina ( April 7 , 2015 ) . `` ( Tina Guo on 100th episode ) '' . Instagram . ( Self - published ) . Retrieved April 7 , 2015 . Jump up ^ LaMarche , Una ( August 3 , 2011 ) . `` Pony Up Haters : How 4chan Gave Birth to the Bronies '' . The New York Observer . Retrieved August 3 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ashby , Emily ( January 30 , 2011 ) . `` My Little Pony Friendship Is Magic -- Television Review '' . Common Sense Media . Retrieved May 9 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Lloyd , Robert ( December 5 , 2013 ) . `` TV Picks : `` My Little Pony , '' Sondheim , Improv comics , `` Doc Martin '' `` . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved December 6 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Richter , Kathleen ( December 9 , 2010 ) . `` My Little Homophobic , Racist , Smart - Shaming Pony '' . Ms. Retrieved July 7 , 2011 . External links ( edit ) Hasbro 's official character profiles Hasbro Studios ' official character profiles Discovery Family 's official character profiles ( archived from this website on October 18 , 2014 ) Hasbro 's official Equestria Girls character profiles My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic on IMDb My Little Pony ( 2010 -- present ; including Friendship Is Magic television series ) Media Animation Friendship Is Magic characters episodes songs setting My Little Pony : The Movie ( 2017 ) soundtrack `` Rainbow '' `` Off to See the World '' Software Twilight Sparkle , Teacher for a Day Gameloft video game Other IDW comics Issues Collectible card game TV episodes Season 1 ( 2010 -- 2011 ) `` The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' Season 2 ( 2011 -- 2012 ) `` The Return of Harmony '' `` Hearts and Hooves Day '' `` A Canterlot Wedding '' Season 3 ( 2012 -- 2013 ) `` The Crystal Empire '' `` Magical Mystery Cure '' Season 4 ( 2013 -- 2014 ) `` Pinkie Pride '' `` Twilight 's Kingdom '' Season 5 ( 2015 ) `` The Cutie Map '' `` Slice of Life '' Season 6 ( 2016 ) `` A Hearth 's Warming Tail '' Season 7 ( 2017 ) Season 8 ( 2018 ) Fandom BronyCon Equestria Daily Bronies ( documentary film ) A Brony Tale Them 's Fightin ' Herds See also Discography Overall history of the franchise My Little Pony : Equestria Girls ( a spin - off franchise ) Films Equestria Girls ( 2013 ) Rainbow Rocks ( 2014 ) Friendship Games ( 2015 ) Legend of Everfree ( 2016 ) Other Miniseries ( 2017 ) Summertime Shorts ( 2017 ) songs Category Book Project My Little Pony Bonnie Zacherle Hasbro 1982 -- 1992 Characters My Pretty Pony ( 1981 ) My Little Pony ( 1986 ) Tales comics Animated features Rescue at Midnight Castle ( 1984 ) Escape from Catrina ( 1985 ) The Movie ( 1986 ) My Little Pony ( 1986 -- 1987 ) My Little Pony Tales ( 1992 ) 1997 -- 1999 Software Friendship Gardens ( 1998 ) 2003 -- 2009 Characters My Little Pony 2000s animated characters Animated features A Charming Birthday ( 2003 ) The Runaway Rainbow ( 2005 -- 2006 ) A Very Minty Christmas ( 2005 ) The Princess Promenade ( 2006 ) A Very Pony Place ( 2007 ) Meet the Ponies ( 2008 ) Twinkle Wish Adventure ( 2009 ) Software Crystal Princess : The Runaway Rainbow Pinkie Pie 's Party Stage The World 's Biggest Tea Party ( 2006 ) 2010 -- present My Little Pony ( 2010 -- present ; including Friendship Is Magic television series ) Media Animation Friendship Is Magic characters episodes songs setting My Little Pony : The Movie ( 2017 ) soundtrack `` Rainbow '' `` Off to See the World '' Software Twilight Sparkle , Teacher for a Day Gameloft video game Other IDW comics Issues Collectible card game TV episodes Season 1 ( 2010 -- 2011 ) `` The Cutie Mark Chronicles '' Season 2 ( 2011 -- 2012 ) `` The Return of Harmony '' `` Hearts and Hooves Day '' `` A Canterlot Wedding '' Season 3 ( 2012 -- 2013 ) `` The Crystal Empire '' `` Magical Mystery Cure '' Season 4 ( 2013 -- 2014 ) `` Pinkie Pride '' `` Twilight 's Kingdom '' Season 5 ( 2015 ) `` The Cutie Map '' `` Slice of Life '' Season 6 ( 2016 ) `` A Hearth 's Warming Tail '' Season 7 ( 2017 ) Season 8 ( 2018 ) Fandom BronyCon Equestria Daily Bronies ( documentary film ) A Brony Tale Them 's Fightin ' Herds See also Discography Overall history of the franchise My Little Pony : Equestria Girls ( a spin - off franchise ) Films Equestria Girls ( 2013 ) Rainbow Rocks ( 2014 ) Friendship Games ( 2015 ) Legend of Everfree ( 2016 ) Other Miniseries ( 2017 ) Summertime Shorts ( 2017 ) songs Category Book Project Characters Toy characters Earth ponies Pegasus ponies Unicorn ponies Winged unicorns Antagonists Category Project Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_My_Little_Pony:_Friendship_Is_Magic_characters&oldid=833163506 '' Categories : Fictional horses Anthropomorphic animal characters Lists of characters in American television animation Lists of characters in Canadian television animation Lists of toy characters My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic Hidden categories : Use American English from July 2012 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from July 2012 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Português Română Suomi 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 30 March 2018 , at 00 : 43 . 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-3296321636120315846 | Nectar | Nectar - wikipedia Nectar For other uses of `` Nectar '' , see Nectar ( disambiguation ) . Nectar of camellia An Australian painted lady feeding on a flower 's nectar Gymnadenia conopsea Flowers with Nectar - filled Spur Nectar is a sugar - rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries , either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals , or by extrafloral nectaries , which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists , which in turn provide antiherbivore protection . Common nectar - consuming pollinators include mosquitoes , hoverflies , wasps , bees , butterflies and moths , hummingbirds , and bats . Nectar plays an important role in the foraging economics and overall evolution of nectar - eating species ; for example , nectar and its properties are responsible for the differential evolution of the African honey bee , A. m. scutellata and the western honey bee . Nectar is an ecologically important item , the sugar source for honey . It is also useful in agriculture and horticulture because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar . For example , the social wasp species Apoica flavissima relies on nectar as a primary food source . In turn , these wasps then hunt agricultural pest insects as food for their young . For example , thread - waisted wasps ( genus Ammophila ) are known for hunting caterpillars that are destructive to crops . Caterpillars however , do eventually become butterflies and moths , which are very important pollinators . Nectar secretion increases as the flower is visited by pollinators . After pollination , the nectar is frequently reabsorbed into the plant . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Floral nectaries 3 Extrafloral nectaries 4 Natural components 5 See also 6 References 7 Bibliography 8 External links Etymology ( edit ) Nectar is derived from Greek nektar , the fabled drink of Greek gods . The word is derived as a compound of nek , meaning death , and tar , meaning the ability to overcome . The common use of nectar refers to the `` sweet liquid in flowers '' , first recorded in AD 1600 . Floral nectaries ( edit ) A nectary is floral tissue found in different locations in the flower . The different types of floral nectaries include septal nectaries found on the sepal , petal nectaries , staminal nectaries found on the stamen , and gynoecial nectaries found on the ovary tissue . The nectaries also may vary in color , number , and symmetry . Nectaries can also be categorized as structural or non-structural . Structural nectaries refer to specific areas of tissue that exude nectar , such as the types of floral nectaries previously listed . Non-structural nectaries secrete nectar infrequently from non-differentiated tissues . The different types of floral nectaries coevolved depending on the pollinator that feeds on the plant 's nectar . Nectar is secreted from epidermal cells of the nectaries by means of trichomes or modified stomata . The nectar comes from phloem with additional sugars that are secreted from the cells through vesicles packaged by the endoplasmic reticulum . Flowers that have longer nectaries sometimes have a vascular strand in the nectary to assist in transport over a longer distance. . Floral nectaries are used by plants to attract pollinators such as insects , hummingbirds , and other vertebrates . The pollinators feed on the nectar and depending on the location of the nectary the pollinator assists in fertilization and outcrossing of the plant as they brush against the reproductive organs , the stamen and pistil , of the plant and pick up or deposit pollen . Nectar from floral nectaries is sometimes used as a reward to insects , such as ants , that protect the plant from predators . Many floral families have evolved a nectar spur . These spurs are projections of various lengths formed from different tissues , such as the petals or sepals . They allow for pollinators to land on the elongated tissue and more easily reach the nectaries and obtain the nectar reward . Different characteristics of the spur , such as its length or position in the flower , may determine the type of pollinator that visits the flower . Defense from herbivory is often one of the roles of extrafloral nectaries . Floral nectaries can also be involved in defense . In addition to the sugars found in nectar , certain proteins may also be found in nectar secreted by floral nectaries . In tobacco plants , these proteins have antimicrobial and antifungal properties and can be secreted to defend the gynoecium from certain pathogens . Floral nectaries have evolved and diverged into the different types of nectaries due to the various pollinators that visit the flowers . In Melastomataceae , different types of floral nectaries have evolved and been lost many times . Flowers that ancestrally produced nectar and had nectaries may have lost their ability to produce nectar due to a lack of nectar consumption by pollinators , such as certain species of bees . Instead they focused on energy allocation to pollen production . Species of angiosperms that have nectaries use the nectar to attract pollinators that consume the nectar , such as birds and butterflies . In Bromeliaceae , septal nectaries are common in species that are insect or bird pollinated . In species that are wind pollinated , nectaries are often absent because there is no pollinator to provide a reward for . In flowers that are generally pollinated by long - tongued organism such as certain flies , moths , butterflies , and birds , nectaries in the ovaries are common because they are able to reach the nectar reward when pollinating . Septal and petal nectaries are often more common in species that are pollinated by short - tongued insects that can not reach so far into the flower . Extrafloral nectaries ( edit ) See also : Myrmecophily and Plant defenses against herbivory Extrafloral nectaries ( also known as extranuptial nectaries ) are nectar - secreting plant glands that develop outside of flowers and are not involved in pollination . They are highly diverse in form , location , size , and mechanism . They have been described in virtually all above - ground plant parts -- including leaves ( in which case they are known as foliar nectaries ) , petioles , stipules , cotyledons , fruits , and stems , among others . They range from single - celled trichomes to complex cup - like structures that may or may not be vascularized . Extrafloral nectaries on the petiole of a wild cherry ( Prunus avium ) leaf Extrafloral nectaries on a red stinkwood ( Prunus africana ) leaf Ants on extrafloral nectaries in the lower surface of a young Drynaria quercifolia frond In contrast to floral nectaries , nectar produced outside the flower generally have a defensive function . The nectar attracts predatory insects which will eat both the nectar and any plant - eating insects around , thus functioning as ' bodyguards ' . Foraging predatory insects show a preference for plants with extrafloral nectaries , particularly some species of ants and wasps , which have been observed to directly defend the plants . Among passion flowers , for example , extrafloral nectaries prevent herbivores by attracting ants and deterring two species of butterflies from laying eggs . In many carnivorous plants , extrafloral nectaries are also used to attract insect prey . Darwin understood that extrafloral nectar `` though small in quantity , is greedily sought by insects '' but believe the `` their visits do not in any way benefit the plant '' . Instead , he believed that extrafloral nectaries were excretory in nature ( hydathodes ) . Their defensive functions were first recognized by the Italian botanist Federico Delpino in his important monograph Funzione mirmecofila nel regno vegetale ( 1886 ) . Delpino 's study was inspired by a disagreement with Charles Darwin , with whom he corresponded regularly . Extrafloral nectaries have been reported in over 3941 species of vascular plants belonging to 745 genera and 108 families , 99.7 % of which belong to flowering plants ( angiosperms ) , comprising 1.0 to 1.8 % of all known species . They are most common among eudicots , occurring in 3642 species ( of 654 genera and 89 families ) , particularly among rosids which comprise more than half of the known occurrences . The families showing the most recorded occurrences of extrafloral nectaries are Fabaceae , with 1069 species , Passifloraceae , with 438 species , and Malvaceae , with 301 species . The genera with the most recorded occurrences are Passiflora ( 322 species , Passifloraceae ) , Inga ( 294 species , Fabaceae ) , and Acacia ( 204 species , Fabaceae ) . Other genera with extrafloral nectaries include Salix ( Salicaceae ) , Prunus ( Rosaceae ) and Gossypium ( Malvaceae ) . Foliar nectaries have also been observed in 39 species of ferns belonging to seven genera and four families of Cyatheales and Polypodiales . They are absent , however , in bryophytes , gymnosperms , early angiosperms , magnoliids , and members of Apiales among the eudicots . Phylogenetic studies and the wide distribution of extrafloral nectaries among vascular plants point to multiple independent evolutionary origins of extrafloral nectaries in at least 457 independent lineages . Natural Components ( edit ) The main ingredients in nectar are natural sugars in varying proportions of sucrose , glucose , and fructose . In additional , nectars have a variety of other chemicals . For example , the Nicotiana attenuata , a tobacco plant native to the US state of Utah , uses several volatile aromas to attract pollinating birds and moths . The strongest such aroma is benzylacetone , but the plant also adds bitter nicotine , which is less aromatic , so may not be detected by the bird until after taking a drink . Researchers speculate the purpose of this addition is to discourage the forager after only a sip , motivating it to visit other plants , therefore maximizing the pollination efficiency gained by the plant for a minimum nectar output . Neurotoxins such as aesculin are present in some nectars such as that of the California buckeye . Nectar contains water , carbohydrates , amino acids , ions and numerous other compounds . See also ( edit ) Nectar guide Nectar source Nectarivore Northern American nectar sources for honey bees References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : - Amino Acids . Robert Thornburg , 04 / 06 / 01 , Iowa state University . Accessed April 2011 ^ Jump up to : `` Nectar '' . Online Etymology Dictionary , Douglas Harper . 2018 . Retrieved 28 May 2018 . Jump up ^ Willmer , Pat . Pollination and floral ecology . Princeton University Press , 2011 . Jump up ^ Nicolson , Susan W. , Massimo Nepi , and Ettore Pacini , eds . Nectaries and nectar . Vol. 4 . Dordrecht : Springer , 2007 . Jump up ^ Fahn , Abraham . `` On the Structure of Floral Nectaries . '' Botanical Gazette , vol. 113 , no . 4 , 1952 , pp. 464 -- 470 . JSTOR , JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/2472434 . Jump up ^ Wallace , Gary D. `` Studies of the Monotropoideae ( Ericaceae ) . Floral nectaries : anatomy and function in pollination ecology . '' American Journal of Botany ( 1977 ) : 199 - 206 . Jump up ^ Heil , Martin . `` Nectar : generation , regulation and ecological functions . '' Trends in plant science 16.4 ( 2011 ) : 191 - 200 . Jump up ^ Willmer , Pat . Pollination and floral ecology . Princeton University Press , 2011 . Jump up ^ Pacini , E.N.M.V.J. , M. Nepi , and J.L. Vesprini . `` Nectar biodiversity : a short review . '' Plant Systematics and Evolution 238.1 - 4 ( 2003 ) : 7 - 21 . Jump up ^ Thornburg , Robert W. , et al . `` A major function of the tobacco floral nectary is defense against microbial attack . '' Plant Systematics and Evolution 238.1 - 4 ( 2003 ) : 211 - 218 . Jump up ^ Stein , Bruce A. , and Hiroshi Tobe . `` Floral nectaries in Melastomataceae and their systematic and evolutionary implications . '' Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden ( 1989 ) : 519 - 531 . Jump up ^ Floral anatomy of Bromeliaceae , with particular reference to the evolution of epigyny and septal nectaries in commelinid monocotSajo , M.G. , P.J. Rudall , and C.J. Prychid . `` Floral anatomy of Bromeliaceae , with particular reference to the evolution of epigyny and septal nectaries in commelinid monocots . '' Plant Systematics and Evolution 247.3 - 4 ( 2004 ) : 215 - 231 . Jump up ^ Rudall , Paula J. , John C. Manning , and Peter Goldblatt . `` Evolution of floral nectaries in Iridaceae . '' Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden ( 2003 ) : 613 - 631 . ^ Jump up to : Heil , M. ; Fiala , B. ; Baumann , B. ; Linsenmair , K.E. ( 2000 ) . `` Temporal , spatial and biotic variations in extrafloral nectar secretion by Macaranga tanarius '' . Functional Ecology. 14 ( 6 ) : 749 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1365 - 2435.2000. 00480. x . ^ Jump up to : Weber , M.G. ; Keeler , K.H. ( 2012 ) . `` The phylogenetic distribution of extrafloral nectaries in plants '' . Annals of Botany. 111 : 1251 -- 1261 . doi : 10.1093 / aob / mcs225 . PMC 3662505 . Jump up ^ Plant - Provided Food for Carnivorous Insects - Cambridge University Press ^ Jump up to : Sezen , Uzay . `` Ants defending extrafloral nectaries of the passion flower ( Passiflora incarnata ) '' . Retrieved 6 January 2012 . Jump up ^ Merbach , M. 2001 . Nectaries in Nepenthes . In : C.M. Clarke Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia . Natural History Publications ( Borneo ) , Kota Kinabalu . ^ Jump up to : Mancuso , S. ( 2010 ) . `` Federico Delpino and the foundation of plant biology '' . Plant Signaling & Behavior . 5 ( 9 ) : 1067 -- 1071 . doi : 10.4161 / psb. 5.9. 12102 . PMC 3115070 . Jump up ^ Chalcoff , Vanina ( March 2006 ) . `` Nectar Concentration and Composition of 26 Species from the Temperate Forest of South America '' . Annals of Botany. 97 ( 3 ) : 413 -- 421 . doi : 10.1093 / aob / mcj043 . PMC 2803636 . PMID 16373370 . ^ Jump up to : Nicolson , Susan W. ; Nepi , Massimo ( 2007 ) . Pacini , Ettore , ed . `` Nectaries and Nectar ; Nectar Components '' . Springer Publications . pp. 8 -- 9 . ISBN 9781402059377 . Jump up ^ Chemical & Engineering News , Vol. 86 No. 35 , 1 Sept. 2008 , `` Two - Faced Flowers '' , p. 11 Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan ( 2008 ) Aesculus californica , Globaltwitcher.com , ed . N. Stromberg Bibliography ( edit ) Baker , H.G. ; Baker , I. ( 1973 ) . `` Amino acids in nectar and their evolutionary significance '' . Nature . 241 : 543 -- 545 . doi : 10.1038 / 241543b0 . Baker , H.G. and Baker , I. ( 1981 ) Chemical constituents of nectar in relation to pollination mechanisms and phylogeny . In Biochemical aspects of evolutionary biology . 131 -- 171 . Baker , H.G. and Baker , I. ( 1975 ) Studies of nectar - constitution and pollinator - plant coevolution . In Coevolution of animals and plants . Gilbert , L.E. and Raven , P.H. ed . Univ. of Texas Press , Austin , 100 -- 140 . Beutler , R. ( 1935 ) Nectar . Bee World 24 : 106 -- 116 , 128 -- 136 , 156 -- 162 . Burquez , A. ; Corbet , S.A. ( 1991 ) . `` Do flowers reabsorb nectar ? '' . Funct . Ecol. 5 : 369 -- 379 . doi : 10.2307 / 2389808 . Carter , C. ; Graham , R. ; Thornburg , R.W. ( 1999 ) . `` Nectarin I is a novel , soluble germin - like protein expressed in the nectar of Nicotiana sp '' . Plant Mol. Biol. 41 : 207 -- 216 . Deinzer , M.L. ; Tomson , P.M. ; Burgett , D.M. ; Isaacson , D.L. ( 1977 ) . `` Pyrrolizidine alkaloids : Their occurrence in honey from tansy ragwort ( Senecio jacobaea L . ) '' . Science . 195 : 497 -- 499 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 835011 . Ecroyd , C.E. ; Franich , R.A. ; Kroese , H.W. ; Steward , D. ( 1995 ) . `` Volatile constituents of Dactylanthus taylorii flower nectar in relation to flower pollination and browsing by animals '' . Phytochemistry. 40 : 1387 -- 1389 . doi : 10.1016 / 0031 - 9422 ( 95 ) 00403 - t . Esau , K. ( 1977 ) Anatomy of seed plants . John Wiley & Sons , New York . Ferreres , F. , Andrade , P. , Gil , M.I. and Tomas Barberan , F.A. ( 1996 ) Floral nectar phenolics as biochemical markers for the botanical origin of heather honey . Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel Untersuchung und Forschung. 202 : 40 -- 44 . Frey - Wyssling , A. ( 1955 ) The phloem supply to the nectaries . Acta Bot . Neerl. 4 : 358 -- 369 . Griebel , C. ; Hess , G. ( 1940 ) . `` The vitamin C content of flower nectar of certain Labiatae '' . Zeit . Untersuch . Lebensmitt. 79 : 168 -- 171 . Heinrich , G ( 1989 ) . `` Analysis of cations in nectars by means of a laser microprobe mass analyser ( LAMMA ) '' . Beitr. Biol. Pflanz. 64 : 293 -- 308 . Heslop - Harrison , Y. ; Knox , R.B. ( 1971 ) . `` A cytochemical study of the leaf - gland enzymes of insectivorus plants of the genusPinguicula '' . Planta. 96 : 183 -- 211 . doi : 10.1007 / bf00387439 . Peumans , W.J. ; Smeets , K. ; Van Nerum , K. ; Van Leuven , F. ; Van Damme , E.J.M. ( 1997 ) . `` Lectin and alliinase are the predominant proteins in nectar from leek ( Allium porrum L . ) flowers '' . Planta. 201 : 298 -- 302 . doi : 10.1007 / s004250050070 . Rodriguez - Arce , A.L. ; Diaz , N. ( 1992 ) . `` The stability of beta - carotene in mango nectar '' . J. Agric . Univ . P.R. Rio Piedras , P.R. 76 : 101 -- 102 . Roshchina , V.V. and Roshchina , V.D. ( 1993 ) The excretory function of higher plants . Springer - Verlag , Berlin . Scala , J. ; Iott , K. ; Schwab , W. ; Semersky , F.E. ( 1969 ) . `` Digestive secretion of Dionaea muscipula ( Venus 's - Flytrap ) '' . Plant Physiol. 44 : 367 -- 371 . doi : 10.1104 / pp. 44.3. 367 . PMC 396093 . Smith , L.L. ; Lanza , J. ; Smith , G.C. ( 1990 ) . `` Amino acid concentrations in extrafloral nectar of Impatiens sultani increase after simulated herbivory '' . Ecol . Publ . Ecol . Soc . Am. 71 : 107 -- 115 . doi : 10.2307 / 1940251 . Vogel , S. ( 1969 ) Flowers offering fatty oil instead of nectar . Abstracts XIth Internatl . Bot . Congr . Seattle . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nectar . 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where does nectar come from in a flower | [
"Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists, which in turn provide antiherbivore protection. Common nectar-consuming pollinators include mosquitoes, hoverflies, wasps, bees, butterflies and moths, hummingbirds, and bats. Nectar plays an important role in the foraging economics and overall evolution of nectar-eating species; for example, nectar and its properties are responsible for the differential evolution of the African honey bee, A. m. scutellata and the western honey bee."
] | [
"glands called nectaries"
] |
1614696146267802707 | Citric acid cycle | Citric acid cycle - wikipedia Citric acid cycle Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle ( CAC ) -- also known as the tricarboxylic acid ( TCA ) cycle or the Krebs cycle -- is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl - CoA derived from carbohydrates , fats , and proteins into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) . In addition , the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids , as well as the reducing agent NADH , that are used in numerous other biochemical reactions . Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest established components of cellular metabolism and may have originated abiogenically. . Even though it is branded as a ' cycle ' , it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route ; at least three segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized . The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid ( a type of tricarboxylic acid , often called citrate , as the ionized form predominates at biological pH ) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle . The cycle consumes acetate ( in the form of acetyl - CoA ) and water , reduces NAD to NADH , and produces carbon dioxide as a waste byproduct . The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation ( electron transport ) pathway . The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP . In eukaryotic cells , the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion . In prokaryotic cells , such as bacteria , which lack mitochondria , the citric acid cycle reaction sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across the cell 's surface ( plasma membrane ) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion . Contents ( hide ) 1 Discovery 2 Evolution 3 Overview 4 Steps 5 Products 6 Efficiency 7 Variation 8 Regulation 9 Major metabolic pathways converging on the citric acid cycle 10 Citric acid cycle intermediates serve as substrates for biosynthetic processes 11 Interactive pathway map 12 Glucose feeds the TCA cycle via circulating lactate 13 See also 14 References 15 External links Discovery ( edit ) Several of the components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established in the 1930s by the research of Albert Szent - Györgyi , who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 specifically for his discoveries pertaining to fumaric acid , a key component of the cycle . He was able to make this discovery successful with the help of pigeon breast muscle . Because this tissue maintains its oxidative capacity well after breaking down in the `` Latapie '' mill and releasing in aqueous solutions breast muscle of the pigeon was very well qualified for the study of oxidative reactions . The citric acid cycle itself was finally identified in 1937 by Hans Adolf Krebs and William Arthur Johnson while at the University of Sheffield , for which the former received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1953 , and for whom the cycle is sometimes named ( Krebs cycle ) . Evolution ( edit ) Components of the citric acid cycle were derived from anaerobic bacteria , and the TCA cycle itself may have evolved more than once . Theoretically , several alternatives to the TCA cycle exist ; however , the TCA cycle appears to be the most efficient . If several TCA alternatives had evolved independently , they all appear to have converged to the TCA cycle . Overview ( edit ) Structural diagram of acetyl - CoA : The portion in blue , on the left , is the acetyl group ; the portion in black is coenzyme A . The citric acid cycle is a key metabolic pathway that connects carbohydrate , fat , and protein metabolism . The reactions of the cycle are carried out by eight enzymes that completely oxidize acetate , in the form of acetyl - CoA , into two molecules each of carbon dioxide and water . Through catabolism of sugars , fats , and proteins , the two - carbon organic product acetyl - CoA ( a form of acetate ) is produced which enters the citric acid cycle . The reactions of the cycle also convert three equivalents of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD ) into three equivalents of reduced NAD ( NADH ) , one equivalent of flavin adenine dinucleotide ( FAD ) into one equivalent of FADH , and one equivalent each of guanosine diphosphate ( GDP ) and inorganic phosphate ( P ) into one equivalent of guanosine triphosphate ( GTP ) . The NADH and FADH generated by the citric acid cycle are , in turn , used by the oxidative phosphorylation pathway to generate energy - rich ATP . One of the primary sources of acetyl - CoA is from the breakdown of sugars by glycolysis which yield pyruvate that in turn is decarboxylated by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase generating acetyl - CoA according to the following reaction scheme : CH C ( = O ) C ( = O ) O pyruvate + HSCoA + NAD → CH C ( = O ) SCoA acetyl - CoA + NADH + CO The product of this reaction , acetyl - CoA , is the starting point for the citric acid cycle . Acetyl - CoA may also be obtained from the oxidation of fatty acids . Below is a schematic outline of the cycle : The citric acid cycle begins with the transfer of a two - carbon acetyl group from acetyl - CoA to the four - carbon acceptor compound ( oxaloacetate ) to form a six - carbon compound ( citrate ) . The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations , losing two carboxyl groups as CO . The carbons lost as CO originate from what was oxaloacetate , not directly from acetyl - CoA . The carbons donated by acetyl - CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle . Loss of the acetyl - CoA - donated carbons as CO requires several turns of the citric acid cycle . However , because of the role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism , they might not be lost , since many citric acid cycle intermediates are also used as precursors for the biosynthesis of other molecules . Most of the energy made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred as energy - rich electrons to NAD , forming NADH . For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle , three molecules of NADH are produced . In addition , electrons from the succinate oxidation step are transferred first to the FAD cofactor of succinate dehydrogenase , reducing it to FADH , and eventually to ubiquinone ( Q ) in the mitochondrial membrane , reducing it to ubiquinol ( QH ) which is a substrate of the electron transfer chain at the level of Complex III . For every NADH and FADH that are produced in the citric acid cycle , 2.5 and 1.5 ATP molecules are generated in oxidative phosphorylation , respectively . At the end of each cycle , the four - carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated , and the cycle continues . Steps ( edit ) Two carbon atoms are oxidized to CO , the energy from these reactions is transferred to other metabolic processes through GTP ( or ATP ) , and as electrons in NADH and QH . The NADH generated in the citric acid cycle may later be oxidized ( donate its electrons ) to drive ATP synthesis in a type of process called oxidative phosphorylation . FADH is covalently attached to succinate dehydrogenase , an enzyme which functions both in the CAC and the mitochondrial electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation . FADH , therefore , facilitates transfer of electrons to coenzyme Q , which is the final electron acceptor of the reaction catalyzed by the succinate : ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex , also acting as an intermediate in the electron transport chain . The citric acid cycle is continuously supplied with new carbon in the form of acetyl - CoA , entering at step 0 below . Substrates Products Enzyme Reaction type 0 / 10 Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA + H O Citrate + CoA - SH Citrate synthase Aldol condensation irreversible , extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C molecule Citrate cis - Aconitate + H O Aconitase Dehydration reversible isomerisation cis - Aconitate + H O Isocitrate Hydration Isocitrate + NAD Oxalosuccinate + NADH + H Isocitrate dehydrogenase Oxidation generates NADH ( equivalent of 2.5 ATP ) Oxalosuccinate α - Ketoglutarate + CO Decarboxylation rate - limiting , irreversible stage , generates a 5C molecule 5 α - Ketoglutarate + NAD + CoA - SH Succinyl - CoA + NADH + H + CO α - Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase Oxidative decarboxylation irreversible stage , generates NADH ( equivalent of 2.5 ATP ) , regenerates the 4C chain ( CoA excluded ) 6 Succinyl - CoA + GDP + P Succinate + CoA - SH + GTP Succinyl - CoA synthetase substrate - level phosphorylation or ADP → ATP instead of GDP → GTP , generates 1 ATP or equivalent Condensation reaction of GDP + P and hydrolysis of Succinyl - CoA involve the H O needed for balanced equation . 7 Succinate + ubiquinone ( Q ) Fumarate + ubiquinol ( QH ) Succinate dehydrogenase Oxidation uses FAD as a prosthetic group ( FAD → FADH in the first step of the reaction ) in the enzyme. These two electrons are later transferred to QH during Complex II of the ETC , where they generate the equivalent of 1.5 ATP 8 Fumarate + H O L - Malate Fumarase Hydration Hydration of C-C double bond 9 L - Malate + NAD Oxaloacetate + NADH + H Malate dehydrogenase Oxidation reversible ( in fact , equilibrium favors malate ) , generates NADH ( equivalent of 2.5 ATP ) 10 / 0 Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA + H O Citrate + CoA - SH Citrate synthase Aldol condensation This is the same as step 0 and restarts the cycle . The reaction is irreversible and extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C molecule Mitochondria in animals , including humans , possess two succinyl - CoA synthetases : one that produces GTP from GDP , and another that produces ATP from ADP . Plants have the type that produces ATP ( ADP - forming succinyl - CoA synthetase ) . Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix . The GTP that is formed by GDP - forming succinyl - CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside - diphosphate kinase to form ATP ( the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP ) . Products ( edit ) Products of the first turn of the cycle are one GTP ( or ATP ) , three NADH , and two CO . Because two acetyl - CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule , two cycles are required per glucose molecule . Therefore , at the end of two cycles , the products are : two GTP , six NADH , two QH , and four CO . Description Reactants Products The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is : Acetyl - CoA + 3 NAD + FAD + GDP + P + 2 H O → CoA - SH + 3 NADH + FADH + 3 H + GTP + 2 CO Combining the reactions occurring during the pyruvate oxidation with those occurring during the citric acid cycle , the following overall pyruvate oxidation reaction is obtained : Pyruvate ion + 4 NAD + FAD + GDP + P + 2 H O → 4 NADH + FADH + 4 H + GTP + 3 CO Combining the above reaction with the ones occurring in the course of glycolysis , the following overall glucose oxidation reaction ( excluding reactions in the respiratory chain ) is obtained : Glucose + 10 NAD + 2FAD + 2 ADP + 2 GDP + 4 P + 2 H O → 10 NADH + 2FADH + 10 H + 2 ATP + 2 GTP + 6 CO The above reactions are balanced if P represents the H PO ion , ADP and GDP the ADP and GDP ions , respectively , and ATP and GTP the ATP and GTP ions , respectively . The total number of ATP molecules obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis , citric acid cycle , and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38 . Efficiency ( edit ) The theoretical maximum yield of ATP through oxidation of one molecule of glucose in glycolysis , citric acid cycle , and oxidative phosphorylation is 38 ( assuming 3 molar equivalents of ATP per equivalent NADH and 2 ATP per FADH ) . In eukaryotes , two equivalents of NADH are generated in glycolysis , which takes place in the cytoplasm . Transport of these two equivalents into the mitochondria consumes two equivalents of ATP , thus reducing the net production of ATP to 36 . Furthermore , inefficiencies in oxidative phosphorylation due to leakage of protons across the mitochondrial membrane and slippage of the ATP synthase / proton pump commonly reduces the ATP yield from NADH and FADH to less than the theoretical maximum yield . The observed yields are , therefore , closer to ~ 2.5 ATP per NADH and ~ 1.5 ATP per FADH , further reducing the total net production of ATP to approximately 30 . An assessment of the total ATP yield with newly revised proton - to - ATP ratios provides an estimate of 29.85 ATP per glucose molecule . Variation ( edit ) While the citric acid cycle is in general highly conserved , there is significant variability in the enzymes found in different taxa ( note that the diagrams on this page are specific to the mammalian pathway variant ) . Some differences exist between eukaryotes and prokaryotes . The conversion of D - threo - isocitrate to 2 - oxoglutarate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD - dependent EC 1.1. 1.41 , while prokaryotes employ the NADP - dependent EC 1.1. 1.42 . Similarly , the conversion of ( S ) - malate to oxaloacetate is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the NAD - dependent EC 1.1. 1.37 , while most prokaryotes utilize a quinone - dependent enzyme , EC 1.1. 5.4 . A step with significant variability is the conversion of succinyl - CoA to succinate . Most organisms utilize EC 6.2. 1.5 , succinate -- CoA ligase ( ADP - forming ) ( despite its name , the enzyme operates in the pathway in the direction of ATP formation ) . In mammals a GTP - forming enzyme , succinate -- CoA ligase ( GDP - forming ) ( EC 6.2. 1.4 ) also operates . The level of utilization of each isoform is tissue dependent . In some acetate - producing bacteria , such as Acetobacter aceti , an entirely different enzyme catalyzes this conversion -- EC 2.8. 3.18 , succinyl - CoA : acetate CoA - transferase . This specialized enzyme links the TCA cycle with acetate metabolism in these organisms . Some bacteria , such as Helicobacter pylori , employ yet another enzyme for this conversion -- succinyl - CoA : acetoacetate CoA - transferase ( EC 2.8. 3.5 ) . Some variability also exists at the previous step -- the conversion of 2 - oxoglutarate to succinyl - CoA . While most organisms utilize the ubiquitous NAD - dependent 2 - oxoglutarate dehydrogenase , some bacteria utilize a ferredoxin - dependent 2 - oxoglutarate synthase ( EC 1.2. 7.3 ) . Other organisms , including obligately autotrophic and methanotrophic bacteria and archaea , bypass succinyl - CoA entirely , and convert 2 - oxoglutarate to succinate via succinate semialdehyde , using EC 4.1. 1.71 , 2 - oxoglutarate decarboxylase , and EC 1.2. 1.79 , succinate - semialdehyde dehydrogenase . Regulation ( edit ) The regulation of the citric acid cycle is largely determined by product inhibition and substrate availability . If the cycle were permitted to run unchecked , large amounts of metabolic energy could be wasted in overproduction of reduced coenzyme such as NADH and ATP . The major eventual substrate of the cycle is ADP which gets converted to ATP . A reduced amount of ADP causes accumulation of precursor NADH which in turn can inhibit a number of enzymes . NADH , a product of all dehydrogenases in the citric acid cycle with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase , inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase , isocitrate dehydrogenase , α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase , and also citrate synthase . Acetyl - coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase , while succinyl - CoA inhibits alpha - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase . When tested in vitro with TCA enzymes , ATP inhibits citrate synthase and α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase ; however , ATP levels do not change more than 10 % in vivo between rest and vigorous exercise . There is no known allosteric mechanism that can account for large changes in reaction rate from an allosteric effector whose concentration changes less than 10 % . Calcium is also used as a regulator in the citric acid cycle . Calcium levels in the mitochondrial matrix can reach up to the tens of micromolar levels during cellular activation . It activates pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase which in turn activates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex . Calcium also activates isocitrate dehydrogenase and α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase . This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle , and therefore increases flux throughout the pathway . Citrate is used for feedback inhibition , as it inhibits phosphofructokinase , an enzyme involved in glycolysis that catalyses formation of fructose 1 , 6 - bisphosphate , a precursor of pyruvate . This prevents a constant high rate of flux when there is an accumulation of citrate and a decrease in substrate for the enzyme . Recent work has demonstrated an important link between intermediates of the citric acid cycle and the regulation of hypoxia - inducible factors ( HIF ) . HIF plays a role in the regulation of oxygen homeostasis , and is a transcription factor that targets angiogenesis , vascular remodeling , glucose utilization , iron transport and apoptosis . HIF is synthesized consititutively , and hydroxylation of at least one of two critical proline residues mediates their interaction with the von Hippel Lindau E3 ubiquitin ligase complex , which targets them for rapid degradation . This reaction is catalysed by prolyl 4 - hydroxylases . Fumarate and succinate have been identified as potent inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases , thus leading to the stabilisation of HIF . Major metabolic pathways converging on the citric acid cycle ( edit ) Several catabolic pathways converge on the citric acid cycle . Most of these reactions add intermediates to the citric acid cycle , and are therefore known as anaplerotic reactions , from the Greek meaning to `` fill up '' . These increase the amount of acetyl CoA that the cycle is able to carry , increasing the mitochondrion 's capability to carry out respiration if this is otherwise a limiting factor . Processes that remove intermediates from the cycle are termed `` cataplerotic '' reactions . In this section and in the next , the citric acid cycle intermediates are indicated in italics to distinguish them from other substrates and end - products . Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane , and into the matrix . Here they can be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO , acetyl - CoA , and NADH , as in the normal cycle . However , it is also possible for pyruvate to be carboxylated by pyruvate carboxylase to form oxaloacetate . This latter reaction `` fills up '' the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle , and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction , increasing the cycle 's capacity to metabolize acetyl - CoA when the tissue 's energy needs ( e.g. in muscle ) are suddenly increased by activity . In the citric acid cycle all the intermediates ( e.g. citrate , iso - citrate , alpha - ketoglutarate , succinate , fumarate , malate and oxaloacetate ) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle . Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that that additional amount is retained within the cycle , increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other . Hence the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect , and its removal has a cataplerotic effect . These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will , during the course of the cycle , increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl - CoA to form citric acid . This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion , and thus the availability of ATP to the cell . Acetyl - CoA , on the other hand , derived from pyruvate oxidation , or from the beta - oxidation of fatty acids , is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle . With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl - CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix , and is never regenerated . It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl - CoA that produces CO and water , with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP . The three steps of beta - oxidation resemble the steps that occur in the production of oxaloacetate from succinate in the TCA cycle . Acyl - CoA is oxidized to trans - Enoyl - CoA while FAD is reduced to FADH2 , which is similar to the oxidation of succinate to fumarate . Following , trans - Enoyl - CoA is hydrated across the double bond to beta - hydroxyacyl - CoA , just like fumarate is hydrated to malate . Lastly , beta - hydroxyacyl - CoA is oxidized to beta - ketoacyl - CoA while NAD+ is reduced to NADH , which follows the same process as the oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate . In the liver , the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra-mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway which converts lactate and de-aminated alanine into glucose , under the influence of high levels of glucagon and / or epinephrine in the blood . Here the addition of oxaloacetate to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect , as another citric acid cycle intermediate ( malate ) is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate , which is ultimately converted into glucose , in a process that is almost the reverse of glycolysis . In protein catabolism , proteins are broken down by proteases into their constituent amino acids . Their carbon skeletons ( i.e. the de-aminated amino acids ) may either enter the citric acid cycle as intermediates ( e.g. alpha - ketoglutarate derived from glutamate or glutamine ) , having an anaplerotic effect on the cycle , or , in the case of leucine , isoleucine , lysine , phenylalanine , tryptophan , and tyrosine , they are converted into acetyl - CoA which can be burned to CO and water , or used to form ketone bodies , which too can only be burned in tissues other than the liver where they are formed , or excreted via the urine or breath . These latter amino acids are therefore termed `` ketogenic '' amino acids , whereas those that enter the citric acid cycle as intermediates can only be cataplerotically removed by entering the gluconeogenic pathway via malate which is transported out of the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate and ultimately into glucose . These are the so - called `` glucogenic '' amino acids . De-aminated alanine , cysteine , glycine , serine , and threonine are converted to pyruvate and can consequently either enter the citric acid cycle as oxaloacetate ( an anaplerotic reaction ) or as acetyl - CoA to be disposed of as CO and water . In fat catabolism , triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol . In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis . In many tissues , especially heart and skeletal muscle tissue , fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation , which results in the production of mitochondrial acetyl - CoA , which can be used in the citric acid cycle . Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene bridges produces propionyl - CoA , which is then converted into succinyl - CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle as an anaplerotic intermediate . The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one ( six - carbon ) molecule of glucose by glycolysis , the formation of 2 acetyl - CoA molecules , their catabolism in the citric acid cycle , and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules , in eukaryotes . The number of ATP molecules derived from the beta oxidation of a 6 carbon segment of a fatty acid chain , and the subsequent oxidation of the resulting 3 molecules of acetyl - CoA is 40 . Citric acid cycle intermediates serve as substrates for biosynthetic processes ( edit ) In this subheading , as in the previous one , the TCA intermediates are identified by italics . Several of the citric acid cycle intermediates are used for the synthesis of important compounds , which will have significant cataplerotic effects on the cycle . Acetyl - CoA can not be transported out of the mitochondrion . To obtain cytosolic acetyl - CoA , citrate is removed from the citric acid cycle and carried across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol . There it is cleaved by ATP citrate lyase into acetyl - CoA and oxaloacetate . The oxaloacetate is returned to mitochondrion as malate ( and then converted back into oxaloacetate to transfer more acetyl - CoA out of the mitochondrion ) . The cytosolic acetyl - CoA is used for fatty acid synthesis and the production of cholesterol . Cholesterol can , in turn , be used to synthesize the steroid hormones , bile salts , and vitamin D . The carbon skeletons of many non-essential amino acids are made from citric acid cycle intermediates . To turn them into amino acids the alpha keto - acids formed from the citric acid cycle intermediates have to acquire their amino groups from glutamate in a transamination reaction , in which pyridoxal phosphate is a cofactor . In this reaction the glutamate is converted into alpha - ketoglutarate , which is a citric acid cycle intermediate . The intermediates that can provide the carbon skeletons for amino acid synthesis are oxaloacetate which forms aspartate and asparagine ; and alpha - ketoglutarate which forms glutamine , proline , and arginine . Of these amino acids , aspartate and glutamine are used , together with carbon and nitrogen atoms from other sources , to form the purines that are used as the bases in DNA and RNA , as well as in ATP , AMP , GTP , NAD , FAD and CoA . The pyrimidines are partly assembled from aspartate ( derived from oxaloacetate ) . The pyrimidines , thymine , cytosine and uracil , form the complementary bases to the purine bases in DNA and RNA , and are also components of CTP , UMP , UDP and UTP . The majority of the carbon atoms in the porphyrins come from the citric acid cycle intermediate , succinyl - CoA . These molecules are an important component of the hemoproteins , such as hemoglobin , myoglobin and various cytochromes . During gluconeogenesis mitochondrial oxaloacetate is reduced to malate which is then transported out of the mitochondrion , to be oxidized back to oxaloacetate in the cytosol . Cytosolic oxaloacetate is then decarboxylated to phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase , which is the rate limiting step in the conversion of nearly all the gluconeogenic precursors ( such as the glucogenic amino acids and lactate ) into glucose by the liver and kidney . Because the citric acid cycle is involved in both catabolic and anabolic processes , it is known as an amphibolic pathway . Interactive pathway map ( edit ) Click on genes , proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles . 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See also ( edit ) Calvin cycle Glyoxylate cycle Reverse ( reductive ) Krebs cycle References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Lowenstein JM ( 1969 ) . Methods in Enzymology , Volume 13 : Citric Acid Cycle . Boston : Academic Press . ISBN 0 - 12 - 181870 - 5 . Jump up ^ Jay J , Weitzman PD ( 1987 ) . Krebs ' citric acid cycle : half a century and still turning . London : Biochemical Society . p. 25 . ISBN 0 - 904498 - 22 - 0 . Jump up ^ Wagner , Andreas ( 2014 ) . Arrival of the Fittest ( first ed . ) . New York : Penguin Group . p. 100 . ISBN 9781591846468 . Jump up ^ Lane , Nick ( 2009 ) . Life Ascending : The Ten Great Inventions of Evolution . New York : W.W. Norton & Co . ISBN 0 - 393 - 06596 - 0 . Jump up ^ Which way does the citric acid cycle turn during hypoxia ? The critical role of α - ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex . Chinopoulos C. J Neurosci Res. 2013 Aug ; 91 ( 8 ) : 1030 - 43 . doi : 10.1002 / jnr. 23196 . PMID : 23378250 ^ Jump up to : Voet D , Voet JG ( 2004 ) . Biochemistry ( 3rd ed . ) . New York : John Wiley & Sons , Inc. p. 615 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1937 '' . The Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 26 . Jump up ^ Chandramana , Sudeep. ( 2014 ) . Inclusive Growth And Youth Empowerment : Adevelopment Model For Aspirational India . Journal of Science , Technology and Management . 7 . 52 - 62 . Jump up ^ Krebs , HA ; Johnson , WA ( April 1937 ) . `` Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal tissues '' . The Biochemical Journal . 31 ( 4 ) : 645 -- 60 . doi : 10.1042 / bj0310645 . PMC 1266984 . PMID 16746382 . Jump up ^ `` The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953 '' . The Nobel Foundation . Retrieved 2011 - 10 - 26 . Jump up ^ Gest H ( 1987 ) . `` Evolutionary roots of the citric acid cycle in prokaryotes '' . Biochem. Soc . Symp. 54 : 3 -- 16 . PMID 3332996 . 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Retrieved 2018 - 05 - 17 . ^ Jump up to : Porter RK , Brand MD ( September 1995 ) . `` Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+ / O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes '' . Biochem. J. 310 ( 2 ) : 379 -- 82 . doi : 10.1042 / bj3100379 . PMC 1135905 . PMID 7654171 . Jump up ^ Stryer L , Berg JM , Tymoczko JL ( 2002 ) . `` Section 18.6 : The Regulation of Cellular Respiration Is Governed Primarily by the Need for ATP '' . Biochemistry . San Francisco : W.H. Freeman . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 4684 - 0 . Jump up ^ Rich PR ( December 2003 ) . `` The molecular machinery of Keilin 's respiratory chain '' . Biochem. Soc . Trans . 31 ( Pt 6 ) : 1095 -- 105 . doi : 10.1042 / BST0311095 . PMID 14641005 . Jump up ^ `` Citric acid cycle variants at MetaCyc '' . Jump up ^ Sahara T , Takada Y , Takeuchi Y , Yamaoka N , Fukunaga N ( March 2002 ) . `` Cloning , sequencing , and expression of a gene encoding the monomeric isocitrate dehydrogenase of the nitrogen - fixing bacterium , Azotobacter vinelandii '' . Biosci . Biotechnol . Biochem. 66 ( 3 ) : 489 -- 500 . doi : 10.1271 / bbb. 66.489 . PMID 12005040 . Jump up ^ van der Rest ME , Frank C , Molenaar D ( December 2000 ) . `` Functions of the membrane - associated and cytoplasmic malate dehydrogenases in the citric acid cycle of Escherichia coli '' . J. Bacteriol. 182 ( 24 ) : 6892 -- 9 . doi : 10.1128 / jb. 182.24. 6892 - 6899.2000 . PMC 94812 . PMID 11092847 . Jump up ^ Lambeth DO , Tews KN , Adkins S , Frohlich D , Milavetz BI ( August 2004 ) . `` Expression of two succinyl - CoA synthetases with different nucleotide specificities in mammalian tissues '' . J. Biol. Chem. 279 ( 35 ) : 36621 -- 4 . doi : 10.1074 / jbc. M406884200 . PMID 15234968 . Jump up ^ Mullins EA , Francois JA , Kappock TJ ( July 2008 ) . `` A specialized citric acid cycle requiring succinyl - coenzyme A ( CoA ) : acetate CoA - transferase ( AarC ) confers acetic acid resistance on the acidophile Acetobacter aceti '' . J. Bacteriol. 190 ( 14 ) : 4933 -- 40 . doi : 10.1128 / JB. 00405 - 08 . PMC 2447011 . PMID 18502856 . Jump up ^ Corthésy - Theulaz IE , Bergonzelli GE , Henry H , et al. ( October 1997 ) . `` Cloning and characterization of Helicobacter pylori succinyl CoA : acetoacetate CoA - transferase , a novel prokaryotic member of the CoA - transferase family '' . J. Biol. Chem. 272 ( 41 ) : 25659 -- 67 . doi : 10.1074 / jbc. 272.41. 25659 . PMID 9325289 . Jump up ^ Baughn AD , Garforth SJ , Vilchèze C , Jacobs WR ( November 2009 ) . `` An anaerobic - type alpha - ketoglutarate ferredoxin oxidoreductase completes the oxidative tricarboxylic acid cycle of Mycobacterium tuberculosis '' . PLoS Pathog. 5 ( 11 ) : e1000662 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. ppat. 1000662 . PMC 2773412 . PMID 19936047 . Jump up ^ Zhang S , Bryant DA ( December 2011 ) . `` The tricarboxylic acid cycle in cyanobacteria '' . Science . 334 ( 6062 ) : 1551 -- 3 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1210858 . PMID 22174252 . Jump up ^ Ivannikov , M. ; et al. ( 2013 ) . `` Mitochondrial Free Ca Levels and Their Effects on Energy Metabolism in Drosophila Motor Nerve Terminals '' . Biophys . J. 104 ( 11 ) : 2353 -- 2361 . doi : 10.1016 / j. bpj. 2013.03. 064 . PMC 3672877 . PMID 23746507 . Jump up ^ Denton RM , Randle PJ , Bridges BJ , Cooper RH , Kerbey AL , Pask HT , Severson DL , Stansbie D , Whitehouse S ( October 1975 ) . `` Regulation of mammalian pyruvate dehydrogenase '' . Mol . Cell. Biochem. 9 ( 1 ) : 27 -- 53 . doi : 10.1007 / BF01731731 . PMID 171557 . Jump up ^ Koivunen P , Hirsilä M , Remes AM , Hassinen IE , Kivirikko KI , Myllyharju J ( February 2007 ) . `` Inhibition of hypoxia - inducible factor ( HIF ) hydroxylases by citric acid cycle intermediates : possible links between cell metabolism and stabilization of HIF '' . J. Biol. Chem. 282 ( 7 ) : 4524 -- 32 . doi : 10.1074 / jbc. M610415200 . PMID 17182618 . ^ Jump up to : Voet , Donald ; Judith G. Voet ; Charlotte W. Pratt ( 2006 ) . Fundamentals of Biochemistry , 2nd Edition . John Wiley and Sons , Inc . pp. 547 , 556 . ISBN 0 - 471 - 21495 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : Stryer , Lubert ( 1995 ) . `` Citric acid cycle . '' . In : Biochemistry ( Fourth ed . ) . New York : W.H. Freeman and Company . pp. 509 -- 527 , 569 -- 579 , 614 -- 616 , 638 -- 641 , 732 -- 735 , 739 -- 748 , 770 -- 773 . ISBN 0 7167 2009 4 . Jump up ^ H. , Garrett , Reginald ( 2013 ) . Biochemistry . Grisham , Charles M. ( 5th ed ed . ) . Belmont , CA : Brooks / Cole , Cengage Learning . pp. 623 -- 625 , 771 -- 773 . ISBN 9781133106296 . OCLC 777722371 . CS1 maint : Extra text ( link ) Jump up ^ Halarnkar PP , Blomquist GJ ( 1989 ) . `` Comparative aspects of propionate metabolism '' . Comp . Biochem. Physiol. , B. 92 ( 2 ) : 227 -- 31 . doi : 10.1016 / 0305 - 0491 ( 89 ) 90270 - 8 . PMID 2647392 . Jump up ^ Ferre , P. ; F. Foufelle ( 2007 ) . `` SREBP - 1c Transcription Factor and Lipid Homeostasis : Clinical Perspective '' . Hormone Research . 68 ( 2 ) : 72 -- 82 . doi : 10.1159 / 000100426 . PMID 17344645 . Retrieved 2010 - 08 - 30 . this process is outlined graphically in page 73 Jump up ^ TY - JOUR AU - Hui , Sheng AU - Ghergurovich , Jonathan M. AU - Morscher , Raphael J. AU - Jang , Cholsoon AU - Teng , Xin AU - Lu , Wenyun AU - Esparza , Lourdes A. AU - Reya , Tannishtha AU - Le Zhan , AU - Yanxiang Guo , Jessie AU - White , Eileen AU - Rabinowitz , Joshua D. TI - Glucose feeds the TCA cycle via circulating lactate JA - Nature PY - 2017 / 10 / 18 / online VL - advance online publication SP - EP - PB - Macmillan Publishers Limited , part of Springer Nature . All rights reserved . SN - 1476 - 4687 UR - https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature24057 L3 - 10.1038 / nature24057 M3 - Letter L3 - http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/nature24057.html#supplementary-information ER - External links ( edit ) An animation of the citric acid cycle at Smith College Citric acid cycle variants at MetaCyc Pathways connected to the citric acid cycle at Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes Introduction at Khan Academy metpath : Interactive representation of the citric acid cycle Metabolism , catabolism , anabolism General Metabolic pathway Metabolic network Primary nutritional groups Energy metabolism Aerobic respiration Glycolysis → Pyruvate decarboxylation → Citric acid cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation ( electron transport chain + ATP synthase ) Anaerobic respiration Electron acceptors are other than oxygen Fermentation Glycolysis → Substrate - level phosphorylation ABE Ethanol Lactic acid Specific paths Protein metabolism Protein synthesis Catabolism Carbohydrate metabolism ( carbohydrate catabolism and anabolism ) Human Glycolysis ⇄ Gluconeogenesis Glycogenolysis ⇄ Glycogenesis Pentose phosphate pathway Fructolysis Galactolysis Glycosylation N - linked O - linked Nonhuman Photosynthesis Anoxygenic photosynthesis Chemosynthesis Carbon fixation Xylose metabolism Radiotrophism Lipid metabolism ( lipolysis , lipogenesis ) Fatty acid metabolism Fatty acid degradation ( Beta oxidation ) Fatty acid synthesis Other Steroid metabolism Sphingolipid metabolism Eicosanoid metabolism Ketosis Reverse cholesterol transport Amino acid Amino acid synthesis Urea cycle Nucleotide metabolism Purine metabolism Nucleotide salvage Pyrimidine metabolism Other Metal metabolism Iron metabolism Ethanol metabolism Citric acid cycle metabolic pathway Acetyl - CoA + H O Oxaloacetate NADH + H NAD Malate H O Fumarate FADH FAD Succinate CoA + ATP ( GTP ) P + ADP ( GDP ) Succinyl - CoA NADH + H + CO CoA NAD Citrate H O cis - Aconitate H O Isocitrate NAD ( P ) NAD ( P ) H + H Oxalosuccinate CO 2 - oxoglutarate Metabolism map Carbon Fixation Photo - respiration Pentose Phosphate Pathway Citric Acid Cycle Glyoxylate Cycle Urea Cycle Fatty Acid Synthesis Fatty Acid Elongation Beta Oxidation Peroxisomal Beta Oxidation Glyco - genolysis Glyco - genesis Glyco - lysis Gluconeo - genesis Decarb - oxylation Fermentation Keto - lysis Keto - genesis feeders to Gluconeo - genesis Direct / C4 / CAM Carbon Intake Light Reaction Oxidative Phosphorylation Amino Acid Deamination Citrate Shuttle Lipogenesis Lipolysis Steroidogenesis MVA Pathway MEP Pathway Shikimate Pathway Transcription & Replication Translation Proteolysis Glycosy - lation Sugar Acids Double / Multiple Sugars & Glycans Simple Sugars Inositol - P Amino Sugars & Sialic Acids Nucleotide Sugars Hexose - P Triose - P Glycerol P - glycerates Pentose - P Tetrose - P Propionyl - CoA Succinate Acetyl - CoA Pentose - P P - glycerates Glyoxylate Photosystems Pyruvate Lactate Acetyl - CoA Citrate Oxalo - acetate Malate Succinyl - CoA α - Keto - glutarate Ketone Bodies Respiratory Chain Serine Group Alanine Branched - chain Amino Acids Aspartate Group Homoserine Group & Lysine Glutamate Group & Proline Arginine Creatine & Polyamines Ketogenic & Glucogenic Amino Acids Amino Acids Shikimate Aromatic Amino Acids & Histidine Ascorbate ( Vitamin C ) δ - ALA Bile Pigments Hemes Cobalamins ( Vitamin B ) Various Vitamin B 's Calciferols ( Vitamin D ) Retinoids ( Vitamin A ) Quinones ( Vitamin K ) & Carotenoids ( Vitamin E ) Cofactors Vitamins & Minerals Antioxidants PRPP Nucleotides Nucleic Acids Proteins Glycoproteins & Proteoglycans Chlorophylls MEP MVA Acetyl - CoA Polyketides Terpenoid Backbones Terpenoids & Carotenoids ( Vitamin A ) Cholesterol Bile Acids Glycero - phospholipids Glycerolipids Acyl - CoA Fatty Acids Glyco - sphingolipids Sphingolipids Waxes Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Neurotransmitters & Thyroid Hormones Steroids Endo - cannabinoids Eicosanoids Major metabolic pathways in metro - style map . Click any text ( name of pathway or metabolites ) to link to the corresponding article . Single lines : pathways common to most lifeforms . Double lines : pathways not in humans ( occurs in e.g. plants , fungi , prokaryotes ) . Orange nodes : carbohydrate metabolism . Violet nodes : photosynthesis . Red nodes : cellular respiration . Pink nodes : cell signaling . Blue nodes : amino acid metabolism . Grey nodes : vitamin and cofactor metabolism . Brown nodes : nucleotide and protein metabolism . Green nodes : lipid metabolism . Metabolism : Citric acid cycle enzymes Cycle Citrate synthase Aconitase Isocitrate dehydrogenase Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase Succinyl CoA synthetase Succinate dehydrogenase ( SDHA ) Fumarase Malate dehydrogenase and ETC Anaplerotic to acetyl - CoA Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex ( E1 , E2 , E3 ) ( regulated by Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase and Pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase ) to α - ketoglutaric acid Glutamate dehydrogenase to succinyl - CoA Methylmalonyl - CoA mutase to oxaloacetate Pyruvate carboxylase Aspartate transaminase Mitochondrial electron transport chain / oxidative phosphorylation Primary Complex I / NADH dehydrogenase Complex II / Succinate dehydrogenase Coenzyme Q Complex III / Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase Cytochrome c Complex IV / Cytochrome c oxidase Coenzyme Q10 synthesis : COQ2 COQ3 COQ4 COQ5 COQ6 COQ7 COQ9 COQ10A COQ10B PDSS1 PDSS2 Other Alternative oxidase Electron - transferring - flavoprotein dehydrogenase GND : 4148058 - 2 LCCN : sh85073260 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citric_acid_cycle&oldid=843948908 '' Categories : Biochemistry Cellular respiration Exercise physiology Metabolic pathways Citric acid cycle 1937 in biology Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Extra text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Asturianu Bân - lâm - gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Кыргызча Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan پښتو Polski Português Română Русский Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Basa Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 51 more Edit links This page was last edited on 1 June 2018 , at 15 : 13 ( UTC ) . 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American Revolutionary War Clockwise : Surrender of Lord Cornwallis after the Siege of Yorktown , Battle of Trenton , The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill , Battle of Long Island , Battle of Guilford Court House Date April 19 , 1775 -- September 3 , 1783 ( 8 years , 4 months and 15 days ) Ratification effective : May 12 , 1784 ( 9 years and 23 days ) Location Eastern North America , Caribbean Sea , Indian subcontinent , Africa , the Atlantic Ocean , and the Indian Ocean Result Allied victory : Peace of Paris British recognition of American independence End of the First British Empire British retention of Canada and Gibraltar Territorial changes Great Britain cedes to the United States the area east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River Great Britain cedes East Florida , West Florida , and Menorca to Spain Great Britain cedes Tobago and Senegal to France Dutch Republic cedes Negapatnam to Great Britain Belligerents Thirteen Colonies ( before 1776 ) United States ( after 1776 ) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire Co-belligerents : Dutch Republic Mysore American Indians : ( show ) Oneida Tuscarora Catawba Lenape Chickasaw Choctaw Mahican Mi'kmaq Abenaki Cheraw Seminole Pee Dee Lumbee Watauga Association British Empire Hanover German mercenaries : Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst American Indians : ( show ) Onondaga Mohawk Cayuga Seneca Mi'kmaq Cherokee Odawa Muscogee Susquehannock Shawnee Commanders and leaders George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan full list ... George III Lord North Lord George Germain full list ... Strength United States : Army & Militia : 40,000 ( average ) 200,000 ( total served ) Navy : 5,000 sailors ( peak 1779 ) 53 frigates and sloops ( total served ) State Navies : 106 ships ( total served ) Privateers : 55,000 sailors ( total served ) 1,697 ships Allies : Army : 63,000 French and Spanish ( Gibraltar ) Navy : 146 ships - of - the - line ( 1782 ) American Indian Allies : Unknown Great Britain : Army : 48,000 ( America peak ) 121,000 ( global 1781 ) 7,500 ( Gibraltar ) Navy : 94 ships - of - the - line ( 1782 ) 104 frigates ( 1781 ) 37 sloops ( 1781 ) 171,000 sailors Loyalists : 25,000 ( total served ) Hanoverians : 2,365 ( total served ) German mercenaries : 29,875 ( total served ) American Indian Allies : 13,000 Casualties and losses United States : 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease France : at least 7,000 dead ( 2,112 in the United States ) Spain : 5,000 killed Netherlands : 500 killed Total : 37,000 -- 82,500 + soldiers dead Great Britain : Army : 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy : 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease ( 1776 -- 1780 ) 42,000 deserted Germans : 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted Loyalists : 7,000 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 5,300 died of disease ( estimated ) Total : 78,200 + soldiers dead American Revolutionary War Campaigns and theaters Boston Quebec New York and New Jersey Saratoga Philadelphia Western Northern Northern ( after Saratoga ) Southern Yorktown Caribbean Gulf Coast Gold Coast Naval The American Revolutionary War ( 1775 -- 1783 ) , also known as the American War of Independence , was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America . After 1765 , growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies . Patriot protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp Act and escalated into boycotts , which culminated in 1773 with the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor . Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts Bay Colony . Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves , and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown . Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance , establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power . British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat . Militia forces then besieged Boston , forcing a British evacuation in March 1776 , and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army . Concurrently , an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British failed decisively . On July 2 , 1776 , the Continental Congress voted for independence , issuing its declaration on July 4 . Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive , capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb . However , victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence . In 1777 , the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne , intending to isolate the New England Colonies . Instead of assisting this effort , Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia , and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777 . Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences ; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778 , and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States . In 1780 , the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India , and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war . In North America , the British mounted a `` Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising , but too few came forward . Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens . He retreated to Yorktown , Virginia , intending an evacuation , but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape . A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and , with no sign of relief , he surrendered in October 1781 . Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament , and the surrender gave them the upper hand . In early 1782 , Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America , but the war continued in Europe and India . Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy . On September 3 , 1783 , the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war . French involvement had proven decisive , but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts . Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar . The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain . In India , the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes . Contents ( hide ) 1 Background 1.1 Taxation disputes 1.2 Colonial response 2 Course of the war 2.1 War breaks out ( 1775 -- 1776 ) 2.2 Political reactions 2.3 British counter-offensive ( 1776 -- 1777 ) 2.4 British northern strategy fails ( 1777 -- 1778 ) 2.5 Foreign intervention 2.6 International war breaks out ( 1778 -- 1780 ) 2.6. 1 Europe 2.6. 2 Americas 2.6. 3 India 2.7 Stalemate in the North ( 1778 -- 1780 ) 2.8 War in the South ( 1778 -- 1781 ) 2.9 British defeat in America ( 1781 ) 2.10 North Ministry collapses 2.11 Final years of the war ( 1781 -- 1783 ) 2.11. 1 Europe 2.11. 2 Americas 2.11. 3 India 3 Peace of Paris 4 Aftermath 4.1 Casualties and losses 4.1. 1 Americans and allies 4.1. 2 British and allies 4.2 Financial debts 5 Analysis of combatants 5.1 Great Britain 5.1. 1 Armed Forces 5.1. 1.1 Recruitment 5.1. 1.1. 1 Loyalists and Hessians 5.1. 1.2 Leadership 5.1. 1.3 Logistics 5.1. 1.4 Discipline 5.1. 2 Strategic deficiencies 5.1. 2.1 William Howe 5.1. 2.2 Clinton and Cornwallis 5.1. 3 Campaign issues 5.2 Patriots 5.3 African Americans 5.4 American Indians 5.5 Race and class 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 Reference literature 11 External links 11.1 Bibliographies Background Main article : American Revolution Taxation disputes Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 . Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives . Parliament argued that the colonies were `` represented virtually '' , an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire . Parliament did repeal the act in 1766 ; however , it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies . From 1767 , Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials , ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists , and opposition soon became widespread . This iconic 1846 lithograph by Nathaniel Currier was entitled `` The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor '' ; the phrase `` Boston Tea Party '' had not yet become standard . Contrary to Currier 's depiction , few of the men dumping the tea were actually disguised as Indians . Enforcing the acts proved difficult . The seizure of the sloop Liberty in 1768 on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot . In response , British troops occupied Boston , and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England . Tensions rose after the murder of Christopher Seider by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre . In 1772 , colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner . Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea , passing the Tea Act in 1773 , attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid , thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy . The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies , but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor . So , the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests , an incident that later became known as the `` Boston Tea Party '' . Parliament then passed punitive legislation . It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter , taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council . Additionally , the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy . Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire , if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally . The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify , and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity . Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission . The colonists referred to the measures as the `` Intolerable Acts '' , and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated , viewing the acts as a threat to all of America . The acts were widely opposed , driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment . Colonial response The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress , effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston . Meanwhile , representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis . The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament ; instead , they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain . The Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters , but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire , and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott . The boycott was effective , as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774 . Parliament refused to yield . In 1775 , it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony . It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles . Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries , a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy . These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war . Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts , and he received orders on April 14 , 1775 to disarm the local militias . Course of the war War breaks out ( 1775 -- 1776 ) Main articles : Battles of Lexington and Concord ; Boston campaign ; Invasion of Quebec ( 1775 ) ; Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War § Early operations , 1775 -- 1778 ; and Battle of Nassau Major Campaigns of the American Revolutionary War On April 18 , 1775 , 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord . Fighting broke out , forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston . Overnight , the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston . On March 25 , 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe , John Burgoyne , and Henry Clinton . The British seized the Charlestown peninsula on June 17 after a costly frontal assault , leading Howe to replace Gage . Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack , which had gained them little , while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt . On July 3 , George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston . Howe made no effort to attack , much to Washington 's surprise . A plan was rejected to assault the city , and the Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in early March 1776 with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga . The British were permitted to withdraw unmolested on March 17 , and they sailed to Halifax , Nova Scotia . Washington then moved his army to New York . Starting in August 1775 , American Privateers began to raid villages in Nova Scotia , first at Saint John , then Charlottetown and Yarmouth . They continued in 1776 at Canso and then a land assault on Fort Cumberland . The British marching to Concord Meanwhile , British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to support them , while the Americans urged them to maintain their neutrality . In April 1775 , Congress feared an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada and authorized an invasion of Quebec . Quebec had a largely Francophone population and had been under British rule for only 12 years , and the Americans expected that they would welcome being liberated from the British . The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after an arduous march but were defeated . After a loose siege , the Americans withdrew on May 6 . 1776 . A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec . However , the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champlain . On October 11 , the British defeated the American squadron , forcing them to withdraw to Ticonderoga and ending the campaign . The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion , while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support . The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim , though no further attempts to invade were ever made . British soldiers and Provincial militiamen repulse the American assault at Sault - au - Matelot , Canada , December 1775 In Virginia , Royal governor Lord Dunmore had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased , although no fighting broke out . He issued a proclamation on November 7 , 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown . Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge , and Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk . Subsequent negotiations broke down , so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town . Fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias , and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony . Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South , but they were decisively defeated and Loyalist sentiment was subdued . A troop of British regulars set out to reconquer South Carolina and launched an attack on Charleston on June 28 , 1776 , but it failed and effectively left the South in Patriot control until 1780 . The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas colony in the British West Indies in order to secure ordnance there . On March 3 , 1776 , the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire , and the local militia offered no resistance . They confiscated all the supplies that they could load and sailed away on March 17 . The squadron reached New London , Connecticut on April 8 , after a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6 . Political reactions Main articles : Olive Branch Petition and United States Declaration of Independence After fighting began , Congress launched a final attempt to avert war , which Parliament rejected as insincere . King George then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23 , 1775 , which only served to embolden the colonists in their determination to become independent . After a speech by the King , Parliament rejected coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes . British Tories refused to compromise , while Whigs argued that current policy would drive the colonists towards independence . Despite opposition , the King himself began micromanaging the war effort . The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America , and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time . Irish Protestants favored the Americans , while Catholics favored the King . The initial hostilities provided a sobering military lesson for the British , causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability . The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage , and the British lost control over every colony . The army had been deliberately kept small in England since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King . Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops and sent an army of 32,000 men to America after a year , the largest that it had ever sent outside Europe at the time . In the colonies , the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence . On July 2 , Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention , issuing its declaration on July 4 . Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9 , invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King and melting it to make bullets . British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves . Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws , requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived , intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence . Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment , exile , or even death . American Tories were barred from public office , forbidden from practising medicine and law , forced to pay increased taxes , or even barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans . Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war . Some Quakers who remained neutral had their property confiscated . States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts that they were owed . British counter-offensive ( 1776 -- 1777 ) Main article : New York and New Jersey campaign American soldiers in combat at the Battle of Long Island , 1776 After regrouping at Halifax , William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans . He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2 . Due to poor military intelligence , Washington split his army to positions on Manhattan Island and across the East River in western Long Island , and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans . On August 27 , Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights . Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit , opting to besiege Washington instead . Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance . Following the withdrawal , the Staten Island Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace , as the British delegates did not possess the authority to recognize independence . Howe then seized control of New York City on September 15 , and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day . He attempted to encircle Washington , but the Americans successfully withdrew . On October 28 , the British fought an indecisive action against Washington , in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army , instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value . British warships forcing passage of the Hudson River Washington 's retreat left his forces isolated , and the British captured an American fortification on November 16 , taking 3,000 prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms `` the most disastrous defeat of the entire war '' . Washington 's army fell back four days later . Henry Clinton then captured Newport , Rhode Island , an operation which he opposed , feeling that the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington . The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous prison ships in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined . Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington , but Howe ordered him to halt , and Washington marched away unmolested . The outlook of the American cause was bleak ; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year . Popular support wavered , morale ebbed away , and Congress abandoned Philadelphia . Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat , especially in New York . Emanuel Leutze 's famous 1851 depiction of Washington Crossing the Delaware News of the campaign was well received in Britain . Festivities took place in London , public support reached a peak , and the King awarded the Order of the Bath to William Howe . The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year . The American defeat revealed what one writer views as Washington 's strategic deficiencies , such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one , his inexperienced staff misreading the situation , and his troops fleeing in disorder when fighting began . In the meantime , the British entered winter quarters and were in a good place to resume campaigning . On December 25 , 1776 , Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware River , and his army overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton , New Jersey the following morning , taking 900 prisoners . The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale and gave a new hope to the cause for independence . Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton , but his efforts were repulsed on January 2 . Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night , and defeated his rearguard the following day . The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies , as well as recovering morale in the army . Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown , New Jersey on January 6 , though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued . While encamped , Howe made no attempt to attack , much to Washington 's amazement . British northern strategy fails ( 1777 -- 1778 ) Main articles : Saratoga campaign and Philadelphia campaign In December 1776 , John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain . Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec , isolating New England . Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies , where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance . `` The Surrender at Saratoga '' shows General Daniel Morgan in front of a French de Vallière 4 - pounder . Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain , while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River , and both would rendezvous at Albany . Burgoyne set out on June 14 , 1777 , quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5 . Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison , Burgoyne continued the advance . Progress was slow ; the Americans blocked roads , destroyed bridges , dammed streams and denuded the area of food . Meanwhile , Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix . St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him . On August 16 , a Hessian foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington , and more than 700 troops were captured . Meanwhile , the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him and Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned , and would be unable to render aid . Burgoyne decided to continue the advance . On September 19 , he attempted to flank the American position , and clashed at Freeman 's Farm . The British won , but at the cost of 600 casualties . Burgoyne then dug in , but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters , and critical supplies were running low . On October 7 , a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses . Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit , and by October 13 , he was surrounded . With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted , Burgoyne surrendered on October 17 , and 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans . The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States , securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain , that of foreign assistance . Washington and Lafayette inspect the troops at Valley Forge . Meanwhile , Howe launched his campaign against Washington , though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed . Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey , or by sea via the Delaware Bay , even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary . Instead , he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay , leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne . This decision was so difficult to understand , Howe 's critics accused him of treason . Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11 , though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army . A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless , and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26 . Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown , north of Philadelphia . Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4 , which was eventually repulsed . Again , Howe did not follow - up on his victory , leaving the American army intact and able to fight . Later , after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh , Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia , astonishing both sides . Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear , where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies . On December 19 , Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge . Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops . Howe , only 20 miles ( 32 km ) away , made no effort to attack , which critics observed could have ended the war . The Continental Army was put through a new training program , supervised by Baron von Steuben , introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling . Meanwhile , Howe resigned and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24 , 1778 . Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war . On June 18 , the British departed Philadelphia , with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit . The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28 , with the Americans holding the field , greatly boosting morale and confidence . By July , both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior . Foreign intervention Main articles : France in the American Revolutionary War , Spain in the American Revolutionary War , and Carlisle Peace Commission The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention . The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands , although Lord North refused to grant independence . No positive reply was received from the Americans . French troops storming Redoubt 9 during the Siege of Yorktown French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British , and he sought a casus belli to go to war with Britain following the conquest of Canada in 1763 . The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war , proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign . The French public favored war , though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant , owing to the military and financial risk . The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile , but doing so also brought major concerns . The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted , and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean . To prevent this , France formally recognized the United States on February 6 , 1778 and followed with a military alliance . France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery , end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty , regain free trade in India , recover Senegal and Dominica , and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade . Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready , so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain . Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance , so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776 . Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment , owing to a lack of direct French involvement , the threat against their treasure fleets , and the possibility of war with Portugal , Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain . However , Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year , hoping to weaken Britain 's empire . In the Spanish - Portuguese War ( 1776 - 77 ) , the Portuguese threat was neutralized . On 12 April 1779 , Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain . Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe , as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida , and also to expel the British from Central America . Meanwhile , George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight . He did not welcome war with France , but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic . Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France , leaving it isolated , preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater , and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America . Despite this , the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely , or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown . Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed , citing impossible mutual support , exposing the forces to defeat in detail . Since the outbreak of the conflict , Britain had appealed to her ally , the neutral Dutch Republic , to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America , but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request . Consequently , the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support , but the Republic still refused . Moreover , American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies . French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports . The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain , citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue . Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping , and even firing upon it . Consequently , the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status . The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans . Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780 . International war breaks out ( 1778 -- 1780 ) Main articles : France in the American Revolutionary War , Anglo - French War ( 1778 - 1783 ) , Spain in the American Revolutionary War , Second Anglo - Mysore War , and Fourth Anglo - Dutch War Europe The Moonlight Battle of Cape St. Vincent , 16 January 1780 by Francis Holman , painted 1780 Soon after France declared war , French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778 . Spain entered the war on 12 April 1779 , with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar , Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock on 24 June . The naval blockade , however , was relatively weak , and the British were able to resupply the garrison . Meanwhile , a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland , but the expedition failed due to a combination of poor planning , disease , logistical issues , and high financial expenditures . However , a diversionary Franco - American squadron did meet with some success on 23 September under John Paul Jones . On 16 January 1780 , the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish , weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar . A Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off the Azores led by John Moutray on 9 August which was bound for the West Indies . The defeat was catastrophic for Britain , which lost 52 merchant ships , 5 East Indiamen , 80,000 muskets , equipment for 40,000 troops , 294 guns , and 3,144 men , making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made . The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million ( £ 181 million in today 's money ) , dealing a severe blow to British commerce . Americas The French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica , intending to damage British trade . French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778 in order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands and to strike a blow to privateering . The British defeated a French naval force on 15 December and captured St. Lucia on 28 December . Both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779 , but the French under the Comte d'Estaing had superiority in the Caribbean and began capturing British territories , seizing St. Vincent on 18 June and Grenada on 4 July . The British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated on July 6 , having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada , the worst loss that the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690 . Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780 , when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique . At New Orleans Governor Bernardo de Gálvez decided conquered West Florida and Mobile . In Central America , the defense of Guatemala was a priority for Spain . The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region . After inadequate first attempts , 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October , and they captured the fort on 20 October . However , the British suffered terribly due to disease and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November ; Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied it . In 1780 , Jamaica 's governor John Dalling planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two by capturing Granada , which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River . A British expedition set out on 3 February 1780 , led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson . They reached Fort San Juan on 17 March and laid siege , capturing it on 29 April . The British were ravaged by disease and were running low on food due to poor logistics . They withdrew on 8 November , the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat ; some 2,500 troops had perished , making it the costliest British disaster of the war . India Mysorean troops defeat the British at Pollilur , using rockets against closely massed British infantry The British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions in India when they learned about the hostilities with France , and they took Pondicherry on 19 October 1778 after a two - week siege . The Company resolved to drive the French completely out of India , and they captured the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779 where French ordnance passed through . Mahé was under the protection of Mysore 's ruler Hyder Ali ( the Tipu Sultan ) , and tensions were already inflamed because the British had supported Malabar rebels who had risen against him ; so the fall of Mahé precipitated war . Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region in July 1780 and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot . A British relief force of 7,000 men under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September , the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India at the time . Ali then renewed the siege at Arcot instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second British army at Madras , capturing it on 3 November . The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year . Stalemate in the North ( 1778 -- 1780 ) Main articles : Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga and Western theater of the American Revolutionary War `` Give ' em Watts , boys ! '' -- American troops repulse Wilhelm von Knyphausen 's attack at Springfield Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia , consolidating his forces in New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war . French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington , and he arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York . The Franco - American forces felt that New York 's defenses were too formidable for the French fleet , and they opted to attack Newport . This effort was launched on August 29 , but it failed when the French opted to withdraw , and this displeased the Americans . The war then ground down to a stalemate , with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes , such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor . In the summer of 1779 , the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook . In July , Clinton unsuccessfully attempted to coax Washington into a decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut . That month , a large American naval operation attempted to retake Maine , but it resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941 . The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a large number of Iroquois settlements , but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids . During the winter of 1779 -- 80 , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge . Morale was poor ; public support was being eroded by the long war ; the national currency was virtually worthless ; the army was plagued with supply problems ; desertion was common ; and whole regiments mutinied over the conditions in early 1780 . Hamilton surrenders at Vincennes , February 29 , 1779 In 1780 , Clinton launched an attempt to retake New Jersey . On June 7 , 6,000 men invaded under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen , but they met stiff resistance from the local militia . The British held the field , but Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army and withdrew . Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt two weeks later which was soundly defeated at Springfield , effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey . Meanwhile , American general Benedict Arnold had defected to the British , and he conspired to betray the key American fortress of West Point by surrendering it to the enemy . The plot was foiled when British spy master John André was captured , so Arnold fled to British lines in New York . He attempted to justify his betrayal by appealing to Loyalist public opinion , but the Patriots strongly condemned him as a coward and turncoat . The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids . An expedition of militia was halted due to adverse weather in February 1778 which had set out to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River . Later in the year , a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British . The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes , although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamilton , the British commander at Detroit . In early 1779 , the Americans counterattacked by undertaking a risky winter march , and they secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes , taking Hamilton prisoner . On May 25 , 1780 , the British launched an expedition into Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast . The expedition met with only limited success , though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured . The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success , but it did little to abate the Indian raids on the frontier . French militia attempted to capture Detroit , but it ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5 . The war in the west had become a stalemate ; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the hostile Indian tribes and occupy their land . War in the South ( 1778 -- 1781 ) Main article : Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War British troops besiege Charleston in 1780 , by Alonzo Chappel The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778 , after Loyalists in London assured them of a strong Loyalist base there . A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean , where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets . On December 29 , 1778 , an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah , and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support . There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779 , but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to recognize their dependence upon the British . The British , however , defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3 , and then launched an abortive assault on Charleston , South Carolina . The operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British troops , enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists . In October , a combined Franco - American effort failed to recapture Savannah . In May 1780 , Henry Clinton captured Charleston , taking over 5,000 prisoners and effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south . Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29 . American and British cavalry clash at the Battle of Cowpens ; from an 1845 painting by William Ranney Clinton returned to New York , leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort . Far fewer Loyalists than expected joined him . In the interim , the war was carried on by Patriot militias who effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County , Lincolnton , Huck 's Defeat , Stanly County , and Lancaster County . Congress appointed Horatio Gates , victor at Saratoga , to lead the American effort in the south . He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16 , 1780 , setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina . The British attempted to subjugate the countryside , and Patriot militia continued to fight against them , so Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north . This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7 , irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas . Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina . In the interim , Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate , Nathanael Greene . Greene was unable to confront the British directly , so he dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops . Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17 , 1781 at Cowpens . Cornwallis was criticized for having detached a substantial part of his army without adequate support , but he advanced into North Carolina despite the setbacks , gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support there . Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis , instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition . By March , Greene 's army had increased in size enough that he felt confident in facing Cornwallis . The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15 ; Greene was beaten , but Cornwallis ' army suffered irreplaceable casualties . Compounding this , far fewer Loyalists were joining than the British had previously expected . Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement , leaving the Patriots in control of the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia . Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South . The American troops suffered a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25 ; nonetheless , they continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area , capturing Fort Watson and Fort Motte . Augusta was the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah , but the Americans reclaimed possession of it on June 6 . A British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a final effort to stop Greene , but the British casualties were so high that they withdrew to Charleston . Minor skirmishes continued in the Carolinas until the end of the war , and British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict . British defeat in America ( 1781 ) Main article : Yorktown campaign The French ( left ) and British ( right ) lines exchange fire at the Battle of the Chesapeake Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of American supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia , and he had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade . Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South . Clinton strongly opposed the plan , favoring a campaign farther north in the Chesapeake Bay region . Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan and neglected to include Clinton in the decision - making , even though Clinton was Cornwallis ' superior officer , and Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton . Clinton , however , had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781 , owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart Marriot Arbuthnot . Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah , French planners realized that closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success . The French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed . Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options . Washington pushed for an attack on New York , while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia where the British were less well - established and thus easier to defeat . Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety , fearing an attack on the city . His instructions were vague to Cornwallis during this time , rarely forming explicit orders . However , Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base and to transfer troops to the north to defend New York . Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown and awaited the Royal Navy . Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by John Trumbull , 1797 Washington still favored an assault on New York , but he acquiesced to the French when they opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown . In August , the combined Franco - American army moved south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis . The British lacked sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French , but they dispatched a fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and attempt to gain naval dominance . On September 5 , the French fleet decisively defeated Graves , giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwallis from reinforcements and relief . Despite the continued urging of his subordinates , Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works , expecting that reinforcements would arrive from New York , and the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown on September 28 . Cornwallis continued to think that relief was imminent from Clinton , and he abandoned his outer defenses which were immediately occupied by American troops -- serving to hasten his subsequent defeat . The British then failed in an attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point when a storm hit . Cornwallis and his subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindling supplies ; they agreed that their situation was untenable and negotiated a surrender on October 17 , 1781 , and 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans . The same day as the surrender , 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York , sailing to relieve Yorktown . North ministry collapses The Gordon Riots , by John Seymour Lucas On 25 November 1781 , news arrived in London of the surrender at Yorktown . The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament , and a motion was proposed on December 12 to end the war which was defeated by only one vote. On 27 February 1782 , the House voted against further war in America by 19 votes . Lord Germain was dismissed and a vote of no confidence was passed against North . The Rockingham Whigs came to power and opened negotiations for peace . Rockingham died and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne . Despite their defeat , the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned in New York , Charleston , and Savannah . Henry Clinton was recalled and was replaced by Guy Carleton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations . Final years of the war ( 1781 -- 1783 ) Main articles : Anglo - French War ( 1778 - 1783 ) , Spain in the American Revolutionary War , Second Anglo - Mysore War , and Fourth Anglo - Dutch War Europe The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar , September 13 , 1782 , by John Singleton Copley After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780 , Britain had moved quickly , enforcing a blockade across the North Sea . Within weeks , the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen , and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports , though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum . The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain ; however , the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts , hoping to secure an early peace . To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel . Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker , who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781 . Though the contest was tactically inconclusive , the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war , and their merchant fleet remained crippled . On 6 January 1781 , a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed . Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar , a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August . After a long siege of St. Philip 's , the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782 , securing a primary war goal for the Spanish . At Gibraltar , a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties . On 20 October 1782 , following a successful resupply of Gibraltar , British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova , denying Córdova dominance at sea . On 7 February 1783 , after 1,322 days of siege , the Franco - Spanish army withdrew , decisively defeated . Americas Spanish troops led by Bernardo de Gálvez in combat at Pensacola . Oil on canvas , Augusto Ferrer - Dalmau , 2015 . In the West Indies , on 29 -- 30 April 1781 , a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French , led by the Comte de Grasse , who continued seizing British territories : Tobago fell on 2 June ; Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782 ; St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February , despite a British naval victory on 25 January ; and Montserrat on 22 February . In 1782 , the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica , whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined . On 7 April 1782 , de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue and invade Jamaica from the north . The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April . The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins , and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy . After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez , an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane . Emboldened by the disaster , John Campbell , British commander at Pensacola , decided to recapture Mobile . Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781 . After re-grouping at Havana , Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February . Arriving on 9 March , siege operations did not begin until 24 March , owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay . After a 45 - day siege , Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison , securing the conquest of West Florida . In May , Spanish troops captured the Bahamas , although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April . In Guatemala , Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras . Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782 , and then quickly took Black River . Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes , Archibald Campbell , the Royal governor of Jamaica , authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River , which he did on 22 August . However , with peace talks opening , and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar , no further offensive operations took place . Few operations were conducted against the Dutch , although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781 . Sint Eustatius , a key supply port for the Patriots , was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782 , plundering the island 's wealth . India Following Dutch entry into the conflict , East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781 . Soon after , British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782 . The British ( right ) and the French ( left ) , with Admiral Suffren 's flagship Cléopâtre on the far left , exchange fire at Cuddalore , by Auguste Jugelet , 1836 . In March 1781 , French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts . Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782 , where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes , winning a narrow tactical victory . After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore , Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April . There was no clear victor , though Hughes ' fleet came off worse , and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee . Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British , and this task fell to Suffren . Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July . Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore , strategically defeated , and the British remained in control of Negapatam . Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore , Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September , and successfully engaged Hughes two days later . Meanwhile , Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped . Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive , defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781 , Pollilur on 27 August , and Sholinghur on 27 September , expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic . On 18 February 1782 , Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore , taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner . The war had , by this point , reached an uneasy stalemate . On 7 December 1782 , Hyder Ali died , and the rule of Mysore passed to his son , Tipu Sultan . Sultan advanced along the west coast , laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783 . Meanwhile , on the east coast , an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783 . On 20 June , key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore , and though narrow , the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India . On 25 June , the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines , though all assaults failed . On 30 June , news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers , and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege . Mangalore remained under siege , and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784 . Little fighting took place thereafter , and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March . Peace of Paris Main articles : Peace of Paris ( 1783 ) and Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) Benjamin West 's famous painting of the American delegations at the Treaty of Paris . The British delegation refused to pose , and the painting was never completed . Following the surrender at Yorktown , the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities . While peace negotiations were being undertaken , British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives . Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace , as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt , and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there . He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire , though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778 . Negotiations soon began in Paris . The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war , a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence . On April 19 , 1782 , the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power , enhancing American leverage at the negotiations . Spain initially impeded the negotiations , refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured . The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians ; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River , below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control . The United States fiercely opposed the proposal . Washington enters New York in triumph following the British evacuation of America . The Americans skirted their allies , recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London . They negotiated directly with Shelburne , who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France . To this end , Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River , north of Florida , and south of Quebec , while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery . Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population , creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London . As Vergennes commented , `` the English buy peace rather than make it '' . Throughout the negotiations , Britain never consulted her American Indian allies , forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty . However , the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States , the largest being the Northwest Indian War . Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812 . Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain , France , and the Dutch Republic . Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks ; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida , Menorca , and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar , terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused . Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida , West Florida , and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar , terms which were reluctantly accepted . However , in the long - term , the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain . France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa , after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty . Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty , in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam . Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782 , while preliminaries between Britain , Spain , France , and the Netherlands continued until September 1783 . The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14 , 1784 . Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved , the first reaching France in March 1784 . British ratification occurred on April 9 , 1784 , and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12 , 1784 . The war formally concluded on September 3 , 1783 . The last British troops departed New York City on November 25 , 1783 , marking the end of British rule in the new United States . Aftermath Casualties and losses Americans and allies The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown . As was typical in wars of the era , diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle . Between 1775 and 1782 , a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America , killing 40 people in Boston alone . Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions . Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service . Of these , approximately 6,800 were killed in battle , while at least 17,000 died from disease . The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British , mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor . If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots , it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War . Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease , as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone . The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000 . The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict ; of those , 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war . The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed , owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain . British and allies British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces . A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas ; 6,046 in North America ( 1775 -- 1779 ) , and 3,326 in the West Indies ( 1778 -- 1780 ) . In 1784 , a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war , encompassing Europe , the Caribbean and the East Indies . Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds . Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters ; of the former , it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat . Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war ; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service . Around 1,240 were killed in battle , while an estimated 18,500 died from disease ( 1776 -- 1780 ) . The greatest killer at sea was scurvy , a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency . It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors . Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war . The impact on merchant shipping was substantial ; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war ; of those , 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone . Financial debts Main article : Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War At the start of the war , the economy of the colonies was flourishing , and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world . The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies , however , this proved unsuccessful ; 90 % of the population worked in farming , not in coastal trade , and , as such , the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade . Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort . As the circulation of hard currency declined , the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers , France , Spain and the Netherlands , saddling the young nation with crippling debts . Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue . The effect was disastrous ; inflation skyrocketed , and the paper money became virtually worthless . The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was `` not worth a continental '' . By 1791 , the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million . The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s , when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts , and , in addition , created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts . Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million , ( £ 27.1 billion in today 's money ) , generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually . The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War . Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace , the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound . The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans , accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs . Unlike Britain , which had a very efficient taxation system , the French tax system was highly unstable , eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786 . The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century . The debt continued to spiral ; on the eve of the French Revolution , the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres . Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war , from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779 . Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally , partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies ; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico , and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia . Analysis of combatants Great Britain See also : British Army during the American Revolutionary War , Royal Navy , Hessian ( soldier ) , and Loyalist ( American Revolution ) British redcoats at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million , while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million , including some 500,000 slaves . Theoretically , Britain had the advantage , however , many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army . Armed forces Recruitment In 1775 , the standing British Army , exclusive of militia , comprised 45,123 men worldwide , made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry . The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot , some 8,500 men , stationed in North America . Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648 , the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell , and the overthrow of James II , and , as such , the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King . Despite this , eighteenth century armies were not easy guests , and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike , derided as enemies of liberty . An expression ran in the Navy ; `` A messmate before a shipmate , a shipmate before a stranger , a stranger before a dog , a dog before a soldier '' . Press gang at work , British caricature of 1780 Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower , and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set . The Army was a deeply unpopular profession , one contentious issue being pay . A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day , the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman , 130 years earlier . The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living , turning off potential recruits , as service was nominally for life . To entice people to enrol , Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit . As the war dragged on , Parliament became desperate for manpower ; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties , and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units . After the defeat at Saratoga , Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3 , and increased it again the following year , to £ 3.3 s , as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age . Impressment , essentially conscription by the `` press gang '' , was a favored recruiting method , though it was unpopular with the public , leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service . Attempts were made to draft such levies , much to the chagrin of the militia commanders . Competition between naval and army press gangs , and even between rival ships or regiments , frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit . Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs , while many deserted at the first opportunity . Pressed men were militarily unreliable ; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies , purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting . By 1781 , the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally , 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas . Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict , around a quarter were pressed . Interestingly , this same proportion , approximately 42,000 men , deserted during the conflict . At its height , the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line , 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service . Loyalists and Hessians Hessian soldiers of the Leibregiment In 1775 , Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia , and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic , such was the shortage of manpower . Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money , in exchange for mercenary troops . In total , 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states ; Brunswick ( 5,723 ) , Hesse - Kassel ( 16,992 ) , Hesse - Hannau ( 2,422 ) , Ansbach - Bayreuth ( 2,353 ) , Waldeck - Pyrmont ( 1,225 ) and Anhalt - Zerbst ( 1,160 ) . King George III , who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire , was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war . Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions , however , the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe . Without any major allies , the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war , forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas . Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity . To bolster numbers , the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them . Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war , and provided some of the best troops in the British service ; the British Legion , a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton , gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies , especially in the South . Leadership Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America . Thomas Gage , Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war , was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists . Jeffrey Amherst , who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778 , refused a direct command in America , due to unwillingness to take sides in the war . Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command , stating ; `` I can not draw the sword in such a cause '' . The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America , while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis . Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants , and were only following orders . As was the case in many European armies , except the Prussian Army , officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks . Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it , the practise was common in the Army . Values of commissions varied , but were usually in line with social and military prestige , for example , regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices . The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as `` plums for ( their ) consumption '' . Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education , or practical experience , often found their way into positions of high responsibility , diluting the effectiveness of a regiment . Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711 , it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions . Young boys , often orphans of deceased wealthy officers , were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments . Logistics Grenadier of the 40th Regiment of Foot in 1767 , armed with a Brown Bess musket Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best , and the British Army was no exception . No logistical corps existed in the modern sense ; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America , horses , wagons , and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals , often by impressment or by hire . No centrally organized medical corps existed . It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education , and no diploma or entry examination was required . Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons , but many were drafted from the women who followed the army . Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers . The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America , and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement . During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778 , the temperature exceeded 100 ° F ( 37.8 ° C ) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat . The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket . Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful , measured shots ( around two per minute ) , rather than rapid firing . A bayonet made firing difficult , as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel . British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously , resulting in inaccurate fire , a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign . Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations , which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time . Soldiers of the Black Watch armed with Brown Bess muskets , c. 1790 . Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war , although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801 . Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather ; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan , while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge , ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire . Furthermore , flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality ; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening , while American flints could fire sixty . This led to a common expression among the British : `` Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog '' . Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge , as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain . The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land . Other factors also impeded this option ; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent , the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed , and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed . After France entered the war , the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America . Food supplies were frequently in bad condition . The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean , where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil . Life at sea was little better . Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration , largely consisting of hardtack and beer . The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames `` molar breakers '' and `` worm castles '' , and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot . Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages . The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy , one of the biggest killers at sea . Discipline Discipline was harsh in the armed forces , and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences -- and not used sparingly . For instance , two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign , while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer . Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors . Despite the harsh discipline , a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks of the British forces . Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling , reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms . Many drank heavily , and this was not exclusive to the lower ranks ; William Howe was said to have seen many `` crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York . John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign . The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command . During the Philadelphia campaign , British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses where they had been quartered . Some reports indicated that British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants . This is contrasted diaries of Hessian soldiers , who recorded their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists , such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners . The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety among the colonists , both Patriot and Loyalist , who viewed them as brutal mercenaries . British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops , despite orders from General Howe that `` the English should treat the Germans as brothers '' . The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English , which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect . During peacetime , the Army 's idleness led to it being riddled with corruption and inefficiency , resulting in many administrative difficulties once campaigning began . Strategic deficiencies The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops , while underestimating those of the colonists , causing a sudden re-think in British planning . The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists , as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony . A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill . It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula , giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses . Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss , the British decided on repeated frontal attacks . The results were telling ; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults . The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic , believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts . Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome . Ferling argues that the odds were so long , the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle . Ellis , however , considers that the odds always favored the Americans , and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic . Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777 , and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans . Ellis concludes that , once Howe failed , the opportunity for a British victory `` would never come again '' . Conversely , the United States Army 's official textbook argues that , had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780 , a British victory was within the realms of possibility . William Howe A 1777 mezzotint of Sir William Howe , British Commander - in - Chief from 1775 -- 1778 Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that , under William Howe 's command , the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans . Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns , Howe made several strategic errors , errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory . At Long Island , Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington , and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army . At White Plains , he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army , and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage . After securing control of New York , Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport , a measure which Clinton was opposed to , on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army . Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats , Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters , much to their surprise . During planning for the Saratoga campaign , Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne , or capture Philadelphia , the revolutionary capital . Howe decided upon the latter , determining that Washington was of a greater threat . When Howe launched his campaign , he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay , rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey , or by sea through the Delaware Bay . The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him . The decision so angered Parliament , that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason . During the Philadelphia campaign , Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions ; once after the Battle of Brandywine , and again after the Battle of Germantown . At the Battle of White Marsh , Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear , and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes , astonishing both sides . While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away , Howe made no effort to attack their camp , which critics argue could have ended the war . Following the conclusion of the campaign , Howe resigned his commission , and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24 , 1778 . Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics , however , there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action . Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill . During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia , Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions , which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns . Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign , and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army , have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies . During the winter of 1776 -- 1777 , Howe split his army into scattered cantonments . This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail , as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other . This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton , and the concurrent Battle of Princeton . While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner , the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision . The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts . Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions . Clinton and Cornwallis General Charles Cornwallis , who led British forces in the southern campaign . In 1780 , the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south , for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible . After an encouraging success at Camden , Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina . However , any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain , and the British Legion , the cream of his army , had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens . Following both defeats , Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support . Despite the defeats , Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina , gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized . As a result , subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace , as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse , and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition . Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest . The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781 , effectively confining the British to the coast , and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year . In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South , Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia , in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas . Henry Clinton , Cornwallis ' superior , strongly opposed the plan , believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North . London had approved Cornwallis plan , however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making , despite his seniority over Cornwallis , leading to a muddled strategic direction . Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions . Clinton , however , had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year , owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot , his naval counterpart . As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown , he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected , despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers . Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton , Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences , which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers , serving to hasten the British defeat . These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army , and the end of major operations in North America . Like Howe before him , Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues . In 1778 , Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies , even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland . That winter , the supply issue had deteriorated so badly , that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed . Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779 , launching few major campaigns . This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food . By 1780 , the situation had not improved . Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain , voicing concern that a `` fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve . By October that year , Clinton again wrote to Germain , angered that the troops in New York had not received `` an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain . Campaign issues Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems . The key issue was distance ; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic , and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived . The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance . Traditionally , the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict , yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York , Philadelphia ( which was the Patriot capital ) , and Charleston . Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy , allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports . However , the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian , not urban . As a result , the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects . Black Loyalist soldiers fought alongside British regulars in the 1781 Battle of Jersey , from The Death of Major Peirson The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland . For example , British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 , enraging both Patriots and Loyalists . Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war . Conversely , Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories , such as destroying property or tarring and feathering . The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory . One British statesman described the attempt as `` like trying to conquer a map '' . Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown . Consequently , British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists . Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population ( vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots ) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780 . The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars , which presented them with a major dilemma . The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances . The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South , where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors . The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain , and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South . Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict , the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland . As a result , King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with . The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War , leaving them at a critical disadvantage . The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies , and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result , precariously exposing them to defeat . In North America , the immediate strategic focus of the French , Spanish , and British shifted to Jamaica , whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined . Following the end of the war , Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies . However , the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term , and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict . Patriots Main articles : Continental Army and Minutemen 1st Maryland Regiment holding the line at the Battle of Guilford The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British . They had no national government , no national army or navy , no financial system , no banks , no established credit , and no functioning government departments , such as a treasury . The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees , which proved inefficient . The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience . In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping , but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel . However , the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced . The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies , while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean . The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France , located at a far distance from home ports . Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland . They were on their home ground , had a smoothly functioning , well organized system of local and state governments , newspapers and printers , and internal lines of communications . They had a long - established system of local militia , previously used to combat the French and Native Americans , with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias , and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress . Motivation was a major asset . The Patriots wanted to win ; over 200,000 fought in the war ; 25,000 died . The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting , but they did much less than expected . The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting . At the onset of the war , the Americans had no major international allies . Battles such as the Battle of Bennington , the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain , who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies , to overtly supporting them militarily , moving the war to a global stage . The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime , and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants . The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers ; officers such as George Washington , Horatio Gates , Charles Lee , Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War . The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge , where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben , a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff . He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline , drills , tactics and strategy , and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual . When the Army emerged from Valley Forge , it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth . Population density in the American Colonies in 1775 When the war began , the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy . Each colony sponsored local militia . Militiamen were lightly armed , had little training , and usually did not have uniforms . Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time , were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations , and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience . If properly used , however , their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces , as at the battles of Concord , Bennington and Saratoga , and the siege of Boston . Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area . Seeking to coordinate military efforts , the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14 , 1775 , and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief . The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress , and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war . Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War ; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army , formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14 , 1775 . The United States Navy recognizes October 13 , 1775 as the date of its official establishment , the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy . And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war , formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10 , 1775 , a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps . At the beginning of 1776 , Washington 's army had 20,000 men , with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias . At the end of the American Revolution in 1783 , both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded . About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war , but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time . About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war . The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships , and they captured 2,283 enemy ships . John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero , capturing HMS Drake on April 24 , 1778 , the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters . Armies were small by European standards of the era , largely attributable , on the American side , to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities ; and , on the British side , to the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic , as well as the dependence on local supplies , which the Patriots tried to cut off . The largest force Washington commanded was certainly under 17,000 , and may have been no more than 13,000 troops , and even the combined American and French forces at the siege of Yorktown amounted to only about 19,000 . By comparison , Duffy notes that in an era when European rulers were generally revising their forces downward , in favor of a size that could be most effectively controlled ( the very different perspective of mass conscript armies came later , during the French Revolutionary and then the Napoleonic Wars ) , the largest army that Frederick the Great ever led into battle was 65,000 men ( at Prague in 1757 ) , and at other times he commanded between 23,000 and 50,000 men , considering the latter the most effective number . African Americans 1780 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign shows a black infantryman from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment . African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war . The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation . Because of manpower shortages , George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776 . Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts ; many slaves were promised freedom for serving . Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters , after the war was over , out of political convenience . Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces . At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause . Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines ; others simply moved off in the chaos . For instance , in South Carolina , nearly 25,000 slaves ( 30 % of the enslaved population ) fled , migrated or died during the disruption of the war . This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war . When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston , the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists . Altogether , the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war . More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia ; other blacks were sold in the West Indies . American Indians A watercolor painting depicting a variety of Continental Army soldiers . Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown , 1781 Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war , and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict . A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans , but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory . Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side , with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes , who fielded around 1,500 men . The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict , whatever side they took ; the Seneca , Onondaga , and Cayuga nations sided with the British . Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides . Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists . The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British . Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively , and this further exacerbated the split . Early in July 1776 , a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina . Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people , and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee , bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain . Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina . In 1778 , a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia . Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah . Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side . Thousands of Creeks , Chickasaws , and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte , the Battle of Mobile , and the Siege of Pensacola . Race and class Pybus ( 2005 ) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British , of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots . The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war ; of these 8000 remained in slavery . Including those who left during the war , a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom . About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves . Baller ( 2006 ) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts . He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible . Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life . Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation . A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment , as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm . A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization . Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders . Some relatives might be Loyalists , creating internal strains . On the whole , historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism . McDonnell ( 2006 ) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes , which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause . The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters , the middling yeomen ( some owning a few slaves ) , and landless indentured servants , among other groups . The Assembly used deferments , taxes , military service substitute , and conscription to resolve the tensions . Unresolved class conflict , however , made these laws less effective . There were violent protests , many cases of evasion , and large - scale desertion , so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels . With the British invasion of the state in 1781 , Virginia was mired in class division as its native son , George Washington , made desperate appeals for troops . See also American Revolutionary War portal United States Army portal Bibliography of the American Revolutionary War Bibliography of George Washington Commemoration of the American Revolution Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War British Army during the American War of Independence First Treaty of San Ildefonso First League of Armed Neutrality Fourth Anglo - Dutch War George Washington in the American Revolution Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War List of American Revolutionary War battles List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution List of plays and films about the American Revolution List of revolutions and rebellions Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War Treaty of El Pardo ( 1778 ) Notes Jump up ^ This article primarily refers to the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies who supported the American Revolution as `` Americans '' , with occasional references to `` Patriots '' or `` Revolutionaries '' . Colonists who supported the British and opposed the Revolution are referred to as `` Loyalists '' or `` Tories '' . The geographical area of the thirteen colonies is often referred to simply as `` America '' . References Jump up ^ ( from 1777 ) Jump up ^ ( from 1778 ) Jump up ^ The term `` French Empire '' colloquially refers to the empire under Napoleon , but it is used here for brevity to refer to France proper and to the colonial empire that the Kingdom of France ruled Jump up ^ ( from 1779 ) Jump up ^ ( 1780 -- 84 ) Jump up ^ ( 1780 -- 84 ) Jump up ^ ( until 1779 ) Jump up ^ Hanover supplied troops per Personal union treaty , not as mercenaries Jump up ^ Lowell , Edward J ( 1884 ) , `` The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War '' , Harper and Brothers Publishers , New York , Chapter II . Quote : `` Five battalions of the Hanoverian subjects of George III were despatched to Gibraltar and Menorca '' Jump up ^ ( from 1779 ) ^ Jump up to : Duncan , Louis C. MEDICAL MEN IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION ( 1931 ) . ^ Jump up to : Michael Lanning ( 2009 ) . American Revolution 100 : The Battles , People , and Events of the American War for Independence , Ranked by Their Significance . Sourcebooks . pp. 195 -- 96 . ISBN 9781402241703 . ^ Jump up to : Jack P. Greene and J.R. Pole . A Companion to the American Revolution ( Wiley - Blackwell , 2003 ) , p. 328 . Jump up ^ Paullin , Charles Oscar ( 1906 ) . The navy of the American Revolution : its administration , its policy and its achievements . The Burrows Brothers Co . Jump up ^ `` Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War '' . Usmm.org . Retrieved May 25 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Howarth 1991 , p. 16 Jump up ^ Montero , Francisco Maria ( 1860 ) , Historia de Gibraltar y de su campo ( in Spanish ) , Imprenta de la Revista Médica , p. 356 Jump up ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006 , p. 79 . ^ Jump up to : Jonathan Dull , A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution ( Yale University Press , 1985 ) , p. 110 . ^ Jump up to : `` Red Coats Facts -- British Soldiers in the American Revolution '' . totallyhistory.com . ^ Jump up to : `` The British Army 1775 -- 1783 '' ( PDF ) . orbat . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on September 27 , 2013 . Retrieved September 23 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Chartrand & Courcelle 2006 , p. 63 : `` Of 7,500 men in the Gibraltar garrison in September ( including 400 in hospital ) , some 3,430 were always on duty '' Jump up ^ Winfield , Rif , British Warships in the Age of Sail : 1714 -- 1792 ( Seaforth Publishing , 2007 ) ISBN 978 - 1 - 84415 - 700 - 6 Jump up ^ Winfield , Rif , British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714 -- 1792 : Design , Construction , Careers and Fates ( Seaforth Publishing , 2007 ) ^ Jump up to : Mackesy ( 1964 ) , pp. 6 , 176 ( British seamen ) . ^ Jump up to : Savas and Dameron ( 2006 ) , p. xli Jump up ^ Knesebeck , Ernst von dem ( 1845 ) , `` Geschichte de churhannoverschen Truppen in Gibraltar , Menorca und Ostindien '' , Published by Im Verlage der Helwingschen Hof - Buchhandlung . 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HarperCollins , 2000 , p. 101 `` Washington 's success in keeping the army together deprived the British of victory , but French intervention won the war . '' Jump up ^ Gladney , Henry M. ( 2014 ) . No Taxation without Representation : 1768 Petition , Memorial , and Remonstrance ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on May 13 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Liberty and Property : Political Ideology in Eighteenth - century Britain -- H.T. Dickinson -- Google Books . Books.google.com. 1977 . p. 218 . ISBN 9780416729306 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Charles Howard McIlwain ( 1938 ) . The American Revolution : A Constitutional Interpretation . p. 51 . ISBN 9781584775683 . Jump up ^ Paul Boyer ; et al. ( 2014 ) . The Enduring Vision : A History of the American People . Cengage Learning . p. 142 . ISBN 9781285193397 . Jump up ^ Knollenberg , Growth , 48 ; Thomas , Duties Crisis , 76 Jump up ^ Young , Shoemaker , 183 -- 85 . 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That the foundation of English liberty , and of all free government , is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council : and as the English colonists are not represented , and from their local and other circumstances , can not properly be represented in the British parliament , they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures , where their right of representation can alone be preserved , in all cases of taxation and internal polity , subject only to the negative of their sovereign , in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed : But , from the necessity of the case , and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries , we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British parliament , as are bonfide , restrained to the regulation of our external commerce , for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country , and the commercial benefits of its respective members ; excluding every idea of taxation internal or external , for raising a revenue on the subjects , in America , without their consent . 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However , this statement is referenced to a note on pages 175 -- 176 , which says , `` The British Legion infantry at Cowpens is usually considered to have had about 200 -- 250 men , but returns for the 25 December 1780 muster show only 175 . Totals obtained by Cornwallis , dated 15 January , show that the whole legion had 451 men , but approximately 250 were dragoons '' . There would therefore appear to be no evidence for putting the total strength of the five British Legion Light Infantry companies at more than 200 . Jump up ^ Review by : Hugh F. Rankin ; Reviewed Work : The Green Dragoon : The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson by Robert D. Bass , The North Carolina Historical Review , Vol. 34 , No. 4 ( October , 1957 ) , pp. 548 -- 550 Jump up ^ Bass , Robert. D ( August 1957 ) . `` The Green Dragoon : The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson `` . North Carolina Office of Archives and History . JSTOR 23517100 . Jump up ^ Agniel , Lucien ( June 1972 ) . `` The Late Affair Has Almost Broke My Heart : The American Revolution in the South , 1780 -- 1781 '' . Chatham Press . Retrieved 18 November 2015 . Jump up ^ Ketchum ( 1997 ) , p. 76 Jump up ^ Ketchum ( 1997 ) , p. 77 Jump up ^ Duffy , Christopher . The Military Experience in the Age of Reason . p. 61 . ISBN 1 - 85326 - 690 - 6 . Jump up ^ Forteseue , The British Army , 1783 -- 1802 , p. 34 Jump up ^ Armatys , John ; Cordery , Robert George ( 2005 ) . `` The Purchase of Officers ' Commissions in the British Army '' . Colonial Wargames . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2012 . Retrieved 10 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Belcher , Volume I , p. 270 Jump up ^ Michael Lanning ( 2009 ) . American Revolution 100 : The Battles , People , and Events of the American War for Independence , Ranked by Their Significance . Sourcebooks . pp. 193 -- 96 . ISBN 9781402241703 . Jump up ^ Duncan , Volume II , p. 15 Jump up ^ Duncan , Francis ( 1879 ) . `` History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery '' , Volume 1 . J. Murray , p. 131 , 303 , 309 Jump up ^ Sergeant Lamb , `` Journal of the American War '' , p. 75 Jump up ^ Duncan , History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery , Volume 2 , p. 15 Jump up ^ Burgoyne , State of the Expedition , p. 148 Jump up ^ `` Battle of Monmouth Courthouse '' . Robinson Library . Self - published . Retrieved 20 June 2017 . Jump up ^ Lloyd , Ernest Marsh ( 1908 ) , Review of the History of Infantry , p. 155 Jump up ^ Trevelyan , Volume III , p. 6 ; Volume IV , p. 158 Jump up ^ Fortescue , The British Army , 1783 -- 1802 , p. 83 . Jump up ^ Sawyer , Charles Winthrop ( 1910 ) , `` Firearms in American History '' , p. 99 Jump up ^ Trevelyan , Volume IV , pp. 224 , 34 Jump up ^ Minute Book of a Board of General Officers of the British Army in New York , 1781 . New York Historical Society Collections , 1916 , p. 81 . Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 14 Jump up ^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North , Volume II , p. 7 , 52 Jump up ^ Merril D. Smith ( 2015 ) . The World of the American Revolution : A Daily Life Encyclopedia . ABC - CLIO . p. 374 . Jump up ^ `` Ships Biscuits -- Royal Navy hardtack '' . Royal Navy Museum . Archived from the original on October 31 , 2009 . Retrieved 2010 - 01 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` 19th United States Infantry '' . 19thusregulars.com . Archived from the original on July 15 , 2012 . Retrieved 2013 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ Lowell , Edward J and Andrews , Raymond J ( June 15 , 1997 ) `` The Hessians in the Revolutionary War '' , Corner House Pub , ISBN 978 - 0879281168 , p. 56 Jump up ^ Howe , ( Sir ) William , Orderly Book , edited by B.F. Stevens ( London , 1890 ) , pp. 263 , 288 Jump up ^ Burgoyne , John , Orderly Book , edited by E.B. O'Callaghan ( Albany , 1860 ) , p. 74 . Jump up ^ Howe , Orderly Book , pp 263 , 288 Jump up ^ `` Life at sea in the age of sail '' . National Maritime Museum . Jump up ^ Lamb , Memoir , p. 74 Jump up ^ Riedesel , Mrs. General , Letters and Journals , translated from the original German by W.L. Stone ( Albany , 1867 ) p. 125 Jump up ^ Stedman , Charles , History of the American War ( London , 1794 ) , Volume I , p. 309 Jump up ^ Fortescue , The British Army , 1783 -- 1802 , p. 35 Jump up ^ Steven Schwamenfeld . `` The Foundation of British Strength : National Identity and the Common British Soldier . '' Ph. D. diss. , Florida State University 2007 , p. 123 - 124 Jump up ^ Schwamenfeld ( 2007 ) , p. 123 - 124 Jump up ^ Schwamenfeld ( 2007 ) , p. 123 Jump up ^ Clayton , Anthony ( 2007 ) . The British Officer : Leading the Army from 1660 to the Present . Routledge . ISBN 178159287X , p. 65 Jump up ^ French , pp. 263 -- 265 Jump up ^ Frothingham , p. 155 Jump up ^ Frothingham pp. 191 , 194 Jump up ^ Frothingham , p. 156 Jump up ^ Ferling , 2015 , p. 127 - 129 Jump up ^ John E. Ferling , Almost A Miracle : The American Victory in the War of Independence ( 2009 ) , pp. 562 -- 77 . ^ Jump up to : Joseph J. Ellis ( 2013 ) . Revolutionary Summer : The Birth of American Independence . Random House . ISBN 0307701220 . ^ Jump up to : Richard W. Stewart , ed. , American Military History Volume 1 The United States Army And The Forging Of A Nation , 1775 -- 1917 '' ( 2005 ) ch 4 `` The Winning of Independence , 1777 -- 1783 '' ( 2005 ) , p. 103 . Jump up ^ Adams , Charles Francis , `` Battle of Long Island '' , in American Historical Review ( 1895 -- 1896 ) , pp. 668 -- 669 . Jump up ^ David McCullough ( 2006 ) . 1776 . p. 122 . Jump up ^ Cadwalader , Richard McCall ( 1901 ) . Observance of the One Hundred and Twenty - third Anniversary of the Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British Army . Fort Washington and the Encampment of White Marsh , November 2 , 1777 : . pp. 20 -- 28 . Retrieved January 7 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Frothingham pp. 152 -- 153 Jump up ^ Jackson , Kenneth T ; Dunbar , David S ( 2005 ) . Empire City : New York Through the Centuries . Columbia University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 10909 - 3 , p. 20 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , Manuscripts in the Public Record Office , 5 : 93 , Howe to Dartmouth , 1st December 1775 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 93 , Howe to Germain , 7 June and 7 July 1776 Jump up ^ A View of the Evidence ( London , 1783 ) , p. 13 Jump up ^ Correspondence of George III with Lord North , Volume II , p. 57 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 93 , Howe to Germain , 30 Nov 1776 Jump up ^ Stedman , American War , Volume I , p. 287 Jump up ^ Lumpkin , From Savannah to Yorktown : The American Revolution in the South ( 2000 ) . Jump up ^ Pancake , John ( 1985 ) . This Destructive War . University of Alabama Press. , p. 221 Jump up ^ Clinton , H. ; The American Rebellion . Note : This lack of notification was one of Clinton 's main arguments in his own defense in the controversy that followed the surrender at Yorktown . Jump up ^ Grainger , John ( 2005 ) . The Battle of Yorktown , 1781 : a Reassessment . Woodbridge , NJ : Boydell Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84383 - 137 - 2 . OCLC 232006312 . , p. 29 Jump up ^ Lengel , Edward ( 2005 ) . General George Washington . New York : Random House Paperbacks . ISBN 0 - 8129 - 6950 - 2. , p. 337 Jump up ^ Fleming , Thomas ( 1970 ) . The Perils of Peace . New York : The Dial Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 06 - 113911 - 6 , p. 16 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 96 , Clinton to Germain , 15 September 1778 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 97 , Clinton to Germain , 15 December 1778 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 98 , Haldimand to Clinton , 19 July and 29 August 1779 Jump up ^ Colonial Office Papers , 5 : 100 , Clinton to Germain , 31st October 1780 Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 39 ; Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , pp. 298 , 306 Jump up ^ Rossman , Vadim ( 2016 ) , `` Capital Cities : Varieties and Patterns of Development and Relocation '' , Taylor & Francis , ISBN 1317562852 , p. 2 Jump up ^ Edward E. Curtis , The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution , Conclusion , ( Yale U.P. 1926 ) , ( 3 ) Retrieved 10 June 2017 Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 14 . Jump up ^ Wilson , David K ( 2005 ) . The Southern Strategy : Britain 's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia , 1775 -- 1780 . Columbia , SC : University of South Carolina Press . ISBN 1 - 57003 - 573 - 3 . OCLC 232001108 . p. 112 Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , pp. 14 -- 16 ( Harsh methods ) , pp. 35 , 38 ( slaves and Indians ) , p. 16 ( neutrals into revolutionaries ) . Jump up ^ Leonard Woods Larabee , Conservatism in Early American History ( 1948 ) pp 164 -- 65 Jump up ^ Calhoon , Robert M. The Loyalists in Revolutionary America , 1760 -- 1781 ( 1973 ) Jump up ^ Curtis , `` The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution , Conclusion Jump up ^ C. Ritcheson , `` Loyalist Influence on British Policy Toward the United States After the American Revolution '' ; Eighteenth - Century Studies ; ( 1973 ) 7 # 1 p. 6 . Jstor link Jump up ^ Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , p. 235 Jump up ^ William Edward Hartpole Lecky ( 1891 ) . A History of England : In the Eighteenth Century . p. 139 . Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Black ( 2001 ) , p. 13 -- 14 . Jump up ^ Ferling ( 2007 ) , p. 294 Jump up ^ Dull , ( 1985 ) p. 244 Jump up ^ Tellier , L. - N. ( 2009 ) . Urban World History : an Economic and Geographical Perspective . Quebec : PUQ . p. 463 . ISBN 2 - 7605 - 1588 - 5 . Jump up ^ Pole and Greene , eds . Companion to the American Revolution , ch. 36 -- 39 . Jump up ^ Trevelyan , p. 249 . Jump up ^ Ketchum ( 1997 ) , pp. 405 -- 48 . Jump up ^ Philander D. Chase . `` Steuben , Friedrich Wilhelm von '' ; American National Biography Online ( 2000 ) . Accessed January 29 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Ferling , John ( 2007 ) , pp. 294 -- 95 '' Jump up ^ `` Establishment of the Navy , 13 October 1775 '' . United States Navy . Retrieved November 5 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Crocker ( 2006 ) , p. 51 . Jump up ^ `` Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War '' . Usmm.org . Retrieved May 8 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Higginbotham ( 1983 ) , pp. 331 -- 46 . Jump up ^ Boatner ( 1974 ) , p. 264 . ^ Jump up to : Duffy , Christopher ( 2005 ) . Military Experience in the Age of Reason . London : Routledge . ISBN 0203976851 . p. 13 . In the original 1987 edition , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Kaplan and Kaplan ( 1989 ) , pp. 64 -- 69 . Jump up ^ Leslie Alexander ( 2010 ) . Encyclopedia of African American History . ABC - CLIO . p. 356 . ISBN 9781851097746 . Jump up ^ Peter Kolchin , American Slavery : 1619 -- 1877 , New York : Hill and Wang , 1994 , p. 73 Jump up ^ Kolchin , p. 73 Jump up ^ William Weir ( 2004 ) . The Encyclopedia of African American Military History . Prometheus Books . pp. 31 -- 32 . ISBN 9781615928316 . Jump up ^ Cassadra Pybus , `` Jefferson 's Faulty Math : the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution '' , William and Mary Quarterly ( 2005 ) 62 # 2 pp : 243 -- 264 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ Greene and Pole ( 1999 ) , p. 393 ; Boatner ( 1974 ) , p. 545 . Jump up ^ John Finger , Tennessee Frontiers : Three Regions in Transition ( Bloomington , Ind. : Indiana University Press , 2001 ) , pp. 43 -- 64 . Jump up ^ Ward , Harry M. ( 1999 ) . The war for independence and the transformation of American society . Psychology Press . p. 198 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85728 - 656 - 4 . Retrieved March 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ O'Brien , Greg ( April 30 , 2008 ) . Pre-removal Choctaw history : exploring new paths . University of Oklahoma Press . pp. 123 -- 126 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8061 - 3916 - 6 . Retrieved March 25 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Cassandra Pybus , `` Jefferson 's Faulty Math : the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution '' , William and Mary Quarterly 2005 62 # 2 : 243 -- 264 . Jump up ^ John N. Grant , `` Black Immigrants into Nova Scotia , 1776 -- 1815 . '' Journal of Negro History ( 1973 ) : 253 -- 270 . in JSTOR Jump up ^ James W. St G. Walker , The Black Loyalists : The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone , 1783 -- 1870 ( 1992 ) . Jump up ^ William Baller , `` Farm Families and the American Revolution , '' Journal of Family History ( 2006 ) 31 ( 1 ) : 28 -- 44 . ISSN 0363 - 1990 . Fulltext : online in EBSCO . Jump up ^ Michael A. McDonnell , `` Class War : Class Struggles During the American Revolution in Virginia '' , William and Mary Quarterly 2006 63 ( 2 ) : 305 -- 344 . ISSN 0043 - 5597 Fulltext : online at History Cooperative . Further reading Black , Jeremy . War for America : The Fight for Independence , 1775 -- 1783 . 2001 . Analysis from a noted British military historian . Benn , Carl Historic Fort York , 1793 -- 1993 . Toronto : Dundurn Press Ltd. 1993 . ISBN 0 - 920474 - 79 - 9 . Boatner , Mark Mayo , III . Encyclopedia of the American Revolution . 1966 ; revised 1974 . ISBN 0 - 8117 - 0578 - 1 . Military topics , references many secondary sources . Calloway , Colin G . The American Revolution in Indian Country : Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities ( Cambridge UP , 1995 ) . Chambers , John Whiteclay II , ed. in chief . The Oxford Companion to American Military History . Oxford University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 507198 - 0 . Conway , Stephen . The British Isles and the War of American Independence ( 2002 ) doi : 10.1093 / acprof : oso / 9780199254552.001. 0001 online Crocker III , H.W. ( 2006 ) . Do n't Tread on Me . New York : Crown Forum . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 5363 - 6 . Curtis , Edward E. The Organization of the British Army in the American Revolution ( Yale U.P. 1926 ) online Duffy , Christopher . The Military Experience in the Age of Reason , 1715 -- 1789 Routledge , 1987 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7102 - 1024 - 1 . Edler , Friedrich . The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution . University Press of the Pacific , 1911 , reprinted 2001 . ISBN 0 - 89875 - 269 - 8 . Ellis , Joseph J. His Excellency : George Washington . ( 2004 ) . ISBN 1 - 4000 - 4031 - 0 . David Hackett Fischer . Washington 's Crossing . New York : Oxford University Press , 2004 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 517034 - 2 . Fletcher , Charles Robert Leslie . An Introductory History of England : The Great European War , Volume 4 . E.P. Dutton , 1909 . OCLC 12063427 . Greene , Jack P. and Pole , J.R. , eds . The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution . Malden , Massachusetts : Blackwell , 1991 ; reprint 1999 . ISBN 1 - 55786 - 547 - 7 . Collection of essays focused on political and social history . Gilbert , Alan . Black Patriots and Loyalists : Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 2012 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 226 - 29307 - 3 . Higginbotham , Don . The War of American Independence : Military Attitudes , Policies , and Practice , 1763 -- 1789 . Northeastern University Press , 1983 . ISBN 0 - 930350 - 44 - 8 . Overview of military topics ; online in ACLS History E-book Project . Morrissey , Brendan . Monmouth Courthouse 1778 : The Last Great Battle in the North . Osprey Publishing , 2004 . ISBN 1 - 84176 - 772 - 7 . Jensen , Merrill . The Founding of a Nation : A History of the American Revolution 1763 -- 1776 . ( 2004 ) Kaplan , Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan . The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution . Amherst , Massachusetts : The University of Massachusetts Press , 1989 . ISBN 0 - 87023 - 663 - 6 . Ketchum , Richard M. Saratoga : Turning Point of America 's Revolutionary War . Henry Holt , 1997 . ISBN 0 - 8050 - 4681 - X . Mackesy , Piers . The War for America : 1775 -- 1783 . London , 1964 . Reprinted University of Nebraska Press , 1993 . ISBN 0 - 8032 - 8192 - 7 . Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership . McCullough , David . 1776 . New York : Simon & Schuster , 2005 . Middleton , Richard , The War of American Independence , 1775 -- 1783 . London : Pearson , 2012 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 582 - 22942 - 6 Reynolds , Jr. , William R. ( 2012 ) . Andrew Pickens : South Carolina Patriot in the Revolutionary War . Jefferson NC : McFarland & Company , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7864 - 6694 - 8 . Riddick , John F. The History of British India : a Chronology . Greenwood Publishing Group , 2006 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 32280 - 8 . Savas , Theodore P. and Dameron , J. David . A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution . New York : Savas Beatie LLC , 2006 . ISBN 1 - 932714 - 12 - X . Schama , Simon . Rough Crossings : Britain , the Slaves , and the American Revolution , New York , NY : Ecco / HarperCollins , 2006 O'Shaughnessy , Andrew Jackson . The Men who Lost America : British Leadership , the American Revolution , and the Fate of the Empire ( Yale UP , 2014 ) . Shy , John . A People Numerous and Armed : Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence . New York : Oxford University Press , 1976 ( ISBN 0 - 19 - 502013 - 8 ) ; revised University of Michigan Press , 1990 ( ISBN 0 - 472 - 06431 - 2 ) . Collection of essays . Stephenson , Orlando W . `` The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776 '' , American Historical Review , 30 # 2 ( 1925 ) , pp. 271 -- 281 online free . Taylor , Alan . American Revolutions : A Continental History , 1750 - 1804 ( WW Norton & Company , 2016 ) . Tombs , Robert and Isabelle . That Sweet Enemy : The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present Random House , 2007 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 4024 - 7 . Trevelyan , George Otto . George the Third and Charles Fox : the concluding part of The American revolution Longmans , Green , 1912 . Watson , J. Steven . The Reign of George III , 1760 -- 1815 . 1960 . Standard history of British politics . Weigley , Russell F. The American Way of War . Indiana University Press , 1977 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 253 - 28029 - 9 . Weintraub , Stanley . Iron Tears : America 's Battle for Freedom , Britain 's Quagmire : 1775 -- 1783 . New York : Free Press , 2005 ( a division of Simon & Schuster ) . ISBN 0 - 7432 - 2687 - 9 . An account of the British politics on the conduct of the war . Reference literature These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above ; books about specific campaigns , battles , units , and individuals can be found in those articles . Billias , George Athan . George Washington 's Generals and Opponents : Their Exploits and Leadership ( 1994 ) scholarly studies of key generals on each side. \ Black , Jeremy . `` Could the British Have Won the American War of Independence ? . '' Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research . ( Fall 1996 ) , Vol. 74 Issue 299 , pp 145 -- 154 . online video lecture , uses Real Player Conway , Stephen . The War of American Independence 1775 -- 1783 . Publisher : E. Arnold , 1995 . ISBN 0 - 340 - 62520 - 1 . 280 pages . Lowell , Edward J. The Hessians in the Revolution Williamstown , Massachusetts , Corner House Publishers , 1970 , Reprint Bancroft , George . History of the United States of America , from the discovery of the American continent . ( 1854 -- 78 ) , vol. 7 -- 10 . Bobrick , Benson . Angel in the Whirlwind : The Triumph of the American Revolution . Penguin , 1998 ( paperback reprint ) . Fremont - Barnes , Gregory , and Ryerson , Richard A. , eds . The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War : A Political , Social , and Military History ( ABC - CLIO , 2006 ) 5 volume paper and online editions ; 1000 entries by 150 experts , covering all topics Frey , Sylvia R . The British Soldier in America : A Social History of Military Life in the Revolutionary Period ( University of Texas Press , 1981 ) . Hibbert , Christopher . Redcoats and Rebels : The American Revolution through British Eyes . New York : Norton , 1990 . ISBN 0 - 393 - 02895 - X . Kwasny , Mark V. Washington 's Partisan War , 1775 -- 1783 . Kent , Ohio : 1996 . ISBN 0 - 87338 - 546 - 2 . Militia warfare . Middlekauff , Robert . The Glorious Cause : The American Revolution , 1763 -- 1789 . Oxford University Press , 1984 ; revised 2005 . ISBN 0 - 19 - 516247 - 1 . online edition Savas , Theodore ; J. David Dameron ( 2006 ) . Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution . Savas Beatie . ISBN 9781611210118 . Contains a detailed listing of American , French , British , German , and Loyalist regiments ; indicates when they were raised , the main battles , and what happened to them . Also includes the main warships on both sides , And all the important battles . Simms , Brendan . Three Victories and a Defeat : The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire , 1714 -- 1783 ( 2008 ) 802 pp. , detailed coverage of diplomacy from London viewpoint Symonds , Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution ( 1989 ) , newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units Ward , Christopher . The War of the Revolution . ( 2 volumes . New York : Macmillan , 1952 . ) History of land battles in North America . Wood , W.J. Battles of the Revolutionary War , 1775 -- 1781 . ISBN 0 - 306 - 81329 - 7 ( 2003 paperback reprint ) . Analysis of tactics of a dozen battles , with emphasis on American military leadership . Men - at - Arms series : short ( 48pp ) , very well illustrated descriptions : Zlatich , Marko ; Copeland , Peter . General Washington 's Army ( 1 ) : 1775 -- 78 ( 1994 ) Zlatich , Marko . General Washington 's Army ( 2 ) : 1779 -- 83 ( 1994 ) Chartrand , Rene . The French Army in the American War of Independence ( 1994 ) May , Robin . The British Army in North America 1775 -- 1783 ( 1993 ) The Partisan in War , a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789 . External links Look up American Revolutionary War in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Wikimedia Commons has media related to American Revolutionary War . Liberty -- The American Revolution from PBS American Revolutionary War 1775 -- 1783 in the News Important battles of the American Revolutionary War Bibliographies Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution Bibliographies of the War of American Independence https://web.archive.org/web/20151101171424/http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar.htm compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History Political bibliography from Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture ( hide ) American Revolutionary War Origins of the American Revolution Philosophy American Enlightenment John Locke Colonial history Liberalism Republicanism Freedom of religion Rights of Englishmen Common Sense Spirit of ' 76 `` All men are created equal '' `` Life , Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness '' `` Consent of the governed '' Royalists Pitt -- Newcastle ministry Bute ministry Grenville ministry First Rockingham ministry Chatham ministry Grafton ministry North ministry Second Rockingham ministry Shelburne ministry Fox -- North coalition Loyalists Black Loyalist Related British Acts of Parliament Navigation Iron Molasses Royal Proclamation of 1763 Sugar Currency Quartering Stamp Declaratory Townshend Tea Quebec Intolerable Conciliatory Resolution Restraining Proclamation of Rebellion Prohibitory Colonials Stamp Act Congress Declaration of Rights and Grievances Virginia Association Sons of Liberty Patriots Committees of correspondence Committees of safety Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania Massachusetts Circular Letter First Continental Congress Continental Association Minutemen Second Continental Congress Olive Branch Petition Declaration of Independence Articles of Confederation Events French and Indian War Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) Boston Massacre Gaspee Affair Hutchinson Letters Affair Boston Tea Party Powder Alarm Combatants Campaigns Theaters Battles Events Colonies Combatants Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Army Navy Marines Kingdom of Great Britain Parliament British Army Royal Navy German allies Colonial allies France army navy Hortalez et Cie Campaigns and theaters Boston Canada New York and New Jersey Saratoga Philadelphia Northern Southern Western Yorktown Naval battles Major battles Lexington and Concord Boston Capture of Fort Ticonderoga Bunker Hill Quebec Valcour Island Long Island Harlem Heights Fort Washington Trenton Assunpink Creek Princeton Siege of Fort Ticonderoga Bennington Saratoga Brandywine Germantown Monmouth St. Lucia Grenada Stony Point Sullivan Expedition Savannah Gibraltar Cape St. Vincent Charleston Springfield Camden Kings Mountain Cowpens Guilford Court House Lochry 's Defeat Yorktown Saintes Cuddalore Other events Staten Island Peace Conference `` First Salute '' Washington 's crossing of the Delaware River Conway Cabal Valley Forge Entry of France into war Carlisle Peace Commission Gordon Riots Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1781 Sint Eustatius Newburgh Conspiracy Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783 Related conflicts Cherokee -- American wars Fourth Anglo - 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-2073980189307933182 | Nothing but the Beat | Nothing But the Beat - wikipedia Nothing But the Beat Jump to : navigation , search Nothing but the Beat Studio album by David Guetta Released 26 August 2011 Recorded 2010 -- 11 Studio Gum Prod Studio ( Paris ) Catfield Studio ( Paris ) Piano Music Studio ( Amsterdam ) Can Rocas Studio ( Ibiza ) Color Sound Studio Mastering ( Paris ) Length 41 : 40 ( disc one ) 46 : 42 ( disc two ) Label Virgin EMI Astralwerks Producer David Guetta Afrojack Avicii Black Raw Frédéric Riesterer Giorgio Tuinfort Sandy Vee Alesso David Guetta chronology One Love ( 2009 ) One Love 2009 Nothing but the Beat ( 2011 ) Listen ( 2014 ) Listen 2014 Singles from Nothing but the Beat `` Where Them Girls At '' Released : 2 May 2011 `` Little Bad Girl '' Released : 27 June 2011 `` Without You '' Released : 27 September 2011 `` Titanium '' Released : 9 December 2011 `` Turn Me On '' Released : 14 December 2011 `` I Can Only Imagine '' Released : 2 May 2012 Singles from Nothing but the Beat 2.0 `` She Wolf ( Falling to Pieces ) '' Released : 21 August 2012 `` Just One Last Time '' Released : 15 November 2012 `` Play Hard '' Released : 22 March 2013 Nothing but the Beat is the fifth studio album by French DJ and record producer David Guetta , released on 26 August 2011 . Released as a double album , the first disc features collaborations with artists from the R&B , hip hop and pop worlds such as Lil Wayne , Taio Cruz , Nicki Minaj , Ludacris , Snoop Dogg , Afrojack , Chris Brown , Flo Rida , Usher , Jennifer Hudson , Dev , Timbaland , Jessie J and Sia . Also making appearances are will.i.am , Akon and Ne - Yo , all three of whom previously collaborated with Guetta on his fourth studio album , One Love . In comparison , the second disc features purely instrumental tracks . The album is also Guetta 's first album not to feature long - time collaborator Chris Willis on vocals . Critical reviews of the album were mixed . The album spawned four singles that attained success on the US Billboard Hot 100 -- `` Where Them Girls At '' , `` Without You '' , `` Turn Me On '' and `` Titanium '' -- becoming his third , fourth , fifth and sixth top 20 singles , respectively . On 30 November 2011 , the album received a nomination for Grammy Award for Best Dance / Electronica Album at the 54th Grammy Awards . As of October 2012 , the album has sold 407,000 copies in the US , and has received platinum certification by the IFPI for sales exceeding 1,000,000 copies throughout Europe . On 26 March 2012 , the album was released as a standalone package , via the iTunes Store . This version was previously released through Beatport . The album was then re-released on 7 September 2012 under the name Nothing but the Beat 2.0 . It includes six new tracks including lead single `` She Wolf ( Falling to Pieces ) '' , which features Sia , who previously collaborated with Guetta on `` Titanium '' . The remixes of this single were released exclusively through Beatport on 7 August 2012 . Several tracks from the original album have been removed from the re-release , however all the singles have been retained . A final edition of the album dubbed Nothing but the Beat Ultimate , was released on 10 December 2012 featuring the original album plus all of the new songs from the 2.0 edition -- though contained the full - length edits of `` Sunshine '' , `` Lunar '' and `` Metropolis '' , as opposed to the shorter edits on 2.0 -- and a 16 - second shorter version of `` Where Them Girls At '' . It is noteworthy that all ten main singles from Nothing but the Beat , including the Guetta version of `` Sweat '' , have peaked within the top - twenty of the UK Singles Chart and as of January 2015 have all together gone on to sell in excess of 4 million copies in the UK . Contents ( hide ) 1 Singles 2 Critical reception 3 Track listing 4 Re-releases 4.1 2.0 version 4.2 Ultimate version 5 Documentary 6 Charts 6.1 Weekly charts 6.2 Year - end charts 7 Certifications 8 Release history 9 References Singles ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) `` Where Them Girls At '' was released as the album 's first single on 2 May 2011 . The track itself is a collaboration with Flo Rida and Nicki Minaj . The release of the single came earlier than planned after computer hackers managed to obtain an early a cappella version of the song , featuring only the rappers ' vocals and added their own production to the song before leaking it . It debuted at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Guetta 's third top twenty hit in the United States . The song charted within the top ten in eighteen countries , and peaked at number one on the UK Dance Chart . `` Little Bad Girl '' was released as the album 's second single on 27 June 2011 . The track itself is a collaboration with Taio Cruz and Ludacris . The music video was released on 18 July 2011 . The track entered the top ten in several countries , and peaked at number one in Venezuela . However , the United States was the only territory where the track was not successful , peaking only at number 70 . It did , however , fare well on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . `` Without You '' was released as the album 's third single on 14 October 2011 . The track itself , originally written and recorded by Taio Cruz , is a collaboration with Usher . The music video was filmed at the end of July 2011 . The track was sent to mainstream radio in the United States on 27 September 2011 . It was a success worldwide , and reached the top ten in the United States . `` Titanium '' was released as the album 's fourth international single on 9 December 2011 . The track itself is a collaboration with Sia . `` Titanium '' was initially released as a promotional single from the album , and successfully charted worldwide . It was later released as the album 's fifth single in the United States , officially impacting Top 40 , Mainstream and Rhythmic radio on 24 April 2012 . `` Turn Me On '' was released in the U.S. , officially impacting Top 40 , Mainstream and Rhythmic radio on 13 December 2011 . The track itself is a collaboration with Nicki Minaj . It was later released as the album 's fifth international single in January 2012 . The music video was filmed in November 2011 by director Sanji . The video was released on 31 January 2012 . `` I Can Only Imagine '' was released as the album 's sixth single on 2 May 2012 . The track itself is a collaboration with Chris Brown and Lil Wayne . The music video , directed by Colin Tilley , was filmed on 29 May 2012 . The video was released on 2 July 2012 . The track peaked at number one in Belgium , as well as achieving high success in Poland . The track has also charted in thirteen other territories . It was officially sent to American radio on 7 August 2012 , where it peaked at number 44 . Four songs were digitally released as promotional singles for the album : `` Titanium '' ( which later became an official single ) on 8 August 2011 , `` Lunar '' ( with Afrojack ) on 15 August 2011 , `` Night of Your Life '' ( featuring Jennifer Hudson ) on 22 August 2011 and `` The Alphabeat '' on 26 March 2012 . The first three were released as part of the iTunes Store 's countdown to the album 's release . It is noteworthy that all ten main singles from Nothing but the Beat , including the Guetta version `` Sweat '' , have peaked within the top - twenty of the UK Singles Chart and as of January 2015 have all together gone on to sell in excess of four million copies in the country . Critical reception ( edit ) Professional ratings Aggregate scores Source Rating AnyDecentMusic ? 4.9 / 10 Metacritic 56 / 100 Review scores Source Rating AllMusic The A.V. Club C − The Daily Telegraph Entertainment Weekly B − The Guardian The Irish Times MSN Music B+ Q Rolling Stone Spin 7 / 10 At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 56 , based on 17 reviews , which indicates mixed or average reviews . David Jeffries wrote for AllMusic that `` Nothing But the Beat offers the same experience as one of Guetta 's numerous remix sets , but declared that `` something 's missing , something along the lines of ' When Love Takes Over ' . '' In the same vein , Al Fox wrote for BBC Music that `` Whether you could go so far as to call Guetta an auteur might be pushing it , but it 's a cohesive effort , if not quite a work of art . '' Entertainment Weekly 's Mikael Wood praised the tracks `` Night of Your Life '' and `` Titanium '' but felt that `` the album feels colder than its sweat factor suggests . '' In an almost neutral review , Jon Dolan wrote for Rolling Stone that the album `` shows how good he is at making Eurohouse 's thumping trounce and jet - engine synth whoosh feel like natural elements in the hip - hop , R&B and even rock continuum . '' Ally Carnwath wrote a negative review for The Observer , rating it 1 out of 5 stars , writing that the album 's collaborations `` struggle to impose any distinctive personality on the overall mood of relentless rictus - grin - inducing euphoria . '' Tom Ewing from The Guardian criticized Guetta for making `` tiring dancefloor fillers '' and concluded that `` Nothing But the Beat may sound like a one - man hit parade , but it also takes its title far too literally . '' Eric Henderson wrote negatively for Slant Magazine that `` His sound may be the most influential force in pop music today , but he 's paradoxically been artistically overshadowed by imitators and innovators alike , all of whom demonstrate a better understanding of power pop 's legacy ( Lady Gaga 's `` The Edge of Glory '' ) , dance - floor dynamics ( Rihanna 's `` S&M '' ) , and ridiculous self - awareness ( LMFAO 's `` Party Rock Anthem '' ) . '' Robert Christgau gave the album a B+ grade , writing that while he `` only wish ( es ) it had a few ' I Gotta Feeling 's '' , it ultimately `` offends club sophisticates no less than living - room discophobes . '' Track listing ( edit ) Nothing but the Beat -- Disc 1 : Vocal album No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Where Them Girls At '' ( featuring Flo Rida and Nicki Minaj ) Tramar Dillard Onika Maraj David Guetta Juan Silinas Oscar Silinas Jared Cotter Michael Caren Giorgio Tuinfort Sandy Wilhelm Guetta Vee Caren 3 : 30 2 . `` Little Bad Girl '' ( featuring Taio Cruz and Ludacris ) Taio Cruz Christopher Bridges Guetta Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Daddy 's Groove 3 : 12 3 . `` Turn Me On '' ( featuring Nicki Minaj ) Ester Dean Maraj Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort Daddy 's Groove 3 : 19 4 . `` Sweat '' ( vs. Snoop Dogg ) Calvin Broadus Cheri Williams Derek Jenkins Dwayne Richardson Cassio Ware David Singer - Vine Niles Hollowell - Dhar Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 16 5 . `` Without You '' ( featuring Usher ) Taio Cruz Usher Raymond IV Rico Love Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Daddy 's Groove 3 : 28 6 . `` Nothing Really Matters '' ( featuring will.i.am ) William Adams Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Pierre - Luc Rioux Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 39 7 . `` I Can Only Imagine '' ( featuring Chris Brown and Lil Wayne ) Christopher Brown Dwayne Carter Jacob Luttrell Nasri Atweh Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Riesterer Daddy 's Groove 3 : 29 8 . `` Crank It Up '' ( featuring Akon ) Aliaune Thiam Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Fabian Lenseen Silvio Ecomo 3 : 12 9 . `` I Just Wanna F '' ( with Afrojack featuring Timbaland and Dev ) Jacob Luttrell Amy Kaup Jessica Sarangay Singer - Vine Hollowell - Dhar Guetta Nick van de Wall Guetta Afrojack 3 : 23 10 . `` Night of Your Life '' ( featuring Jennifer Hudson ) Crystal Johnson Anthony Preston Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort 3 : 41 11 . `` Repeat '' ( featuring Jessie J ) Jessica Cornish The Invisible Men Ali Tennant Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 26 12 . `` Titanium '' ( featuring Sia ) Sia Furler Guetta Tuinfort van de Wall Guetta Tuinfort Afrojack 4 : 05 Total length : 41 : 40 ( show ) Nothing but the Beat -- Digital edition bonus track No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 13 . `` I 'm a Machine '' ( featuring Crystal Nicole and Tyrese ) Johnson Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 34 ( show ) Nothing but the Beat -- Australian bonus track No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . Untitled Guetta Vee Caren Afrojack 13 . `` Where Them Girls At '' ( Afrojack Remix ) Dillard Maraj Guetta J. Silinas O. Silinas Cotter Caren Tuinfort Wilhelm van de Wall 6 : 24 Nothing but the Beat -- Disc 2 : Electronic Album No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` The Alphabeat '' Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort Daddy 's Groove 4 : 29 2 . `` Lunar '' ( with Afrojack ) Guetta van de Wall Tuinfort Guetta Afrojack 5 : 16 3 . `` Sunshine '' ( with Avicii ) Guetta Tuinfort Tim Bergling Guetta Tuinfort Avicii 6 : 01 4 . `` Little Bad Girl '' ( Instrumental Club Edit ) Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 4 : 02 5 . `` Metro Music '' Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort 4 : 13 6 . `` Toy Story '' Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort 3 : 44 7 . `` The Future '' ( with Afrojack ) Guetta van de Wall Guetta Afrojack 4 : 16 8 . `` Dreams '' Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 4 : 48 9 . `` Paris '' Guetta Riesterer Guetta Riesterer 4 : 40 10 . `` Glasgow '' Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort Daddy 's Groove 5 : 13 Total length : 46 : 42 Nothing but the Beat ( Deluxe Edition ) and ( Xmas Edition ) -- Disc 3 : Party Mix disc No . Title Length 1 . `` Where Them Girls At '' ( featuring Flo Rida and Nicki Minaj ) ( Nicky Romero and Sidney Samson Remix ) 4 : 18 2 . `` Turn Me On '' ( featuring Nicki Minaj ) ( Sidney Samson Remix ) 5 : 15 3 . `` Sweat '' ( vs. Snoop Dogg ) ( Guetta and Afrojack Dub Remix ) 6 : 03 4 . `` Paris '' ( Party Mix ) 4 : 03 5 . `` Without You '' ( featuring Usher ) ( Nicky Romero Remix ) 4 : 15 6 . `` Little Bad Girl '' ( featuring Taio Cruz and Ludacris ) ( New Club Edit ) 4 : 14 7 . `` The Future '' ( with Afrojack ) ( Party Mix ) 3 : 56 8 . `` Titanium '' ( featuring Sia ) ( Nicky Romero Remix ) 5 : 40 9 . `` Sunshine '' ( with Avicii ) ( Party Mix ) 5 : 30 10 . `` Lunar '' ( with Afrojack ) ( Party Mix ) 4 : 50 Notes signifies co-producer or additional production by . Re-releases ( edit ) 2.0 version ( edit ) The album 's re-release Nothing but the Beat 2.0 was preceded with the release of `` She Wolf ( Falling to Pieces ) , '' on 21 August 2012 . It is Guetta 's second collaboration with Sia following `` Titanium '' . A number of remixes of the track were first made available via Beatport on 7 August 2012 , with contributors including Michael Calfan and Sandro Silva . The single was later released physically and digitally on 24 August 2012 , in the United Kingdom and Germany . The track was officially sent to American radio on 7 January 2013 . `` Just One Last Time '' was released as the album 's ninth overall single on 15 November 2012 , and the second from the album 's re-release . The track itself is a collaboration with Taped Rai . The track was released in the United Kingdom on 31 December 2012 , and became only the second single from the album , following on from I Can Only Imagine , which did not receive an official physical release . The music video was released on 3 December 2012 , again directed by Colin Tilley . `` Play Hard '' featuring Akon and Ne - Yo has been remixed by Guetta , and this new version was released as the tenth and final single from `` Nothing But The Beat '' . On 11 April 2012 , Guetta has released his collaboration track with Nicky Romero `` Metropolis '' through Beatport as the first release of his new label Jack Back Records . A shortened edit of the song was later included in Nothing but the Beat 2.0 . On 19 October 2013 , a video for `` Metropolis '' was uploaded to YouTube and , as of April 2014 , has over 10 million views . The video , a burn production directed by Mr. Brainwash , opens with a television with text on the screen that reads , `` art can not be criticized because every mistake is a new creation '' , and contains scenes involving paint , graffiti , the breaking of objects , and Guetta and Romero DJing . ( show ) Nothing but the Beat 2.0 No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Titanium '' ( featuring Sia ) Sia Furler Guetta Tuinfort van de Wall Guetta Tuinfort Afrojack 4 : 05 2 . `` Turn Me On '' ( featuring Nicki Minaj ) Ester Dean Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort Daddy 's Groove * 3 : 19 3 . `` She Wolf ( Falling to Pieces ) '' ( featuring Sia ) Guetta Chris Braide Sia Furler Giorgio Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort Braide 3 : 42 4 . `` Without You '' ( featuring Usher ) Taio Cruz Usher Raymond IV Rico Love Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Black Raw * 3 : 28 5 . `` I Can Only Imagine '' ( featuring Chris Brown and Lil Wayne ) Christopher Brown Dwayne Carter Jacob Luttrell Nasri Atweh Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Riesterer Daddy 's Groove * 3 : 29 6 . `` Play Hard '' ( featuring Ne - Yo and Akon ) Guetta Aliaune Thiam Shaffer Smith Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 21 7 . `` Wild One Two ( Edit ) '' ( Jack Back featuring David Guetta , Nicky Romero and Sia ) Guetta Romero Tramar Dillard Raphaël Judrin Pierre - Antoine Melki Sia Furler Axwell Jacob Luttrell Marcus Cooper Benjamin Maddahi Guetta Romero soFLY & Nius Axwell 3 : 09 8 . `` Just One Last Time '' ( featuring Taped Rai ) Guetta Tuinfort Tom Liljegren Alexander Ryberg Guetta Tuinfort 3 : 47 9 . `` In My Head '' ( with Daddy 's Groove featuring NERVO ) Carlo Grieco Daddy 's Groove Guetta Giovanni Romano Daddy 's Groove Guetta 3 : 51 10 . `` Where Them Girls At '' ( featuring Flo Rida and Nicki Minaj ) Tramar Dillard Onika Maraj Juan Silinas Oscar Silinas Jared Cotter Michael Caren David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Sandy Vee Guetta Vee Caren 3 : 30 11 . `` Little Bad Girl '' ( featuring Taio Cruz and Ludacris ) Taio Cruz Christopher Bridges Guetta Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Daddy 's Groove * 3 : 11 12 . `` Sweat '' ( vs. Snoop Dogg ) Calvin Broadus Cheri Williams Derek Jenkins Dwayne Richardson Cassio Ware David Singer - Vine Niles Hollowell - Dhar Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 16 13 . `` Crank It Up '' ( featuring Akon ) Aliaune Thiam Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Fabian Lenseen * Silvio Ecomo * 3 : 12 14 . `` Nothing Really Matters '' ( featuring will.i.am ) William Adams Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Pierre - Luc Rioux Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 39 15 . `` Every Chance We Get We Run '' ( with Alesso featuring Tegan and Sara ) Tegan Quin Sara Quin Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer Alesso Alesso Guetta Riesterer Tuinfort 4 : 00 16 . `` Sunshine ( Edit ) '' ( with Avicii ) Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Tim Bergling David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Tim Bergling 3 : 52 17 . `` Lunar ( Edit ) '' ( with Afrojack ) Guetta Nick van de Wall Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Nick van de Wall 3 : 10 18 . `` What the F * * * '' Guetta Frédéric Riesterer David Guetta Frédéric Riesterer 4 : 07 19 . `` Metropolis ( Edit ) '' ( with Nicky Romero ) Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Nicky Romero 3 : 10 20 . `` The Alphabeat '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Daddy 's Groove * 4 : 29 21 . `` Toy Story '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort 3 : 45 Ultimate version ( edit ) ( show ) Nothing but the Beat : Ultimate -- Disc 1 No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Titanium '' ( featuring Sia ) Sia Furler Guetta Tuinfort van de Wall Guetta Tuinfort Afrojack 4 : 05 2 . `` Turn Me On '' ( featuring Nicki Minaj ) Ester Dean Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort Black Raw * 3 : 19 3 . `` She Wolf ( Falling to Pieces ) '' ( featuring Sia ) Guetta Chris Braide Sia Furler Giorgio Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort 3 : 42 4 . `` Without You '' ( featuring Usher ) Usher Raymond IV Cruz Rico Love Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Black Raw * 3 : 28 5 . `` I Can Only Imagine '' ( featuring Chris Brown and Lil Wayne ) Christopher Brown Dwayne Carter Jacob Luttrell Nasri Atweh Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Riesterer Black Raw * 3 : 29 6 . `` Play Hard '' ( featuring Ne - Yo and Akon ) Guetta Aliaune Thiam Shaffer Smith Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 21 7 . `` Wild One Two '' ( Jack Back featuring David Guetta , Nicky Romero and Sia ) Guetta Romero Tramar Dillard Raphaël Judrin Pierre - Antoine Melki Sia Furler Axwell Jacob Luttrell Marcus Cooper Benjamin Maddahi Guetta Romero soFLY & Nius Axwell 3 : 09 8 . `` Just One Last Time '' ( featuring Taped Rai ) Guetta Tuinfort Tom Liljegren Alexander Ryberg Guetta Tuinfort 3 : 47 9 . `` In My Head '' ( with Daddy 's Groove featuring NERVO ) Carlo Grieco Daddy 's Groove Guetta Giovanni Romano Daddy 's Groove Guetta 3 : 51 10 . `` Where Them Girls At '' ( featuring Flo Rida and Nicki Minaj ) Tramar Dillard Onika Maraj Juan Silinas Oscar Silinas Jared Cotter Michael Caren David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Sandy Vee Guetta Vee Caren 3 : 14 11 . `` Little Bad Girl '' ( featuring Taio Cruz and Ludacris ) Taio Cruz Christopher Bridges Guetta Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Black Raw * 3 : 11 12 . `` Sweat '' ( vs. Snoop Dogg ) Calvin Broadus Cheri Williams Derek Jenkins Dwayne Richardson Cassio Ware David Singer - Vine Niles Hollowell - Dhar Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 16 13 . `` Crank It Up '' ( featuring Akon ) Aliaune Thiam Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Fabian Lenseen * Silvio Ecomo * 3 : 12 14 . `` I Just Wanna F . '' ( with Afrojack featuring Timbaland and Dev ) Jacob Luttrell Amy Kaup Jessica Sarangay Singer - Vine Hollowell - Dhar Guetta Nick van de Wall Guetta Afrojack 3 : 23 15 . `` Nothing Really Matters '' ( featuring will.i.am ) William Adams Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Pierre - Luc Rioux Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 39 16 . `` Night of Your Life '' ( featuring Jennifer Hudson ) Crystal Johnson Anthony Preston Guetta Tuinfort Guetta Tuinfort 3 : 41 17 . `` Repeat '' ( featuring Jessie J ) Jessica Cornish The Invisible Men Ali Tennant Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer 3 : 26 ( show ) Nothing but the Beat : Ultimate -- Disc 2 No . Title Writer ( s ) Producer ( s ) Length 1 . `` Every Chance We Get We Run '' ( with Alesso featuring Tegan and Sara ) Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer Alesso Sara Quin Tegan Quin Guetta Alesso Riesterer Tuinfort 4 : 00 2 . `` Sunshine '' ( with Avicii ) Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Tim Bergling David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Tim Bergling 6 : 01 3 . `` Lunar '' ( with Afrojack ) Guetta Nick van de Wall Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Nick van de Wall 5 : 16 4 . `` What the F * * * '' Guetta Frédéric Riesterer David Guetta Frédéric Riesterer 4 : 07 5 . `` Metropolis '' ( with Nicky Romero ) Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Nicky Romero 6 : 13 6 . `` The Alphabeat '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Black Raw * 4 : 29 7 . `` Metro Music '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort 4 : 13 8 . `` Toy Story '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort 3 : 44 9 . `` The Future '' ( with Afrojack ) Guetta Nick van de Wall David Guetta Nick van de Wall 4 : 16 10 . `` Dreams '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer David Guetta Frédéric Riesterer Giorgio Tuinfort 4 : 48 11 . `` Paris '' Guetta Frédéric Riesterer David Guetta Frédéric Riesterer 4 : 40 12 . `` Glasgow '' Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort David Guetta Giorgio Tuinfort Black Raw * 5 : 13 13 . `` Little Bad Girl '' ( Instrumental Club Mix ) Guetta Tuinfort Frédéric Riesterer Taio Cruz Christopher Bridges Guetta Tuinfort Riesterer Daddy 's Groove * 5 : 12 `` Play Hard '' heavily incorporates the song `` Better Off Alone '' by Alice Deejay . Credits adapted from album liner notes . ( * ) denotes additional production . Documentary ( edit ) A feature - length biographical documentary about Guetta was released on 1 September 2011 . Named after the album Nothing but the Beat , the documentary follows Guetta on tour around the world and behind the scenes of major concerts , featuring interviews with collaborative and associated artists , friends , colleagues , and his wife to chronicle his rise from underground house DJ to global superstar . It was produced alongside the energy drink brand Burn . Featured artists include will.i.am , Kelly Rowland , Snoop Dogg , Ludacris , Taio Cruz , and dance music legends Fatboy Slim , David Morales , and Pete Tong , plus new talent Afrojack and Avicii . The film received its official premiere at Paris ' largest operating movie theatre Le Grand Rex , where it played to over 2,000 fans and guests . Others involved in the production of the documentary included What A Music , Pardeep Sall ( Trouble Makers Associates ) , filmmakers Partizan and innovation house Deviant Venture , and was released as a free podcast on iTunes . Charts ( edit ) Weekly charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2011 -- 14 ) Peak position Australian Albums Chart Australian Dance Albums Chart Austrian Albums Chart Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) Belgian Albums Chart ( Wallonia ) Canadian Albums Chart Croatian Foreign Albums Chart 9 Danish Albums Chart 14 Dutch Albums Chart Finnish Albums Chart 7 French Albums Chart German Albums Chart Greek Albums Chart Hungarian Albums Chart 8 Irish Albums Chart Italian Albums Chart Japanese Albums Chart Mexican Albums Chart New Zealand Albums Chart Norwegian Albums Chart 5 Polish Albums Chart 8 Portuguese Albums Chart South African Albums Chart Spanish Albums Chart Swedish Albums Chart 19 Swiss Albums Chart UK Albums Chart UK Dance Albums Chart US Billboard 200 5 US Dance / Electronic Albums Year - end charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2011 ) Position Australian Albums Chart 14 Austrian Albums Chart 6 Hungarian Albums Chart 43 Spanish Albums Chart 19 UK Albums Chart 41 US Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums 7 Chart ( 2012 ) Position Australian Albums Chart 51 Austrian Albums Chart 9 Belgian Albums Chart ( Flanders ) 18 Belgian Albums Chart ( Wallonia ) 16 Dutch Albums Chart 39 German Albums Chart 24 Hungarian Albums Chart 47 Italian Albums Chart 43 Mexican Albums Chart 35 Spanish Albums Chart 26 Swiss Albums Chart 13 UK Albums Chart 21 US Billboard 200 102 Chart ( 2013 ) Position Austrian Albums Chart 75 Swiss Albums Chart 36 UK Albums Chart 43 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Australia ( ARIA ) 2 × Platinum 140,000 Austria ( IFPI Austria ) 2 × Platinum 40,000 Belgium ( BEA ) Platinum 30,000 Canada ( Music Canada ) 2 × Platinum 160,000 Denmark ( IFPI Denmark ) Gold 10,000 France ( SNEP ) Diamond 0 Finland ( Musiikkituottajat ) Gold 14,644 Germany ( BVMI ) 5 × Gold 500,000 Hungary ( MAHASZ ) Gold 3,000 Ireland ( IRMA ) Platinum 15,000 Italy ( FIMI ) Gold 30,000 Mexico ( AMPROFON ) Platinum 60,000 New Zealand ( RMNZ ) Gold 7,500 Poland ( ZPAV ) Gold 10,000 Portugal ( AFP ) Gold 10,000 Spain ( PROMUSICAE ) Platinum 60,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) 2 × Platinum 866,337 United States ( RIAA ) Gold 500,000 Summaries Europe ( IFPI ) Platinum 1,000,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Country Date Format Label Edition Australia 26 August 2011 CD digital download EMI Standard edition United States United States Germany LP CD digital download Ireland CD digital download India CD Netherlands LP CD digital download Japan 29 August 2011 CD What A Music Denmark EMI Canada Poland LP CD France Virgin EMI Italy 30 August 2011 EMI United States CD Astralwerks Standard edition ( US version ) Brazil 31 August 2011 EMI Standard edition deluxe edition Germany 25 November 2011 Deluxe edition Australia United Kingdom 27 November 2011 Positiva Standard Edition Deluxe Edition Denmark 30 November 2011 EMI Deluxe edition Germany 7 September 2012 CD digital download Virgin EMI Nothing but the Beat 2.0 United Kingdom 10 September 2012 Poland EMI United States Capitol Germany 7 December 2012 Virgin Nothing but the Beat Ultimate References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Maloy , Sarah ( 29 June 2011 ) . `` David Guetta Denies U2 & Madonna Rumors , Reveals Double Album Billboard.com '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 9 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Copsey , Robert ( 15 July 2011 ) . `` Jessie J , Chris Brown for David Guetta 's ' Nothing But The Beat ' album '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 15 July 2011 . Jump up ^ Mansfield , Brian ( 2012 - 10 - 24 ) . `` Scotty McCreery 's Christmas album debuts at No. 4 '' . Idol Chatter . USA Today . Retrieved October 24 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat 2.0 : Amazon.de : Musik '' . Amazon.de. 2009 - 09 - 09 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Where Them Girls At ( Feat . Nicki Minaj & Flo Rida ) ( Explicit ) : David Guetta : Amazon.de : MP3 - Downloads '' . Amazon.de. 2014 - 05 - 20 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ Bhansali , Akshay ( 9 May 2011 ) . `` David Guetta Says Nicki Minaj Was Initially ' Shy ' In Studio '' . MTV News . Retrieved 10 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Graff , Gary ( 10 May 2011 ) . `` David Guetta Teams with Flo Rida , Nicki Minaj for ' Where Them Girls At ' '' . Billboard . Detroit : Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 10 May 2011 . Jump up ^ Trust , Gary ( 2011 - 05 - 11 ) . `` Adele 's ' Rolling in the Deep ' Tops Hot 100 '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 11 . Jump up ^ Publié par Rémi . `` Image : David Guetta et Usher sur le tournage de `` Without You '' ~ Urban Fusions `` . Urban-fusions.com . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ Mason , Kerri ( 15 August 2011 ) . `` David Guetta : Inside His Latest Hit Parade , ' Nothing But the Beat ' '' . Billboard . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved 16 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Radio Industry News , Music Industry Updates , Arbitron Ratings , Music News and more ! '' . FMQB . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Top 40 / M Future Releases Mainstream Hit Songs Being Released and Their Release Dates '' . Allaccess.com . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` 15 Minutes Before The Dive -- David Guetta -- Titanium ( Cover Of The Month # 1 ) '' . YouTube . 2011 - 12 - 23 . 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Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Jump up ^ `` Adatbázis -- Arany - és platinalemezek -- 2012 '' ( in Hungarian ) . MAHASZ . Jump up ^ `` Irish album certifications -- David Guetta -- Nothing but the Beat '' . Irish Recorded Music Association . Jump up ^ `` Italian album certifications -- David Guetta -- Nothing but the Beat '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Jump up ^ `` Certificaciones '' ( in Spanish ) . Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas . Type David Guetta in the box under the ARTISTA column heading . Jump up ^ `` New Zealand album certifications -- David Guetta -- Nothing but the Beat '' . Recorded Music NZ . Retrieved 31 March 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Polish album certifications -- David Guetta -- Nothing but the Beat '' ( in Polish ) . Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry . Jump up ^ `` Top AFP -- Semana 32 de 2012 '' . Artistas-espectaculos.com . Archived from the original on 30 August 2012 . Retrieved 31 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Spanish album certifications -- David Guetta -- Nothing but the Beat '' ( PDF ) ( in Spanish ) . Productores de Música de España . Select album under `` Chart '' , enter 2011 in the field `` Year '' . Select ' ' in the field `` Semana '' . Click on `` Search Charts '' Jump up ^ `` British album certifications -- David Guetta -- Nothing but the Beat '' . British Phonographic Industry . Enter Nothing but the Beat in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ Jones , Alan ( 4 August 2014 ) . `` Official Charts Analysis : Sheeran 's X sells 31k copies to spend sixth week at No. 1 '' . Music Week . Intent Media . Retrieved 2 January 2016 . ( Subscription required ( help ) ) . Jump up ^ `` American album certifications -- Guetta , _David -- Nothing but the Beat '' . Recording Industry Association of America . If necessary , click Advanced , then click Format , then select Album , then click SEARCH Jump up ^ `` IFPI Platinum Europe Awards -- 2011 '' . International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Nothing But the Beat ( Explicit ) : Music '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved 12 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` iTunes - Music - Nothing But the Beat by David Guetta '' . iTunes Store . Retrieved 12 March 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat : David Guetta : Amazon.de : Musik '' ( in German ) . Amazon.de . Retrieved 9 July 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat -- Vinyl LP -- David Guetta : Amazon.de : Musik '' . Amazon.de. 2009 - 09 - 09 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat von David Guetta -- Nothing But the Beat bei iTunes laden '' ( in German ) . iTunes Store . Retrieved 26 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat by David Guetta -- Download Nothing But the Beat on iTunes '' . iTunes Store . Retrieved 26 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat by David Guetta '' . EMI India . Retrieved 26 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` bol.com Nothing But The Beat , David Guetta '' ( in Dutch ) . bol.com b.v . Retrieved 14 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat van David Guetta -- Download Nothing But the Beat op iTunes '' ( in Dutch ) . iTunes Store . Retrieved 26 August 2011 . Jump up ^ `` EMI Music Denmark '' Releaseplan '' ( in Danish ) . EMI . Retrieved 15 July 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat ( Deluxe Version ) : David Guetta : Amazon.ca : Music '' . Amazon.ca . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat -- David Guetta '' ( in Polish ) . empik.com. 2011 - 08 - 29 . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat : Amazon.fr : Musique '' ( in French ) . Amazon.fr . Retrieved 15 July 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat : David Guetta : Amazon.fr : Musique '' ( in French ) . Amazon.fr . Retrieved 15 July 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat : David Guetta : Amazon.it '' . Amazon.it . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat : David Guetta : Amazon.it '' . Amazon.it . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Amazon.com : Nothing But the Beat ( Explicit ) : David Guetta : Music '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved 2011 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat ( 3 CDs ) -- David Guetta ( Brazil ) '' ( in Portuguese ) . Retrieved 14 January 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat ( Xmas Edition ) '' . JB Hi - Fi . Retrieved 12 May 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat : David Guetta : Amazon.co.uk : Music '' . Amazon.co.uk . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But the Beat : Limited Deluxe Edition : David Guetta : Amazon.co.uk : Music '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved 13 November 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat - Deluxe Edition ( 3CD ) - Guetta David - Musik - CDON.COM '' . CDON Group . Retrieved 13 November 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Universal Music Deutschland : Deine Stars , deine Musik , alle Genres '' . Virgin.de. 1970 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 30 . Jump up ^ `` Nothing But The Beat ( New Version ) '' . empik.com . Retrieved 24 August 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Universal Music Deutschland : Deine Stars , deine Musik , alle Genres '' . Virgin.de. 1970 - 01 - 01 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 30 . David Guetta Discography Production discography Studio albums Just a Little More Love Guetta Blaster Pop Life One Love Nothing but the Beat Listen Re-releases One More Love Nothing but the Beat 2.0 Listen Again Compilations F * * k Me I 'm Famous F * * k Me I 'm Famous Vol. 2 F * * k Me I 'm Famous -- Ibiza Mix 06 F * * k Me I 'm Famous Vol. 2 F * * k Me I 'm Famous -- Ibiza Mix 2009 F * * k Me I 'm Famous -- Ibiza Mix 2010 F * * k Me I 'm Famous -- Ibiza Mix 2011 F * * k Me I 'm Famous -- Ibiza Mix 2012 F * * k Me I 'm Famous - Ibiza Mix 2013 Films Nothing but the Beat : The Fire Within Avicii : True Stories Labels EMI Music France Virgin Records Positiva Records Astralwerks Related articles Chris Willis Daddy 's Groove Diamonds World Tour Nicky Romero The Black Eyed Peas Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nothing_but_the_Beat&oldid=840918827 '' Categories : 2011 albums Albums produced by David Guetta David Guetta albums Virgin Records albums Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 CS1 errors : external links CS1 Hungarian - language sources ( hu ) CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) Articles with dead external links from February 2018 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 Finnish - language sources ( fi ) CS1 Polish - language sources ( pl ) Pages containing links to subscription - only content CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) CS1 Danish - language sources ( da ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Portuguese - language sources ( pt ) Articles with hAudio microformats Music infoboxes with deprecated parameters Articles needing additional references from September 2016 All articles needing additional references Articles with album ratings that need to be turned into prose Certification Table Entry usages for Australia Certification Table Entry usages for Austria Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for Canada Certification Table Entry usages for Denmark Certification Table Entry usages for France Pages using Certification Table Entry - Sales with missing information Certification Table Entry usages for Finland Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for Hungary Certification Table Entry usages for Ireland Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for Mexico Certification Table Entry usages for New Zealand Certification Table Entry usages for Poland Certification Table Entry usages for Portugal Certification Table Entry usages for Spain Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Certification Table Entry usages for United States Certification Table Entry usages for Europe Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Deutsch Español فارسی Français Հայերեն Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands Norsk Polski Português Русский Shqip Slovenčina Suomi Українська Tiếng Việt 10 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 May 2018 , at 23 : 18 . 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-4570521285025765977 | Yankee Doodle | Yankee Doodle - wikipedia Yankee Doodle Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Yankee Doodle ( disambiguation ) . `` Yankee Doodle '' The first verse and refrain of Yankee Doodle , engraved on the footpath in a park . Song Published 1780s 1 . Yankee Doodle Variations Performed by Carrie Rehkopf 1 . Yankee Doodle Choral version by United States Army Chorus Problems playing these files ? See media help . `` Yankee Doodle '' is a well - known American song , the early versions of which date to before the Seven Years ' War and the American Revolution ( 1775 -- 83 ) It is often sung patriotically in the United States today and is the state anthem of Connecticut . Its Roud Folk Song Index number is 4501 . The melody is thought to be much older than both the lyrics and the subject , going back to folk songs of Medieval Europe . Contents ( hide ) 1 Origin 1.1 Early versions 2 Full version 3 Popular culture 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 External links 7.1 Writings 7.2 Historical Audio Origin ( edit ) The tune of Yankee Doodle is thought to be much older than the lyrics , being well known across western Europe , including England , France , Holland , Hungary , and Spain . The earliest words of `` Yankee Doodle '' came from a Middle Dutch harvest song which is thought to have followed the same tune , possibly dating back as far as 15th - century Holland . It contained mostly nonsensical words in English and Dutch : `` Yanker , didel , doodle down , Diddle , dudel , lanther , Yanke viver , voover vown , Botermilk und tanther . '' Farm laborers in Holland were paid `` as much buttermilk ( Botermilk ) as they could drink , and a tenth ( tanther ) of the grain '' . The term Doodle first appeared in English in the early seventeenth century and is thought to be derived from the Low German dudel , meaning `` playing music badly '' , or Dödel , meaning `` fool '' or `` simpleton '' . The Macaroni wig was an extreme fashion in the 1770s and became slang for being a fop . Dandies were men who placed particular importance upon physical appearance , refined language , and leisure hobbies . A self - made dandy was a British middle - class man who impersonated an aristocratic lifestyle . They notably wore silk strip cloth , stuck feathers in their hats , and carried two pocket watches with chains -- `` one to tell what time it was and the other to tell what time it was not '' . `` The Macaroni . A real Character at the late Masquerade '' , mezzotint by Philip Dawe , 1773 The macaroni wig was an example of such Rococo dandy fashion , popular in elite circles in Western Europe and much mocked in the London press . The term macaroni was used to describe a fashionable man who dressed and spoke in an outlandishly affected and effeminate manner . The term pejoratively referred to a man who `` exceeded the ordinary bounds of fashion '' in terms of clothes , fastidious eating , and gambling . In British conversation , the term `` Yankee doodle dandy '' implied unsophisticated misappropriation of high - class fashion , as though simply sticking a feather in one 's cap would make one to be noble . Peter McNeil , professor of fashion studies , claims that the British were insinuating that the colonists were low - class men lacking masculinity , emphasizing that the American men were womanly . Early versions ( edit ) Traditions place its origin in a pre-Revolutionary War song originally sung by British military officers to mock the disheveled , disorganized colonial `` Yankees '' with whom they served in the French and Indian War , apparently written c. 1755 by British Army surgeon Dr. Richard Shuckburgh while campaigning in upper New York . The British troops sang it to make fun of their stereotype of the American soldier as a Yankee simpleton who thought that he was stylish if he simply stuck a feather in his cap . It was also popular among the Americans as a song of defiance . As per the American Library of Congress , the Americans added additional verses to the song , mocking the British troops and hailing the Commander of the Continental army George Washington . By 1781 , Yankee Doodle had turned from being an insult to being a song of national pride . One version of the Yankee Doodle lyrics is generally attributed to Dr. Shuckburgh . According to one story , Dr. Shuckburgh wrote the song after seeing the appearance of Colonial troops under Colonel Thomas Fitch , the son of Connecticut Governor Thomas Fitch . According to Etymology Online , `` The current version seems to have been written in 1776 by Edward Bangs , a Harvard sophomore who also was a Minuteman . '' A bill was introduced to the House of Representatives on July 25 , 1999 ( as referenced as H. CON . RES. 143 ) recognizing Billerica , Massachusetts as `` America 's Yankee Doodle Town '' . After the Battle of Lexington and Concord , a Boston newspaper reported : `` Upon their return to Boston ( pursued by the Minutemen ) , one ( Briton ) asked his brother officer how he liked the tune now , -- ' Dang them ' , returned he , ' they made us dance it till we were tired ' -- since which Yankee Doodle sounds less sweet to their ears . '' The earliest known version of the lyrics comes from 1755 or 1758 , as the date of origin is disputed : Brother Ephraim sold his Cow And bought him a Commission ; And then he went to Canada To fight for the Nation ; But when Ephraim he came home He proved an arrant Coward , He would n't fight the Frenchmen there For fear of being devoured . ( Note that the sheet music which accompanies these lyrics reads , `` The Words to be Sung through the Nose , & in the West Country drawl & dialect . '' ) The Ephraim referred to here was Ephraim Williams , a popularly known colonel in the Massachusetts militia who was killed in the 1755 Battle of Lake George . He left his land and property to the founding of a school in Western Massachusetts , now known as Williams College . The tune also appeared in 1762 in one of America 's first comic operas The Disappointment , with bawdy lyrics about the search for Blackbeard 's buried treasure by a team from Philadelphia . It has been reported that the British often marched to a version believed to be about a man named Thomas Ditson of Billerica , Massachusetts . Ditson was tarred and feathered for attempting to buy a musket in Boston in March 1775 , although he later fought at Concord : Yankee Doodle came to town , For to buy a firelock , We will tar and feather him , And so we will John Hancock . For this reason , the town of Billerica is the `` home '' of Yankee Doodle , Another pro-British set of lyrics believed to have used the tune was published in June 1775 following the Battle of Bunker Hill : The seventeen of June , at Break of Day , The Rebels they supriz 'd us , With their strong Works , which they 'd thrown up , To burn the Town and drive us . There is another version attributed to Edward Bangs , a student at Harvard College , who wrote a ballad with fifteen verses which circulated in Boston and surrounding towns in 1775 or 1776 . Yankee Doodle was also played at the British surrender at Saratoga in 1777 . On February 6 , 1788 , Massachusetts ratified the Constitution by a vote of 186 to 168 . To the ringing of bells and the booming of cannon , the delegates trooped out of Brattle Street Church . Before many days had passed , the citizens sang their convention song to the tune of `` Yankee Doodle . '' Here are the lyrics to their song : The vention did in Boston meet , The State House could not hold ' em So then they went to Fed'ral Street , And there the truth was told ' em ... And ev'ry morning went to prayer , And then began disputing , Till oppositions silenced were , By arguments refuting . Now politicians of all kinds , Who are not yet decided , May see how Yankees speak their minds , And yet are not divided . So here I end my Fed'ral song , Composed of sixteen verses ; May agriculture flourish long And commerce fill our purses ! The variant preserved in part three of the 1810 edition of Gammer Gurton 's Garland : Or , The Nursery Parnassus , as collected by Francis Douce , is Yankey Doodle came to town , How do you think they serv 'd him ? One took his bag , another his scrip , The quicker for to starve him . Full version ( edit ) The Spirit of ' 76 ( aka Yankee Doodle ) Artist Archibald MacNeal Willard Year circa 1875 Type oil 61 cm × 45 cm ( 24 in × 18 in ) Location United States Department of State The full version of the song , as it is known today , goes : Yankee Doodle went to town A-riding on a pony , Stuck a feather in his cap And called it macaroni . ( Chorus ) Yankee Doodle keep it up , Yankee Doodle dandy , Mind the music and the step , And with the girls be handy . Father and I went down to camp , Along with Captain Gooding , And there we saw the men and boys As thick as hasty pudding . ( Chorus ) And there we saw a thousand men As rich as Squire David , And what they wasted every day , I wish it could be savèd . ( Chorus ) The ' lasses they eat every day , Would keep a house a winter ; They have so much , that I 'll be bound , They eat it when they 've a mind to . ( Chorus ) And there I see a swamping gun Large as a log of maple , Upon a deuced little cart , A load for father 's cattle . ( Chorus ) And every time they shoot it off , It takes a horn of powder , And makes a noise like father 's gun , Only a nation louder . ( Chorus ) I went as nigh to one myself As ' Siah 's underpinning ; And father went as nigh again , I thought the deuce was in him . ( Chorus ) Cousin Simon grew so bold , I thought he would have cocked it ; It scared me so I shrinked it off And hung by father 's pocket . ( Chorus ) And Cap'n Davis had a gun , He kind of clapt his hand o n't And stuck a crooked stabbing iron Upon the little end o n't ( Chorus ) And there I see a pumpkin shell As big as mother 's basin , And every time they touched it off They scampered like the nation . ( Chorus ) I see a little barrel too , The heads were made of leather ; They knocked on it with little clubs And called the folks together . ( Chorus ) And there was Cap'n Washington , And gentle folks about him ; They say he 's grown so ' tarnal proud He will not ride without ' em . ( Chorus ) He got him on his meeting clothes , Upon a slapping stallion ; He sat the world along in rows , In hundreds and in millions . ( Chorus ) The flaming ribbons in his hat , They looked so tearing fine , ah , I wanted dreadfully to get To give to my Jemima . ( Chorus ) I see another snarl of men A-digging graves , they told me , So ' tarnal long , so ' tarnal deep , They ' tended they should hold me . ( Chorus ) It scared me so , I hooked it off , Nor stopped , as I remember , Nor turned about till I got home , Locked up in mother 's chamber . ( Chorus ) Popular culture ( edit ) President John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts bought a pony for his daughter Caroline while he was in the White House . The family named it `` Macaroni '' after the song `` Yankee Doodle , '' although the song applies the name to the feathered cap rather than the pony . Dueling Banjos , composed by Arthur `` Guitar Boogie '' Smith in 1955 , contains riffs from Yankee Doodle . The Voice of America begins and ends all broadcasts with the interval signal of `` Yankee Doodle '' . TV commentator Bud Collins took note of the July 4th holiday and John McEnroe 's red - white - and - blue attire at the conclusion of the 1981 Wimbledon Championships , in which American tennis star McEnroe had defeated his long - time rival Björn Borg : `` Stick a feather in his cap and call him ' McEnroe - ni ' ! '' In Turn : Washington 's Spies season 3 episode 8 `` Mended , '' the song is sung in parody by English Tories using alternate lyrics . See also ( edit ) Yankee Doodle Dandy The Yankee Doodle Boy Notes ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Mooney , Mark ( 14 July 2014 ) . `` ' Yankee Doodle Dandy ' Explained and Other Revolutionary Facts '' . ABC News . Retrieved 6 May 2016 . Jump up ^ STATE OF CONNECTICUT , Sites o Seals o Symbols ; Connecticut State Register & Manual ; retrieved on May 23 , 2008 ^ Jump up to : Johnson , Helen Kendrick . `` The Meaning of Song '' in The North American Review vol. 138 , no. 330 ( 1884 ) : p. 491 . Retrieved 17 June 2016 from www.jstor.org/stable/25118383 ^ Jump up to : Banks , Louis Albert ( 1898 ) . Immortal Songs of Camp and Field : The Story of Their Inspiration , Together with Striking Anecdotes Connected with Their History . Burrows Brothers Company . p. 44 . Jump up ^ Yankee Doodle Dandy , The New York Times ^ Jump up to : Elson , Louis Charles ( 1912 ) . University Musical Encyclopedia : A history of music . 2 . p. 82 . Jump up ^ `` doodle '' , n , Oxford English Dictionary ; accessed April 29 , 2009 . Jump up ^ J. Woodforde , The Strange Story of False Hair ( London : Taylor & Francis , 1971 ) , p. 40 . Jump up ^ Grose , Francis ; Egan , Pierce ( 1823 ) . Grose 's Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue : Revised and Corrected with the Addition of Numerous Slang Phrases Collected from Tried Authorities . London . Jump up ^ The Macaroni and Theatrical Magazine , inaugural issue , 1772 , quoted in Amelia Rauser , `` Hair , Authenticity , and the Self - Made Macaroni '' , Eighteenth - Century Studies 38. 1 ( 2004 : 101 - 117 ) ( on - line abstract ) . Jump up ^ R. Ross , Clothing : a global history : or , The Imperialists ' new clothes ( Polity , 2008 ) , p. 51 . Jump up ^ Peter McNeil , That Doubtful Gender : Macaroni Dress and Male Sexualities ( Fashion Theory , 1998 ) , pp. 411 - 48 . Jump up ^ See www.etymonline.com , `` Yankee Doodle '' . Jump up ^ `` Historical Period : The American Revolution , 1763 - 1783 - Lyrical legacy - Yankee doodle song '' . www.loc.gov/teachers/lyrical/songs/yankee_doodle.html . Library of Congress . Retrieved 6 May 2016 . Jump up ^ A. Lomax , John ; Lomax , Alan . American ballads and f - 28276 - 3 . p. 521 . Jump up ^ Sonneck , Oscar George Theodore . Report on The Star - spangled Banner , Hail Columbia , America , Yankee Doodle . New York , Dover Publications ( 1972 ) . ISBN 0 - 486 - 22237 - 3 . Jump up ^ http://www.etymonline.com , `` Yankee Doodle '' Jump up ^ Carola , Chris ( July 5 , 2008 ) . `` Wish ' Yankee Doodle ' a happy 250th birthday . Maybe '' . Atlanta Journal - Constitution . Associated Press . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2011 . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 10 . CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown ( link ) Jump up ^ Bobrick , 148 Jump up ^ `` Thomas Ditson '' . Billerica Public Library . Archived from the original on 2016 - 12 - 28 . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 27 . Jump up ^ The Billerica Colonial Minute Men ; The Thomas Ditson story ; retrieved January 31 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Town History and Genealogy ; retrieved October 20 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` What 's the song `` Yankee Doodle '' all about ? `` . The Straight Dope. 2001 - 01 - 04 . Retrieved 2016 - 08 - 31 . Jump up ^ `` Boston Yankee Doodle Ballad - `` Father And I Went Down To Camp '' `` . www.americanmusicpreservation.com . Jump up ^ Luzader , John F. ( 2008 ) . Saratoga : A Military History of the Decisive Campaign of the American Revolution . New York : Savas Beatie . p. 335 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 932714 - 44 - 9 . Jump up ^ Gammer Gurton 's Garland : Or , The Nursery Parnassus , collected by Francis Douce , London : R ( obert ) Triphook , 1810 , p. 35 . See in HathiTrust . Jump up ^ Gen. George P. Morris - `` Original Yankee Words '' , The Patriotic Anthology , Doubleday , Doran & Company , Inc. publishers , 1941 . Introduction by Carl Van Doren . Literary Guild of America , Inc. , New York , NY . Jump up ^ Penrhyn Wingfield Coussens , editor . Poems Children Love : A Collection of Poems Arranged for Children and Young People of Various Ages . Dodge Publishing Company , New York , 1908 . pp. 183 - 5 . Jump up ^ `` Yankee doodle '' . Jump up ^ Berg , Jerome S. ( 1999 ) . On the Short Waves , 1923 - 1945 : Broadcast Listening in the Pioneer Days of Radio . McFarland . p. 104 . ISBN 0 - 7864 - 0506 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` ESPN Classic -- McEnroe was McNasty on and off the court '' . Espn.go.com . Retrieved 2009 - 09 - 10 . Further reading ( edit ) Bobrick , Benson ( 1997 ) . Angel in the Whirlwind . Simon & Schuster , New York . ISBN 0 - 684 - 81060 - 3 . External links ( edit ) Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Yankee Doodle . Library of Congress Yankee Doodle music website The Boston Yankee Doodle Ballad The free score on www.traditional-songs.com Writings ( edit ) Report on `` The Star - Spangled Banner , '' `` Hail Columbia , '' `` America , '' `` Yankee Doodle '' by Oscar George Theodore Sonneck ( 1909 ) 2 3 4 Famous American songs ( 1906 ) Historical audio ( edit ) Yankee Doodle ( archive.org ) John H. Hewitt wrote the song The Fall of Mexico in 1847 , which quotes from Yankee Doodle in measure 237 . ( hide ) National symbols of the United States Symbols Flag of the United States Seal of the United States Bald eagle Uncle Sam Columbia General Grant ( tree ) American 's Creed Pledge of Allegiance Rose Oak American bison Phrygian cap Songs `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' `` Dixie '' `` America the Beautiful '' `` The Stars and Stripes Forever '' `` Hail to the Chief '' `` Hail , Columbia '' `` My Country , ' Tis of Thee '' `` God Bless America '' `` Lift Every Voice and Sing '' `` The Army Goes Rolling Along '' `` Anchors Aweigh '' `` Marines ' Hymn '' `` Semper Fidelis '' `` The Air Force Song '' `` Semper Paratus '' `` National Emblem '' `` The Washington Post March '' `` Battle Hymn of the Republic '' `` Yankee Doodle '' `` You 're a Grand Old Flag '' `` When Johnny Comes Marching Home '' `` This Land Is Your Land '' Mottos In God We Trust E Pluribus Unum Novus ordo seclorum Annuit cœptis Landmarks Statue of Liberty ( Liberty Enlightening the World ) Liberty Bell Mount Rushmore National Mall West Potomac Park Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yankee_Doodle&oldid=835551955 '' Categories : French and Indian War American Revolution Songs of the American Revolutionary War British folk songs American folk songs American military marches American patriotic songs United States state songs Music of Connecticut Symbols of Connecticut Burl Ives songs American nursery rhymes English nursery rhymes Roud Folk Song Index songs Songs based on American history Hidden categories : CS1 maint : BOT : original - url status unknown Articles with hAudio microformats All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 All articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel - worded phrases from June 2016 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2010 Pages using infobox artwork with autolinked artist field Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latina Magyar 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 17 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 April 2018 , at 11 : 31 . 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-2661687860311004646 | Leave a Light On (Tom Walker song) | Leave a Light On ( Tom Walker song ) - wikipedia Leave a Light On ( Tom Walker song ) `` Leave a Light On '' Single by Tom Walker from the album What a Time to Be Alive Released 13 October 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 13 ) Format Digital download streaming Length 3 : 05 Label Relentless Records Songwriter ( s ) Steve Mac Thomas Walker Producer ( s ) Steve Mac Tom Walker singles chronology `` Heartland '' ( 2017 ) `` Leave a Light On '' ( 2017 ) `` My Way '' ( 2018 ) Music video `` Leave a Light On '' on YouTube `` Leave a Light On '' is a song by Scottish singer - songwriter Tom Walker . It was released to digital retailers on 13 October 2017 . The song was co-written by Walker and Steve Mac . The song reached number one in France , and reached the top 10 in Austria , Belgium 's Wallonia chart , Germany , Italy and Switzerland , while reaching the top 40 on Belgium 's Flanders chart , Poland and the Netherlands . The song reached number seven in his native UK and number 34 on the Irish Singles Chart . Contents 1 Charts 2 Certifications 3 Release history 4 References Charts ( edit ) Chart ( 2017 -- 18 ) Peak position Austria ( Ö3 Austria Top 40 ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Flanders ) Belgium ( Ultratop 50 Wallonia ) Czech Republic ( Rádio Top 100 ) Euro Digital Songs ( Billboard ) France ( SNEP ) Germany ( Official German Charts ) 8 Hungary ( Rádiós Top 40 ) 12 Hungary ( Single Top 40 ) 8 Ireland ( IRMA ) 25 Italy ( FIMI ) 8 Latvia ( Latvijas Top 40 ) 35 Netherlands ( Dutch Top 40 ) 6 Netherlands ( Single Top 100 ) 10 Poland ( Polish Airplay Top 100 ) 37 Russia Airplay ( Tophit ) 14 Scotland ( Official Charts Company ) Slovakia ( Rádio Top 100 ) 8 Slovakia ( Singles Digitál Top 100 ) 54 Slovenia ( SloTop50 ) 12 Sweden Heatseeker ( Sverigetopplistan ) Switzerland ( Schweizer Hitparade ) UK Singles ( Official Charts Company ) 7 US Adult Top 40 ( Billboard ) 20 Certifications ( edit ) Region Certification Certified units / Sales Austria ( IFPI Austria ) Gold 15,000 Belgium ( BEA ) Gold 15,000 France ( SNEP ) Platinum 133,333 Germany ( BVMI ) Gold 200,000 Italy ( FIMI ) 2 × Platinum 100,000 United Kingdom ( BPI ) Gold 400,000 sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone Release history ( edit ) Region Date Format Label Ref . Various 13 October 2017 Digital download Relentless Records United States 22 January 2018 Hot adult contemporary radio Epic 1 May 2018 Contemporary hit radio References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : `` Leave a Light On - Single by Tom Walker on Apple Music '' . iTunes . Retrieved 20 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Austriancharts.at -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in German ) . Ö3 Austria Top 40 . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in Dutch ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 18 May 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Ultratop.be -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in French ) . Ultratop 50 . Retrieved 20 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` ČNS IFPI '' ( in Czech ) . Hitparáda -- Radio Top 100 Oficiální . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201816 into search . Retrieved 23 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Euro Digital Song Sales '' . Billboard . Retrieved 23 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Lescharts.com -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in French ) . Les classement single . Retrieved 19 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Offiziellecharts.de -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' . GfK Entertainment Charts . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Rádiós Top 40 játszási lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved 5 May 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Archívum -- Slágerlisták -- MAHASZ '' ( in Hungarian ) . Single ( track ) Top 40 lista . Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége . Retrieved 14 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` IRMA -- Irish Charts '' . Irish Recorded Music Association . Retrieved 28 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Italiancharts.com -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' . Top Digital Download . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Latvijas Top 40 '' . Latvijas Radio . 24 May 2018 . Archived from the original on 26 June 2018 . Retrieved 27 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Nederlandse Top 40 -- week 25 , 2018 '' ( in Dutch ) . Dutch Top 40 Retrieved 23 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Dutchcharts.nl -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in Dutch ) . Single Top 100 . Retrieved 15 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Listy bestsellerów , wyróżnienia : : Związek Producentów Audio - Video '' . Polish Airplay Top 100 . Retrieved 18 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Official Russia Top 100 Airplay Chart ( week 24 ) '' ( in Russian ) . Tophit . Retrieved 24 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 16 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` SNS IFPI '' ( in Slovak ) . Hitparáda -- Radio Top 100 Oficiálna . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201823 into search . Retrieved 15 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` SNS IFPI '' ( in Slovak ) . Hitparáda -- Singles Digital Top 100 Oficiálna . IFPI Czech Republic . Note : insert 201824 into search . Retrieved 19 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` SloTop50 -- Slovenian official singles chart '' . slotop50.si . Retrieved 18 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Swedish Heatseekers Chart -- 6 april 2018 '' . Retrieved 6 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Swisscharts.com -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' . Swiss Singles Chart . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Official Singles Chart Top 100 '' . Official Charts Company . Retrieved 23 June 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Walker Chart History ( Adult Pop Songs ) '' . Billboard . Retrieved 1 May 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Austrian single certifications -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in German ) . IFPI Austria . Retrieved 29 May 2018 . Enter Tom Walker in the field Interpret . Enter Leave a Light On in the field Titel . Select single in the field Format . Click Suchen Jump up ^ `` Ultratop − Goud en Platina -- singles 2018 '' . Ultratop . Hung Medien . Retrieved 25 May 2018 . Jump up ^ `` French single certifications -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in French ) . Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique . Retrieved 24 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Gold - / Platin - Datenbank ( Tom Walker ; ' Leave a Light On ' ) '' ( in German ) . Bundesverband Musikindustrie . Retrieved 28 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Italian single certifications -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' ( in Italian ) . Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . Jump up ^ `` British single certifications -- Tom Walker -- Leave a Light On '' . British Phonographic Industry . Retrieved 30 July 2018 . Select singles in the Format field . Select Gold in the Certification field . Enter Leave a Light On in the search field and then press Enter . Jump up ^ `` Hot / Modern / AC Future Releases - Mainstream Hit Songs Being Released and Their Release Dates '' . All Access . 20 April 2018 . Archived from the original on 7 December 2017 . Retrieved 20 April 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Top 40 / M Future Releases - Mainstream Hit Songs Being Released and Their Release Dates '' . All Access . 20 April 2018 . Archived from the original on 19 April 2018 . Retrieved 20 April 2018 . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leave_a_Light_On_(Tom_Walker_song)&oldid=852694115 '' Categories : 2017 singles Hidden categories : CS1 Russian - language sources ( ru ) CS1 German - language sources ( de ) CS1 French - language sources ( fr ) CS1 Italian - language sources ( it ) Articles with hAudio microformats Singlechart usages for Austria Singlechart usages for Flanders Singlechart usages for Wallonia Singlechart usages for Czech Republic Singlechart called without artist Singlechart called without song Singlechart usages for France Singlechart usages for Germany2 Singlechart usages for Hungary Singlechart usages for Hungarysingle Singlechart usages for Italy Singlechart usages for Dutch40 Singlechart usages for Dutch100 Singlechart usages for Poland Singlechart usages for Scotland Singlechart usages for Slovakia Singlechart usages for Slovakdigital Singlechart usages for Switzerland Singlechart usages for UK Singlechart usages for Billboardadultpopsongs Certification Table Entry usages for Austria Certification Table Entry usages for Belgium Certification Table Entry usages for France Certification Table Entry usages for Germany Certification Table Entry usages for Italy Certification Table Entry usages for United Kingdom Talk Contents About Wikipedia Italiano Edit links This page was last edited on 30 July 2018 , at 18 : 56 ( UTC ) . About Wikipedia | who sang i will leave a light on | [
"\"Leave a Light On\" is a song by Scottish singer-songwriter Tom Walker. It was released to digital retailers on 13 October 2017.[1] The song was co-written by Walker and Steve Mac. The song reached number one in France, and reached the top 10 in Austria, Belgium's Wallonia chart, Germany, Italy and Switzerland, while reaching the top 40 on Belgium's Flanders chart, Poland and the Netherlands. The song reached number seven in his native UK and number 34 on the Irish Singles Chart.\n"
] | [
"Tom Walker"
] |
-8140060160932497820 | The Fox and the Grapes | The fox and the grapes - wikipedia The fox and the grapes The illustration of the fable by François Chauveau in the first volume of La Fontaine 's fables , 1668 The Fox and the Grapes is one of the Aesop 's fables , numbered 15 in the Perry Index . The narration is concise and subsequent retellings have often been equally so . The story concerns a fox that tries to eat grapes from a vine but can not reach them . Rather than admit defeat , he states they are undesirable . The expression `` sour grapes '' originated from this fable . Contents 1 The fable 2 La Fontaine 's Le Renard et les Raisins 3 Cognitive dissonance 4 Concise translations 5 Artistic uses 6 See also 7 References 8 External links The fable ( edit ) The fable of The Fox and the Grapes is one of the few which feature only a single animal protagonist . There are several Greek versions as well as one in Latin by Phaedrus ( IV. 3 ) which is terse and to the point : Driven by hunger , a fox tried to reach some grapes hanging high on the vine but was unable to , although he leaped with all his strength . As he went away , the fox remarked ' Oh , you are n't even ripe yet ! I do n't need any sour grapes . ' People who speak disparagingly of things that they can not attain would do well to apply this story to themselves . In her version of La Fontaine 's Fables , Marianne Moore underlines his ironic comment on the situation in a final pun , `` Better , I think , than an embittered whine '' . Although the fable describes purely subjective behaviour , the English idiom `` sour grapes '' which develops from the story is now often used also of envious disparagement to others . Similar expressions exist in other languages , but in the Scandinavian equivalent the fox makes its comment about rowanberries since grapes are not common in northern latitudes . La Fontaine 's le renard et les raisins ( edit ) Pierre Julien 's sculpture of La Fontaine with attendant fox The French fable of La Fontaine ( III. 11 ) is almost as concise and pointed as the early versions of Babrius and Phaedrus and certainly contributed to the story 's popularity . A century after its publication , this was the tale with which the sculptor Pierre Julien chose to associate its creator in his statue of La Fontaine ( commissioned in 1782 ) , now in the Louvre . The poet is represented in a famous episode of his life , when he was seen one morning by the Duchess of Bouillon seated against a tree trunk meditating . When she passed the same spot that evening he was still there in exactly the same position . Julien has portrayed him in an ample cloak , with a gnarled tree on which a vine with grapes is climbing . On his knee is the manuscript of the poem ; at his feet , a fox is seated on his hat with its paw on a leather - bound volume , looking up at him . Gustave Doré 's illustration of the fable for the 1870 edition pictures a young man in a garden who is looking towards the steps to a mansion in the distance on which several young women are congregated . An older man is holding up his thumb and forefinger , indicating that they are only little girls . The meaning of this transposition to the human situation hinges on the double meaning of ' unripe ' ( vert ) in French , which could also be used of a sexually immature female . From this emerges the story 's subtext , of which a literal translation reads The gallant would gladly have made a meal of them But as he was unable to succeed , says he : ' They are unripe and only fit for green boys . ' There is the same sexual ambiguity in the Greek of Babrius . The phrase there is `` όμφακες εισίν '' ( omphakes eisin ) , the word omphax having both the literal meaning of an unripe grape and the metaphorical usage of a girl not yet ripe for marriage . Cognitive dissonance ( edit ) Rather than admit his failure to reach the grapes , the fox rationalises that they are not really desirable . One commentator argues that the story illustrates the state of cognitive dissonance . The fox is taken as attempting to hold incompatible ideas simultaneously , desire and its frustration . In that case , the disdain expressed by the fox at the conclusion to the fable serves at least to reduce the dissonance through criticism . Jon Elster calls this pattern of mental behaviour `` adaptive preference formation '' . Concise translations ( edit ) Many translations , whether of Aesop 's fable or of La Fontaine 's , are wordy and often add details not sanctioned by the original . Two English authors have produced short poetical versions which still retain both the general lines of the story and its lesson . The first of these is a quatrain by Aphra Behn appearing in Francis Barlow 's illustrated edition of the fables ( 1687 ) : The fox who longed for grapes , beholds with pain The tempting clusters were too high to gain ; Grieved in his heart he forced a careless smile , And cried , ' They 're sharp and hardly worth my while . ' The second also accompanies an illustrated edition , in this case the work of Walter Crane in Baby 's Own Aesop ( 1887 ) . Each fable has been reduced to a limerick by W.J. Linton and is enclosed within the design . `` The Fox and the Grapes '' has been given the moral ' The grapes of disappointment are always sour ' and runs as follows : This Fox has a longing for grapes : He jumps , but the bunch still escapes . So he goes away sour ; And , ' tis said , to this hour Declares that he 's no taste for grapes . By comparison , the Phaedrus version has six pentameter lines , of which two draw the moral , and Gabriele Faerno 's Latin reworking has five lines and two more drawing the moral . Both Babrius and La Fontaine have eight , the latter using his final line to comment on the situation . Though the emblematist Geoffrey Whitney confines the story to four lines , he adds two more of personal application : ' So thou , that hunt'st for that thou longe hast mist , / Still makes thy boast , thou maist if that thou list . ' The fable was also one that the French poet Isaac de Benserade summed up in a single quatrain , not needing to go into much detail since his verses accompanied the hydraulic statue of it in the labyrinth of Versailles . He can therefore afford a thoughtful , moralising tone : Pleasures are dear and difficult to get . Feasting the eye , fat grapes hung in the arbour , That the fox could not reach , for all his labour , And leaving them declared , they 're not ripe yet . But Benserade then adds another quatrain , speculating on the fox 's mental processes ; finally it admits that the grapes really were ripe but ' what can not be had , you speak of badly ' . Artistic uses ( edit ) One of La Fontaine 's early illustrators was the artist Jean - Baptiste Oudry , who was also artistic director at both the Beauvais and the Gobelins tapestry works . In consequence of this a series based on La Fontaine 's fables designed by Oudry was produced by them during the 1740s and included `` The Fox and the Grapes '' . These stayed in production for some forty years and were imitated by other factories in France and abroad , being used not just as wall hangings but for chair covers and other domestic purposes . Furniture craftsmen in France also used the fables as themes and took these with them when they emigrated . Among them was Martin Jugiez ( d. 1815 ) , who had a workshop in the American city of Philadelphia where the still surviving Fox and Grapes chest of drawers was produced . A wooden panel from an 18th - century chest of drawers The Sèvres porcelain works used the fables on their china as well as reproducing Pierre 's Julien 's statue from a preliminary model in 1784 , even before the finished product was exhibited . Another domestic use for the fable was as an architectural medallion on the outside of mansions , of which there is still an example dating from the turn of the 19th century on the Avenue Felix Fauré in Paris . A medallion of another kind , cast in bronze by Jean Vernon ( 1897 -- 1975 ) , was produced as part of his renowned series based on the fables in the 1930s . That of `` The Fox and the Grapes '' features two foxes scrambling up a trellis with what looks like more success than La Fontaine 's creation . There was as diverse a use of the fables in England and from as early a date . Principally this was on domestic china and includes a Chelsea candlestick ( 1750 ) and a Worcester jug ( 1754 ) in the 18th century ; a Brownhills alphabet plate ( 1888 ) in the 19th century ; and a collector 's edition from the Knowles pottery ( 1988 ) in the 20th . Series based on Aesop 's fables became popular for pictorial tiles towards the end the 19th century , of which Minton Hollins produced a particularly charming example illustrating `` The Fox and the Grapes '' . On this a vixen is accompanied by her cubs , who make ineffectual leaps at the grapes while the mother contemplates them with her paws clasped behind her . There have also been the following musical settings : Louis - Nicolas Clerambault in the early 18th century Benjamin Godard , the fifth of his Six Fables de La Fontaine for voice and piano ( op . 17 1872 - 79 ) Louis Lacombe in Fables de La Fontaine , ( op . 72 1875 ) Charles Lecocq , the first of his Six Fables de Jean de la Fontaine for voice and piano ( 1900 ) Mario Versepuy ( 1882 - 1972 ) for voice and piano ( 1921 ) Marie - Madeleine Duruflé , the third of her 6 Fables de La Fontaine for a cappella choir ( 1960 ) Herbert Callhoff in German translation ( 1963 ) Ned Rorem , one of the ' five very short operas ' in his Fables ( 1971 ) . A setting of Marianne Moore 's translation of La Fontaine , this segment is more a cantata for chorus of two and tenor soloist ( representing the fox ) ; its action is all in the programmatic music . Andre Asriel , Der Fuchs und die Trauben , the fourth of his 6 Fabeln nach Aesop for mixed a cappella voices ( 1972 ) . Bob Chilcott , among the five English translations in his Aesop 's Fables for piano and choir ( 2008 ) . Lefteris Kordis , the eighth of nine compositions for octet and voice in his `` Aesop Project '' ( 2010 ) . See also ( edit ) Novels portal Cognitive dissonance Rationalization ( psychology ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Fables ancient and modern , adapted for the use of children by Edward Baldwin . 1824 . Jump up ^ Aesopica Jump up ^ Laura Gibbs ( 1 January 2009 ) . Aesop 's Fables in Latin : Ancient Wit and Wisdom from the Animal Kingdom . Bolchazy1 - Carducci Publishers . pp. 115 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 61041 - 027 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` Mythfolklore.net '' . Mythfolklore.net . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ The text appears on p. 4 of the document at cfaitc.org Jump up ^ The Concise Dictionary or European Proverbs , London 1998 , p. 989 , proverb 986 Jump up ^ See the Wiktionary definition of the Swedish proverb and the YouTube animation of its Finnish equivalent : `` Quite sour , said the fox of rowan berries '' . YouTube . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` etsystatic.com '' . Jump up ^ `` Perseus.tufts.edu '' . Perseus.tufts.edu . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Elster , Jon . Sour Grapes : Studies in the Subversion of Rationality . Cambridge 1983 , p. 123ff . Jump up ^ Quoted in Google Books . Books.google.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Salmun.cwahi.net '' . Salmun.cwahi.net . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Fabulae Centum Fable XIX , p. 47 Jump up ^ Choice of Emblemes ( 1586 ) , p. 98 Jump up ^ The French text is online , Fables ( 1678 ) , p. 15 Jump up ^ `` Illustrations de Oudry des fables de la Fontaine '' . le renard et les raisins . Jump up ^ Hunter , George Leland : Tapestries , their origin , history and renaissance , London , 1912 , p. 193 - 4 ; available online at archive.org Jump up ^ `` Antiquesandfineart.com '' . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ John-whitehead.co.uk Archived October 17 , 2007 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ `` 60gp.ovh.net '' . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Medalsoftheworld.com '' . Medalsoftheworld.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ Google Books . Books.google.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Google Books '' . Google.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Google Books '' . Google.co.uk . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ `` Creighton.edu '' . Creighton.edu . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ The score is online Jump up ^ A performance of the complete work on Vimeo Jump up ^ Crabtree , Joseph Craig : An Investigation and Analysis of Ned Rorem 's `` Fables '' , Austin , 2001 , pp. 63 - 70 . Available at repositories.lib.utexas.edu Jump up ^ A performance on YouTube Jump up ^ imuababe . `` There is a performance on YouTube '' . Youtube.com . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . Jump up ^ pankomusik . `` Aesop Project - VIII . The Fox & the Grapes - Lefteris Kordis Octet '' . YouTube . Retrieved 2012 - 08 - 20 . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Fox and the Grapes . 15th - 20th century illustrations from books Another set of illustrations Elster , Jon : `` Sour Grapes : Studies in the Subversion of Rationality '' at Google Books Aesop Aesop 's Fables The Ant and the Grasshopper The Ass and his Masters The Ass and the Pig The Ass Carrying an Image The Ass in the Lion 's Skin The Astrologer who Fell into a Well The Bear and the Travelers The Belly and the Members The Bird - catcher and the Blackbird The Bird in Borrowed Feathers The Boy Who Cried Wolf The Cat and the Mice The Cock and the Jewel The Cock , the Dog and the Fox The Crow and the Pitcher The Crow and the Snake The Deer without a Heart The Dog and Its Reflection The Dog and the Wolf The Dove and the Ant The Farmer and the Stork The Farmer and the Viper The Fir and the Bramble The Fisherman and the Little Fish The Fowler and the Snake The Fox and the Crow The Fox and the Grapes The Fox and the Lion The Fox and the Mask The Fox and the Sick Lion The Fox and the Stork The Fox and the Weasel The Fox and the Woodman The Frog and the Ox The Frogs Who Desired a King The Goat and the Vine The Goose That Laid the Golden Eggs The Honest Woodcutter The Horse and the Donkey The Horse that Lost its Liberty The Lion and the Mouse The Lion , the Bear and the Fox The Man with two Mistresses The Mischievous Dog The Miser and his Gold The Mountain in Labour The Mouse and the Oyster The North Wind and the Sun The Oak and the Reed The Old Man and Death The Old Woman and the Doctor The Rose and the Amaranth The Satyr and the Traveller The Sick Kite The Snake and the Crab The Snake in the Thorn Bush The Tortoise and the Hare Town Mouse and Country Mouse The Travellers and the Plane Tree The Trees and the Bramble The Two Pots The Walnut Tree Washing the Ethiopian white The Wolf and the Crane The Wolf and the Lamb The Woodcutter and the Trees The Young Man and the Swallow Apocryphal An ass eating thistles The Bear and the Gardener Belling the cat ( also known as The Mice in Council ) The Blindman and the Lame The Boy and the Filberts Chanticleer and the Fox The Dog in the Manger The drowned woman and her husband The Elm and the Vine The Fox and the Cat The Gourd and the Palm - tree The Hawk and the Nightingale Jumping from the frying pan into the fire The milkmaid and her pail The miller , his son and the donkey The Monkey and the Cat The Priest and the Wolf The Scorpion and the Frog The Shepherd and the Lion Still waters run deep The Wolf in Sheep 's Clothing Related Jataka tales Panchatantra Perry Index The labyrinth of Versailles The Lion 's Share Aesop 's Fables ( album ) Screen adaptations Aesop 's Film Fables The Grasshopper and the Ants Print adaptations Ysopet The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian `` The Cock and the Jasp '' `` The Taill of how this forsaid Tod maid his Confessioun to Freir Wolf Waitskaith '' `` The Taill of Schir Chanticleir and the Foxe '' `` The Taill of the Uponlandis Mous and the Burges Mous '' La Fontaine 's Fables Translators Demetrius of Phalerum Phaedrus Babrius Avianus Dositheus Magister Alexander Neckam Adémar de Chabannes Odo of Cheriton John Lydgate Kawanabe Kyōsai Laurentius Abstemius Roger L'Estrange Gabriele Faerno Hieronymus Osius Marie de France Robert Henryson Jean de La Fontaine Ivan Krylov Nicolas Trigault Zhang Geng Robert Thom Zhou Zuoren portal : Novels Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Fox_and_the_Grapes&oldid=864462562 '' Categories : English phrases Aesop 's Fables La Fontaine 's Fables Fictional foxes Foxes in literature Cognitive dissonance Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Talk Contents About Wikipedia Brezhoneg Corsu Deutsch Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית 日本 語 ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 11 more Edit links This page was last edited on 17 October 2018 , at 11 : 01 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | the fox and the grapes story author name | [] | [] |
1320647743833786817 | Protagonist | Protagonist - wikipedia Protagonist Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Protagonist ( disambiguation ) . Look up protagonist in Wiktionary , the free dictionary . Shakespeare 's Hamlet , Prince of Denmark . William Morris Hunt , oil on canvas , circa 1864 A protagonist ( from Ancient Greek πρωταγωνιστής ( protagonistes ) , meaning ' player of the first part , chief actor ' ) is the main character in any story , such as a literary work or drama . The protagonist is at the center of the story , makes the key decisions , and experiences the consequences of those decisions . The protagonist affects the main characters ' circumstances as well , as they are often the primary actor propelling the story forward . If a story contains a subplot , or is a narrative made up of several stories , then the character who is interpreted as the protagonist of each subplot or individual story . The word protagonist is used notably in stories and forms of literature and culture that contain stories , which would include dramas , novels , operas and films . In those forms the protagonist may simply be the leading actor , or the principal character in the story . More formally , the protagonist , while still defined as a leading character , may also be defined as the character whose fate is most closely followed by the reader or audience , and who is opposed by the antagonist . The antagonist will provide obstacles and complications and create conflict that test the protagonist , thus revealing the strengths and weaknesses of their character . Ancient Greece ( edit ) The earliest known examples of protagonist are dated back to Ancient Greece . At first dramatic performances involved merely dancing and recitation by the chorus . But then in Poetics , Aristotle describes how a poet named Thespis introduced the idea of having one actor step out and engage in a dialogue with the chorus . This invention of tragedy occurred about 536 B.C. Then the poet Aeschylus , in his plays , introduced a second actor , inventing the idea of dialogue between two characters . Sophocles then wrote plays that required a third actor . Examples ( edit ) Euripides ' play Hippolytus may be considered to have two protagonists . Phaedra is the protagonist of the first half , who dies partway through the play . Her stepson , the titular Hippolytus , assumes the dominant role in the second half of the play . In Ibsen 's play The Master Builder , the protagonist is the architect Halvard Solness . The young woman , Hilda Wangel , whose actions lead to the death of Solness , is the antagonist . In Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet , Romeo is the protagonist . He is actively in pursuit of his relationship with Juliet , and the audience is invested in that story . Tybalt , as an antagonist , opposes Romeo and attempts to thwart the relationship . In Shakespeare 's play Hamlet , Prince Hamlet , who seeks revenge for the murder of his father , is the protagonist . The antagonist would be the character who most opposes Hamlet , Claudius . Sometimes , a work will have a false protagonist , who may seem to be the protagonist , but then may disappear unexpectedly . The character Marion in Alfred Hitchcock 's film Psycho ( 1960 ) is an example . A novel that contains a number of narratives may have a number of protagonists . Alexander Solzhenitsyn 's The First Circle , for example , depicts a variety of characters imprisoned and living in a gulag camp . Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace , depicts fifteen major characters involved in or affected by a war . In more contemporary times , protagonists can also be primarily female : Little Women boasts a cast of over five diverse females struggling with the inevitability of the crossing between childhood and womenhood . In Charlotte Brontë 's novel Jane Eyre , Jane 's spiritual and emotional growth captivate the social criticism of its day , exploring heavy subjects such as classism , sexuality , religion , and proto - feminism during the early 1800s . Sometimes the protagonist will not even be human : in Richard Adams ' novel Watership Down , a group of anthropomorphised rabbits , led by the protagonist Hazel , escape their warren after seeing a vision of its destruction , starting a perilous journey to find a new home . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ πρωταγωνιστής , Henry George Liddell , Robert Scott , A Greek - English Lexicon , on Perseus Digital Library . Jump up ^ Duncan , Stephen . A Guide to Screenwriting Success : Writing for Film and Television . Rowman & Littlefield ( 2006 ) ISBN 9780742553019 Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary Jump up ^ Müller , K.O. History of the literature of Ancient Greece . ( Library of Useful Knowledge . ) Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . London ( 1840 ) page 306 Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica online Jump up ^ Aristotle . Poetics . Oxford University Press ( January 20 , 2013 ) ISBN 978 - 0199608362 Jump up ^ Packard , William . The Art of the Playwright . Thunder 's Mouth Press . 1997 ISBN 1 - 56025 - 117 - 4 Jump up ^ Storey , Ian . Allan , Arlene . A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama . John Wiley & Sons ( 2008 ) ISBN 9781405137638 . page 84 Jump up ^ Euripides . Hippolytos . Oxford University Press ( October 29 , 1992 ) ISBN 978 - 0195072907 Jump up ^ Ibsen , Henrik . Meyer , Michael Leverson . editor . Ibsen Plays : 1 : Ghosts ; The Wild Duck ; The Master Builder . Dramatists Play Service Inc. ( 1980 ) ISBN 9780413463302 . page 241 Jump up ^ Shakespeare , William . Romeo and Juliet . Bloomsbury Arden Shakespeare ; Third edition ( July 15 , 2012 ) ISBN 9781903436912 Jump up ^ Shakespeare , William . Hamlet . Simon & Schuster ( July 1 , 1992 ) ISBN 978 - 0743477123 Jump up ^ Kolker , Robert Phillip . Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho : A Casebook . Oxford University Press ( 2004 ) ISBN 9780195169195 Jump up ^ The Solzhenitsyn Reader : New and Essential Writings , 1947 -- 2005 : Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , Edward E. Ericson , Jr. , Daniel J. Mahoney . Jump up ^ Moser , Charles . 1992 . Encyclopedia of Russian Literature . Cambridge University Press . pp. 298 -- 300 . Jump up ^ Sarah. , Elbert , ( 1987 ) . A hunger for home : Louisa May Alcott 's place in American culture . New Brunswick : Rutgers University Press . ISBN 0813511992 . OCLC 14932247 . Jump up ^ Martin , Robert B ( 1996 ) . Charlotte Brontë 's Novels : The Accents of Persuasion . NY : Norton . Jump up ^ Adams , Richard , 1920 - 2016 . Watership Down . London : Rex Collings Ltd , 1972 . Print . 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-6687853930799659634 | Tendon | Tendon - wikipedia Tendon Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Tendon ( disambiguation ) . This article may be too technical for most readers to understand . Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts , without removing the technical details . ( October 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Tendon The Achilles tendon , one of the tendons in the human body Micrograph of a piece of tendon ; H&E stain Details Identifiers Latin tendo MeSH D013710 TH H3. 03.00. 0.00020 FMA 9721 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) A tendon or sinew is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension . Tendons are similar to ligaments ; both are made of collagen . Ligaments join one bone to another bone , while tendons connect muscle to bone . Contents ( hide ) 1 Structure 2 Functions 2.1 Mechanics 2.2 Healing 2.2. 1 Effects of activity on healing 3 Society and culture 3.1 Culinary uses 4 Clinical significance 4.1 Injury 5 Other animals 6 See also 7 References Structure ( edit ) Histologically , tendons consist of dense regular connective tissue fascicles encased in dense irregular connective tissue sheaths . Normal healthy tendons are composed mostly of parallel arrays of collagen fibers closely packed together . They are anchored to bone by Sharpey 's fibres . The dry mass of normal tendons , which makes up about 30 % of their total mass , is composed of about 86 % collagen , 2 % elastin , 1 -- 5 % proteoglycans , and 0.2 % inorganic components such as copper , manganese , and calcium . The collagen portion is made up of 97 -- 98 % type I collagen , with small amounts of other types of collagen . These include type II collagen in the cartilaginous zones , type III collagen in the reticulin fibres of the vascular walls , type IX collagen , type IV collagen in the basement membranes of the capillaries , type V collagen in the vascular walls , and type X collagen in the mineralized fibrocartilage near the interface with the bone . Collagen fibres coalesce into macroaggregates . After secretion from the cell , the cleaved by procollagen N - and C - proteinases , and the tropocollagen molecules spontaneously assemble into insoluble fibrils . A collagen molecule is about 300 nm long and 1 -- 2 nm wide , and the diameter of the fibrils that are formed can range from 50 -- 500 nm . In tendons , the fibrils then assemble further to form fascicles , which are about 10 mm in length with a diameter of 50 -- 300 μm , and finally into a tendon fibre with a diameter of 100 -- 500 μm . Fascicles are bound by the endotendineum , which is a delicate loose connective tissue containing thin collagen fibrils. and elastic fibres . Groups of fascicles are bounded by the epitenon . Filling the interstitia within the fascia where the tendon is located is the paratenon a fatty areolar tissue . The collagen in tendons are held together with proteoglycan components including decorin and , in compressed regions of tendon , aggrecan , which are capable of binding to the collagen fibrils at specific locations . The proteoglycans are interwoven with the collagen fibrils -- their glycosaminoglycan ( GAG ) side chains have multiple interactions with the surface of the fibrils -- showing that the proteoglycans are important structurally in the interconnection of the fibrils . The major GAG components of the tendon are dermatan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate , which associate with collagen and are involved in the fibril assembly process during tendon development . Dermatan sulfate is thought to be responsible for forming associations between fibrils , while chondroitin sulfate is thought to be more involved with occupying volume between the fibrils to keep them separated and help withstand deformation . The dermatan sulfate side chains of decorin aggregate in solution , and this behavior can assist with the assembly of the collagen fibrils . When decorin molecules are bound to a collagen fibril , their dermatan sulfate chains may extend and associate with other dermatan sulfate chains on decorin that is bound to separate fibrils , therefore creating interfibrillar bridges and eventually causing parallel alignment of the fibrils . The tenocytes produce the collagen molecules , which aggregate end - to - end and side - to - side to produce collagen fibrils . Fibril bundles are organized to form fibres with the elongated tenocytes closely packed between them . There is a three - dimensional network of cell processes associated with collagen in the tendon . The cells communicate with each other through gap junctions , and this signalling gives them the ability to detect and respond to mechanical loading . Blood vessels may be visualized within the endotendon running parallel to collagen fibres , with occasional branching transverse anastomoses . The internal tendon bulk is thought to contain no nerve fibres , but the epitenon and paratenon contain nerve endings , while Golgi tendon organs are present at the junction between tendon and muscle . Tendon length varies in all major groups and from person to person . Tendon length is , in practice , the deciding factor regarding actual and potential muscle size . For example , all other relevant biological factors being equal , a man with a shorter tendons and a longer biceps muscle will have greater potential for muscle mass than a man with a longer tendon and a shorter muscle . Successful bodybuilders will generally have shorter tendons . Conversely , in sports requiring athletes to excel in actions such as running or jumping , it is beneficial to have longer than average Achilles tendon and a shorter calf muscle . Tendon length is determined by genetic predisposition , and has not been shown to either increase or decrease in response to environment , unlike muscles , which can be shortened by trauma , use imbalances and a lack of recovery and stretching . Functions ( edit ) Magnified view of a Tendon . Traditionally , tendons have been considered to be a mechanism by which muscles connect to bone , functioning to transmit forces . This connection allows tendons to passively modulate forces during locomotion , providing additional stability with no active work . However , over the past two decades , much research focused on the elastic properties of some tendons and their ability to function as springs . Not all tendons are required to perform the same functional role , with some predominantly positioning limbs , such as the fingers when writing ( positional tendons ) and others acting as springs to make locomotion more efficient ( energy storing tendons ) . Energy storing tendons can store and recover energy at high efficiency . For example , during a human stride , the Achilles tendon stretches as the ankle joint dorsiflexes . During the last portion of the stride , as the foot plantar - flexes ( pointing the toes down ) , the stored elastic energy is released . Furthermore , because the tendon stretches , the muscle is able to function with less or even no change in length , allowing the muscle to generate greater force . The mechanical properties of the tendon are dependent on the collagen fiber diameter and orientation . The collagen fibrils are parallel to each other and closely packed , but show a wave - like appearance due to planar undulations , or crimps , on a scale of several micrometers . In tendons , the collagen fibres have some flexibility due to the absence of hydroxyproline and proline residues at specific locations in the amino acid sequence , which allows the formation of other conformations such as bends or internal loops in the triple helix and results in the development of crimps . The crimps in the collagen fibrils allow the tendons to have some flexibility as well as a low compressive stiffness . In addition , because the tendon is a multi-stranded structure made up of many partially independent fibrils and fascicles , it does not behave as a single rod , and this property also contributes to its flexibility . The proteoglycan components of tendons also are important to the mechanical properties . While the collagen fibrils allow tendons to resist tensile stress , the proteoglycans allow them to resist compressive stress . These molecules are very hydrophilic , meaning that they can absorb a large amount of water and therefore have a high swelling ratio . Since they are noncovalently bound to the fibrils , they may reversibly associate and disassociate so that the bridges between fibrils can be broken and reformed . This process may be involved in allowing the fibril to elongate and decrease in diameter under tension . However , the proteoglycans may also have a role in the tensile properties of tendon . The structure of tendon is effectively a fibre composite material , built as a series of hierarchical levels . At each level of the hierarchy , the collagen units are bound together by either collagen crosslinks , or the proteoglycans , to create a structure highly resistant to tensile load . The elongation and the strain of the collagen fibrils alone have been shown to be much lower than the total elongation and strain of the entire tendon under the same amount of stress , demonstrating that the proteoglycan - rich matrix must also undergo deformation , and stiffening of the matrix occurs at high strain rates . This deformation of the non-collagenous matrix occurs at all levels of the tendon hierarchy , and by modulating the organisation and structure of this matrix , the different mechanical properties required by different tendons can be achieved . Energy storing tendons have been shown to utilise significant amounts of sliding between fascicles to enable the high strain characteristics they require , whilst positional tendons rely more heavily on sliding between collagen fibres and fibrils . However , recent data suggests that energy storing tendons may also contain fascicles which are twisted , or helical , in nature - an arrangement that would be highly beneficial for providing the spring - like behaviour required in these tendons . Mechanics ( edit ) Main article : Soft tissue Tendons are viscoelastic structures , which means they exhibit both elastic and viscous behaviour . When stretched , tendons exhibit typical `` soft tissue '' behavior . The force - extension , or stress - strain curve starts with a very low stiffness region , as the crimp structure straightens and the collagen fibres align suggesting negative Poisson 's ratio in the fibres of the tendon . More recently , tests carried out in vivo ( through MRI ) and ex vivo ( through mechanical testing of various cadaveric tendon tissue ) have shown that healthy tendons are highly anisotropic and exhibit a negative Poisson 's ratio ( auxetic ) in some planes when stretched up to 2 % along their length , i.e. within their normal range of motion . After this ' toe ' region , the structure becomes significantly stiffer , and has a linear stress - strain curve until it begins to fail . The mechanical properties of tendons vary widely , as they are matched to the functional requirements of the tendon . The energy storing tendons tend to be more elastic , or less stiff , so they can more easily store energy , whilst the stiffer positional tendons tend to be a little more viscoelastic , and less elastic , so they can provide finer control of movement . A typical energy storing tendon will fail at around 12 - 15 % strain , and a stress in the region of 100 - 150 MPa , although some tendons are notably more extensible than this , for example the superficial digital flexor in the horse , which stretches in excess of 20 % when galloping . Positional tendons can fail at strains as low as 6 - 8 % , but can have moduli in the region of 700 - 1000 MPa . Several studies have demonstrated that tendons respond to changes in mechanical loading with growth and remodeling processes , much like bones . In particular , a study showed that disuse of the Achilles tendon in rats resulted in a decrease in the average thickness of the collagen fiber bundles comprising the tendon . In humans , an experiment in which people were subjected to a simulated micro-gravity environment found that tendon stiffness decreased significantly , even when subjects were required to perform restiveness exercises . These effects have implications in areas ranging from treatment of bedridden patients to the design of more effective exercises for astronauts . Healing ( edit ) The tendons in the foot are highly complex and intricate . Therefore , the healing process for a broken tendon is long and painful . Most people who do not receive medical attention within the first 48 hours of the injury will suffer from severe swelling , pain , and a burning sensation where the injury occurred . It was believed that tendons could not undergo matrix turnover and that tenocytes were not capable of repair . However , it has since been shown that , throughout the lifetime of a person , tenocytes in the tendon actively synthesize matrix components as well as enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases ( MMPs ) can degrade the matrix . Tendons are capable of healing and recovering from injuries in a process that is controlled by the tenocytes and their surrounding extracellular matrix . The three main stages of tendon healing are inflammation , repair or proliferation , and remodeling , which can be further divided into consolidation and maturation . These stages can overlap with each other . In the first stage , inflammatory cells such as neutrophils are recruited to the injury site , along with erythrocytes . Monocytes and macrophages are recruited within the first 24 hours , and phagocytosis of necrotic materials at the injury site occurs . After the release of vasoactive and chemotactic factors , angiogenesis and the proliferation of tenocytes are initiated . Tenocytes then move into the site and start to synthesize collagen III . After a few days , the repair or proliferation stage begins . In this stage , the tenocytes are involved in the synthesis of large amounts of collagen and proteoglycans at the site of injury , and the levels of GAG and water are high . After about six weeks , the remodeling stage begins . The first part of this stage is consolidation , which lasts from about six to ten weeks after the injury . During this time , the synthesis of collagen and GAGs is decreased , and the cellularity is also decreased as the tissue becomes more fibrous as a result of increased production of collagen I and the fibrils become aligned in the direction of mechanical stress . The final maturation stage occurs after ten weeks , and during this time there is an increase in crosslinking of the collagen fibrils , which causes the tissue to become stiffer . Gradually , over about one year , the tissue will turn from fibrous to scar - like . Matrix metalloproteinases ( MMPs ) have a very important role in the degradation and remodeling of the ECM during the healing process after a tendon injury . Certain MMPs including MMP - 1 , MMP - 2 , MMP - 8 , MMP - 13 , and MMP - 14 have collagenase activity , meaning that , unlike many other enzymes , they are capable of degrading collagen I fibrils . The degradation of the collagen fibrils by MMP - 1 along with the presence of denatured collagen are factors that are believed to cause weakening of the tendon ECM and an increase in the potential for another rupture to occur . In response to repeated mechanical loading or injury , cytokines may be released by tenocytes and can induce the release of MMPs , causing degradation of the ECM and leading to recurring injury and chronic tendinopathies . A variety of other molecules are involved in tendon repair and regeneration . There are five growth factors that have been shown to be significantly upregulated and active during tendon healing : insulin - like growth factor 1 ( IGF - I ) , platelet - derived growth factor ( PDGF ) , vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) , basic fibroblast growth factor ( bFGF ) , and transforming growth factor beta ( TGF - β ) . These growth factors all have different roles during the healing process . IGF - 1 increases collagen and proteoglycan production during the first stage of inflammation , and PDGF is also present during the early stages after injury and promotes the synthesis of other growth factors along with the synthesis of DNA and the proliferation of tendon cells . The three isoforms of TGF - β ( TGF - β1 , TGF - β2 , TGF - β3 ) are known to play a role in wound healing and scar formation . VEGF is well known to promote angiogenesis and to induce endothelial cell proliferation and migration , and VEGF mRNA has been shown to be expressed at the site of tendon injuries along with collagen I mRNA . Bone morphogenetic proteins ( BMPs ) are a subgroup of TGF - β superfamily that can induce bone and cartilage formation as well as tissue differentiation , and BMP - 12 specifically has been shown to influence formation and differentiation of tendon tissue and to promote fibrogenesis . Effects of activity on healing ( edit ) In animal models , extensive studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of mechanical strain in the form of activity level on tendon injury and healing . While stretching can disrupt healing during the initial inflammatory phase , it has been shown that controlled movement of the tendons after about one week following an acute injury can help to promote the synthesis of collagen by the tenocytes , leading to increased tensile strength and diameter of the healed tendons and fewer adhesions than tendons that are immobilized . In chronic tendon injuries , mechanical loading has also been shown to stimulate fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis along with collagen realignment , all of which promote repair and remodeling . To further support the theory that movement and activity assist in tendon healing , it has been shown that immobilization of the tendons after injury often has a negative effect on healing . In rabbits , collagen fascicles that are immobilized have shown decreased tensile strength , and immobilization also results in lower amounts of water , proteoglycans , and collagen crosslinks in the tendons . Several mechanotransduction mechanisms have been proposed as reasons for the response of tenocytes to mechanical force that enable them to alter their gene expression , protein synthesis , and cell phenotype , and eventually cause changes in tendon structure . A major factor is mechanical deformation of the extracellular matrix , which can affect the actin cytoskeleton and therefore affect cell shape , motility , and function . Mechanical forces can be transmitted by focal adhesion sites , integrins , and cell - cell junctions . Changes in the actin cytoskeleton can activate integrins , which mediate `` outside - in '' and `` inside - out '' signaling between the cell and the matrix . G - proteins , which induce intracellular signaling cascades , may also be important , and ion channels are activated by stretching to allow ions such as calcium , sodium , or potassium to enter the cell . Society and culture ( edit ) Sinew was widely used throughout pre-industrial eras as a tough , durable fiber . Some specific uses include using sinew as thread for sewing , attaching feathers to arrows ( see fletch ) , lashing tool blades to shafts , etc . It is also recommended in survival guides as a material from which strong cordage can be made for items like traps or living structures . Tendon must be treated in specific ways to function usefully for these purposes . Inuit and other circumpolar people utilized sinew as the only cordage for all domestic purposes due to the lack of other suitable fiber sources in their ecological habitats . The elastic properties of particular sinews were also used in composite recurved bows favoured by the steppe nomads of Eurasia . The first stone throwing artillery also used the elastic properties of sinew . Sinew makes for an excellent cordage material for three reasons : It is extremely strong , it contains natural glues , and it shrinks as it dries , doing away with the need for knots . Culinary uses ( edit ) Main article : Tendon ( meal ) Tendon ( in particular , beef tendon ) is used as a food in some Asian cuisines ( often served at yum cha or dim sum restaurants ) . One popular dish is suan bao niu jin , in which the tendon is marinated in garlic . It is also sometimes found in the Vietnamese noodle dish phở . Clinical significance ( edit ) Injury ( edit ) Tendons are subject to many types of injuries . There are various forms of tendinopathies or tendon injuries due to overuse . These types of injuries generally result in inflammation and degeneration or weakening of the tendons , which may eventually lead to tendon rupture . Tendinopathies can be caused by a number of factors relating to the tendon extracellular matrix ( ECM ) , and their classification has been difficult because their symptoms and histopathology often are similar . The first category of tendinopathy is paratenonitis , which refers to inflammation of the paratenon , or paratendinous sheet located between the tendon and its sheath . Tendinosis refers to non-inflammatory injury to the tendon at the cellular level . The degradation is caused by damage to collagen , cells , and the vascular components of the tendon , and is known to lead to rupture . Observations of tendons that have undergone spontaneous rupture have shown the presence of collagen fibrils that are not in the correct parallel orientation or are not uniform in length or diameter , along with rounded tenocytes , other cell abnormalities , and the ingrowth of blood vessels . Other forms of tendinosis that have not led to rupture have also shown the degeneration , disorientation , and thinning of the collagen fibrils , along with an increase in the amount of glycosaminoglycans between the fibrils . The third is paratenonitis with tendinosis , in which combinations of paratenon inflammation and tendon degeneration are both present . The last is tendinitis , which refers to degeneration with inflammation of the tendon as well as vascular disruption . Tendinopathies may be caused by several intrinsic factors including age , body weight , and nutrition . The extrinsic factors are often related to sports and include excessive forces or loading , poor training techniques , and environmental conditions . Other animals ( edit ) Ossified tendon from an Edmontosaurus bone bed in Wyoming ( Lance Formation ) In some organisms , notable ones being birds and ornithischian dinosaurs , portions of the tendon can become ossified . In this process , osteocytes infiltrate the tendon and lay down bone as they would in sesamoid bone such as the patella . In birds , tendon ossification primarily occurs in the hindlimb , while in ornithischian dinosaurs , ossified axial muscle tendons form a latticework along the neural and haemal spines on the tail , presumably for support . See also ( edit ) This article uses anatomical terminology ; for an overview , see Anatomical terminology . Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tendons . Aponeurosis Cartilage Chordae tendineae List of muscles of the human body Tendon sheath Tendinopathy References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Jozsa , L. , and Kannus , P. , Human Tendons : Anatomy , Physiology , and Pathology . Human Kinetics : Champaign , IL , 1997 . Jump up ^ Lin , T.W. ; Cardenas , L. ; Soslowsky , L.J. ( 2004 ) . `` Biomechanics of tendon injury and repair '' . Journal of Biomechanics. 37 ( 6 ) : 865 -- 877 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jbiomech. 2003.11. 005 . PMID 15111074 . Jump up ^ Fukuta , S. ; Oyama , M. ; Kavalkovich , K. ; Fu , F.H. ; Niyibizi , C. ( 1998 ) . `` Identification of types II , IX and X collagens at the insertion site of the bovine achilles tendon '' . Matrix Biology . 17 ( 1 ) : 65 -- 73 . doi : 10.1016 / S0945 - 053X ( 98 ) 90125 - 1 . PMID 9628253 . Jump up ^ Fratzl , P. ( 2009 ) . `` Cellulose and collagen : from fibres to tissues '' . Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science . 8 ( 1 ) : 32 -- 39 . doi : 10.1016 / S1359 - 0294 ( 03 ) 00011 - 6 . Jump up ^ Dorlands Medical Dictionary , page 602 Jump up ^ Caldini , E.G. ; Caldini , N. ; De-Pasquale , V. ; Strocchi , R. ; Guizzardi , S. ; Ruggeri , A. ; Montes , G.S. ( 1990 ) . `` Distribution of elastic system fibres in the rat tail tendon and its associated sheaths '' . Cells Tissues Organs. 139 ( 4 ) : 341 -- 348 . doi : 10.1159 / 000147022 . PMID 1706129 . Jump up ^ Grant , T.M. ; Thompson , M.S. ; Urban , J. ; Yu , J. ( 2013 ) . `` Elastic fibres are broadly distributed in tendon and highly localized around tenocytes '' . Journal of Anatomy. 222 ( 6 ) : 573 -- 579 . doi : 10.1111 / joa. 12048 . PMID 23587025 . Jump up ^ Dorlands Medical Dictionary 2012. Page 1382 Jump up ^ Zhang , G.E. , Y. ; Chervoneva , I. ; Robinson , P.S. ; Beason , D.P. ; Carine , E.T. ; Soslowsky , L.J. ; Iozzo , R.V. ; Birk , D.E. ( 2006 ) . `` Decorin regulates assembly of collagen fibrils and acquisition of biomechanical properties during tendon development '' . Journal of Cellular Biochemistry . 98 ( 6 ) : 1436 -- 1449 . doi : 10.1002 / jcb. 20776 . PMID 16518859 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Raspanti , M. ; Congiu , T. ; Guizzardi , S. ( 2002 ) . `` Structural Aspects of the Extracellular Matrix of the Tendon : An Atomic Force and Scanning Electron Microscopy Study '' . Archives of Histology and Cytology. 65 ( 1 ) : 37 -- 43 . doi : 10.1679 / aohc. 65.37 . PMID 12002609 . Jump up ^ Scott , J.E.O. , C.R. ; Hughes , E.W. , ( 1981 ) . `` Proteoglycan - collagen arrangements in developing rat tail tendon . An electron microscopical and biochemical investigation '' . Biochemical Journal . 195 ( 3 ) : 573 -- 581 . PMC 1162928 . PMID 6459082 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Scott , J.E. , ( 2003 ) . `` Elasticity in extracellular matrix ' shape modules ' of tendon , cartilage , etc . A sliding proteoglycan - filament model '' . Journal of Physiology. 553 ( 2 ) : 335 -- 343 . doi : 10.1113 / jphysiol. 2003.050179 . PMC 2343561 . PMID 12923209 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ McNeilly , C.M. ; Banes , A.J. ; Benjamin , M. ; Ralphs , J.R. ( 1996 ) . `` Tendon cells in vivo form a three dimensional network of cell processes linked by gap junctions '' . Journal of Anatomy. 189 ( Pt 3 ) : 593 -- 600 . PMC 1167702 . PMID 8982835 . Jump up ^ `` Having a short Achilles tendon may be an athlete 's Achilles heel '' . Retrieved 2007 - 10 - 26 . Jump up ^ Young , Michael . `` A Review on Postural Realignment and its Muscular and Neural Components '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ Thorpe C.T. , Birch H.L. , Clegg P.D. , Screen H.R.C. ( 2013 ) . The role of the non-collagenous matrix in tendon function . Int J ExpPathol. 94 ; 4 : 248 - 59 . Jump up ^ Hulmes , D.J.S. , ( 2002 ) . `` Building Collagen Molecules , Fibrils , and Suprafibrillar Structures '' . Journal of Structural Biology . 137 ( 1 -- 2 ) : 2 -- 10 . doi : 10.1006 / jsbi. 2002.4450 . PMID 12064927 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Silver , F.H. ; Freeman , J.W. ; Seehra , G.P. ( 2003 ) . `` Collagen self - assembly and the development of tendon mechanical properties '' . Journal of Biomechanics. 36 ( 10 ) : 1529 -- 1553 . doi : 10.1016 / S0021 - 9290 ( 03 ) 00135 - 0 . PMID 14499302 . Jump up ^ Ker , R.F. , ( 2002 ) . `` The implications of the adaptable fatigue quality of tendons for their construction , repair and function '' . Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A. 133 ( 4 ) : 987 -- 1000 . doi : 10.1016 / S1095 - 6433 ( 02 ) 00171 - X . PMID 12485688 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Cribb , A.M. ; Scott , J.E. ( 1995 ) . In Tendon response to tensile - stress - an ultrastructural investigation of collagen - proteoglycan interactions in stressed tendon , 1995 ; Cambridge Univ Press. pp 423 - 428 . Jump up ^ Screen H.R. , Lee D.A. , Bader D.L. , Shelton J.C. ( 2004 ) . `` An investigation into the effects of the hierarchical structure of tendon fascicles on micromechanical properties '' . J. Eng . Med. 218 : 109 -- 119 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Puxkandl , R. ; Zizak , I. ; Paris , O. ; Keckes , J. ; Tesch , W. ; Bernstorff , S. ; Purslow , P. ; Fratzl , P. 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Jump up ^ Herchenhan , Andreas ; Kalson , Nicholas S. ; Holmes , David F. ; Hill , Patrick ; Kadler , Karl E. ; Margetts , Lee ( 2011 - 07 - 07 ) . `` Tenocyte contraction induces crimp formation in tendon - like tissue '' . Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology. 11 ( 3 - 4 ) : 449 -- 459 . doi : 10.1007 / s10237 - 011 - 0324 - 0 . ISSN 1617 - 7959 . PMC 3822867 . PMID 21735243 . Jump up ^ Gatt R , Vella Wood M , Gatt A , Zarb F , Formosa C , Azzopardi KM , Casha A , Agius TP , Schembri - Wismayer P , Attard L , Chockalingam N , Grima JN ( 2015 ) . `` Negative Poisson 's ratios in tendons : An unexpected mechanical response '' . Acta Biomater. 24 : 201 -- 208 . doi : 10.1016 / j. actbio. 2015.06. 018 . Jump up ^ Batson EL , Paramour RJ , Smith TJ , Birch HL , Patterson - Kane JC , Goodship AE. ( 2003 ) . Equine Vet J . volume = 35 issue = 3 pages = 314 - 8 . Are the material properties and matrix composition of equine flexor and extensor tendons determined by their functions ? Jump up ^ ScreenH. R.C. , Tanner , K.E. ( 2012 ) . Structure & Biomechanics of Biological Composites . In : Encyclopaedia of Composites 2nd Ed . Nicolais & Borzacchiello. Pub . John Wiley & Sons , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 12828 - 2 ( pages 2928 - 39 ) Jump up ^ Nakagawa , Y. ( 1989 ) . `` Effect of disuse on the ultra structure of the Achilles tendon in rats '' . European Journal of Applied Physiology. 59 : 239 -- 242 . doi : 10.1007 / bf02386194 . Jump up ^ Reeves , N.D. ( 2005 ) . `` Influence of 90 - day simulated micro-gravity on human tendon mechanical properties and the effect of restiveness countermeasures '' . Applied Physiology. 98 ( 6 ) : 2278 -- 2286 . doi : 10.1152 / japplphysiol. 01266.2004 . PMID 15705722 . ^ Jump up to : Riley , G. ( 2004 ) . `` The pathogenesis of tendinopathy . A molecular perspective '' . Rheumatology. 43 ( 2 ) : 131 -- 142 . doi : 10.1093 / rheumatology / keg448 . PMID 12867575 . ^ Jump up to : Sharma , P.M. , N. , ( 2006 ) . `` Biology of tendon injury : healing , modeling and remodeling '' . Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions. 6 ( 2 ) : 181 -- 190 . PMID 16849830 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : Sharma , P. ; Maffulli , N. ( 2005 ) . `` Tendon injury and tendinopathy : Healing and repair '' . Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery . American Volume . 87A ( 1 ) : 187 -- 202 . doi : 10.2106 / JBJS. D. 01850 . PMID 15634833 . ^ Jump up to : Wang , J.H.C. , ( 2006 ) . `` Mechanobiology of tendon '' . Journal of Biomechanics. 39 ( 9 ) : 1563 -- 1582 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jbiomech. 2005.05. 011 . PMID 16000201 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Riley , G.P. ; Curry , V. ; DeGroot , J. ; van El , B. ; Verzijl , N. ; Hazleman , B.L. ; Bank , R.A. ( 2002 ) . `` Matrix metalloproteinase activities and their relationship with collagen remodelling in tendon pathology '' . Matrix Biology . 21 ( 2 ) : 185 -- 195 . doi : 10.1016 / S0945 - 053X ( 01 ) 00196 - 2 . PMID 11852234 . Jump up ^ Moulin , V. ; Tam , B.Y.Y. ; Castilloux , G. ; Auger , F.A. ; O'Connor - McCourt , M.D. ; Philip , A. ; Germain , L. ( 2001 ) . `` Fetal and adult human skin fibroblasts display intrinsic differences in contractile capacity '' . Journal of Cellular Physiology. 188 ( 2 ) : 211 -- 222 . doi : 10.1002 / jcp. 1110 . PMID 11424088 . Jump up ^ Boyer , M.I.W. , J.T. ; Lou , J. ; Manske , P.R. ; Gelberman , R.H. ; Cai , S.R. , ( 2001 ) . `` Quantitative variation in vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA expression during early flexor tendon healing : an investigation in a canine model '' . Journal of Orthopaedic Research . 19 ( 5 ) : 869 -- 872 . doi : 10.1016 / S0736 - 0266 ( 01 ) 00017 - 1 . PMID 11562135 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Astrom , M. ; Rausing , A. ( 1995 ) . `` Chronic Achilles Tendinopathy - A survey of Surgical and Histopathologic findings '' . Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research . 316 ( 316 ) : 151 -- 164 . doi : 10.1097 / 00003086 - 199507000 - 00021 . PMID 7634699 . Jump up ^ Berge , James C. Vanden ; Storer , Robert W. ( 1995 ) . `` Intratendinous ossification in birds : A review '' . Journal of Morphology. 226 : 47 -- 77 . doi : 10.1002 / jmor. 1052260105 . Jump up ^ Organ , Chris L. ( 2006 ) . `` Biomechanics of ossified tendons in ornithopod dinosaurs '' . Paleobiology. 32 ( 4 ) : 652 -- 665 . doi : 10.1666 / 05039.1 . 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-4106495283683611472 | Yoga | Yoga - Wikipedia Yoga Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the umbrella term `` yoga '' which includes religion , philosophy , and practices . For other uses , see Yoga ( disambiguation ) . Male and female yogis from 17th - and 18th - century India This article contains Indic text . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks or boxes , misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text . Yoga ( / ˈjoʊɡə / ; Sanskrit , योगः , pronunciation ) is a group of physical , mental , and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India . There is a broad variety of yoga schools , practices , and goals in Hinduism , Buddhism , and Jainism . Among the most well - known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga . The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre-Vedic Indian traditions ; it is mentioned in the Rigveda , but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE , in ancient India 's ascetic and śramaṇa movements . The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga - practices is unclear , varyingly credited to Upanishads . The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE , but only gained prominence in the West in the 20th century . Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra . Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the West , following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century . In the 1980s , yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world . Yoga in Indian traditions , however , is more than physical exercise ; it has a meditative and spiritual core . One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga , which has its own epistemology and metaphysics , and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy . Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer , schizophrenia , asthma , and heart disease . The results of these studies have been mixed and inconclusive . On December 1 , 2016 , yoga was listed by UNESCO as an Intangible cultural heritage . Contents ( hide ) 1 Etymology 2 Definition in classic Indian texts 3 Goals 4 Schools 4.1 Hinduism 4.1. 1 Classical yoga 4.1. 2 Ashtanga yoga 4.1. 3 Hatha yoga 4.1. 4 Shaivism 4.2 Buddhism 4.3 Jainism 4.4 Tantra 5 History 5.1 Pre-Vedic India 5.2 Vedic period ( 1700 -- 500 BCE ) 5.2. 1 Textual references 5.2. 2 Vedic ascetic practices 5.3 Preclassical era ( 500 -- 200 BCE ) 5.3. 1 Upanishads 5.3. 2 Sutras of Hindu philosophies 5.3. 3 Macedonian historical texts 5.3. 4 Early Buddhist texts 5.3. 5 Uncertainty with chronology 5.3. 6 Bhagavad Gita 5.3. 7 Mahabharata 5.4 Classical era ( 200 BCE -- 500 CE ) 5.4. 1 Classical yoga 5.4. 1.1 Samkhya 5.4. 1.2 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali 5.4. 1.3 Yoga and Vedanta 5.4. 2 Yoga Yajnavalkya 5.4. 3 Jainism 5.4. 4 Yogacara school 5.5 Middle Ages ( 500 -- 1500 CE ) 5.5. 1 Bhakti movement 5.5. 2 Tantra 5.5. 2.1 Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism 5.5. 3 Zen Buddhism 5.5. 4 Hatha Yoga 5.5. 5 Sikhism 6 Modern history 6.1 Reception in the West 7 Health effects 7.1 Adults 7.2 Physical injuries 7.2. 1 Children 8 Reception in other religions 8.1 Christianity 8.2 Islam 9 International Day of Yoga 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 12.1 Sources 13 Further reading 14 External links Etymology Statue of Shiva in Bangalore , Karnataka , India , performing yogic meditation in the Padmasana posture . The Sanskrit noun yoga translates to ( and is cognate with ) English `` yoke '' . It is derived from the root yuj `` to attach , join , harness , yoke '' . The spiritual sense of the word yoga first arises in Epic Sanskrit , in the second half of the 1st millennium BCE , and is associated with the philosophical system presented in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , with the chief aim of `` uniting '' the human spirit with the Divine . The term kriyāyoga has a grammatical sense , meaning `` connection with a verb '' . But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras ( 2.1 ) , designating the `` practical '' aspects of the philosophy , i.e. the `` union with the supreme '' due to performance of duties in everyday life According to Pāṇini , the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots , yujir yoga ( to yoke ) or yuj samādhau ( `` to concentrate '' ) . In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , the root yuj samādhau ( to concentrate ) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology . In accordance with Pāṇini , Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras , states that yoga means samādhi ( concentration ) . According to Dasgupta , the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots , yujir yoga ( `` to yoke '' ) or yuj samādhau ( `` to concentrate '' ) . Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi ( may be applied to a man or a woman ) or yogini ( traditionally denoting a woman ) . Definition in classic Indian texts The term yoga has been defined in various ways in the many different Indian philosophical and religious traditions . Source Text Definition of Yoga Katha Upanishad `` When the five senses , along with the mind , remain still and the intellect is not active , that is known as the highest state . They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses . Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away '' ( 6.10 - 11 ) Bhagavad Gita `` Yoga is said to be equanimity '' ( 2.48 ) ; `` Yoga is skill in action '' ( 2.50 ) ; `` Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering '' ( 6.23 ) . Yogacarabhumi - Sravakabhumi `` Yoga is fourfold : faith , aspiration , perseverance and means '' ( 2.152 ) Yoga Sutras of Patanjali `` Yoga is the suppression of the activities of the mind '' ( 1.2 ) Vaisesika sutra `` Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs , the mind and objects . When that does not happen because the mind is in the self , there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied . That is yoga '' ( 5.2. 15 - 16 ) Kaundinya 's Pancarthabhasya on the Pasupatasutra `` In this system , yoga is the union of the self and the Lord '' ( I.I. 43 ) Linga Purana `` By the word ' yoga ' is meant nirvana , the condition of Siva . '' ( I. 8.5 a ) Brahmasutra - bhasya of Adi Shankara `` It is said in the treatises on yoga : ' Yoga is the means of perceiving reality . '' ( 2.1. 3 ) Yogabija `` The union of apana and prana , one 's own rajas and semen , the sun and moon , the individual soul and the supreme soul , and in the same way the union of all dualities , is called yoga. '' ( 89 ) Goals The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha ( liberation ) , although the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated . According to Jacobsen , `` Yoga has five principal meanings : Yoga , as a disciplined method for attaining a goal ; Yoga , as techniques of controlling the body and the mind ; Yoga , as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy ( darśana ) ; Yoga , in connection with other words , such as `` hatha - , mantra - , and laya - , '' referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga ; Yoga , as the goal of Yoga practice . '' According to David Gordon White , from the 5th century CE onward , the core principles of `` yoga '' were more or less in place , and variations of these principles developed in various forms over time : Yoga , is a meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition , as well as overcoming it for release from suffering , inner peace and salvation ; illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras , in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works , as well as Jain texts ; Yoga , as the raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with everyone and everything ; these are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its Epic Mahābhārata , Jainism Praśamaratiprakarana , and Buddhist Nikaya texts ; Yoga , as a path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent ( illusive , delusive ) and permanent ( true , transcendent ) reality ; examples are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts , but in different ways ; Yoga , as a technique for entering into other bodies , generating multiple bodies , and the attainment of other supernatural accomplishments ; these are , states White , described in Tantric literature of Hinduism and Buddhism , as well as the Buddhist Sāmaññaphalasutta ; James Mallinson , however , disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga 's goal as meditation - driven means to liberation in Indian religions . White clarifies that the last principle relates to legendary goals of `` yogi practice '' , different from practical goals of `` yoga practice , '' as they are viewed in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era , in the various Hindu , Buddhist , and Jain philosophical schools . Schools The term `` yoga '' has been applied to a variety of practices and methods , including Jain and Buddhist practices . In Hinduism these include Jnana Yoga , Bhakti Yoga , Karma Yoga , Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga . The so - called Raja Yoga refers to Ashtanga Yoga , the eight limbs to be practiced to attain samadhi , as described in the Yoga Sutras of Pantajali . The term raja yoga originally referred to the ultimate goal of yoga , which is usually samadhi , but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga . Hinduism Classical yoga Main article : Yoga ( philosophy ) Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism . Yoga , in this context , is one of the six āstika schools of Hinduism ( those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge ) . Due to the influence of Vivekananda , the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as the foundational scripture of classical yoga , a status which it only acquired in the 20th century . Before the twentieth century , other works were considered as the most central works , such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha , while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over Ashtanga Yoga . Ashtanga yoga Main articles : Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and Rāja yoga Swami Vivekananda equated raja yoga with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali . Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga yoga . The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy , It is often called `` Rāja yoga '' , `` yoga of the kings , '' a term which originally referred to the ultimate , royal goal of yoga , which is usually samadhi , but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga . Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemology , metaphysics , ethical practices , systematic exercises and self - development techniques for body , mind and spirit . Its epistemology ( pramanas ) is same as the Samkhya school . Both accept three reliable means to knowledge -- perception ( pratyākṣa , direct sensory observations ) , inference ( anumāna ) and testimony of trustworthy experts ( sabda , agama ) . Both these orthodox schools are also strongly dualistic . Unlike the Sāṃkhya school of Hinduism , which pursues a non-theistic / atheistic rationalist approach , the Yoga school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a `` personal , yet essentially inactive , deity '' or `` personal god '' . Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations , the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts ( yamas and niyamas ) and an introspective way of life focused on perfecting one 's self physically , mentally and spiritually , with the ultimate goal being kaivalya ( liberated , unified , content state of existence ) . Hatha yoga Main article : Hatha yoga A sculpture of Gorakshanath , a celebrated 11th century yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga . Hatha yoga , also called hatha vidyā , is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of Hinduism : Hatha Yoga Pradipika , Svātmārāma ( 15th century ) Shiva Samhita , author unknown ( 1500 or late 17th century ) Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda ( late 17th century ) Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by Gorakshanath of the 11th century in the above list . Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today . Vajrayana Buddhism , founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas , has a series of asanas and pranayamas , such as tummo ( Sanskrit caṇḍālī ) and trul khor which parallel hatha yoga . Shaivism Main articles : Shaivism , Shaiva Siddhanta , and Nath In Shaivism , yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva . See also ' tantra ' below . Buddhism Main articles : Buddhist meditation , Dhyāna in Buddhism , Yogacara , and Vajrayana 16th century Buddhist artwork in Yoga posture . Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that aim to develop mindfulness , concentration , supramundane powers , tranquility , and insight . Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher - student transmissions . Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana . The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā and jhāna / dhyāna . Jainism Main article : Jain meditation Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Jewels . Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self , attain salvation , take the soul to complete freedom . It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious , beyond any attachment or aversion . The practitioner strives to be just a knower - seer ( Gyata - Drashta ) . Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana . Tantra Main articles : Tantra , Yogi , and Siddhi Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept . Tantra yoga may be described , according to Samuel , as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu ( Saiva , Shakti ) texts , which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and drawings ( mandala ) , fierce male and particularly female deities , transgressive life stage related rituals , extensive use of chakras and mantras , and sexual techniques , all aimed to help one 's health , long life and liberation . History The origins of yoga are a matter of debate . There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India . Suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilization ( 3300 -- 1900 BCE ) and pre-Vedic Eastern states of India , the Vedic period ( 1500 -- 500 BCE ) , and the śramaṇa movement . According to Gavin Flood , continuities may exist between those various traditions : ( T ) his dichotomization is too simplistic , for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism , while elements from non-Brahmanical , Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal . Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500 -- 200 BCE . Between 200 BCE -- 500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge . The Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga . Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy . Pre-Vedic India Main article : Indus Valley Civilization Yoga may have pre-Vedic elements . Some state yoga originated in the Indus Valley Civilization . Marshall , Eliade and other scholars suggest that the Pashupati seal discovered in Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose . This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain by more recent analysis of Srinivasan and may be a case of projecting `` later practices into archeological findings '' . Vedic period ( 1700 -- 500 BCE ) Main article : Vedic period According to Crangle , some researchers have favoured a linear theory , which attempts `` to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis '' , just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the ultimate source of all spiritual knowledge . Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model where pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and its refinement began in the Vedic period . Ascetic practices , concentration and bodily postures described in the Vedas may have been precursors to yoga . According to Geoffrey Samuel , `` Our best evidence to date suggests that ( yogic ) practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements ( Buddhists , Jainas and Ajivikas ) , probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE . '' According to Zimmer , Yoga philosophy is reckoned to be part of the non-Vedic system , which also includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy , Jainism and Buddhism : `` ( Jainism ) does not derive from Brahman - Aryan sources , but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India ( Bihar ) -- being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga , Sankhya , and Buddhism , the other non-Vedic Indian systems . '' Textual references The first use of the root of word `` yoga '' is in hymn 5.81. 1 of the Rig Veda , a dedication to rising Sun - god in the morning ( Savitri ) , where it has been interpreted as `` yoke '' or `` yogically control '' . The earliest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda , states Karel Werner . The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence , practices and achievements . And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect . Nevertheless , the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times can not be doubted . -- Karel Werner , Yoga and the Ṛg Veda Rigveda , however , does not describe yoga and there is little evidence as to what the practices were . Early references to practices that later became part of yoga , are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , the earliest Hindu Upanishad . For example , the practice of pranayama ( consciously regulating breath ) is mentioned in hymn 1.5. 23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ( c. 900 BCE ) , and the practice of pratyahara ( concentrating all of one 's senses on self ) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad ( c. 800 -- 700 BCE ) . Vedic ascetic practices Ascetic practices ( tapas ) , concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna ( sacrifice ) , might have been precursors to yoga . Vratya , a group of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda , emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic asanas . Early Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis , the keśin , and vratyas . Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas ( texts of the Vedic corpus , c. 1000 -- 800 BCE ) and the Atharvaveda . Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition . Preclassical era ( 500 -- 200 BCE ) Yoga concepts begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500 -- 200 BCE such as the Pali Canon , the middle Upanishads , the Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata . Upanishads The first known appearance of the word `` yoga '' , with the same meaning as the modern term , is in the Katha Upanishad , probably composed between the fifth and third century BCE , where it is defined as the steady control of the senses , which along with cessation of mental activity , leading to a supreme state . Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga . It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman . Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness . It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga . White states : The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad ( Ku ) , a scripture dating from about the third century BCE ( ... ) ( I ) t describes the hierarchy of mind - body constituents -- the senses , mind , intellect , etc. -- that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy , whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras , Bhagavad Gita , and other texts and schools ( Ku3. 10 -- 11 ; 6.7 -- 8 ) . The hymns in Book 2 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad , another late first millennium BCE text , states a procedure in which the body is held in upright posture , the breath is restrained and mind is meditatively focussed , preferably inside a cave or a place that is simple , plain , of silence or gently flowing water , with no noises nor harsh winds . The Maitrayaniya Upanishad , likely composed in a later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali 's Yoga Sutra , mentions sixfold yoga method -- breath control ( pranayama ) , introspective withdrawal of senses ( pratyahara ) , meditation ( dhyana ) , mind concentration ( dharana ) , philosophical inquiry / creative reasoning ( tarka ) , and absorption / intense spiritual union ( samadhi ) . In addition to the Yoga discussion in above Principal Upanishads , twenty Yoga Upanishads as well as related texts such as Yoga Vasistha , composed in 1st and 2nd millennium CE , discuss Yoga methods . Sutras of Hindu philosophies Yoga is discussed in the ancient foundational Sutras of Hindu philosophy . The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism , dated to have been composed sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE discusses Yoga . According to Johannes Bronkhorst , an Indologist known for his studies on early Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at the University of Lausanne , Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes Yoga as `` a state where the mind resides only in the soul and therefore not in the senses '' . This is equivalent to pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses , and the ancient Sutra asserts that this leads to an absence of sukha ( happiness ) and dukkha ( suffering ) , then describes additional yogic meditation steps in the journey towards the state of spiritual liberation . Similarly , Brahma sutras -- the foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism , discusses yoga in its sutra 2.1. 3 , 2.1. 223 and others . Brahma sutras are estimated to have been complete in the surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE , and its sutras assert that yoga is a means to gain `` subtlety of body '' and other powers . The Nyaya sutras -- the foundational text of the Nyaya school , variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th - century BCE and 2nd - century CE , discusses yoga in sutras 4.2. 38 -- 50 . This ancient text of the Nyaya school includes a discussion of yogic ethics , dhyana ( meditation ) , samadhi , and among other things remarks that debate and philosophy is a form of yoga . Macedonian historical texts Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE . Along with his army , he took Greek academics with him who later wrote memoirs about geography , people and customs they saw . One of Alexander 's companion was Onesicritus , quoted in Book 15 , Sections 63 -- 65 by Strabo , who describes yogins of India . Onesicritus claims those Indian yogins ( Mandanis ) practiced aloofness and `` different postures -- standing or sitting or lying naked -- and motionless '' . Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them , who is initially denied audience , but later invited because he was sent by a `` king curious of wisdom and philosophy '' . Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogins consider the best doctrine of life as `` rid the spirit of not only pain , but also pleasure '' , that `` man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened '' , that `` there is no shame in life on frugal fare '' , and that `` the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit '' . These principles are significant to the history of spiritual side of yoga . These may reflect the ancient roots of `` undisturbed calmness '' and `` mindfulness through balance '' in later works of Hindu Patanjali and Buddhist Buddhaghosa respectively , states Charles Rockwell Lanman ; as well as the principle of Aparigraha ( non-possessiveness , non-craving , simple living ) and asceticism discussed in later Hinduism and Jainism . Early Buddhist texts Werner states , `` The Buddha was the founder of his ( Yoga ) system , even though , admittedly , he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time . '' He notes : But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice , which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety . The chronology of completion of these yoga - related Pali Canons , however , is unclear , just like ancient Hindu texts . Early known Buddhist sources like the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation , while the Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins ( meditators ) that resemble early Hindu descriptions of Muni , Kesins and meditating ascetics , but these meditation - practices are not called yoga in these texts . The earliest known specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature , as understood in modern context , is from the third - to fourth - century CE scriptures of the Buddhist Yogācāra school and fourth - to fifth - century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa . A yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga . But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones , it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools . Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time . The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states , some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition . The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind , depending on the passage . However , there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā . The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel , similar to even modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini . Uncertainty with chronology Alexander Wynne , author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation , observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition . The earliest reference to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , one of the oldest Upanishads . Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies ( prana ) . Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins ( nadis ) are also described in the Upanishad . Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses . Bhagavad Gita Krishna narrating the Gita to Arjuna Main article : Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita ( ' Song of the Lord ' ) , uses the term `` yoga '' extensively in a variety of ways . In addition to an entire chapter ( ch. 6 ) dedicated to traditional yoga practice , including meditation , it introduces three prominent types of yoga : Karma yoga : The yoga of action . Bhakti yoga : The yoga of devotion . Jnana yoga : The yoga of knowledge . The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas ( verses ) , with each chapter named as a different yoga , thus delineating eighteen different yogas . Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections , with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga , the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga , and the last six chapters with 211 shlokas as Jnana yoga ; however , this is rough because elements of karma , bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters . Mahabharata Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga ( yoga of cessation ) is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter ( Shanti Parva ) of the Mahabharata . The verses of the section are dated to c. 300 -- 200 BCE . Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts , sensations etc. until purusha ( Self ) is realized . Terms like vichara ( subtle reflection ) , viveka ( discrimination ) and others which are similar to Patanjali 's terminology are mentioned , but not described . There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata . Separation of self from matter , perceiving Brahman everywhere , entering into Brahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga . Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being identical . Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation . Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman that pervades all things . Classical era ( 200 BCE -- 500 CE ) This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism , Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices . Of these , Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work . Classical yoga During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras ( c. 200 BCE -- 500 CE ) philosophical schools of Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge . Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be completed between 200 BCE -- 200 CE . Kauṭilya 's Arthashastra in verse 1.2. 10 , for example , states that there are three categories of anviksikis ( philosophies ) -- Samkhya ( nontheistic ) , Yoga ( theistic ) and Cārvāka ( atheistic materialism ) . Samkhya Further information : Samkhya Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic methodology by about first century CE . Of these , Samkhya was probably one of the oldest philosophies to begin taking a systematic form . Patanjali systematized Yoga , building them on the foundational metaphysics of Samkhya . In the early works , the Yoga principles appear together with the Samkhya ideas . Vyasa 's commentary on the Yoga Sutras , also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya ( Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy ) , describes the relation between the two systems . The two schools have some differences as well . Yoga accepted the conception of `` personal god '' , while Samkhya developed as a rationalist , non-theistic / atheistic system of Hindu philosophy . Sometimes Patanjali 's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila 's Nirivara Samkhya . The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that `` the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord . '' Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Main articles : Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha . Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Pada ( Chapter ) English meaning Sutras Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit 51 Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit 55 Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gifts 56 Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom 34 In Hindu philosophy , yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox ( which accept the testimony of Vedas ) philosophical schools . Karel Werner , author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy , believes that the process of systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali . There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya , Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schools of thought , particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD , notes Larson . Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras is a synthesis of these three traditions . From Samkhya , Yoga Sutras adopt the `` reflective discernment '' ( adhyavasaya ) of prakrti and purusa ( dualism ) , its metaphysical rationalism , as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge . From Abhidharma Buddhism 's idea of nirodhasamadhi , suggests Larson , Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness , but unlike Buddhist 's concept of no self nor soul , Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul . The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of meditation and introspection , as well as the yoga ideas from middle Upanishads such as Katha , Shvetashvatara and Maitri . Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras are widely regarded as the first compilation of the formal yoga philosophy . The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse . Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries , such as the Vyasa Bhashya ( c. 350 -- 450 CE ) . Patanjali 's yoga is also referred to as Raja yoga . Patanjali defines the word `` yoga '' in his second sutra : योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः ( yogaś citta - vṛtti - nirodhaḥ ) - Yoga Sutras 1.2 This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms . I.K. Taimni translates it as `` Yoga is the inhibition ( nirodhaḥ ) of the modifications ( vṛtti ) of the mind ( citta ) '' . Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as `` Yoga is restraining the mind - stuff ( Citta ) from taking various forms ( Vrittis ) . '' Edwin Bryant explains that , to Patanjali , `` Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought , and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself , that is , is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object . '' If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of nirodha ( mental control ) , then its goal is `` the unqualified state of niruddha ( the perfection of that process ) '' , according to Baba Hari Dass . In that context , `` yoga ( union ) implies duality ( as in joining of two things or principles ) ; the result of yoga is the nondual state '' , and `` as the union of the lower self and higher Self . The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality ; it can be described as eternal peace , pure love , Self - realization , or liberation . '' Patanjali 's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as `` Ashtanga Yoga '' ( `` Eight - Limbed Yoga '' ) . This eight - limbed concept is derived from the 29th Sutra of the Book 2 of Yoga Sutras . They are : Yama ( The five `` abstentions '' ) : Ahimsa ( Non-violence , non-harming other living beings ) , Satya ( truthfulness , non-falsehood ) , Asteya ( non-stealing ) , Brahmacharya ( celibacy , fidelity to one 's partner ) , and Aparigraha ( non-avarice , non-possessiveness ) . Niyama ( The five `` observances '' ) : Śauca ( purity , clearness of mind , speech and body ) , Santosha ( contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances ) , Tapas ( persistent meditation , perseverance , austerity ) , Svādhyāya ( study of self , self - reflection , study of Vedas ) , and Ishvara - Pranidhana ( contemplation of God / Supreme Being / True Self ) . Asana : Literally means `` seat '' , and in Patanjali 's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation . Pranayama ( `` Breath exercises '' ) : Prāna , breath , `` āyāma '' , to `` stretch , extend , restrain , stop '' . Pratyahara ( `` Abstraction '' ) : Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects . Dharana ( `` Concentration '' ) : Fixing the attention on a single object . Dhyana ( `` Meditation '' ) : Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation . Samadhi ( `` Liberation '' ) : merging consciousness with the object of meditation . Yoga and Vedanta Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions . They share many thematic principles , concepts and belief in self / soul , but diverge in degree , style and some of their methods . Epistemologically , Yoga school accepts three means to reliable knowledge , while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways . Yoga disputes the monism of Advaita Vedanta . Yoga school believes that in the state of moksha , each individual discovers the blissful , liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity ; Advaita Vedanta , in contrast , believes that in the state of moksha , each individual discovers the blissful , liberating sense of himself or herself as part of Oneness with everything , everyone and the Universal Self . They both hold that the free conscience is aloof yet transcendent , liberated and self - aware . Further , Advaita Vedanta school enjoins the use of Patanjali 's yoga practices and the reading of Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good , ultimate freedom and jivanmukti . Yoga Yajnavalkya Main article : Yoga Yajnavalkya संयोगो योग इत्युक्तो जीवात्मपरमात्मनोः ॥ saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma - paramātmanoḥ ॥ Yoga is union of the individual self ( jivātma ) with the supreme self ( paramātma ) . -- Yoga Yajnavalkya The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya . It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi , a renowned philosopher . The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE . Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika , the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya . The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight yoga Asanas -- Swastika , Gomukha , Padma , Vira , Simha , Bhadra , Mukta and Mayura , numerous breathing exercises for body cleansing , and meditation . Jainism Main article : Jainism Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in the Kayotsarga posture . According to Tattvarthasutra , 2nd century CE Jain text , yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind , speech and body . Umasvati calls yoga the cause of `` asrava '' or karmic influx as well as one of the essentials -- samyak caritra -- in the path to liberation . In his Niyamasara , Acarya Kundakunda , describes yoga bhakti -- devotion to the path to liberation -- as the highest form of devotion . Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga . This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism , essentially , a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full - fledged religion . The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism , indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions . Mainstream Hinduism 's influence on Jain yoga can be see in Haribhadra 's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali 's eightfold yoga . Yogacara school Main article : Yogacara In the late phase of Indian antiquity , on the eve of the development of Classical Hinduism , the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta period ( 4th to 5th centuries ) . Yogacara received the name as it provided a `` yoga , '' a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva . The yogacara sect teaches `` yoga '' as a way to reach enlightenment . Middle Ages ( 500 -- 1500 CE ) Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga . Hatha yoga emerged in this period . Bhakti movement Main article : Bhakti Yoga The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal God ( or `` Supreme Personality of Godhead '' ) . The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries , and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries . Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras , such as the practical meditative exercises , with devotion . Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha ( separation ) bhakti . Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna . Tantra Tantra is a genre of yoga that arose in India no later than the 5th century CE . George Samuel states , `` Tantra '' is a contested term , but may be considered as a school whose practices appeared in mostly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10th century CE . Over its history , some ideas of Tantra school influenced the Hindu , Bon , Buddhist , and Jain traditions . Elements of Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia . By the turn of the first millennium , hatha yoga emerged from tantra . Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism Main article : Vajrayana Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna . Its texts were compiled starting with 7th century and Tibetan translations were completed in 8th century CE . These tantra yoga texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge that was imported into Tibet . They were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages , helping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism . The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras . Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism . The tantra yoga practices include asanas and breathing exercises . The Nyingma tradition practices Yantra yoga ( Tib . `` Trul khor '' ) , a discipline that includes breath work ( or pranayama ) , meditative contemplation and other exercises . In the Nyingma tradition , the path of meditation practice is divided into further stages , such as Kriya yoga , Upa yoga , Yoga yana , Mahā yoga , Anu yoga and Ati yoga . The Sarma traditions also include Kriya , Upa ( called `` Charya '' ) , and Yoga , with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga . Zen Buddhism Zen , the name of which derives from the Sanskrit `` dhyāna '' via the Chinese `` ch'an '' is a form of Mahayana Buddhism . Yoga practices integrally exist within the Zen Buddhist school . Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular . Hatha yoga Main articles : Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga Pradipika The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century . The earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha , which defines it in relation to the center channel , bindu etc . Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises . It marks the development of asanas ( plural ) into the full body ' postures ' now in popular usage and , along with its many modern variations , is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today . Sikhism Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century , when Sikhism was in its nascent stage . Compositions of Guru Nanak , the founder of Sikhism , describe many dialogues he had with Jogis , a Hindu community which practiced yoga . Guru Nanak rejected the austerities , rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga . He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga ( meditation on the name ) instead . The Guru Granth Sahib states : Listen `` O Yogi , Nanak tells nothing but the truth . You must discipline your mind . The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine . It is His grace which brings about the union . He understands , he also sees . Good deeds help one merge into Divination . '' Modern History Reception in the West Further information : Yoga as exercise The Ustrasana , also known as the camel pose , is one of several yoga asana ( pose ) . Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy . In the context of this budding interest , N.C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851 . The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience , Swami Vivekananda , toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s . The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals , in particular the New England Transcendentalists , among them Ralph Waldo Emerson ( 1803 -- 1882 ) , who drew on German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G.W.F. Hegel ( 1770 -- 1831 ) , the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel ( 1767 -- 1845 ) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel ( 1772 -- 1829 ) , Max Mueller ( 1823 -- 1900 ) , Arthur Schopenhauer ( 1788 -- 1860 ) , and others who had ( to varying degrees ) interests in things Indian . Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public 's view of Yoga . Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical . The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the ( mostly Neoplatonism - based ) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries . M. Eliade , himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions , brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book : Yoga : Immortality and Freedom . With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga , the conception of the `` transcendent '' to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the `` transcendent '' ( `` Atman - Brahman '' in Advaitic theory ) in the mind to the body itself . The American born yogi by the name of Pierre Arnold Bernard , after his travels through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal , founded the Tantrik Order of America in 1905 . His teachings gave many westerners their first glimpse into the practices of yoga and tantra . The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of N.C. Paul and Major D. Basu in the late 19th century , and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra ( 1897 -- 1989 ) and Swami Kuvalayananda . Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda 's Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center , starting in 1928 , to study Yoga as a science . Outside of Buddhist , Hindu and Jain traditions in Asia , the term `` yoga '' has been usually synonymous with its asanas ( postures ) or as a form of exercise . This aspect of Yoga was adopted as a cultural trend in Europe and North America starting in the first half of the 20th century . There were periods of criticism and paranoia against yoga as well . By the 1960s , western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak , giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public . During this period , most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages , those of Sivananda Saraswati ( 1887 -- 1963 ) and of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya ( 1888 -- 1989 ) . Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included B.K.S. Iyengar ( 1918 -- 2014 ) , K. Pattabhi Jois ( 1915 -- 2009 ) , Swami Vishnu - devananda ( 1927 -- 1993 ) , and Swami Satchidananda ( 1914 -- 2002 ) . Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969 . Comprehensive , classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga , Samkhya , the subtle body theory , Fitness Asanas , and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass ( 1923 -- ) , in the United States and Canada . A second `` yoga boom '' followed in the 1980s , as Dean Ornish , a follower of Swami Satchidananda , connected yoga to heart health , legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter-culture or esotericism circles , and unconnected to any religious denomination . Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin , and strongly overlapped with 19th and early - 20th century Western exercise traditions . A group of people practicing yoga in 2012 . Since 2001 , the popularity of yoga in the USA has expanded . The number of people who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million ( in 2001 ) to 20 million ( in 2011 ) . It has drawn support from world leaders such as Barack Obama who stated , `` Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States , crossing many lines of religion and cultures , ... Every day , millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well - being . That 's why we 're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA ( Presidential Active Lifestyle Award ) , so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge '' . The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly - trained professionals deliver instruction . The College cites yoga 's promotion of `` profound mental , physical and spiritual awareness '' and its benefits as a form of stretching , and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength . Health effects Main article : Yoga as exercise Yoga has been studied and may be recommended to promote relaxation , reduce stress and improve some medical conditions such as premenstrual syndrome . Yoga is considered to be a low - impact activity that can provide the same benefits as `` any well - designed exercise program , increasing general health and stamina , reducing stress , and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles '' . It is particularly promoted as a physical therapy routine , and as a regimen to strengthen and balance all parts of the body . Yoga may improve psychological health during cancer treatment , although more evidence is needed to confirm this possible benefit . Other research indicated that yoga could be a useful in addition to other treatments in schizophrenia , and may have positive effects on mental health , although the quality of research to define these effects is low . In 2015 the Australian Government 's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance . Yoga was one of 17 practices evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found . Accordingly In 2017 the Australian government named yoga as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy , saying this step would `` ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence '' . Adults While some of the medical community regards the results of yoga research as significant , others point to many flaws which undermine results . Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality , including small sample sizes , inadequate blinding , lack of randomization , and high risk of bias . A 2013 review described the effectiveness of yoga for low back pain in the short - term , and moderate evidence that it was effective in the long - term . Another study found an incidence of back injuries from yoga . Some clinicians have reported studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients to decrease depression , insomnia , pain , and fatigue and to increase anxiety control . Others have questioned the quality of research and uncertainty in proving this effect . A 2016 systematic review and meta - analysis found no evidence that yoga was effective for metabolic syndrome . Physical injuries See also : Sports injury Some yoga practitioners suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries . A survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20 % had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga . In the previous 12 months 4.6 % of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment . Headstands , shoulder stands , lotus and half lotus ( seated cross-legged position ) , forward bends , backward bends , and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries . Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners ' competitiveness and instructors ' lack of qualification . As the demand for yoga classes grows , many people get certified to become yoga instructors , often with relatively little training . Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries . In turn , a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them . Vertebral artery dissection , a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended . This can occur in a variety of contexts , but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices . This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke . Acetabular labral tears , damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip , have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice . Children It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents , both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing , focus , mindfulness , and stress relief : many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their Physical Education programs . The Encinitas , California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge 's approval to use yoga in Physical Education , holding against the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program . Reception in other religions Christianity Main articles : Christian meditation , A Christian reflection on the New Age , and Aspects of Christian meditation Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation . This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way . In 2013 , Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli , servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , having worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger ( Pope Benedict XVI ) , said that for his Meditation , a Christian can learn from other religious traditions ( zen , yoga , controlled respiration , Mantra ) , quoting Aspects of Christian meditation : `` Just as `` the Catholic Church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions , '' neither should these ways be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian . On the contrary , one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian conception of prayer , its logic and requirements are never obscured . It is within the context of all of this that these bits and pieces should be taken up and expressed anew . '' Previously , the Roman Catholic Church , and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation . In 1989 and 2003 , the Vatican issued two documents : Aspects of Christian meditation and `` A Christian reflection on the New Age , '' that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices . The 2003 document was published as a 90 - page handbook detailing the Vatican 's position . The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation `` can degenerate into a cult of the body '' and that equating bodily states with mysticism `` could also lead to psychic disturbance and , at times , to moral deviations . '' Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity , when the church opposed the gnostics ' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge . The letter also says , `` one can see if and how ( prayer ) might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures '' but maintains the idea that `` there must be some fit between the nature of ( other approaches to ) prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality . '' Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background , considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity . Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism . This is held by an interdenominational association of Christians that practice it . `` The ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that maintains , enhances , and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional boundaries to be crossed . '' Islam In early 11th century , the Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India , lived with Hindus for 16 years , and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages . One of these was Patanjali 's Yogasutras . Al Biruni 's translation preserved many of the core themes of Patañjali ' s Yoga philosophy , but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology . Al Biruni 's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD . Later , in the 16th century , the hath yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and then Persian . Yoga was , however , not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam . Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement , particularly in South Asia , adopted Indian yoga practises , including postures and breath control . Muhammad Ghawth , a Shattari Sufi and one of the translators of yoga text in 16th century , drew controversy for his interest in yoga and was persecuted for his Sufi beliefs . Malaysia 's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa , prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga , saying it had elements of Hinduism and that its practice was blasphemy , therefore haraam . Some Muslims in Malaysia who had been practicing yoga for years , criticized the decision as `` insulting . '' Sisters in Islam , a women 's rights group in Malaysia , also expressed disappointment and said yoga was just a form of exercise . This fatwa is legally enforceable . However , Malaysia 's prime minister clarified that yoga as physical exercise is permissible , but the chanting of religious mantras is prohibited . In 2009 , the Council of Ulemas , an Islamic body in Indonesia , passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains Hindu elements . These fatwas have , in turn , been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband , a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India . Similar fatwas banning yoga , for its link to Hinduism , were issued by the Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004 , and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier . In Iran , as of May 2014 , according to its Yoga Association , there were approximately 200 yoga centres in the country , a quarter of them in the capital Tehran , where groups can often be seen practising in parks . This has been met by opposition among conservatives . In May 2009 , Turkey 's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs , Ali Bardakoğlu , discounted personal development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism . His comments were made in the context of reiki and yoga possibly being a form of proselytization at the expense of Islam . International day of yoga On 11 December 2014 , the United Nations General Assembly approved a resolution establishing 21 June as `` International Day of Yoga '' , following the call for its adoption by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his address to UN General Assembly on 27 September 2014 . In suggesting one of the two solstices , Modi noted that it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and that it has special significance in many parts of the world . The first International Day of Yoga was observed worldwide on 21 June 2015 . About 35,000 people , including Modi and many dignitaries , performed 21 yoga asanas for 35 minutes at Rajpath in New Delhi . The day devoted to yoga was observed by millions across the world . The event at Rajpath established two Guinness records -- largest Yoga Class with 35,985 people and the record for the most nationalities participating in it -- 84 . See also Yoga portal Hinduism portal India portal List of asanas List of yoga schools Yoga series Yogis Notes Jump up ^ Karel Werner states that the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times can not be doubted , citing the Kesin hymn of the Rigveda as evidence of a yoga tradition in the Vedic era . Jump up ^ Buddhists , Jainas and Ajivikas Jump up ^ For instance , Kamalashila ( 2003 ) , p. 4 , states that Buddhist meditation `` includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim . '' Likewise , Bodhi ( 1999 ) writes : `` To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation ... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state , Nibbana ... '' A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer - Schreiber et al. ( 1991 ) , p. 142 : `` Meditation -- general term for a multitude of religious practices , often quite different in method , but all having the same goal : to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of ' awakening , ' ' liberation , ' ' enlightenment . ' '' Kamalashila ( 2003 ) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are `` of a more preparatory nature '' ( p. 4 ) . Jump up ^ The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means `` development '' as in `` mental development . '' For the association of this term with `` meditation , '' see Epstein ( 1995 ) , p. 105 ; and , Fischer - Schreiber et al. ( 1991 ) , p. 20 . As an example from a well - known discourse of the Pali Canon , in `` The Greater Exhortation to Rahula '' ( Maha - Rahulovada Sutta , MN 62 ) , Ven . Sariputta tells Ven . Rahula ( in Pali , based on VRI , n.d. ) : ānāpānassatiṃ , rāhula , bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi . Thanissaro ( 2006 ) translates this as : `` Rahula , develop the meditation ( bhāvana ) of mindfulness of in - & - out breathing . '' ( Square - bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro , 2006 , end note . ) Jump up ^ See , for example , Rhys Davids & Stede ( 1921 -- 25 ) , entry for `` jhāna '' ; Thanissaro ( 1997 ) ; as well as , Kapleau ( 1989 ) , p. 385 , for the derivation of the word `` zen '' from Sanskrit `` dhyāna . '' PTS Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin , in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha , wrote : `` ... ( T ) here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might , for the lack of a suitable technical term in English , be referred to as ' altered states of consciousness ' . In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed ' meditations ' ( ( Skt. : ) dhyāna / ( Pali : ) jhāna ) or ' concentrations ' ( samādhi ) ; the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world . '' ( Gethin , 1998 , p. 10 . ) Jump up ^ Gavin Flood : `` These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of the human condition which became incorporated , to some degree , into the worldview of the Brahman householder . The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems , at first , discontinuous with the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals . Indeed , there has been some debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action , reincarnation and spiritual liberation , might not have originated outside the orthodox vedic sphere , or even outside Aryan culture : that a divergent historical origin might account for the apparent contradiction within ' Hinduism ' between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer . However , this dichotomization is too simplistic , for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism , while elements from non-Brahmanical , Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal . Indeed there are continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism , and it has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to the ideals of a vedic society which he saw as being eroded in his own day . '' Jump up ^ See also Gavin Flood ( 1996 ) , Hinduism , p. 87 -- 90 , on `` The orthogenetic theory '' and `` Non-Vedic origins of renunciation '' . Jump up ^ Post-classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as the originator of yoga . Jump up ^ Zimmer 's point of view is supported by other scholars , such as Niniam Smart , in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy , 1964 , p. 27 -- 32 & p. 76 , and S.K. Belvakar & Inchegeri Sampradaya in History of Indian philosophy , 1974 ( 1927 ) , p. 81 & p. 303 -- 409 . See Crangle 1994 page 5 -- 7 . Jump up ^ Original Sanskrit : युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः । वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः ॥ १ ॥ Translation 1 : Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically ( युञ्जते , yunjante ) control their minds and their intelligence ... ( ... ) Translation 2 : The illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to the illuminating godhead , to the vast , to the luminous in consciousness ; the one knower of all manifestation of knowledge , he alone orders the things of the sacrifice . Great is the praise of Savitri , the creating godhead . Jump up ^ Flood : `` ... which states that , having become calm and concentrated , one perceives the self ( atman ) , within oneself . '' Jump up ^ Original Sanskrit : स्वाध्यायमधीयानो धर्मिकान्विदधदात्मनि सर्वैन्द्रियाणि संप्रतिष्ठाप्याहिँसन्सर्व भूतान्यन्यत्र तीर्थेभ्यः स खल्वेवं वर्तयन्यावदायुषं ब्रह्मलोकमभिसंपद्यते न च पुनरावर्तते न च पुनरावर्तते ॥ १ ॥ -- Chandogya Upanishad , VIII. 15 Translation 1 by Max Muller , The Upanishads , The Sacred Books of the East -- Part 1 , Oxford University Press : ( He who engages in ) self study , concentrates all his senses on the Self , never giving pain to any creature , except at the tîrthas , he who behaves thus all his life , reaches the world of Brahman , and does not return , yea , he does not return . Jump up ^ Jacobsen writes that `` Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas , ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition . The use by Vedic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga . '' Whicher believes that `` the proto - Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include : concentration , meditative observation , ascetic forms of practice ( tapas ) , breath control ... '' Jump up ^ * Wynne states that `` The Nasadiyasukta , one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature , contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation . A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation . The poem may have been composed by contemplatives , but even if not , an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative / meditative trend in Indian thought . '' Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from `` the subtlest meditative stage , called absorption in mind and heart '' which `` involves enheightened experiences '' through which seer `` explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces ... '' . Jacobsen writes that dhyana ( meditation ) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to `` visionary insight '' , `` thought provoking vision '' . Jump up ^ Ancient Indian literature was transmitted and preserved through an oral tradition . For example , the earliest written Pali Canon text is dated to the later part of 1st century BCE , many centuries after the Buddha 's death . Jump up ^ For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp , from the 1950 Proceedings of the `` Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur '' Jump up ^ The currently existing version of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra manuscript was likely finalized sometime between 2nd century BCE and the start of the common era . Wezler has proposed that the Yoga related text may have been inserted into this Sutra later , among other things ; however , Bronkhorst finds much to disagree on with Wezler . Jump up ^ On the dates of the Pali canon , Gregory Schopen writes , `` We know , and have known for some time , that the Pali canon as we have it -- and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source -- can not be taken back further than the last quarter of the first century BCE , the date of the Alu - vihara redaction , the earliest redaction we can have some knowledge of , and that -- for a critical history -- it can serve , at the very most , only as a source for the Buddhism of this period . But we also know that even this is problematic ... In fact , it is not until the time of the commentaries of Buddhaghosa , Dhammapala , and others -- that is to say , the fifth to sixth centuries CE -- that we can know anything definite about the actual contents of ( the Pali ) canon . '' Jump up ^ Werner writes , `` The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning , namely as a systematic training , and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads ... Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented by Patanjali 's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga . '' Jump up ^ Worthington writes , `` Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism , and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life . '' Jump up ^ The earliest documented use of the word `` Tantra '' is in the Rigveda ( X. 71.9 ) . The context of use suggests the word tantra in Rigveda means `` technique '' . Jump up ^ `` The Meditation school , called ' Ch'an ' in Chinese from the Sanskrit ' dhyāna , ' is best known in the West by the Japanese pronunciation ' Zen ' '' Jump up ^ Exact quote : `` This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation . '' Jump up ^ Eliade , Mircea , Yoga : Immortality and Freedom , Princeton , 1958 : Princeton Univ . Pr . ( original title : Le Yoga . Immortalité et Liberté , Paris , 1954 : Libr . Payot ) References Jump up ^ `` yoga , n '' . OED Online . Oxford University Press . September 2015 . Retrieved 9 September 2015 . Jump up ^ White 2011 . Jump up ^ Denise Lardner Carmody , John Carmody ( 1996 ) , Serene Compassion . Oxford University Press US . p. 68 . Jump up ^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker , Samādhi : The Numinous and Cessative in Indo - Tibetan Yoga . SUNY Press , 2005 , pp. 1 -- 2 . ^ Jump up to : Tattvarthasutra ( 6.1 ) , see Manu Doshi ( 2007 ) Translation of Tattvarthasutra , Ahmedabad : Shrut Ratnakar p. 102 Jump up ^ Kimberly Lau ( 2000 ) , New Age Capitalism , University of Pennsylvania Press , ISBN 978 - 0812217292 , page 100 ^ Jump up to : Karel Werner ( 1977 ) , Yoga and the Ṛg Veda : An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn ( RV 10 , 136 ) , Religious Studies , Vol. 13 , No. 3 , page 289 -- 302 Jump up ^ Yoga is n't an all - Hindu tradition -- it has Buddhist , even Sufi , influences ^ Jump up to : Samuel 2008 , p. 8 . ^ Jump up to : Mark Singleton ( 2010 ) , Yoga Body : The Origins of Modern Posture Practice , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 539534 - 1 , pages 25 -- 34 Jump up ^ Whicher , pp. 1 -- 4 , chronology on pp. 41 -- 42 Jump up ^ W.Y. Evans - Wentz ( 2000 ) , Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines , 3rd Edition , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 513314 - 1 , Chapters 7 and 8 Jump up ^ White 2014 , p. xvi -- xvii . ^ Jump up to : James Mallinson , `` Sāktism and Hathayoga , '' 28 June 2012 . `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 16 June 2013 . Retrieved 4 June 2014 . ( accessed 19 September 2013 ) pg. 20 , Quote : `` The techniques of hatha yoga are not taught in Sanskrit texts until the 11th century or thereabouts . '' ^ Jump up to : Burley , Mikel ( 2000 ) . Hatha Yoga : Its Context , Theory and Practice . Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass . p. 16 . `` It is for this reason that hatha - yoga is sometimes referred to as a variety of ' Tantrism ' . '' ^ Jump up to : White 2011 , p. 2 . Jump up ^ * Marek Jantos ( 2012 ) , in Oxford Textbook of Spirituality in Healthcare ( Editors : Mark Cobb et al . ) , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 957139 - 0 , pages 362 -- 363 Jump up ^ * Mikel Burley ( 2012 ) , Classical Samkhya and Yoga : An Indian Metaphysics of Experience , Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 64887 - 5 , See Introduction section ^ Jump up to : * Smith , Kelly B. ; Pukall , Caroline F. ( May 2009 ) . `` An evidence - based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer '' . Psycho - Oncology. 18 ( 5 ) : 465 -- 475 . doi : 10.1002 / pon. 1411 . PMID 18821529 . Sharma , Manoj ; Haider , Taj ( October 2012 ) . `` Yoga as an Alternative and Complementary Treatment for Asthma : A Systematic Review '' . Journal of Evidence - Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine . 17 ( 3 ) : 212 -- 217 . doi : 10.1177 / 2156587212453727 . Innes , Kim E. ; Bourguignon , Cheryl ( November -- December 2005 ) . `` Risk Indices Associated with the Insulin Resistance Syndrome , Cardiovascular Disease , and Possible Protection with Yoga : A Systematic Review '' . Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine . 18 ( 6 ) : 491 -- 519 . doi : 10.3122 / jabfm. 18.6. 491 . ^ Jump up to : Vancampfort , D. ; Vansteeland , K. ; Scheewe , T. ; Probst , M. ; Knapen , J. ; De Herdt , A. ; De Hert , M. ( July 2012 ) . `` Yoga in schizophrenia : a systematic review of randomised controlled trials '' . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 126 ( 1 ) : 12 -- 20 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1600 - 0447.2012. 01865. x . , art.nr . 10.1111 / j. 1600 - 0447.2012. 01865. x Jump up ^ `` Yoga joins Unesco world heritage list '' . The Guardian . Retrieved 2016 - 12 - 01 . Jump up ^ `` application or concentration of the thoughts , abstract contemplation , meditation , ( esp . ) self - concentration , abstract meditation and mental abstraction practised as a system ( as taught by Patañjali and called the yoga philosophy ; it is the second of the two sāṃkhya systems , its chief aim being to teach the means by which the human spirit may attain complete union with īśvara or the Supreme Spirit ; in the practice of self - concentration it is closely connected with Buddhism '' Monier - Williams , A Sanskrit Dictionary ( 1899 ) . Jump up ^ Whicher , pp. 6 -- 7 . ^ Jump up to : Dasgupta , Surendranath ( 1975 ) . A History of Indian Philosophy. 1 . Delhi , India : Motilal Banarsidass . p. 226 . ISBN 81 - 208 - 0412 - 0 . Jump up ^ Bryant 2009 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Bryant 2009 , p. xxxix . Jump up ^ Aranya , Swami Hariharananda ( 2000 ) . Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati . Calcutta , India : University of Calcutta . p. 1 . ISBN 81 - 87594 - 00 - 4 . Jump up ^ American Heritage Dictionary : `` Yogi , One who practices yoga . '' Websters : `` Yogi , A follower of the yoga philosophy ; an ascetic . '' Jump up ^ Mallinson , James ; Singleton , Mark . Roots of Yoga , Penguin Classics , 2017 , pp. 17 - 23 . ^ Jump up to : Jacobsen , p. 4 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , p. 6 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , pp. 6 -- 8 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , pp. 8 -- 9 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , pp. 9 -- 10 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , pp. 10 -- 12 . Jump up ^ Mallinson , James ( 2013 ) . `` The Yogīs ' Latest Trick '' . Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society . Cambridge University Press ( CUP ) . 24 ( 1 ) : 165 -- 180 . doi : 10.1017 / s1356186313000734 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Hari Dass 1978 . ^ Jump up to : Mallinson 2011 , p. 770 . ^ Jump up to : White 2014 , p. xvi . Jump up ^ Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , Indian Philosophy , London , George Allen & Unwin Ltd. , 1971 edition , Volume II , pp. 19 -- 20 . Jump up ^ Flood 1996 , pp. 82 , 224 -- 49 Jump up ^ Changing World Religions , Cults & Occult . Jump up ^ Swami Vivekananda , Raja Yoga , ISBN 978 - 1500746940 Jump up ^ Whicher , pp. 41 -- 43 ^ Jump up to : Edwin Bryant ( 2011 , Rutgers University ) , The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP ^ Jump up to : Lloyd Pflueger , Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra , in Theory and Practice of Yoga ( Editor : Knut Jacobsen ) , Motilal Banarsidass , ISBN 978 - 8120832329 , pages 38 -- 39 Jump up ^ Mike Burley ( 2012 ) , Classical Samkhya and Yoga -- An Indian Metaphysics of Experience , Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 64887 - 5 , pages 43 -- 46 Jump up ^ Kovoor T. Behanan ( 2002 ) , Yoga : Its Scientific Basis , Dover , ISBN 978 - 0 - 486 - 41792 - 9 , pages 56 -- 58 Jump up ^ Mike Burley ( 2012 ) , Classical Samkhya and Yoga -- An Indian Metaphysics of Experience , Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 64887 - 5 , page 39 , 41 Jump up ^ Mike Burley ( 2012 ) , Classical Samkhya and Yoga -- An Indian Metaphysics of Experience , Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 64887 - 5 , pages 38 -- 46 Jump up ^ Wade Dazey ( 2008 ) on pages 421 -- 423 , and Lloyd Pflueger on pages 46 -- 52 , in Theory and Practice of Yoga : ' Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson , Editor : Knut A. Jacobsen , Motilal Banarsidass , ISBN 978 - 8120832329 Jump up ^ Akshaya Kumar Banerjea ( 1983 ) . Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha - Vacana - Sangraha . Motilal Banarsidass . pp. xxi . ISBN 978 - 81 - 208 - 0534 - 7 . ^ Jump up to : See Kriyananada , page 112 . Jump up ^ See Burley , page 73 . Jump up ^ See Introduction by Rosen , pp 1 -- 2 . Jump up ^ See translation by Mallinson . Jump up ^ On page 140 , David Gordon White says of Gorakshanath : `` ... hatha yoga , in which field he was India 's major systematizer and innovator . '' Jump up ^ Bajpai writes on page 524 : `` Nobody can dispute about the top ranking position of Sage Gorakshanath in the philosophy of Yoga . '' Jump up ^ Eliade writes of Gorakshanath on page 303 : `` ... he accomplished a new synthesis among certain Shaivist traditions ( Pashupata ) , tantrism , and the doctrines ( unfortunately , so imperfectly known ) of the siddhas -- that is , of the perfect yogis . '' Jump up ^ Davidson , Ronald . Indian Esoteric Buddhism . Columbia University Press . 2002 , pg. 169 -- 235 . ^ Jump up to : Lama Yeshe ( 1998 ) . The Bliss of Inner Fire . Wisdom Publications . pp. 135 -- 141 . Jump up ^ Larson , p. 142 . Jump up ^ Mahapragya , Acharya ( 2004 ) . `` Foreword '' . Jain Yog . Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh . Jump up ^ Tulsi , Acharya ( 2004 ) . `` blessings '' . Sambodhi . Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh . OCLC 39811791 . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . ^ Jump up to : Samuel 2008 , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Mukunda Stiles , Tantra Yoga Secrets , Weiser , ISBN 978 - 1 - 57863 - 503 - 0 , pages 3 -- 7 ^ Jump up to : Flood 1996 , p. 87 -- 90 . ^ Jump up to : Crangle 1994 , p. 4 -- 7 . ^ Jump up to : Zimmer 1951 , p. 217 , 314 . Jump up ^ Samuel 2008 . Jump up ^ Flood 1996 , p. 77 . Jump up ^ Flood 1996 , p. 76 -- 77 . ^ Jump up to : Larson , p. 36 . Jump up ^ Samuel 2008 , p. 2 -- 3 . Jump up ^ Possehl ( 2003 ) , pp. 144 -- 145 Jump up ^ Samuel 2008 , p. 2 -- 10 . Jump up ^ Crangle 1994 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ Crangle 1994 , p. 5 . Jump up ^ Feuerstein , Georg ( 2001 ) . The Yoga Tradition : Its History , Literature , Philosophy and Practice . Arizona , USA : Hohm Press . p . Kindle Locations 7299 -- 7300 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 890772 - 18 - 5 . Jump up ^ Aranya , Swami Hariharananda ( 2000 ) . `` Introduction '' . Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati . Calcutta , India : University of Calcutta . p. xxiv . ISBN 81 - 87594 - 00 - 4 . Jump up ^ McEvilley , Thomas ( 1981 ) . `` An Archaeology of Yoga '' . Anthropology and aesthetics. 1 ( spring ) : 51 . doi : 10.1086 / RESv1n1ms20166655 . ISSN 0277 - 1322 . ^ Jump up to : Jacobsen , p. 6 . ^ Jump up to : Whicher , p. 12 . Jump up ^ Zimmer 1951 , p. 217 . ^ Jump up to : Crangle 1994 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Crangle 1994 , p. 5 -- 7 . ^ Jump up to : Burley , Mikel ( 2000 ) . Hatha Yoga : Its Context , Theory and Practice . Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass . p. 25 . ISBN 978 - 8120817067 . ^ Jump up to : Sri Aurobindo ( 1916 , Reprinted 1995 ) , A Hymn to Savitri V. 81 , in The Secret of Veda , ISBN 978 - 0 - 914955 - 19 - 1 , page 529 Jump up ^ Sanskrit : Source : Rigveda Book 5 , Chapter 81 Wikisource Jump up ^ Flood 1996 , p. 94 -- 95 . Jump up ^ Mircea Eliade ( 2009 ) , Yoga : Immortality and Freedom , Princeton University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 14203 - 6 , pages 117 -- 118 Jump up ^ wikisource , Chandogya Upanishad , अष्टमोऽध्यायः ॥ पञ्चदशः खण्डः ॥ Jump up ^ Translation 2 by GN Jha : Chandogya Upanishad VIII. 15 , page 488 ^ Jump up to : Flood , p. 94 -- 95 . Jump up ^ Whicher , p. 13 . Jump up ^ Wynne , p. 50 . ^ Jump up to : Whicher , p. 11 . Jump up ^ Larson , p. 34 -- 35 , 53 . Jump up ^ Wynne , Alexander ( 2004 ) . `` The Oral Transmission of the Early Buddhist Literature '' . Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies . 27 ( 1 ) : 97 -- 128 . Jump up ^ Donald Lopez ( 2004 ) . Buddhist Scriptures . Penguin Books . pp. xi -- xv . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 190937 - 0 Jump up ^ Flood 1996 , p. 95 . Jump up ^ Stephen Phillips ( 2009 ) . Yoga , Karma , and Rebirth : A Brief History and Philosophy . Columbia University Press . pp. 28 -- 30 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 14485 - 8 . Jump up ^ Patrick Olivelle ( 1998 ) . The Early Upanishads : Annotated Text and Translation . Oxford University Press . pp. 12 -- 13 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 512435 - 4 . Jump up ^ `` Vedanta and Buddhism , A Comparative Study '' . Archived from the original on 4 February 2013 . Retrieved 29 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Whicher , p. 18 -- 19 . ^ Jump up to : Jacobsen , p. 8 . Jump up ^ White 2011 , p. 4 . Jump up ^ See : Original Sanskrit : Shvetashvatara Upanishad Book 2 , Hymns 8 -- 14 ; English Translation : Paul Deussen ( German : 1897 ; English Translated by Bedekar & Palsule , Reprint : 2010 ) , Sixty Upanishads of the Veda , Vol 1 , Motilal Banarsidass , ISBN 978 - 8120814677 , pages 309 -- 310 Secondary Source Review : Mark Singleton ( 2010 ) , Yoga Body : The Origins of Modern Posture Practice , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 539534 - 1 , page 26 Jump up ^ Feuerstein , Georg ( January -- February 1988 ) . `` Introducing Yoga 's Great Literary Heritage '' . Yoga Journal ( 78 ) : 70 -- 5 . Jump up ^ TRS Ayyangar ( 1938 ) , The Yoga Upanishads The Adyar Library , Madras Jump up ^ David Gordon White ( 2011 ) , Yoga in Practice , Princeton University Press , ISBN 978 - 0691140865 , pages 97 -- 112 Jump up ^ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977 , pp. 56 - 59 . Jump up ^ Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002 , pp. 98 - 99 . Jump up ^ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977 , p. 54 . ^ Jump up to : Johannes Bronkhorst ( 1993 ) . The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India . Motilal Banarsidass . p. 64 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 208 - 1114 - 0 . ^ Jump up to : Stephen Phillips ( 2009 ) . Yoga , Karma , and Rebirth : A Brief History and Philosophy . Columbia University Press . pp. 281 footnote 36 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 14485 - 8 . Jump up ^ Andrew J. Nicholson ( 2013 ) . Unifying Hinduism : Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History . Columbia University Press . p. 26 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 14987 - 7 . , Quote : `` From a historical perspective , the Brahmasutras are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years , most likely composed in its current form between 400 and 450 BCE . '' Jump up ^ NV Isaeva ( 1992 ) , Shankara and Indian Philosophy , State University of New York Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7914 - 1281 - 7 , page 36 , Quote : `` '' on the whole , scholars are rather unanimous , considering the most probable date for Brahmasutra sometime between the 2nd - century BCE and the 2nd - century CE '' Jump up ^ Jeaneane Fowler ( 2002 ) , Perspectives of Reality : An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism , Sussex Academic Press , ISBN 978 - 1898723943 , page 129 Jump up ^ B.K. Matilal ( 1986 ) , `` Perception . An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge '' , Oxford University Press , p. xiv . Jump up ^ Stephen Phillips ( 2009 ) . Yoga , Karma , and Rebirth : A Brief History and Philosophy . Columbia University Press . pp. 281 footnote 40 , 297 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 231 - 14485 - 8 . Jump up ^ SC Vidyabhushana ( 1913 , Translator ) , The Nyâya Sutras , The Sacred Book of the Hindus , Volume VIII , Bhuvaneshvar Asrama Press , pages 137 -- 139 Jump up ^ Karl Potter ( 2004 ) , The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies : Indian metaphysics and epistemology , Volume 2 , Motilal Banarsidass , ISBN 978 - 8120803091 , page 237 ^ Jump up to : Charles R Lanman , The Hindu Yoga System , Harvard Theological Review , Volume XI , Number 4 , Harvard University Press , pages 355 -- 359 ^ Jump up to : Strabo , Geography Book XV , Chapter 1 , see Sections 63 -- 65 , Loeb Classical Library edition , Harvard University Press , Translator : HL Jones , Archived by : University of Chicago Jump up ^ Karel Werner ( 1998 ) , Yoga and the Indian Philosophy , Motilal Banarsidass , ISBN 978 - 8120816091 , page 131 ^ Jump up to : Werner ( 1977 ) p. 119 -- 20 Jump up ^ Samuel 2008 , pp. 31 -- 32 . Jump up ^ Mark Singleton ( 2010 ) , Yoga Body : The Origins of Modern Posture Practice , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 539534 - 1 , Chapter 1 Jump up ^ Bronkhorst , Johannes ( 1993 ) , The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India , Motilal Banarsidass , ISBN 978 - 8120816435 , pages 1 -- 24 ^ Jump up to : White 2011 , pp. 5 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Douglass , Laura ( 2011 ) . `` Thinking Through The Body : The Conceptualization Of Yoga As Therapy For Individuals With Eating Disorders '' . Academic Search Premier : 83 . Retrieved 19 February 2013 . Jump up ^ Datta , Amaresh ( 1988 ) . Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature : devraj to jyoti . Sahitya Akademi . p. 1809 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 260 - 1194 - 0 . Jump up ^ Wynne , pp. 3 -- 4 . Jump up ^ Richard Gombrich , `` Theravada Buddhism : A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo . '' Routledge and Kegan Paul , 1988 , p. 44 . Jump up ^ Barbara Stoler Miller , `` Yoga : Discipline of Freedom : the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali ; a Translation of the Text , with Commentary , Introduction , and Glossary of Keywords . '' University of California Press , 1996 , p. 8 . Jump up ^ Mallinson , James . 2007 . The Khecarīvidyā of Adinathā . London : Routledge . pg. 17 -- 19 . Jump up ^ James Mallinson , `` Sāktism and Hathayoga , '' 6 March 2012 . PDF file Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine . ( accessed 10 June 2012 ) pgs. 20 -- 21 `` The Buddha himself is said to have tried both pressing his tongue to the back of his mouth , in a manner similar to that of the hathayogic khecarīmudrā , and ukkutikappadhāna , a squatting posture which may be related to hathayogic techniques such as mahāmudrā , mahābandha , mahāvedha , mūlabandha , and vajrāsana in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel , in order to force upwards the breath or Kundalinī . '' Jump up ^ Wynne , pp. 44 -- 45 , 58 . Jump up ^ Whicher , p. 17 . Jump up ^ Jacobsen , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Flood , p. 96 . ^ Jump up to : Jacobsen , p. 10 -- 11 . Jump up ^ E. Easwaran , Essence of the Bhagavad Gita , Nilgiri Press , ISBN 978 - 1 - 58638 - 068 - 7 , pages 117 -- 118 Jump up ^ Jack Hawley ( 2011 ) , The Bhagavad Gita , ISBN 978 - 1 - 60868 - 014 - 6 , pages 50 , 130 ; Arvind Sharma ( 2000 ) , Classical Hindu Thought : An Introduction , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 564441 - 8 , pages 114 -- 122 ^ Jump up to : Bibek Debroy ( 2005 ) , The Bhagavad Gita , Penguin Books , ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 400068 - 5 , Introduction , pages x -- xi Jump up ^ Jacobsen , p. 46. ; Georg Feuerstein ( 2011 ) , The Bhagavad Gita -- A New Translation , Shambhala , ISBN 978 - 1 - 59030 - 893 - 6 Jump up ^ Whicher , p. 25 -- 26 . ^ Jump up to : Jacobsen , p. 9 . Jump up ^ Wynne , p. 33 . Jump up ^ Original Sanskrit : साङ्ख्यं योगो लोकायतं च इत्यान्वीक्षिकी English Translation : Arthasastra Book 1 , Chapter 2 Kautiliya , R Shamasastry ( Translator ) , page 9 Jump up ^ Olivelle , Patrick ( 2013 ) , King , Governance , and Law in Ancient India : Kautilya 's Arthasastra , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 989182 - 5 , see Introduction Jump up ^ Larson , p. 38 . Jump up ^ Radhankrishnan , Indian Philosophy , London , George Allen & Unwin Ltd. , 1971 edition , Volume II , p. 342 . Jump up ^ Mike Burley ( 2012 ) , Classical Samkhya and Yoga -- An Indian Metaphysics of Experience , Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 64887 - 5 , pages 31 -- 46 Jump up ^ For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts , but with addition of a category for God , see : Radhakrishnan and Moore , p. 453 . Jump up ^ Radhankrishnan , Indian Philosophy , London , George Allen & Unwin Ltd. , 1971 edition , Volume II , p. 344 . Jump up ^ Müller ( 1899 ) , Chapter 7 , `` Yoga Philosophy , '' p. 104 . Jump up ^ Stiles 2001 , p. x . Jump up ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools , with detail on the grouping of schools , see : Radhakrishnan and Moore , `` Contents , '' and pp. 453 -- 487 . Jump up ^ For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see : Chatterjee and Datta , p. 43 . Jump up ^ Werner , p. 24 . ^ Jump up to : Larson , pp. 43 -- 45 Jump up ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see : Chatterjee and Datta , p. 42 . Jump up ^ Larson , p. 21 -- 22 . Jump up ^ For `` raja yoga '' as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras as a key work , see : Flood ( 1996 ) , pp. 96 -- 98 . Jump up ^ For text and word - by - word translation as `` Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind . '' See : Taimni , p. 6 . Jump up ^ Vivekanada , p. 115 . Jump up ^ Bryant 2009 , p. 10 . Jump up ^ Bryant 2009 , p. 457 . Jump up ^ Dass , Baba Hari ( 1999 ) . The Yoga Sytras of Patanjali , A Study Guide for Book I , Samadhi Pada ; Translation and Commentary . Santa Cruz , Californnia : Sri Rama Publishing . p. 5 . ISBN 0 - 918100 - 20 - 8 . Jump up ^ Baba Hari Dass ( 1999 ) Jump up ^ James Lochtefeld , `` Yama ( 2 ) '' , The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism , Vol. 2 : N -- Z , Rosen Publishing . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8239 - 3179 - 8 , page 777 ^ Jump up to : Arti Dhand ( 2002 ) , The dharma of ethics , the ethics of dharma : Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism , Journal of Religious Ethics , 30 ( 3 ) , pages 347 -- 372 ^ Jump up to : MN Gulati ( 2008 ) , Comparative Religions And Philosophies : Anthropomorphism And Divinity , ISBN 978 - 8126909025 , page 168 Jump up ^ Sharma and Sharma , Indian Political Thought , Atlantic Publishers , ISBN 978 - 8171566785 , page 19 ^ Jump up to : N Tummers ( 2009 ) , Teaching Yoga for Life , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7360 - 7016 - 4 , pages 16 -- 17 Jump up ^ Kaelber , W.O. ( 1976 ) . `` Tapas '' , Birth , and Spiritual Rebirth in the Veda , History of Religions , 15 ( 4 ) : 343 -- 386 Jump up ^ SA Bhagwat ( 2008 ) , Yoga and Sustainability . Journal of Yoga , Fall / Winter 2008 , 7 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14 Jump up ^ John A. Grimes , A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy : Sanskrit Terms Defined in English , State University of New York Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 7914 - 3067 - 5 , page 238 ^ Jump up to : Phillips , Stephen H. ( 1995 ) . Classical Indian Metaphysics : Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of `` New Logic '' . Open Court Publishing . pp. 12 -- 13 . Jump up ^ Larson ( 2008 ) , p. 478 . Jump up ^ Yoga Journal , Active Interest Media , Inc. , 2006 , p. 121 , ISSN 0191 - 0965 Jump up ^ Divanji , Prahlad , ed. ( 1954 ) . Yoga Yajnavalkya : A Treatise on Yoga as Taught by Yogi Yajnavalkya . B.B.R.A. Society 's Monograph No. 3 . Bombay , India : Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society . p. 105 . Jump up ^ Mohan , A.G. ( 2010 ) . Krishnamacharya : His Life and Teachings . Shambhala Publications . p. 127 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 59030 - 800 - 4 . Jump up ^ Larson ( 2008 ) , p. 479 . Jump up ^ Larson ( 2008 ) , pp. 481 -- 484 Jump up ^ Larson ( 2008 ) , pp. 485 -- 486 ^ Jump up to : Tattvarthasutra ( 6.2 ) Jump up ^ Niyamasara ( 134 -- 40 ) Jump up ^ Zydenbos , Robert . `` Jainism Today and Its Future . '' München : Manya Verlag , 2006 . p. 66 Jump up ^ Zydenbos ( 2006 ) p. 66 Jump up ^ Worthington , p. 35 . Jump up ^ P. 313 The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana : A Reconsideration of the Classical Yoga By Ian Whicher Jump up ^ Dan Lusthaus . Buddhist Phenomenology : A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei - shih Lun . Published 2002 ( Routledge ) . ISBN 0 - 7007 - 1186 - 4 . pg 533 Jump up ^ Simple Tibetan Buddhism : A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins , Annellen M. Simpkins . Published 2001 . Tuttle Publishing . ISBN 0 - 8048 - 3199 - 8 Jump up ^ Larson , pp. 136 -- 139 . Jump up ^ Cutler , Norman ( 1987 ) . Songs of Experience . Indiana University Press . p. 1 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 253 - 35334 - 4 . Jump up ^ Larson , p. 137 . Jump up ^ Jacobsen , p. 22 . Jump up ^ Einoo , Shingo ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . Genesis and Development of Tantrism . University of Tokyo . p. 45 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Banerjee , S.C. , 1988 . Jump up ^ White 2000 , p. 7 . Jump up ^ Samuel 2008 , pp. 324 -- 333 . Jump up ^ John Powers ( 2004 ) , in Encyclopedia of Buddhism ( Editors : Damien Keown et al . ) , Routledge , ISBN 978 - 0 - 415 - 31414 - 5 , pages 775 -- 785 Jump up ^ White , David Gordon . Yoga in Practice . Princeton University Press 2012 , page 14 . Jump up ^ Chogyam Trungpa ( 2001 ) The Lion 's Roar : An Introduction to Tantra . Shambhala . ISBN 1 - 57062 - 895 - 5 Jump up ^ Edmonton Patric 2007 , Pali and Its Significance , p. 332 Jump up ^ `` Yantra Yoga : The Tibetan Yoga of Movement '' by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu. Snow Lion , 2008 . ISBN 1 - 55939 - 308 - 4 Jump up ^ The Lion 's Roar : An Introduction to Tantra , by Chogyam Trungpa . Shambhala , 2001 ISBN 1 - 57062 - 895 - 5 Jump up ^ `` Secret of the Vajra World : The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet '' by Ray , Reginald A. Shambhala : 2002 . pp. 37 -- 38 ISBN 1 - 57062 - 917 - X Jump up ^ `` Secret of the Vajra World : The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet '' by Ray , Reginald A. Shambhala : 2002 . p. 57 ISBN 1 - 57062 - 917 - X Jump up ^ The Buddhist Tradition in India , China , and Japan . Edited by William Theodore de Bary . pp. 207 -- 208 . ISBN 0 - 394 - 71696 - 5 ^ Jump up to : Dumoulin , Heinrich & Knitter , p. 13 . Jump up ^ James Mallinson , `` Sāktism and Hathayoga , '' 28 June 2012 . < URL > Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine . ( accessed 19 September 2013 ) pgs. 2 `` The earliest references to hathayoga are scattered mentions in Buddhist canonical works and their exegesis dating from the eighth century onwards , in which it is the soteriological method of last resort . '' Jump up ^ James Mallinson , `` Sāktism and Hathayoga , '' 28 June 2012 . < URL > Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine . ( accessed 19 September 2013 ) pgs. 2 `` In its earliest definition , in Pundarīka 's eleventh - century Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakratantra , hathayoga is said to bring about the `` unchanging moment '' ( aksaraksana ) `` through the practice of nāda by forcefully making the breath enter the central channel and through restraining the bindu of the bodhicitta in the vajra of the lotus of wisdom '' . While the means employed are not specified , the ends , in particular restraining bindu , semen , and making the breath enter the central channel , are similar to those mentioned in the earliest descriptions of the practices of hathayoga , to which I now turn . '' Jump up ^ Larson , p. 140 . Jump up ^ Burley , Mikel ( 2000 ) . Hatha Yoga : Its Context , Theory and Practice . Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass . p. 16 . ISBN 978 - 8120817067 . Jump up ^ Feuerstein , Georg. ( 1996 ) . `` The Shambhala Guide to Yoga . '' Boston & London : Shambhala Publications , Inc . Jump up ^ Dhillon , p. 249 . Jump up ^ Dhillon , p. 255 . Jump up ^ Mansukhani , Gobind Singh ( 2009 ) . Introduction To Sikhism . Hemkunt Press . p. 66 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 7010 - 181 - 9 . Jump up ^ Dhillon , Harish ( 2010 ) . Guru Nanak . Indus Source Books . p. 178 . ISBN 978 - 81 - 88569 - 02 - 1 . ^ Jump up to : Shaw , Eric . `` 35 Moments '' , Yoga Journal , 2010 - 09 . Jump up ^ Goldberg , Philip , American Veda . From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation : How Indian Spirituality Changed the West . New York , 2010 : Harmony Books , pp. 21ff . Jump up ^ Von Glasenapp , Hellmuth . Die Philosophie der Inder . Stuttgart , 1974 : A. Kroener Verlag , pp. 166f . ^ Jump up to : `` Fear of Yoga '' . Utne.com . Retrieved 28 August 2013 . Jump up ^ De Michelis , Elizabeth , A History Of Modern Yoga . Patanjali and Modern Esotericism . London , 2004 : Continuum Books , pp. 19ff . Jump up ^ Flood , Gavin D. , Body and Cosmology in Kashmir Saivism , San Francisco , 1993 : Mellen Research University Press , pp. 229ff . Jump up ^ Love , Robert . The Great Oom . ISBN 978 - 0 - 14 - 311917 - 3 . Jump up ^ Singleton , Mark ( 12 January 2010 ) . Yoga Body : The Origins of Modern Posture Practice . Oxford University Press . p. 32 , 50 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 974598 - 2 . Retrieved 14 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Joseph S. Alter ( 30 August 2004 ) . Yoga in Modern India : The Body between Science and Philosophy . Princeton University Press . p. 87 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 11874 - 1 . Retrieved 14 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Title : A History of Modern Yoga . Author : Elizabeth De Michelis . Published : Continuum , 2005 Jump up ^ Bryant 2009 , p. xviii . Jump up ^ Cushman , Ann ( January -- February 2000 ) . `` The New Yoga '' . Yoga Journal.com . p. 68 . Retrieved 5 February 2011 . Jump up ^ Silva , Mira , and Mehta , Shyam. ( 1995 ) . Yoga the Iyengar Way , p. 9 . Alfred A. Knopf , New York . ISBN 0 - 89381 - 731 - 7 Jump up ^ Desikachar , T.K.V. ( 2005 ) . Health , healing and beyond : Yoga and the living tradition of Krishnamacharya , ( cover jacket text ) . Aperture , USA . ISBN 978 - 0 - 89381 - 731 - 2 Jump up ^ Congressional Honorary Resolution 521 US Library of Congress Jump up ^ Jones and Ryan , Constance and James ( 2007 ) . Encyclopedia of Hinduism . New York : Infobase Publishing . p . Baba Hari Dass . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8160 - 5458 - 9 . Jump up ^ Singleton , Mark . ( 2010 ) . Yoga Body : The Origins of Modern Posture Practice , p. 161 . Oxford University Press , USA . ISBN 0 - 19 - 539534 - 4 Jump up ^ Weekly Highlights , July 1 , 2011 , The White House , United States , JULY 1 , 2011 ( MIYA SAIKA CHEN ) Jump up ^ `` Diversify Your Client 's Workout With Yoga '' . American College of Sports Medicine . Retrieved 19 September 2013 . ^ Jump up to : Dupler , Douglas ; Frey , Rebecca ( 2006 ) Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine , 3rd ed , ISBN 978 - 0787618681 ; Retrieved 30 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Balasubramaniam M , Telles S , Doraiswamy PM ( 2013 ) . `` Yoga on our minds : a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatric disorders '' . Front Psychiatry . 3 : 117 . doi : 10.3389 / fpsyt. 2012.00117 . PMC 3555015 . PMID 23355825 . CS1 maint : Uses authors parameter ( link ) Jump up ^ Baggoley C ( 2015 ) . `` Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance '' ( PDF ) . Australian Government -- Department of Health . Lay summary -- Gavura , S. Australian review finds no benefit to 17 natural therapies . Science - Based Medicine . ( 19 November 2015 ) . Jump up ^ Paola S ( 17 October 2017 ) . `` Homeopathy , naturopathy struck off private insurance list '' . Australian Journal of Pharmacy . Jump up ^ Krisanaprakornkit , T. ; Ngamjarus , C. ; Witoonchart , C. ; Piyavhatkul , N. ( 2010 ) . `` Meditation therapies for attention - deficit / hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) '' . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews ( 6 ) : CD006507 . doi : 10.1002 / 14651858. CD006507. pub2 . PMID 20556767 . Jump up ^ Ospina , M.B. ; Bond , K. ; Karkhaneh , M. ; et al. ( 2008 ) . `` Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care : characteristics and quality '' . Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine . 14 ( 10 ) : 199 -- 213 . Jump up ^ Uebelacker , L.A. ; Epstein - Lubow , G. ; Gaudiano , B.A. ; Tremont , G. ; Battle , C.L. ; Miller , I.W. ( 2010 ) . `` Hatha yoga for depression : critical review of the evidence for efficacy , plausible mechanisms of action , and directions for future research '' . Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 16 ( 1 ) : 22 -- 33 . doi : 10.1097 / 01. pra. 0000367775.88388. 96 . PMID 20098228 . Jump up ^ Cramer , Holger ; Lauche , Romy ; Haller , Heidemarie ; Dobos , Gustav ( May 2013 ) . `` A Systematic Review and Meta - analysis of Yoga for Low Back Pain '' . The Clinical Journal of Pain . 29 ( 5 ) : 450 -- 460 . doi : 10.1097 / AJP. 0b013e31825e1492 . Jump up ^ Swain , T.A. ; McGwin , G. ( 2016 ) . `` Yoga - Related Injuries in the United States From 2001 to 2014 '' . Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine . 4 ( 11 ) : 2325967116671703 . doi : 10.1177 / 2325967116671703 . PMC 5117171 . PMID 27896293 . Jump up ^ Distasio , S. A ( 2008 ) . `` Integrating yoga into cancer care '' . Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing. 12 ( 1 ) : 125 -- 30 . doi : 10.1188 / 08. CJON. 125 - 130 . PMID 18258582 . Jump up ^ Sadja , J ; Mills , P. J ( 2013 ) . `` Effects of Yoga Interventions on Fatigue in Cancer Patients and Survivors : A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials '' . EXPLORE : the Journal of Science and Healing. 9 ( 4 ) : 232 -- 243 . doi : 10.1016 / j. explore. 2013.04. 005 . PMC 3781173 . PMID 23906102 . Jump up ^ Cramer , H ; Langhorst , J ; Dobos , G ; Lauche , R ( 22 August 2016 ) . `` Yoga for metabolic syndrome : A systematic review and meta - analysis '' . European journal of preventive cardiology. 23 ( 18 ) : 1982 -- 1993 . doi : 10.1177 / 2047487316665729 . PMID 27550905 . ^ Jump up to : Penman , Stephen ; Cohen , Marc ; Stevens , Philip ; Jackson , Sue ( 2012 ) . `` Yoga in Australia : Results of a national survey '' . IJOY , International Journal of Yoga. 5 ( 2 ) : 92 -- 101 . doi : 10.4103 / 0973 - 6131.98217 . PMC 3410203 . PMID 22869991 . ^ Jump up to : Broad , William J. ( 5 January 2012 ) . `` How Yoga Can Wreck Your Body '' . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved 29 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Broad , William J. ( 7 February 2012 ) . The Science of Yoga The Risks and the Rewards ( hardcover ) ( 1st ed . ) . Simon & Schuster . p. 336 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4516 - 4142 - 4 . Jump up ^ Walters , Joanna ( 14 January 2012 ) . `` ' Yoga can damage your body ' article throws exponents off - balance : A $5 bn industry is outraged over a New York Times article saying that the keep fit regime is bad for your body '' . The Guardian , The Observer . Retrieved 29 August 2012 . Jump up ^ Cite error : The named reference DM82912 was invoked but never defined ( see the help page ) . Jump up ^ Biffl , Walter L. ; Moore , Ernest E. ; Elliott , J. Paul ; Ray , Charles ; Offner , Patrick J. ; Franciose , Reginald J. ; Brega , Kerry E. ; Burch , Jon M. ( May 2000 ) . `` The Devastating Potential of Blunt Vertebral Arterial Injuries '' . Annals of Surgery . 231 ( 5 ) : 672 -- 681 . doi : 10.1097 / 00000658 - 200005000 - 00007 . PMC 1421054 . PMID 10767788 . Jump up ^ Critchley , E.M. ( June 1984 ) . `` Non-atheromatous causes of cerebral infarction '' ( PDF ) . Postgraduate Medical Journal . 60 ( 704 ) : 386 -- 390 . doi : 10.1136 / pgmj. 60.704. 386 . PMC 2417905 . PMID 6379628 . Retrieved 21 November 2012 . Jump up ^ Kang , Chan ; Hwang , Deuk - Soo ; Cha , Soo - Min ( December 2009 ) . `` Acetabular Labral Tears in Patients with Sports Injury '' . Clinics in Sports Injury . 1 ( 4 ) : 230 -- 235 . doi : 10.4055 / cios. 2009.1. 4.230 . PMC 2784964 . PMID 19956481 . Jump up ^ Daniel June ( 2 July 2013 ) . `` California Judge Says Yoga is Secular , Approves its Use in Schools '' . JD Journal . ^ Jump up to : Steinfels , Peter ( 7 January 1990 ) . `` Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East '' . New York Times . Retrieved 5 December 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 22 August 2011 . Retrieved 9 June 2014 . Bishop Raffaello Martinelli presentation Jump up ^ http://www.webdiocesi.chiesacattolica.it/cci_new/documenti_diocesi/80/2013-01/23-236/AdA-201301-Opera-Completa.pdf Argomenti di Attualità mons . Raffaello Martinelli ed. gennaio 2013 Page 135 Jump up ^ `` Vatican sounds New Age alert '' . BBC . 4 February 2003 . Retrieved 27 August 2013 . Jump up ^ Teasdale , Wayne ( 2004 ) . Catholicism in dialogue : conversations across traditions . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 74 . ISBN 0 - 7425 - 3178 - 3 . Jump up ^ Mohler , R. Albert Jr . `` The Subtle Body -- Should Christians Practice Yoga ? '' . Retrieved 14 January 2011 . Jump up ^ Handbook of vocational psychology by W. Bruce Walsh , Mark Savickas 2005 ISBN 0 - 8058 - 4517 - 8 page 358 Jump up ^ `` 1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian Meditation '' . Ewtn.com . Retrieved 28 November 2012 . 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Sociology of Religion . ^ Jump up to : S Pines and T Gelblum ( Translators from Arabic to English , 1966 ) , Al - Bīrūni ( Translator from Sanskrit to Arabic , ~ 1035 AD ) , and Patañjali , Al - Bīrūnī 's Arabic Version of Patañjali 's `` Yogasūtra '' , Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Vol. 29 , No. 2 ( 1966 ) , pages 302 -- 325 Jump up ^ David White ( 2014 ) , The `` Yoga Sutra of Patanjali '' -- A Biography , Princeton University Press , ISBN 978 - 1 - 4008 - 5005 - 1 Jump up ^ Philipp Maas ( 2013 ) , A Concise Historiography of Classical Yoga Philosophy , in Periodization and Historiography of Indian Philosophy ( Editor : Eli Franco ) , Sammlung de Nobili , Institut für Südasien - , Tibet - und Buddhismuskunde der Universität Wien , ISBN 978 - 3 - 900271 - 43 - 5 , pages 53 -- 90 , OCLC 858797956 Jump up ^ Satish Chandra ( 2007 ) , Historiography , Religion , and State in Medieval India , ISBN 978 - 8124100356 , pages 135 -- 136 Jump up ^ Ernst , C.W. ( 2005 ) . `` Situating Sufism and Yoga '' . Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society . 15 : 15 -- 43 . doi : 10.1017 / S1356186304004675 . Jump up ^ `` Situating Sufism and Yoga '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved 5 September 2010 . Jump up ^ Carl W. Ernst , Persecution and Circumspection in Shattari Sufism , in Islamic Mysticism Contested : Thirteen Centuries of Debate and Conflict ( Editors : Fred De Jong and Berndt Radtke ) , Brill , 1999 Jump up ^ `` Sidang Media -- Fatwa Yoga '' . Islam.gov.my . Archived from the original on 6 January 2009 . Retrieved 5 September 2010 . Quote : The Fatwas of Religious Council in Islamic affairs on Yoga . After carefully studied various reports and factual data , the Council unanimously agreed that this ancient India religious teachings , which involves physical and mental exercises , are Hinduism in nature known as wahdat al - wujud philosophy ( oneness of existence ; the realization of identity between the Self in man , Atman ; and the Divine , BRAHMAN : ' Brahman is all , and Atman is Brahman ' ) . It is prohibited ( haram ) for Muslims to practice it . Jump up ^ Top Islamic body : Yoga is not for Muslims -- MSNBC Jump up ^ `` Mixed reactions to yoga ban '' . Thestar.com.my. 23 November 2008 . Archived from the original on 22 June 2011 . Retrieved 5 September 2010 . Jump up ^ Paul Babie and Neville Rochow ( 2012 ) , Freedom of Religion Under Bills of Rights , University of Adelaide Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 9871718 - 0 - 1 , page 98 Jump up ^ `` Malaysia leader : Yoga for Muslims OK without chant Archived 31 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. , '' Saudi Gazette Jump up ^ `` Indonesian clerics issue yoga ban '' . BBC News . 25 January 2009 . Retrieved 6 April 2010 . Jump up ^ `` rediff.com : Why give yoga religious connotation : Deoband '' . Specials.rediff.com. 29 January 2009 . Retrieved 5 September 2010 . Jump up ^ Andrea R. Jain ( 2014 ) , Selling Yoga : From Counterculture to Pop Culture , Oxford University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 939024 - 3 , page 195 ; Archive : Find alternative to yoga , urges Jakim Archived 8 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine . New Strait Times , Malaysia Jump up ^ `` The perils of yoga : Conservative clerics are wary of a popular pastime '' . Economist.com . Jump up ^ `` It 's OK to stretch , just do n't believe '' . 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ISBN 978 - 0 - 86547 - 736 - 0 . Crangle , Edward Fitzpatrick ( 1994 ) , The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices , Otto Harrassowitz Verlag Dhillon , Dalbir Singh ( 1988 ) . Sikhism , Origin and Development . Atlantic Publishers . GGKEY : BYKZE4QTGJH . De Michelis , Elizabeth ( 2004 ) . A History of Modern Yoga . London : Continuum . ISBN 0 - 8264 - 8772 - 6 . Dumoulin , Heinrich ; Heisig , James W. ; Knitter , Paul F. ( 2005 ) . Zen Buddhism : a History : India and China . World Wisdom , Inc . ISBN 978 - 0 - 941532 - 89 - 1 . Eliade , Mircea ( 1958 ) . Yoga : Immortality and Freedom . Princeton : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 14203 - 6 . Feuerstein , Georg ( 1996 ) . The Shambhala Guide to Yoga . 1st ed . Boston & London : Shambhala Publications . Flood , Gavin D. ( 1996 ) , An Introduction to Hinduism , Cambridge University Press Fowler , Jeaneane D. ( 2012 ) . The Bhagavad Gita : A Text and Commentary for Students . Sussex Academic Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 84519 - 346 - 1 . Goldberg , Philip ( 2010 ) . American Veda . From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation . How Indian Spirituality Changed the West . New York : Harmony Books . ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 52134 - 5 . Gambhirananda , Swami ( 1998 ) . Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita : With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā . Calcutta : Advaita Ashrama Publication Department . ISBN 81 - 7505 - 194 - 9 . Hari Dass , Baba ( 1978 ) , Ashtanga Yoga Primer , Santa Cruz : Sri Ram Publishing , pp. bk . cover , ISBN 978 - 0 - 918100 - 04 - 7 Jacobsen , Knut A. ; Larson , Gerald James ( 2005 ) . Theory And Practice of Yoga : Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson . BRILL . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 14757 - 7 . Larson , Gerald James ( 2008 ) . The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies : Yoga : India 's philosophy of meditation . Motilal Banarsidass . ISBN 978 - 81 - 208 - 3349 - 4 . Lidell , Lucy ( 1983 ) . The Sivananda Companion to Yoga ( PDF ) . London : Gaia Books Limited . ISBN 0 - 684 - 87000 - 2 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 22 July 2014 . Mallinson , James ( 2011 ) , `` Haṭha Yoga '' , in Jacobsen , Knut A. ; Basu , Helene , Brill 's Encyclopedia of Hinduism . Volume Three , BRILL McEvilley , Thomas ( 2002 ) . The shape of ancient thought . Allworth Communications . ISBN 978 - 1 - 58115 - 203 - 6 . Müller , Max ( 1899 ) . Six Systems of Indian Philosophy ; Samkhya and Yoga , Naya and Vaiseshika . Calcutta : Susil Gupta ( India ) Ltd . ISBN 0 - 7661 - 4296 - 5 . Reprint edition ; Originally published under the title of `` The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy . '' Possehl , Gregory ( 2003 ) . The Indus Civilization : A Contemporary Perspective . AltaMira Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7591 - 0172 - 2 . Radhakrishnan , S. ; Moore , CA ( 1967 ) . A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy . Princeton . ISBN 0 - 691 - 01958 - 4 . Samuel , Geoffrey ( 2008 ) , The Origins of Yoga and Tantra , Cambridge University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 521 - 69534 - 3 Satyananda , Swami ( 2008 ) . Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha ( PDF ) . Munger : Yoga Publications Trust . ISBN 978 - 81 - 86336 - 14 - 4 . Taimni , I.K. ( 1961 ) . The Science of Yoga . Adyar , India : The Theosophical Publishing House . ISBN 81 - 7059 - 212 - 7 . Werner , Karel ( 1998 ) . Yoga And Indian Philosophy ( 1977 , Reprinted in 1998 ) . Motilal Banarsidass Publ . ISBN 81 - 208 - 1609 - 9 . Whicher , Ian ( 1998 ) . The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana : A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga . SUNY Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7914 - 3815 - 2 . White , David Gordon ( 2011 ) , Yoga , Brief History of an Idea ( Chapter 1 of `` Yoga in practice '' ) ( PDF ) , Princeton University Press White , David Gordon ( 2014 ) , The `` Yoga Sutra of Patanjali '' : A Biography , Princeton University Press Worthington , Vivian ( 1982 ) . A History of Yoga . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 7100 - 9258 - X . Wynne , Alexander `` The Origin of Buddhist Meditation . '' Routledge , 2007 , ISBN 1 - 134 - 09741 - 7 . Zimmer , Heinrich ( 1951 ) , Philosophies of India , New York , New York : Princeton University Press , ISBN 0 - 691 - 01758 - 1 Bollingen Series XXVI ; Edited by Joseph Cambell . Zydenbos , Robert . Jainism Today and Its Future . München : Manya Verlag , 2006 . p. 66 Further reading De Michelis , Elizabeth ( 2005 ) . A History of Modern Yoga . Continuum . Kenny , Molly ( 2001 ) . Integrated Movement Therapy . Continuum . 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8762213623570202963 | Mass production | Mass production - wikipedia Mass production This article is about large - scale production . For the creation of matter , see mass generation . For other us es , see Mass Production ( disambiguation ) . Mass production of Consolidated B - 32 Dominator airplanes at Consolidated Aircraft Plant No. 4 , near Fort Worth , Texas , during World War II . A modern automobile assembly line Mass production , also known as flow production or continuous production , is the production of large amounts of standardized products , including and especially on assembly lines . Together with job production and batch production , it is one of the three main production methods . The term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopædia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company . The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article . The concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products , from fluids and particulates handled in bulk ( such as food , fuel , chemicals , and mined minerals ) to discrete solid parts ( such as fasteners ) to assemblies of such parts ( such as household appliances and automobiles ) . Mass production is a diverse field , but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing . Some mass production techniques , such as standardized sizes and production lines , predate the Industrial Revolution by many centuries ; however , it was not until the introduction of machine tools and techniques to produce interchangeable parts were developed in the mid 19th century that modern mass production was possible . Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2.1 Pre-industrial 2.2 Industrial 2.3 Factory electrification 3 The use of assembly lines 4 Vertical integration 5 Advantages and disadvantages 6 Socioeconomic impacts 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Overview ( edit ) Mass production involves making many copies of products , very quickly , using assembly line techniques to send partially complete products to workers who each work on an individual step , rather than having a worker work on a whole product from start to finish . Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors ( augers ) to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels . Fluid flow processes such as oil refining and bulk materials such as wood chips and pulp are automated using a system of process control which uses various instruments to measure variables such as temperature , pressure , volumetric and level , providing feedback Bulk materials such as coal , ores , grains and wood chips are handled by belt , chain , slat , pneumatic or screw conveyors , bucket elevators and mobile equipment such as front - end loaders . Materials on pallets are handled with forklifts . Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper , steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes , sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays . Mass production is capital intensive and energy intensive , as it uses a high proportion of machinery and energy in relation to workers . It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased . However , the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line ( such as robots and machine presses ) is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits . One of the descriptions of mass production is that `` the skill is built into the tool '' , which means that the worker using the tool may not need the skill . For example , in the 19th or early 20th century , this could be expressed as `` the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself '' ( not the training of the worker ) . Rather than having a skilled worker measure every dimension of each part of the product against the plans or the other parts as it is being formed , there were jigs ready at hand to ensure that the part was made to fit this set - up . It had already been checked that the finished part would be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts -- and it would be made more quickly , with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another . Later , once computerized control came about ( for example , CNC ) , jigs were obviated , but it remained true that the skill ( or knowledge ) was built into the tool ( or process , or documentation ) rather than residing in the worker 's head . This is the specialized capital required for mass production ; each workbench and set of tools ( or each CNC cell , or each fractionating column ) is different ( fine - tuned to its task ) . History ( edit ) Pre-industrial ( edit ) Standardized parts and sizes and factory production techniques were developed in pre-industrial times ; however , before the invention of machine tools the manufacture of precision parts , especially metal ones , was very labor - intensive . This woodcut from 1568 shows the left printer removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text - blocks . Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day , printing around 3,600 pages in the process . Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period . The Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons , which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts . Ships of war were produced on a large scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors , allowing them to efficiently maintain their control of the Mediterranean . The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later . The Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day , in what was effectively the world 's first factory which , at its height , employed 16,000 people . Mass production in the publishing industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century . Industrial ( edit ) In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships ' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars . It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham . A pulley block for rigging on a sailing ship . By 1808 , annual production in Portsmouth reached 130,000 blocks . The Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year . Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power - driven machinery and reorganising the dockyard system . Brunel , a pioneering engineer , and Maudslay , a pioneer of machine tool technology who had developed the first industrially practical screw - cutting lathe in 1800 which standardized screw thread sizes for the first time which in turn allowed the application of interchangeable parts , collaborated on plans to manufacture block - making machinery . By 1805 , the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary , purpose - built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components . A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks , which could be made into one of three possible sizes . The machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability . The machines would make markings and indentations on the blocks to ensure alignment throughout the process . One of the many advantages of this new method was the increase in labour productivity due to the less labour - intensive requirements of managing the machinery . Richard Beamish , assistant to Brunel 's son and engineer , Isambard Kingdom Brunel , wrote : So that ten men , by the aid of this machinery , can accomplish with uniformity , celerity and ease , what formerly required the uncertain labour of one hundred and ten . By 1808 , annual production from the 45 machines had reached 130,000 blocks and some of the equipment was still in operation as late as the mid-twentieth century . Mass production techniques were also used to rather limited extent to make clocks and watches , and to make small arms , though parts were usually non-interchangeable . Though produced on a very small scale , Crimean War gunboat engines designed and assembled by John Penn of Greenwich are recorded as the first instance of the application of mass production techniques ( though not necessarily the assembly - line method ) to marine engineering . In filling an Admiralty order for 90 sets to his high - pressure and high - revolution horizontal trunk engine design , Penn produced them all in 90 days . He also used Whitworth Standard threads throughout . Prerequisites for the wide use of mass production were interchangeable parts , machine tools and power , especially in the form of electricity . Some of the organizational management concepts needed to create 20th - century mass production , such as scientific management , had been pioneered by other engineers ( most of whom are not famous , but Frederick Winslow Taylor is one of the well - known ones ) , whose work would later be synthesized into fields such as industrial engineering , manufacturing engineering , operations research , and management consultancy . Although after leaving the Henry Ford Company which was rebranded as Cadillac and later was awarded the Dewar Trophy in 1908 for creating interchangeable mass - produced precision engine parts , Henry Ford downplayed the role of Taylorism in the development of mass production at his company . However , Ford management performed time studies and experiments to mechanize their factory processes , focusing on minimizing worker movements . The difference is that while Taylor focused mostly on efficiency of the worker , Ford also substituted for labor by using machines , thoughtfully arranged , wherever possible . In 1807 , Eli Terry was hired to produce 4,000 wooden movement clocks in the Porter Contract . At this time , the annual yield for wooden clocks did not exceed a few dozen on average . Terry developed a Milling machine in 1795 , in which he perfected Interchangeable parts . In 1807 , Terry developed a spindle cutting machine , which could produce multiple parts at the same time . Terry hired Silas Hoadley and Seth Thomas to work the Assembly line at the facilities . The Porter Contract was the first contract which called for mass production of clock movements in history . In 1815 , Terry began mass producing the first shelf clock . Chauncey Jerome , an apprentice of Eli Terry mass produced up to 20,000 brass clocks annually in 1840 when he invented the cheap 30 hour OG clock . The United States Department of War sponsored the development of interchangeable parts for guns produced at the arsenals at Springfield , Massachusetts and Harpers Ferry , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) in the early decades of the 19th century , finally achieving reliable interchangeability by about 1850 . This period coincided with the development of machine tools , with the armories designing and building many of their own . Some of the methods employed were a system of gauges for checking dimensions of the various parts and jigs and fixtures for guiding the machine tools and properly holding and aligning the work pieces . This system came to be known as armory practice or the American system of manufacturing , which spread throughout New England aided by skilled mechanics from the armories who were instrumental in transferring the technology to the sewing machines manufacturers and other industries such as machine tools , harvesting machines and bicycles . Singer Manufacturing Co. , at one time the largest sewing machine manufacturer , did not achieve interchangeable parts until the late 1880s , around the same time Cyrus McCormick adopted modern manufacturing practices in making harvesting machines . Mass production benefited from the development of materials such as inexpensive steel , high strength steel and plastics . Machining of metals was greatly enhanced with high speed steel and later very hard materials such as tungsten carbide for cutting edges . Fabrication using steel components was aided by the development of electric welding and stamped steel parts , both which appeared in industry in about 1890 . Plastics such as polyethylene , polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride ( PVC ) can be easily formed into shapes by extrusion , blow molding or injection molding , resulting in very low cost manufacture of consumer products , plastic piping , containers and parts . An influential article that helped to frame and popularize the 20th century 's definition of mass production appeared in a 1926 Encyclopædia Britannica supplement . The article was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company and is sometimes credited as the first use of the term . Factory Electrification ( edit ) Electrification of factories began very gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of a practical DC motor by Frank J. Sprague and accelerated after the AC motor was developed by Galileo Ferraris , Nikola Tesla and Westinghouse , Mikhail Dolivo - Dobrovolsky and others . Electrification of factories was fastest between 1900 and 1930 , aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917 . Electric motors were several times more efficient than small steam engines because central station generation were more efficient than small steam engines and because line shafts and belts had high friction losses . Electric motors allowed also more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts . Many factories saw a 30 % increase in output just from changing over to electric motors . Electrification enabled modern mass production , as with Thomas Edison 's iron ore processing plant ( about 1893 ) that could process 20,000 tons of ore per day with two shifts of five men each . At that time it was still common to handle bulk materials with shovels , wheelbarrows and small narrow gauge rail cars , and for comparison , a canal digger in previous decades typically handled 5 tons per 12 - hour day . The biggest impact of early mass production was in manufacturing everyday items , such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company , which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie , Indiana , U.S. around 1900 . The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers . A small electric truck was used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time where previously a hand truck would carry 6 dozen . Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace . An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory . According to Henry Ford : The provision of a whole new system of electric generation emancipated industry from the leather belt and line shaft , for it eventually became possible to provide each tool with its own electric motor . This may seem only a detail of minor importance . In fact , modern industry could not be carried out with the belt and line shaft for a number of reasons . The motor enabled machinery to be arranged in the order of the work , and that alone has probably doubled the efficiency of industry , for it has cut out a tremendous amount of useless handling and hauling . The belt and line shaft were also tremendously wasteful -- so wasteful indeed that no factory could be really large , for even the longest line shaft was small according to modern requirements . Also high speed tools were impossible under the old conditions -- neither the pulleys nor the belts could stand modern speeds . Without high speed tools and the finer steels which they brought about , there could be nothing of what we call modern industry . The assembly plant of the Bell Aircraft Corporation in 1944 . Note parts of overhead crane at both sides of photo near top . Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford 's Ford Motor Company , when introduced electric motors to the then - well - known technique of chain or sequential production . Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture . All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining position . Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools . The use of assembly lines ( edit ) Ford assembly line , 1913 . The magneto assembly line was the first . Mass production systems for items made of numerous parts are usually organized into assembly lines . The assemblies pass by on a conveyor , or if they are heavy , hung from an overhead crane or monorail . In a factory for a complex product , rather than one assembly line , there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies ( i.e. car engines or seats ) to a backbone `` main '' assembly line . A diagram of a typical mass - production factory looks more like the skeleton of a fish than a single line . Vertical integration ( edit ) Vertical integration is a business practice that involves gaining complete control over a product 's production , from raw materials to final assembly . In the age of mass production , this caused shipping and trade problems in that shipping systems were unable to transport huge volumes of finished automobiles ( in Henry Ford 's case ) without causing damage , and also government policies imposed trade barriers on finished units . Ford built the Ford River Rouge Complex with the idea of making the company 's own iron and steel in the same large factory site as parts and car assembly took place . River Rouge also generated its own electricity . Upstream vertical integration , such as to raw materials , is away from leading technology toward mature , low return industries . Most companies chose to focus on their core business rather than vertical integration . This included buying parts from outside suppliers , who could often produce them as cheaply or cheaper . Standard Oil , the major oil company in the 19th century , was vertically integrated partly because there was no demand for unrefined crude oil , but kerosene and some other products were in great demand . The other reason was that Standard Oil monopolized the oil industry . The major oil companies were , and many still are , vertically integrated , from production to refining and with their own retail stations , although some sold off their retail operations . Some oil companies also have chemical divisions . Lumber and paper companies at one time owned most of their timber lands and sold some finished products such as corrugated boxes . The tendency has been to divest of timber lands to raise cash and to avoid property taxes . Advantages and disadvantages ( edit ) The economies of mass production come from several sources . The primary cause is a reduction of nonproductive effort of all types . In craft production , the craftsman must bustle about a shop , getting parts and assembling them . He must locate and use many tools many times for varying tasks . In mass production , each worker repeats one or a few related tasks that use the same tool to perform identical or near - identical operations on a stream of products . The exact tool and parts are always at hand , having been moved down the assembly line consecutively . The worker spends little or no time retrieving and / or preparing materials and tools , and so the time taken to manufacture a product using mass production is shorter than when using traditional methods . The probability of human error and variation is also reduced , as tasks are predominantly carried out by machinery ; error in operating such machinery , however , has more far - reaching consequences . A reduction in labour costs , as well as an increased rate of production , enables a company to produce a larger quantity of one product at a lower cost than using traditional , non-linear methods . However , mass production is inflexible because it is difficult to alter a design or production process after a production line is implemented . Also , all products produced on one production line will be identical or very similar , and introducing variety to satisfy individual tastes is not easy . However , some variety can be achieved by applying different finishes and decorations at the end of the production line if necessary . The starter cost for the machinery can be expensive so the producer must be sure it sells or the producers will lose a lot of money . The Ford Model T produced tremendous affordable output but was not very good at responding to demand for variety , customization , or design changes . As a consequence Ford eventually lost market share to General Motors , who introduced annual model changes , more accessories and a choice of colors . With each passing decade , engineers have found ways to increase the flexibility of mass production systems , driving down the lead times on new product development and allowing greater customization and variety of products . Socioeconomic impacts ( edit ) In the 1830s , French political thinker and historian Alexis de Tocqueville identified one of the key characteristics of America that would later make it so amenable to the development of mass production : the homogeneous consumer base . De Tocqueville wrote in his Democracy in America ( 1835 ) that `` The absence in the United States of those vast accumulations of wealth which favor the expenditures of large sums on articles of mere luxury ... impact to the productions of American industry a character distinct from that of other countries ' industries . ( Production is geared toward ) articles suited to the wants of the whole people '' . Mass production improved productivity , which was a contributing factor to economic growth and the decline in work week hours , alongside other factors such as transportation infrastructures ( canals , railroads and highways ) and agricultural mechanization . These factors caused the typical work week to decline from 70 hours in the early 19th century to 60 hours late in the century , then to 50 hours in the early 20th century and finally to 40 hours in the mid-1930s . Mass production permitted great increases in total production . Using a European crafts system into the late 19th century it was difficult to meet demand for products such as sewing machines and animal powered mechanical harvesters . By the late 1920s many previously scarce goods were in good supply . One economist has argued that this constituted `` overproduction '' and contributed to high unemployment during the Great Depression . Say 's law denies the possibility of general overproduction and for this reason classical economists deny that it had any role in the Great Depression . Mass production allowed the evolution of consumerism by lowering the unit cost of many goods used . See also ( edit ) Companies portal Business and economics portal Batch production Craft production Continuous production Culture industry Fast - moving consumer goods Ford Model T Industrial engineering Instant manufacturing Job production Just - in - time Lean manufacturing Manufacturing Mass market Operations management Outline of industrial organization Pilot plant Production , costs , and pricing Scientific management Second Industrial Revolution Technological revolution References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Production Methods , BBC GCSE Bitesize , retrieved 2012 - 10 - 26 . ^ Jump up to : Hounshell , David A. ( 1984 ) , From the American System to Mass Production , 1800 - 1932 : The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States , Baltimore , Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press , ISBN 978 - 0 - 8018 - 2975 - 8 , LCCN 83016269 Jump up ^ Wolf 1974 , pp. 67f. : From old price tables it can be deduced that the capacity of a printing press around 1600 , assuming a fifteen - hour workday , was between 3,200 and 3,600 impressions per day . Jump up ^ Mass - Produced Pre-Han Chinese Bronze Crossbow Triggers : Unparalleled Manufacturing Technology in the Ancient World . by David Williams . Arms & Armour , Volume 5 , Number 2 , October 2008 , pp. 142 - 153 ( 12 ) http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/aaa/2008/00000005/00000002/art00003 Archived 11 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Jump up to : `` The Portsmouth blockmaking machinery '' . makingthemodernworld.org Jump up ^ `` Portsmouth Royal Dockyard Historical Trust : History 1690 - 1840 '' . portsmouthdockyard.org . Jump up ^ Osborn , G.A. ( 1965 ) . `` The Crimean War gunboats , part 1 '' . The Mariner 's Mirror. 51 ( 2 ) : 103 -- 116 . doi : 10.1080 / 00253359.1965. 10657815 . Jump up ^ The Times . 24 January 1887 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ Roberts , Kenneth D. , and Snowden Taylor . Eli Terry and the Connecticut Shelf Clock . Ken Roberts Publishing , 1994 . Jump up ^ Ayres , Robert ( 1989 ) . `` Technological Transformations and Long Waves '' ( PDF ) : 36Fig. 12 , Machining speed for steel axle Jump up ^ Jerome , Harry ( 1934 ) . Mechanization in Industry , National Bureau of Economic Research . p. xxviii . Jump up ^ Devine , Jr. , Warren D. ( 1983 ) . `` From Shafts to Wires : Historical Perspective on Electrification , Journal of Economic History , Vol. 43 , Issue 2 '' ( PDF ) : 355 . Jump up ^ Smil , Vaclav ( 2005 ) . Creating the Twentieth Century : Technical Innovations of 1867 - 1914 and Their Lasting Impact . Oxford and New York : Oxford University Press . Jump up ^ Nye , David E. ( 1990 ) . Electrifying America : Social Meanings of a New Technology . Cambridge , Massachusetts and London , England : MIT Press . pp. 14 , 15 . Jump up ^ Ford , Henry ; Crowther , Samuel ( 1930 ) . Edison as I Know Him . New York : Cosmopolitan Book Company . p. 15 ( on line edition ) . Jump up ^ Hounshell 1984 Jump up ^ Hounshell 1984 , p. 288 Jump up ^ Womack , Jones , Roos ; The Machine That Changed The World , Rawson & Associates , New York . Published by Simon & Schuster , 1990 . Jump up ^ Beaudreau , Bernard C. ( 1996 ) . Mass Production , the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression : The Macroeconomics of Electrification . New York , Lincoln , Shanghi : Authors Choice Press . Further reading ( edit ) Beaudreau , Bernard C. ( 1996 ) . Mass Production , the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression . New York , Lincoln , Shanghi : Authors Choice Press . Borth , Christy . Masters of Mass Production , Bobbs - Merrill Company , Indianapolis , IN , 1945 . Herman , Arthur . Freedom 's Forge : How American Business Produced Victory in World War II , Random House , New York , NY , 2012 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4000 - 6964 - 4 . External links ( edit ) Quotations related to Mass production at Wikiquote Media related to Mass production at Wikimedia Commons Production approaches Made to order ( MTO ) Make to stock ( MTS ) Assemble - to - order system ( ATO ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mass_production&oldid=854549451 '' Categories : History of science and technology in the United States Industrial processes Mass production Hidden categories : Webarchive template wayback links Pages with citations lacking titles CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Use dmy dates from December 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Afrikaans Asturianu Azərbaycanca Bân - lâm - gú Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 33 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 August 2018 , at 04 : 51 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | who introduced the idea of using mass-produced interchangeable parts in manufacturing (points 3) | [] | [] |
4989486900121221203 | List of NBA franchise post-season droughts | List of NBA franchise post-season droughts - wikipedia List of NBA franchise post-season droughts Jump to : navigation , search This is a list of National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise post-season appearance droughts . This list includes the all - time and the active consecutive non-playoffs . Aside from the NBA playoff appearance droughts , this list also includes droughts of series wins , appearances in the NBA Finals and NBA championship wins . The teams which have never made an NBA Playoffs appearance , an NBA Finals appearance championship . The oldest such franchise is the Suns ( 48 seasons ) , while the Royals / Kings and the Hawks have even longer championship droughts ( 67 and 60 seasons , respectively ) . Seven franchises have never been to the NBA Finals , the highest number among the major North American sports . The oldest such team is the Braves / Clippers franchise ( 45 seasons ) ; the Kings and the Hawks have appearance droughts that are even longer ( 65 and 58 seasons , respectively ) . The longest a franchise has gone without appearing in the playoffs at all is 15 seasons : the Braves / Clippers franchise from 1977 to 1991 . Of the 18 franchises that have won an NBA championship , 8 have droughts of 35 seasons or more , which is to say that the past 34 championships ( plus the 2018 Championship ) have been shared among only 10 franchises : the Lakers ( 8 ) , the Bulls ( 6 ) , the Spurs ( 5 ) , the Celtics ( 3 ) , the Pistons ( 3 ) , the Heat ( 3 ) , the Rockets ( 2 ) , the Warriors ( 2 ) , the Mavericks ( 1 ) , and the Cavaliers ( 1 ) . By contrast , the other three major North American sports have each had at least 15 franchises become champions over the same period of time . Contents ( hide ) 1 Active droughts 1.1 NBA Playoffs appearance droughts 1.2 NBA Playoffs series win droughts 1.3 NBA Division Championship droughts 1.4 NBA Conference Finals appearance droughts 1.5 NBA Finals appearance droughts 1.6 NBA championship title droughts 2 All - time droughts 2.1 Closest approaches without winning 2.2 Longest post-season droughts in team history 2.3 Longest NBA Playoffs appearance droughts 2.4 Longest Conference finals droughts 3 Finals droughts 3.1 NBA Finals in which neither team had previously won a championship 3.2 NBA Finals in which neither franchise had won a championship in 20 - plus seasons 4 Teams awaiting their first NBA championship 4.1 Cities awaiting first NBA championship 5 See also 6 References Active droughts ( edit ) NBA Playoffs appearance droughts ( edit ) Appearance droughts updated through the 2018 playoffs . Playoff picture at NBA.com Longest drought in team history Seasons Team Last earned appearance in NBA playoffs Reference 12 Sacramento Kings ^ 2006 First Round 8 Phoenix Suns ^ 2010 Western Finals 6 Orlando Magic ^ 2012 First Round 5 Los Angeles Lakers ^ 2013 First Round 5 Denver Nuggets 2013 First Round 5 New York Knicks 2013 Eastern Semifinals Brooklyn Nets 2015 First Round Charlotte Hornets 2016 First Round Detroit Pistons 2016 First Round Dallas Mavericks 2016 First Round Chicago Bulls 2017 First Round Memphis Grizzlies 2017 First Round Atlanta Hawks 2017 First Round Los Angeles Clippers 2017 First Round 2018 Playoff teams -- Indiana Pacers 2018 First Round -- Miami Heat 2018 First Round -- Washington Wizards 2018 First Round -- Milwaukee Bucks 2018 First Round -- Portland Trail Blazers 2018 First Round -- Oklahoma City Thunder 2018 First Round -- San Antonio Spurs 2018 First Round -- Minnesota Timberwolves 2018 First Round -- Philadelphia 76ers 2018 Eastern Semifinals -- Toronto Raptors 2018 Eastern Semifinals -- New Orleans Pelicans 2018 Western Semifinals -- Utah Jazz 2018 Western Semifinals -- Boston Celtics 2018 Eastern Finals -- Houston Rockets 2018 Western Finals -- Golden State Warriors 2018 NBA Finals -- Cleveland Cavaliers 2018 NBA Finals NBA playoffs series win droughts ( edit ) Droughts updated through May 28 , 2018 . Playoff picture at NBA.com 0 ^ 0 Longest drought in team history 0 † 0 Tied for Longest drought in team history 0 0 Most consecutive series losses in team history 0 ♣ ♣ 0 Most consecutive losses in NBA history Current Playoff series loss streak Team Last series win in NBA Playoffs Seasons since win Losing streak Series losses -- teams Ref Milwaukee Bucks ^ 2001 Eastern Semifinals 17 9 ♣ ♣ 2001 Philadelphia 2003 New Jersey Nets 00 2004 Detroit 2006 Detroit 2010 Atlanta 2013 Miami 2015 Chicago 2017 Toronto 2018 Boston Charlotte Hornets ^ 2002 Eastern First Round 14 4 2002 New Jersey Nets 2010 Orlando 2014 Miami 2016 Miami Sacramento Kings 2004 Western First Round 14 2004 Minnesota 2005 Seattle 2006 San Antonio Minnesota Timberwolves † 2004 Western Semifinals 14 2004 Los Angeles Lakers 2018 Houston Detroit Pistons 2008 Eastern Semifinals 10 2008 Boston 2009 Cleveland 2016 Cleveland Denver Nuggets 2009 Western Semifinals 9 5 2009 Los Angeles Lakers 2010 Utah 2011 Oklahoma City 2012 Los Angeles Lakers 2013 Golden State Orlando Magic 2010 Eastern Semifinals 8 2010 Boston 2011 Atlanta 2012 Indiana Phoenix Suns ^ 2010 Western Semifinals 8 2010 Los Angeles Lakers Dallas Mavericks 2011 Finals 7 4 2012 Oklahoma City 2014 San Antonio 2015 Houston 2016 Oklahoma City Los Angeles Lakers ^ 2012 Western First Round 6 2012 Oklahoma City 2013 San Antonio New York Knicks 2013 Eastern First Round 5 2013 Indiana Brooklyn Nets 2014 Eastern First Round 2014 Miami 2015 Atlanta Indiana Pacers 2014 Eastern Semifinals 2014 Miami 2016 Toronto 2017 Cleveland 2018 Cleveland Chicago Bulls 2015 Eastern First Round 2015 Cleveland 2017 Boston Memphis Grizzlies 2015 Western First Round 2015 Golden State 2016 San Antonio Spurs 2017 San Antonio Spurs Los Angeles Clippers 2015 Western First Round 2015 Houston 2016 Portland 2017 Utah Atlanta Hawks 2016 Eastern First Round 2016 Cleveland 2017 Washington Portland Trail Blazers 2016 Western First Round 2016 Golden State 2017 Golden State 2018 New Orleans Miami Heat 2016 Eastern First Round 2016 Toronto 2018 Philadelphia Oklahoma City Thunder 2016 Western Semifinals 2016 Golden State 2017 Houston 2018 Utah Washington Wizards 2017 Eastern First Round 2017 Boston 2018 Toronto San Antonio Spurs 2017 Western Semifinals 2017 Golden State 2018 Golden State z 3000 2018 Playoff Series 0 Winners 3000 3000 Toronto Raptors 2018 Eastern First Round -- 2018 Cleveland Philadelphia 76ers 2018 Eastern First Round -- 2018 Boston New Orleans Pelicans 2018 Western First Round -- 2018 Golden State Utah Jazz 2018 Western First Round -- 2018 Houston Boston Celtics 2018 Eastern Semifinals -- 2018 Cleveland Houston Rockets 2018 Western Semifinals -- 2018 Golden State Cleveland Cavaliers 2018 Eastern Finals -- 0 3 series win streak Golden State Warriors 2018 Western Finals -- 0 7 series win streak Team Last series win in NBA Playoffs Seasons Since win Losing Streak Series Losses -- Teams Ref Charlotte was inactive for two years following the 2001 -- 02 season . NBA division championship droughts ( edit ) Updated through the 2017 - 18 regular season . 0 ^ 0 Longest drought in team history 0 0 2017 -- 18 Division Champion Left click once on Seasons since win column heading then once on Division column heading to show teams listed in order of division championships . Franchise Most recent title Division Seasons since win Charlotte Hornets ^ 1 ! None East ! Southeast 28 Memphis Grizzlies ^ 1.1 ! None West ! Southwest 23 Philadelphia 76ers ^ 2000 -- 01 East ! Atlantic 17 Milwaukee Bucks ^ 2000 -- 01 East ! Central 17 Sacramento Kings 2002 -- 03 West ! Pacific 15 Minnesota Timberwolves 2003 -- 04 West ! Northwest 14 Brooklyn Nets 2005 -- 06 East ! Atlantic 12 Phoenix Suns 2006 -- 07 West ! Pacific 11 New Orleans Pelicans ^ 2007 -- 08 West ! Southwest 10 Detroit Pistons 2007 -- 08 East ! Central 10 Orlando Magic 2009 -- 10 East ! Southeast 8 Dallas Mavericks 2009 -- 10 West ! Southwest 8 Denver Nuggets 2009 -- 10 West ! Northwest 8 Los Angeles Lakers 2011 -- 12 West ! Pacific 6 Chicago Bulls 2011 -- 12 East ! Central 6 New York Knicks 2012 -- 13 East ! Atlantic 5 Indiana Pacers 2013 -- 14 East ! Central Los Angeles Clippers 2013 -- 14 West ! Pacific Atlanta Hawks 2014 -- 15 East ! Southeast Oklahoma City Thunder 2015 -- 16 West ! Northwest Boston Celtics 2016 -- 17 East ! Atlantic San Antonio Spurs 2016 -- 17 West ! Southwest Utah Jazz 2016 -- 17 West ! Northwest Washington Wizards 2016 -- 17 East ! Southeast Miami Heat 2017 -- 18 East ! Southeast - Portland Trail Blazers 2017 -- 18 West ! Northwest - Toronto Raptors 2017 -- 18 East ! Atlantic -- Cleveland Cavaliers 2017 -- 18 East ! Central -- Golden State Warriors 2017 -- 18 West ! Pacific -- Houston Rockets 2017 -- 18 West ! Southwest -- NBA Conference Finals appearance droughts ( edit ) Longest drought in team history † Tied for longest drought in team history Seasons Team Last appearance in Conference Finals Result Reference 48 Los Angeles Clippers ^ Never z -- 39 Washington Wizards ^ 1979 Won vs. San Antonio 28 Charlotte Hornets ^ Never z -- 18 Portland Trail Blazers ^ 2000 Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 18 New York Knicks 2000 Lost vs. Indiana 17 Milwaukee Bucks ^ 2001 Lost vs. Phil 0Lost vs. Philadelphia 0 17 Philadelphia 76ers ^ 2001 Won vs. Milwaukee 16 Sacramento Kings 2002 Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 16 New Orleans Pelicans ^ Never z -- 15 Brooklyn Nets 2003 Won vs. Detroit 14 Minnesota Timberwolves † Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 11 Utah Jazz 2007 Lost vs. San Antonio 10 Detroit Pistons 2008 Lost vs. Boston 9 Denver Nuggets 2009 Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 8 Orlando Magic Lost vs. Boston 8 Phoenix Suns Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 8 Los Angeles Lakers † Won vs. Phoenix 7 Chicago Bulls 2011 Lost vs. Miami 7 Dallas Mavericks 2011 Won vs. Oklahoma 0Won vs. Oklahoma City 0 5 Memphis Grizzlies 2013 Lost vs. San Antonio Miami Heat 2014 Won vs. Indiana Indiana Pacers 2014 Lost vs. Miami Atlanta Hawks 2015 Lost vs. Cleveland Toronto Raptors 2016 Lost vs. Cleveland Oklahoma City Thunder 2016 Lost vs. Golden State San Antonio Spurs 2017 Lost vs. Golden State . 85 Z2018 Conference Finalists 2017.5 zzz 0 Cleveland Cavaliers 2018 Won vs. Boston 0 Boston Celtics 2018 Lost vs. Cleveland 0 Houston Rockets 2018 Lost vs. Golden State 0 Golden State Warriors 2018 Won vs. Houston NBA Finals appearance droughts ( edit ) Seasons Team Last appearance in NBA Finals Result Reference 68 Sacramento Kings 1951 Won vs. New York 58 Atlanta Hawks 1961 Lost vs. Boston 48 Los Angeles Clippers Never yyyy -- 44 Milwaukee Bucks Lost vs. Boston 42 Denver Nuggets Never yyyy -- 39 Washington Wizards 1979 Lost vs. Seattle 29 Minnesota Timberwolves Never yyyy -- 28 Charlotte Hornets Never yyyy -- 26 Portland Trail Blazers 1992 Lost vs. Chicago 25 Phoenix Suns 1993 Lost vs. Chicago 23 Toronto Raptors Never yyyy -- 23 Houston Rockets 1995 Won vs. Orlando 23 Memphis Grizzlies Never yyyy -- 20 Utah Jazz 1998 Lost vs. Chicago 20 Chicago Bulls 1998 Won vs. Utah 19 New York Knicks 1999 Lost vs. San Antonio 18 Indiana Pacers 2000 Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 17 Philadelphia 76ers 2001 Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 16 New Orleans Pelicans Never yyyy -- 15 Brooklyn Nets 2003 Lost vs. San Antonio 13 Detroit Pistons 2005 Lost vs. San Antonio 9 Orlando Magic 2009 Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 8 Boston Celtics Lost vs. Los Angeles Lakers 8 Los Angeles Lakers Won vs. Boston 7 Dallas Mavericks 2011 Won vs. Miami 6 Oklahoma City Thunder 2012 Lost vs. Miami Miami Heat 2014.5 2014 Lost vs. San Antonio San Antonio Spurs 2014.5 2014 Won vs. Miami 0 Z2018 Finalists 2017.5 zzz 0 Cleveland Cavaliers 2018 TBD 0 Golden State Warriors 2018 TBD The Sacramento Kings last appeared in the 1951 NBA Finals as the Rochester Royals . The Atlanta Hawks last appeared in the 1961 NBA Finals as the St. Louis Hawks . The Washington Wizards last appeared in the 1979 Conference Finals and NBA Finals as the Washington Bullets . The Brooklyn Nets last appeared in the 2003 Conference Finals and NBA Finals as the New Jersey Nets . NBA championship title droughts ( edit ) Seasons Team Last NBA championship Reference 68 Sacramento Kings 1951 61 Atlanta Hawks 1958 50 Phoenix Suns Never 48 Los Angeles Clippers Never 47 Milwaukee Bucks 1971 45 New York Knicks 1973 44 Utah Jazz Never 42 Denver Nuggets Never 42 Brooklyn Nets Never 42 Indiana Pacers Never 41 Portland Trail Blazers 1977 40 Washington Wizards 1978 39 Oklahoma City Thunder 1979 35 Philadelphia 76ers 29 Orlando Magic Never 29 Minnesota Timberwolves Never 28 Charlotte Hornets Never 23 Houston Rockets 1995 23 Memphis Grizzlies Never 23 Toronto Raptors Never 20 Chicago Bulls 1998 16 New Orleans Pelicans Never 14 Detroit Pistons 10 Boston Celtics 2008 8 Los Angeles Lakers 7 Dallas Mavericks 2011 5 Miami Heat 2013 San Antonio Spurs 2014 Cleveland Cavaliers 2016 Defending NBA champion 0 Golden State Warriors 2017 The Sacramento Kings last won an NBA championship in 1951 as the Rochester Royals . The Atlanta Hawks last won an NBA championship in 1958 as the St. Louis Hawks . The Washington Wizards last won an NBA championship in 1978 as the Washington Bullets . The Oklahoma City Thunder last won an NBA championship in 1979 as the Seattle SuperSonics . All - time droughts ( edit ) Closest approaches without winning ( edit ) Updated through the 2018 playoffs . Last team to leave list - Cleveland Cavaliers 2016 Team Conference Quarter - Final appearances Conference Semi-Final appearances Conference Final appearances NBA Final appearances Fewest wins short of NBA Championship Brooklyn Nets 19 7 02 wins short : 2003 Indiana Pacers 25 10 8 02 wins short : 2000 Phoenix Suns 26 18 9 02 wins short : 1976 , 1993 Utah Jazz 27 16 6 02 wins short : 1997 , 1998 Orlando Magic 14 5 03 wins short : 2009 Toronto Raptors 10 6 wins short : 2016 Minnesota Timberwolves 9 06 wins short : 2004 Denver Nuggets 22 8 06 wins short : 1978 , 2009 Memphis Grizzlies 10 08 wins short : 2013 Los Angeles Clippers 11 7 9 wins short : 1975 , 2006 , 2015 New Orleans Pelicans 7 9 wins short : 2008 Charlotte Hornets 10 11 wins short : 2002 Longest post-season droughts in team history ( edit ) Updated through the 2018 playoffs . 0 ^ 0 Denotes active drought Team Longest streak with no post-season appearances Seasons Los Angeles Clippers 1976 -- 77 through 1990 -- 91 15 Minnesota Timberwolves 2004 -- 05 through 2016 -- 17 13 Golden State Warriors 1994 -- 95 through 2005 -- 06 12 Sacramento Kings ^ 2006 -- 07 through 2017 -- 18 12 Dallas Mavericks 1990 -- 91 through 1999 -- 2000 10 Utah Jazz 1974 -- 75 through 1982 -- 83 9 Washington Wizards 1988 -- 89 through 1995 -- 96 8 Memphis Grizzlies 1995 -- 96 through 2002 -- 03 8 Denver Nuggets 1995 -- 96 through 2002 -- 03 8 Atlanta Hawks 1999 -- 2000 through 2006 -- 07 8 Phoenix Suns ^ 2010 -- 11 through 2017 -- 18 8 New York Knicks 1959 -- 60 through 1965 -- 66 7 Oklahoma City Thunder 1967 -- 68 through 1973 -- 74 7 Milwaukee Bucks 1991 -- 92 through 1997 -- 98 7 Philadelphia 76ers 1991 -- 92 through 1997 -- 98 7 Cleveland Cavaliers 1998 -- 99 through 2004 -- 05 7 Portland Trail Blazers 1970 -- 71 through 1975 -- 76 6 Detroit Pistons 1977 -- 78 through 1982 -- 83 2009 -- 10 through 2014 -- 15 6 Boston Celtics 1995 -- 96 through 2000 -- 01 6 Chicago Bulls 1998 -- 99 through 2003 -- 04 6 Orlando Magic ^ 2012 -- 13 through 2017 -- 18 6 Houston Rockets 1969 -- 70 through 1973 -- 74 5 Indiana Pacers 1981 -- 82 through 1985 -- 86 5 Brooklyn Nets 1986 -- 87 through 1990 -- 91 & 2007 -- 08 through 2011 -- 12 5 Charlotte Hornets 2004 -- 05 through 2008 -- 09 5 Toronto Raptors 2008 -- 09 through 2012 -- 13 5 Los Angeles Lakers ^ 2013 -- 14 through 2017 -- 18 5 Miami Heat 1988 -- 89 through 1990 -- 91 New Orleans Pelicans 2004 -- 05 through 2006 -- 07 2011 -- 12 through 2013 -- 14 San Antonio Spurs 1983 -- 84 1986 -- 87 1988 -- 89 1996 -- 97 Team Longest streak with no post-season series wins Seasons Los Angeles Clippers 1976 -- 77 through 2004 -- 05 29 Washington Wizards 1982 -- 83 through 2003 -- 04 22 Sacramento Kings 1981 -- 82 through 1999 -- 2000 19 Indiana Pacers 1976 -- 77 through 1992 -- 93 17 Brooklyn Nets 1984 -- 85 through 2000 -- 01 17 Milwaukee Bucks ^ 2001 -- 02 through 2017 -- 18 17 New York Knicks 1953 -- 54 through 1967 -- 68 15 Cleveland Cavaliers 1976 -- 77 through 1990 -- 91 15 Golden State Warriors 1991 -- 92 through 2005 -- 06 15 Memphis Grizzlies 1995 -- 96 through 2009 -- 10 15 Minnesota Timberwolves 1989 -- 90 through 2002 -- 03 14 Denver Nuggets 1994 -- 95 through 2007 -- 08 14 Toronto Raptors 2001 -- 02 through 2014 -- 15 14 Charlotte Hornets ^ 2004 -- 05 through 2017 -- 18 14 Detroit Pistons 1962 -- 63 through 1974 -- 75 13 Portland Trail Blazers 2000 -- 01 through 2012 -- 13 13 Dallas Mavericks 1988 -- 89 through 1999 -- 2000 12 Orlando Magic 1996 -- 97 through 2006 -- 07 11 Houston Rockets 1997 -- 98 through 2007 -- 08 11 Utah Jazz 1974 -- 75 through 1982 -- 83 9 Boston Celtics 1992 -- 93 through 2000 -- 01 9 Atlanta Hawks 1999 -- 2000 through 2007 -- 08 9 New Orleans Pelicans 2008 -- 09 through 2016 -- 17 9 Philadelphia 76ers 1968 -- 69 through 1975 -- 76 & 2003 -- 04 through 2010 -- 11 8 Miami Heat 1988 -- 89 through 1995 -- 96 8 Chicago Bulls 1998 -- 99 through 2005 -- 06 8 Phoenix Suns 2010 -- 11 through 2017 -- 18 8 Oklahoma City Thunder 1967 -- 68 through 1973 -- 74 7 San Antonio Spurs 1983 -- 84 through 1988 -- 89 6 Los Angeles Lakers ^ 2012 -- 13 through 2017 -- 18 6 Longest NBA playoffs appearance droughts ( edit ) Appearance droughts updated through 2017 -- 18 season . Denotes active drought Streak Team NBA Playoffs appearance droughts Reference 7001150000000000000 ♠ 15 seasons Los Angeles Clippers 1977 -- 1991 7001130000000000000 ♠ 13 seasons Minnesota Timberwolves Minnesota Timberwolves 2005 -- 2017 7001120000000000000 ♠ 12 seasons Golden State Warriors 1995 -- 2006 7001120000000000000 ♠ 12 seasons Sacramento Kings ^ 2007 -- 2018 7001100000000000000 ♠ 10 seasons Dallas Mavericks 1991 -- 2000 7000900000000000000 ♠ 9 seasons Utah Jazz 1975 -- 1983 7000900000000000000 ♠ 9 seasons Golden State Warriors 1978 -- 1986 7000900000000000000 ♠ 9 seasons Sacramento Kings 1987 -- 1995 7000800000000000000 ♠ 8 seasons Washington Bullets 1989 -- 1996 7000800000000000000 ♠ 8 seasons Denver Nuggets 1996 -- 2003 7000800000000000000 ♠ 8 seasons Memphis Grizzlies 1996 -- 2003 7000800000000000000 ♠ 8 seasons Los Angeles Clippers 1998 -- 2005 7000800000000000000 ♠ 8 seasons Atlanta Hawks 2000 -- 2007 7000800000000000000 ♠ 8 seasons Phoenix Suns 2011 -- 2018 Streak included Buffalo Braves 1977 -- 78 seasons , and San Diego Clippers 1979 -- 84 seasons . Streak included New Orleans Jazz 1975 -- 79 seasons . Streak included Vancouver Grizzlies 1996 -- 2001 seasons . Longest Conference Finals droughts ( edit ) Appearance droughts updated through the 2018 playoffs . The current Conference Finals format was introduced in 1971 . Denotes active drought † Year the team joined the NBA Seasons Team NBA Conference Finals appearance droughts Subsequent appearance in Conference Finals Reference 48 Los Angeles Clippers ^ 001971 0 -- 2018 Active drought 44 Atlanta Hawks 1971 -- 2014 2015 38 Golden State Warriors 1977 -- 2014 2015 39 Washington Wizards ^ 1980 -- 2018 Active drought 28 Charlotte Hornets ^ 001989 0 -- 2018 Active drought 25 New Jersey Nets 001977 0 -- 2001 2002 23 Denver Nuggets 1986 -- 2008 2009 20 Toronto Raptors 01996 -- 2015 2016 20 Sacramento Kings 1982 -- 2001 2002 Streak includes seasons as Buffalo Braves and San Diego Clippers . Team last qualified for the Conference Finals as Washington Bullets . Franchise inactive for two seasons between 2002 and 2004 . Current Brooklyn Nets ; includes one season as New York Nets . Includes four seasons as Kansas City Kings . Finals droughts ( edit ) NBA Finals in which neither team had previously won a championship ( edit ) In these instances , the matchup ensured that one team would win the first NBA championship in its history . 0 * 0 Both Teams in 1st NBA Finals appearance Season Won Lost Number of years till drought ended 2006 * Miami Heat Dallas Mavericks 5 1978 Washington Bullets Seattle SuperSonics ( OKC ) 1971 * Milwaukee Bucks Baltimore Bullets ( WSH ) 7 1957 * Boston Celtics St. Louis Hawks ( ATL ) 1955 Syracuse Nationals ( PHI ) Fort Wayne Pistons ( DET ) ^ 34 1951 * Rochester Royals ( SAC ) ^ New York Knicks 19 1949 * Minneapolis Lakers ( LAL ) ^ Washington Capitols † defunct 2 years later 1947 * Philadelphia Warriors ( GSW ) Chicago Stags † defunct 3 years later ^ - Team had previously appeared in the National Basketball League finals before said league was merged for the NBA 's formation . † - Defunct franchise . Abbreviation in parentheses -- Current location of NBA franchise . NBA Finals in which neither franchise had won a championship in 20 - plus seasons ( edit ) Teams that had never won the NBA championship are included , even if they were less than 20 seasons old at the time . Season Won Drought ( seasons ) Lost Drought ( seasons ) 2015 Golden State Warriors 39 Cleveland Cavaliers 44 * 2006 Miami Heat 17 * Dallas Mavericks 25 * 1999 San Antonio Spurs 22 * New York Knicks 25 1994 Houston Rockets 26 * New York Knicks 20 1978 Washington Bullets 16 * Seattle SuperSonics 10 * 1971 Milwaukee Bucks 2 * Baltimore Bullets 9 * 1957 Boston Celtics 10 * St. Louis Hawks 7 * 1955 Syracuse Nationals 5 * Fort Wayne Pistons 6 * 1951 Rochester Royals 2 * New York Knicks 4 * 1949 * Minneapolis Lakers 0 * Washington Capitols 2 * 1947 Philadelphia Warriors 0 * Chicago Stags 0 * Numbers marked with * indicates that the number is counted from either the franchise 's first year in the NBA or the first year of the league ( 1946 , then known as the BAA ) . Teams awaiting their first NBA championship ( edit ) This list includes teams within the current NBA that have never won an NBA championship -- sorted by the number of seasons played in the NBA . Last team to leave list : Cleveland , 2016 Total seasons ( NBA ) Franchise Last NBA Finals appearance 7001500000000000000 ♠ 50 seasons Phoenix Suns ( 1969 -- 2018 ) 1993 7001480000000000000 ♠ 48 seasons Los Angeles Clippers § ( 1971 -- 2018 ) -- 7001440000000000000 ♠ 44 seasons Utah Jazz § ( 1975 -- 2018 ) 1998 7001420000000000000 ♠ 42 seasons Denver Nuggets ( 1977 -- 2018 ) -- 7001420000000000000 ♠ 42 seasons Indiana Pacers ‡ ( 1977 -- 2018 ) 2000 7001420000000000000 ♠ 42 seasons Brooklyn Nets § ‡ ( 1977 -- 2018 ) 2003 7001290000000000000 ♠ 29 seasons Minnesota Timberwolves ( 1990 -- 2018 ) -- 7001290000000000000 ♠ 29 seasons Orlando Magic ( 1990 -- 2018 ) 2009 7001280000000000000 ♠ 28 seasons Charlotte Hornets † ( 1989 -- 2002 ; 2005 -- 2018 ) -- 7001230000000000000 ♠ 23 seasons Toronto Raptors ( 1996 -- 2018 ) -- 7001230000000000000 ♠ 23 seasons Memphis Grizzlies § ( 1996 -- 2018 ) -- 7001160000000000000 ♠ 16 seasons New Orleans Pelicans † ( 2003 -- 2018 ) -- Notes § NBA teams that have relocated from their original city ( s ) . † NBA teams that have re-branded to / from their original concept . ‡ NBA teams that have won an ABA championship . Cities awaiting first NBA championship ( edit ) Listed according to seasons waited . Current NBA cities / regions only . Last city to leave list : Cleveland , 2016 City Seasons waited Conference Title ( s ) NBA Team ( s ) Phoenix 50 1976 , 1993 Phoenix Suns ( 1969 -- present ) Atlanta 50 None Atlanta Hawks ( 1969 -- present ) Denver 42 None Denver Nuggets ( 1977 -- present ) Indianapolis 42 2000 Indiana Pacers ( 1977 -- present ) Salt Lake City 39 1997 , 1998 Utah Jazz ( 1980 -- present ) Sacramento 33 None Sacramento Kings ( 1986 -- present ) Orlando 29 1995 , 2009 Orlando Magic ( 1990 -- present ) Charlotte 28 None Charlotte Hornets ( 1989 -- 2002 ; 2015 -- present ) Charlotte Bobcats ( 2005 -- 2014 ) Toronto 24 None 1 Toronto Huskies season ( 1947 ) 23 Toronto Raptors seasons ( 1996 -- present ) New Orleans 21 None New Orleans Jazz ( 1974 - 1979 ) New Orleans Hornets ( 2003 -- 2013 ) New Orleans Pelicans ( 2014 -- present ) Memphis 17 None Memphis Grizzlies ( 2002 -- present ) Oklahoma City 12 2012 2 New Orleans / Oklahoma City Hornets seasons ( 2006 -- 2007 ) 10 Oklahoma City Thunder seasons ( 2008 -- present ) See also ( edit ) National Basketball Association portal List of NBA franchise post-season streaks List of National Basketball Association longest losing streaks List of National Basketball Association longest winning streaks List of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) franchise post-season droughts List of National Football League ( NFL ) franchise post-season droughts List of National Hockey League ( NHL ) franchise post-season droughts List of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) club post-season droughts References ( edit ) General `` Team Index '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved October 11 , 2009 . Specific Jump up ^ Newberry , Paul ( May 10 , 2015 ) . `` NBA : NFL has most parity , NBA is most exclusive club when it comes to winning titles '' . Associated Press . Retrieved June 19 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Major League Baseball has 18 different franchises that have won championships and have droughts of less than 32 years ; the National Football League has 16 such franchises , and the National Hockey League has 15 such franchises . Jump up ^ Aldridge , David ( June 6 , 2015 ) . `` Warriors close in on title ... and keep NBA history afloat '' . NBA.com . Retrieved June 19 , 2016 . ^ Jump up to : `` Playoff picture '' . NBA.com . Retrieved March 18 , 2018 . ^ Jump up to : `` Sacramento Kings '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Phoenix Suns '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Orlando Magic '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Los Angeles Lakers '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Denver Nuggets '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` New York Knicks '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Brooklyn Nets '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Charlotte Hornets '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Detroit Pistons '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Dallas Mavericks '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Chicago Bulls '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Memphis Grizzlies '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Atlanta Hawks '' . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2009 . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Los Angeles Clippers '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Indiana Pacers '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Miami Heat '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Washington Wizards '' . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on June 25 , 2012 . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Milwaukee Bucks '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Portland Trail Blazers '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Oklahoma City Thunder '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` San Antonio Spurs '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Minnesota Timberwolves '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Philadelphia 76ers '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Toronto Raptors '' . basketball-reference.com . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2012 . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` New Orleans Pelicans '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Utah Jazz '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Boston Celtics '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Houston Rockets '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Golden State Warriors '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Cleveland Cavaliers '' . basketball-reference.com . Retrieved July 1 , 2012 . NBA playoffs List of playoff series Conference Finals Finals 60 Greatest Playoff Moments Game sevens Streaks Droughts Records Scoring Leaders Assists Leaders 3 Pt Leaders Rebound Leaders WNBA playoffs 1940s 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1989 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 NBA season - by - season team history Eastern Conference Atlantic Boston Celtics Brooklyn Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Toronto Raptors Central Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indiana Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Southeast Atlanta Hawks Charlotte Hornets Miami Heat Orlando Magic Washington Wizards Western Conference Northwest Denver Nuggets Minnesota Timberwolves Oklahoma City Thunder Portland Trail Blazers Utah Jazz Pacific Golden State Warriors Los Angeles Clippers Los Angeles Lakers Phoenix Suns Sacramento Kings Southwest Dallas Mavericks Houston Rockets Memphis Grizzlies New Orleans Pelicans San Antonio Spurs Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_NBA_franchise_post-season_droughts&oldid=843432233 '' Categories : National Basketball Association playoffs Playoff streaks National Basketball Association lists Hidden categories : Use mdy dates from December 2016 Talk Contents About Wikipedia Add links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018 , at 03 : 40 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | when is the last time the sacramento kings made the playoffs | [
"\n\nSeasons\nTeam\nLast earned appearance\nin NBA playoffs\nReference\n\n\n12\nSacramento Kings ^\n2006 First Round\n[5]\n\n\n8\nPhoenix Suns ^\n2010 Western Finals\n[6]\n\n\n6\nOrlando Magic ^\n2012 First Round\n[7]\n\n\n5\nLos Angeles Lakers ^\n2013 First Round\n[8]\n\n\n5\nDenver Nuggets\n2013 First Round\n[9]\n\n\n5\nNew York Knicks\n2013 Eastern Semifinals\n[10]\n\n\n3\nBrooklyn Nets\n2015 First Round\n[11]\n\n\n2\nCharlotte Hornets\n2016 First Round\n[12]\n\n\n2\nDetroit Pistons\n2016 First Round\n[13]\n\n\n2\nDallas Mavericks\n2016 First Round\n[14]\n\n\n1\nChicago Bulls\n2017 First Round\n[15]\n\n\n1\nMemphis Grizzlies\n2017 First Round\n[16]\n\n\n1\nAtlanta Hawks\n2017 First Round\n[17]\n\n\n1\nLos Angeles Clippers\n2017 First Round\n[18]\n\n\n2018 Playoff teams\n\n\n–\nIndiana Pacers\n2018 First Round\n[19]\n\n\n–\nMiami Heat\n2018 First Round\n[20]\n\n\n–\nWashington Wizards\n2018 First Round\n[21]\n\n\n–\nMilwaukee Bucks\n2018 First Round\n[22]\n\n\n–\nPortland Trail Blazers\n2018 First Round\n[23]\n\n\n–\nOklahoma City Thunder\n2018 First Round\n[24]\n\n\n–\nSan Antonio Spurs\n2018 First Round\n[25]\n\n\n–\nMinnesota Timberwolves\n2018 First Round\n[26]\n\n\n–\nPhiladelphia 76ers\n2018 Eastern Semifinals\n[27]\n\n\n–\nToronto Raptors\n2018 Eastern Semifinals\n[28]\n\n\n–\nNew Orleans Pelicans\n2018 Western Semifinals\n[29]\n\n\n–\nUtah Jazz\n2018 Western Semifinals\n[30]\n\n\n–\nBoston Celtics\n2018 Eastern Finals\n[31]\n\n\n–\nHouston Rockets\n2018 Western Finals\n[32]\n\n\n–\nGolden State Warriors\n2018 NBA Finals\n[33]\n\n\n–\nCleveland Cavaliers\n2018 NBA Finals\n[34]\n\n"
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"2006"
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3712524295696761732 | Pretty Little Liars (season 2) | Pretty Little Liars ( season 2 ) - wikipedia Pretty Little Liars ( season 2 ) Jump to : navigation , search Pretty Little Liars ( season 2 ) Season 2 DVD cover Starring Troian Bellisario Ashley Benson Holly Marie Combs Lucy Hale Ian Harding Bianca Lawson Laura Leighton Chad Lowe Shay Mitchell Sasha Pieterse Country of origin United States No. of episodes 25 Release Original network ABC Family Original release June 14 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 14 ) -- March 19 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 19 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 1 Next → Season 3 List of Pretty Little Liars episodes The second season of Pretty Little Liars , based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard , premiered on June 14 , 2011 and concluded on March 19 , 2012 on ABC Family . On January 10 , 2011 , ABC Family renewed the series for a second season . The season premiere brought in 3.68 million viewers , which was higher than the season 1 premiere . The Halloween special aired on October 19 , 2011 , drawing 2.5 million total viewers . The second half of season 2 premiered on January 2 , 2012 . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Cast and characters 2.1 Main cast 2.2 Recurring cast 2.3 Guest cast 3 Episodes 4 Development and production 5 Casting 6 Ratings 6.1 Live + SD ratings 7 DVD release 8 References Overview ( edit ) The second season continues from the season finale of the previous season , in which Ian Thomas ( Ryan Merriman ) , Spencer 's brother - in - law , is presumed to have been killed in an incident at the top of a bell tower but is also accused of murdering Alison . Following the incident , the girls are forced to keep their friendship a secret and to attend therapy sessions , making them feel more alone than ever . The girls found themselves unable to open up to their therapist , Dr. Sullivan , about ' A ' . Spencer begins suspecting that Ian is alive when Melissa receives messages from her phone and lies about her whereabouts . When they follow Melissa , they discover Ian 's dead body , along with a suicide note , admitting that he killed Alison , however the girls later discover that Ian 's suicide note was A-orchestrated and that it was n't Ian who killed Alison . They also discover that Garrett can not be trusted after finding out his connection to Jenna . Eventually the girls confess to Dr. Sullivan about ' A ' . Just when Dr. Sullivan was able to identify who ' A ' was , she disappears . Later ' A ' reveals that she has Dr. Sullivan and made the girls think she was in danger , however this is revealed to be a trap , as the girls were arrested for tampering with the weapon used to kill Alison . The second half deals with the girls being more determined to find out who ' A ' is . They set up a plan that tricked ' A ' . The plan had moderate success as the girls were able to steal A 's phone . The girls ( except Hanna ) enlists Caleb 's help on hacking to A 's phone ; however , A tries to shut down the phone , but before A shuts the phone , they were able to discover some clues . Their investigation later leads them to Lost Woods resort , locating A 's lair in one of the rooms . Meanwhile , Garrett is arrested for Alison 's murder after Jenna hands the ripped page 5 of Alison 's autopsy report to the police . After finding more clues , Spencer discovers that ' A ' may be her sister , Melissa , but when she and Mona head to A 's lair , she finds clues that lead to the identity of ' A ' : Mona . Mona is admitted to Radley , and Dr. Sullivan returns after revealing it was Mona who threatened her . Later Maya is found dead near Emily 's house , devastating Emily . In Radley , Mona is visited by a woman in a red coat and Mona reports back to the figure , revealing that the A-Team has a new leader . Cast and characters ( edit ) See also : List of Pretty Little Liars characters Main cast ( edit ) Troian Bellisario as Spencer Hastings Ashley Benson as Hanna Marin Holly Marie Combs as Ella Montgomery Lucy Hale as Aria Montgomery Ian Harding as Ezra Fitz Bianca Lawson as Maya St. Germain Laura Leighton as Ashley Marin Chad Lowe as Byron Montgomery Shay Mitchell as Emily Fields Sasha Pieterse as Alison DiLaurentis Recurring cast ( edit ) Tyler Blackburn as Caleb Rivers Janel Parrish as Mona Vanderwaal Keegan Allen as Toby Cavanaugh Tammin Sursok as Jenna Marshall Yani Gellman as Garrett Reynolds Drew Van Acker as Jason DiLaurentis Torrey DeVitto as Melissa Hastings Brendan Robinson as Lucas Gottesman Cody Allen Christian as Mike Montgomery Nolan North as Peter Hastings Roark Critchlow as Tom Marin Brant Daugherty as Noel Kahn Nia Peeples as Pam Fields Julian Morris as Wren Kingston Lesley Fera as _́ Veronica Hastings Annabeth Gish as Anne Sullivan Shane Coffey as Holden Strauss Bryce Johnson as Darren Wilden Paloma Guzmán as Jackie Molina Natalie Hall as Kate Randall Guest cast ( edit ) Ryan Merriman as Ian Thomas Claire Holt as Samara Cook Heather Mazur as Tom Marin Jim Titus as Barry Maple Eric Steinberg as Wayne Fields Lindsey Shaw as Paige McCullers Lachlan Buchanan as Duncan Albert Amanda Schull as Meredith Sorenson Andrea Parker as Jessica DiLaurentis Betty Buckley as Regina Marin Tilky Jones as Logan Reed Anthony Tyler Quinn as Ron Notes Cast member Bianca Lawson is credited as a series regular from episode 11 until episode 20 . Unlike the other series regulars , Lawson is only credited in the episodes she appears in . Episodes ( edit ) See also : List of Pretty Little Liars episodes No . overall No. in season Title Directed by Written by Original air date U.S. viewers ( million ) 23 `` It 's Alive '' Ron Lagomarsino I. Marlene King June 14 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 14 ) 3.68 The girls ' parents have gathered for an intervention to send the girls to group therapy . Aria finally considers reconciling and visits Ezra 's apartment , their relationship worsens when Ezra admits that he was still in love with his ex , Jackie , when he and Aria first met . Lucas brings Caleb back to Rosewood for Hanna but she 's too hurt to take him back . Caleb explains that he wrote her a letter and gave it to Mona , who threw it away . Hanna confronts Mona about the letter , but leaves when she realizes to her shock that Noel Khan and Mona are dating . Emily is struggling to deal with her impending move to Texas and losing her friends , including Toby , who she re-bonds with as they wait for Spencer to join them in secret . Spencer then cancels as she is having some difficulties with family at home : Melissa , distraught over her missing husband , Ian , threatens not to let Spencer anywhere near the baby . She decides to make up with Spencer , however , even telling her the unborn baby 's name , Taylor . The girls resolve to spill at least some of their secrets to Dr. Sullivan . The girls then notice that Ezra 's diploma , the missing piece from his apartment , is sitting on a shelf in the doctor 's office . The girls freak out and leave before they can tell Dr. Sullivan their secrets . Dr. Sullivan later contacts the girls ' parents and recommends that they take some time apart due to their `` unstable '' behavior during their last therapy session . After Spencer finds a text message on Melissa 's phone , she suspects that the caller is Ian . ' A ' ending : ' A ' is in Emily 's room , deleting files of A 's messages and the copy of the video . 24 `` The Goodbye Look '' Norman Buckley Joseph Dougherty June 21 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 21 ) 2.66 The Liars find that Jason Dilaurentis has moved back into Rosewood , with a very suspicious attitude . Samara and Emily start to hang out , but Emily struggles with her family 's impending move to Texas . However , when a college athletic scout approaches her after a swim meet , she sees an opportunity that could keep her in Rosewood . She tries to convince her parents that the athletic scout `` basically offered '' her a scholarship to college , but she has to have a record of continuity . When she asks for a formal letter of this offer , the scout tells her there 's no guarantee she 'll get it . Pam tells Emily that someone has been breaking into everyone 's houses stealing camping supplies . Hanna 's father returns to town , but Hanna does n't trust him after seeing him marry into a new family . Mona tries to get Hanna 's forgiveness by talking to Aria for advice ; -- but Aria tells her that she 's not allowed to talk to Hanna , so Mona 's on her own . Mona also asks Aria to pick a goodbye present for Ezra 's last day , since she knows him better `` from the play . '' Spencer thinks that her sister is hiding something to protect Ian . She also discovers that Toby , much to her dismay , has a new job with the Rosewood construction company ; -- so that he can be free of his parents with the money he earns ; -- only to be let go on his first day due to a conflict with the clients over Toby 's reputation . Spencer tries to find out what Jason is up to , only to be interrogated by Jason about Ian 's apparent death . The Liars discuss the fact that the only evidence they had has been deleted . ' A ' ending : ' A ' pets the puppy at the front yard . 25 `` My Name Is Trouble '' Elodie Keene Oliver Goldstick June 28 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 28 ) 2.78 Spencer dreams that `` A '' is about to attack all the girls as they are hanging out together in a movie theater . Melissa rudely awakens Spencer as she searched for her lost wedding ring . Spencer then begins to suspect that Melissa has been talking to Ian since she leaves the room to take calls and lies about leaving the house . Hanna 's dad is staying in Rosewood , and Hanna is confused to how she feels and why her mother is not reacting in romantic manners to Tom 's appearance . Emily creates a fake letter saying she will be accepted into Danby University if she continues to swim anchor for Rosewood Swim Team . Aria takes a pottery class at Hollis but she runs into Jenna . Toby begins to work for Jason DiLaurentis , in order to save up for a truck so he can begin his job in Yardley and finally get away from his parents and step - sister . Spencer suspects that Jason is housing Ian because of the shadows in the upstairs windows and the bloody gauze in the garbage . ' A ' ending : ' A ' buys Melissa 's ring in the pawn shop . 26 `` Blind Dates '' Dean White Charlie Craig July 5 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 05 ) 2.42 To celebrate Emily 's `` acceptance '' to Danby University , Pam invites Samara over for dinner . Samara is able to convince Pam that Danby wo n't be the only school interested in offering Emily a scholarship , giving Emily time to figure out what to do next . Lucas worries about his upcoming date with Danielle , so he asks Hanna to double with him and tells her to bring Caleb . Unfortunately , Danielle thinks that Hanna is interested in Lucas . To convince Danielle that there is nothing between her and Lucas , Hanna and Caleb pretend to be on a real date . Hanna goes to the therapist alone for the first time , but is n't willing to open up to her . However , after Lucas thanks her for helping him with Danielle , Hanna realizes that she ca n't allow Ali to control her life anymore . She goes to see Dr. Sullivan again and confronts her past . Meanwhile , Aria learns that Mike has been lying about playing basketball after school every day . Spencer goes to Wren to ask him for help in tracking down Ian , but he refuses . She is finally able to convince him to trick Melissa into bringing him to Ian , so Spencer can follow them there . When Wren gets the word , the Liars follow Melissa in a car to a cabin in the woods , a few seconds later Melissa screams , and when they enter the cabin , they see Ian 's dead body sitting up against the wall , along with a gun and a suicide note , in which he has confessed to Alison 's murder . ' A ' ending : ' A ' puts Ian 's phone in Spencer 's backpack . 27 5 `` The Devil You Know '' Michael Grossman Maya Goldsmith July 12 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 12 ) 2.42 Emily , Aria , Hanna , and Spencer learn that Ian 's suicide note was n't real ; it was just made up of `` A '' text messages . Aria 's brother Mike is caught trying to break into Jason DiLaurentis ' house and is also the one that stole things from Emily 's garage and pushed Aria in Spencer 's house . Melissa tells Spencer that her baby is a girl and while talking to Melissa , Ian 's phone goes off in Spencer 's bag making it look like Spencer was pretending to be Ian by texting Melissa . Hanna meets Caleb 's foster mom , Janet , and says that if she does n't continue giving Caleb his money until he is 18 , then Hanna is going to bring Janet to court . While Emily is at a delivery store , she comes across Logan Reed , Logan then tells Emily that he never met Ian and that a woman on the phone hired him . At Ian 's funeral , Aria talks to Jason who tells her he thought he could have possibly killed Alison while he was drunk the night of her death and his suspicions were raised when he woke up the next morning with a note that read , `` I know what you did . '' Emily 's clues from A 's texts lead the girls to Alison 's grave where A plays the video of Ian presumably killing Alison with the added part of Ali shown to be unharmed revealing she was still alive . ' A ' ending : ' A ' walks by the girls with the projector in the hand . 28 6 `` Never Letting Go '' J. Miller Tobin Bryan M. Holdman July 19 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 19 ) 2.53 Spencer hears her dad on the phone with someone , yelling and specifically complaining that Jason is home . Spencer tries to strike up a conversation with her father , as he searches for an unhealthy night - time snack . The Liars meet with Jessica DiLaurentis for lunch shortly afterwards , despite their awkward reservations . She then presents the girls with presents ; four high fashion dresses and asks the girls to model them in the fashion show . Just before the show , Spencer hands Noel the disc Mona asked her to deliver to him . In the corner of the room , Jessica and Peter have an argument . The fashion shows starts , and later the tribute to Alison begins , with her image prominent on the runway screen and the girls walking the runway in her dresses . Suddenly , the image changes so as to make Alison look like the devil , with fire around and peeling black eyes . The screen flashes `` the bitch is dead , '' and the music changes from sentimental to hellish . Spencer runs to Noel to make him turn it off , but he claims he ca n't . She unplugs all the wires around his equipment until the images and sound effects stop . ' A ' ending : ' A ' buys a pair of black women boots online . 29 7 `` Surface Tension '' Norman Buckley Joseph Dougherty July 26 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 26 ) 2.36 Aria 's parents throw a dinner party , putting Aria face - to - face with both Ezra and Jason . The awkward night is interrupted when Mike gets arrested for breaking into another house . Emily tries to get used to living with the Marins , while Hanna tries to come to terms with Caleb 's `` sketchy '' business . While doing landscaping work for the Hastings , Toby finds an old hockey stick buried in the backyard , and Spencer 's father becomes visibly nervous but burns it in the fire saying it does n't mean anything . Toby later tells Spencer about it , and she thinks it might be the weapon used to kill Ali . Ashley and Ella begin to wonder if there is n't something more serious going on in the girls ' lives that they do n't know . After searching through Mike 's bag of stolen items , Aria realizes that Officer Garrett can not be trusted , just as Spencer sits in the car telling Garrett she does n't know if she believes that Ian killed Ali anymore . ' A ' ending : ' A ' injects steroids into Emily 's lotion . 30 8 `` Save the Date '' Chris Grismer Matt Witten August 2 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 02 ) 2.41 Emily has been juggling a lot of secrets and lies lately , and with a surprise visit from her father before a big swim meet , the pressure gets to be too much for her -- sending her to the hospital with an ulcer . But with the prospect of having to come clean to her father about Danby , Emily realizes she has bigger problems when `` A '' reveals his / her part in Emily 's swim career . Wren turns out to be her doctor in the hospital . While visiting Emily , Spencer and Aria take the opportunity to try and do more digging around about the cause of Alison 's death and how the broken field hockey stick may play a part in the last few moments of their friend 's life . Spencer discovers that Ali had been buried alive because Ali 's autopsy report mentions her having dirt in her lungs . She also discovers that Ali 's report is missing a page . Meanwhile , Hanna struggles with the prospect of losing both men in her life when her father 's wedding `` Save the Date '' arrives , and the possibility of Caleb running out of Rosewood before his past can come back to haunt him . ' A ' ending : In the morgue , after the janitor passes by , ' A ' rises under the sheets , revealing to be in the room at the same time as the Liars . 31 9 `` Picture This '' Patrick Norris Jonell Lennon August 9 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 09 ) 2.54 Spencer begins to suspect Jason after finding his broken hockey stick in her yard , and deciding that he was the one who stole the missing page in Alison 's autopsy file . While spying on him in his front yard and seeing how protective he is over the shed in his yard , she and Emily decide to break in . While in the shed , they find pictures of Aria while she is sleeping , and a box of cameras and spying equipment . This leads the girls to realizing that Jason is spying on Aria , and could be spying on all of them . Meanwhile , A put steroids in Emily 's pain cream which caused her blood tests to show signs of human growth hormones . Hanna 's mom allows Emily to have Samara and some of Samara 's friends over for a small get together , and A forces Emily to give her phone number to one of Samara 's friends , Zoey . Samara 's other friend catches Emily giving Zoey her number and then later tells Samara , which ends Emily 's relationship with her . Aria begins to have continuous dreams about Jason , which she feels is threatening her relationship with Ezra . Later at the park , Jason kisses Aria , but she tells him she is already taken , leading Jason to think she 's afraid of him . Hanna discovers that the man following Caleb is not a policeman , but instead a private investigator hired by his birth mother to find him . Caleb receives her phone number and is not sure whether to call her but Hanna convinces him that he should . Caleb leaves Rosewood and go to California to see her . Spencer and Emily return to Jason 's shed , only to find that he has discovered someone was in it and he has removed everything . ' A ' ending : ' A ' develops a photograph of Spencer and Emily entering Jason 's shed in Jason 's darkroom . 32 10 `` Touched by an A-ngel '' Chad Lowe Charlie Craig & Maya Goldsmith August 16 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 16 ) 2.30 Aria finds herself in a difficult position when trying to process Spencer and Emily 's news about Jason . Aria reveals to Emily and Spencer that Jason kissed her , but she rejected him , and in turn , Emily and Spencer reveal that Jason has been taking pictures of her while she was sleeping ; as well as having a darkroom in his shed . Aria talks to Jason about what her friends told her about him . He tells Aria that Ali was the one who took the pictures of Aria , and he had found the pictures in a box underneath Ali 's floorboards in her room when he was renovating it . Spencer reveals to Ezra that she knows about his and Aria 's relationship , and Aria 's mother suspects that Spencer and Ezra are hooking up when she sees them conversing in his car . Ella tells Aria that she thinks Spencer and Ezra have something going on ; Aria finds out that she would feel betrayed if Aria told her about her relationship with Ezra ; Ella decides to send Mike to a therapist . Mona pushes Hanna to try to play nice with her future step - sister , Kate , at her bridesmaids fitting , which ends up with the two riding horses at an equestrian club . Meanwhile , Spencer and Toby find Ian 's old yearbook while packing up his belongings and they find out that Jason , Ian , and Garrett were all in the `` NAT Club . Jenna pays a visit to Spencer 's house and demands she stop digging for information . ' A ' ending : ' A ' is seen talking to the girls ' therapist , Dr. Anne Sullivan . 33 11 `` I Must Confess '' Norman Buckley Oliver Goldstick August 23 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 23 ) 2.63 After being pushed around , threatened and more by `` A , '' Emily is at a breaking point and her friends know that something drastic has to be done to save her . The girls turn to the only person they have come to trust and know that she ca n't let their secrets out ; -- Dr. Sullivan . Finally being able to reveal the torment that `` A '' has put them through to someone outside of the tight - knit group gives the girls a sense of relief and Emily a new sense of courage . Hanna 's grandmother arrives in town for Tom 's rehearsal dinner , making sure to let it be known that she does n't want the wedding to happen . Kate seeks her revenge on Hanna for what she said at the ranch . Byron and Ella continue to argue about how to help Mike , while Mike finally manages to open up to Aria . Spencer 's father tells her that he committed a crime to help the DiLaurentis family and that Jason had motive to kill Alison , and he inadvertently tells her that the DiLaurentis family has some dirt against them . Emily , still feeling more courageous because of her talk with Dr. Sullivan , calls Maya and they meet for dinner . During that dinner , Dr. Sullivan studies her files and soon figures out who `` A '' is . ' A ' ending : ' A ' removes the files and the bug from Dr. Sullivan 's office . 34 12 `` Over My Dead Body '' Ron Lagomarsino I. Marlene King August 30 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 30 ) 2.98 `` A '' has given each of the four girls a task to save Dr. Sullivan . They each receive wind - up dolls that speak out their missions . Aria 's task is to get rid of Jackie with proof of Jackie 's plagiarism . Spencer must break up with Toby in order to keep him safe from `` A '' . Hanna must stop her father 's wedding by telling Isabel about her parents ' affair . Emily has to follow A 's directions , and winds up getting trapped in a barn with a car engine running . Emily passes out and is later saved from the death of carbon monoxide poisoning by `` A '' and dragged out of the barn . Emily has a conversation with Alison in a dream . Emily then wakes up to find the other three girls beside her . Emily notices a shovel that had n't been present when she arrived at the barn . A message on the shovel reveals the coordinates of Dr. Sullivan 's location in the forest . The four assume that Dr. Sullivan was buried alive , but when they dig up the `` burial ground '' , they only find her boots and a dummy . They are cornered by the police and taken into custody . Garrett gives Jenna the missing page 5 of Alison 's autopsy report which he plans for Jenna to burn . ' A ' ending : ' A ' meets Dr. Sullivan at a diner and gives her an envelope after Dr. Sullivan claims to have done everything ' A ' has asked her to , and leaves . 35 13 `` The First Secret '' Dana W. Gonzales I. Marlene King October 19 , 2011 ( 2011 - 10 - 19 ) 2.47 It 's the Halloween before Alison disappeared and where all of the secrets and lies began for Aria , Emily , Hanna , and Spencer . After meeting Jenna , Alison gets an anonymous text from a blocked number . Later , Aria and Alison go out for frozen yogurt . While they are walking , Mona sees them and calls out to join them . Aria and Alison run off in attempt to lose Mona . They turn a corner and stop in when they see Byron and Meredith making out in his car . The gang goes to a Halloween party hosted by Noel . Some time later , Emily is sitting outside alone . Hanna joins her , wondering where Alison is . The other Liars join up , and they get a text that reads , `` I 'm in trouble , come alone '' from Ali , directing them to the scary house 's address . They find Ali in a locked room . Seemingly terrified , she recounts that someone grabbed her and brought her there threatening to kill her with a knife . Nobody can get a signal to dial 911 from their cell phones , so Ali goes out alone . Then she screams , but the door is now bolted . Through the keyhole they see a big fight with her and costumed guy with a knife . Ali knees him and runs off , and the Liars get out through a conveniently open window . They go back in the house , and Ali is rocking in a chair , brandishing a knife and looking completely insane , but she says it was all a hoax . Noel was the zombie , and the blood was ketchup . Back at the party , Noel then approaches Ali to apologize , but she tells him it was perfect -- but then realizes he 's apologizing because he did n't make it to the plot ; he was stuck at the party , not because he had been too rough with her . 36 14 `` Through Many Dangers , Toils and Snares '' Norman Buckley Joseph Dougherty January 2 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 02 ) 3.34 It 's exactly a month after `` A '' framed the girls for Alison 's murder . Spencer rejects Toby and the gift he made her , Caleb returns to Hanna , and Ezra and Aria reveal their relationship to Aria 's parents . The relationship between Aria , Emily , Hanna , and Spencer changes following their arrest . Spencer and Emily fight to trick ' A ' into believing that the girls were falling apart . The girls fool `` A '' into believing that they know something which was hidden in Alison 's box that Jason gave to Aria . Emily meets `` A '' and shows them an empty box , making the girls ' charade known to `` A '' . `` A '' attacks Emily and tries to stab her with a nearby tool , but Aria and Spencer show up and corner them before they are able to use it . `` A '' shatters the glass from the ceiling by throwing up a pot and makes a run for it . As `` A '' exits the greenhouse they were in , Hanna pulls up , and `` A '' is hit by her car . The girls chase after `` A , '' but lose them and , just when Spencer declares they have nothing , they notice `` A 's '' cell phone lying on the ground . ' A ' ending : ' A ' punches the car in anger and glass shatters from the window and side view mirror when realizing to have lost the cellphone . 37 15 `` A Hot Piece of ' A ' '' Michael Grossman Oliver Goldstick January 9 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 09 ) 2.95 The girl 's head back into the greenhouse to look for the box and decide what to do next . Spencer suggests calling Caleb to help them recover information from the phone . While Caleb downloads the information on the computer from the phone , the owner shuts the phone down . Caleb works on decrypting the files on his laptop at school , which concerns Hanna . Spencer approaches Emily , hoping to enlist her help in snooping around Jason 's house . Emily starts community service at the crisis hotline that afternoon , Aria is on lockdown and Hanna is unhappy with Spencer for dragging Caleb into their `` A '' investigation . Emily suggests Spencer let Hanna use her lake house with Caleb . At Hanna 's house , Hanna tries to study while Lucas seems distracted . She gets a text from Spencer offering her the lake house . She gets the brilliant idea to use it to throw Caleb a surprise birthday party and enlists Lucas ' help in planning it . Emily attends her first training session at the crisis hotline center . While reading a training transcript , Emily realizes the caller seems likely to be `` A 's '' helper . Emily shows Spencer and Aria the transcript she swiped from the crisis center . At the crisis center , Emily 's supervisor tells her to listen in on the call that just came in because it is the transcript caller calling back . Spencer and Emily listen together and recognize the caller 's voice as Lucas ' . Spencer and Emily learn from Mona that Hanna took the rowboat out with Lucas to set up the fireworks across the lake . Halfway across the lake , Lucas stops rowing . Hanna flips , pushes him overboard , and takes the oars but later falls overboard . Emily to go inside and call the police as Hanna swims to the shore . ' A ' ending : ' A ' fishes up Lucas ' shoes from the lake . 38 16 `` Let the Water Hold Me Down '' Chris Grismer Bryan M. Holdman January 16 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 16 ) 2.78 Spencer finds an old receipt in her lake house attic , and assumes that `` A '' had been there . The receipt shows an address in Philadelphia , which Aria and Spencer agree to visit . At school , Aria confesses to Spencer that her mom thinks she made a date with Holden when she really called Ezra . Ezra tells her that she ca n't call him anymore . Holden asks Aria out despite her being grounded . Aria buys tickets for a play for her and Holden 's date . Hanna argues with Caleb when Caleb wants to go look for Lucas but she does n't want to . In Philly , Spencer notices a rehab center for the blind near the address on the receipt . This was where Jenna used to go before moving back to Rosewood . Spencer goes in to ask about Jenna , and notices Garrett checked Jenna out of the rehab center the night after Ali died , and never checked back in . Spencer steals the patient logbook from which the year Jenna was there , and leaves after pretending to sign - in . Holden figures out that Aria and Ezra have a relationship , and understands this because he hides stuff from his parents too . Maya reveals to Emily that while she was at `` sober camp '' , she hooked up with a guy , and Emily is unstirred . Hanna encounters Lucas in her house , and Lucas tells her he never wanted to hurt her . Caleb shows up and asks where Lucas was . Lucas reveals he was on the crisis hotline because he lost Caleb 's money in a bet . He was missing because he drove around all night selling his comic books to get the money back , and he took Hanna out onto the lake to ask her to soften the blow of the news for Caleb . ' A ' ending : ' A ' is seen loosening the hinges on some unknown scaffolding . 39 17 `` Blond Leading the Blind '' Arlene Sanford Charlie Craig January 23 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 23 ) 3.17 The girls check out what Caleb got from A 's cell phone . They see a video from Alison 's bedroom . Ian sets up a video camera , and then Garrett leads Jenna into the room . Ian and Garrett argue over getting videos from Alison and the girls realize this was the night Alison was murdered . Hanna notices a piece of paper inside the dolls from the box . It is a series of threatening notes , one of them making reference to a pumpkin . The girls flash back to Halloween coming home with Alison after Noel 's party . A jack - o - lantern on her front porch had a knife stuck in its head . Toby climbs the scaffolding at the Hastings ' house and falls off causing him to break his arm . Spencer tells Emily she thinks she 's putting Toby in danger . She wants Emily to do something that might make him hate Spencer but there is only one thing she could think of that could save Toby . Emily sees Toby 's and tells him that the guy Spencer was seeing before him is back . Emily says she 's telling him because Spencer could n't . Ezra eventually shows up to meet Aria . In his car he says what they are doing is dangerous . He wants her to be safe and happy and wants her to make sure that being together is what she wants . Caleb tells Spencer and Emily that the only way he 's going to continue working is if they let him know what Hanna is so afraid of . Spencer gave Caleb a streamlined version of what has been happening , but Hanna does n't know they have told him anything . Spencer , Emily , and Aria watch the rest of the video . Ian tells Garrett he 's `` going down '' and pulls out the camera . Garrett and Ian fight just as Alison enters the room . ' A ' ending : ' A ' is seen cutting up a picture of Spencer and Toby and burning it . A does the same with Ezra and Aria 's picture cutting it in half . 40 18 `` A Kiss Before Lying '' Wendey Stanzler Maya Goldsmith January 30 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 30 ) 2.55 Hanna thinks that the girls are icing her out because she destroyed the memory card from A 's phone . Caleb agreed to continue decrypting the information from A 's phone if Spencer , Aria , and Emily agrees to not tell Hanna about it . A knows that Caleb is working on decrypting the phone , so A threatens Hanna to make Caleb stop or else she 'd expose her mother 's secret about stealing money from the bank . Hanna decides to tell Caleb about her mother 's secret , in hoping that he 'd stop working on A 's phone . Caleb finds a photo of a fake ID of a brunette Alison . Hanna sees this picture and tells Spencer that she saw Alison in a brunette wig , with the alias of Vivian Darkbloom . Hanna and Spencer find a claim ticket in one of Alison 's books . Spencer , pretending to be Vivian , calls the number . Hanna 's step - sister Kate is now in Rosewood . When Spencer meets Kate , she realizes that she knows her from a summer camp that Melissa used to work at . Spencer had a photo of Kate with a bunch of bug bites from camp , and threatened to show it to the school if Kate is n't nice to Hanna . Meanwhile , Emily hopes that her mother 's visit to Rosewood will be a good opportunity to re-introduce her to Maya and hope that things will turn out better than they did the last time . However , Maya is still upset about how Pam ratted her out , so she goes out of her way to make the dinner extremely uncomfortable for Emily and her mother . Ezra gets offered a job that would require him to move . He finds out that Aria 's father had set up this job offer for him in hoping that Ezra would be out of Aria 's life . ' A ' ending : ' A ' breaks into Peter Hastings ' office and takes a gun out of his desk drawer . 41 19 `` The Naked Truth '' Elodie Keene Oliver Goldstick & Francesca Rollins February 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 06 ) 2.25 It 's Truth Up Day at Rosewood High , and it seems some will have more to spill than others . Spencer , Aria , Emily and Hanna deal with their own personal problems , before A exposes everything . When they see that Kate has a birthmark right above her waist , they know that the photo that was sent to everyone else was photoshopped . Hanna realizes that A had n't sent that photo with Hanna 's phone , because there was no reason for A to help Kate . In the bathroom , Hanna pushes Kate to tell the truth , which Aria and Emily record while hiding in the stalls . They prove to the principal that Hanna is innocent . Aria is suspicious about Holden , who she thinks is `` hurting himself '' . When Aria gets locked out on the rooftop of the school and is attacked by Noel , who is now Jenna 's boyfriend , Holden rescues her by kicking Noel in the face in a very professional matter , thus revealing more about his secret . Mona and Emily become closer when Mona volunteers to find a way to get Emily back on the swim team since the principal felt Emily would tarnish the team 's reputation , due to the Liars ' trouble with the police . Jason comes back to Rosewood looking for Spencer 's father . During the school 's Truth Up Day event , Spencer overhears Jason and her mom arguing about how everyone should `` know the truth . '' It is then revealed that Jason and Spencer share the same father . Later on , the number they found in Vivian Darkbloom 's jacket returns their call and asks to meet up face - to - face to answer some questions . ' A ' ending : ' A ' is seen approaching a sleeping Caleb during the night and taking his laptop out of his bag . 42 20 `` CTRL : A '' Ron Lagomarsino Joseph Dougherty & Lijah J. Barasz February 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 13 ) 2.11 Garrett gives Caleb a court order to obtain his computer as says someone is hacking into the school 's files and he traced it back to his IP address . In the computer lab , Caleb tells Hanna that Garrett ca n't get past his firewall without his help and the files from A are all on flash drives . Aria finally finds out what Holden is doing on their `` dates '' - he is doing martial arts but his parents forbid it as Holden has a heart condition . Spencer visits Jason where he tells her that he found another one of Ali 's boxes under the floorboards at their grandma 's house . There were love letters and $15,000 . Later , the girls go to meet Jonah , someone with information about Alison 's alter ego , Vivian . He says Vivian told him about a friend called Alison who was getting texts from somebody with a blocked number and she would pay to find out whom . Ashley and Hanna are called to the police station where they reveal a photo of Emily , Spencer , and Hanna in nurse dresses outside the morgue . Hanna tells Ashley it was a practical joke and they do n't know anything about the missing page . Spencer talks with her dad about Jason and admits he cheated and got Jessica DiLaurentis pregnant . Spencer asks about the letters and money , but he says he never gave money to the DiLaurentis family . In her bedroom , Hanna is trying to hack into Caleb 's computer to delete the files , but ca n't remember his password . Wilden and Garrett go through Caleb 's files while Hanna successfully logs into Caleb 's account and finds the files `` A '' planted and deletes them clearing Caleb 's name . Spencer tells Jason Ali needed the money to find someone she was afraid of and that the girls intend to as well . ' A ' ending : Emily is in the kitchen while ' A ' watches her through the window . 43 21 `` Breaking the Code '' Roger Kumble Jonell Lennon February 20 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 20 ) 2.54 Spencer tells the girls she got the money for Jonah from a relative and her and Aria meet Jonah at the park at 6 o'clock . They give him the money and he gives them an address , but Jonah wo n't disclose anything else . As the girls leave , they notice Garrett watching them in his car . Aria tells the girls that `` A '' sent her dad a note trying to catch Ezra and Aria and now Ella wants to find out who `` A '' is , and admits she and Ezra are still seeing each other . Caleb sends the girls an email with another part of Ian 's video . Melissa walks into Alison 's room , angrily asking where Alison is . Spencer wants to talk to Melissa first before the other girls turn her in . Mona shows Hanna an incident report from when Hanna shoplifted the sunglasses , sent by `` A '' . `` A '' threatened Mona to give the report and picture to the newspaper or else she 'll be filling out a police report . Hanna tells Mona about `` A '' and Mona asks what to do about the report . Aria , Hanna , and Emily go to the address Jonah gave of a law firm but the girls leave in a hurry when an alarm is set off . The next morning , Mona reveals to Hanna she returned the jewellery she stole saving Hanna and her mom . Ezra tells Aria he has to move away and take the job or else Aria 's dad will know what 's making him stay . Ella goes to Ezra 's apartment saying she wants to understand . Melissa says she needs to tell Spencer something that she wanted to tell her at Ian 's funeral . In Hanna 's bedroom , Ashley spots the letter Aria picked up from the law firm and mentions Melissa worked there as a summer intern . ' A ' ending : ' A ' uses Mr. Hastings ' stolen gun for target practice . 44 22 `` Father Knows Best '' Chad Lowe Charlie Craig & Bryan M. Holdman February 27 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 27 ) 2.49 The cops tell Emily that Maya is missing , and that her parents do n't know where she is . Rosewood high hosts a father daughter dance and the girls make plans for their dates . Byron and Aria 's relationship is strained , Hanna 's father is MIA so her mother offers to go with her , and Emily 's father comes back from Texas to attend with her . After Spencer tells Melissa that she saw her get into a car with Garrett , Melissa tells her that Garrett was helping her , as he was a close friend of Ian 's . She also reveals that she sent texts to Alison telling her to back off . Emily discovers , with help from her father , that Maya bought a ticket to San Francisco , but may not have gotten on the train . After Ashley tries to figure out who could have blackmailed Hannah with the police report , the girls decide that they should lie and say that they did it to get their parents off of `` A 's '' trail . Aria is nominated for the job , and lies to Hanna 's mother about sending the shoplifting report to Hanna saying that she did it in order to get Hannah to stop shoplifting . Spencer finds her father 's check book and a check stub for $15,000 in cash . She also finds a folder with pictures of Ali in it . When Spencer confronts her father , he confesses he paid $15,000 for a private investigator to find Ali . He did this to keep Melissa safe , who was harassing Alison with vicious text messages about Ian . ' A ' ending : ' A ' reads a newspaper with the headline showing a picture of Maya who is listed as missing . 45 23 `` Eye of the Beholder '' Melanie Mayron Joseph Dougherty March 5 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 05 ) 2.58 The liars are on the hunt for answers of what Alison knew before she died . The girls meet a boy named Duncan from Alison 's past , he explains how he and Ali were good friends during the summer before she returned to Rosewood and went missing . He reveals he was with Ali the day she was murdered and Ali had returned home earlier than she led the girls to believe . Toby returns to Rosewood still angry at Spencer and helping Jenna again although he suffered from her in the past . After a confrontation with Hanna , he assures her he knows what he 's doing . Jenna undergoes her eye surgery but the effectiveness of the surgery is still unknown for the time being . Jason gives the girls a bag of Ali 's personal items which the girls do n't seem to understand until Spencer notices the box was covered with highlighted newspapers from the summer Ali died and realizes there is some pattern to it all . Jenna is injured in a fire at Jason 's house but is saved by Hanna . ' A ' ending : ' A ' places a police badge at Jason 's house . 46 24 `` If These Dolls Could Talk '' Ron Lagomarsino Oliver Goldstick & Maya Goldsmith March 12 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 12 ) 2.47 Ezra tells Aria he 's worried about the fallout from him not taking the job Byron lined up for him . Jenna takes off the bandage covering her surgically repaired eye and it seems her surgery failed . Spencer finds out that Alison and `` A '' had been communicating via newspaper classified ads and was set to meet up . The girls decide to go to Brookhaven where the meeting was supposed to take place . Mona gets a text from `` A '' that says if she does n't break up Hanna and Caleb she 'll go back to being a loser . Aria finds an application for a boarding school in Vermont that Byron has left for Ella . The girls go to the doll store in Brookhaven and they speak with a boy named Seth , who tells them that Alison was in the store a year ago looking for a voodoo doll . He warned her against it , since a man and woman with dark hair were trying to hurt her . Aria mentions the application to Ella who says she 's considering it because of `` A '' . Aria hints at hurting Byron 's career by revealing his past affair with Meredith . Melissa asks about the bag she found in Spencer 's room . Spencer then shows her the video of her coming into Alison 's room and says she thinks the police need to see it , but Melissa threatens her . Jenna shows Toby the missing page from Alison 's autopsy report , which she got from Garrett . Jenna thinks the police should have it , so they go to the station . Melissa and Garrett are in the kitchen when she assures him Spencer did n't turn in the video . Two officers come to place Garrett under arrest for Alison 's murder . ' A ' ending : ' A ' bribes Martha with an envelope of cash and Seth , the boy who gave the girls false information about Alison , with candy . 47 25 `` unmAsked '' Lesli Linka Glatter I. Marlene King March 19 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 19 ) 3.69 On the night of the annual masquerade ball , the girls finally decide to put an end to A 's game . During the ball , Mona mentions to Spencer how she saw Alison spying on someone . Emily talks with her ex Paige and they decide that they 're going to attempt a friendship now that she 's out of the closet . Spencer realizes that `` A '' was n't watching Ali ; Ali was watching `` A '' . Mona and her go back to the Lost Woods Resort , and Spencer realizes that Room One was n't where they had to look - it was Room two . They open the door , gasping at what they see : `` A '' 's Lair . It is plastered with pictures of the girls , and other things such as the voodoo doll Alison received , the creepy baby doll costume , and a doll set , each one looking like the girls with Alison sitting on the top . Spencer finds numerous things that point to Mona being `` A '' , and `` A '' is finally revealed to be Mona Vanderwaal . She knocks Spencer out cold , and they take a drive . Aria video calls Spencer , and the girls see who `` A '' is . They flee to catch up with them . Spencer jumps out of the car , and the girls arrive . Mona freaks out and tries to kill Spencer , but ends up falling off a cliff . The ambulance arrives , and so does Dr. Sullivan . She tells them `` A '' threatened her son , which is why she left . It is then revealed Mona is alive . Meanwhile , we get a peek at what Mona is thinking while being kept in the mental hospital : She says that this is what `` they '' wanted , and their plan worked out just right . This means that Mona is n't working alone . A body is found , and it is Maya 's . Emily cries while the girls comfort her . ' A ' ending : A person in red visits Mona in her hospital room , to which she says to them `` I did everything you asked me to . '' Development and production ( edit ) After an initial order of 24 episodes , it was announced in June that a special Halloween - themed flashback episode would air as part of ABC Family 's 13 Nights of Halloween lineup , bringing the season 2 episode order to 25 episodes . On December 13 , 2011 , it was announced that the identity of A would be revealed in the Spring Finale . Plus , the season finale will see someone arrested for the murder of Alison , as well as the death of a beloved character -- excluding the four female leads . Filming of season two wrapped on December 16 , 2011 . Casting ( edit ) Janel Parrish , Tammin Sursok , Bianca Lawson , and Tyler Blackburn return in the second season as Mona Vanderwaal , Jenna Marshall , Maya St. Germain , and Caleb Rivers . Also returning are Yani Gellman , Torrey DeVitto , Lindsey Shaw , Claire Holt , Keegan Allen , Brant Daugherty , Brendan Robinson , and Julian Morris , who will all reprise their roles from the first season . Annabeth Gish appears as Anne Sullivan , a therapist whom the girls ' parents feel can help them on their problems. Andrea Parker will play Jessica DiLaurentis , Alison 's mother , who returns to Rosewood to help out with a fashion show being held in Alison 's honour . Actor Drew Van Acker also joined the cast playing Jason DiLaurentis , replacing Parker Bagley . Ratings ( edit ) Live + SD ratings ( edit ) No. in series No. in season Episode Air date Time slot ( EST ) Rating / Share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( m ) 23 `` It 's Alive '' June 14 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 14 ) Tuesdays 8 : 00 p.m. 1.3 3.68 24 `` The Goodbye Look '' June 21 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 21 ) 1.0 2.66 25 `` My Name Is Trouble '' June 28 , 2011 ( 2011 - 06 - 28 ) 1.0 2.78 26 `` Blind Dates '' July 5 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 05 ) 0.9 2.42 27 5 `` The Devil You Know '' July 12 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 12 ) 0.9 2.42 28 6 `` Never Letting Go '' July 19 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 19 ) 0.9 2.53 29 7 `` Surface Tension '' July 26 , 2011 ( 2011 - 07 - 26 ) 0.9 2.36 30 8 `` Save the Date '' August 2 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 02 ) 0.8 2.41 31 9 `` Picture This '' August 9 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 09 ) 0.9 2.54 32 10 `` Touched by an A-ngel '' August 16 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 16 ) 0.8 2.30 33 11 `` I Must Confess '' August 23 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 23 ) 1.0 2.63 34 12 `` Over My Dead Body '' August 30 , 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 30 ) 2.98 35 13 `` The First Secret '' October 19 , 2011 ( 2011 - 10 - 19 ) Wednesday 8 : 00 p.m. 1.0 2.47 36 14 `` Through Many Dangers , Toils and Snares '' January 2 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 02 ) Mondays 8 : 00 p.m. 1.3 3.34 37 15 `` A Hot Piece of ' A ' '' January 9 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 09 ) 1.3 2.95 38 16 `` Let the Water Hold Me Down '' January 16 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 16 ) 2.78 39 17 `` Blond Leading the Blind '' January 23 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 23 ) 1.4 3.17 40 18 `` A Kiss Before Lying '' January 30 , 2012 ( 2012 - 01 - 30 ) 0.9 2.55 41 19 `` The Naked Truth '' February 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 06 ) 1.0 2.25 42 20 `` CTRL : A '' February 6 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 06 ) 0.8 2.11 43 21 `` Breaking the Code '' February 13 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 13 ) 1.0 2.54 44 22 `` Father Knows Best '' February 20 , 2012 ( 2012 - 02 - 20 ) 1.0 2.49 45 23 `` Eye of the Beholder '' March 5 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 05 ) 1.0 2.58 46 24 `` If These Dolls Could Talk '' March 12 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 12 ) 1.0 2.47 47 25 `` unmAsked '' March 19 , 2012 ( 2012 - 03 - 19 ) 1.6 3.69 DVD release ( edit ) The Complete Second Season Set details Special features 22 episodes 1095 minutes ( Region 1 ) ; 1070 minutes ( Region 2 ) ; 1050 minutes ( Region 4 ) 6 - disc set 1.85 : 1 aspect ratio Languages : English ( Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround ) Subtitles : English , and French ( Region 1 ) English , Spanish , Danish , French , Arabic , Dutch , Norwegian , Swedish , Finnish , English for the Hearing Impaired ( Regions 2 and 4 ) Deleted scenes : Episodes : 1 , 6 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 15 , 18 , 21 , 24 Fashion 's Guilty Pleasure - Check out the girls rocking fashion from the second season ! Men of Mystery - Go behind the scenes and get an insight on the male characters of Pretty Little Liars Release dates United States United Kingdom Australia June 5 , 2012 ( 2012 - 06 - 05 ) November 9 , 2013 ( 2013 - 11 - 09 ) October 3 , 2012 ( 2012 - 10 - 03 ) References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Seidman , Robert ( March 7 , And in the next series will be called Love you like a love song 2011 ) . `` ABC Family Announces Summer 2011 Programming Including ' Switched At Birth , ' ' The Nine Lives of Chloe King ' and ' The Lying Game ' '' . TVByTheNumbers . Retrieved April 6 , 2011 . Check date values in : date = ( help ) Jump up ^ Bricker , Tierney ( January 10 , 2011 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' picked up for Season 2 , Aria and Ezra are ' soulmates ' '' . Zap2it . Retrieved January 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( October 20 , 2011 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Halloween Special Performs in Ratings '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved November 21 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( June 15 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Deadliest Catch ' Tops ; Premieres Of ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Memphis Beat , ' ' Hawthorne , ' ' Gene Simmons ' & Lots More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 22 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( June 22 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Tosh. 0 , ' ' Deadliest Catch , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs , ' ' Memphis Beat , ' ' Hawthorne ' & Lots More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved June 22 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( June 29 , 2011 ) . `` Updated Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Tosh. 0 , ' ' Deadliest Catch , ' ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Memphis Beat , ' ' Hawthorne ' & Lots More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 8 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( July 7 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom , ' ' Tosh. 0 , ' ' Deadliest Catch , ' ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Hawthorne ' & Lots More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 8 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( July 13 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom , ' ' Tosh. 0 , ' ' Deadliest Catch , ' ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Hawthorne ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 13 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( July 20 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom , ' ' Tosh. 0 , ' ' Deadliest Catch , ' ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Hawthorne ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved July 20 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( July 27 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom ' Still on Top + ' Tosh. 0 , ' ' Deadliest Catch , ' ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Gene Simmons ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( August 3 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom ' Still on Top ; ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs ' Rise + ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Billy the Exterminator ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 3 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( August 10 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom ' on Top but ; ' White Collar , ' ' Covert Affairs ' Rise in Summer Finales + ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Billy the Exterminator ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 10 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( August 17 , 2011 ) . `` Cable Ratings : ' Teen Mom ' Up , Wins Another Tuesday ; Absent USA Originals , TNT 's Originals Rise ; ' Pretty Little Liars ' Dips '' . TV by the Numbers . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( August 24 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable : ' Teen Mom ' Grows , Wins Again ; ' Awkward , ' ' Pretty Little Liars ' Rise & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 14 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( August 31 , 2011 ) . `` Tuesday Cable : ' Teen Mom ' Slips , Still Tops ; ' Pretty Little Liars ' Finale , ' Chopped , ' ' Big Sexy ' Premieres , ' Awkward ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved August 31 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( October 20 , 2011 ) . `` Wednesday Cable Ratings : ' Storage Wars ' Tops Night , ' American Horror Story ' Rises ; ' South Park ' Falls + ' Psych , ' ' Pretty Little Liars ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 21 , 2011 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( January 4 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Rose Bowl , ' ' Fiesta Bowl ' Tops + ' Pawn Stars , ' ' American Pickers , ' ' WWE RAW ' & Much More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 5 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Seidman , Robert ( January 10 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : BCS Championship Down , But On Top + ' Pawn Stars , ' ' Pretty Little Liars . ' ' T.I. and Tiny , ' ' WWE RAW ' & Much More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 10 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( January 18 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Back On Top + ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Being Human , ' ' WWE RAW ' & Much More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 19 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( January 24 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Rules , ' Pretty Little Liars , ' Love & Hip Hop ' Rise + ' Being Human , ' ' Lost Girl , ' ' WWE RAW ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 25 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( January 31 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Rules + ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Being Human , ' ' Lost Girl , ' ' WWE RAW , ' ' Housewives BH ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 31 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( February 7 , 2012 ) . `` MMonday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Rules + ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Being Human , ' ' Lost Girl , ' ' WWE RAW , ' ' Housewives BH ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 7 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Gorman , Bill ( February 14 , 2012 ) . `` MMonday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Rules + ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Being Human , ' ' Lost Girl , ' ' WWE RAW , ' ' Housewives BH ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 14 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( February 22 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Rules Again + ' WWE RAW , ' ' T.I. and Tiny , ' ' Pretty Little Liars , ' ' Being Human ' & Much More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 22 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( February 28 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Comes Out on Top , Closely Followed by ' WWE RAW ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved February 28 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( March 6 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' Pawn Stars ' Beats ' WWE ' , ' American Pickers , ' ' Basketball Wives , ' ' Pretty Little Liars ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 7 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Kondolojy , Amanda ( March 13 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' WWE Monday Night Raw ' leads ' Pawn Stars ' , ' American Chopper ' & ' TI and Tiny ' '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 13 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Bibel , Sara ( March 20 , 2012 ) . `` Monday Cable Ratings : ' WWE RAW , ' ' Pretty Little Liars ' Top Night + ' American Chopper , ' ' Basketball Wives , ' ' Lost Girl ' & More '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved March 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Ng , Philiana ( June 14 , 2011 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' : Special Halloween Episode to Air Later This Year ( Exclusive ) '' . The Hollywood Reporter . Prometheus Global Media . Retrieved July 29 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' Villain ' A ' To Be Revealed In Season Finale : Who Could It Be ? '' . Hollywoodcrush.mtv.com. 2011 - 12 - 13 . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Barrett , Annie ( 2011 - 12 - 13 ) . `` ' Pretty Little Liars ' : ' A ' to be revealed Inside TV EW.com '' . Insidetv.ew.com . Retrieved 2011 - 12 - 21 . Jump up ^ Hogan , Heather ( December 21 , 2011 ) . `` Marlene King gives us an exclusive scoop on the `` Pretty Little Liars '' winter season `` . After Ellen . Jump up ^ Masters , Megan ( March 22 , 2011 ) . `` What Really Happened In the Pretty Little Liars Finale ? ! Your Burning Questions Answered '' . TVLine . Retrieved April 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Ju1ianMorris . `` photo sharing service for twitter '' . Img.ly . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 25 . Jump up ^ Masters , Megan ( March 21 , 2011 ) . `` Pretty Little Liars Finale Scoop : Ezra Is Leaving Rosewood ? ! Plus , Spoilers for Season 2 '' . TVLine . Retrieved April 6 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Friday , April 8 , 2011 , 17 : 09 BST ( 2011 - 04 - 08 ) . `` Annabeth Gish joins ' Pretty Little Liars ' - US TV News '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 25 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Monday , May 23 , 2011 , 16 : 51 BST . `` Andrea Parker joins ' Pretty Little Liars ' - US TV News '' . Digital Spy . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 25 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) ^ Jump up to : `` Amazon.com : Pretty Little Liars : Season 2 : Troian Bellisario , Ashley Benson , Holly Marie Combs , Lucy Hale , Norman Buckley , Ron Lagomarsino , Chris Grismer , Chad Lowe : Movies & TV '' . Jump up ^ `` Pretty Little Liars : The Complete Second Season : Holly Marie Combs , Lucy Hale , Chad Lowe , Ashley Benson : Movies & TV '' . Amazon.com . Retrieved 2012 - 04 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Pretty Little Liars - Season 2 ( Exclusive to Amazon.co.uk ) ( DVD ) '' . Amazon.co.uk . Retrieved February 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Pretty Little Liars : Season 2 '' . ezydvd.com.au . Retrieved February 27 , 2012 . ( hide ) Sara Shepard 's Pretty Little Liars Pretty Little Liars ( 2006 ) Characters `` A '' Alex Drake Alison DiLaurentis Aria Montgomery Charlotte Drake Emily Fields Hanna Marin Jenna Marshall Mary Drake Melissa Hastings Mona Vanderwaal Red Coat Sara Harvey Spencer Hastings Sydney Driscoll TV series Episodes Season 1 `` Pilot '' `` For Whom the Bell Tolls '' Season 2 `` UnmAsked '' Season 3 `` It Happened ' That Night ' '' Season 4 `` ' A ' Is for A-l-i-v-e '' `` Grave New World '' `` Free Fall '' `` A Is for Answers '' Season 5 `` Miss Me × 100 '' `` How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '' Season 6 `` Game On , Charles '' `` Game Over , Charles '' `` Of Late I Think of Rosewood '' `` Charlotte 's Web '' `` Where Somebody Waits For Me '' `` Hush , Hush , Sweet Liars '' Season 7 `` Tick - Tock , Bitches '' `` Bedlam '' `` The Talented Mr. Rollins '' `` Hit and Run , Run , Run '' `` Along Comes Mary '' `` Wanted : Dead or Alive '' `` Original G'A'ngsters '' `` Exes and OMGs '' `` The Wrath of Kahn '' `` The DArkest Knight '' `` Playtime '' `` These Boots Were Made for Stalking '' `` Hold Your Piece '' `` Power Play '' `` In the Eye Abides the Heart '' `` The Glove That Rocks the Cradle '' `` Driving Miss Crazy '' `` Choose or Lose '' `` Till Death Do Us Part '' Miscellaneous Rosewood , Pennsylvania Ravenswood Pretty Little Liars : The Perfectionists Pretty Dirty Secrets Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pretty_Little_Liars_(season_2)&oldid=808844534 '' Categories : 2011 American television seasons 2012 American television seasons Pretty Little Liars Hidden categories : CS1 errors : dates CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Pages using deprecated image syntax Infobox television season articles that use the season name parameter Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Español Français Italiano Português Suomi Edit links This page was last edited on 5 November 2017 , at 15 : 19 . 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2361841036990371333 | Council of the European Union | Council of the European Union - wikipedia Council of the European Union Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with European Council or Council of Europe . Council of the European Union Bulgarian : Съвет на Европейския съюз Croatian : Vijeće Europske unije Czech : Rada Evropské unie Danish : Rådet for Den Europæiske Union Dutch : Raad van de Europese Unie Estonian : Euroopa Liidu Nõukogu Finnish : Euroopan unionin neuvosto French : Conseil de l'Union européenne German : Rat der Europäischen Union Greek : Συμβούλιο της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης Hungarian : Az Európai Unió Tanácsa Irish : Comhairle an Aontais Eorpaigh Italian : Consiglio dell'Unione europea Latvian : Eiropas Savienības Padome Lithuanian : Europos Sąjungos Taryba Maltese : Kunsill tal - Unjoni Ewropea Polish : Rada Unii Europejskiej Portuguese : Conselho da União Europeia Romanian : Consiliul Uniunii Europene Slovak : Rada Európskej únie Slovene : Svet Evropske unije Spanish : Consejo de la Unión Europea Swedish : Europeiska unionens råd Leadership Presidency Estonia Since 1 July 2017 Secretary General Jeppe Tranholm - Mikkelsen Since 1 July 2015 Structure Seats 28 ( varying representatives of 28 states ) Political groups No official division by political parties Elections Voting system Qualified majority or unanimity Meeting place Europa building : Brussels , Belgium Website consilium.europa.eu The Council of the European Union ( often still referred to as the Council of Ministers , or sometimes just called the Council ( Latin : Consilium ) is the third of the seven institutions of the European Union ( EU ) as listed in the Treaty on European Union . It is part of the essentially bicameral EU legislature ( the other legislative body being the European Parliament ) and represents the executive governments of the EU 's member states . It is based in the Europa building in Brussels . Contents ( hide ) 1 Composition 2 History 3 Powers and functions 3.1 Legislative procedure 3.2 Foreign affairs 3.3 Budgetary authority 4 Organisation 4.1 Presidency 4.2 Configurations 4.3 Administration 4.4 Voting system 5 Location 6 See also 7 References 8 External links Composition ( edit ) The Council meets in 10 different configurations of 28 national ministers ( one per state ) . The precise membership of these configurations varies according to the topic under consideration ; for example , when discussing agricultural policy the Council is formed by the 28 national ministers whose portfolio includes this policy area ( with the related European Commissioners contributing but not voting ) . The Presidency of the Council rotates every six months among the governments of EU member states , with the relevant ministers of the respective country holding the Presidency at any given time ensuring the smooth running of the meetings and setting the daily agenda . The continuity between presidencies is provided by an arrangement under which three successive presidencies , known as Presidency trios , share common political programmes . The Foreign Affairs Council ( national foreign ministers ) is however chaired by the Union 's High Representative . Its decisions are made by qualified majority voting in most areas , unanimity in others , or just simple majority for procedural issues . Usually where it operates unanimously , it only needs to consult the Parliament . However , in most areas the ordinary legislative procedure applies meaning both Council and Parliament share legislative and budgetary powers equally , meaning both have to agree for a proposal to pass . In a few limited areas the Council may initiate new EU law itself . The General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union , also known as Council Secretariat , assists the Council of the European Union , the Presidency of the Council of the European Union , the European Council and the President of the European Council . The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary - General of the Council of the European Union . The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates - general , each administered by a director - general . History ( edit ) European Union This article is part of a series on the politics and government of the European Union Executive ( show ) Juncker Commission President Juncker ( EPP ) Vice Presidents College Civil Service Secretary - General Italianer Legislative ( show ) Parliament ( show ) President Tajani ( EPP ) Largest groups ; EPP ( Manfred Weber ) S&D ( Gianni Pittella ) 8th session ( 2014 - 19 ) 751 MEPs Bureau Vice Presidents Quaestor Conference Legislative procedure Council of the EU ( show ) Presidency Configurations General Foreign Justice and Home Economic Euro Legislative procedure Voting Secretariat Secretary - General Uwe Corsepius Directorates - general COREPER Judiciary ( show ) Court of Justice Members Rulings General Court Central Bank ( show ) President Draghi ESCB Euro EMU Eurozone Court of Auditors ( show ) Budget OLAF Other bodies ( show ) Agencies Investment Bank CoR EESC Ombudsman National parliaments Policies and issues ( show ) Foreign relations ( show ) High Representative Federica Mogherini Ext . Action Service Foreign Policy Defence Policy Customs Union Enlargement Budget Four Freedoms Economic Area Area of FS&J Schengen Area Policies Agricultural Energy Fisheries Regional Citizenship Identity Pro-Europeanism Euroscepticism Integration Supranationalism Federalism United States of Europe Multi-speed Opt - outs Enhanced co-op Withdrawal Elections ( show ) 1979 , 1984 , 1989 1994 , 1999 , 2004 , 2009 2014 ( last election ) Political parties Constituencies Referendums Law ( show ) Treaty on European Union Acquis Primacy Subsidiarity Treaties Rome Single European Act Maastricht Amsterdam ( ( Nice Treaty Nice ) Lisbon Article 50 Fundamental Rights Membership Treaties of Accession 1972 , 1979 , 1985 , 1994 , 2003 , 2005 , 2011 European Council ( show ) President Tusk ( EPP ) Parties List of meetings Further information : History of the European Union The Council first appeared in the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) as the `` Special Council of Ministers '' , set up to counterbalance the High Authority ( the supranational executive , now the Commission ) . The original Council had limited powers : issues relating only to coal and steel were in the Authority 's domain , and the Council 's consent was only required on decisions outside coal and steel . As a whole , the Council only scrutinised the High Authority ( the executive ) . In 1957 , the Treaties of Rome established two new communities , and with them two new Councils : the Council of the European Atomic Energy Community ( EAEC ) and the Council of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) . However , due to objections over the supranational power of the Authority , their Councils had more powers ; the new executive bodies were known as `` Commissions '' . In 1965 the Council was hit by the `` empty chair crisis '' . Due to disagreements between French President Charles de Gaulle and the Commission 's agriculture proposals , among other things , France boycotted all meetings of the Council . This halted the Council 's work until the impasse was resolved the following year by the Luxembourg compromise . Although initiated by a gamble of the President of the Commission , Walter Hallstein , who later on lost the Presidency , the crisis exposed flaws in the Council 's workings . Under the Merger Treaty of 1967 , the ECSC 's Special Council of Ministers and the Council of the EAEC ( together with their other independent institutions ) were merged into the Council of the EEC , which would act as a single Council of the European Communities . In 1993 , the Council adopted the name ' Council of the European Union ' , following the establishment of the European Union by the Maastricht Treaty . That treaty strengthened the Council , with the addition of more intergovernmental elements in the three pillars system . However , at the same time the Parliament and Commission had been strengthened inside the Community pillar , curtailing the ability of the Council to act independently . The Treaty of Lisbon abolished the pillar system and gave further powers to Parliament . It also merged the Council 's High Representative with the Commission 's foreign policy head , with this new figure chairing the foreign affairs Council rather than the rotating presidency . The European Council was declared a separate institution from the Council , also chaired by a permanent president , and the different Council configurations were mentioned in the treaties for the first time . The development of the Council has been characterised by the rise in power of the Parliament , with which the Council has had to share its legislative powers . The Parliament has often provided opposition to the Council 's wishes . This has in some cases led to clashes between both bodies with the Council 's system of intergovernmentalism contradicting the developing parliamentary system and supranational principles . Powers and functions ( edit ) The primary purpose of the Council is to act as one of the two chambers of the EU 's legislative branch , the other chamber being the European Parliament . It also holds , jointly with the Parliament , the budgetary power of the Union and has greater control than the Parliament over the more intergovernmental areas of the EU , such as foreign policy and macroeconnomic co-ordination . Finally , before the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon , it formally held the executive power of the EU which it conferred upon the European Commission . Legislative procedure ( edit ) Main article : European Union legislative procedure Simplified illustration of the voting rules that apply within the ordinary legislative procedure . The actual procedure involves various stages of consultations aimed at achieving compromise between the positions of the two legislative chambers . The EU 's legislative authority is divided between the Council and the Parliament . As the relationships and powers of these institutions have developed , various legislative procedures have been created for adopting laws . In early times , the avis facultatif maxim was : `` The Commission proposes , and the Council disposes '' ; but now the vast majority of laws are now subject to the ordinary legislative procedure , which works on the principle that consent from both the Council and Parliament are required before a law may be adopted . Under this procedure , the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council . Following its first reading the Parliament may propose amendments . If the Council accepts these amendments then the legislation is approved . If it does not then it adopts a `` common position '' and submits that new version to the Parliament . At its second reading , if the Parliament approves the text or does not act , the text is adopted , otherwise the Parliament may propose further amendments to the Council 's proposal . It may be rejected out right by an absolute majority of MEPs . If the Council still does not approve the Parliament 's position , then the text is taken to a `` Conciliation Committee '' composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs . If a Committee manages to adopt a joint text , it then has to be approved in a third reading by both the Council and Parliament or the proposal is abandoned . The few other areas that operate the special legislative procedures are justice & home affairs , budget and taxation and certain aspects of other policy areas : such as the fiscal aspects of environmental policy . In these areas , the Council or Parliament decide law alone . The procedure used also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used . The strongest act is a regulation , an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety . Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve , but they do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them . A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person or group and is directly applicable . Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding declarations . The Council votes in one of three ways ; unanimity , simple majority , or qualified majority . In most cases , the Council votes on issues by qualified majority voting , meaning that there must be a minimum of 55 % of member states agreeing ( at least 15 ) who together represent at least 65 % of the EU population . A ' blocking minority ' can only be formed by at least 4 member states representing at least 35 % of the EU population . Foreign Affairs ( edit ) This section relies largely or entirely on a single source . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources . ( December 2015 ) The legal instruments used by the Council for the Common Foreign and Security Policy are different from the legislative acts . Under the CFSP they consist of `` common positions '' , `` joint actions '' , and `` common strategies '' . Common positions relate to defining a European foreign policy towards a particular third - country such as the promotion of human rights and democracy in Myanmar , a region such as the stabilisation efforts in the African Great Lakes , or a certain issue such as support for the International Criminal Court . A common position , once agreed , is binding on all EU states who must follow and defend the policy , which is regularly revised . A joint action refers to a co-ordinated action of the states to deploy resources to achieve an objective , for example for mine clearing or to combat the spread of small arms . Common strategies defined an objective and commits the EUs resources to that task for four years . Budgetary Authority ( edit ) Furthermore , the legislative branch officially holds the Union 's budgetary authority . The EU 's budget ( which is around 155 billion euro ) is subject to a form of the ordinary legislative procedure with a single reading giving Parliament power over the entire budget ( prior to 2009 , its influence was limited to certain areas ) on an equal footing to the Council . If there is a disagreement between them , it is taken to a conciliation committee as it is for legislative proposals . But if the joint conciliation text is not approved , the Parliament may adopt the budget definitively . In addition to the budget , the Council coordinates the economic policy of members . Organisation ( edit ) The Council 's rules of procedure contain the provisions necessary for its organisation and functioning . Presidency ( edit ) Main article : Presidency of the Council of the European Union The Presidency of the Council is not a single post , but is held by a member state 's government . Every six months the presidency rotates between the states , in an order predefined by the Council 's members , allowing each state to preside over the body . From 2007 , every three member states co-operate for their combined eighteen months on a common agenda , although only one formally holds the presidency for the normal six - month period . For example , the President for the second half of 2007 , Portugal , was the second in a trio of states alongside Germany and Slovenia with whom Portugal had been co-operating . The Council meets in various configurations ( as outlined below ) so its membership changes depending upon the issue . The person chairing the Council will always be the member from the state holding the Presidency . A delegate from the following Presidency also assists the presiding member and may take over work if requested . The exception however is the foreign affairs council , which has been chaired by the High Representative since the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty . The role of the Presidency is administrative and political . On the administrative side it is responsible for procedures and organising the work of the Council during its term . This includes summoning the Council for meetings along with directing the work of COREPER and other committees and working groups . The political element is the role of successfully dealing with issues and mediating in the Council . In particular this includes setting the agenda of the council , hence giving the Presidency substantial influence in the work of the Council during its term . The Presidency also plays a major role in representing the Council within the EU and representing the EU internationally , for example at the United Nations . Configurations ( edit ) Legally speaking , the Council is a single entity ( this means that technically any Council configuration can adopt decisions that fall within the remit of any other Council configuration ) but it is in practice divided into several different council configurations ( or ' ( con ) formations ' ) . Article 16 ( 6 ) of the Treaty on European Union provides : The Council shall meet in different configurations , the list of which shall be adopted in accordance with Article 236 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union . The General Affairs Council shall ensure consistency in the work of the different Council configurations . It shall prepare and ensure the follow - up to meetings of the European Council , in liaison with the President of the European Council and the Commission . The Foreign Affairs Council shall elaborate the Union 's external action on the basis of strategic guidelines laid down by the European Council and ensure that the Union 's action is consistent . Each council configuration deals with a different functional area , for example agriculture and fisheries . In this formation , the council is composed of ministers from each state government who are responsible for this area : the agriculture and fisheries ministers . The chair of this council is held by the member from the state holding the presidency ( see section above ) . Similarly , the Economic and Financial Affairs Council is composed of national finance ministers , and they are still one per state and the chair is held by the member coming from the presiding country . The Councils meet irregularly throughout the year except for the three major configurations ( top three below ) which meet once a month . There are currently ten formations : General Affairs ( GAC ) : General affairs co-ordinates the work of the Council , prepares for European Council meetings and deals with issues crossing various council formations . Foreign Affairs ( FAC ) : Chaired by the High Representative , rather than the Presidency , it manages the CFSP , CSDP , trade and development co-operation . It sometimes meets in a defence configuration . Until 2017 , the main meeting room of the Council was in the Justus Lipsius building in Brussels , seen here . Economic and Financial Affairs ( Ecofin ) : Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states . It includes budgetary and eurozone matters via an informal group composed only of eurozone member ministers . Agriculture and Fisheries ( Agrifish ) : Composed of the agriculture and fisheries ministers of the member states . It considers matters concerning the Common Agricultural Policy , the Common Fisheries Policy , forestry , organic farming , food and feed safety , seeds , pesticides , and fisheries . Justice and Home Affairs ( JHA ) : This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States . Includes civil protection . Employment , Social Policy , Health and Consumer Affairs ( EPSCO ) : Composed of employment , social protection , consumer protection , health and equal opportunities ministers . Competitiveness ( COMPET ) : Created in June 2002 through the merging of three previous configurations ( Internal Market , Industry and Research ) . Depending on the items on the agenda , this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as European affairs , industry , tourism and scientific research . With the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty , the EU acquired competence in space matters , and space policy has been attributed to the Competitiveness Council Transport , Telecommunications and Energy ( TTE ) : Created in June 2002 , through the merging of three policies under one configuration , and with a composition varying according to the specific items on its agenda . This formation meets approximately once every two months . Environment ( ENV ) : Composed of environment ministers , who meet about four times a year . Education , Youth , Culture and Sport ( EYC ) : Composed of education , culture , youth , communications and sport ministers , who meet around three or four times a year . Includes audiovisual issues . Complementing these , the Political and Security Committee ( PSC ) brings together ambassadors to monitor international situations and define policies within the CSDP , particularly in crises . The European Council is similar to a configuration of the Council , it operates in a similar way and but is composed of the national leaders ( heads of government or state ) and has its own President , currently Donald Tusk . The body 's purpose is to define the general `` impetus '' of the Union . The European Council deals with the major issues such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission who takes part in the body 's meetings . Ecofin 's Eurozone component , the Euro group , is also a formal group with its own President . Its European Council counterpart is the Euro summit formalized in 2011 and the TSCG . Following the entry into force of a framework agreement between the EU and ESA there is a Space Council configuration -- a joint and concomitant meeting of the EU Council and of the ESA Council at ministerial level dealing with the implementation of the ESP adopted by both organisations . Administration ( edit ) Pre-2014 emblem of the Council of the European Union The General Secretariat of the Council provides the continuous infrastructure of the Council , carrying out preparation for meetings , draft reports , translation , records , documents , agendas and assisting the presidency . The Secretary General of the Council is head of the Secretariat . The Secretariat is divided into seven directorates - general , each administered by a director - general . The Committee of Permanent Representatives ( COREPER ) is a body composed of representatives from the states ( ambassadors , civil servants etc . ) who meet each week to prepare the work and tasks of the Council . It monitors and co-ordinates work and deals with the Parliament on co-decision legislation . It is divided into two groups of the representatives ( Coreper II ) and their deputies ( Coreper I ) . Agriculture is dealt with separately by the Special Committee on Agriculture ( SCA ) . The numerous working groups submit their reports to the Council through Coreper or SCA . Voting system ( edit ) Further information : Voting in the Council of the European Union The Treaty of Lisbon mandates a change in voting system from 1 November 2014 for most cases to double majority Qualified Majority Voting , replacing the voting weights system . Decisions made by the council have to be taken by 55 % of member states representing at least 65 % of the EU 's population . State Governing parties EU party Population Cabinet Germany Christian Democratic Union of Germany Social Democratic Party of Germany Christian Social Union in Bavaria EPP PES EPP 7007820644890000000 ♠ 82,064,489 Merkel III France Socialist Party The Republicans Forward ! Democratic Movement PES EPP None EDP 7007666616210000000 ♠ 66,661,621 Philippe II United Kingdom Conservative Party ACRE 7007653411830000000 ♠ 65,341,183 May II Italy Democratic Party Popular Alternative Union of the Centre PES EPP EPP 7007613025190000000 ♠ 61,302,519 Gentiloni Spain People 's Party EPP 7007464384220000000 ♠ 46,438,422 Rajoy II Poland Law and Justice United Poland Poland Together United Right ACRE MELD None 7007379672090000000 ♠ 37,967,209 Szydło Romania Social Democratic Party Alliance of Liberals and Democrats PES ALDE Party 7007197599680000000 ♠ 19,759,968 Tudose Netherlands People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy Labour Party ALDE Party PES 7007172353490000000 ♠ 17,235,349 Rutte II Belgium Reformist Movement New Flemish Alliance Christian Democratic and Flemish Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats ALDE Party EFA EPP ALDE Party 7007112898530000000 ♠ 11,289,853 Michel Greece Coalition of the Radical Left Independent Greeks European Left None 7007107935260000000 ♠ 10,793,526 Tsipras II Czech Republic Czech Social Democratic Party ANO 2011 Christian and Democratic Union -- Czechoslovak People 's Party PES ALDE Party EPP 7007104457830000000 ♠ 10,445,783 Sobotka Portugal Socialist Party PES 7007103413300000000 ♠ 10,341,330 Costa Sweden Social Democratic Workers ' Party of Sweden Environment Party -- the Greens PES EGP 7006999800000000000 ♠ 9,998,000 Löfven Hungary Fidesz -- Hungarian Civic Alliance Christian Democratic People 's Party EPP EPP 7006983048500000000 ♠ 9,830,485 Orbán III Austria Social Democratic Party of Austria Austrian People 's Party PES EPP 7006871150000000000 ♠ 8,711,500 Kern Bulgaria GERB IMRO -- Bulgarian National Movement National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria EPP None None 7006715378400000000 ♠ 7,153,784 Borisov III Denmark Left , Denmark 's Liberal Party Liberal Alliance Conservative People 's Party ALDE Party None EPP 7006570091700000000 ♠ 5,700,917 Løkke Rasmussen III Finland Finnish Centre Party National Coalition Party ALDE Party EPP 7006546540800000000 ♠ 5,465,408 Sipilä Slovakia Direction -- Social Democracy Bridge PES EPP 7006540791000000000 ♠ 5,407,910 Fico III Ireland Fine Gael EPP 7006466415600000000 ♠ 4,664,156 Varadkar Croatia Croatian Democratic Union Croatian People 's Party -- Liberal Democrats EPP ALDE Party 7006419066900000000 ♠ 4,190,669 Plenković Lithuania Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union Social Democratic Party of Lithuania None PES 7006288855800000000 ♠ 2,888,558 Skvernelis Slovenia Party of Modern Center Democratic Party of Pensioners of Slovenia Social Democrats ALDE Party None PES 7006206418800000000 ♠ 2,064,188 Cerar Latvia Unity National Alliance `` All For Latvia ! '' -- `` For Fatherland and Freedom / LNNK '' Latvian Green Party Centre Party Latvian Farmers ' Union For Latvia and Ventspils Liepāja Party EPP ACRE EGP None None None 7006196895700000000 ♠ 1,968,957 Kučinskis Estonia Estonian Centre Party Social Democratic Party Pro Patria and Res Publica Union ALDE Party PES EPP 7006131594400000000 ♠ 1,315,944 Ratas Cyprus Democratic Rally EPP 7005848319000000000 ♠ 848,319 Anastasiades Luxembourg Luxembourg Socialist Workers ' Party Democratic Party The Greens PES ALDE Party EGP 7005576249000000000 ♠ 576,249 Bettel Malta Labour Party PES 7005434403000000000 ♠ 434,403 Muscat II Almost all members of the Council are members of a political party at national level , and most of these are members of a European - level political party . However the Council is composed to represent the EU 's states rather than political parties and the nature of coalition governments in a number of states means that individual configurations would vary on which domestic party was assigned the portfolio . However the broad ideological alignment of each state does have a bearing on the nature of the law the Council produces and the extent to which the link between domestic parties puts pressure on the members in the European Parliament to vote a certain way . Member State Dominant Europarty Additional Europarties Austria PES EPP Belgium ALDE EFA EPP Bulgaria EPP NI Croatia EPP ALDE Cyprus EPP Czech Republic PES ALDE EPP Denmark ALDE NI EPP Estonia ALDE PES EPP Finland ALDE EPP France EPP PES NI EDP Germany EPP PES Greece EL NI Hungary EPP Ireland EPP NI Italy PES EPP Latvia NI EPP ACRE EGP Lithuania NI PES Luxembourg ALDE PES EGP Malta PES Netherlands ALDE PES Poland ACRE MELD NI Portugal PES Romania PES ALDE Slovenia ALDE NI PES Slovakia PES EPP Spain EPP Sweden PES EGP United Kingdom ACRE ACRE Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe ADDE Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe ALDE Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party EDP European Democratic Party EFA European Free Alliance EGP European Green Party EL Party of the European Left EPP European People 's Party MELD Movement for a Europe of Liberties and Democracy NI Non-Attached PES Party of European Socialists The dominant Europarty is the one holding the member state 's seat in the European Council . Additional Europarties are the ones which also sit in ( some configurations of ) the Council of the European Union . Location ( edit ) Further information : Location of European Union institutions , Europa building , and Justus Lipsius building By a decision of the European Council at Edinburgh in December 1992 , the Council has its seat in Brussels but in April , June , and October , it holds its meetings in Luxembourg . Between 1952 and 1967 the ECSC Council held its Luxembourg meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d'Armes . Its secretariat moved on numerous occasions but between 1955 and 1967 it was housed in the Verlorenkost district of the city . In 1957 with the creation of two new Communities with their own Councils , discretion on location was given to the current President . In practice this was to be in the Château of Val - Duchesse until the autumn of 1958 , at which point it moved to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels . The 1965 agreement ( finalised by the Edinburgh agreement and annexed to the treaties ) on the location of the newly merged institutions , the Council was to be in Brussels but would meet in Luxembourg during April , June , and October . The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels . In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building , next to the Commission 's Berlaymont , but the Council rapidly ran out of space and administrative branch of the Secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II / Jozef II - straat and during the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens , Frère Orban , and Guimard buildings . In 1995 the Council moved into the Justus Lipsius building , across the road from Charlemagne . However , its staff was still increasing , so it continued to rent the Frère Orban building to house the Finnish and Swedish language divisions . Staff continued to increase and the Council rented , in addition to owning Justus Lipsius , the Kortenberg , Froissart , Espace Rolin , and Woluwe Heights buildings . Since acquiring the Lex building in 2008 , the three aforementioned buildings are no longer in use by the Council services . When the Council is meeting in Luxembourg , it meets in the Kirchberg Conference Centre and its offices are based at the European Centre on the plateau du Kirchberg . The Council has also met occasionally in Strasbourg , in various other cities , and also outside the Union : for example in 1974 when it met in Tokyo and Washington while trade and energy talks were taking place . Under the Council 's present rules of procedures the Council can , in extraordinary circumstances , hold one of its meetings outside Brussels and Luxembourg . From 2017 , both the Council of the European Union and the European Council adopted the purpose built Europa building as their official headquarters , although they continue to utilise the facilities afforded by the adjacent Justus Lipsius building . The focal point of the new building , the distinctive multi-storey `` lantern '' shaped structure in which the main meeting room is located , is utilised in both EU institutions ' new official logos . See also ( edit ) Book : European Union Comparisons with other institutions References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` EUR - Lex - C : 2016 : 202 : TOC - EN - EUR - Lex '' . eur-lex.europa.eu . ^ Jump up to : `` Legislative power '' . European Parliament . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 11 . ^ Jump up to : `` EUROPA : Home of the European Council and the Council of the EU - Consilium '' . www.consilium.europa.eu . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : `` Council of the European Union '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Union 's institutions : The Council of Ministers '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 01 . ^ Jump up to : `` Council of the European Union '' . European NAvigator . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ Ludlow , N ( 2006 ) . `` De-commissioning the Empty Chair Crisis : the Community institutions and the crisis of 1965 -- 6 '' ( PDF ) . London School of Economics . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 25 October 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 24 . Jump up ^ Hoskyns , Catherine ; Michael Newman ( 2000 ) . Democratizing the European Union : Issues for the twenty - first Century ( Perspectives on Democratization . Manchester University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7190 - 5666 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Treaty on the European Union ( Nice consolidated version ) '' ( PDF ) . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` News - Archives - Highlights - Codecision and other procedures '' . www.europarl.europa.eu . Jump up ^ `` The Codecision Procedure '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 07 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` Codecision procedure '' . European Parliament . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` Explaining the Treaty of Lisbon '' . Europa website . Retrieved 2009 - 12 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Decision - making in the European Union '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Archived from the original on 11 October 2007 . Retrieved 18 September 2007 . Jump up ^ `` Community legal instruments '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 09 - 18 . Jump up ^ `` Voting system '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Joint actions , common positions and common strategies '' . French Foreign Ministry . Retrieved 2007 - 10 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Multiannual Financial Framework - European Commission '' . ec.europa.eu . Jump up ^ `` EUR - Lex - o10003 - EN - EUR - Lex '' . eur-lex.europa.eu . Jump up ^ `` What is the Presidency ? '' . 2007 German Presidency website . Archived from the original on 1 July 2007 . Retrieved 24 June 2007 . ^ Jump up to : `` The Presidency '' . 2007 Portuguese Presidency website . Archived from the original on 20 October 2007 . Retrieved 2007 - 10 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` The presidency in general '' . 2007 Finnish Presidency website . Archived from the original on 3 October 2006 . Retrieved 2007 - 10 - 14 . Jump up ^ `` Council Decision of 15 September 2006 adopting the Council 's Rules of Procedure '' ( PDF ) . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 11 - 26 . Jump up ^ `` The decision - making process in the Council - Consilium '' . www.consilium.europa.eu . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 29 . Jump up ^ `` Council configurations '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Information handbook of the Council of the European Union . Brussels : Office of Official Publications of the European Communities. 2007 . ISBN 978 - 92 - 824 - 2203 - 8 . Jump up ^ `` Report from the conference on crisis management , French presidency , 2008 '' . Eu2008.fr. 31 October 2008 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2012 . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . ^ Jump up to : `` The CER guide to the EU 's constitutional treaty '' ( PDF ) . Centre for European Reform . July 2004 . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Consilium - Agriculture and Fisheries '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 18 January 2014 . Jump up ^ Art. 4 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF Jump up ^ `` Competitiveness Council configuration ( COMPET ) '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Education , Youth , Culture and Sport Council configuration ( EYCS ) '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` European Council -- The institution '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` European Council '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` European Commission '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 10 - 02 . Jump up ^ `` 26 October 2011 Euro summit conclusions '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` ESA PR : N ° 21 - 2007 : Europe 's Space Policy becomes a reality today '' . Esa.int. 22 May 2007 . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Framework Agreement between the European Community and the European Space Agency '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2012 - 03 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` General Secretariat of the Council '' . Council of the European Union . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ `` Glossary '' . Europa ( web portal ) . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . Jump up ^ European Council ( 12 December 1992 ) . `` European Council in Edinburgh : 11 -- 12 December 1992 , Annex 6 to Part A '' ( PDF ) . European Parliament . Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : `` Seat of the Council of the European Union '' . European NAvigator . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 11 . Jump up ^ `` New HQ , new logo '' . POLITICO. 2014 - 01 - 15 . Retrieved 2017 - 05 - 07 . 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-8028384762068574381 | Engineering education in India | Engineering education in India - wikipedia Engineering education in India Jump to : navigation , search This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( May 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) India is one of the largest producers of engineers in the world . In India , there are numerous engineering colleges imparting undergraduate and graduate courses in engineering , applied engineering and sciences . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 Indian Institutes of Technology 3 Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology 4 Indian Institute of Information Technology 5 National Institutes of Technology 6 The Institution of Engineers ( India ) 7 Polytechnic Institutes 8 AICTE approved institutes by state 9 Corruption in Engineering Education 10 See also 11 References History ( edit ) See also : List of Indian engineering colleges before 1947 The impulse for creation of centers of technical training came from the British Raj rulers of India . While Superintending Engineers were mostly recruited from Britain , lower grades e.g. Craftsmen , Artisans and sub-overseers who were recruited locally . The necessity to make them more efficient , led to the establishment of industrial schools attached to Indian Ordnance Factories and other engineering establishments . The first engineering college was established in the Uttar Pradesh in 1847 for the training of Civil Engineers at Roorkee , Thomason College ( which later become IIT Roorkee ) which made use of the large workshops and public buildings there that were erected for the Upper Ganges Canal . In pursuance of the Government policy , three Engineering Colleges were opened by about 1856 in the three Presidencies . In Bengal Presidency , a College called the Calcutta College of Civil Engineering ( which later became Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology , Shibpur ) was opened at the Writers ' Building in November 1856 . In Bombay Presidency , the Overseers ' School at Pune eventually became the College of Engineering , Pune and was affiliated to the Bombay University in 1858 . In the Madras Presidency , the industrial school attached to the Gun Carriage Factory became ultimately the College of Engineering , Guindy and affiliated to the Madras University ( 1858 ) . Indian Institutes of Technology ( edit ) The Indian Institutes of Technology ( IITs ) has 23 centers located in Bhubaneswar , Bombay , Delhi , Gandhinagar , Guwahati , Hyderabad , Indore , Jodhpur , Kanpur , Kharagpur , Madras , Mandi , Patna , Roorkee , Ropar , Dhanbad , Palakkad , Tirupati , Bhilai , Goa , Jammu , Dharwad and Varanasi . All IITs enjoy the status of the Institutes of National Importance and are autonomous universities that draft their own curricula . Many IITs are members of LAOTSE , an international network of universities in Europe and Asia . LAOTSE membership allows the IITs to exchange students and senior scholars with universities in other countries . Admission to undergraduate B. Tech and integrated M. Tech programs are through JEE Advanced ( the Joint Entrance Examination Advanced ) in which around 150,000 students appear annually out of which only around 11,032 get selected . These 150,000 students are initially sorted out by the JEE Mains ( Joint Entrance Examination Mains ) which is conducted by the central board ( Delhi ) . Around 1.3 million students appear for this exam . Admission to most postgraduate courses in IITs is granted through various written entrance examinations : GATE ( for M. Tech . ) , JAM ( for M.Sc . ) and CEED ( for M. Des . ) . The admission for Ph. D. program is based primarily on a personal interview , though candidates may also have to appear for written tests . The IITs are also well known for their special reservation policy , which is significantly different from the one applied in other educational institutions of India . Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology ( edit ) Indian Institutes of Engineering Science and Technology ( abbreviated as IIEST ) are a group of academic institutions in India for research and education in engineering . These were originally proposed by the Government of India in 2007 to meet the increasing demand for technological and scientific workforce in the industrial and service sectors of India as well as the growing need for qualified personnel in research and development . It was decided that the institutes under the banner of IIEST were to be created by upgrading existing engineering colleges or universities under the various State governments of India through an act of the Parliament of India , instead of founding completely new institutes . After upgrading , these institutes would also be granted the status of `` Institutes of National Importance ( INI ) '' . The first institute to be upgraded to IIEST was Bengal Engineering and Science University , Shibpur , which was a university under the Government of West Bengal prior to the upgrade process . Indian institute of information Technology ( edit ) Indian Institutes of Information Technology ( IIITs ) are a group of four institutes of higher education in India , focused on information technology . They are established by the central government , centrally funded , and managed by the Ministry of Human Resource Development . Indian Institute of Information Technology , Allahabad ( IIIT Allahabad ) ( Dean Sayed Akif ) Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management , Gwalior ( IIITM - G ) Indian Institute of Information Technology , Design and Manufacturing , Jabalpur ( IIITDM Jabalpur ) Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing Kancheepuram ( IIITDM Kancheepuram ) National Institutes of Technology ( edit ) This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The National Institutes of Technology ( NIT ) are colleges of engineering and technology education in India . They have also been given the status of `` Institutes of National Importance '' by the Government of India . They were originally called Regional Engineering Colleges ( RECs ) . In 2002 , the Ministry of Human Resource Development , Government of India , decided to upgrade , in phases , all the original 17 Regional Engineering Colleges ( RECs ) as National Institutes of Technology ( NITs ) . There are currently 31 NITs , with the inception of 10 new NITs in the year 2010 and another in 2015 . The Government of India has introduced the National Institutes of Technology ( NIT ) Act 2010 to bring 30 such institutions within the ambit of the act and to provide them with complete autonomy in their functioning . The NITs are deliberately scattered throughout the country in line with the government norm of an NIT in every major state of India to promote regional development . The individual NITs , after the introduction of the NIT Act , have been functioning as autonomous technical universities and hence can draft their own curriculum and functioning policies . The admission to undergraduate programs of all the NITs was done by the All India Engineering Entrance Examination popularly known as AIEEE . From the year 2013 , AIEEE was replaced by JEE ( Main ) in which 40 % weightage is given to the Higher Secondary results and 60 % ( as per new rules the weightage of marks in board has been changec and HS board percentage is not counted ) weightage given to the JEE ( Main ) results . In addition to the NITs , a host of other well - known national level reputed institutes like DCE , NSIT , IIITs , PEC , Thapar University , DA - IICT , BIT Mesra accept students from the newly introduced examination . The examination is objective by nature and is conducted by the Central Board of Secondary Education popularly known as the CBSE . More than fourteen lakh ( 1,400,000 ) applicants took part in 2013 for approximately 15500 seats in the B. Tech and B. Arch programmes available in all the NITs put together . The institution of Engineers ( India ) ( edit ) AMIE was established in 1920 in Kolkata , West Bengal and is acclaimed to have pioneered non-formal education in Engineering . IEI ( I ) conducts an examination for its Associate Membership ( AMIE ) . This examination is considered to be on par with B.E. / B. Tech. ( 4 ) when contemplated as an eligibility qualification to write competitive examinations like the Indian Civil Service , Indian Engineering Services , GATE , etc. , and for employment in Government , public and private sectors in India . This qualification is recognised by Ministry of HRD , Government of India as equivalent to B.E. / B. Tech . There are 2 sections , namely Section A and Section B , who passed both of section he will be chartered engineer ( CEng ) , chartered engineer ( CEng ) is considered as bachelor 's degree in all National and International bodies . Polytechnic Institutes ( edit ) In India there are Institutions which offer three year diploma in engineering post Tenth class . These institutes have affiliation from state board of technical education of respective state governments . after which one can apply for post of junior engineer or continue higher studies by appearing for exams of AMIE to become an engineering graduate . Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Institute of Technology Calcutta Technical School , Kolkata Jnan Chandra Ghosh Polytechnic , Kolkata Sai Polytechnic College , Sri Sai University , Palampur Pathankot Amritsar Pusa Polytechnic being one of the famous Polytechnic in India Government Girls Polytechnic , Bilaspur Government Polytechnic , Ambikapur Government Polytechnic , Korba Government Polytechnic , Mumbai Government Polytechnic Lucknow Government Polytechnic Nainital Government Polytechnic Nilokheri Government Polytechnic Barabanki Government Polytechnic , Nagpur Government Polytechnic , Anantnag , Jammu & Kashmir Government Polytechnic Solapur Kirodimal Govt . Polytechnic , Raigarh AICTE approved institutes by state ( edit ) List of AICTE approved institutes by state , for the academic year 2017 - 2018 : S.No State / Union Territory Number of Engineering Institutes Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andhra Pradesh 825 Arunachal Pradesh 10 Assam 59 5 Bihar 124 6 Chandigarh 14 7 Chhattisgarh 124 8 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 9 Daman and Diu 10 Delhi 78 11 Goa 17 12 Gujarat 427 13 Haryana 416 14 Himachal Pradesh 64 15 Jammu & Kashmir 53 16 Jharkhand 73 17 Karnataka 756 18 Kerala 380 19 Madhya Pradesh 556 20 Maharashtra 1564 21 Manipur 22 Meghalaya 7 23 Mizoram 24 Nagaland 8 25 Orissa 303 26 Puducherry 29 27 Punjab 384 28 Rajasthan 402 29 Sikkim 5 30 Tamil Nadu 1339 31 Telangana 701 32 Tripura 13 33 Uttar Pradesh 1165 34 Uttarakhand 197 35 West Bengal 286 - Total 10396 Corruption in Engineering education ( edit ) Some of the engineering colleges have been known for involving themselves in the illegal practice of capitation fee . All India Council for Technical Education ( AICTE ) , the regulatory body for technical education in India , has called `` upon the students , parents and the general public not to pay any capitation fee or any other fee other than that mentioned in the Prospectus of the Institutions for consideration of admission . '' . AICTE also mentions that the fee charged from students , has to be approved by the fee regulatory committee of the state , and the institute should mention the fee in its website . As per AICTE norms , the educational institutions are not meant to charge a fee higher than what is mentioned in the prospectus . Educational regulatory agencies such as UGC and regional level fee regulating bodies has mandated that an institution should include the fee in the prospectus . See also ( edit ) List of Indian engineering colleges before 1947 References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` More dreams get wings as IITs to add 460 seats this year '' . Jump up ^ `` IIEST press release '' ( PDF ) . Jump up ^ `` IIT , NIT in Andhra Pradesh to start from 2015 - 16 '' . Deccan Chronicle. 3 May 2015 . Retrieved 5 August 2017 . Jump up ^ `` List of AICTE approved Institutes for the academic year : 2017 - 2018 '' . AICTE . Retrieved 2 July 2017 . Jump up ^ http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/notice_prohibition_capitation_fee.pdf Jump up ^ ( PDF ) http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ApprovalProcessHandbook2016-17.pdf . Retrieved 17 September 2016 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ ( PDF ) http://www.ugc.ac.in/pdfnews/1842250_deemedregulation2014.PDF . Retrieved 17 September 2016 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Jump up ^ ( PDF ) http://asckerala.org/sites/default/files/MBA%20DIRECTIVES%20ISSUED%20TO%20ALL%20SELF-FINANICNG%20MANAGEMENT%20INSTITUTUES%20ON%2011.05.2015.pdf . Retrieved 17 September 2016 . Missing or empty title = ( help ) Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineering_education_in_India&oldid=827203339 '' Categories : Engineering education in India Hidden categories : Pages with citations lacking titles Pages with citations having bare URLs Articles needing additional references from May 2015 All articles needing additional references Articles needing additional references from August 2017 All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from January 2018 Talk Contents About Wikipedia ಕನ್ನಡ Edit links This page was last edited on 23 February 2018 , at 10 : 25 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | number of aicte approved engineering colleges in india | [
"\n\nS.No\nState/Union Territory\nNumber of Engineering Institutes[4]\n\n\n1\nAndaman & Nicobar Islands\n1\n\n\n2\nAndhra Pradesh\n825\n\n\n3\nArunachal Pradesh\n10\n\n\n4\nAssam\n59\n\n\n5\nBihar\n124\n\n\n6\nChandigarh\n14\n\n\n7\nChhattisgarh\n124\n\n\n8\nDadra and Nagar Haveli\n3\n\n\n9\nDaman and Diu\n2\n\n\n10\nDelhi\n78\n\n\n11\nGoa\n17\n\n\n12\nGujarat\n427\n\n\n13\nHaryana\n416\n\n\n14\nHimachal Pradesh\n64\n\n\n15\nJammu & Kashmir\n53\n\n\n16\nJharkhand\n73\n\n\n17\nKarnataka\n756\n\n\n18\nKerala\n380\n\n\n19\nMadhya Pradesh\n556\n\n\n20\nMaharashtra\n1564\n\n\n21\nManipur\n4\n\n\n22\nMeghalaya\n7\n\n\n23\nMizoram\n4\n\n\n24\nNagaland\n8\n\n\n25\nOrissa\n303\n\n\n26\nPuducherry\n29\n\n\n27\nPunjab\n384\n\n\n28\nRajasthan\n402\n\n\n29\nSikkim\n5\n\n\n30\nTamil Nadu\n1339\n\n\n31\nTelangana\n701\n\n\n32\nTripura\n13\n\n\n33\nUttar Pradesh\n1165\n\n\n34\nUttarakhand\n197\n\n\n35\nWest Bengal\n286\n\n\n-\nTotal\n10396\n\n"
] | [
"10396"
] |
3857519255910896710 | Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History | Journal of colonialism and colonial History - Wikipedia Journal of colonialism and colonial History Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History Discipline History , International development Language English Edited by Clare Anderson Publication details Publication history 2000 - present Publisher Johns Hopkins University Press ( United States ) Frequency Triannually ISO 4 Find out here Indexing MIAR ISSN 1532 - 5768 00215930 OCLC no . 45037899 Links Journal homepage Online access The Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History is a peer - reviewed academic journal established in 2000 and devoted to research in the relatively new field of colonial studies . The journal is aimed at a wide variety of scholars concerned with the history and social and political impact of colonialism and imperialism . The journal covers pre - , post - , and colonial periods as well as controversial questions related to the transition to independence . The founder and first editor of the journal was Patricia W. Romero of Towson University , and the current editor is Clare Anderson of the University of Leicester . The journal is available exclusively as an electronic publication . It is published three times each year in April , August , and December by the Johns Hopkins University Press . Abstracting and indexing ( edit ) The journal is indexed in the following services : EBSCO Publishing : America : History and Life , Historical Abstracts MLA International Bibliography References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History '' . The Johns Hopkins University Press . Retrieved 2011 - 01 - 15 . External links ( edit ) Official website Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History at Project MUSE This article about a history journal is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . See tips for writing articles about academic journals . Further suggestions might be found on the article 's talk page . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Colonialism_and_Colonial_History&oldid=828423432 '' Categories : History journals Publications established in 2000 English - language journals Triannual journals Johns Hopkins University Press academic journals History of colonialism History journal stubs Hidden categories : Infobox journals with missing ISO 4 abbreviations All stub articles Talk About Wikipedia Polski Edit links This page was last edited on 2 March 2018 , at 13 : 08 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | journal of colonialism and colonial history impact factor | [] | [] |
-3245456039157507088 | Evolution | Evolution - wikipedia Evolution Jump to : navigation , search This article is about evolution in biology . For related articles , see Outline of evolution . For other uses , see Evolution ( disambiguation ) . For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic , see Introduction to evolution . Part of a series on Evolutionary biology Diagrammatic representation of the divergence of modern taxonomic groups from their common ancestor Key topics ( show ) Introduction to evolution Common descent Evidence of common descent Processes and outcomes ( show ) Population genetics Variation Diversity Mutation Natural selection Adaptation Polymorphism Genetic drift Gene flow Speciation Adaptive radiation Co-operation Coevolution Divergence Convergence Parallel evolution Extinction Natural history ( show ) Origin of life History of life Timeline of evolution Human evolution Phylogeny Biodiversity Biogeography Classification Evolutionary taxonomy Cladistics Transitional fossil Extinction event History of evolutionary theory ( show ) Overview Renaissance Before Darwin Darwin Origin of Species Before synthesis Modern synthesis Molecular evolution Evo - devo Current research History of paleontology ( timeline ) Fields and applications ( show ) Applications of evolution Biosocial criminology Ecological genetics Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary computation Evolutionary ecology Evolutionary economics Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary game theory Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary medicine Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology Evolutionary psychology Experimental evolution Phylogenetics Paleontology Selective breeding Sociobiology Systematics Universal Darwinism Social implications ( show ) Evolution as fact and theory Social effects Creation -- evolution controversy Objections to evolution Level of support Evolutionary biology portal Category Book Related topics Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations . Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation , including the levels of species , individual organisms , and molecules . Repeated formation of new species ( speciation ) , change within species ( anagenesis ) , and loss of species ( extinction ) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth are demonstrated by shared sets of morphological and biochemical traits , including shared DNA sequences . These shared traits are more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor , and can be used to reconstruct a biological `` tree of life '' based on evolutionary relationships ( phylogenetics ) , using both existing species and fossils . The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite , to microbial mat fossils , to fossilised multicellular organisms . Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction . In the mid-19th century , Charles Darwin formulated the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection , published in his book On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) . Evolution by natural selection is a process demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are produced than can possibly survive , along with three facts about populations : 1 ) traits vary among individuals with respect to morphology , physiology , and behaviour ( phenotypic variation ) , 2 ) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction ( differential fitness ) , and 3 ) traits can be passed from generation to generation ( heritability of fitness ) . Thus , in successive generations members of a population are replaced by progeny of parents better adapted to survive and reproduce in the biophysical environment in which natural selection takes place . This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform . The processes by which the changes occur , from one generation to another , are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms . The four most widely recognised evolutionary processes are natural selection ( including sexual selection ) , genetic drift , mutation and gene migration due to genetic admixture . Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation ; mutation and gene migration create variation . Consequences of selection can include meiotic drive ( unequal transmission of certain alleles ) , nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking . In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics . The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology . Moreover , previously held notions about evolution , such as orthogenesis , evolutionism , and other beliefs about innate `` progress '' within the largest - scale trends in evolution , became obsolete . Scientists continue to study various aspects of evolutionary biology by forming and testing hypotheses , constructing mathematical models of theoretical biology and biological theories , using observational data , and performing experiments in both the field and the laboratory . All life on Earth shares a common ancestor known as the last universal common ancestor ( LUCA ) , which lived approximately 3.5 -- 3.8 billion years ago . This should not be assumed to be the first living organism on Earth ; a study in 2015 found `` remains of biotic life '' from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all organisms living on Earth . More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates of Earth 's current species range from 10 to 14 million , of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one - thousandth of one percent described . In terms of practical application , an understanding of evolution has been instrumental to developments in numerous scientific and industrial fields , including agriculture , human and veterinary medicine , and the life sciences in general . Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just in the traditional branches of biology but also in other academic disciplines , including biological anthropology , and evolutionary psychology . Evolutionary computation , a sub-field of artificial intelligence , involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science . Contents ( hide ) 1 History of evolutionary thought 1.1 Classical times 1.2 Medieval 1.3 Pre-Darwinian 1.4 Darwinian revolution 1.5 Pangenesis and heredity 1.6 The ' modern synthesis ' 1.7 Further syntheses 2 Heredity 3 Variation 3.1 Mutation 3.2 Sex and recombination 3.3 Gene flow 4 Mechanisms 4.1 Natural selection 4.2 Biased mutation 4.3 Genetic drift 4.4 Genetic hitchhiking 4.5 Gene flow 5 Outcomes 5.1 Adaptation 5.2 Coevolution 5.3 Cooperation 5.4 Speciation 5.5 Extinction 6 Evolutionary history of life 6.1 Origin of life 6.2 Common descent 6.3 Evolution of life 7 Applications 8 Social and cultural responses 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links History of evolutionary thought Lucretius Alfred Russel Wallace Thomas Robert Malthus In 1842 , Charles Darwin penned his first sketch of On the Origin of Species . Main article : History of evolutionary thought Classical Times The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers , such as Anaximander and Empedocles . Such proposals survived into Roman times . The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura ( On the Nature of Things ) . Medieval In contrast to these materialistic views , Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities , known as forms . This was part of a medieval teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order . Variations of this idea became the standard understanding of the Middle Ages and were integrated into Christian learning , but Aristotle did not demand that real types of organisms always correspond one - for - one with exact metaphysical forms and specifically gave examples of how new types of living things could come to be . Pre-darwinian In the 17th century , the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach . It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order . However , this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences , the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types . John Ray applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types , `` species , '' to plant and animal types , but he strictly identified each type of living thing as a species and proposed that each species could be defined by the features that perpetuated themselves generation after generation . The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships , but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan . Other naturalists of this time speculated on the evolutionary change of species over time according to natural laws . In 1751 , Pierre Louis Maupertuis wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over many generations to produce new species . Georges - Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon suggested that species could degenerate into different organisms , and Erasmus Darwin proposed that all warm - blooded animals could have descended from a single microorganism ( or `` filament '' ) . The first full - fledged evolutionary scheme was Jean - Baptiste Lamarck 's `` transmutation '' theory of 1809 , which envisaged spontaneous generation continually producing simple forms of life that developed greater complexity in parallel lineages with an inherent progressive tendency , and postulated that on a local level these lineages adapted to the environment by inheriting changes caused by their use or disuse in parents . ( The latter process was later called Lamarckism . ) These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support . In particular , Georges Cuvier insisted that species were unrelated and fixed , their similarities reflecting divine design for functional needs . In the meantime , Ray 's ideas of benevolent design had been developed by William Paley into the Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity ( 1802 ) , which proposed complex adaptations as evidence of divine design and which was admired by Charles Darwin . Darwinian revolution The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection , which was formulated by Charles Darwin in terms of variable populations . Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population ( 1798 ) by Thomas Robert Malthus , Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a `` struggle for existence '' in which favorable variations prevailed as others perished . In each generation , many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources . This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism . Darwin developed his theory of `` natural selection '' from 1838 onwards and was writing up his `` big book '' on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858 . Their separate papers were presented together at a 1858 meeting of the Linnean Society of London . At the end of 1859 , Darwin 's publication of his `` abstract '' as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of Darwin 's concepts of evolution at the expense of alternative theories . Thomas Henry Huxley applied Darwin 's ideas to humans , using paleontology and comparative anatomy to provide strong evidence that humans and apes shared a common ancestry . Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the universe . Pangenesis and Heredity The mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery . Towards this end , Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis . In 1865 , Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements ( later known as genes ) . Mendel 's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin 's pangenesis theory . August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes ( such as sperm and egg cells ) and the somatic cells of the body , demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only . Hugo de Vries connected Darwin 's pangenesis theory to Weismann 's germ / soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin 's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cells structure . De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel 's work well - known , believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline . To explain how new variants originate , de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries . In the 1930s , pioneers in the field of population genetics , such as Ronald Fisher , Sewall Wright and J.B.S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy . The false contradiction between Darwin 's theory , genetic mutations , and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled . The ' modern synthesis ' Main article : Modern synthesis In the 1920s and 1930s the so - called modern synthesis connected natural selection and population genetics , based on Mendelian inheritance , into a unified theory that applied generally to any branch of biology . The modern synthesis explained patterns observed across species in populations , through fossil transitions in palaeontology , and complex cellular mechanisms in developmental biology . The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance . Molecular biology improved our understanding of the relationship between genotype and phenotype . Advancements were also made in phylogenetic systematics , mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of evolutionary trees . In 1973 , evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that `` nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution , '' because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet . Further syntheses Since then , the modern synthesis has been further extended to explain biological phenomena across the full and integrative scale of the biological hierarchy , from genes to species . This extension , known as evolutionary developmental biology and informally called `` evo - devo , '' emphasises how changes between generations ( evolution ) acts on patterns of change within individual organisms ( development ) . Since the beginning of the 21st century and in light of discoveries made in recent decades , some biologists have argued for an extended evolutionary synthesis , which would account for the effects of non-genetic inheritance modes , such as epigenetics , parental effects , ecological and cultural inheritance , and evolvability . Heredity Further information : Introduction to genetics , Genetics , Heredity , and Reaction norm DNA structure . Bases are in the centre , surrounded by phosphate -- sugar chains in a double helix . Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable traits -- the inherited characteristics of an organism . In humans , for example , eye colour is an inherited characteristic and an individual might inherit the `` brown - eye trait '' from one of their parents . Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an organism 's genome ( genetic material ) is called its genotype . The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype . These traits come from the interaction of its genotype with the environment . As a result , many aspects of an organism 's phenotype are not inherited . For example , suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person 's genotype and sunlight ; thus , suntans are not passed on to people 's children . However , some people tan more easily than others , due to differences in genotypic variation ; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of albinism , who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn . Heritable traits are passed from one generation to the next via DNA , a molecule that encodes genetic information . DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases . The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specify the genetic information , in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence . Before a cell divides , the DNA is copied , so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence . Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes ; different genes have different sequences of bases . Within cells , the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called chromosomes . The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a locus . If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals , the different forms of this sequence are called alleles . DNA sequences can change through mutations , producing new alleles . If a mutation occurs within a gene , the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls , altering the phenotype of the organism . However , while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases , most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci ( multiple interacting genes ) . Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that can not be explained by changes to the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA . These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems . DNA methylation marking chromatin , self - sustaining metabolic loops , gene silencing by RNA interference and the three - dimensional conformation of proteins ( such as prions ) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level . Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalisation . Heritability may also occur at even larger scales . For example , ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment . This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection regime of subsequent generations . Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of ancestors . Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits and symbiogenesis . Variation White peppered moth Black morph in peppered moth evolution Main article : Genetic variation Further information : Genetic diversity and Population genetics An individual organism 's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence from the environment it has lived in . A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation . The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the change over time in this genetic variation . The frequency of one particular allele will become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene . Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation -- when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely . Natural selection will only cause evolution if there is enough genetic variation in a population . Before the discovery of Mendelian genetics , one common hypothesis was blending inheritance . But with blending inheritance , genetic variance would be rapidly lost , making evolution by natural selection implausible . The Hardy -- Weinberg principle provides the solution to how variation is maintained in a population with Mendelian inheritance . The frequencies of alleles ( variations in a gene ) will remain constant in the absence of selection , mutation , migration and genetic drift . Variation comes from mutations in the genome , reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration between populations ( gene flow ) . Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow , most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species . However , even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to dramatic differences in phenotype : for example , chimpanzees and humans differ in only about 5 % of their genomes . Mutation Main article : Mutation Duplication of part of a chromosome Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell 's genome . When mutations occur , they may alter the product of a gene , or prevent the gene from functioning , or have no effect . Based on studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster , it has been suggested that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene , this will probably be harmful , with about 70 % of these mutations having damaging effects , and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial . Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming duplicated ( usually by genetic recombination ) , which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome . Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve . This is important because most new genes evolve within gene families from pre-existing genes that share common ancestors . For example , the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light : three for colour vision and one for night vision ; all four are descended from a single ancestral gene . New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function . This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it increases the redundancy of the system ; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function while the other copy continues to perform its original function . Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA . The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated , with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions . When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing parts , domains act as modules with simple independent functions , which can be mixed together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions . For example , polyketide synthases are large enzymes that make antibiotics ; they contain up to one hundred independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process , like a step in an assembly line . Sex and recombination Further information : Sexual reproduction , Genetic recombination , and Evolution of sexual reproduction In asexual organisms , genes are inherited together , or linked , as they can not mix with genes of other organisms during reproduction . In contrast , the offspring of sexual organisms contain random mixtures of their parents ' chromosomes that are produced through independent assortment . In a related process called homologous recombination , sexual organisms exchange DNA between two matching chromosomes . Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies , but instead change which alleles are associated with each other , producing offspring with new combinations of alleles . Sex usually increases genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution . This diagram illustrates the twofold cost of sex . If each individual were to contribute to the same number of offspring ( two ) , ( a ) the sexual population remains the same size each generation , where the ( b ) Asexual reproduction population doubles in size each generation . The two-fold cost of sex was first described by John Maynard Smith . The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young . ( This cost does not apply to hermaphroditic species , like most plants and many invertebrates . ) The second cost is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50 % of its genes to any individual offspring , with even less passed on as each new generation passes . Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms . The Red Queen hypothesis has been used to explain the significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and adaptation in response to coevolution with other species in an ever - changing environment . Gene flow Further information : Gene flow Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species . It can therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species . Gene flow can be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms , as might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations , or the movement of pollen between heavy metal tolerant and heavy metal sensitive populations of grasses . Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer . Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring ; this is most common among bacteria . In medicine , this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance , as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species . Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred . An example of larger - scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers , which have received a range of genes from bacteria , fungi and plants . Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms , allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains . Large - scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and bacteria , during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria . It is possible that eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria and archaea . Mechanisms Mutation followed by natural selection results in a population with darker colouration . From a Neo-Darwinian perspective , evolution occurs when there are changes in the frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms . For example , the allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common . Mechanisms that can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection , genetic drift , genetic hitchhiking , mutation and gene flow . Natural selection Main article : Natural selection Evolution by means of natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population . It has often been called a `` self - evident '' mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts : Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to morphology , physiology , and behaviour ( phenotypic variation ) . Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction ( differential fitness ) . These traits can be passed from generation to generation ( heritability of fitness ) . More offspring are produced than can possibly survive , and these conditions produce competition between organisms for survival and reproduction . Consequently , organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage . The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism . Fitness is measured by an organism 's ability to survive and reproduce , which determines the size of its genetic contribution to the next generation . However , fitness is not the same as the total number of offspring : instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent generations that carry an organism 's genes . For example , if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly , but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive , this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness . If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene , then with each generation this allele will become more common within the population . These traits are said to be `` selected for . '' Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity . Conversely , the lower fitness caused by having a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele becoming rarer -- they are `` selected against . '' Importantly , the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic ; if the environment changes , previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and previously beneficial traits become harmful . However , even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way , traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form ( see Dollo 's law ) . These charts depict the different types of genetic selection . On each graph , the x-axis variable is the type of phenotypic trait and the y - axis variable is the number of organisms . Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection . Graph 1 shows directional selection , in which a single extreme phenotype is favored . Graph 2 depicts stabilizing selection , where the intermediate phenotype is favored over the extreme traits . Graph 3 shows disruptive selection , in which the extreme phenotypes are favored over the intermediate . Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values , such as height , can be categorised into three different types . The first is directional selection , which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time -- for example , organisms slowly getting taller . Secondly , disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common , with selection against the average value . This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage , but not those of medium height . Finally , in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends , which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity . This would , for example , cause organisms to slowly become all the same height . A special case of natural selection is sexual selection , which is selection for any trait that increases mating success by increasing the attractiveness of an organism to potential mates . Traits that evolved through sexual selection are particularly prominent among males of several animal species . Although sexually favoured , traits such as cumbersome antlers , mating calls , large body size and bright colours often attract predation , which compromises the survival of individual males . This survival disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard - to - fake , sexually selected traits . Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and individual traits , are more or less likely to survive . `` Nature '' in this sense refers to an ecosystem , that is , a system in which organisms interact with every other element , physical as well as biological , in their local environment . Eugene Odum , a founder of ecology , defined an ecosystem as : `` Any unit that includes all of the organisms ... in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure , biotic diversity and material cycles ( ie : exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts ) within the system . '' Each population within an ecosystem occupies a distinct niche , or position , with distinct relationships to other parts of the system . These relationships involve the life history of the organism , its position in the food chain and its geographic range . This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which , together , comprise natural selection . Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation , such as genes , cells , individual organisms , groups of organisms and species . Selection can act at multiple levels simultaneously . An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual organism are genes called transposons , which can replicate and spread throughout a genome . Selection at a level above the individual , such as group selection , may allow the evolution of cooperation , as discussed below . Biased mutation In addition to being a major source of variation , mutation may also function as a mechanism of evolution when there are different probabilities at the molecular level for different mutations to occur , a process known as mutation bias . If two genotypes , for example one with the nucleotide G and another with the nucleotide A in the same position , have the same fitness , but mutation from G to A happens more often than mutation from A to G , then genotypes with A will tend to evolve . Different insertion vs. deletion mutation biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes . Developmental or mutational biases have also been observed in morphological evolution . For example , according to the phenotype - first theory of evolution , mutations can eventually cause the genetic assimilation of traits that were previously induced by the environment . Mutation bias effects are superimposed on other processes . If selection would favor either one out of two mutations , but there is no extra advantage to having both , then the mutation that occurs the most frequently is the one that is most likely to become fixed in a population . Mutations leading to the loss of function of a gene are much more common than mutations that produce a new , fully functional gene . Most loss of function mutations are selected against . But when selection is weak , mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution . For example , pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves , and tend to be lost . This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias , and / or because the function had a cost , and once the benefit of the function disappeared , natural selection leads to the loss . Loss of sporulation ability in Bacillus subtilis during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias , rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability . When there is no selection for loss of function , the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size , indicating that it is driven more by mutation bias than by genetic drift . In parasitic organisms , mutation bias leads to selection pressures as seen in Ehrlichia . Mutations are biased towards antigenic variants in outer - membrane proteins . Genetic drift Further information : Genetic drift and Effective population size Simulation of genetic drift of 20 unlinked alleles in populations of 10 ( top ) and 100 ( bottom ) . Drift to fixation is more rapid in the smaller population . Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency from one generation to the next that occurs because alleles are subject to sampling error . As a result , when selective forces are absent or relatively weak , allele frequencies tend to `` drift '' upward or downward randomly ( in a random walk ) . This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed , either by disappearing from the population , or replacing the other alleles entirely . Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to chance alone . Even in the absence of selective forces , genetic drift can cause two separate populations that began with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent populations with different sets of alleles . It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes , including drift . The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving evolutionary change is an area of current research . The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift . Hence , in this model , most genetic changes in a population are the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic drift . This form of the neutral theory is now largely abandoned , since it does not seem to fit the genetic variation seen in nature . However , a more recent and better - supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory , where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population . Other alternative theories propose that genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution , such as genetic hitchhiking , also known as genetic draft . The time for a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size , with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations . The number of individuals in a population is not critical , but instead a measure known as the effective population size . The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest . The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population . Genetic hitchhiking Further information : Genetic hitchhiking , Hill -- Robertson effect , and Selective sweep Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated . However , the rate of recombination is low ( approximately two events per chromosome per generation ) . As a result , genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together , a phenomenon known as linkage . This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations , which is called their linkage disequilibrium . A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype . This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly beneficial : natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population ; this effect is called genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft . Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by an appropriate effective population size . Gene flow Further information : Gene flow , Hybrid ( biology ) , and Horizontal gene transfer Gene flow involves the exchange of genes between populations and between species . The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution . Due to the complexity of organisms , any two completely isolated populations will eventually evolve genetic incompatibilities through neutral processes , as in the Bateson - Dobzhansky - Muller model , even if both populations remain essentially identical in terms of their adaptation to the environment . If genetic differentiation between populations develops , gene flow between populations can introduce traits or alleles which are disadvantageous in the local population and this may lead to organisms within these populations evolving mechanisms that prevent mating with genetically distant populations , eventually resulting in the appearance of new species . Thus , exchange of genetic information between individuals is fundamentally important for the development of the biological species concept . During the development of the modern synthesis , Sewall Wright developed his shifting balance theory , which regarded gene flow between partially isolated populations as an important aspect of adaptive evolution . However , recently there has been substantial criticism of the importance of the shifting balance theory . Outcomes Play media A visual demonstration of rapid antibiotic resistance evolution by E. coli growing across a plate with increasing concentrations of trimethoprim . Evolution influences every aspect of the form and behaviour of organisms . Most prominent are the specific behavioural and physical adaptations that are the outcome of natural selection . These adaptations increase fitness by aiding activities such as finding food , avoiding predators or attracting mates . Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other , usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis . In the longer term , evolution produces new species through splitting ancestral populations of organisms into new groups that can not or will not interbreed . These outcomes of evolution are distinguished based on time scale as macroevolution versus microevolution . Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species , in particular speciation and extinction ; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population , in particular shifts in gene frequency and adaptation . In general , macroevolution is regarded as the outcome of long periods of microevolution . Thus , the distinction between micro - and macroevolution is not a fundamental one -- the difference is simply the time involved . However , in macroevolution , the traits of the entire species may be important . For instance , a large amount of variation among individuals allows a species to rapidly adapt to new habitats , lessening the chance of it going extinct , while a wide geographic range increases the chance of speciation , by making it more likely that part of the population will become isolated . In this sense , microevolution and macroevolution might involve selection at different levels -- with microevolution acting on genes and organisms , versus macroevolutionary processes such as species selection acting on entire species and affecting their rates of speciation and extinction . A common misconception is that evolution has goals , long - term plans , or an innate tendency for `` progress , '' as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism ; realistically however , evolution has no long - term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity . Although complex species have evolved , they occur as a side effect of the overall number of organisms increasing and simple forms of life still remain more common in the biosphere . For example , the overwhelming majority of species are microscopic prokaryotes , which form about half the world 's biomass despite their small size , and constitute the vast majority of Earth 's biodiversity . Simple organisms have therefore been the dominant form of life on Earth throughout its history and continue to be the main form of life up to the present day , with complex life only appearing more diverse because it is more noticeable . Indeed , the evolution of microorganisms is particularly important to modern evolutionary research , since their rapid reproduction allows the study of experimental evolution and the observation of evolution and adaptation in real time . Adaptation For more details on this topic , see Adaptation . Homologous bones in the limbs of tetrapods . The bones of these animals have the same basic structure , but have been adapted for specific uses . Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat . Also , the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism 's survival . For example , the adaptation of horses ' teeth to the grinding of grass . By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product ( the bodily part or function ) , the two senses of the word may be distinguished . Adaptations are produced by natural selection . The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky : Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats . Adaptedness is the state of being adapted : the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats . An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing . Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature , or the loss of an ancestral feature . An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to antibiotic selection , with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both modifying the target of the drug , or increasing the activity of transporters that pump the drug out of the cell . Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long - term laboratory experiment , Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by - products of nylon manufacturing , and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol . An interesting but still controversial idea is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic diversity and adapt by natural selection ( increasing organisms ' evolvability ) . A baleen whale skeleton , a and b label flipper bones , which were adapted from front leg bones : while c indicates vestigial leg bones , suggesting an adaptation from land to sea . Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures . Consequently , structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms . This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in different ways . The bones within bat wings , for example , are very similar to those in mice feet and primate hands , due to the descent of all these structures from a common mammalian ancestor . However , since all living organisms are related to some extent , even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity , such as arthropod , squid and vertebrate eyes , or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates , can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function ; this is called deep homology . During evolution , some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial structures . Such structures may have little or no function in a current species , yet have a clear function in ancestral species , or other closely related species . Examples include pseudogenes , the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave - dwelling fish , wings in flightless birds , the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes , and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction . Examples of vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth , the coccyx , the vermiform appendix , and other behavioural vestiges such as goose bumps and primitive reflexes . However , many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations : structures originally adapted for one function , but which coincidentally became somewhat useful for some other function in the process . One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri , which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices , as can be seen by looking at its near relatives . However , in this species , the head has become so flattened that it assists in gliding from tree to tree -- an exaptation . Within cells , molecular machines such as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions . Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms ' eyes . An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations . This research addresses the origin and evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and developmental processes produce novel features . These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures , such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals . It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes in developmental genes , such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth similar to those of crocodiles . It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes . Coevolution Common garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis ) has evolved resistance to the defensive substance tetrodotoxin in its amphibian prey . Further information : Coevolution Interactions between organisms can produce both conflict and cooperation . When the interaction is between pairs of species , such as a pathogen and a host , or a predator and its prey , these species can develop matched sets of adaptations . Here , the evolution of one species causes adaptations in a second species . These changes in the second species then , in turn , cause new adaptations in the first species . This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution . An example is the production of tetrodotoxin in the rough - skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin resistance in its predator , the common garter snake . In this predator - prey pair , an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake . Cooperation Further information : Co-operation ( evolution ) Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict . Many cases of mutually beneficial interactions have evolved . For instance , an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil . This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with sugars from photosynthesis . Here , the fungi actually grow inside plant cells , allowing them to exchange nutrients with their hosts , while sending signals that suppress the plant immune system . Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved . An extreme case is the eusociality found in social insects , such as bees , termites and ants , where sterile insects feed and guard the small number of organisms in a colony that are able to reproduce . On an even smaller scale , the somatic cells that make up the body of an animal limit their reproduction so they can maintain a stable organism , which then supports a small number of the animal 's germ cells to produce offspring . Here , somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow , remain as they are , or die . If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately , their uncontrolled growth causes cancer . Such cooperation within species may have evolved through the process of kin selection , which is where one organism acts to help raise a relative 's offspring . This activity is selected for because if the helping individual contains alleles which promote the helping activity , it is likely that its kin will also contain these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on . Other processes that may promote cooperation include group selection , where cooperation provides benefits to a group of organisms . Speciation Main article : Speciation The four geographic modes of speciation Speciation is the process where a species diverges into two or more descendant species . There are multiple ways to define the concept of `` species . '' The choice of definition is dependent on the particularities of the species concerned . For example , some species concepts apply more readily toward sexually reproducing organisms while others lend themselves better toward asexual organisms . Despite the diversity of various species concepts , these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches : interbreeding , ecological and phylogenetic . The Biological Species Concept ( BSC ) is a classic example of the interbreeding approach . Defined by Ernst Mayr in 1942 , the BSC states that `` species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations , which are reproductively isolated from other such groups . '' Despite its wide and long - term use , the BSC like others is not without controversy , for example because these concepts can not be applied to prokaryotes , and this is called the species problem . Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species , while others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to logically interpret the definition of a species . Barriers to reproduction between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species . Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations . Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor , it may still be possible for them to produce offspring , as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules . Such hybrids are generally infertile . In this case , closely related species may regularly interbreed , but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct . However , viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species , or possess a totally new phenotype . The importance of hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear , although cases have been seen in many types of animals , with the gray tree frog being a particularly well - studied example . Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions and in nature . In sexually reproducing organisms , speciation results from reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence . There are four primary geographic modes of speciation . The most common in animals is allopatric speciation , which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically , such as by habitat fragmentation or migration . Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms . As selection and drift act independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species , separation may eventually produce organisms that can not interbreed . The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation , which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment . This differs from allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the parental population . Here , the founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase in inbreeding increases selection on homozygotes , leading to rapid genetic change . The third mode is parapatric speciation . This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small population enters a new habitat , but differs in that there is no physical separation between these two populations . Instead , speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that reduce gene flow between the two populations . Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species ' habitat . One example is the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum , which can undergo parapatric speciation in response to localised metal pollution from mines . Here , plants evolve that have resistance to high levels of metals in the soil . Selection against interbreeding with the metal - sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal - resistant plants , which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation . Selection against hybrids between the two populations may cause reinforcement , which is the evolution of traits that promote mating within a species , as well as character displacement , which is when two species become more distinct in appearance . Geographical isolation of finches on the Galápagos Islands produced over a dozen new species . Finally , in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in habitat . This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population . Generally , sympatric speciation in animals requires the evolution of both genetic differences and non-random mating , to allow reproductive isolation to evolve . One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce a new hybrid species . This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile . This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from different species and can not successfully pair . However , it is more common in plants because plants often double their number of chromosomes , to form polyploids . This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis , since each parent 's chromosomes are represented by a pair already . An example of such a speciation event is when the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis arenosa crossbred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica . This happened about 20,000 years ago , and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory , which allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process . Indeed , chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation , as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms . Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which accounts for the pattern in the fossil record of short `` bursts '' of evolution interspersed with relatively long periods of stasis , where species remain relatively unchanged . In this theory , speciation and rapid evolution are linked , with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations . As a result , the periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils . Extinction Further information : Extinction Tyrannosaurus rex . Non-avian dinosaurs died out in the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period . Extinction is the disappearance of an entire species . Extinction is not an unusual event , as species regularly appear through speciation and disappear through extinction . Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct , and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species . These extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life , although the rate of extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events . The Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct , is the most well - known , but the earlier Permian -- Triassic extinction event was even more severe , with approximately 96 % of all marine species driven to extinction . The Holocene extinction event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity 's expansion across the globe over the past few thousand years . Present - day extinction rates are 100 -- 1000 times greater than the background rate and up to 30 % of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st century . Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction event ; global warming may further accelerate it in the future . The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which type of extinction is considered . The causes of the continuous `` low - level '' extinction events , which form the majority of extinctions , may be the result of competition between species for limited resources ( the competitive exclusion principle ) . If one species can out - compete another , this could produce species selection , with the fitter species surviving and the other species being driven to extinction . The intermittent mass extinctions are also important , but instead of acting as a selective force , they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors . Evolutionary History of life Life timeline view discuss edit - 4500 -- -- - 4000 -- -- - 3500 -- -- - 3000 -- -- - 2500 -- -- - 2000 -- -- - 1500 -- -- - 1000 -- -- - 500 -- -- 0 -- water Single - celled life photosynthesis Eukaryotes Multicellular life Land life Dinosaurs Mammals Flowers ← Earliest Earth ( − 4540 ) ← Earliest water ← Earliest life ← LHB meteorites ← Earliest oxygen ← Atmospheric oxygen ← Oxygen crisis ← Earliest sexual reproduction ← Ediacara biota ← Cambrian explosion ← Earliest humans h n r o z o i r o r o z o i r h n d n Pongola Huronian Cryogenian Andean Karoo Quaternary Axis scale : millions of years . Orange labels : known ice ages . Also see : Human timeline and Nature timeline Main article : Evolutionary history of life See also : Timeline of evolutionary history of life and Timeline of human evolution Origin of life Further information : Abiogenesis , Panspermia , and RNA world hypothesis The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old . The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion - year - old sandstone in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as `` remains of biotic life '' found in 4.1 billion - year - old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe . '' More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date , leaving at least 80 percent not yet described . Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self - replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago , and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed . The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from simpler chemical reactions . The beginning of life may have included self - replicating molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells . Common descent Further information : Common descent and Evidence of common descent All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool . Current species are a stage in the process of evolution , with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events . The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms : First , they have geographic distributions that can not be explained by local adaptation . Second , the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms , but organisms that share morphological similarities . Third , vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally , that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups -- similar to a family tree . However , modern research has suggested that , due to horizontal gene transfer , this `` tree of life '' may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species . The hominoids are descendants of a common ancestor . Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history . Fossils , along with the comparative anatomy of present - day organisms , constitute the morphological , or anatomical , record . By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species , paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species . However , this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard body parts , such as shells , bones or teeth . Further , as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies , their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry . More recently , evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms . For example , all living cells use the same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids . The development of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms ' genomes : dating when species diverged through the molecular clock produced by mutations . For example , these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98 % of their genomes and analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of these species existed . Evolution of life Main articles : Evolutionary history of life and Timeline of evolutionary history of life Evolutionary tree showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the centre . The three domains are coloured , with bacteria blue , archaea green and eukaryotes red . Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3 -- 4 billion years ago . No obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next few billion years . The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 -- 2.7 billion years ago . The next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells , in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis . The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then underwent coevolution , with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes . Another engulfment of cyanobacterial - like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants . The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes , prokaryotes and archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period . The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events , in organisms as diverse as sponges , brown algae , cyanobacteria , slime moulds and myxobacteria . In January 2016 , scientists reported that , about 800 million years ago , a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK - PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells . Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms , a remarkable amount of biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years , in an event called the Cambrian explosion . Here , the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the fossil record , as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct . Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed , including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis . About 500 million years ago , plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals . Insects were particularly successful and even today make up the majority of animal species . Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago , followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago ( both from `` reptile '' - like lineages ) , mammals around 129 million years ago , homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around 250,000 years ago . However , despite the evolution of these large animals , smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth , with the majority of both biomass and species being prokaryotes . Applications Main articles : Applications of evolution , Selective breeding , and Evolutionary computation Concepts and models used in evolutionary biology , such as natural selection , have many applications . Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms . This has been used for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals . More recently , such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering , with selectable markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA . Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection ( for example modified enzymes and new antibodies ) in a process called directed evolution . Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism 's evolution can reveal the genes needed to construct parts of the body , genes which may be involved in human genetic disorders . For example , the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its eyesight during evolution . Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes , since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves . This helped identify genes required for vision and pigmentation . Many human diseases are not static phenomena , but capable of evolution . Viruses , bacteria , fungi and cancers evolve to be resistant to host immune defences , as well as pharmaceutical drugs . These same problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance . It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level . In computer science , simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection . Artificial evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of Ingo Rechenberg in the 1960s . He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems . Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John Henry Holland . Practical applications also include automatic evolution of computer programmes . Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the design of systems . Social and cultural responses Further information : Social effects of evolutionary theory , 1860 Oxford evolution debate , Creation -- evolution controversy , and Objections to evolution As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s , caricatures of Charles Darwin with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution . In the 19th century , particularly after the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859 , the idea that life had evolved was an active source of academic debate centred on the philosophical , social and religious implications of evolution . Today , the modern evolutionary synthesis is accepted by a vast majority of scientists . However , evolution remains a contentious concept for some theists . While various religions and denominations have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through concepts such as theistic evolution , there are creationists who believe that evolution is contradicted by the creation myths found in their religions and who raise various objections to evolution . As had been demonstrated by responses to the publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation in 1844 , the most controversial aspect of evolutionary biology is the implication of human evolution that humans share common ancestry with apes and that the mental and moral faculties of humanity have the same types of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals . In some countries , notably the United States , these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation -- evolution controversy , a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education . While other scientific fields such as cosmology and Earth science also conflict with literal interpretations of many religious texts , evolutionary biology experiences significantly more opposition from religious literalists . The teaching of evolution in American secondary school biology classes was uncommon in most of the first half of the 20th century . The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation , but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision . Since then , the competing religious belief of creationism was legally disallowed in secondary school curricula in various decisions in the 1970s and 1980s , but it returned in pseudoscientific form as intelligent design ( ID ) , to be excluded once again in the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case . 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( 2004 ) . `` The Fruit of the Tree of Life : Insights into Evolution and Ecology '' . In Cracraft , Joel ; Donoghue , Michael J. Assembling the Tree of Life . Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 517234 - 5 . LCCN 2003058012 . OCLC 61342697 . `` Proceedings of a symposium held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York , 2002 . '' Futuyma , Douglas J. ( 2005 ) . Evolution . Sunderland , MA : Sinauer Associates . ISBN 0 - 87893 - 187 - 2 . LCCN 2004029808 . OCLC 57311264 . Gould , Stephen Jay ( 2002 ) . The Structure of Evolutionary Theory . Cambridge , MA : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 00613 - 5 . LCCN 2001043556 . OCLC 47869352 . Gray , Peter ( 2007 ) . Psychology ( 5th ed . ) . New York : Worth Publishers . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7167 - 0617 - 5 . LCCN 2006921149 . OCLC 76872504 . Hall , Brian K. ; Hallgrímsson , Benedikt ( 2008 ) . Strickberger 's Evolution ( 4th ed . ) . Sudbury , MA : Jones and Bartlett Publishers . 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Illustrations by Anna Zeligowski . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press . ISBN 0 - 262 - 10107 - 6 . LCCN 2004058193 . OCLC 61896061 . Kampourakis , Kostas ( 2014 ) . Understanding Evolution . Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 - 1 - 107 - 03491 - 4 . LCCN 2013034917 . OCLC 855585457 . Kirk , Geoffrey ; Raven , John ; Schofield , Malcolm ( 1983 ) . The Presocratic Philosophers : A Critical History with a Selection of Texts ( 2nd ed . ) . Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 27455 - 9 . LCCN 82023505 . OCLC 9081712 . Koza , John R. ( 1992 ) . Genetic Programming : On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection . Complex Adaptive Systems . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press . ISBN 0 - 262 - 11170 - 5 . LCCN 92025785 . OCLC 26263956 . Lamarck , Jean - Baptiste ( 1809 ) . Philosophie Zoologique . Paris : Dentu et L'Auteur . OCLC 2210044 . Philosophie zoologique ( 1809 ) on the Internet Archive . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 29 . Lane , David H. ( 1996 ) . The Phenomenon of Teilhard : Prophet for a New Age ( 1st ed . ) . Macon , GA : Mercer University Press . ISBN 0 - 86554 - 498 - 0 . LCCN 96008777 . OCLC 34710780 . Magner , Lois N. ( 2002 ) . A History of the Life Sciences ( 3rd rev. and expanded ed . ) . New York : Marcel Dekker . ISBN 0 - 8247 - 0824 - 5 . LCCN 2002031313 . OCLC 50410202 . Mason , Stephen F. ( 1962 ) . A History of the Sciences . Collier Books . Science Library , CS9 ( New rev . ed . ) . New York : Collier Books . LCCN 62003378 . OCLC 568032626 . Maynard Smith , John ( 1978 ) . The Evolution of Sex . Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 29302 - 2 . LCCN 77085689 . OCLC 3413793 . Maynard Smith , John ( 1998 ) . `` The Units of Selection '' . In Bock , Gregory R. ; Goode , Jamie A . The Limits of Reductionism in Biology . Novartis Foundation Symposia. 213 . Chichester , England : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 - 471 - 97770 - 5 . ISSN 1935 - 4657 . LCCN 98002779 . OCLC 38311600 . PMID 9653725 . doi : 10.1002 / 9780470515488. ch15 . `` Papers from the Symposium on the Limits of Reductionism in Biology , held at the Novartis Foundation , London , May 13 -- 15 , 1997 . '' Mayr , Ernst ( 1942 ) . Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist . Columbia Biological Series . 13 . New York : Columbia University Press . LCCN 43001098 . OCLC 766053 . Mayr , Ernst ( 1982 ) . The Growth of Biological Thought : Diversity , Evolution , and Inheritance . Translation of John Ray by E. Silk . Cambridge , MA : Belknap Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 36445 - 7 . LCCN 81013204 . OCLC 7875904 . Mayr , Ernst ( 2002 ) ( Originally published 2001 ; New York : Basic Books ) . What Evolution Is . Science Masters . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 0 - 297 - 60741 - 3 . LCCN 2001036562 . OCLC 248107061 . McKinney , Michael L. ( 1997 ) . `` How do rare species avoid extinction ? A paleontological view '' . In Kunin , William E. ; Gaston , Kevin J. The Biology of Rarity : Causes and consequences of rare -- common differences ( 1st ed . ) . London ; New York : Chapman & Hall . ISBN 0 - 412 - 63380 - 9 . LCCN 96071014 . OCLC 36442106 . Miller , G. Tyler ; Spoolman , Scott E. ( 2012 ) . Environmental Science ( 14th ed . ) . Belmont , CA : Brooks / Cole . ISBN 978 - 1 - 111 - 98893 - 7 . LCCN 2011934330 . OCLC 741539226 . Retrieved 2014 - 12 - 27 . Moore , Randy ; Decker , Mark ; Cotner , Sehoya ( 2010 ) . Chronology of the Evolution - Creationism Controversy . Santa Barbara , CA : Greenwood Press / ABC - CLIO . ISBN 978 - 0 - 313 - 36287 - 3 . LCCN 2009039784 . OCLC 422757410 . Nardon , Paul ; Grenier , Anne - Marie ( 1991 ) . `` Serial Endosymbiosis Theory and Weevil Evolution : The Role of Symbiosis '' . In Margulis , Lynn ; Fester , René . Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation : Speciation and Morphogenesis . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press . ISBN 0 - 262 - 13269 - 9 . LCCN 90020439 . OCLC 22597587 . `` Based on a conference held in Bellagio , Italy , June 25 -- 30 , 1989 '' National Academy of Sciences ; Institute of Medicine ( 2008 ) . Science , Evolution , and Creationism . Washington , D.C. : National Academy Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 309 - 10586 - 6 . LCCN 2007015904 . OCLC 123539346 . Retrieved 2014 - 11 - 22 . Odum , Eugene P. ( 1971 ) . Fundamentals of Ecology ( 3rd ed . ) . Philadelphia , PA : Saunders . ISBN 0 - 7216 - 6941 - 7 . LCCN 76081826 . OCLC 154846 . Okasha , Samir ( 2006 ) . Evolution and the Levels of Selection . Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 926797 - 9 . LCCN 2006039679 . OCLC 70985413 . Panno , Joseph ( 2005 ) . The Cell : Evolution of the First Organism . Facts on File science library . New York : Facts on File . ISBN 0 - 8160 - 4946 - 7 . LCCN 2003025841 . OCLC 53901436 . Piatigorsky , Joram ; Kantorow , Marc ; Gopal - Srivastava , Rashmi ; Tomarev , Stanislav I. ( 1994 ) . `` Recruitment of enzymes and stress proteins as lens crystallins '' . In Jansson , Bengt ; Jörnvall , Hans ; Rydberg , Ulf ; et al. Toward a Molecular Basis of Alcohol Use and Abuse . Experientia. 71 . Basel ; Boston : Birkhäuser Verlag . ISBN 3 - 7643 - 2940 - 8 . ISSN 1023 - 294X . LCCN 94010167 . OCLC 30030941 . PMID 8032155 . doi : 10.1007 / 978 - 3 - 0348 - 7330 - 7_24 . Provine , William B. ( 1971 ) . The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics . Chicago History of Science and Medicine ( 2nd ed . ) . Chicago , Illinois : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 68464 - 4 . LCCN 2001027561 . OCLC 46660910 . Provine , William B. ( 1988 ) . `` Progress in Evolution and Meaning in Life '' . In Nitecki , Matthew H. Evolutionary Progress . Chicago , Illinois : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 58693 - 6 . LCCN 88020835 . OCLC 18380658 . `` This book is the result of the Spring Systematics Symposium held in May , 1987 , at the Field Museum in Chicago '' Quammen , David ( 2006 ) . The Reluctant Mr. Darwin : An Intimate Portrait of Charles Darwin and the Making of His Theory of Evolution . Great Discoveries ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Atlas Books / W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 05981 - 6 . LCCN 2006009864 . OCLC 65400177 . Raven , Peter H. ; Johnson , George B. ( 2002 ) . Biology ( 6th ed . ) . Boston , MA : McGraw - Hill . ISBN 0 - 07 - 112261 - 3 . LCCN 2001030052 . OCLC 45806501 . Ray , John ( 1686 ) . Historia Plantarum ( History of Plants ) . I. Londini : Typis Mariæ Clark . LCCN agr11000774 . OCLC 2126030 . Rechenberg , Ingo ( 1973 ) . Evolutionsstrategie ; Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution ( PhD thesis ) . Problemata ( in German ) . 15 . Afterword by Manfred Eigen . Stuttgart - Bad Cannstatt : Frommann - Holzboog . ISBN 3 - 7728 - 0373 - 3 . LCCN 74320689 . OCLC 9020616 . Ridley , Matt ( 1993 ) . The Red Queen : Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature . New York : Viking . ISBN 0 - 670 - 84357 - 1 . OCLC 636657988 . Stevens , Anthony ( 1982 ) . Archetype : A Natural History of the Self . London : Routledge & Kegan Paul . ISBN 0 - 7100 - 0980 - 1 . LCCN 84672250 . OCLC 10458367 . West - Eberhard , Mary Jane ( 2003 ) . Developmental Plasticity and Evolution . Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 512235 - 6 . LCCN 2001055164 . OCLC 48398911 . Wiley , E.O. ; Lieberman , Bruce S. ( 2011 ) . Phylogenetics : Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics ( 2nd ed . ) . Hoboken , NJ : Wiley - Blackwell . ISBN 978 - 0 - 470 - 90596 - 8 . LCCN 2010044283 . OCLC 741259265 . doi : 10.1002 / 9781118017883 . Wright , Sewall ( 1984 ) . Genetic and Biometric Foundations . Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. 1 . Chicago , Illinois : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 - 226 - 91038 - 5 . LCCN 67025533 . OCLC 246124737 . Further reading Further information : Bibliography of biology Library resources about Evolution Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Introductory reading Barrett , Paul H. ; Weinshank , Donald J. ; Gottleber , Timothy T. , eds. ( 1981 ) . A Concordance to Darwin 's Origin of Species , First Edition . Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press . ISBN 0 - 8014 - 1319 - 2 . LCCN 80066893 . OCLC 610057960 . Carroll , Sean B. ( 2005 ) . Endless Forms Most Beautiful : The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom . illustrations by Jamie W. Carroll , Josh P. Klaiss , Leanne M. Olds ( 1st ed . ) . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 0 - 393 - 06016 - 0 . LCCN 2004029388 . OCLC 57316841 . Charlesworth , Brian ; Charlesworth , Deborah ( 2003 ) . Evolution : A Very Short Introduction . Very Short Introductions . Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 280251 - 8 . LCCN 2003272247 . OCLC 51668497 . Gould , Stephen Jay ( 1989 ) . Wonderful Life : The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History ( 1st ed . ) . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 0 - 393 - 02705 - 8 . LCCN 88037469 . OCLC 18983518 . Jones , Steve ( 1999 ) . Almost Like a Whale : The Origin of Species Updated . London ; New York : Doubleday . ISBN 0 - 385 - 40985 - 0 . LCCN 2002391059 . OCLC 41420544 . -- -- ( 2000 ) . Darwin 's Ghost : The Origin of Species Updated ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 - 375 - 50103 - 7 . LCCN 99053246 . OCLC 42690131 . American version . Mader , Sylvia S. ( 2007 ) . Biology . Significant contributions by Murray P. Pendarvis ( 9th ed . ) . Boston , MA : McGraw - Hill Higher Education . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 246463 - 4 . LCCN 2005027781 . OCLC 61748307 . Maynard Smith , John ( 1993 ) . The Theory of Evolution ( Canto ed . ) . Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 - 521 - 45128 - 0 . LCCN 93020358 . OCLC 27676642 . Pallen , Mark J. ( 2009 ) . The Rough Guide to Evolution . Rough Guides Reference Guides . London ; New York : Rough Guides . ISBN 978 - 1 - 85828 - 946 - 5 . LCCN 2009288090 . OCLC 233547316 . Advanced reading Barton , Nicholas H. ; Briggs , Derek E.G. ; Eisen , Jonathan A. ; et al. ( 2007 ) . Evolution . Cold Spring Harbor , NY : Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87969 - 684 - 9 . LCCN 2007010767 . OCLC 86090399 . Coyne , Jerry A. ; Orr , H. Allen ( 2004 ) . Speciation . Sunderland , MA : Sinauer Associates . ISBN 0 - 87893 - 089 - 2 . LCCN 2004009505 . OCLC 55078441 . Bergstrom , Carl T. ; Dugatkin , Lee Alan ( 2012 ) . Evolution ( 1st ed . ) . New York : W.W. Norton & Company . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 91341 - 5 . LCCN 2011036572 . OCLC 729341924 . Gould , Stephen Jay ( 2002 ) . The Structure of Evolutionary Theory . Cambridge , MA : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 00613 - 5 . LCCN 2001043556 . OCLC 47869352 . Hall , Brian K. ; Olson , Wendy , eds. ( 2003 ) . Keywords and Concepts in Evolutionary Developmental Biology . Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press . ISBN 0 - 674 - 00904 - 5 . LCCN 2002192201 . OCLC 50761342 . Kauffman , Stuart A. ( 1993 ) . The Origins of Order : Self - organization and Selection in Evolution . New York , NY : Oxford University Press . Maynard Smith , John ; Szathmáry , Eörs ( 1995 ) . The Major Transitions in Evolution . Oxford ; New York : W.H. Freeman Spektrum . ISBN 0 - 7167 - 4525 - 9 . LCCN 94026965 . OCLC 30894392 . Mayr , Ernst ( 2001 ) . What Evolution Is . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 0 - 465 - 04426 - 3 . LCCN 2001036562 . OCLC 47443814 . Minelli , Alessandro ( 2009 ) . Forms of Becoming : The Evolutionary Biology of Development . Translation by Mark Epstein . Princeton , NJ ; Oxford : Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 691 - 13568 - 7 . LCCN 2008028825 . OCLC 233030259 . External links Listen to this article ( info / dl ) This audio file was created from a revision of the article `` Evolution '' dated 2005 - 04 - 18 , and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article . ( Audio help ) More spoken articles Find more aboutevolutionat Wikipedia 's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Learning resources from Wikiversity General information Evolution on In Our Time at the BBC . `` Evolution '' . New Scientist . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 30 . `` Evolution Resources from the National Academies '' . Washington , D.C. : National Academy of Sciences . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 30 . `` Understanding Evolution : your one - stop resource for information on evolution '' . University of California , Berkeley . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 30 . `` Evolution of Evolution -- 150 Years of Darwin 's ' On the Origin of Species ' '' . Arlington County , VA : National Science Foundation . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 30 . Human Timeline ( Interactive ) -- Smithsonian , National Museum of Natural History ( August 2016 ) . Experiments concerning the process of biological evolution Lenski , Richard E. `` Experimental Evolution '' . Michigan State University . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 31 . Chastain , Erick ; Livnat , Adi ; Papadimitriou , Christos ; Vazirani , Umesh ( July 22 , 2014 ) . `` Algorithms , games , and evolution '' . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. Washington , D.C. : National Academy of Sciences . 111 ( 29 ) : 10620 -- 10623 . Bibcode : 2014PNAS ... 11110620C . ISSN 0027 - 8424 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 1406556111 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 03 . Online lectures Carroll , Sean B . `` The Making of the Fittest '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 07 - 18 . Retrieved 2011 - 05 - 30 . Stearns , Stephen C. `` Principles of Evolution , Ecology and Behavior '' . Retrieved 2011 - 08 - 30 . ( hide ) Evolutionary biology Evolutionary history of life Index of evolutionary biology articles Introduction Outline of evolution Timeline of evolution Evolution Abiogenesis Adaptation Adaptive radiation Cladistics Coevolution Common descent Cospeciation Convergence Divergence Earliest known life forms Evidence of common descent Extinction Event Gene - centered view Homology Last universal common ancestor Macroevolution Microevolution Origin of life Panspermia Parallel evolution Prehistoric Autopsy Speciation Taxonomy Population genetics Biodiversity Gene flow Genetic drift Mutation Natural selection Variation Development Canalisation Evolutionary developmental biology Inversion Modularity Phenotypic plasticity Of taxa Birds origin Brachiopods Cephalopods Dinosaurs Fish Fungi Insects butterflies Life Mammals cats dogs dolphins and whales horses primates humans lemurs sea cows Molluscs Plants Reptiles Spiders Tetrapods Viruses influenza Of organs Cell DNA Flagella Eukaryotes symbiogenesis chromosome endomembrane system mitochondria nucleus plastids In animals eye hair auditory ossicle nervous system brain Of processes Aging Death Programmed cell death Avian flight Biological complexity Cooperation Color vision in primates Emotion Empathy Ethics Eusociality Immune system Metabolism Monogamy Morality Mosaic evolution Multicellularity Sexual reproduction Gamete differentiation / sexes Life cycles / nuclear phases Mating types Sex - 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8837066085967058813 | Conditional probability | Conditional probability - wikipedia Conditional probability Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article may be too technical for most readers to understand . Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts , without removing the technical details . ( January 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Part of a series on Statistics Probability theory Probability axioms Probability space Sample space Elementary event Event Random variable Probability measure Complementary event Joint probability Marginal probability Conditional probability Independence Conditional independence Law of total probability Law of large numbers Bayes ' theorem Boole 's inequality Venn diagram Tree diagram In probability theory , conditional probability is a measure of the probability of an event given that ( by assumption , presumption , assertion or evidence ) another event has occurred . If the event of interest is A and the event B is known or assumed to have occurred , `` the conditional probability of A given B '' , or `` the probability of A under the condition B '' , is usually written as P ( A B ) , or sometimes P ( A ) . For example , the probability that any given person has a cough on any given day may be only 5 % . But if we know or assume that the person has a cold , then they are much more likely to be coughing . The conditional probability of coughing given that you have a cold might be a much higher 75 % . The concept of conditional probability is one of the most fundamental and one of the most important concepts in probability theory . But conditional probabilities can be quite slippery and require careful interpretation . For example , there need not be a causal or temporal relationship between A and B . P ( A B ) may or may not be equal to P ( A ) ( the unconditional probability of A ) . If P ( A B ) = P ( A ) ( or its equivalent P ( B A ) = P ( B ) ) , then events A and B are said to be independent : in such a case , having knowledge about either event does not change our knowledge about the other event . Also , in general , P ( A B ) ( the conditional probability of A given B) is not equal to P ( B A ) . For example , if you have dengue you might have a 90 % chance of testing positive for dengue . In this case what is being measured is that if event B ( `` having dengue '' ) has occurred , the probability of A ( test is positive ) given that B ( having dengue ) occurred is 90 % : that is , P ( A B ) = 90 % . Alternatively , if you test positive for dengue you may have only a 15 % chance of actually having dengue because most people do not have dengue and the false positive rate for the test may be high . In this case what is being measured is the probability of the event B ( having dengue ) given that the event A ( test is positive ) has occurred : P ( B A ) = 15 % . Falsely equating the two probabilities causes various errors of reasoning such as the base rate fallacy . Conditional probabilities can be correctly reversed using Bayes ' theorem . Contents ( hide ) 1 Definition 1.1 Conditioning on an event 1.1. 1 Kolmogorov definition 1.1. 2 As an axiom of probability 1.1. 3 As the probability of a conditional event 1.2 Measure - theoretic definition 1.3 Conditioning on a random variable 1.4 Partial conditional probability 2 Example 3 Use in inference 4 Statistical independence 5 Common fallacies 5.1 Assuming conditional probability is of similar size to its inverse 5.2 Assuming marginal and conditional probabilities are of similar size 5.3 Over - or under - weighting priors 6 Formal derivation 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Definition ( edit ) Illustration of conditional probabilities with an Euler diagram . The unconditional probability P ( A ) = 0.52 . However , the conditional probability P ( A B ) = 1 , P ( A B ) = 0.75 , and P ( A B ) = 0 . On a tree diagram , branch probabilities are conditional on the event associated with the parent node . Venn Pie Chart describing conditional probabilities Conditioning on an event ( edit ) Kolmogorov definition ( edit ) Given two events A and B , from the sigma - field of a probability space , with P ( B ) > 0 , the conditional probability of A given B is defined as the quotient of the probability of the joint of events A and B , and the probability of B : P ( A B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A B ) = ( \ frac ( P ( A \ cap B ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) ) This may be visualized as restricting the sample space to B . The logic behind this equation is that if the outcomes are restricted to B , this set serves as the new sample space . Note that this is a definition but not a theoretical result . We just denote the quantity P ( A ∩ B ) P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( P ( A \ cap B ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) ) as P ( A B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A B ) ) and call it the conditional probability of A given B . As an axiom of probability ( edit ) Some authors , such as de Finetti , prefer to introduce conditional probability as an axiom of probability : P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A B ) P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A \ cap B ) = P ( A B ) P ( B ) ) Although mathematically equivalent , this may be preferred philosophically ; under major probability interpretations such as the subjective theory , conditional probability is considered a primitive entity . Further , this `` multiplication axiom '' introduces a symmetry with the summation axiom for mutually exclusive events : P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) − P ( A ∩ B ) 0 ( \ displaystyle P ( A \ cup B ) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) - ( \ cancelto ( 0 ) ( P ( A \ cap B ) ) ) ) As the probability of A conditional event ( edit ) Conditional probability can be defined as the probability of a conditional event A B ( \ displaystyle A_ ( B ) ) . Assuming that the experiment underlying the events A ( \ displaystyle A ) and B ( \ displaystyle B ) is repeated , the Goodman - Nguyen - van Fraassen conditional event can be defined as A B = ⋃ i ≥ 1 ( ∩ j < i B j _̄ , A i B i ) ( \ displaystyle A_ ( B ) = \ bigcup _ ( i \ geq 1 ) ( \ bigl ( ) ( \ underset ( j < i ) ( \ cap ) ) ( \ overline ( B_ ( j ) ) ) , A_ ( i ) B_ ( i ) ( \ bigr ) ) ) It can be shown that P ( A B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A_ ( B ) ) = ( \ frac ( P ( A \ cap B ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) ) which meets the Kolmogorov definition of conditional probability . Note that the equation P ( A B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) / P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A_ ( B ) ) = P ( A \ cap B ) / P ( B ) ) is a theoretical result and not a definition . The definition via conditional events can be understood directly in terms of the Kolmogorov axioms and is particularly close to the Kolmogorov interpretation of probability in terms of experimental data . For example , conditional events can be repeated themselves leading to a generalized notion of conditional event A B ( n ) ( \ displaystyle A_ ( B ( n ) ) ) . It can be shown that the sequence ( A B ( n ) ) n ≥ 1 ( \ displaystyle ( A_ ( B ( n ) ) ) _ ( n \ geq 1 ) ) is i.i.d. , which yields a strong law of large numbers for conditional probability : P ( lim n ⟶ ∞ A B n _̄ = P ( A B ) ) = 100 % ( \ displaystyle P ( ( \ underset ( n \ longrightarrow \ infty ) ( \ lim ) ) ( \ overline ( A_ ( B ) ^ ( n ) ) ) = P ( A B ) ) = 100 \ % ) Measure - theoretic definition ( edit ) If P ( B ) = 0 , then according to the simple definition , P ( A B ) is undefined . However , it is possible to define a conditional probability with respect to a σ - algebra of such events ( such as those arising from a continuous random variable ) . For example , if X and Y are non-degenerate and jointly continuous random variables with density ƒ ( x , y ) then , if B has positive measure , P ( X ∈ A ∣ Y ∈ B ) = ∫ y ∈ B ∫ x ∈ A f X , Y ( x , y ) d x d y ∫ y ∈ B ∫ x ∈ R f X , Y ( x , y ) d x d y . ( \ displaystyle P ( X \ in A \ mid Y \ in B ) = ( \ frac ( \ int _ ( y \ in B ) \ int _ ( x \ in A ) f_ ( X , Y ) ( x , y ) \ , dx \ , dy ) ( \ int _ ( y \ in B ) \ int _ ( x \ in \ mathbb ( R ) ) f_ ( X , Y ) ( x , y ) \ , dx \ , dy ) ) . ) The case where B has zero measure is problematic . For the case that B = ( y ) , representing a single point , the conditional probability could be defined as P ( X ∈ A ∣ Y = y 0 ) = ∫ x ∈ A f X , Y ( x , y 0 ) d x ∫ x ∈ R f X , Y ( x , y 0 ) d x , ( \ displaystyle P ( X \ in A \ mid Y = y_ ( 0 ) ) = ( \ frac ( \ int _ ( x \ in A ) f_ ( X , Y ) ( x , y_ ( 0 ) ) \ , dx ) ( \ int _ ( x \ in \ mathbb ( R ) ) f_ ( X , Y ) ( x , y_ ( 0 ) ) \ , dx ) ) , ) however this approach leads to the Borel -- Kolmogorov paradox . The more general case of zero measure is even more problematic , as can be seen by noting that the limit , as all δy approach zero , of P ( X ∈ A ∣ Y ∈ ∪ i ( y i , y i + δ y i ) ) ≊ ∑ i ∫ x ∈ A f X , Y ( x , y i ) d x δ y i ∑ i ∫ x ∈ R f X , Y ( x , y i ) d x δ y i , ( \ displaystyle P ( X \ in A \ mid Y \ in \ cup _ ( i ) ( y_ ( i ) , y_ ( i ) + \ delta y_ ( i ) ) ) \ approxeq ( \ frac ( \ sum _ ( i ) \ int _ ( x \ in A ) f_ ( X , Y ) ( x , y_ ( i ) ) \ , dx \ , \ delta y_ ( i ) ) ( \ sum _ ( i ) \ int _ ( x \ in \ mathbb ( R ) ) f_ ( X , Y ) ( x , y_ ( i ) ) \ , dx \ , \ delta y_ ( i ) ) ) , ) depends on their relationship as they approach zero . See conditional expectation for more information . Conditioning on A random variable ( edit ) Conditioning on an event may be generalized to conditioning on a random variable . Let X be a random variable ; we assume for the sake of presentation that X is discrete , that is , X takes on only finitely many values x . Let A be an event . The conditional probability of A given X is defined as the random variable , written P ( A X ) , that takes on the value P ( A ∣ X = x ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A \ mid X = x ) ) whenever X = x . ( \ displaystyle X = x . ) More formally , P ( A X ) ( ω ) = P ( A ∣ X = X ( ω ) ) . ( \ displaystyle P ( A X ) ( \ omega ) = P ( A \ mid X = X ( \ omega ) ) . ) The conditional probability P ( A X ) is a function of X : e.g. , if the function g is defined as g ( x ) = P ( A ∣ X = x ) , ( \ displaystyle g ( x ) = P ( A \ mid X = x ) , ) then P ( A X ) = g ∘ X . ( \ displaystyle P ( A X ) = g \ circ X . ) Note that P ( A X ) and X are now both random variables . From the law of total probability , the expected value of P ( A X ) is equal to the unconditional probability of A . Partial conditional probability ( edit ) The partial conditional probability P ( A B 1 ≡ b 1 ⋯ B m ≡ b m ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A B_ ( 1 ) \ equiv b_ ( 1 ) \ cdots B_ ( m ) \ equiv b_ ( m ) ) ) is about the probability of event A ( \ displaystyle A ) given that each of the condition events B i ( \ displaystyle B_ ( i ) ) has occurred to a degree b i ( \ displaystyle b_ ( i ) ) ( degree of belief , degree of experience ) that might be different from 100 % . Frequentistically , partial conditional probability makes sense , if the conditions are tested in experiment repetitions of appropriate length n ( \ displaystyle n ) . Such n ( \ displaystyle n ) - bounded partial conditional probability can be defined as the conditionally expected average occurrence of event A ( \ displaystyle A ) in testbeds of length n ( \ displaystyle n ) that adhere to all of the probability specifications B i ≡ b i ( \ displaystyle B_ ( i ) \ equiv b_ ( i ) ) , i.e. : P n ( A B 1 ≡ b 1 ⋯ B m ≡ b m ) = E ( A n _̄ B 1 n _̄ = b 1 ⋯ B m n _̄ = b m ) ( \ displaystyle P ^ ( n ) ( A B_ ( 1 ) \ equiv b_ ( 1 ) \ cdots B_ ( m ) \ equiv b_ ( m ) ) = E ( ( \ overline ( A ^ ( n ) ) ) ( \ overline ( B_ ( 1 ) ^ ( n ) ) ) = b_ ( 1 ) \ cdots ( \ overline ( B_ ( m ) ^ ( n ) ) ) = b_ ( m ) ) ) Based on that , partial conditional probability can be defined as P ( A B 1 ≡ b 1 ⋯ B m ≡ b m ) = l i m n ⟶ ∞ P n ( A B 1 ≡ b 1 ⋯ B m ≡ b m ) , w h e r e b i n ∈ N ( \ displaystyle P ( A B_ ( 1 ) \ equiv b_ ( 1 ) \ cdots B_ ( m ) \ equiv b_ ( m ) ) = ( \ underset ( n \ longrightarrow \ infty ) ( lim ) ) P ^ ( n ) ( A B_ ( 1 ) \ equiv b_ ( 1 ) \ cdots B_ ( m ) \ equiv b_ ( m ) ) , where ~ ~ b_ ( i ) n \ in \ mathbb ( N ) ~ ) Jeffrey conditionalization is a special case of partial conditional probability in which the condition events must form a partition : P ( A B 1 ≡ b 1 ⋯ B m ≡ b m ) = ∑ i = 1 m b i P ( A B i ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A B_ ( 1 ) \ equiv b_ ( 1 ) \ cdots B_ ( m ) \ equiv b_ ( m ) ) = \ sum _ ( i = 1 ) ^ ( m ) b_ ( i ) P ( A B_ ( i ) ) ) Example ( edit ) Suppose that somebody secretly rolls two fair six - sided dice , and we must predict the outcome ( the sum of the two upward faces ) . Let D1 be the value rolled on die 1 . Let D2 be the value rolled on die 2 . What is the probability that D1 = 2 ? Table 1 shows the sample space of 36 outcomes . Clearly , D1 = 2 in exactly 6 of the 36 outcomes ; thus P ( D1 = 2 ) = ⁄ = ⁄ . Table 1 + D2 5 6 D1 5 6 7 5 6 7 8 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 10 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 What is the probability that D1+D2 ≤ 5 ? Table 2 shows that D1+D2 ≤ 5 for exactly 10 of the same 36 outcomes , thus P ( D1+D2 ≤ 5 ) = ⁄ . Table 2 + D2 5 6 D1 5 6 7 5 6 7 8 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 10 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 What is the probability that D1 = 2 given that D1+D2 ≤ 5 ? Table 3 shows that for 3 of these 10 outcomes , D1 = 2 . Thus , the conditional probability P ( D1 = 2 D1+D2 ≤ 5 ) = ⁄ = 0.3 . Table 3 + D2 5 6 D1 5 6 7 5 6 7 8 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 10 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Here in the earlier notation for the definition of conditional probability , the conditioning event B is that D1 + D2 ≤ 5 , and the event A is D1 = 2 . We have P ( A B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) P ( B ) = 3 / 36 10 / 36 = 3 10 , ( \ displaystyle P ( A B ) = ( \ tfrac ( P ( A \ cap B ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) = ( \ tfrac ( 3 / 36 ) ( 10 / 36 ) ) = ( \ tfrac ( 3 ) ( 10 ) ) , ) as seen in the table . Use in Inference ( edit ) In statistical inference , the conditional probability is an update of the probability of an event based on new information . Incorporating the new information can be done as follows : Let A , the event of interest , be in the sample space , say ( X , P ) . The occurrence of the event A knowing that event B has or will have occurred , means the occurrence of A as it is restricted to B , i.e. A ∩ B ( \ displaystyle A \ cap B ) . Without the knowledge of the occurrence of B , the information about the occurrence of A would simply be P ( A ) The probability of A knowing that event B has or will have occurred , will be the probability of A ∩ B ( \ displaystyle A \ cap B ) relative to P ( B ) , the probability that B has occurred . This results in P ( A B ) = P ( A ∩ ( \ displaystyle \ cap ) B ) / P ( B ) whenever P ( B ) > 0 and 0 otherwise . Note : This approach results in a probability measure that is consistent with the original probability measure and satisfies all the Kolmogorov axioms . This conditional probability measure also could have resulted by assuming that the relative magnitude of the probability of A with respect to X will be preserved with respect to B ( cf . a Formal Derivation below ) . The wording `` evidence '' or `` information '' is generally used in the Bayesian interpretation of probability . The conditioning event is interpreted as evidence for the conditioned event . That is , P ( A ) is the probability of A before accounting for evidence E , and P ( A E ) is the probability of A after having accounted for evidence E or after having updated P ( A ) . This is consistent with the frequentist interpretation , which is the first definition given above . Statistical independence ( edit ) Main article : Independence ( probability theory ) Events A and B are defined to be statistically independent if P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) P ( B ) . ( \ displaystyle P ( A \ cap B ) = P ( A ) P ( B ) . ) If P ( B ) is not zero , then this is equivalent to the statement that P ( A B ) = P ( A ) . ( \ displaystyle P ( A B ) = P ( A ) . ) Similarly , if P ( A ) is not zero , then P ( B A ) = P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( B A ) = P ( B ) ) is also equivalent . Although the derived forms may seem more intuitive , they are not the preferred definition as the conditional probabilities may be undefined , and the preferred definition is symmetrical in A and B . Independent events vs. mutually exclusive events The concepts of mutually independent events and mutually exclusive events are separate and distinct . As noted , statistical independence means P ( A B ) = P ( A ) and P ( B A ) = P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A B ) = P ( A ) \ quad ( \ text ( and ) ) \ quad P ( B A ) = P ( B ) ) provided that the probability for the conditioning event is not zero . However , events being mutually exclusive means that P ( A B ) = 0 , P ( B A ) = 0 , and P ( A ∩ B ) = 0 . ( \ displaystyle P ( A B ) = 0 , \ quad P ( B A ) = 0 , \ quad ( \ text ( and ) ) \ quad P ( A \ cap B ) = 0 . ) In fact , mutually exclusive events can not be statistically independent , since knowing that one occurs gives information about the other ( specifically , that it certainly does not occur ) . Common fallacies ( edit ) These fallacies should not be confused with Robert K. Shope 's 1978 `` conditional fallacy '' , which deals with counterfactual examples that beg the question . Assuming conditional probability is of similar size to its inverse ( edit ) Main article : Confusion of the inverse A geometric visualisation of Bayes ' theorem . In the table , the values w , x , y and z give the relative weights of each corresponding condition and case . The figures denote the cells of the table involved in each metric , the probability being the fraction of each figure that is shaded . This shows that P ( A B ) P ( B ) = P ( B A ) P ( A ) i.e. P ( A B ) = P ( B A ) P ( A ) / P ( B ) . Similar reasoning can be used to show that P ( Ā B ) = P ( B Ā ) P ( Ā ) / P ( B ) etc . In general , it can not be assumed that P ( A B ) ≈ P ( B A ) . This can be an insidious error , even for those who are highly conversant with statistics . The relationship between P ( A B ) and P ( B A ) is given by Bayes ' theorem : P ( B A ) = P ( A B ) P ( B ) P ( A ) ⇔ P ( B A ) P ( A B ) = P ( B ) P ( A ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) P ( B A ) & = ( \ frac ( P ( A B ) P ( B ) ) ( P ( A ) ) ) \ \ \ Leftrightarrow ( \ frac ( P ( B A ) ) ( P ( A B ) ) ) & = ( \ frac ( P ( B ) ) ( P ( A ) ) ) \ end ( aligned ) ) ) That is , P ( A B ) ≈ P ( B A ) only if P ( B ) / P ( A ) ≈ 1 , or equivalently , P ( A ) ≈ P ( B ) . Assuming marginal and conditional probabilities are of similar size ( edit ) In general , it can not be assumed that P ( A ) ≈ P ( A B ) . These probabilities are linked through the law of total probability : P ( A ) = ∑ n P ( A ∩ B n ) = ∑ n P ( A B n ) P ( B n ) ( \ displaystyle P ( A ) = \ sum _ ( n ) P ( A \ cap B_ ( n ) ) = \ sum _ ( n ) P ( A B_ ( n ) ) P ( B_ ( n ) ) ) . where the events ( B n ) ( \ displaystyle ( B_ ( n ) ) ) form a countable partition of Ω ( \ displaystyle \ Omega ) . This fallacy may arise through selection bias . For example , in the context of a medical claim , let S be the event that a sequela ( chronic disease ) S occurs as a consequence of circumstance ( acute condition ) C. Let H be the event that an individual seeks medical help . Suppose that in most cases , C does not cause S so P ( S ) is low . Suppose also that medical attention is only sought if S has occurred due to C. From experience of patients , a doctor may therefore erroneously conclude that P ( S ) is high . The actual probability observed by the doctor is P ( S H ) . Over - or under - weighting priors ( edit ) Not taking prior probability into account partially or completely is called base rate neglect . The reverse , insufficient adjustment from the prior probability is conservatism . Formal Derivation ( edit ) Formally , P ( A B ) is defined as the probability of A according to a new probability function on the sample space , such that outcomes not in B have probability 0 and that it is consistent with all original probability measures . Let Ω be a sample space with elementary events ( ω ) . Suppose we are told the event B ⊆ Ω has occurred . A new probability distribution ( denoted by the conditional notation ) is to be assigned on ( ω ) to reflect this . For events in B , it is reasonable to assume that the relative magnitudes of the probabilities will be preserved . For some constant scale factor α , the new distribution will therefore satisfy : 1 . ω ∈ B : P ( ω B ) = α P ( ω ) 2 . ω ∉ B : P ( ω B ) = 0 3 . ∑ ω ∈ Ω P ( ω B ) = 1 . ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) & ( \ text ( 1 . ) ) \ omega \ in B : P ( \ omega B ) = \ alpha P ( \ omega ) \ \ & ( \ text ( 2 . ) ) \ omega \ notin B : P ( \ omega B ) = 0 \ \ & ( \ text ( 3 . ) ) \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in \ Omega ) ( P ( \ omega B ) ) = 1. \ end ( aligned ) ) ) Substituting 1 and 2 into 3 to select α : 1 = ∑ ω ∈ Ω P ( ω B ) = ∑ ω ∈ B P ( ω B ) + ∑ ω ∉ B P ( ω B ) 0 = α ∑ ω ∈ B P ( ω ) = α ⋅ P ( B ) ⇒ α = 1 P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) 1& = \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in \ Omega ) ( P ( \ omega B ) ) \ \ & = \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in B ) ( P ( \ omega B ) ) + ( \ cancelto ( 0 ) ( \ sum _ ( \ omega \ notin B ) P ( \ omega B ) ) ) \ \ & = \ alpha \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in B ) ( P ( \ omega ) ) \ \ & = \ alpha \ cdot P ( B ) \ \ \ Rightarrow \ alpha & = ( \ frac ( 1 ) ( P ( B ) ) ) \ end ( aligned ) ) ) So the new probability distribution is 1 . ω ∈ B : P ( ω B ) = P ( ω ) P ( B ) 2 . ω ∉ B : P ( ω B ) = 0 ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) ( \ text ( 1 . ) ) \ omega \ in B& : P ( \ omega B ) = ( \ frac ( P ( \ omega ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) \ \ ( \ text ( 2 . ) ) \ omega \ notin B& : P ( \ omega B ) = 0 \ end ( aligned ) ) ) Now for a general event A , P ( A B ) = ∑ ω ∈ A ∩ B P ( ω B ) + ∑ ω ∈ A ∩ B c P ( ω B ) 0 = ∑ ω ∈ A ∩ B P ( ω ) P ( B ) = P ( A ∩ B ) P ( B ) ( \ displaystyle ( \ begin ( aligned ) P ( A B ) & = \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in A \ cap B ) ( P ( \ omega B ) ) + ( \ cancelto ( 0 ) ( \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in A \ cap B ^ ( c ) ) P ( \ omega B ) ) ) \ \ & = \ sum _ ( \ omega \ in A \ cap B ) ( \ frac ( P ( \ omega ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) \ \ & = ( \ frac ( P ( A \ cap B ) ) ( P ( B ) ) ) \ end ( aligned ) ) ) See also ( edit ) Mathematics portal Borel -- Kolmogorov paradox Chain rule ( probability ) Class membership probabilities Conditional probability distribution Conditioning ( probability ) Joint probability distribution Monty Hall problem Posterior probability References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Gut , Allan ( 2013 ) . Probability : A Graduate Course ( Second ed . ) . New York , NY : Springer . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4614 - 4707 - 8 . Jump up ^ Ross , Sheldon ( 2010 ) . A First Course in Probability ( 8th ed . ) . Pearson Prentice Hall . ISBN 978 - 0 - 13 - 603313 - 4 . ^ Jump up to : Casella , George ; Berger , Roger L. ( 2002 ) . Statistical Inference . Duxbury Press . ISBN 0 - 534 - 24312 - 6 . Jump up ^ Kolmogorov , Andrey ( 1956 ) , Foundations of the Theory of Probability , Chelsea Jump up ^ Gillies , Donald ( 2000 ) ; `` Philosophical Theories of Probability '' ; Routledge ; Chapter 4 `` The subjective theory '' ^ Jump up to : Draheim , Dirk ( 2017 ) . `` An Operational Semantics of Conditional Probabilities that Fully Adheres to Kolmogorov 's Explication of Probability Theory '' . doi : 10.13140 / RG. 2.2. 10050.48323 / 3 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) ^ Jump up to : Draheim , Dirk ( 2017 ) . `` Generalized Jeffrey Conditionalization ( A Frequentist Semantics of Partial Conditionalization ) '' . Springer . Retrieved December 19 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Jeffrey , Richard C. ( 1983 ) , The Logic of Decision , 2nd edition , University of Chicago Press Jump up ^ `` Bayesian Epistemology '' . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017 . Retrieved December 29 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Paulos , J.A. ( 1988 ) Innumeracy : Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences , Hill and Wang . ISBN 0 - 8090 - 7447 - 8 ( p. 63 et seq . ) Jump up ^ Thomas Bruss , F ; Der Wyatt Earp Effekt ; Spektrum der Wissenschaft ; March 2007 Jump up ^ George Casella and Roger L. Berger ( 1990 ) , Statistical Inference , Duxbury Press , ISBN 0 - 534 - 11958 - 1 ( p. 18 et seq . ) Jump up ^ Grinstead and Snell 's Introduction to Probability , p. 134 External links ( edit ) Weisstein , Eric W. `` Conditional Probability '' . MathWorld . F. Thomas Bruss Der Wyatt - Earp - Effekt oder die betörende Macht kleiner Wahrscheinlichkeiten ( in German ) , Spektrum der Wissenschaft ( German Edition of Scientific American ) , Vol 2 , 110 -- 113 , ( 2007 ) . Visual explanation of conditional probability Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conditional_probability&oldid=825374159 '' Categories : Conditional probability Logical fallacies Statistical ratios Hidden categories : Pages using web citations with no URL Articles needing additional references from September 2013 All articles needing additional references Wikipedia articles that are too technical from January 2014 All articles that are too technical Articles needing expert attention from January 2014 All articles needing expert attention Articles with multiple maintenance issues Talk Contents About Wikipedia Български Català Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Íslenska Italiano עברית Magyar Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 February 2018 , at 01 : 19 . 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-4770719932142197230 | List of Only Fools and Horses episodes | List of Only Fools and Horses episodes - wikipedia List of Only Fools and Horses episodes Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article 's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia . See Wikipedia 's guide to writing better articles for suggestions . ( August 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( September 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The following is an episode list for the BBC One sitcom Only Fools and Horses . The show was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 8 September 1981 . It ran for seven series and sixteen Christmas Specials until 25 December 2003 , when the final episode was broadcast . In total , 64 regular episodes of Only Fools and Horses , all written by John Sullivan , were produced . All are now available on both Region 2 and Region 1 DVD . Additionally , twelve special editions of the show were made , two of these ( `` Licensed to Drill '' and `` The Robin Flies at Dawn '' ) have never been broadcast commercially and some have only recently been rediscovered . The above six episodes are very rare and have never been released on DVD . All episodes originally aired on BBC One . The list below is ordered by the episodes ' original air dates . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Episodes 2.1 Series One ( 1981 ) 2.2 Series Two ( 1982 ) 2.3 Series Three ( 1983 ) 2.4 Series Four ( 1985 ) 2.5 Series Five ( 1986 ) 2.6 Series Six ( 1989 ) 2.7 Series Seven ( 1990 - 1991 ) 2.8 Christmas Trilogy ( 1996 ) 2.9 Christmas Trilogy ( 2001 - 2003 ) 3 Miscellaneous 3.1 Episodes ( 1982 -- 2015 ) 4 Related broadcasts 4.1 `` The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' ( 2002 ) 4.2 `` Britain 's Best Sitcom : Only Fools and Horses '' ( 2004 ) 4.3 `` Only Fools and Horses : The Favourites '' ( 2015 ) 4.4 `` The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' ( 2017 ) 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading Overview ( edit ) Series Episodes Originally aired DVD release Ave . UK viewers ( excl . specials ) Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 Series 1 7 1981 7 October 2003 20 November 2000 3 May 2004 7.67 million Series 2 8 1982 7 October 2003 2 April 2001 3 May 2004 8.85 million Series 3 8 7 October 2003 4 June 2001 2005 10.5 million Series 4 8 1985 12 October 2004 1 October 2001 2005 14.91 million Series 5 9 1986 12 October 2004 30 September 2002 4 August 2005 15.97 million Series 6 8 11 October 2005 22 September 2003 4 August 2005 16.73 million Series 7 16 1990 - 1991 10 October 2006 6 September 2004 4 May 2006 16.75 million Episodes ( edit ) Series one ( 1981 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series `` Big Brother '' Ray Butt Martin Shardlow 8 September 1981 ( 1981 - 09 - 08 ) 9.2 million 30 minutes Derek `` Del Boy '' Trotter employs his younger brother Rodney as his assistant in his company Trotters Independent Traders . At Peckham 's local pub , the Nag 's Head , Del and Rodney meet Del 's friend Trigger ( who believes that Rodney 's name is Dave ) , and he sells them 25 briefcases for £ 200 . Back at their flat in Nelson Mandela House , the Trotters discover that the briefcases can not be opened because the combinations for the locks have been inadvertently locked inside . The following day , Rodney attempts to run away to Hong Kong , although eventually returns to Peckham after forgetting his passport . Del takes his brother 's advice and discards the stolen briefcases . First appearance of David Jason as Derek Trotter , Nicholas Lyndhurst as Rodney Trotter , Lennard Pearce as Grandad and Roger Lloyd - Pack as Trigger `` Go West Young Man '' Ray Butt Martin Shardlow 15 September 1981 ( 1981 - 09 - 15 ) 6.1 million 30 minutes Del 's second - hand car dealer friend from Lewisham , Boycie , has recently bought a Jaguar E-Type for his girlfriend , and Del agrees to hide it away in his garage for a week so that Boycie 's wife , Marlene , does not see it . In exchange , Boycie gives Del a car costing £ 25 , which Rodney describes as ' death trap ' . Del subsequently sells the car to an Australian man for £ 199 , claiming that the car was previously owned by a vicar . Later on the brothers decide to go on a night out in London 's pubs and clubs . Rodney finds a club and suggests that he and Del try it out , but have to leave quickly when they learn that it is actually a gay club . The brothers finally find a different club and meet two young women , who invite the Trotters back to their place . Whilst driving there in Boycie 's Jaguar , the car behind them crashes into them due to its poor brakes . Unfortunately for Del and Rodney , it is the Australian man from earlier . First Appearance of John Challis as Boycie `` Cash and Curry '' Ray Butt Martin Shardlow 22 September 1981 ( 1981 - 09 - 22 ) 7.3 million 30 minutes Eager to forge new business links , Del befriends Vimmal Malik , a wealthy businessman who seems eager to work with Trotters Independent Trading . After a dance at the Camberwell Chamber of Trade , Del and Vimmal are cornered by Mr Ram and his heavy . It seems that Vimmal is holding onto a pricey porcelain family heirloom that belongs to the Ram family -- and they want it back . To try to make an impression , Del offers to mediate between the two men , especially as Mr Ram says he will pay £ 4,000 for the return of the statue to his family . Unluckily for Del , it is all a ruse and he ends up losing 2000 to Vimmal and Ram , a couple of conmen touring the country , using the same scam on local businessmen wherever they go . Absent : Lennard Pearce as Grandad `` The Second Time Around '' Ray Butt Martin Shardlow 29 September 1981 ( 1981 - 09 - 29 ) 7.8 million 30 minutes Del Boy is shocked to hear that one of his many ex-fiancés , Pauline Harris , is back in Peckham after returning from America . Soon , much to Rodney and Grandad 's horror , Del and Pauline are engaged again , despite Pauline 's husband just dying from what Del is told to be food poisoning . The Trotters leave Nelson Mandela House and give Pauline five days to pack her bags and get out . The family arrive at what they believe to be their great - aunt Rose 's house but it turns out that aunt Rose moved out of the house ages ago . Pauline moves out of the Trotter flat but also phones Tim the Talking Clock in America . 5 `` A Slow Bus to Chingford '' Ray Butt Martin Shardlow 6 October 1981 ( 1981 - 10 - 06 ) 7 million 30 minutes Del interrupts Rodney 's romantic evening with his girlfriend to tell him that he has got a job as a nightwatchman for buses . The following morning , Del confesses that the bus company would give him a double - decker bus in exchange for Rodney becoming a nightwatchman . Del Boy uses the bus to set up a bus tour company taking tourists around London but on the day , nobody turns up . On the bus , Del reveals that he does not know any facts about London and would therefore tell the tourists lots of false facts . Grandad wins a bet against Del when nobody turns up by the end of the day but his celebrations are short - lived , because Del finds all the leaflets that Grandad chucked down the rubbish chute . 6 `` The Russians Are Coming '' Ray Butt Martin Shardlow 13 October 1981 ( 1981 - 10 - 13 ) 8.8 million 30 minutes Another successful dodgy deal means Del has over a grand 's worth of lead from a disused factory to get rid of . When Rodney points out that the three tons of lead are in fact a DIY fallout shelter , Del refuses to believe him until he reads the accompanying brochure . With the threat of nuclear holocaust preying on Rodney 's nerves he asks Del what he would do if he heard the four - minute warning . Without an answer , Del considers putting a survival plan into action that means reaching Grandad 's allotment in time to take shelter . It is during a practice run for the Trotter counter-strike survival plan that they get stopped for speeding by the police -- they never find out whether they would make it in time so decide to move it somewhere else . Special 7 `` Christmas Crackers '' Bernard Thompson Bernard Thompson 28 December 1981 ( 1981 - 12 - 28 ) 7.5 million 35 minutes It 's Christmas in Peckham and Del and Rodney are waiting for Grandad 's traditional poisoned Christmas dinner to arrive at the table . But it turns out that for once that , after dinner and exchanging gifts ( including a £ 20 given to Grandad by Del ) , Grandad 's going to the OAP party , meaning that the Trotter brothers are hitting the Monte Carlo Club . Unfortunately , Rodney is unable attract any women , even after reading his book , and when he does finally make some progress , he is beaten by two other men , much to his and Del 's horror . Series two ( 1982 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series 8 `` The Long Legs of the Law '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 21 October 1982 ( 1982 - 10 - 21 ) 7.7 million 30 minutes Rodney is feeling depressed , after a dreadful night out with Del and two women , a mother and daughter . Del explains to Grandad that whilst he and Rodney were out , there was a big fight at one of the pubs ; consequently a young policewoman arrived to deal with the situation , who Rodney tried to date whilst she carried out the arrest . At Sid 's Cafe , Del learns that Rodney did manage to get a date with the policewoman , whose name is Sandra . Rodney takes Sandra to see a film and then invites her back to Nelson Mandela House , which is bad news for the Trotters because the flat is full of stolen items . Del is not pleased when Rodney gives away information that could get the Trotters arrested . Luckily , it looks like the Trotters have got away with it but back at her flat , Sandra tells Rodney that she knew from the very beginning that the flat was full of illegal items . Sandra gives the Trotters twenty - four hours to `` spring clean '' their flat before she informs the CID . Back at Nelson Mandela House , Del feels like killing Rodney despite him bringing it upon himself . 9 `` Ashes to Ashes '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 28 October 1982 ( 1982 - 10 - 28 ) 9.8 million 30 minutes The Trotters and Trig attend Trigger 's grandmother 's ( Alice ) funeral . When they visit her old house , Trigger tells Del and Rodney that whilst his grandfather ( Arthur ) was away fighting in the war , Alice was seeing another man , who was obviously Grandad . Back at the flat , Del examines two antique urns which Alice owned but discovers that one of them contains Arthur 's ashes . Grandad fears that Arthur is trying to communicate with him . With Trigger away on holiday , Del Boy and Rodney attempt to get rid of the ashes . They remember that Arthur use to be a member of the local bowling club but have no luck scattering the ashes on the bowling green . They then try to dump the Ashes in the Thames but are spotted by a police boat . The brothers nearly give up but then a road - sweeping lorry passes by and sucks up Arthur 's ashes . Del and Rodney think it is ironic because Arthur use to be a road - sweeper , so for him this would be like a `` Viking burial '' . Back at Nelson Mandela House , Del Boy receives a call from Trigger who reveals that his gran was married twice , a fact which Grandad had failed to point out . When Del looks in the other urn he discovers that it does , of course , contain more ashes . 10 `` A Losing Streak '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 4 November 1982 ( 1982 - 11 - 04 ) 7.5 million 30 minutes Del is getting into financial trouble -- even his double - headed coin can not help him win . He is gambling away his money with no sign of stopping , and he is already £ 150 down . When Boycie challenges him to a winner - takes - all poker game , Del is eager to host it in his flat in Nelson Mandela House . As the night progresses , Del 's luck goes from bad to worse as he ends up owing Boycie all his money , the TIT van , Grandad 's cash , jewellery and even a collection of loose change . But all is not lost , as Del finally turns the tables on Boycie in revenge for fixing all the previous card games in his favour . 11 `` No Greater Love '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 11 November 1982 ( 1982 - 11 - 11 ) 8.6 million 30 minutes Rodney falls for Irene Mackay -- a woman twice his age -- and Del Boy is not happy about it . Not only is Irene a lot older than Rodney , but she is married to a criminal who is doing time in Parkhurst -- and is about to be released . Concerned for his brother 's welfare , Del convinces Irene to ditch Rodney . But when Rodney realises Del has been interfering with his personal life again , he goes loopy . Soon afterwards , Tommy Mackay gets out of prison -- he soon finds out his wife has been cheating on him with a Trotter , and goes looking for revenge . Luckily for Rodney , Tommy finds Del Boy first , and the elder Trotter takes the punishment for him . When a bruised and battered Del returns to the pub , he finds out that Rodney has moved on to someone new . 12 `` The Yellow Peril '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 18 November 1982 ( 1982 - 11 - 18 ) 8.2 million 30 minutes Trotters Independent Traders has got a job painting a Chinese takeaway but Del gives the job to Rodney and Grandad as he is busy . The job is finished with the Chinese restaurant having had a new lick of yellow paint . Del returns home and greets Trigger , who reveals to Rodney that the paint he supplied Del with is dodgy and luminous . Fortunately , the restaurant 's owner is delighted with the work but there is an issue : Del used the paint to paint his mother 's grave so now it looks radioactive ! Del decides to keep quiet and flees the scene . 13 `` It Never Rains ... '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 25 November 1982 ( 1982 - 11 - 25 ) 9.5 million 30 minutes Trotters Independent Trading has been forced off the market , with the continuing downpour keeping most of Peckham indoors . While drowning their sorrows in The Nag 's Head , Alex the travel agent mentions that business is slow and he can not give holidays away at the moment . As a promotional gimmick , Del suggests offering an 80 % discount on a holiday to the next customer in the shop -- and who happens to walk by , but Derek Trotter . Having sold sun hats in the rain , Rodney has managed to earn some travel cash . During the whole holiday , Del and Rodney attempt to pursue women , with Del at one point pretending to be French , while Grandad cramps their style : especially when they bring two girls back to their apartment , only for the old man to scare them off with his dentures . Things get a bit more serious when Grandad is arrested . He is worried that the arrest is for an old incident many years ago -- but it turns out that he was arrested for jay - walking and is released without charge . 14 `` A Touch of Glass '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 2 December 1982 ( 1982 - 12 - 02 ) 10.2 million 30 minutes Returning from an auction , the Trotters stop to help a woman whose car appears to have broken down . It is revealed that she is Lady Ridgemere , wife of Lord Ridgemere who owns the Ridgemere Hall Estate . Having towed the Lady to her stately home , Del overhears that Lord Ridgemere is having trouble with the firm he 's hired to clean their chandeliers . He wastes no time in offering the Trotters ' services as chandelier cleaners for a mere £ 350 . Rodney and Del are up ladders , holding an old sheet to stop the cut - glass chandelier crashing to the floor when Grandad unscrews it . But Grandad unscrews another chandelier , which smashes on the floor . As a horrified butler walks into the hall , the Trotters make a swift exit . Special 15 `` Diamonds Are for Heather '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 30 December 1982 ( 1982 - 12 - 30 ) 9.3 million 30 minutes Del has the Yuletide blues , and drinks away his loneliness at a Spanish night at The Nag 's Head . There he meets Heather , who seems to be one friend short of company . Del Boy , ever the gentleman , entertains her and sees her home safely . At her flat he discovers that she has a young son , by a husband who seems to have joined a very long queue at the Job Centre eighteen months ago and not come back . In no time at all their romance blossoms and all is running so smoothly that Del decides to propose . However , when he takes her for a candle - lit curry , she refuses his offer of marriage . Her husband has returned , employed as a department store Santa , and she wants to give it another go , leaving Del Boy without an angel for Christmas . Series three ( 1983 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series 16 `` Homesick '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 10 November 1983 ( 1983 - 11 - 10 ) 9.4 million 30 minutes Lugging the shopping up those 12 flights of stairs is proving too much for Grandad , and the doctor recommends a new council bungalow for the Trotter dynasty . Rodney is appointed the new chairman of the housing committee . He uses his new position to recommend a bungalow for the Trotters . Unknown to Rodney Del and Grandad have hatched up the scheme between them to unfairly get a bungalow . Rodney pays the price again for Del 's scheming and has to resign as chairman . 17 `` Healthy Competition '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 17 November 1983 ( 1983 - 11 - 17 ) 9.7 million 30 minutes Rodney , tired of his `` two GCEs '' getting him little more than a crummy job as a lookout , decides to go it alone and leave Peckham 's own multinational conglomerate -- Trotters Independent Trading . By the end of the week he is already cornered the market in broken lawnmower engines and with Mickey Pierce as his financial director , the sky 's the limit ! 18 `` Friday the 14th '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 24 November 1983 ( 1983 - 11 - 24 ) 9.7 million 30 minutes The Trotters are off to Boycie 's cottage in Cornwall for the weekend to do some illegal salmon fishing . At the gate , a policeman tells the Trotters that an escaped axe - murderer is on the run and is believed to be lurking in the area around Boycie 's cottage . After a few hours in the cottage , Del believes that he has knocked out the axe - murderer but when Rodney and Grandad take him to the police station , the police tell them that it is actually the gamekeeper . Back at the cottage , Del is with the real axe - murderer , who is posing as the hospital 's chief of security . As a police helicopter flies over , Del plays an imaginary game of snooker with the criminal . 19 `` Yesterday Never Comes '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 1 December 1983 ( 1983 - 12 - 01 ) 10.6 million 30 minutes Del Boy 's into art dealing in a big way . Especially as it involves Miranda , the glamorous `` posh tart '' . Is she really being wooed by his tequila sunsets or are her motives rather more mercenary ? 20 `` May the Force Be with You '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 8 December 1983 ( 1983 - 12 - 08 ) 10.7 million 30 minutes A ripple of panic runs through The Nag 's Head . Del 's old school enemy Slater is back in town hell - bent on revenge and brandishing his police badge whilst on the trail of a stolen microwave . 21 `` Wanted '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 15 December 1983 ( 1983 - 12 - 15 ) 11.2 million 30 minutes Watch out ! The Peckham Pouncer 's about ! Alias Rodney Trotter . Surely not . But try telling that to Rodney , London 's most wanted sex offender . Now what was the name of that drunk woman in the street ? 22 `` Who 's a Pretty Boy ? '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 22 December 1983 ( 1983 - 12 - 22 ) 11.9 million 30 minutes To get revenge against Irishman Brendan O'Shaughnessy for supplying him with grey paint , Del visits his friend Denzil , who is due to have his front room painted by O'Shaughnessy , and gets the job of painting his front room instead . Grandad and Rodney arrive with the paint but unfortunately , Rodney leaves the kettle on and apparently kills the canary in the kitchen . Grandad buys a new one but when Denzil 's wife Corrine returns to the flat , she reveals that the canary died before the painting began . At the Nag 's Head , Del meets the new landlord , Mike Fisher , and strikes up a deal to decorate the pub . First Appearance : Paul Barber as Denzil Tulser , Kenneth MacDonald as Mike Fisher Special 23 `` Thicker than Water '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 25 December 1983 ( 1983 - 12 - 25 ) 10.8 million 30 minutes Reg Trotter , absentee father to Del and Rodney , unexpectedly arrives to sponge Christmas with his boys . Reg explains that he has been living in Newcastle and was diagnosed with a hereditary blood disorder . Scared for their well - being , he decided to tell his two sons . However , several tests later , Reg is given the all clear but it seems Del Boy and Rodney have different blood types . It would seem the wayward father has some explaining to do . Reg explains that he frequently argued with their mother before they split . She had several dalliances with other men , and Del is the mystery child . Fortunately a visit to the family doctor gives Del the news to put the smile back on his face . This is notably the only time Reg Trotter was featured in the series , as well as being the last episode to feature Grandad Trotter ( prior to Rock & Chips ) due to Lennard Pearce 's death the following year . Series four ( 1985 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series 24 `` Happy Returns '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 21 February 1985 ( 1985 - 02 - 21 ) 15.2 million 30 minutes Derek and Rodney stops a young boy , Jason , from running into the road , and strike up a friendship with the lad . It is not long before Del discovers that Jason 's mother , June , is an old flame whom he last saw around nineteen years ago . Del and June rekindle their romance , Rodney is dating a lovely girl from the newsagent called Debby -- a fact that is seriously curtailing his habit of buying porn magazines . It soon transpires that Debby is June 's daughter , and it is almost her 19th birthday . Del puts two and two together , and decide that Debby may well be his daughter . It gets worse when Rodney realises that he has fallen for a girl who could be his niece . Everything comes to a head when Del finally confronts June to find out whether Debby is his daughter or not . It turns out that Debby was actually fathered by his friend Albie Littlewood , who died while crossing the train tracks while he was seeing June behind Del 's back . 25 `` Strained Relations '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 28 February 1985 ( 1985 - 02 - 28 ) 14.9 million 30 minutes After Grandad 's funeral , the mourners return to the Trotter 's flat in Nelson Mandela House . Rodney is annoyed that Del is having a good time , when he should be upset . After everybody leaves , Grandad 's brother ( Uncle Albert , another freeloading Trotter ) emerges from one of the bedrooms , after getting drunk . The following morning , Del drives Albert back home but the caravan where he was living with Del 's cousin has been moved . Del suggests he finds a room at the Seaman 's Mission . Del tells Rodney that he does not know how to grieve for Grandad and is hiding his pain . Later at the Nag 's Head , Albert turns up and lies to the boys saying the mission is no longer there . Del falls for the deception , and suggests he comes home with them . First Appearance of Buster Merryfield as Uncle Albert 26 `` Hole in One '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 7 March 1985 ( 1985 - 03 - 07 ) 13.4 million 30 minutes The Trotters have fallen on hard times , largely due to Rodney 's £ 500 investment in suntan lotion during one of the worst winters ever seen . To make things worse , the deep - fat fryer they sold to Mike , landlord of The Nag 's Head , is on the blink and the tension brings Del and Rodney to boiling point . But throughout all this trouble , Uncle Albert , who Rodney blames for their bad luck , keeps telling them that something will turn up . As Albert leaves the pub , he deliberately falls through an open cellar door , and the Trotters ' quickly come up with a way to get some cash -- by suing the pub for damages . Albert 's accident claim finally makes it to court , but to the shock of Del and Rodney , it appears that their Uncle has already sought 15 identical damages claims going back to 1944 . Their case gets chucked out of court , and Albert admits he was using some of the tricks he learnt in parachute training to try to help Del and Rodney pay for Grandad 's headstone . 27 `` It 's Only Rock and Roll '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 14 March 1985 ( 1985 - 03 - 14 ) 13.6 million 30 minutes Rodney has joined a band , and Del immediately capitalises on this by booking them into The Shamrock Club to play for the St Patrick 's night festivities . Taking his place as the band 's manager , Del winces his way through their rehearsals , and when the Shamrock gig results in a fight , the band are forced to leg it , leaving the instruments behind them . When Rodney finds out the musical equipment has vanished , he contacts the police . When Del sees Rodney with the constable , he quickly distracts the officer and pulls Rodney aside . It turns out that Del had the instruments on sale or return , and he would have taken them back because the gig was done . Rodney 's dreams of showbiz fame have been shattered , but he goes ballistic when he sees his group performing their old hit single on Top of the Pops and realises that without Del 's interference he might have made it to number one . Once again Del ruins Rodney 's chance for success due to his greed . 28 `` Sleeping Dogs Lie '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 21 March 1985 ( 1985 - 03 - 21 ) 18.7 million 30 minutes In an attempt to earn an easy £ 60 a week , Del persuades Boycie and Marlene to entrust him with the care of their Great Dane puppy , Duke , while they are away on holiday . Whilst out on a walk , Rodney notices that the dog is a bit sluggish , and they decide to take it to the vet . Del and Rodney think that the dog may have eaten some reheated pork leftovers for breakfast , and the vet quickly informs them that Duke has probably caught Salmonella . It is only when they get home that they realise Albert has eaten the other half of the pork , and they quickly rush him to hospital . When Albert gets discharged from hospital a few days later , with a clean bill of health , Del Boy discovers that Rodney has been giving Albert 's sleeping pills to Duke , and the dog 's vitamin supplements to Albert . 29 `` Watching the Girls Go By '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 28 March 1985 ( 1985 - 03 - 28 ) 14.4 million 30 minutes Rodney is taking some stick from the lads down the pub about his ' imaginary ' girlfriend , and Mickey Pearce bets him fifty that he will not bring a girl to the Saturday night bash in The Nag 's Head . When Rodney admits to Del that he does n't have a date for Saturday night , his big brother sets about trying to get him a date . On the Friday night , the two brothers head out clubbing , and despite trying almost every club in London , they end up in a seedy little bar in search of a date for Rodney . As luck would have it , Del Boy spots Yvonne , an old flame who he knows is not too picky who she goes out with , and he offers to pay her part of the winnings from Rodney 's bet if she 'll escort his little brother the following night . Apparently , the date went well , until halfway through the evening when Yvonne takes centre stage in the pub and begins her act as a stripper -- in front of all of Rodney 's mates . Del Boy tries to console Rodney with the thought of his £ 50 winnings , but it turns out the bet was for fifty pence , not pounds . 30 `` As One Door Closes '' Ray Butt Susan Belbin 4 April 1985 ( 1985 - 04 - 04 ) 14.2 million 30 minutes The trouble starts when Del agrees to provide painter and decorator Brendan O'Shaughnessy with enough louvred doors to refit an entire housing estate in Nunhead . Del 's supplier , Teddy Cummings , only supplies in bulk , so it is up to the Trotters to find £ 2000 by the next day or there is no chance of getting the doors . As usual , a solution turns up in the form of Denzil 's redundancy money , which Del somehow cons him out of , only to be told by O'Shaughnessy that the doors he is bought are not needed . And to make things worse , the doors turn out to be stolen . It 's not long before Denzil and his five brothers come looking for their money , so with nowhere else to go , the Trotters visit their mother 's grave -- a favourite refuge for Del in times of trouble . At their mother 's graveside , Rodney notices a rare butterfly from the cover of his magazine , that 's worth about £ 3,000 to collectors . After chasing the butterfly around the churchyard , the park and the boating lake , Rodney finally captures it , only to have it squashed when Del holds it out to show Denzil and gets high - fived . Special 31 `` To Hull and Back '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 25 December 1985 ( 1985 - 12 - 25 ) 16.92 million 90 minutes Boycie and Abdul ask Del to smuggle diamonds from Amsterdam into the country . Del initially declines the offer , but ultimately agrees in exchange for £ 15,000 . When Del learns that DCI Roy Slater is aware of the cases of diamond smuggling , but does not know who is involved , and realising that he would n't get the diamonds through airport security , Del gets Uncle Albert to take him and Rodney to Amsterdam from Hull in a hired boat . The Trotters arrive at the location and collect the diamonds . Meanwhile , back at the police station , Slater deduces that Boycie and Del are involved in the smuggling and waits at the airport for the Trotters to arrive . Del , Rodney and Albert arrive back a day late because Albert got lost . All seems to have gone well until Slater catches Boycie and the Trotters in the act . However , Slater lets them case go and is later arrested when the police work out that he has been working with the man in Amsterdam who keeps the diamonds until the couriers arrive . Although Boycie used fake money to pay for the diamonds , he paid Del with real money . Unfortunately , Del thinks the money is fake and throws it out the window . Series five ( 1986 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series 32 `` From Prussia with Love '' Ray Butt Mandie Fletcher 31 August 1986 ( 1986 - 08 - 31 ) 12.1 million 30 minutes It is closing time at The Nag 's Head , and Mike the landlord is having problems clearing everyone out , particularly a young pregnant foreign girl who does not seem to speak Peckham English . Del and Rodney offer to help , and despite Del Boy 's dodgy French , they work out that Anna is from Germany , and she has been chucked out on the street and was considering getting her child adopted . They leave Rodney to take Anna to a hotel , but he ends up bringing her back to the flat . After fuming about Rodney bringing another ' waif and stray ' home , Del Boy considers what can be done with Anna 's unwanted baby -- and the first thing he thinks of is how to exploit her and make money . For year 's Marlene and Boycie have been trying for a child , with no success , and now for three grand , Del is offering them the chance to have their very own baby boy . The stress is clearly getting to Anna , and she begins to go into labour . Later on Del , Boycie and Marlene all gather round in the lounge waiting for Anna and Rodney to return from hospital . All is well until Rodney lets Del Boy know that Anna 's baby is a girl , and that Spencer 's parents were actually West Indian ! 33 `` The Miracle of Peckham '' Ray Butt Mandie Fletcher 7 September 1986 ( 1986 - 09 - 07 ) 14.2 million 30 minutes Feeling guilty about his criminal lifestyle , Del has a rare religious urge and heads to the confession booth of his local Catholic church to speak with Father O'Keith . Whilst chatting with Father O'Keith , Del discovers that the local hospice , St Mary 's , requires a £ 185,000 renovation or it will soon close . And as Derek and Rodney 's mother and grandad were both cared for there , the older Trotter takes the charitable cause to his heart . After his confession , Del is about to put some money into the Collection box when Father O'Keith cries out that the statue of the Virgin Mary is weeping holy tears . Within a couple of seconds , Del has persuaded the priest that this miracle needs publicising -- something that could go a long way towards raising funds for St Mary 's renovations and lining Del 's pockets . Father O'Keith reluctantly agrees , and Del gets Rodney to alert the national press . As press arrives from all over the world , Del helps Father O'Keith collect the contributions from all those who wish to witness the miracle of the weeping virgin . It is only when the priest notices rain dripping from the roof of the church that Del Boy 's elaborate con trick is exposed . 34 `` The Longest Night '' Ray Butt Mandie Fletcher 14 September 1986 ( 1986 - 09 - 14 ) 16.7 million 30 minutes Del , Rodney , and Albert are mistakenly apprehended as shoplifters by an overzealous security guard at the Top Buy Supermarket . And things get worse when they are taken to the manager 's office and realise that they have lost their receipt for the goods . Shortly after , Tom the security guard brings a cocky shoplifter , Lennox Gilbey , into the manager 's office , where he promptly pulls out a gun and demands money from the safe . Unluckily for Lennox the safe is on a time - lock and due to the dodgy watch he is wearing , he is 15 minutes later than he planned -- and the safe does not open until 8am the next morning . After being held hostage throughout the night , Del realises that he sold the stolen watch to Lennox , and that he also knew him as a kid . By preying on his guilty conscience , Del persuades Lennox to reveal that the plan was hatched by Tom and the supermarket manager to get at the £ 60,000 stored in the safe . The three accomplices beg Del not to go to the police , and instead , he arranges for Lennox to get a job as security guard at the supermarket after Tom 's retirement , and then makes sure he wins a £ 1,000 prize as the millionth customer in the store . 35 `` Tea for Three '' Ray Butt Mandie Fletcher 21 September 1986 ( 1986 - 09 - 21 ) 16.5 million 30 minutes Trigger 's young niece , Lisa , is staying with him for a while , and the young girl that Del and Rodney remember has now become a 25 - year - old woman . Both Trotter brothers think they are in with a chance despite Del being clearly too old , and immediately begin competing for Lisa 's affections . Del and Rodney manage to invite Lisa round to the flat for tea , and she seems more than happy to accept . Del goes out to get some more ' Smash ' and Rodney spends half - an - hour on the sunbed . Just before Del leaves for the shops , he notices Rodney has dozed off and spitefully turns up the heat on the bed . Much to Rodney 's annoyance , he spends most of the evening nursing his burnt face , whilst Del and Lisa seem to be getting on really well . Rodney arranges a surprise for Del as during the meal Del lies to Lisa boasting he used to be in the parachute regiment ! Del and Rodney head off to meet Lisa 's friends for a spot of hang - gliding . Rodney tricks Del into hang gliding Not wanting to lose face , Del reluctantly agrees to try it out , and after launching himself into the air , he disappears for over 12 hours . Once back , Del lies to Rodney pretending to be unable to walk but Rodney sees through the deception , much to Del 's annoyance . Lisa turns out to be engaged so all Del 's efforts were a waste of time . 36 `` Video Nasty '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 28 September 1986 ( 1986 - 09 - 28 ) 17.5 million 30 minutes Rodney 's Art Class is given a £ 10,000 grant to make a film spotlighting the local community , but first he has to avoid the scheming intentions of Del Boy . Whilst Rodney suffers from writer 's block , Del provides him with a ridiculous tale of a killer rhinoceros escaping from London Zoo and laying waste to innocent victims . Rodney immediately points out the flaws in the logic behind the plot , and Del leaves him to it . But without telling Rodney , Del has already arranged for Mickey to head down to the town hall to film different couples ' weddings at £ 50 a time -- and he has also managed to con half the neighbourhood to pay £ 10 for the opportunity of becoming a movie extra . To make things worse , Mickey arranges for a woman called Amanda to visit the Trotters ' flat in a nurse 's uniform and begin filming a ' blue movie ' called Night Nurse , which is due for its premiere in the back room of The Nag 's Head . Once again Del ruins it for Rodney . 37 `` Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 5 October 1986 ( 1986 - 10 - 05 ) 18.80 million 30 minutes Del 's old business partner from the 1960s , Jumbo Mills , returns to the UK shores to strike a deal with Boycie , and ends up rubbing everyone up the wrong way in The Nag 's Head . Jumbo has made himself rich after leaving rainy London for Australia with Del Boy 's last £ 200 . In an attempt to pay back this debt ' with interest ' , Jumbo asks Del to become the new face of his new import business -- but it means a move to Australia for the Trotter family . After making sure Rodney and Albert have a place in Oz , Del Boy agrees to join Jumbo 's firm , but things do not go as smoothly as that . Albert decides he wants to stay in Peckham , and it looks like Rodney 's criminal record has put paid to his dream trip . Regardless of this , Del still seems keen to go , but when he picks up the phone to confirm the plan to Jumbo , he turns him down -- reluctantly admitting that blood is thicker than water . Specials 38 `` A Royal Flush '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 25 December 1986 ( 1986 - 12 - 25 ) 18.8 million 76 minutes Rodney meets Vicky , a seemingly impoverished artist who it transpires is the daughter of the Duke of Maylebury . Having obtained a pair of tickets to the sold - out production of Carmen , Rodney seems to have deeply impressed Vicky . She is less taken by the presence of Del and his peroxide blonde girlfriend , June Snell in a cringe worthy scene at the opera where they ruin the night for Rodney . Vicky then invites Rodney to a party at the Duke 's country home , and it seems romance may be on the cards . Then Del Boy turns up , hits the vino - plonko and ruins everything for his little brother again . 39 `` The Frog 's Legacy '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 25 December 1987 ( 1987 - 12 - 25 ) 14.5 million 60 minutes Trotters Independent Trading is causing mayhem with their faulty RAJAH computers . Rodney gets a new job at a funeral directors , while Albert and Del con the public with their miracle cure body massagers . At the wedding of Trigger 's niece , Del hears the tale of Freddy the Frog , a bank robber and close friend of the boys ' mother . He left everything in his will to their mum , including the stolen gold bullion . While Del hunts for treasure , Rodney puzzles over Freddy and his mother 's ' friendship ' -- and a son who would by now be his own age . 40 `` Dates '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1988 ( 1988 - 12 - 25 ) 16.6 million 80 minutes Surprised by Trigger 's success with a new computer dating agency , Del joins and meets aspiring actress Raquel Turner and the two quickly hit it off . However , Raquel is not aware that Del is a market trader , as he claimed to be the manager of his own export and import business . Meanwhile , Rodney has a date with Nags Head barmaid `` Nervous Nerys '' , which ends in disaster after Rodney jumps a red light in the van and causes a police car to crash , having been convinced by Mickey and Jevon that Nerys enjoys the company of tough and manly men . A few days later , Uncle Albert 's birthday party is held at the Nags Head but Del is horrified when one of the surprise strippers he booked turns out to be Raquel . The pair eventually make it up and Raquel reveals that she has been offered an acting role in a tour around the Middle East . Del is about to go around to her flat and ask to her stay but blows his chance when he rips the clothes off of a policewoman , believing she is a stripper booked by Uncle Albert in revenge for his birthday party . First Appearance : Tessa Peake - Jones as Raquel Turner Series six ( 1989 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series 41 `` Yuppy Love '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 8 January 1989 ( 1989 - 01 - 08 ) 13.9 million 50 minutes Del has just seen the film Wall Street for about the fourth time and decided the upwardly - mobile lifestyle is for him . The camel - hair coat is out , and in comes a smart new image . Green mackintosh , mobile phone , filofax , aluminium briefcase , but the yellow van remains . Del even wants to buy the flat off the council and sell it for a fast buck . Rodney , meanwhile , has decided to complete a computing diploma course at the Adult Education Centre . It is there that he meets a girl called Cassandra , who returns his raincoat to him ( Del wrote Rodney 's name in the raincoat ) . Del and Trig ditch The Nags Head in favour of propping up a wine bar . As Del accidentally falls through the bar hatch , Rodney and the boys head to a club , where Rodney amazes the others by dancing with Cassandra . She gives him a lift home , where he pretends to live in a big house in the posh King 's Avenue . As they say goodbye , he is caught waving to the unknown occupants of the posh house . As he walks home , a rainstorm starts . First Appearance : Gwyneth Strong as Cassandra Trotter 42 `` Danger UXD '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 15 January 1989 ( 1989 - 01 - 15 ) 16.1 million 50 minutes Del continues to pursue the Yuppy lifestyle , and insists that Rodney also wears a suit . He convinces his young brother that it will help him sell 50 video recorders he got from Ronnie Nelson at the Advanced Electronics Research and Development Centre . Ever the opportunist , Del helps Denzil out by taking 50 dolls off his hands . Unfortunately the Trotters discover too late that they are inflatable sex dolls , filled with explosive propane gas . Del tries in vain to get rid of the dolls , but Dirty Barry will not take them , and they eventually resort to dressing two of them up in their mum 's old clothes and taking them for a drive ! Denzel soon finds out about the doll 's explosive properties , and rushes to try to warn Del , who still does not know . Eventually , after being ditched , the dressed up dolls explode , and Del and Rodney run a mile . 43 `` Chain Gang '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 22 January 1989 ( 1989 - 01 - 22 ) 16.3 million 50 minutes After Del meets Cassandra for the first time at the One Eleven Club , he and Rodney do a deal with retired jeweller Arnie to buy 250 gold chains for £ 12,500 . Arnie is forced to sell them for half the retail price because he previous client Mr. Stavros failed to purchase the chains . Del forms a consortium of Rodney , Albert , Mike , Trigger and Boycie , who contribute varying amounts of money , to pay for the chains . Stavros then suddenly returns with £ 25,000 to pay for the chains so the consortium plan to sell them to him on behalf of Arnie , so Stavros can have the goods as originally intended . However , while waiting for Stavros at a restaurant , Arnie suddenly has a heart attack and later dies in hospital . The consortium loses trace of the chains and their money but realise they 've been conned when Rodney sees Arnie faking another heart attack while picking Cassandra up from the airport . The boys are able to track Arnie down after learning that Denzil and his two brothers have also been conned by Arnie . 44 `` The Unlucky Winner Is ... '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 29 January 1989 ( 1989 - 01 - 29 ) 17 million 50 minutes Del has entered every competition on the market , trying to win as many freebies as possible . Rodney has unknowingly been entered for an art competition , and won it . It is only when he arrives at the 5 star hotel in Mallorca that he learns that Del has been lying to him again , and that he was a schoolboy when he composed the winning painting , and has won the under - 15 category . While Del enjoys himself , Rodney has to endure the Fun Bus , chaotic children , and becoming a lifelong member of The Groovy Gang . What would have been a nice getaway for Rodney and Casandra has been ruined again by a thoughtless Del . Rodney has the last laugh , however , as Del 's interfering with his passport makes Del ineligible to claim Rodney 's winning ticket on the Spanish lottery . 45 `` Sickness and Wealth '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 5 February 1989 ( 1989 - 02 - 05 ) 18.2 million 55 minutes Del is having stomach pains . It could be his new fast - paced Yuppy lifestyle , or it could be the eviction notice demanding three months worth of unpaid rent up front . TITCO has not been successful and the pressure 's on to raise the cash . The solution presents itself in the shape of Uncle Albert 's lady - friend Elsie Partridge , a medium . Del thinks it is a load of mumbo - jumbo , but sets up a séance room in The Nags Head in order to cash in and con more unsuspecting members of the public . Albert , worried for Del 's health , tells Elsie to say his Mum has contacted her asking him to go to the doctor . When Marlene falls pregnant , just as Elsie foresaw , Del takes heed and is diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome . When he gets home Rodney has another shock for him : He and Cassandra are engaged . 46 `` Little Problems '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 12 February 1989 ( 1989 - 02 - 12 ) 18.9 million 50 minutes Rodney 's down in the dumps . Despite getting engaged , he thinks he has failed his Diploma in Computer Science , which could cost him a good job at Cassandra 's father 's company . On top of that , he can not come up with his share of the dosh for the new flat he and Cassandra plan to buy . His only relief is that the diploma arrives in the post . Del comes to the rescue , promising to call in all his favours to raise the money Rodney needs . Trouble is , the Driscoll brothers are calling in their debts , and those who can not pay get bruised . Managing to buy precious time , Del cons Boycie into paying for some dodgy video recorders and can cover the Trotter 's debts . Meanwhile , Uncle Albert has Del sussed , and asks him how much Rodney 's diploma cost . Not all goes to plan in the end , and Del fulfils the duties as a battered and bruised Best Man . After some words of Trotter wisdom , Rodney and Cassandra journey to Rimini for their honeymoon . Specials 47 `` The Jolly Boys ' Outing '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1989 ( 1989 - 12 - 25 ) 20.12 million 85 minutes Cassandra organises a dinner party , inviting her ' yuppie ' boss and his wife in the hope of getting a promotion . Del and Uncle Albert soon arrive to put their feet firmly in their mouths and ruin the chances of that . Despite it being Rodney and Cassandra 's first wedding anniversary , Rodney agrees to go on the annual Jolly Boys Outing to Margate . The outing goes as well as can be expected considering the driver gets high on the fumes from the radio , Rodney gets arrested , and the radio bought from Trotters Independent Traders blows up the coach . Forced to stay the night by this twist of fate . They stay at an old scary bed and breakfast and Rodney is still concerned that Cassandra 's boss is staying with her while he is away so they go out for a drink where Del encounters his lost love Raquel , who is now working as magician 's assistant . As one Trotter rekindles his love life , the other returns to find Cassandra entertaining her boss at home . Punching first , and asking questions later , Rodney blows it . 48 `` Rodney Come Home '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1990 ( 1990 - 12 - 25 ) 18 million 75 minutes Rodney is settling into married life , and his job at his father - in - law 's printing firm ( his first proper job ) . Raquel has returned from America and is now living with Del . Del is worried about his brother 's marriage : Rodney resents Cassandra for working all the time ( Rodney 's job provides Del with cheap printing - his sole source of income ) . Del 's attempts to save Rodney 's marriage , result in him being homeless for the third time in 18 months . Series seven ( 1990 - 1991 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Series 49 `` The Sky 's the Limit '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 30 December 1990 ( 1990 - 12 - 30 ) 15 million 50 minutes Raquel has moved in with Del , as has the newly separated Rodney . When Rodney is not asleep on the couch he is drinking too much , or nursing hangovers . While Cassandra and her mother travel to Spain for a holiday , Alan Parry -- Cassandra 's Dad and Rodney 's boss -- visits Del Boy and confides he was hoping to leave his business to the couple . They hatch a plot to arrange a second honeymoon for them . Rodney pays £ 250 for their trip , and waits for Cassandra to arrive at Gatwick airport . However , when Cassandra 's flight lands in Manchester , he is furious . When he learns the real reason behind her flight being diverted , Del has some serious explaining to do . 50 `` The Chance of a Lunchtime '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 6 January 1991 ( 1991 - 01 - 06 ) 16.6 million 50 minutes Raquel wants to revive her theatrical passions and audition for Shakespeare 's As You Like It . Derek volunteers to help her rehearse . Rodney and Cassandra meet for a meal both thinking that the other made the first move , and without realising Del has set them up . Things seem to be going well , until Rodney clambers out of the Nag 's head with Del 's ex-fiancé Trudy to see her to a cab , just as Cassandra arrives on the scene leaping to the wrong conclusion . Raquel tells Derek she will not be taking the part in the play as Shakespeare does not mention anywhere that Rosalind is pregnant . 51 `` Stage Fright '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 13 January 1991 ( 1991 - 01 - 13 ) 16.6 million 50 minutes Del meets up with his old pal Eric , who runs a club called the `` Starlight Rooms '' . He pays Del £ 600 to supply entertainment for a upcoming birthday party to be held at the Starlight Rooms . Del pairs a pregnant Raquel with Trigger 's colleague Tony Angelino to sing and appoints Rodney - who is out of work and struggling to find his own accommodation - as his road manager . While Tony and Raquel are singing `` Crying '' , however , it 's revealed during the performance that Tony is unable to pronounce his ' Rs ' correctly . Worried , Del Boy returns to the flat , thinking that a local thug will be after him , after believing that what Boycie and Mike told him the previous day about Eric being bought out of the Starlight Rooms . But , to Del 's relief , it turns out that the Starlight Room 's client found Tony 's singer hysterical , leading Del to attempt to make Tony ' wich ' with more future bookings : an offer which Tony presumably declines . 52 `` The Class of ' 62 '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 20 January 1991 ( 1991 - 01 - 20 ) 16.2 million 50 minutes Del and his friends are horrified to learn that Roy Slater is back in Peckham , having been paroled from Parkhurst 6 months ago following the diamond smuggling caper a few years earlier . Del is even more horrified to learn that Slater is Raquel 's husband . Del is forced to keep Slater sweet or risk the secret of the identity of Raquel 's husband being revealed . Del , Rodney and Albert soon learn that Slater is due to receive an inheritance from more illegal diamonds : a fact that the police and Raquel are unaware of . Del uses this as blackmail to make Slater leave Peckham and finalise his divorce with Raquel . Ironically , shortly after Slater leaves , Del reveals that Slater was at no real risk of being caught , because Slater was the only one who held any evidence of his involvement with further diamond smuggling . 53 `` He Ai n't Heavy , He 's My Uncle '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 27 January 1991 ( 1991 - 01 - 27 ) 17.2 million 50 minutes To improve his financial situation , Del employs Rodney as TITCO 's new Director of Commercial Development . Del meanwhile is arranging to buy their flat in Nelson Mandela House . Uncle Albert is going to the Over-Sixties Club on the estate and is chatting up a lady called Dora Lane . One night , he arrives at the flat , bruised and shaken . He tells Del and Rodney he has been mugged . Despite being home , something is not right . Uncle Albert disappears . After much thought , the boys find him , but a visit from Knock Knock reveals the truth about the black eye . 54 `` Three Men , a Woman and a Baby '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 3 February 1991 ( 1991 - 02 - 03 ) 18.9 million 50 minutes Del is trying to flog wigs for men to a bunch of ' old tarts ' at The Nags Head . Cassandra gives Rodney the push for lacking ambition and not being part of the marriage . Rodney has also turned vegetarian , much to the mockery of the rest of the Trotter clan . When he receives a call from Cassandra asking him to visit her , he plays it cool . She is unimpressed at the attachable ponytail he wears to impress her when he arrives . In no time they are back together , and very much in love . Their embrace is interrupted by a phone call ; Raquel has gone into labour . She gives birth to a boy in the early hours of the morning , which Del and Raquel name Damien . Specials 55 `` Miami Twice ( The American Dream ) '' Gareth Gwenlan Gareth Gwenlan 24 December 1991 ( 1991 - 12 - 24 ) 14.90 million 50 minutes At Damien 's christening , Del secures a deal with the Vicar to sell pre-blessed wine around the country . Rodney is living with Del and Albert on week days , and with Cassandra at weekends , on the advice of their therapist . Del steals Rodney 's pension money and buys a holiday with it , he then tricks Rodney into going on holiday with him , knowing that Cassandra 's work commitments , will prevent her from attending . 56 `` Miami Twice ( Oh to Be in England ) '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1991 ( 1991 - 12 - 25 ) 17.70 million 95 minutes When Del and Rodney arrive in Miami , the family of Mafioso boss Vincenzo Ochetti are drawn to Del -- who bears a striking resemblance to their Don , who is facing trial , and the possibility of life imprisonment , so they come up with a plan to kill Del so that they can escape a sentencing . Soon realising they are not simply being shown American hospitality , Del and Rodney flee aided and abetted by Boycie , Marlene and their baby Tyler who are also in the States . Upon a safe return to Peckham , they find dozens of crates of wine , which were deemed unfit for Holy Communion . 57 `` Mother Nature 's Son '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1992 ( 1992 - 12 - 25 ) 20.14 million 65 minutes Del Boy hires Denzil and Trigger to clean out some mysterious yellow gunge that has been dumped in Grandad 's allotment , which Del has been lumbered with following the purchase of his flat . After learning about a man called Myles who sells health foods and natural fertilizer and has become a millionaire in two and a half years , Del tricks him into believing that there is a natural spring at the allotment . When the water passes the relevant tests , Del sells it ( tap water ) as bottled water called Peckham Spring . Soon hundreds of pounds are winging their way to Del 's wallet and he , Raquel , Damien , Rodney and Cassandra go for a weekend away at the Grand Hotel , Brighton . As they settle down , the Trotters are unaware that there is a news article being shown on the TV which explains that Peckham 's water supply has become toxic , thanks to the yellow gunge that Denzil and Trigger `` deposed '' of a few days before . As Del falls asleep , a bottle of Peckham Spring on his bedside table glows yellow . 58 `` Fatal Extraction '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1993 ( 1993 - 12 - 25 ) 19.60 million 85 minutes Raquel is frustrated with Del who is spending his evenings at the casino , frequently returning past midnight ... Rodney raises the problem with Del , who explains he is brokering a deal to get hold of some Russian ex-military Camcorders . Rodney 's and Cassandra have decided to try to have a baby . When Del comes home at 8.15 am - stopping only to change his clothes , Raquel leaves hims . Del organises a date with Beverly , his dentist 's receptionist . But he cancels it after much persistence from Rodney and Uncle Albert . A changed man , he invites Raquel back . Whilst celebrating , he drunkenly starts a riot on the estate . All seems calm , but Beverly seems to be stalking Del . The episode resembles Fatal Attraction . Christmas trilogy ( 1996 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Specials 59 `` Heroes and Villains '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1996 ( 1996 - 12 - 25 ) 21.3 million 60 minutes Rodney awakens from a dream on his birthday in which Damien rules the country and learns that Del is in a bad mood because business is going badly and his home improvement grant from the council has been rejected . Meanwhile , Raquel and Damien visit Raquel 's estranged parents and Cassandra joins her parents in Spain at their family villa . While the girls are away , Del and Rodney attend a fancy dress party as Batman and Robin . The brothers are forced to run to the venue when the van breaks down and coincidently stop a gang of muggers . When they arrive at the party , however , the Trotters discover that the party 's host died the day before and the party has been cancelled in place of the host 's wake . A few days later , Del and Rodney stop the same gang of muggers that they stopped on the way to the fancy dress party , resulting in Del Boy receiving a medal and £ 5000 for his home improvement grant and Cassandra reveals that she is finally pregnant . 60 `` Modern Men '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 27 December 1996 ( 1996 - 12 - 27 ) 21.3 million 60 minutes Del is reading a book called ' Modern Man ' . Despite being convinced he is the dictionary definition of debonair masculinity , the book is making him behave irrationally and rashly . Rodney is concerned about this . Cassandra is expecting , and he wants more responsibility and a better job to provide for his family . He unwittingly replies for a job advertisement , posted by Del to alleviate Rodney 's workload . Del , meanwhile , has decided to take his manhood into his own hands and get a vasectomy . Doctor Singh is hounding him regarding dodgy paint , and the nightmare of him getting revenge on Del 's crown jewels puts him off the idea . Cassandra is rushed into hospital , suffering a miscarriage . Rodney breaks down , and it is Del who tells him he has to be strong for his wife . Del then blubs his eyes out , as Rodney supports his wife . 61 `` Time on Our Hands '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 29 December 1996 ( 1996 - 12 - 29 ) 24.3 million 60 minutes Rodney is bottling up his emotions following the loss of his baby . Del , realising Cassandra needs his support , wants to help Rodney adjust . Raquel 's estranged parents arrive for a meal , and to meet their daughter 's new man . He does little to impress , and Uncle Albert mixes the coffee with the gravy by accident . The next day , Raquel 's father meets Rodney and Del as they clear their garage . Being an antiques dealer , he spots a long - lost 18th Century Harrison marine watch , which he recommends getting valued . When the watch is sold for auction at Sotheby 's , the highest bid is for £ 6.2 million . ( This is the final appearance of Buster Merryfield as Uncle Albert in a full episode . ) Christmas trilogy ( 2001 - 2003 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time Specials 62 `` If They Could See Us Now '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 2001 ( 2001 - 12 - 25 ) 21.35 million 71 minutes Del and Rodney lose their riches in a bad investment in the Central American Markets , and are declared bankrupt . They return to Peckham , and their Mandela House flat , and to make matters a lot worse , they suffer a major blow when Uncle Albert dies and they end up at the wrong funeral . Cassandra and Rodney are finding their love life is a little flat , so they spice it up by role - playing their fantasies . Cassandra becomes Rodney 's police woman , and Rodney does not quite look right as Gladiator . Del appears on the game show ' Goldrush ' in a last - ditch attempt to win their fortune back . Despite a phone call saying Del won a badly written final question , Del mistakenly believes it is prankster Mickey Pearce and tells them to give the fortune to charity . Meanwhile , Sid has taken over at the Nag 's Head now that Mike is in prison , and Damien seems to be growing up fast . 63 `` Strangers on the Shore '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 2002 ( 2002 - 12 - 25 ) 17.40 million 75 minutes Del and Rodney embark on a trip to France , agreeing to visit Uncle Albert 's Navy memorial ceremony in his honour . Upon their arrival at the village , they learn that Uncle Albert was hounded out of the country by the Resistance , due to his promiscuity . Del and Rodney notice all the villagers seem to have mariner 's beards . Del , Trigger , and Denzil arrange to smuggle Duty Free alcohol into the country using Denzil 's empty van . When they arrive they discover an illegal immigrant has seemingly stowed away in their van . Naming him Gary , they house him , only to find he has escaped . Sadly the connection between Boycie 's important business deal with a millionaire , and his missing son , is n't made . They are consequently arrested . 64 `` Sleepless in Peckham '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 2003 ( 2003 - 12 - 25 ) 16.37 million 75 minutes Del and the family have only two weeks to find the cash to pay the Inland Revenue , or they will be evicted from their home in Nelson Mandela House . After 41 years in the flat , it could be goodbye , something Del and Rodney are determined will not happen . But memories of the past , particularly of the infamous Freddie Robdal and the romance he shared with their beloved mother , Joan , threatens to divide the brothers . Meanwhile , Marlene has disappeared and everyone is convinced that Boycie has murdered her ; even his best friends are certain of his guilt . Elsewhere , Trigger has become fascinated by science fiction and is enthralled by programmes such as The X-Files , whilst Sid has big plans for the future of the Nag 's Head . Rodney 's daughter Joan is born . Miscellaneous ( edit ) Episodes ( 1982 -- 2015 ) ( edit ) # Original title Producer Director Original airdate Original TV audience Running time TBA `` Christmas Trees '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 27 December 1982 ( 1982 - 12 - 27 ) 7.2 million 8 mins Mini-episode produced for the 1982 Christmas show The Funny Side of Christmas , presented by Frank Muir , which also featured mini-episodes of The Fall And Rise of Reginald Perrin , Yes Minister , Last of the Summer Wine and Open All Hours . It sees Del trying to sell Christmas trees at the local market . TBA `` Licensed to Drill '' Malcolm Taylor Malcolm Taylor 1984 ( 1984 ) N / A 27 mins Educational episode made in 1984 and only shown in schools / colleges . Del , Rodney and Grandad discuss oil drilling and fossil fuels . Notable as the last appearance of Lennard Pearce as Grandad . TBA `` Abbey National '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 1985 ( 1985 ) N / A 50 secs A promotional video with Del Boy at a dinner table selling Abbey National Insurance . TBA `` Rover '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 1985 ( 1985 ) N / A 25 secs A promotion for Rover starring David Jason as Derek Trotter ( Del Boy ) and Aubrey Boyce ( Boycie ) , it also featured the Trotter 's Independent Traders Van as well as the theme tune . TBA `` Radio Times '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 20 December 1985 ( 1985 - 12 - 20 ) N / A 2 mins In this BBC1 promo for the Radio Times Christmas edition , this specially filmed sequence features Del Boy , Rodney , and `` Santa Albert '' sitting in the flat reading the Radio Times and getting ready for Christmas TV . TBA `` White Mice '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 24 December 1985 ( 1985 - 12 - 24 ) N / A 3 mins In a spoof documentary , Del is investigated by a BBC consumer expert . Shown on BBC Breakfast Time in 1985 . TBA `` Royal Variety Show '' Ray Butt Ray Butt 29 November 1986 ( 1986 - 11 - 29 ) N / A 4 mins Whilst delivering some dodgy goods , Del , Rodney and Uncle Albert inadvertently walk into the Royal Variety Show . TBA `` I 'm Not Gonna Miss That ! '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 25 December 1988 ( 1988 - 12 - 25 ) N / A 47 secs A little christmas promo with David Jason as Derek `` Del Boy '' Trotter and Nicholas Lyndhurst as Rodney Trotter and Buster Merryfield as Uncle Albert , they are all stood with the van reading the Radio Times of Christmas 1988 . TBA `` The Robin Flies at Dawn '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 1 December 1990 ( 1990 - 12 - 01 ) N / A 5 mins Del , Rodney and Uncle Albert deliver a goodwill message to British troops serving in the 1990 -- 91 Gulf War . TBA `` Comic Relief Special '' `` Only Fools Cutaway '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 14 March 1997 ( 1997 - 03 - 14 ) 10.6 million 6 mins A short scene , based entirely in the flat , featuring a young Damien Trotter . The first half features Del and Rodney slipping in references to other TV shows featuring David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst ( e.g. A Touch of Frost , Goodnight Sweetheart ) before the duo come out of character and make an appeal to camera for donations for Comic Relief . This is Buster Merryfield 's last appearance as Albert in Only Fools and Horses . TBA `` The Long Stretch '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 2001 ( 2001 ) Unknown 20 mins A small ident featuring a Del Boy 's stretch Reliant Robin that he had purchased as a millionaire . The stretch was actually as super imposed image to get the effect of a limousine , which was actually non existent . TBA `` Gold '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 24 August 2011 ( 2011 - 08 - 24 ) N / A 1 min A 30th anniversary competition video to win a night in Del 's apartment , it featured John Challis as Boycie and Sue Holderness as Marlene . TBA `` The Lovely Jubbly '' Gareth Gwenlan Tony Dow 1 September 2011 ( 2011 - 09 - 01 ) N / A 3 mins A 30th anniversary short starring John Challis as Aubrey Boyce aka Boycie and Sue Holderness as Marlene Boyce , it also featured a dance routine with people dancing dressed as Del Boy , Rodney and Uncle Albert . TBA `` Sport Relief Special '' `` Beckham in Peckham '' Clyde Holcroft Tony Dow 21 March 2014 ( 2014 - 03 - 21 ) 9.53 million 10 mins David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst returned for a 2014 Sport Relief special after 11 years . The sketch saw David Beckham head to Peckham to join Del Boy and Rodney in a greasy spoon café . They attempted to sell Beckham 's underpants . Dedicated to John Sullivan and Roger Lloyd - Pack TBA `` Yesterday at Boycie and Marlene 's '' Clyde Holcroft Tony Dow 3 December 2015 ( 2015 - 12 - 03 ) N / A 3 mins Released on YouTube and Facebook , this short webcast shows John Challis in character as Boycie , with his wife , reading Del 's new autobiography . Related broadcasts ( edit ) `` The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' ( 2002 ) ( edit ) Original title Original airdate Synopsis Running time `` The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' 2002 Behind - the - scenes documentary featuring cast and crew interviews . 76 minutes `` Britain 's best sitcom : Only Fools and Horses '' ( 2004 ) ( edit ) Original title Original airdate Synopsis Running time `` Britain 's Best Sitcom : Only Fools and Horses '' Behind - the - scenes documentary finding Britain 's most loved comedy , the winner was Only Fools and Horses . 60 minutes `` Only Fools and Horses : the favourites '' ( 2015 ) ( edit ) Original title Original airdate Synopsis Running time `` Only Fools and Horses : The Favourites '' 2015 David Jason presents a countdown of the top 20 Only Fools and Horses episodes as voted for by the viewers to celebrate the nation 's favourite comedy . `` The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' ( 2017 ) ( edit ) Original title Original airdate Synopsis Running time `` The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' 29 August 2017 The new documentary series features rare and unseen footage from the Trotter archives and specially re-created moments from Del Boy 's family and friends . Gold explores every aspect of Britain 's most loved sitcom , with exclusive access to the key cast members , including David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst , the series gives rare insights into the show and what went on both on and off camera . The Story Of Only Fools And Horses reunites cast members , rebuilds some of the sets and features rare and previously unseen material . 60 minute six - part series See also ( edit ) Only Fools and Horses DVDs References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Comedy - Only Fools and Horses - Big Brother ( 1981 ) '' . Bbc.co.uk. 1981 - 09 - 15 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Clark , Steve ( 1998 ) . The Only Fools and Horses Story . London : BBC . pp. 146 -- 158 . ISBN 0 - 563 - 38445 - X . Jump up ^ Webber , Richard ; Sullivan , John ( 2003 ) . The Complete A-Z of Only Fools and Horses . London : Orion Media . p. 5 . ISBN 0 - 7528 - 6025 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` Only Fools and Horses - Sleepless in Peckham ( 2003 ) '' . BBC . 2003 - 12 - 25 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : Perry ( 2009 - 12 - 23 ) . `` Licensed to Drill '' . Ofah.net . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . ^ Jump up to : Perry ( 2009 - 12 - 23 ) . `` Robin Flies a Dawn '' . Ofah.net . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ Perry ( 2009 - 12 - 23 ) . `` White Mice '' . Ofah.net . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Trigger 's Dodgy Briefcases - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2010 - 07 - 07 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Only one previous owner : auto - trading the Only Fools and Horses way - BBC '' . YouTube . 2009 - 06 - 26 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Del Boy 's Poker face - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2012 - 05 - 30 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Glow - in - the - Dark Grave - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2012 - 01 - 27 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Del Boy the French fella - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2010 - 03 - 12 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Del and Rodney Smash the Chandelier - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2010 - 07 - 21 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` My Name is Rodney ! - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2009 - 10 - 29 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Three Grand Butterfly - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2010 - 06 - 29 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Trotters Taken Hostage Part 1 - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2011 - 08 - 05 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Del Goes Hang Gliding Part 1 - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2010 - 11 - 08 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Mafia Don Trotter ? - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2013 - 12 - 11 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Boycie to the rescue - Only Fools and Horses - BBC '' . YouTube . 2009 - 11 - 27 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` Del 's finally a millionaire ! - Only Fools and Horses : Christmas Special 1996 - BBC '' . YouTube . 2013 - 10 - 10 . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` iNTERACTIVE ( Beta5 - U312010 ) '' . TV ARK . Retrieved 2016 - 09 - 19 . Jump up ^ `` BBC News - David Beckham to appear in Only Fools and Horses '' . bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 2014 - 02 - 28 . Jump up ^ `` Gold commissions two Sir David Jason Specials '' . UKTV . Retrieved 19 January 2017 . Jump up ^ `` About The Story of Only Fools and Horses '' . GOLD . Retrieved 27 July 2017 . Further reading ( edit ) Clark , Steve ( 1998 ) . The Only Fools and Horses Story . BBC Books . ISBN 0 - 563 - 38445 - X . Webber , Richard ( 2003 ) . The Complete A-Z of Only Fools and Horses . Orion . ISBN 0 - 7528 - 6025 - 9 . Full Scripts of all Episodes ( Archived ) Only Fools and Horses List of episodes Characters Derek Trotter Rodney Trotter Grandad Uncle Albert Trigger Boycie Marlene Mike Raquel Cassandra Damien Denzil Mickey Pearce Roy Slater Merchandise Home video DVD Collection See also Awards The Green Green Grass Rock & Chips Only Fools and Horses episodes Series 1 `` Big Brother '' `` Go West Young Man '' `` Cash and Curry '' `` The Second Time Around '' `` A Slow Bus to Chingford '' `` The Russians Are Coming '' Series 2 `` The Long Legs of the Law '' `` Ashes to Ashes '' `` A Losing Streak '' `` No Greater Love '' `` The Yellow Peril '' `` It Never Rains ... '' `` A Touch of Glass '' Series 3 `` Homesick '' `` Healthy Competition '' `` Friday the 14th '' `` Yesterday Never Comes '' `` May the Force Be with You '' `` Wanted '' `` Who 's a Pretty Boy ? '' Series 4 `` Happy Returns '' `` Strained Relations '' `` Hole in One '' `` It 's Only Rock and Roll '' `` Sleeping Dogs Lie '' `` Watching the Girls Go By '' `` As One Door Closes '' Series 5 `` From Prussia with Love '' `` The Miracle of Peckham '' `` The Longest Night '' `` Tea for Three '' `` Video Nasty '' `` Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? '' Series 6 `` Yuppy Love '' `` Danger UXD '' `` Chain Gang '' `` The Unlucky Winner Is ... '' `` Sickness and Wealth '' `` Little Problems '' Series 7 `` The Sky 's the Limit '' `` The Chance of a Lunchtime '' `` Stage Fright '' `` The Class of ' 62 '' `` He Ai n't Heavy , He 's My Uncle '' `` Three Men , a Woman and a Baby '' Specials 1980s `` Christmas Crackers '' `` Diamonds Are for Heather '' `` Thicker than Water '' `` To Hull and Back '' `` A Royal Flush '' `` The Frog 's Legacy '' `` Dates '' `` The Jolly Boys ' Outing '' 1990s `` Rodney Come Home '' `` Miami Twice '' `` Mother Nature 's Son '' `` Fatal Extraction '' `` Heroes and Villains '' `` Modern Men '' `` Time on Our Hands '' 2000s `` If They Could See Us Now '' `` Strangers on the Shore '' `` Sleepless in Peckham '' Miscellaneous `` Christmas Trees '' `` Licensed to Drill '' `` White Mice '' `` Royal Variety Show '' `` The Robin Flies at Dawn '' `` Comic Relief Special '' `` Beckham in Peckham '' Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Only_Fools_and_Horses_episodes&oldid=817817950 '' Categories : BBC - related lists Lists of British sitcom television series episodes Only Fools and Horses episodes Hidden categories : Use dmy dates from November 2012 Wikipedia articles needing style editing from August 2013 All articles needing style editing Articles needing additional references from September 2016 All articles needing additional references Articles with multiple maintenance issues Episode list using the default LineColor Talk Contents About Wikipedia Hrvatski Edit links This page was last edited on 30 December 2017 , at 19 : 44 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | season 9 episode 2 only fools and horses | [] | [] |
761478660924055953 | Anterior pituitary | Anterior pituitary - wikipedia Anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary gland Median sagittal through the hypophysis of an adult monkey . Semidiagrammatic . Details Precursor oral mucosa ( Rathke 's pouch ) Artery superior hypophyseal Vein hypophyseal Identifiers Latin lobus anterior hypophysis MeSH D010903 NeuroNames 407 NeuroLex ID birnlex_1581 TA A11. 1.00. 002 FMA 74627 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata ) A major organ of the endocrine system , the anterior pituitary ( also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior ) , is the glandular , anterior lobe that together with the posterior lobe ( posterior pituitary , or the neurohypophysis ) makes up the pituitary gland ( hypophysis ) . The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes including stress , growth , reproduction and lactation . Proper functioning of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via blood tests that measure hormone levels . Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Development 2 Function 2.1 Role in the endocrine system 2.2 Effects of the anterior pituitary 2.3 Behavioral effects 3 Clinical significance 3.1 Increased activity 3.2 Decreased activity 4 History 4.1 Etymology 5 Additional images 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links Structure ( edit ) The anterior pituitary complex The pituitary gland is a pea - sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica ( Turkish chair / saddle ) . It is composed of three lobes : the anterior , intermediate , and posterior lobes . In many animals , these lobes are distinct . However , in humans , the intermediate lobe is but a few cell layers thick and indistinct ; as a result , it is often considered as part of the anterior pituitary . In all animals , the fleshy , glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary . The anterior pituitary is composed of three regions : Pars distalis Microanatomy of the pars distalis showing chromophobes , basophils and acidophils The pars distalis , ( distal part ) , comprises the majority of the anterior pituitary and is where the bulk of pituitary hormone production occurs . The pars distalis contains two types of cells including chromophobe cells and chromophil cells . The chromophils can be further divided into acidophils ( alpha cells ) and basophils ( beta cells ) . These cells all together produce hormones of the anterior pituitary , and release them into the blood stream . Nota bene : The term `` Basophil '' and `` Acidophil '' is used by some books , whereas others prefer to not use these terms . This is due to the possible confusion with white blood cells , where one may also find Basophils and Acidophils . Pars tuberalis The pars tuberalis , ( tubular part ) , forms a part of the sheath extending up from the pars distalis which joins with the pituitary stalk ( also known as the infundibular stalk or infundibulum ) , arising from the posterior lobe . ( The pituitary stalk connects the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary ) . The function of the pars tuberalis is poorly understood . However it has been seen to be important in receiving the endocrine signal in the form of TSHB ( a β subunit of TSH ) informing the pars tuberalis of the photoperiod ( length of day ) . The expression of this subunit is regulated by the secretion of melatonin in response to light information transmitted to the pineal gland . Earlier studies have shown a localisation of melatonin receptors in this region . Pars intermedia The pars intermedia , ( intermediate part ) , sits between the pars distalis and the posterior pituitary , forming the boundary between the anterior and posterior pituitaries . It is very small and indistinct in humans . Development ( edit ) The anterior pituitary is derived from the ectoderm , more specifically from that of Rathke 's pouch , part of the developing hard palate in the embryo . The pouch eventually loses its connection with the pharynx , giving rise to the anterior pituitary . The anterior wall of Rathke 's pouch proliferates , filling most of the pouch to form the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis . The posterior wall of the anterior pituitary forms the pars intermedia . Its formation from the soft tissues of the upper palate contrasts with the posterior pituitary , which originates from neuroectoderm . Function ( edit ) The anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell , and they are defined by the hormones they secrete : somatotropes ( GH ) ; Lactotropes ( PRL ) ; gonadotropes ( LH and FSH ) ; corticotropes ( ACTH ) and thyrotropes ( TSH ) . It also contains non-endocrine folliculostellate cells which are thought to stimulate and support the endocrine cell populations . Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones ( Greek : trophe , `` nourishment '' ) and tropic hormones . Trophic hormones directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating . Tropic hormones are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones , causing numerous cascading physiological responses . Hormone Other names Symbol ( s ) Structure Secretory cells Staining Target Effect Adrenocorticotropic hormone Corticotropin ACTH Polypeptide Corticotrophs Basophil Adrenal gland Secretion of glucocorticoid , mineralocorticoid and androgens Thyroid - stimulating hormone Thyrotropin TSH Glycoprotein Thyrotrophs Basophil Thyroid gland Secretion of thyroid hormones Follicle - stimulating hormone - FSH Glycoprotein Gonadotrophs Basophil Gonads Growth of reproductive system Luteinizing hormone Lutropin LH , ICSH Glycoprotein Gonadotrophs Basophil Gonads Sex hormone production Growth hormone Somatotropin GH , STH Polypeptide Somatotrophs Acidophil Liver , adipose tissue Promotes growth ; lipid and carbohydrate metabolism Prolactin Lactotropin PRL Polypeptide Lactotrophs Acidophil Ovaries , mammary glands , testes , prostate Secretion of estrogens / progesterone ; milk production ; spermatogenesis ; prostate hyperplasia TSH and ACTH secretion Role in the endocrine system ( edit ) Main article : Hypothalamus Hypothalamic control Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland is regulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus . Neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus project axons to the median eminence , at the base of the brain . At this site , these cells can release substances into small blood vessels that travel directly to the anterior pituitary gland ( the hypothalamo - hypophyseal portal vessels ) . Other Control Mechanisms Aside from hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary , other systems in the body have been shown to regulate the anterior pituitary 's function . GABA can either stimulate or inhibit the secretion of luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and growth hormone ( GH ) and can stimulate the secretion of thyroid - stimulating hormone ( TSH ) . Prostaglandins are now known to inhibit adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) and also to stimulate TSH , GH and LH release . GABA , through action with the hypothalamus , has been shown experimentally to influence the level of GH secretion . Clinical evidence supports the experimental findings of the excitatory and inhibitory effects GABA has on GH secretion , dependent on GABA 's site of action within the hypothalamic - pituitary unit . Effects of the anterior pituitary ( edit ) Thermal homeostasis The homeostatic maintenance of the anterior pituitary is crucial to our physiological well being . Increased plasma levels of TSH induce hyperthermia through a mechanism involving increased metabolism and cutaneous vasodilation . Increased levels of LH also result in hypothermia but through a decreased metabolism action . ACTH increase metabolism and induce cutaneous vasoconstriction , increased plasma levels also result in hyperthermia and prolactin decreases with decreasing temperature values . follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) also may cause hypothermia if increased beyond homeostatic levels through an increased metabolic mechanism only . Gonadal function Gonadotropes , primarily luteinising hormone ( LH ) secreted from the anterior pituitary stimulates the ovulation cycle in female mammals , whilst in the males , LH stimulates the synthesis of androgen which drives the ongoing will to mate together with a constant production of sperm . HPA axis Main article Hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis The anterior pituitary plays a role in stress response . Corticotropin releasing hormone ( CRH ) from the hypothalamus stimulates ACTH release in a cascading effect that ends with the production of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex . Behavioral effects ( edit ) Development The release of GH , LH , and FSH are required for correct human development , including gonadal development . Breast - feeding Release of the hormone prolactin is essential for lactation . Stress Operating through the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis ( HPA ) , the anterior pituitary gland has a large role in the neuroendocrine system 's stress response . Stress induces a release of corticotropin - releasing hormone ( CRH ) and vasopressin from the hypothalamus , which activates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) from the anterior pituitary gland . Then , this acts on the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol . These glucocorticoids act back on the anterior pituitary gland and the hypothalamus with negative feedback to slow the production of CRH and ACTH . Increased cortisol under stress conditions can cause the following : metabolic effects ( mobilization of glucose , fatty acids , and amino acids ) , bone re-absorption ( calcium mobilization ) , activation of the sympathetic nervous system response ( fight or flight ) , anti-inflammatory effects , and inhibition of reproduction / growth . When the anterior pituitary gland is removed ( hypophysectomy ) in rats , their avoidance learning mechanisms were slowed down , but injections of ACTH restored their performance . In addition , stress may delay the release of reproductive hormones such as luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) . This shows that the anterior pituitary gland is involved in behavioral functions as well as being part of a larger pathway for stress responses . It is also known that ( HPA ) hormones are related to certain skin diseases and skin homeostasis . There is evidence linking hyperactivity of HPA hormones to stress - related skin diseases and skin tumors . Aging Operating through the hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis , the anterior pituitary gland also affects the reproductive system . The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin - releasing hormone ( GnRH ) , which stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and follicle - stimulating hormone . Then the gonads produce estrogen and testosterone . The decrease in release of gonadotropins ( LH and FSH ) caused by normal aging may be responsible for impotence and frailty in elderly men because of the eventual decrease in production of testosterone . This lower level of testosterone can have other effects , such as reduced libido , well - being and mood , muscle and bone strength , and metabolism . Tactile responding It has been shown that infant mice who were stroked with a paintbrush ( simulating motherly care ) had more release and binding of growth hormone ( GH ) from the anterior pituitary gland . Circadian rhythms Light information received by the eyes is transmitted to the pineal gland via the circadian pacemaker ( the suprachiasmatic nucleus ) . Diminishing light stimulates the release of melatonin from the pineal gland which can also affect the secretion levels in the hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis . Melatonin can lower levels of LH and FSH , which will decrease levels of estrogen and testosterone . In addition , melatonin may affect production of prolactin . Clinical significance ( edit ) Increased Activity ( edit ) Main article : Hyperpituitarism Hyperpituitarism is the condition where the pituitary secretes excessive amounts of hormones . This hypersecretion often results in the formation of a pituitary adenoma ( tumour ) , which are benign apart from a tiny fraction . There are mainly three types of anterior pituitary tumors and their associated disorders . For example , acromegaly results from excessive secretion of growth hormone ( GH ) often being released by a pituitary adenoma . This disorder can cause disfigurement and possibly death and can lead to gigantism , a hormone disorder shown in `` giants '' such as André the Giant , where it occurs before the epiphyseal plates in bones close in puberty . The most common type of pituitary tumour is a prolactinoma which hypersecretes prolactin . A third type of pituitary adenoma secretes excess ACTH , which in turn , causes an excess of cortisol to be secreted and is the cause of Cushing 's disease . Decreased Activity ( edit ) Main article : Hypopituitarism Hypopituitarism is characterized by a decreased secretion of hormones released by the anterior pituitary . For example , hypo - secretion of GH prior to puberty can be a cause of dwarfism . In addition , secondary adrenal insufficiency can be caused by hypo - secretion of ACTH which , in turn , does not signal the adrenal cortex to produce a sufficient amount of cortisol . This is a life - threatening condition . Hypopituitarism could be caused by the destruction or removal of the anterior pituitary tissue through traumatic brain injury , tumor , tuberculosis , or syphilis , among other causes . This disorder used to be referred to as Simmonds ' disease but now according to the Diseases Database it is called Sheehan syndrome . If the hypopituitarism is caused by the blood loss associated with childbirth , the disorder is referred to as Sheehan syndrome . History ( edit ) Etymology ( edit ) The anterior pituitary is also known as the adenohypophysis , meaning `` glandular undergrowth '' , from the Greek adeno - ( `` gland '' ) , hypo ( `` under '' ) , and physis ( `` growth '' ) . Additional images ( edit ) The anterior pituitary is the anterior , glandular lobe of the pituitary gland . See also ( edit ) This article uses anatomical terminology ; for an overview , see Anatomical terminology . Tropic hormones Pituitary adenoma Triple bolus test Posterior pituitary Hypopituitarism Hypothalamic -- pituitary -- somatic axis References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Eroschenko , Victor P. ; Fiore , Mariano S.H. di ( 2013 - 01 - 01 ) . DiFiore 's Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlations . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . ISBN 9781451113419 . Jump up ^ Ikegami K , Iigo M and Yoshimura T. Circadian clock gene Per2 is not necessary for the photoperiodic response in mice . PLoS One 2013 ; 8 ( 3 ). PMID 23505514 Jump up ^ Dardente H. Melatonin - dependent timing of seasonal reproduction by the pars tuberalis : pivotal roles for long daylengths and thyroid hormones. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2012. Feb ; 24 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Morgan PJ and Williams LM. The pars tuberalis of the pituitary : a gateway for neuroendocrine output . RevReprod 1996 Sep ; 1 ( 3 ) PMID 9414453 ^ Jump up to : Nelson , R.J. ( 2011 ) An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology , 4th Edition . Sunderland , MA : Sinauer Associates , Inc. ISBN 978 - 0878936205 Jump up ^ Le Tissier , P.R ; Hodson , D.J ; Lafont C ; Fontanaud P ; Schaeffer , M ; Mollard , P. ( 2012 ) Anterior pituitary cell networks . Front Neuroendocrinol . Aug ; 33 ( 3 ) : 252 - 66 Jump up ^ Malendowicz , L.K ; Rucinski , M ; Belloni , A.S ; Ziolkowska , A ; and Nussdorfer , G.C. ( 2007 ) Leptin and the regulation of the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis . Int Rev Cytol. 263 : 63 - 102 . Jump up ^ Sone , M. and Osamura , R.Y. ( 2001 ) Leptin and the pituitary . Pituitary . Jan - Apr ; 4 ( 1 - 2 ) : 15 - 23 . Jump up ^ Hedge , G.A. ( 1977 ) Roles for the prostaglandins in the regulation of anterior pituitary secretion . Life Sci. Jan 1 ; 20 ( 1 ) : 17 - 33 . Jump up ^ Racagni , G ; Apud , J.A ; Cocchi , D ; Locatelli , V ; Muller , E.E. ( 1982 ) GABAergic control of anterior pituitary hormone secretion . Life Sci. Aug 30 ; 31 ( 9 ) : 823 - 38 . Jump up ^ Lin , M.T ; Ho , L.T ; and Uang , W.N. ( 1983 ) Effects of anterior pituitary hormones and their releasing hormones physiological and behavioral functions in rats . J. steroid Biochem. Vol. 19 ( 1 ) 433 - 38 . ^ Jump up to : Nelson , Randy J. ( 2011 ) . An introduction to behavioral endocrinology ( 4th ed . ) . Sunderland , Massachusetts : Sinauer Associates . ISBN 978 - 0878936205 . Jump up ^ Aguilera , Greti ( 1998 - 10 - 01 ) . `` Corticotropin Releasing Hormone , Receptor Regulation and the Stress Response '' . Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism. 9 ( 8 ) : 329 -- 336 . doi : 10.1016 / S1043 - 2760 ( 98 ) 00079 - 4 . ISSN 1043 - 2760 . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 27 . Jump up ^ Aguilera , Greti ( December 1994 ) . `` Regulation of Pituitary ACTH Secretion during Chronic Stress '' . Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 15 ( 4 ) : 321 -- 350 . doi : 10.1006 / frne. 1994.1013 . ISSN 0091 - 3022 . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 27 . ^ Jump up to : Dobson , H ; RF Smith ( 2000 - 07 - 02 ) . `` What is stress , and how does it affect reproduction ? '' . Animal Reproduction Science . 60 - 61 : 743 -- 752 . doi : 10.1016 / s0378 - 4320 ( 00 ) 00080 - 4 . ISSN 0378 - 4320 . Jump up ^ Jung Eun Kim ; Baik Kee Cho ; Dae Ho Cho ; Hyun Jeong Park ( 2013 ) . `` Expression of Hypothalamic - Pituitary - Adrenal Axis in Common Skin Diseases : Evidence of its Association with Stress - related Disease Activity '' . National Research Foundation of Korea . Retrieved 4 March 2014 . Jump up ^ Tajar , Abdelouahid ; O'Connell , Matthew DL ; Mitnitski , Arnold B ; O'Neill , Terence W ; Searle , Samuel D ; Huhtaniemi , Ilpo T ; Finn , Joseph D ; Bartfai , György ; Boonen , Steven ; Casanueva , Felipe F ; Forti , Gianni ; Giwercman , Aleksander ; Han , Thang S ; Kula , Krzysztof ; Labrie , Fernand ; Lean , Michael EJ ; Pendleton , Neil ; Punab , Margus ; Silman , Alan J ; Vanderschueren , Dirk ; Rockwood , Kenneth ; Wu , Frederick CW ; European Male Aging Study Group ( May 2011 ) . `` Frailty in relation to variations in hormone levels of the hypothalamic - pituitary - testicular axis in older men : results from the European male aging study '' . Journal of the American Geriatrics Society . 59 ( 5 ) : 814 -- 821 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1532 - 5415.2011. 03398. x . ISSN 1532 - 5415 . Jump up ^ Juszczak , Marlena ; Monika Michalska ( 2006 ) . `` ( The effect of melatonin on prolactin , luteinizing hormone ( LH ) , and follicle - stimulating hormone ( FSH ) synthesis and secretion ) '' . Postępy higieny i medycyny doświadczalnej. 60 : 431 -- 438 . ISSN 1732 - 2693 . Jump up ^ Scacchi , Massimo ; Francesco Cavagnini ( 2006 ) . `` Acromegaly '' . Pituitary. 9 ( 4 ) : 297 -- 303 . doi : 10.1007 / s11102 - 006 - 0409 - 4 . ISSN 1573 - 7403 . Jump up ^ Ciccarelli , E ; F Camanni ( June 1996 ) . `` Diagnosis and drug therapy of prolactinoma '' . Drugs . 51 ( 6 ) : 954 -- 965 . doi : 10.2165 / 00003495 - 199651060 - 00004 . ISSN 0012 - 6667 . Jump up ^ Summers , V.K. ( September 1947 ) . `` Diagnosis and Treatment of Simmonds ' Disease '' . Postgraduate Medical Journal . 23 ( 263 ) : 441 -- 443 . doi : 10.1136 / pgmj. 23.263. 441 . ISSN 0032 - 5473 . PMC 2529616 . PMID 20258051 . Further reading ( edit ) Marieb , E. 2004 . Human Anatomy and Physiology . Benjamin Cummings : New York . Wheater , P. , Burkitt , H. , Daniels , V. 1987 . Functional Histology . Churchill Livingstone : New York . External links ( edit ) Histology image : 14002loa -- Histology Learning System at Boston University Embryology at unc.edu The Pituitary Network Association -- www.pituitary.org Secretion of hormones from the Anterior Pituitary Gland Anatomy of the endocrine system Pituitary gland Anterior Pars intermedia Pars tuberalis Pars distalis Acidophil cell Somatotropic cell Prolactin cell Somatomammotrophic cell Basophil cell Corticotropic cell Gonadotropic cell Thyrotropic cell Chromophobe cell Posterior Pars nervosa Median eminence Stalk Pituicyte Herring bodies Thyroid Follicular cell Parafollicular cell Parathyroid gland Chief cell Oxyphil cell Adrenal gland Cortex Zona glomerulosa Zona fasciculata Zona reticularis Medulla Chromaffin cell Gonads Testicle Leydig cell Sertoli cell Ovary Theca interna Granulosa cell Corpus luteum Islets of pancreas Alpha cell Beta cell PP cell Delta cell Epsilon cell Pineal gland Pinealocyte Corpora arenacea Other Enteroendocrine cell Paraganglia Organ of Zuckerkandl Placenta Development List of human endocrine organs and actions Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anterior_pituitary&oldid=850079981 '' Categories : Endocrine system Human head and neck Hidden categories : Pages with unresolved properties Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Български Bosanski Català Deutsch Eesti Español Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Nederlands 日本 語 Português Shqip Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe 14 more Edit links This page was last edited on 13 July 2018 , at 13 : 18 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | anterior pituitary cell that produces lh and fsh | [
"The anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell, and they are defined by the hormones they secrete: somatotropes (GH); Lactotropes (PRL); gonadotropes (LH and FSH); corticotropes (ACTH) and thyrotropes (TSH).[6] It also contains non-endocrine folliculostellate cells which are thought to stimulate and support the endocrine cell populations.\n"
] | [
"gonadotropes"
] |
7801943778480437129 | Mount Augustus, Western Australia | Mount Augustus , Western Australia - Wikipedia Mount Augustus , Western Australia Jump to : navigation , search Mount Augustus Mount Augustus ( Burringurrah ) is located in the Mount Augustus National Park in Western Australia . The name is also given to the neighbouring pastoral lease , Mount Augustus Station . The local Wadjari people call it Burringurrah , after a Dreamtime figure , a young boy , who was speared and turned into a rock . It is a prominent inselberg that stands 1,106 metres ( 3,629 ft ) above sea level , or approximately 860 metres ( 2,820 ft ) above the surrounding plain , and covers an area of 4,795 hectares ( 18.51 sq mi ) . It has a central ridge which is almost 8 kilometres ( 5.0 mi ) long . Contents ( hide ) 1 Monolith - monocline distinction 2 1894 gold rush 3 Flora and fauna 4 Walking tracks 5 See also 6 Notes Monolith - monocline distinction ( edit ) Mount Augustus is widely claimed in tourist promotional and information literature as the `` world 's largest monolith '' , but the claim does not originate from the geological literature , nor is substantiated by any other scholarly research . Mt . Augustus is more than twice the size of Uluru . Unlike Uluru , which is a monolith and , in general , devoid of plant growth , Mt . Augustus is a monocline ( an asymmetrical anticline ) . According to the Geological Survey of Western Australia , Mount Augustus is an asymmetrical anticline ( rock layers that have been folded into an arch - like structure ) which is steeper on its north - eastern side than the south - west . The rocks consist of sand and gravel that were deposited by an ancient , south - easterly flowing river system that drained the region about 1,600 million years ago . This river system flowed over a faulted and eroded surface of 1,800 -- 1,620 million - - year - old granitic and metamorphic rocks . The river deposits consolidated to form sandstone and conglomerate , and were then buried beneath younger marine sediments , which were laid down when shallow seas covered the region between 1,600 -- 1,070 million years ago . The rocks were buckled into their present - day structure about 900 million years ago when movement along faults in the underlying granitic and metamorphic rocks caused localised , strong , north - east directed compression . The marine sedimentary rocks that overlay the sandstone and conglomerate have since been eroded from Mount Augustus , but now form the hills around Cobra and Mount Augustus homesteads . Erosion has also removed sandstone and conglomerate from the north - western end of Mount Augustus to expose the underlying granitic rocks at The Pound . 1894 gold rush ( edit ) There was a gold rush in the 1890s due to local geology . Flora and fauna ( edit ) Wattles , cassias and eremophilas dominate the plant life and the animal life include emus , red kangaroos , goannas , euros and birds of prey . There is over 100 species of birds on and around Mount Augustus . Walking tracks ( edit ) The climb to the summit can take up to 5 hours ( return ) and there are two trails ( one class 4 and the other a class 5 ) to get there . There are a number of walking tracks to explore . See also ( edit ) Gill Pinnacle Notes ( edit ) Jump up ^ https://parks.dpaw.wa.gov.au/park/mount-augustus Jump up ^ Bourman , Robert P. ; Ollier , Cliff D. ; Buckman , Solomon ( 2010 ) . `` Mount Augustus Geology and Geomorphology '' . Geographical Research . 48 : 111 -- 122 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1745 - 5871.2009. 00608. x . Jump up ^ http://www.mtaugustustouristpark.com/general-information.html Jump up ^ Tassell , Dave ( 1978 ) , `` Augustus : ancient giant of the west '' , Australian Outdoors . Yearbook ( 1978 ) : 114 -- 117 , retrieved 11 January 2014 Jump up ^ Bourman , Robert P ; Ollier , Cliff ; Buckman , Solomon , Dr ( 2010 - 01 - 01 ) , Mount Augustus geology and geomorphology , Research Online , retrieved 11 January 2014 CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) - notably in the abstract : Mount Augustus has often been compared with Ayers Rock , and unwarranted claims have been made that it is the biggest rock in the world and the world 's biggest monolith. and Other rock types present on Mount Augustus include metamorphic and igneous rocks , which preclude it from being termed a monolith . see abstract - ( 1 ) Jump up ^ http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-rocks-and-mountains Jump up ^ http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/publications/2/doc_download/5346-mt-augustus-np-brochure.html Jump up ^ `` THE DISCOVERY AT MOUNT AUGUSTUS '' . Western Mail ( Perth , WA : 1885 - 1954 ) . Perth , WA : National Library of Australia . 3 February 1894 . p. 20 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` WEST AUSTRALIAN GOLDFIELDS '' . Newcastle Morning Herald & Miners ' Advocate ( NSW : 1876 - 1954 ) . NSW : National Library of Australia . 18 May 1894 . p. 5 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . Jump up ^ `` THE WEST AUSTRALIAN FIELDS '' . Freeman 's Journal ( Sydney , NSW : 1850 - 1932 ) . Sydney , NSW : National Library of Australia . 6 January 1894 . p. 20 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . Jump up ^ https://parks.dpaw.wa.gov.au/park/mount-augustus Jump up ^ http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/austn-rocks-and-mountains Jump up ^ Western Australia . Dept. of Environment and Conservation ( 2009 ) , Mount Augustus National Park ( Burringurrah ) : information and walk trail guide , Dept. of Environment & Conservation , retrieved 11 January 2014 Coordinates : 24 ° 19 ′ 30 '' S 116 ° 50 ′ 30 '' E / 24.3250 ° S 116.8417 ° E / - 24.3250 ; 116.8417 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_Augustus,_Western_Australia&oldid=770117654 '' Categories : Gascoyne Inselbergs of Western Australia Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Use Australian English from January 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in Australian English Use dmy dates from January 2014 Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Čeština Dansk Deutsch Français Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Русский Slovenčina தமிழ் Türkçe 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 13 March 2017 , at 14 : 48 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . 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1421960992763149910 | Takeshi's Castle | Takeshi 's Castle - wikipedia Takeshi 's Castle Takeshi 's Castle Presented by Takeshi Kitano Hayato Tani Narrated by Shizuo Miyauchi Runpei Masui Composer ( s ) Tadakazu Onodera Noriaki Sato Country of origin Japan Original language ( s ) Japanese No. of episodes 133 Production Producer ( s ) Kunihiko Katsura Eiichi Misumi Running time 54 minutes Release Original network Tokyo Broadcasting System Picture format 4 : 3 Original release May 2 , 1986 ( 1986 - 05 - 02 ) -- October 19 , 1990 ( 1990 - 10 - 19 ) Takeshi 's Castle ( 風雲 ! たけし 城 , Fūun ! Takeshi - jō , literally Showdown ! Takeshi Castle ) is a Japanese game show that aired between 1986 and 1990 , on the Tokyo Broadcasting System . It featured the Japanese actor Takeshi Kitano ( also known as Beat Takeshi ) as a count who owns a castle and sets up difficult challenges for players ( or a volunteer army ) to get to him . The show has become a cult television hit around the world . A special live `` revival '' was broadcast on April 2 , 2005 , for TBS 's 50th anniversary celebrations . Contents 1 Original Takeshi 's Castle 1.1 Challenges 1.2 Music 1.3 Characters 1.4 Character counterparts 2 International versions 2.1 Arab countries 2.2 Australia 2.3 Brazil 2.4 Czech Republic 2.5 Denmark 2.6 Finland 2.7 France 2.8 Germany 2.9 Greece 2.10 India 2.11 Indonesia 2.12 Iran 2.13 Italy 2.14 Lithuania 2.15 Malaysia 2.16 Mexico 2.17 Netherlands 2.18 Philippines 2.19 Portugal 2.20 Russia 2.21 Serbia 2.22 Singapore 2.23 Slovakia 2.24 South Africa 2.25 Spain 2.26 Taiwan 2.27 Thailand 2.28 Ukraine 2.29 United Kingdom 2.30 United States 2.31 Vietnam 3 In other media 4 References 5 External links Original Takeshi 's Castle ( edit ) The original show involved between 100 and 142 contestants whom General Tani ( Hayato Tani ) `` forced '' into a series of physical challenges , in some ways similar to those in It 's a Knockout , eliminating many of the contestants . Each show finished with a `` Final Showdown '' in which Count Takeshi ( Kitano ) was faced by the remaining contestants . In early episodes they would storm the castle set itself in a short - range water gun assault . Later episodes introduced carts with paper rings , and eventually lasers and light - sensitive targets . If the contestant 's gun penetrated the paper ring or hit the sensor on Takeshi 's cart , against such weapons as a large water gun and a laser - armed plane , Takeshi 's cart was deactivated , the castle was `` taken '' and the game `` won '' . The player who stopped Takeshi won 1 Million yen ( which , at the time , was roughly equivalent to $ 8,000 US or £ 5,000 sterling ) . However , there were only nine winners during the show 's run . The series featured extensive landscaping of a fixed campus at TBS - owned Midoriyama ( Green Mountain ) Studios that included large man - made lakes and extensive permanent obstacles in Yokohama , Japan . The final regular episode aired on April 14 , 1989 followed by 4 one - off specials up until October 19 , 1990 . A special revival took place just outside the TBS Building for the network 's Spring All - Star Thanksgiving Festival on April 2 , 2005 and featured Skipping Stones and Bridge Ball . Challenges ( edit ) Further information : List of challenges in Takeshi 's Castle A wide range of challenges were used throughout the history of Takeshi 's Castle , some occurring only once or twice , or others in virtually every show , depending upon their popularity and ease of preparation . Many challenges involve falling into water or mud on failure . Music ( edit ) Takeshi 's Castle challenges used a wide variety of well - known songs from movies , television shows , video games , anime , and other sources . Characters ( edit ) Count `` Beat '' Takeshi ( ビートたけし ; Kitano , born 18 January 1947 ) -- The lord of his castle and eventual target of the competition . He also made commentary on the contestants . Takeshi Doll -- During a prolonged period when Takeshi was forbidden to appear on television ( his `` punishment '' for an act of violence against reporters and photos from a scandal magazine ) , one of the Emerald Guards filled in by wearing his robe and a giant papier - mâché Takeshi head similar to the ones sports team mascots use over their heads . Saburo Ishikura ( 石倉 三郎 , born 16 December 1946 ) -- First advisor of the Takeshi 's castle . Discussed the competition with Takeshi and provided comedy skits as well . Sonomanma Higashi ( real name Hideo Higashikokubaru , born 16 September 1957 ) -- Originally leader of the Emerald Guards . He replaced Ishikura as the advisor of the Takeshi 's castle in the middle of the series run . Takeshi 's Gundan ( Defense Troops ) ( たけし 軍団 ) -- The Count 's guards who wore white or emerald green , seen in `` Final Showdown '' and other challenges , and are more popularly known as `` The Emerald Guards '' . When Higashi became Takeshi 's new advisor , Omori Utaemon took over as the leader . Other members included Matsuo Bannai , Tsumami Edamame , Yurei Yanagi , Rakkyo Ide , Great Gidayu , Dankan , Third Nagasima , `` Rusher '' Itamae , Taka Gadarukanaru , Hakase Suidobashi , Sintaru Mizushima and `` Loyal '' Tadajij Kikuchi . Rakkyo Ide was the bald guy in the `` Monsters Special '' who wore a shark outfit and suffered some serious bleeding when he fell in during Skipping Stones . These troops were also usually seen in the background behind Takeshi and his advisor during the show . General Tani ( Hayato Tani ) ( 谷 隼人 , born 9 September 1946 ) -- Known in the UK and Indian version as General Lee . Led the contestants through the challenges set by Count Takeshi . His real - life wife , Kikko Matsuoka ( born 11 February 1947 ) , appeared in an episode resulting in a comedic conflict between the couple . Tani 's Assistant - On international specials ( involving non-Japanese players ) , General Tani was assisted by a lady who served as his translator whose name is unknown , Chuck Wilson also acted as his assistant in two international specials . Junji Inagawa ( also known as Jyunji Inagawa ) ( 稲川 淳二 , born 9 September 1946 ) , Akira Sakamoto ( born 31 July 1949 ) and Shingo Yanagisawa ( 柳沢 慎吾 , born 6 March 1962 ) -- Three of the Battlefield Reporters , however there were many more . They usually wore safari outfits . Kibaji Tankobo ( 丹 古 母 鬼 馬 二 , born 4 January 1950 ) and Shozo `` Strong '' Kobayashi ( ストロング 金剛 , born 25 December 1940 ) -- Two physically - imposing guards most famous for featuring in the Honeycomb Maze challenge . Kibaji usually wore a long red wig , while Strong was bald , and they painted their faces to further intimidate contestants . In addition to frightening and chasing the contestants in the Honeycomb Maze , Tankobo and Kobayashi also smeared black , sticky paint all over the contestants that they caught in the maze . Tankobo and Kobayashi were considered to be two of the finest henchmen Takeshi had . Brad Lesley , aka `` Animal '' ( 亜 仁 丸 レスリー , 11 September 1958 -- 27 April 2013 ) -- American baseball player . His main job was to humiliate and frighten the contestants in any possible way , usually dressed as a samurai complete with a sword . Animal has also been seen in a green sumo suit , spider costume , Fred Flintstone -- style outfit , a baseball uniform and a Las Vegas -- era Elvis Presley jumpsuit costume . Michiru Jo ( 城 みちる , born 18 November 1957 ) -- One of the few guards to have been involved from the very first episode and be involved until the show finished , he normally wore a distinctive pink outfit . Jo was a Japanese pop singer in the 1970s . Yoroi / Ritter Chuu -- He stood almost sixteen feet tall and tried to keep players from reaching the goals in several games . Known in the UK as the Boxing Monster because of the size of his hands . Makoto Dainenji ( 大 念 寺 誠 ) and Katsuo Tokashiki ( 渡嘉敷 勝男 , born 27 July 1960 ) -- Makoto , a karate master , and Katsuo , a boxing champion in Japan , were the Final Fall guards , usually wearing outrageous costumes . Katsuo also served as the referee in the Sumo Rings game . Masanori Okada ( 岡田 正典 , born 19 October 1953 ) -- Usually seen in the game `` Slip Way '' , he would jump out of the water to push the contestants into the drink if they failed to reach the target . Okada has also played in the Honey Comb Maze and other games as well . Also known as the `` Sea Goblin '' in Japan and was a boxer in the 1970s . Umanosuke Ueda , ( 上田 馬 之 助 , 20 June 1940 -- 21 December 2011 ) -- This aggressive guard , a former wrestler in real life , has been seen in Honey Comb Maze , Square Maze , Sumo Rings , Grid Iron and Bridge Ball . Youshichi Shimada ( 島田 洋 七 , born 10 February 1950 ) -- A guard that was usually seen in the games Blueberry Hill in overalls akin to those worn by Dennis the Menace , and in Wipe Out dressed up as a female Native American nicknamed `` Pocahontas '' who would push people into the water if they missed the surfboard . Shoji Kinoshita and Shoichi Kinoshita -- Better known as `` Popcorn '' ( ポップコーン , born 1 January 1959 ) , these well - known identical twin actors in Japan were commonly seen wearing rainbow ponchos and bowler hats . They have also worn baseball uniforms and other humorous costumes , appearing in the game Rice Bowl Down Hill where they would try and put the contestants off by singing a very annoying chant , ' unda unda unda ' as well as Bridge Ball and other games . Due to their attire , they were also known as the Rainbow Warriors . `` Ordinary '' Oki Bondo ( 大木 凡人 , born 1 July 1949 ) , Takayuki Yokomizo , Nobuo Yana and Koji Sekiyama -- They participated in the Karaoke game . Oki acted as the emcee , Takayuki was the bouncer who ejected contestants who did not sing well , and Koji was the owner of the karaoke bar , later replaced by Nobuo who appeared in the later episodes of the show . Shinoburyo ( 忍 竜 ) -- Sumo wrestler in Japan who appeared in the game Sumo Rings during the series . Large Fuji ( born 26 August 1958 -- 14 October 2012 ) -- Replaced Shinoburyo in the later episodes as the purple sumo fighter in Sumo Rings . Konishiki Doll -- Only seen in Sumo Rings and on an odd occasion of Tug of War . The Konishiki Doll was one of the Defence Troops dressed in a large costume which is meant to resemble Konishiki Yasokichi , one of the largest sumo wrestlers to ever live . Known as `` Spud '' in the British version . Noboru `` Shin '' Suganuma ( す が ぬ ま 伸 , born 5 July 1952 ) -- Loyal member of Takeshi 's Gundan , who wore red and who was a pathetic sumo wrestler in Sumo Rings . Ritsuko Nakayama ( 中山 律子 , born 12 October 1942 ) -- Also known as Refreshing Ritsuko - Ritsuko , she is a professional bowler in Japan who has appeared in the Star Bowling game . Yutaka Enatsu -- This Japanese baseball player who was the pie thrower in Die or Pie in a single episode . Koji Sekiyama ( 関山 耕司 born 22 May 1929 ) -- Karaoke bar owner who decided whether contestants singing was good enough to progress through to the next round . Later replaced by Nobuo Yana . Nobuo Yana ( born 13 August 1935 ) -- Replaced Koji Sekiyama as the karaoke bar owner later in the series and decided whether a contestant had sung well enough to progress through to the next round . Yakayuki Yokomizo ( born 2 August 1963 ) -- Bouncer in the karaoke bar who violently withdrew contestants from the building if Sekiyama ( later Yana ) decided that their singing was n't good enough . Geisha Girls or Bunny Girls -- Led by Miyuki Ono , they helped contestants in several games and also helped Takeshi and his advisor in comedy skits . The others were Harumi Tomikawa , Mika , Mina Morishima , Sawada , and Mitsumi Yokota . Sometimes , when Junji and Shingo were off the show for other commitments , one of them served in the Battlefield Reporter 's role . Shizuo Miyauchi ( 宮内 鎮雄 , born 24 January 1945 ) -- Commentator for the original series in Japan . Retired from TBS in 2005 after working as a commentator for several decades . Ultraman - Has appeared in the show on many occasions , among other occasions the first was to help the kids through a number of the challenges in the `` Kids Only '' special , the second was as a replacement for General Tani ( For Unknown Reasons ) . The third occasion was in the monster 's special , along with other members of the `` Ultra Brothers '' . ( Due to an ongoing licensing dispute , `` The Monster Special '' episode of MXC was heavily edited upon its release on DVD , with all Ultraman characters removed . ) Character counterparts ( edit ) Japanese Version ( Takeshi 's Castle ) American Version ( MXC ) Philippine Version ( Takeshi 's Castle ) UK version ( Takeshi 's Castle ) Spanish version ( Humor Amarillo ) Indian version ( Takeshi 's Castle ) Vietnamese version ( Đại náo thành Takeshi ) Count ' Beat ' Takeshi \ Takeshi Doll Vic Romano / Uncool Not - so - Hip Vic Romano / Zeppo the Waterhead Master Takeshi Count Takeshi / Yellow Baron / Red Baron Takeshi \ Mini Takeshi Count Takeshi Lãnh chúa Takeshi Sonomanma Higashi Kenny Blankenship Bisita I Junior Chotu General Tani Captain Tenneal Master Kapitan General Lee ( original / revival ( Sometimes ) ) / General Tani ( revival ) Napoleon ( 1990 -- 95 ) / General Tani ( 2006 - 07 ) General Lee Tướng quân Shakrito Junji Inagawa Guy LeDouche The Man with the Toffee Apple Pepe Livingstone Shikari Shambhu Michiro Jo Danny Glans / Jimmy Junk / Sugar Ramos Phiss / Golden Shower Boy / Barry Sosa / Spin Captain Japan \ Cowardly Custard Pinky Winky Choos Lee Popcorn Em on Em / Babe and Ruth / Bud and Pud / Green Gobblers ( Hedda and Choda ) / Jesse and Jackson / Huff and Huff The Rainbow Warriors / Japanese Thompson Twins Duo Pirata Changu Mangu Tani 's Assistant / Chuck Wilson Pey'once / Howie Dean Bisita II Corporal Kirsty General Tano Chotu Yoroi Chuu / Jumbo Max Skanky / Fisty Boy Kamao Boxing Monster / Honey Monster Pequeño Samurai Ravan Youshi Shimada Chief Otto Parts / Professor G Spot / Professor N. Marian / Marty Boy Tulak Dennis The Menace / Pocahontas Chuky / Muchahontas Pocahontas Oki Bondo Ryan Seachest Craig Charles Juan Herrera & Miguel Ángel Coll ( 1990 -- 95 ) / Fernando Costilla & Paco Bravo ( 2006 -- 07 ) Javed Jaffrey '' International versions ( edit ) Arab countries ( edit ) Arab League -- In Arab countries the show was called The Fort or Al Hisn ( Arabic : الحصن ) . It aired in the mid to late 1980s where it became a cult hit . Commentary was provided by Lebanese television personality Riad Sharara ( رياض شرارة ) , then later by Jamal Rayyan ( جمال ريان ) , who is currently a well known news broadcaster in Al Jazeera 's Arabic TV news channel . Australia ( edit ) Australia -- A version of the show was produced by The Comedy Channel , it had hosts in The Comedy Channel studio , it was redubbed , but unlike the American version it still kept to the real plot of the episode and showed the final challenge , rather than taking random footage and making up `` teams '' . This has since been cancelled and / or finished . The show was hosted by two housemates from series two of Australian Big Brother Shannon Cleary and Nathan Morris . It also featured a crossdressing Geisha girl named Beryl . Some episodes featured a special guest third host , including Greg Fleet . Highlights appeared in Australia on the television program World 's Weirdest TV . The American version MXC currently airs on Fox8 ( an Australian cable network ) . The Australian writer and critic Clive James was once a celebrity contestant on the original show . Brazil ( edit ) Brazil -- During the 1990s , a version was aired by Rede Globo , called Olimpíadas do Faustão ( Portuguese for `` Faustão 's Olympics '' ) , as an insert in Fausto Silva 's Sunday - afternoon variety show Domingão do Faustão . In 1994 , rival SBT copied that version , and a legal action by Globo and SBT stopped the broadcasting . On June 1 , 2008 , SBT Keshi remake reappeared on TV , now licensed , remaking Faustão 's known games ( as Bridge Ball and The Run Way ) , not - seen in Globo games ( as Skittles and Ride the Wave ) , and original games ( cross a balance beam after spin , or cross a small bridge using a crank - kart ) . The games are a segment named `` Playtime '' in the `` Programa Silvio Santos '' . Further information : List of original challenges in Brazilian Takeshi 's Castle Czech Republic ( edit ) Czech Republic -- It was shown by the name Takešiho hrad ( Czech ) , with comedic voice - over by two Czech comedians . The commentary was mostly fictional . The show was popular among young viewers . The Czech TV channel also broadcast the show to Slovak Republic where it gained some popularity as well . In 2011 was Takešiho hrad broadcast on channel Prima Cool with a new single - voice comment . Denmark ( edit ) Denmark -- The Danish TV station TV 2 Zulu bought the rights to air the Challenge version in Denmark , thus making the Danish broadcast identical to that in Britain . Finland ( edit ) Finland -- On January 7 , 2008 , the television channel Jim started airing the UK version of the program . The comments are subtitled in Finnish . The show is titled Hullut japanilaiset . France ( edit ) France -- A shortened version given a comedic voiceover by comedians Vincent Desagnat and Benjamin Morgaine has been shown on the W9 TV channel since October 2006 , in a program called `` Menu W9 '' ( which also presented a shortened version of Sushi TV on its first season , now replaced by Sasuke ) . It has been also broadcast on the channel M6 which shown 2 episodes per day at 6.50 p.m from Tuesday to Friday . The voices were those of the late sport presenter Thierry Roland and Moon Dailly . Germany ( edit ) Germany -- A dubbed version of the show aired on DSF in 1999 . This version was released on a DVD box set with 12 selected episodes . Two more volumes were planned but were presumably canceled . A German dubbed version of the 2002 UK edit airs from July 3 , 2007 on RTL II . There also exists an adaptation called Entern oder Kentern ( engl. : Board or Capsize ) with almost the same games but pirates as antagonists and celebrities as Team Captains . This version was aired on RTL in summer 2007 . Shorter versions of episodes with comical commentary air on Comedy Central . Greece ( edit ) Greece -- A version airs on Skai TV by the name `` Το κάστρο του Τακέσι '' ( = Takeshi 's Castle ) . It has been dubbed by Kostas Papageorgiou and Akindynos Gkikas . India ( edit ) India -- A shortened version of the show is aired on the Pogo TV channel from 1 March 2005 with Hindi dubbing by Javed Jaffrey . The show was also voiced by Indian comedians Raju Srivastav , Sunil Pal , Navin Prabhakar and Ahsaan Qureshi . Indonesia ( edit ) Indonesia -- The original Japanese show was re-run , dubbed in Indonesian , on the TPI TV channel ( now MNCTV ) . Later , this show was rebroadcast as Takeshi 's Castle Indonesia ( a.k.a. Benteng Takeshi Indonesia ) which aired on MNCTV Iran ( edit ) Iran -- It was aired by the name Masir - e Talaa'ee ( Persian : مسیر طلایی ) ( when translated it means `` Golden Path '' ) , on Iran 's Channel 3 on years 2009 and 2010 . It was hosted by Morteza and Mostafa Hosseini , the brothers of the refugee host Mohammad Hosseini . Italy ( edit ) Italy -- Renamed Mai dire Banzai ( Never Say : Banzai ! ) it first aired in 1989 on Italia 1 . A reedited version interspersed with clips of another Japanese gameshow called Za Gaman , it was given a comedic voiceover by Gialappa 's Band , who changed Kitano 's and Saburo Ishikura 's names to Gennaro Olivieri and Guido Pancaldi , historically Swiss Italian judges in Games Without Frontiers . They also renamed in absurdist comical ways the other figures of the show like calling the in - game reporter ' Pokoto Pokoto ' , the martially - attire 'd host ' General Putzersthoefen ' and so on . Gialappa 's Band making fun of the duty - bound , stoic stereotype of Japan , described the games and tasks as traditional Japanese past - times and thus rather mundane and humdrum by Japanese standards , introducing a veil of non sequitur to the show which is lacking in English language versions . The show gained new popularity in the 2000s , when it started being broadcast on various satellite and terrestrial channels with the original title and using the half - hour episodes of the UK shortened version , with independent voiceover ( superimposed to the still audible Japanese tack ) done by various Italian comedians . As of 2008 , this version is broadcast on GXT with the voiceover done by Trio Medusa ( previously the show was commentated on by Marco Marzocca with Stefano Sarcinelli and still before by duo Lillo & Greg ) ; shortly after it was re-aired by local broadcasters and by K2 . From 10 January 2011 , the series is re-transmitted in Italy on Cartoon Network and the voiceover is done by Roberto Stocchi e Francesca Draghetti . Lithuania ( edit ) Lithuania -- The show was aired by the name `` Takeši pilis '' , featuring Fumito Tomoi ( a Japanese person living in Lithuania at the time ) , who dubbed the show in a comic way with his broken Lithuanian . The show was very popular . Malaysia ( edit ) Malaysia -- The Japanese version was aired over NTV7 in early 2000s , although edited to be shortened to half an hour . The broadcast was added with Malay overdub commentary ( the original Japanese audio track is still audible in background ) . Sometimes in earlier versions , the unoverdubbed parts will be subtitled in Malay . The show was known as Istana Takeshi in Malaysia . As of June 2010 , the show is airing again using the American version with Malay subtitles on TV9 but still called Istana Takeshi instead of MXC . Mexico ( edit ) Mexico -- The Japanese version on Azteca 13 of TV Azteca in 1993 and Azteca 7 of TV Azteca was aired in Mexico , which , like the Spanish , has its own stories and invented by giving voices teams . Due to the success of the American edits of Banzuke and Ninja Warrior / Sasuke on Azteca 7 , on May 4 , 2015 , the program was broadcast by Canal 5 of Televisa , under the name `` Castillo Takeshi '' and narrated by two presenters from Televisa using the British edit as basis for their own edit . Possibly due to the upscaling from PAL to HD , it had a poor quality image , making it look even older than it was . It took the time slot where ABC 's Wipeout had been broadcast since 2014 . After just three weeks , the show was replaced by ABC 's Wipeout , which has had a longer more successful run on Mexican TV . Netherlands ( edit ) Netherlands -- The British cut of the show aired on August 15 , 2009 on Comedy Central , with Dutch voice - over provided by sports commentator Ronald van Dam and actor / comedian Ruben van der Meer . Takeshi 's Castle Thailand in its UK format commenced airing on March 22 , 2018 with commentary by actress / singer Katja Schuurman and vocalist Pepijn Lanen . Philippines ( edit ) Takeshi 's Castle Genre Game show Created by Tokyo Broadcasting System Presented by Joey de Leon Ryan Yllana Country of origin Philippines Original language ( s ) Tagalog Production Executive producer ( s ) Wilma Galvante Production location ( s ) Philippines Camera setup Multiple - camera setup Running time 30 minutes ( 60 minutes in IBC and SBN broadcasts ) Production company ( s ) GMA Entertainment TV Release Original network IBC Q GMA Network Picture format 480i ( SDTV ) Original release October 1990 ( IBC ) - October 2007 -- April 2008 Philippines - It was first shown on the Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation TV network in October 1990 as a Filipino - dubbed show . Later episodes contained interludes shot on a studio with actors Anjo Yllana as Takeshi and Smokey Manoloto as `` Iwakura '' providing the commentary with a gravelly Japanese accent , which was later dropped in favor of their natural voices . The Filipino production crew also developed on their relationship , with Iwakura often trying to trick Takeshi on several occasions . One episode which resulted in the contestants ' victory was even written as Takeshi 's worst nightmare ; when Iwakura finally wakes him up , Takeshi is so traumatized that he asks to call off a scheduled taping . Makers of the malt drink brand Ovaltine created an in - show mini contest as part of a product endorsement deal in 1991 . In this version , the names given to most of the challenges are translated from their original Japanese such as `` Devil 's Maze '' for the Honeycomb and Square Mazes , `` Flying Mushroom '' for Mushroom Trip , and `` Sumo Wrestling '' for Sumo Rings . The IBC episodes of Takeshi 's Castle were later rerun on SBN during 1993 and 1994 . The show was not edited as before at IBC . Takeshi 's Castle enjoyed a revival in the Philippines in 2006 . This time around , comedians Joey de Leon and Ryan Yllana ( Anjo 's younger brother ) provide the commentary as fictional characters shogun Shintaro `` Taru '' Gokoyami who is Takeshi 's right - hand man and sumo wrestler Kakawate Takehome , the leader of the Takeshi Gundan , fictional in the sense that there are no such characters in the original cast . Initially , the two provide play - by - play commentary , but they as well as some added characters reduced themselves to skits and commentary in between clips of the show . Later , as part of Q 's first anniversary , Anjo finally appeared alongside the new cast , reprising his role as `` prince '' Takeshi . Due to Takeshi 's Castle 's competitive ratings , the management of GMA Network ( which produces shows for its sister network Q ) decided to move the show from its original station in an evening slot , now to the early afternoon weekend slot of GMA . Takeshi 's Castle is aired on a weekly basis as opposed to the weekdays airing on Q , and is aired before Eat Bulaga on Saturdays and before SOP on Sundays . This is done to increase and improve the ratings of the succeeding shows . Takeshi 's Castle started to air on GMA on December 23 , 2006 with same hosts . The show aired on its last episode on May 9 , 2007 , and after a long break of TV experience , Joey and Ryan assumed new personalities as Master GT ( later Tirso Potter ) and Captain B respectively . It was temporarily replaced by `` Just Joking '' which starred also Joey De Leon and Ryan Yllana and other casts . On August 15 , 2007 , `` Takeshi 's Castle '' returned on air once again with all new episodes and Mike `` Pekto '' Nacua ( Cookie ) , John Feir ( Belli ) and Love Añover ( replacement when either Cookie or Belli was not in ) become commentators . The show aired at Saturdays 11 : 30 a.m. before `` Eat Bulaga ! '' , and Sundays 11 : 15 a.m. before SOP Rules . On GMA 's regional networks , a Cebuano - dubbed show now on GMA Cebu & Davao from Saturdays and Sundays in the Morning by Cebuano version from title called Takeshi 's Castle Wala Gyud sa Isaysay Banzai ! ( Never Say Banzai ! ) . Portugal ( edit ) Portugal -- A version called Nunca Digas Banzai ( Portuguese for `` Never Say Banzai '' , based on the Italian name for it , Mai Dire Banzai ) aired on SIC starting in 1994 , where it reached some popularity . Voiceovers were provided by two hosts , José Carlos Malato and João Carlos Vaz . Takeshi and Ishikura were renamed `` Fujimoto '' and `` Fujicarro '' ( a play on the Portuguese words for `` ( motor ) bike '' and `` car '' using the Japanese word Fuji ) , and the Portuguese hosts made no attempt to interpret the reality of the show , instead using the contestants as surrogates for the satirical comments about Portuguese public figures , in a similar style to MXC . Russia ( edit ) Russia - The series were featured in Ren TV project show `` The Best Shows of the World '' ( Лучшие шоу мира ) in the early 2000s and due to positive public reaction were aired on the regular basis on its own , named `` Takeshi Kitano 's Castle '' ( Замок Такеши Китано ) . Show was translated and aired on 2x2 channel as `` Japanese amusements '' ( Японские забавы ) during 2011 - 2012 and in 2013 - 2014 . The format of the show is the translated commentary version of UK adaptation . Serbia ( edit ) Serbia - Show started with showing on FOX TV in January 2010 named Takeši . Singapore ( edit ) Singapore - The show first debut in the early - 1990s on Singapore 's free - to - air channel , Channel 8 , as `` 100 Wars '' ( Chinese : 百 戰 百勝 ) , as the program was acquired from Taiwan . In the mid 90 's till early 2000 's , re-runs of the show aired on Saturdays at 1.30 pm in the afternoon , following the News on Channel 8 . Slovakia ( edit ) Slovakia -- During the 2011 - 2012 was Takešiho hrad ( Slovak ) broadcast on channel Joj Plus with a single - voice Slovak comment . South Africa ( edit ) South Africa The show was broadcast daily on the Sony MAX channel , Channel 128 on DStv . It was the condensed version of the original series with commentary provided by Craig Charles . It began broadcasting in 2009 and was a huge hit with viewers . Due to its popularity the show has been aired to a broader audience on SABC 2 . Spain ( edit ) Spain -- The program aired in the 1990s as Humor Amarillo ( when translated it means `` Yellow Humour '' or `` Yellow Comedy '' ) on TV channel Telecinco . Comedians Juan Herrera and Miguel Ángel Coll ( son of José Luis Coll ) commented on the images ; this version of the show has achieved cult status and there are some fansites and web petitions for returns . In fact , the Spanish version created some terms now familiar to either Takeshi 's Castle or Humor Amarillo , like `` El Laberinto del Chinotauro '' ( literally The Chinesetaur Labyrinth , name for any of the maze challenges ) , `` Los cañones de Nakasone '' ( parody of `` Guns of Navarone '' Spanish title ) , `` Las Zamburguesas '' ( for Skipping Stones ) , `` Gacela Thompson '' ( `` Thompson Gazelle '' ) , a pathetic businessman character , and `` Chino Cudeiro '' ( The Chinese Cudeiro , as the name started to be assigned when appeared a player with a red T - shirt with the inscription `` Cudeiro , Galicia , España '' ) , the name assigned to a random player that always `` dies '' , one of the most popular characters in Spain . On January 28 , 2006 , a second version dubbed by Fernando Costilla and Paco Bravo premiered on Spanish TV channel Cuatro . They have shown every one of the original Japanese episodes , with the last one being shown on June 9 , 2007 , ending with a special message by the Spanish commentators . The 2006 version is currently being rebroadcast on the Telecinco - owned channel Energy . These two versions had in common that it was naturally assumed that the dubbing was completely unrelated to the original dialogues , to the point that sometimes the references to the actual contest were really few . The commentators could turn the contestants into mushroom seekers , or people looking for a new apartment . Alongside the spectacular hits suffered by the contestants and the show 's peculiar aesthetic , this helped boost its popularity . Taiwan ( edit ) Taiwan -- A gameshow called 100 Wars , 100 Victories ( Chinese : 百 戰 百勝 ) on CTS was formed from the original show , similar to how MXC Almost Live was formed . Thailand ( edit ) Thailand -- Takeshi 's Castle was dubbed and shown on Channel 5 in 1988 - 1995 . The title was changed to `` Hod , Mun , Ha '' ( โหด มัน ฮา ) , or `` Cruel , Thrilling , Fun '' . In 2007 , the unedited original series with bilingual soundtrack ( Thai & Japanese ) was aired on X-ZYTE channel on TrueVisions cable TV every Sunday and rerun several times throughout a week . In 2014 , Channel 7 ( Thailand ) bought the rights to remake the show . `` โหด มัน ฮา Takeshi 's Castle Thailand '' first aired on 20 July , with a new episode airing most Sundays . The show 's format is identical to the one used in the original show , but with a few minor changes . Shogun Takeshi ( Note Chernyim ) has kept Princess Woosenko ( Woonsen Virithipa Pakdeeprasong ) as a prisoner in his castle . General Shahkrit ( Shahkrit Yamnarm ) attempts to rescue the princess from the castle by sending his army of contestants through Shogun 's challenges ( remade challenges include Slippery Wall , Avalanche , Honeycomb Maze , Skipping Stones , Slip Way , Sumo Rings , Wet Paint , and Tug Of War ) , and the last remaining contestants battle against Shogun 's guards in the Showdown . Any winners receive the 1,000,000 Thai - baht cash prize , the cash prize is rolled over to the next episode if there are no winners Later on , the show reduced the number of competitors to 20 , and then 12 in current shows . With the rules format changing , the competitors do n't get eliminated throughout the show , but instead work as a team . The competitors are given , by Shogun Takeshi , 10 carts and the Shogun has no guard carts at the beginning of the episode . The competitors then play 5 challenges before the Showdown . In the first challenge , usually involved all the competitors playing at the same time , every single competitors must pass the challenge , while the subsequent challenges needs at most 5 passes in order to be credited as a win . Winning a challenge will cause the situation remaining unchanged , while losing the first challenge takes one cart away from the competitors team and one cart added to Shogun 's team in Showdown . In subsequent challenges , one car is taken away and added to Shogun 's team if less than 5 competitors passed , two cars are taken if less than 3 competitors passed . In current shows , with 12 competitors , two cars are taken away if less than 3 competitors passed , while 3 passes are credit with a win , and no cars are taken away . Losing a challenge also results in a punishment for the competitors in various ways , usually messy and painful . In Showdown , the team sends out two competitors per one cart they have to battle with Shogun 's guards . Succeeding in Battle awards all competitors a share of 5,000,000 baht cash prize , but the prize is remain the same in all episodes . Ukraine ( edit ) Ukraine -- Show was translated and aired on QTV channel as `` Laughter with Takeshi Kitano '' ( Реготня з Такеші Кітано ) during 2008 - 2010 . United Kingdom ( edit ) Takeshi 's Castle Created by Tokyo Broadcasting System Written by Ben Mole Craig Charles Alex Mole Frederick Hutton Mills Narrated by Craig Charles ( 2002 -- 2004 ) Dick & Dom ( 2013 ) Jonathan Ross ( 2017 -- 2018 ) Theme music composer Jonathan Czerwik Opening theme `` Takeshi 's Castle '' by Jonathan Czerwik Ending theme `` Takeshi 's Castle '' Shortened Instrumental Country of origin United Kingdom Original language ( s ) English No. of episodes Original series 145 ( inc. 10 Specials and 13 Best Ofs ) First revived series 6 Production Executive producer ( s ) Ben Mole ( 2002 -- 2004 ) Sophie Hodgkins ( 2013 ) Editor ( s ) Anna Skidmore Eion Martin Duncan Armstrong Colm O'Rourke Andrew Trussler Running time 30 minutes 60 minutes ( specials ) Production company ( s ) Flextech / Black Mole Films ( 2002 -- 2004 ) Sky / TBS ( 2013 ) Release Original network Challenge ( 2002 -- 2004 , 2013 ) Comedy Central ( 2017 -- ) Picture format 576i ( 4 : 3 SDTV ) Original release Original series 9 November 2002 -- 1 January 2004 First revived series 8 -- 29 March 2013 Second revived series 26 October 2017 -- present External links Website United Kingdom -- The show was first introduced to British audiences in the late 1980s , when it was featured semi-regularly as part of LWT 's Tarrant on TV , in which broadcaster Chris Tarrant showcased a variety of unusual television programmes from around the world . One of the series ' previous hosts , Clive James , appeared in an original Japanese episode as an international contestant - with behind the scenes footage shown as part of his two - part ITV documentary ... in Japan in 1987 . Takeshi 's Castle would become more well - known later when a condensed version of the original series proved an unexpected hit when it premiered on Challenge on 9 November 2002 , regularly dominating the top ten programmes on the channel each week . The UK format did not follow the original Japanese format - instead presenting each sequence of games as comic martial challenges leading to the final game wherein contestants not so far eliminated try to storm Takeshi 's Castle . Each episode in the original run was narrated by Craig Charles , who also coined the term `` Keshi Heads '' to describe avid fans of the show . A typical episode of the UK format of Takeshi 's Castle has about eight games , followed by the final Showdown . After each event , a ' Ridiculous Replay ' is shown , highlighting the most entertaining attempt . Challenge decided to edit out the comedy sketches between Takeshi and Higashi to allow more ( or fewer ) games to be shown during the half - hour block . More series were commissioned and shown over the next few months , culminating in a series of hour - long specials in the Autumn of 2003 , and a special highlights show , The A-Z of Takeshi 's Castle , broadcast on January 1 , 2004 which showed some of the best clips of the best games as the last original series finale . Repeats still air regularly to this day on Challenge , with an average of 130,000 viewers an episode . On 3 September 2005 , MXC aired for the first time in the UK on Challenge . On 9 May 2007 , The Paul O'Grady Show had their own mini Takeshi 's Castle challenge , including ' Knock Knock ' , ' Bite the Bun ' , a `` Bridge Ball '' adaptation called ' Balancing Act ' and the ' Slippery Wall ' . The UK TV series returned to Challenge after a hiatus on 7 September 2009 with a modified opening sequence ( to fit with Flextech rebranding to Virgin Media Television ) . In February 2010 , a campaign was launched by fansite Keshi Heads in an attempt to bring a brand new series of Takeshi 's Castle to Challenge within its 10th anniversary year on the channel ( November 2012 - 13 ) . It was suggested by campaigners that these new episodes would feature never - before - seen games ( previously completely cut from other episodes ) , and feature five Japanese episodes new to the UK , including the Pilot and an International Special which have never been seen on TV since their original airings in Japan . On 13 December 2012 , Challenge announced that they had signed a deal for `` unseen bits of Takeshi 's Castle '' . The new series , named Takeshi 's Castle Rebooted , which aired from 8 to 29 March 2013 , featured games and episodes suggested by the Keshi Heads website in their campaign . Despite Craig Charles agreeing to return for the new series , Challenge brought in Richard McCourt and Dominic Wood ( Dick and Dom ) as the new voiceovers . Hayato Tani also filmed presentation links for the new series . Rebooted disappointed fans , with many complaining about Charles ' replacement as voiceover . Challenge reportedly received more negative comments about Rebooted , on their social media accounts , than any other show in the channel 's history , with the series never once reaching its weekly top ten ratings . The original episodes returned to Challenge after Rebooted ended its run . In contrast to the newly produced series , these entered the weekly top ten rating shows almost instantly upon their return . Rebooted has since been repeated in off - peak timeslots . A new series of Takeshi 's Castle aired from 26 October to 28 December 2017 on Comedy Central , with Jonathan Ross as voiceover . This version is based on the Thailand series . Series 2 aired from 1 February to 29 March 2018 , series 3 aired from 6 June to 4 July 2018 , and series 4 aired from 11 July to 8 August 2018 . United States ( edit ) MXC Starring Victor Wilson Christopher Darga John Cervenka Mary Scheer Opening theme `` Firebrand '' by Bumblefoot Country of origin United States No. of episodes 81 ( list of episodes ) Production Running time ~ 25 minutes Release Original network TNN / Spike TV Picture format 480i Original release April 13 , 2003 -- February 9 , 2007 Main article : MXC In the United States , Takeshi 's Castle aired as MXC ( subtitled Most Extreme Elimination Challenge ) on Spike TV , providing both dubbing and commentary in English that effectively spoofs the original show . The show has been broadcast in Canada , Australia and New Zealand . Two attempts were made to Americanize the format : On July 28 , 1990 , FOX aired a special half - hour version of the original show premise entitled King of the Mountain which was packaged by Fox Square Productions and was hosted by John Mulrooney and Judy Cole . This version used the same games , but had only 10 competitors and no costumed characters to impede the players ' progress . This American attempt only taped two episodes on July 24 , 1988 , and only one aired . The set was also used for a qualifying round in episode 106 . On June 16 , 1993 , CBS aired the second attempt , entitled Storm the Castle . This hour - long version , which was packaged by Vin Di Bona Productions and hosted by Michael Burger and Nely Galán , pitted 30 families against each other and against well - known monsters ( such as Beetlejuice ) in a quest to win $15,000 . Unlike Mountain , Storm had a few exclusive games not seen anywhere else . Storm , like Mountain , only lasted a single episode . The show was notable as future NFL player Christian Fauria appeared with his family . Vietnam ( edit ) Vietnam - The Vietnamese show Đại Náo Thành Takeshi produced under license , with the first episode airing March 25 , 2017 in prime time on VTV3 . The program features famous Vietnamese artists , with warlords Takeshi played by Trấn Thành and Sharkito by Trương Thế Vinh , and Princess Woonsenko played by Diễm My 9X . Challenges in the first episode included Slippery Wall , Slip Way , Honeycomb Maze , and Final Fall . The Show Down in front of the castle takes place in boats equipped with water spray nozzle weapons and paper disc targets . In other media ( edit ) A Famicom game with the same name was released in 1987 by Bandai . It required the use of the Family Trainer ( Power Pad ) to play its eight challenges . It was played on the twelfth episode of GameCenter CX . A sequel called `` Fūun ! Takeshi Jō Two '' was released in 1988 with different challenges . A game based on it can be found on Habbo , however , it is different from the real - life Takeshi 's Castle . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Episode Guide at keshiheads.co.uk Jump up ^ `` Cool Japan : Why Japanese remakes are so popular on American TV , and where we 're getting it wrong '' . Archived from the original on 2008 - 09 - 15 . Jump up ^ ( 1 ) Jump up ^ `` Pogo premiers Japanese game show ' Takeshi 's Castle ' '' . 24 February 2005 . Retrieved 3 March 2018 . Jump up ^ `` Pogo lines up rib - tickling fare '' . March 27 , 2006 . Retrieved September 22 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Takeshi 's Castle terug op Comedy Central '' ( in Dutch ) . Comedy Central . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2014 - 01 - 07 . Retrieved 2014 - 01 - 07 . Jump up ^ Takeshi 's Castle CCUK at comedycentral.co.uk Jump up ^ `` Takeshi 's Castle is returning to UK television , but Craig Charles will be replaced as commentator '' , DigitalSpy Jump up ^ `` Gameshow Đại náo thành Takeshi chính thức ra mắt khán giả '' . Vietnam Television . Retrieved 25 March 2017 . Jump up ^ `` YouTube '' . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Takeshi 's Castle . Keshi Heads Takeshi 's Castle on IMDb GMA Network game shows 1990s debuts Digital LG Quiz GoBingo 2000s debuts All Star K ! BandaOke Da Big Show Family Feud Kakasa Ka Ba sa Grade 5 ? Takeshi 's Castle Tok ! Tok ! Tok ! Isang Milyon Pasok Whammy ! Push Your Luck 2010s debuts All Star Videoke Asar Talo Lahat Panalo ! Bossing & Ai Celebrity Bluff Do n't Lose the Money Laff , Camera , Action ! Manny Many Prizes People vs. the Stars Picture ! Picture ! Take Me Out Wachamakulit Coordinates : 35 ° 34 ′ 06 '' N 139 ° 29 ′ 02 '' E / 35.56833 ° N 139.48389 ° E / 35.56833 ; 139.48389 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Takeshi%27s_Castle&oldid=854242836 '' Categories : 1980s Japanese television series 1990s Japanese television series 1986 Japanese television series debuts 1990 Japanese television series endings Takeshi 's Castle Obstacle racing television game shows Tokyo Broadcasting System shows Hidden categories : All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March 2018 CS1 Dutch - language sources ( nl ) Articles containing Japanese - language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010 Articles containing Arabic - language text Articles with unsourced statements from June 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2010 Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 Articles containing Persian - language text Articles containing Chinese - language text Pages using deprecated image syntax Pages using infobox television with editor parameter Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017 Coordinates on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Tagalog ไทย 中文 12 more Edit links This page was last edited on 9 August 2018 , at 22 : 54 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | what does the winner of takeshi's castle get | [
"The original show involved between 100 and 142 contestants whom General Tani (Hayato Tani) \"forced\" into a series of physical challenges, in some ways similar to those in It's a Knockout, eliminating many of the contestants. Each show finished with a \"Final Showdown\" in which Count Takeshi (Kitano) was faced by the remaining contestants. In early episodes they would storm the castle set itself in a short-range water gun assault. Later episodes introduced carts with paper rings, and eventually lasers and light-sensitive targets. If the contestant's gun penetrated the paper ring or hit the sensor on Takeshi's cart, against such weapons as a large water gun and a laser-armed plane, Takeshi's cart was deactivated, the castle was \"taken\" and the game \"won\". The player who stopped Takeshi won 1 Million yen (which, at the time, was roughly equivalent to $8,000 US or £5,000 sterling). However, there were only nine winners during the show's run.[citation needed]\n"
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"1 Million yen (which, at the time, was roughly equivalent to $8,000 US or £5,000 sterling)"
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8975368485665831575 | Qualification types in the United Kingdom | Qualification types in the United Kingdom - wikipedia Qualification types in the United Kingdom In the UK education sector , there are a wide range of qualification types offered by the United Kingdom awarding bodies . Qualifications range in size and type , can be academic , vocational or skills - related , and are grouped together into different levels of difficulty . In England , Wales and Northern Ireland , qualifications are divided into Higher Education qualifications , which are on the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications ( FHEQ ) and are awarded by bodies with degree awarding powers , and Regulated qualifications , which are on the Regulated Qualifications Framework ( RQF ) and are accredited by Ofqual in England , the Council for the Curriculum , Examinations and Assessment in Northern Ireland and Qualifications Wales in Wales . In Scotland , qualifications are divided into Higher Education qualifications , Scottish Qualifications Authority qualifications and Scottish Vocational Qualifications / Modern Apprenticeships , all of which are on the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework ( SCQF ) . Scottish Higher Education Qualifications are on both the SCQF and the FHEQ . Contents 1 Qualification levels 2 The Business and Technology Education Council ( BTEC ) 3 A General National Vocational Qualification , or GNVQ 4 AS and A levels / Highers and Advanced Highers 5 Bachelor 's degrees 6 Diplomas ( for 14 - to 19 - year - olds ) 7 Entry level qualifications 8 Foundation Degrees 9 GCSEs / National 5s 10 HNCs and HNDs 11 International Baccalaureate 12 Key Skills qualifications 13 Postgraduate qualifications 14 Skills for Life qualifications 15 Vocational qualifications 16 See also 17 References 18 External links Qualification levels ( edit ) Qualifications are grouped together into different levels . Each level corresponds to a particular qualification 's degree of difficulty . However , qualifications within any one level can cover a huge range of subjects and take different amounts of time to complete , often expressed in terms of credits . In England , Northern Ireland and Wales , the levels are contained within the Regulated Qualifications Framework ( RQF ) , which superseded the Qualifications and Credit Framework from 1 October 2015 . There are nine levels of difficulty in the framework , from entry level ( which is sub-divided into 3 ) to level 8 . Higher education qualifications are contained in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications ( FHEQ ) . The FHEQ corresponds with levels 4 to 8 of the RQF . Scotland has its own education system and its own twelve level system , the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework . These can also be equated with the European Qualifications Framework . The business and technology education Council ( BTEC ) ( edit ) The Business and Technology Education Council ( BTEC ) is a provider ( existing as part of Pearson Education Ltd ) of secondary school leaving qualifications and Further education qualifications in England , Wales and Northern Ireland . Whilst the T in BTEC it has been mistakenly understood to stand for Technician , according to the DFE ( 2016 ) it actually stands for Technology . ( 1 ) BTEC qualifications , especially Level 3 , are accepted by many universities ( excluding Cambridge and Oxford unless combined with more qualifications ) when assessing the suitability of applicants for admission , and many such universities base their conditional admissions offers on a student 's predicted BTEC grades . A General National vocational qualification , or GNVQ ( edit ) A General National Vocational Qualification , or GNVQ , is a certificate of vocational education in the United Kingdom . The last GNVQs were awarded in 2007 . The qualifications relate to occupational areas in general , rather than any specific job . They could be taken in a wide range of subjects . There are different levels of GNVQ , namely the Intermediate level ( equivalent to four General Certificates of Secondary Education ) and Advanced level ( equivalent to two Advanced - level General Certificates of Education ) . GNVQs were available to people of all ages . Many schools and colleges offered these courses and they could be studied alongside GCSEs or A levels . The GNVQ generally involved a lot of coursework ( 6 - 8 large assignments ) , which allowed holders to show their skills when applying for jobs . RQF / CQFW level FHEQ level SCQF level EQF level Example qualification 8 8 12 8 Doctoral degree 7 7 11 7 Master 's degree 6 6 10 6 Bachelor 's degree with honours 9 Non-honours bachelor 's degree 5 5 8 5 Higher National Diploma 7 Higher National Certificate N / A 6 A-level N / A 5 GCSE ( grades A * -- C ) N / A GCSE ( grades D-G ) Entry E3 N / A Skills for Life E2 N / A N / A E1 N / A N / A As and a levels / Highers and Advanced Highers ( edit ) AS level and A ( Advanced ) level qualifications focus on traditional study skills . They normally take two years to complete full - time in school or college , and can be taken part - time . AS and A levels are available in a wide range of academic and applied ( work - related ) subjects , and are often used as entry into higher education . In Scotland , students usually take Highers and Advanced Highers . AS and A levels are at level 3 on the RQF . Bachelor 's degrees ( edit ) A bachelor 's degree is a course of higher education academic study leading to a qualification such as a bachelor of arts ( BA ) or bachelor of science ( BSc ) . They are sometimes known as ' undergraduate ' or ' first ' degrees . A bachelor 's degree is designed to give learners a thorough understanding of a subject , and usually takes three years to complete full - time in England , Wales and Northern Ireland ; in Scotland ' ordinary ' bachelor 's degrees normally take three years while bachelor 's degrees with honours take four years . Bachelor 's degrees are at level 6 on the FHEQ in England , Wales and Northern Ireland ; Scottish ordinary bachelor 's degrees are at level 9 of the SCQF and honours bachelor 's degrees at level 10 . All UK bachelor 's degrees are first cycle ( end of cycle ) qualifications in the Bologna Process . Some awards titled bachelor 's for historical reasons are actually master 's - level degrees , similarly the Scottish MA is actually a bachelor 's degree that has retained its historical title . Diplomas ( for 14 - to 19 - year - olds ) ( edit ) The 14 -- 19 Diploma was a qualification for 14 - to 19 - year - olds , offering a more practical , hands - on way of gaining the essential skills employers and universities look for . The 14 -- 19 Diplomas were at levels 1 to 3 on the NQF . From September 2008 , Diplomas in five subject areas were made available in selected schools and colleges around the country . Further subjects were added every year until 2011 when there were 17 subjects available . Diploma courses were cancelled from September 30 , 2013 onwards by the coalition government due to issues surrounding its popularity and how the qualifications were `` viewed by employers and universities '' . Entry level qualifications ( edit ) Entry level qualifications are known as ' certificates ' or ' awards ' , and are designed for learners who are not yet ready to take qualifications at level 1 on the RQF . They may be appropriate for learners who do not have traditional qualifications , or who have been away from learning for a long time . They are available in a wide variety of subjects , and at the three different sub-levels of the RQF 's entry level . Foundation degrees ( edit ) Foundation Degrees are higher education qualifications that combine academic study with workplace learning . They have been designed jointly by universities , colleges and employers , and are available in a range of work - related subjects . They are broadly equivalent to the first two years of a bachelor 's degree. or ordinary National Diploma / Certificate Foundation Degrees are at level 5 on the FHEQ ; they are not offered in Scotland . GCSEs / National 5s ( edit ) GCSEs ( General Certificate of Secondary Education ) are the main qualification taken by 14 - to 16 - year - olds ( adults can take them as well ) in England and Wales . They are available in a wide range of academic and applied ( work - related ) subjects , and also as a ' short - course ' option ( equivalent to half a full GCSE ) . GCSEs are at levels 1 and 2 on the RQF , depending on the grade achieved . The Scottish equivalent of GCSE is the National 5 qualification . Hncs and HNDs ( edit ) HNCs ( Higher National Certificates ) and HNDs ( Higher National Diplomas ) are work - related higher education qualifications . HNCs can take one year to complete full - time . HNDs take two years full - time ( both can also be studied part - time ) . They are highly valued by employers , and can also count towards membership of professional bodies and other employer organisations . HNCs and HNDs are at level 5 on the NQF . International Baccalaureate ( edit ) The International Baccalaureate ( IB ) Diploma Programme is an internationally recognised qualification for students aged 16 to 19 . It is based around detailed academic study of a wide range of subjects . The student is required to take at least one language , a science , maths , english , and a humanity . The sixth option can be used to pursue an arts subject ( drama , music , art , etc . ) or another language , or science , or humanity . The IB also encompasses a Core of Theory of Knowledge ( ToK ) , CAS ( Creativity , Action , Service ) , and the Extended Essay ( EE ) . This all leads to a single qualification . The IB Diploma Programme is at level 3 on the RQF . Key skills qualifications ( edit ) Key Skills qualifications were designed to develop the skills that are commonly needed in education and training , work and life in general . They have been replaced by `` Functional Skills '' in England , `` Essential Skills '' in Northern Ireland and `` Essential Skills Wales '' in Wales . Postgraduate qualifications ( edit ) See also : master 's degree and doctoral degree Postgraduate qualifications are higher education qualifications at levels 7 or 8 of the FHEQ / levels 11 or 12 of the SCQF which require that learners have already completed a bachelor 's degree . Most postgraduate qualifications will include taught and research elements , and are defined as either ' taught ' or ' research ' qualifications depending on which of these predominates . While all UK universities have taught degree awarding powers and can award taught postgraduate degrees , only bodies with research degree awarding powers may award research degrees . Generally , they fall into three categories : Short courses at FHEQ level 7 / SCQF level 11 ( master 's degree level ) leading to Postgraduate Certificates and Postgraduate Diplomas , which are taught qualifications ; Master 's degrees ( FHEQ level 7 / SCQF level 11 ) , which may be defined as either taught or research degrees ; Doctoral degrees ( FHEQ level 8 / SCQF level 12 ) , which are all research degrees . In addition to these , primary qualifications in medicine ( Bachelor of Medicine , Bachelor of Surgery ) , dentistry ( Bachelor of Dental Surgery ) and veterinary science ( Bachelor of Veterinary Science ) , and integrated master 's degrees ( e.g. Master of Engineering , Master of Physics , etc . ) are undergraduate - entry courses that lead to postgraduate - level degrees ( FHEQ level 7 / SCQF level 11 ) . The Scottish MA and the Oxbridge MA are not postgraduate qualifications . In addition to postgraduate qualifications , the UK has graduate qualifications . These are short courses . ( up to one year ) at FHEQ level 6 / SCQF level 10 or 11 ( bachelor 's degree level ) that require students to have already gained a first degree , leading to Graduate Certificates and Graduate Diplomas . Skills for Life qualifications ( edit ) Skills for Life ( sometimes referred to as Basic Skills qualifications ) are designed to help learners develop their reading , writing , maths and ICT skills . There is also a Skills for Life qualification in English for Speakers of Other Languages ( ESOL ) . They are available for those learners who are over 16 years of age , have left compulsory full - time education and do not have an up - to - date English or maths qualification at level 2 ( such as a GCSE ) on the NQF . In some cases , schools can also offer the qualifications for 14 - to 16 - year - olds . Skills for Life qualifications are available at entry level on the RQF . Vocational qualifications ( edit ) Vocational qualifications are designed to give learners the skills and knowledge to do a particular job , work in a particular industry , or acquire more general skills to do a variety of jobs . They are offered by a variety of awarding bodies such as City and Guilds , Edexcel , OCR , NCFE and ABC Awards . They are available at various levels on the RQF , and in a variety of different sizes . A range of vocational qualifications include the competence - based National Vocational Qualifications ( NVQs ) that can be taken at work , college , or as part of an Apprenticeship . They are based on national standards for various occupations , and cover the practical , work - related tasks designed to help learners do a job effectively . NVQs are at levels 1 to 7 on the RQF . See also ( edit ) Secondary education Further education Lifelong learning Recognising and Recording Progress and Achievement References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` What qualification levels mean '' . Gov.uk . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Credit and Qualifications Framework for Wales '' . Welsh Government . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework '' . Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` What qualification levels mean '' . Gov.uk . Retrieved 11 October 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Find and Compare Qualifications Frameworks '' . European Commission . Retrieved 13 October 2016 . Jump up ^ Diploma aggregation service ( DAS ) Closure Jump up ^ Anger grows as diploma support wanes BBC News Jump up ^ `` Key Skills '' . City & Guilds . Retrieved 11 October 2016 . External links ( edit ) ( https://web.archive.org/web/20080618111904/http://www.qca.org.uk/14-19/qualifications/index_main-qualifications-gp.hm Qualifications and Curriculum Authority ( QCA ) QCA NQF factsheet ( PDF ) National Database of Accredited Qualifications Department for Children Schools and Families , Section 96 qualifications ( for learners aged under 19 ) International Baccalaureate Organization City and Guilds Edexcel OCR Examinations Qualification Reform Support Programme Guide to Higher Education Qualifications Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qualification_types_in_the_United_Kingdom&oldid=864310420 '' Categories : Education in the United Kingdom Talk Contents About Wikipedia Deutsch Edit links This page was last edited on 16 October 2018 , at 12 : 31 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . 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-7295448325042044097 | Premier League records and statistics | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia Premier League records and Statistics This article possibly contains original research . Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations . Statements consisting only of original research should be removed . ( April 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season . The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League . Contents 1 League records 1.1 Titles 1.2 Points 1.3 Wins 1.4 Defeats 1.5 Draws 1.6 Goals 1.7 Attendances 2 Player records 2.1 Appearances 2.2 Goals 2.3 Assists 2.4 Goalkeepers 2.5 Disciplinary 2.6 Youngest goalscorers 3 Match records 3.1 Scorelines 4 All - time Premier League table 5 Managers 6 References League records ( edit ) Titles ( edit ) Most titles : 13 , Manchester United Most consecutive title wins : 3 Manchester United ( 1998 -- 99 , 1999 -- 2000 , 2000 -- 01 ) Manchester United ( 2006 -- 07 , 2007 -- 08 , 2008 -- 09 ) Biggest title - winning margin : 19 points , 2017 -- 18 ; Manchester City ( 100 points ) over Manchester United ( 81 points ) Smallest title - winning margin : 0 points and 8 goal difference -- 2011 -- 12 ; Manchester City ( + 64 ) over Manchester United ( + 56 ) . Both finished on 89 points , but Manchester City won the title with a superior goal difference -- the only time that goal difference has determined the Premier League . Points ( edit ) Most points in a season : 100 , Manchester City ( 2017 -- 18 ) Fewest points in a season : 11 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most home points in a season : 55 , joint record : Chelsea ( 2005 -- 06 ) Manchester United ( 2010 -- 11 ) Manchester City ( 2011 -- 12 ) Fewest home points in a season : 7 , Sunderland ( 2005 -- 06 ) Most away points in a season : 50 , Manchester City ( 2017 -- 18 ) Fewest away points in a season : 3 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most points in a season without winning the league : 89 , Manchester United ( 2011 -- 12 ) Fewest points in a season while winning the league : 75 , Manchester United ( 1996 -- 97 ) Most points in a season while being relegated : 42 games : 49 , Crystal Palace ( 1992 -- 93 ) 38 games : 42 , West Ham United ( 2002 -- 03 ) Fewest points in a season while surviving relegation : 34 , West Bromwich Albion ( 2004 -- 05 ) Wins ( edit ) Most wins in total : 629 , Manchester United Most wins in a season ( 38 games ) : 32 , Manchester City ( 2017 -- 18 ) Fewest wins in a season ( 38 games ) : 1 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most home wins in a season ( 19 games ) : 18 , joint record : Chelsea ( 2005 -- 06 ) Manchester United ( 2010 -- 11 ) Manchester City ( 2011 -- 12 ) Fewest home wins in a season ( 19 games ) : 1 , joint record : Sunderland ( 2005 -- 06 ) Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most away wins in a season ( 19 games ) : 16 , Manchester City ( 2017 -- 18 ) Fewest away wins in a season ( 19 / 21 games ) : 0 , joint record : Leeds United ( 1992 -- 93 ) Coventry City ( 1999 -- 2000 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 2003 -- 04 ) Norwich City ( 2004 -- 05 ) Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Hull City ( 2009 -- 10 ) Most consecutive wins : 18 , Manchester City ( between 26 August 2017 and 27 December 2017 ) Most consecutive home wins : 20 , Manchester City ( between 5 March 2011 and 21 March 2012 ) Most consecutive away wins : 11 , joint record : Chelsea ( between 6 April 2008 and 7 December 2008 ) Manchester City ( between 21 May 2017 and 27 December 2017 ) Most consecutive games without a win : 32 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most consecutive games without a win from beginning of season : 16 , Queens Park Rangers ( between 18 August 2012 and 8 December 2012 ) Defeats ( edit ) Most defeats in total : 351 , Everton Longest unbeaten run : 49 games , Arsenal ( 7 May 2003 -- 24 October 2004 ) Fewest defeats in a season ( 38 games ) : 0 , Arsenal ( 2003 -- 04 ) Fewest home defeats in a season ( 19 games ) : 0 , joint record : Manchester United ( 1995 -- 96 , 1999 -- 2000 , 2010 -- 11 ) Arsenal ( 1998 -- 99 , 2003 -- 04 , 2007 -- 08 ) Chelsea ( 2004 -- 05 , 2005 -- 06 , 2006 -- 07 , 2007 -- 08 , 2014 -- 15 ) Liverpool ( 2008 -- 09 , 2017 -- 18 ) Manchester City ( 2011 -- 12 ) Tottenham Hotspur ( 2016 -- 17 ) Fewest away defeats in a season ( 19 games ) : 0 , Arsenal ( 2001 -- 02 , 2003 -- 04 ) Most consecutive home games undefeated : 86 , Chelsea ( 20 March 2004 -- 5 October 2008 ) Most consecutive away games undefeated : 27 , Arsenal ( 5 April 2003 -- 25 September 2004 ) Most defeats in a season ( 42 games or 38 games ) : 29 , joint record : Ipswich Town ( 1994 -- 95 ) Sunderland ( 2005 -- 06 ) Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most home defeats in a season ( 19 games ) : 14 , Sunderland ( 2002 -- 03 , 2005 -- 06 ) Most away defeats in a season ( 19 games ) : 17 , Burnley ( 2009 -- 10 ) Most consecutive defeats over more than one season ( 38 games ) : 20 , Sunderland ( 2002 -- 03 , 2005 -- 06 ) Draws ( edit ) Most draws in total : 287 , Everton Most draws in a season ( 42 games ) : 18 -- joint record : Manchester City ( 1993 -- 94 ) Sheffield United ( 1993 -- 94 ) Southampton ( 1994 -- 95 ) Most draws in a season ( 38 games ) : 17 -- joint record : Newcastle United ( 2003 -- 04 ) Aston Villa ( 2006 -- 07 , 2011 -- 12 ) Sunderland ( 2014 -- 15 ) Most home draws in a season : 10 -- joint record : Sheffield Wednesday ( 1996 -- 97 ) Leicester City ( 1997 -- 98 , 2003 -- 04 ) Manchester United ( 2016 -- 17 ) Most away draws in a season : 10 , Newcastle United ( 2003 -- 04 ) Fewest draws in a season : 3 , Chelsea ( 1997 -- 98 , 2016 -- 17 ) Fewest home draws in a season : 0 -- joint record : Manchester City ( 2008 -- 09 ) Manchester United ( 2012 -- 13 ) Chelsea ( 2016 -- 17 ) Fewest away draws in a season : 1 -- joint record : Bolton Wanderers ( 1995 -- 96 ) Queens Park Rangers ( 1995 -- 96 , 2014 -- 15 ) Barnsley ( 1997 -- 98 ) Chelsea ( 1997 -- 98 ) Bradford City ( 1999 -- 2000 ) Everton ( 2000 -- 01 ) Ipswich Town ( 2000 -- 01 ) Portsmouth ( 2005 -- 06 , 2007 -- 08 ) Burnley ( 2009 -- 10 ) Liverpool ( 2011 -- 12 ) Newcastle United ( 2013 -- 14 ) Queens Park Rangers ( 2014 -- 15 ) Most consecutive draws : 7 -- joint record : Norwich City ( 1993 -- 94 ) Southampton ( 1994 -- 95 ) Manchester City ( 2009 -- 10 ) Goals ( edit ) Most goals scored in a season : 106 , Manchester City ( 2017 -- 18 ) Fewest goals scored in a season : 20 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most goals conceded in a season ( 42 games ) : 100 , Swindon Town ( 1993 -- 94 ) Most goals conceded in a season ( 38 games ) : 89 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Fewest goals conceded in a season : 15 , Chelsea ( 2004 -- 05 ) Best goal difference in a season : 79 , Manchester City ( 2017 -- 18 ) Worst goal difference in a season : -- 69 , Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most goals scored in a season by a relegated team : 55 , Blackpool ( 2010 -- 11 ) Most goals scored at home in a season : 68 , Chelsea ( 2009 -- 10 ) Fewest goals scored at home in a season : 10 , Manchester City ( 2006 -- 07 ) Most goals conceded at home in a season ( 21 games ) : 45 , Swindon Town ( 1993 -- 94 ) Most goals conceded at home in a season ( 19 games ) : 43 Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers ( 2011 -- 12 ) Fewest goals conceded at home in a season ( 21 games or 19 games ) : 4 , Manchester United ( 1994 -- 95 ) Most goals scored away in a season : 48 , Liverpool ( 2013 -- 14 ) Fewest goals scored away in a season : 8 Middlesbrough ( 1995 -- 96 ) Southampton ( 1998 -- 99 ) Sheffield United ( 2006 -- 07 ) Derby County ( 2007 -- 08 ) Most goals conceded away in a season ( 21 games ) : 59 , Ipswich Town ( 1994 -- 95 ) Most goals conceded away in a season ( 19 games ) : 55 , Wigan Athletic ( 2009 -- 10 ) Fewest goals conceded away in a season : 9 , Chelsea ( 2004 -- 05 ) Fewest failures to score in a match in a season : 0 ( scored in every game ) , Arsenal ( 2001 -- 02 ) Most goals scored in total : 1,924 , Manchester United Most goals conceded in total : 1,267 , Tottenham Hotspur League history of current and former Premier League teams from 1992 -- 93 to 2013 -- 14 . Attendances ( edit ) Highest attendance , single game : 83,222 , Tottenham Hotspur 1 -- 0 Arsenal ( at Wembley Stadium , 10 February 2018 ) Lowest attendance , single game : 3,039 , Wimbledon 1 -- 3 Everton ( at Selhurst Park , 26 January 1993 ) Highest season average attendance : 75,821 -- Old Trafford , Manchester United ( 2006 -- 07 ) Lowest season average attendance : 8,353 -- Selhurst Park , Wimbledon ( 1992 -- 93 ) Player records ( edit ) Appearances ( edit ) Most Premier League appearances : 653 , Gareth Barry ( 2 May 1998 to 24 February 2018 ) Oldest player : John Burridge , 43 years and 162 days ( for Manchester City v. Queens Park Rangers , 14 May 1995 ) Youngest player : Matthew Briggs , 16 years and 65 days ( for Fulham v. Middlesbrough , 13 May 2007 ) Most consecutive Premier League appearances : 310 , Brad Friedel ( 14 August 2004 until 7 October 2012 ) Most seasons appeared in : 22 , Ryan Giggs ( every season from 1992 -- 93 to 2013 -- 14 ) Goals ( edit ) Further information : List of Premier League players with 100 or more goals First Premier League goal : Brian Deane ( for Sheffield United v. Manchester United , 15 August 1992 ) Most Premier League goals : 260 , Alan Shearer Most Premier League goals at one club : 183 , Wayne Rooney ( Manchester United ) Oldest goalscorer : 40 years and 268 days , Teddy Sheringham ( for West Ham United v. Portsmouth , 26 December 2006 ) Youngest goalscorer : 16 years and 271 days , James Vaughan ( for Everton v. Crystal Palace , 10 April 2005 ) Most consecutive Premier League matches scored in : 11 , Jamie Vardy ( for Leicester City , 29 August to 28 November 2015 ) Most seasons scored in : 21 , Ryan Giggs ( every season from 1992 -- 93 to 2012 -- 13 ) Rank Name Goals Games Goals per game Playing position First goal Last goal Alan Shearer 260 441 0.59 Forward 1992 -- 93 2005 -- 06 Wayne Rooney 208 491 0.42 Forward 2002 -- 03 2017 -- 18 Andy Cole 187 414 0.45 Forward 1993 -- 94 2006 -- 07 Frank Lampard 177 609 0.29 Midfield 1997 -- 98 2014 -- 15 5 Thierry Henry 175 258 0.68 Forward 1999 -- 2000 2011 -- 12 6 Robbie Fowler 163 379 0.43 Forward 1993 -- 94 2006 -- 07 7 Jermain Defoe 162 492 0.33 Forward 2001 -- 02 2017 -- 18 8 Michael Owen 150 326 0.46 Forward 1996 -- 97 2012 -- 13 9 Les Ferdinand 149 351 0.42 Forward 1992 -- 93 2004 -- 05 10 Teddy Sheringham 146 418 0.35 Forward 1992 -- 93 2006 -- 07 Most goals in a season ( 42 games ) : 34 , joint record : Andy Cole ( Newcastle United , 1993 -- 94 ) Alan Shearer ( Blackburn Rovers , 1994 -- 95 ) Further information : Premier League Golden Boot Most goals in a season ( 38 games ) : 32 , Mohamed Salah ( Liverpool , 2017 -- 18 ) Most games scored in during a Premier League season : 24 , Mohamed Salah ( Liverpool , 2017 -- 18 ) Most Premier League goals in a calendar year : 39 , Harry Kane ( Tottenham Hotspur , 2017 ) Number of teams scored against in a season : 17 , joint record : 20 - team league : Ian Wright ( Arsenal , 1996 -- 97 ) Robin van Persie ( Arsenal , 2011 -- 12 ) Mohamed Salah ( Liverpool , 2017 -- 18 ) 22 - team league : Andy Cole ( Newcastle United , 1993 -- 94 ) Alan Shearer ( Blackburn Rovers , 1994 -- 95 ) Most goals in a debut season : 30 , Kevin Phillips ( Sunderland , 1999 -- 2000 ) Most Premier League hat - tricks in a season : 5 , Alan Shearer ( 38 games ) ( Blackburn Rovers , 1995 -- 96 ) Most Premier League hat - tricks : 11 , Alan Shearer Most goals in a game : 5 , joint record : Andy Cole ( for Manchester United v. Ipswich Town , 4 March 1995 ) W 9 -- 0 Alan Shearer ( for Newcastle United v. Sheffield Wednesday , 19 September 1999 ) W 8 -- 0 Jermain Defoe ( for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic , 22 November 2009 ) W 9 -- 1 Dimitar Berbatov ( for Manchester United v. Blackburn Rovers , 27 November 2010 ) W 7 -- 1 Sergio Agüero ( for Manchester City v. Newcastle United , 3 October 2015 ) W 6 -- 1 Further information : List of Premier League hat - tricks Most goals in one half : 5 , Jermain Defoe ( for Tottenham Hotspur v. Wigan Athletic , 22 November 2009 ) W 9 -- 1 Fastest goal : 10 seconds , Ledley King ( for Tottenham Hotspur v. Bradford City , 9 December 2000 ) Most goals scored by a substitute in a game : 4 , Ole Gunnar Solskjær ( for Manchester United v. Nottingham Forest , 6 February 1999 ) Most consecutive away league matches scored in : 9 , Robin van Persie ( for Arsenal , 1 January 2011 to 22 May 2011 ) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 30 goals : 3 ( 1993 -- 1996 ) , Alan Shearer ( all for Blackburn Rovers ) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 25 goals : 4 ( 1993 -- 1997 ) , Alan Shearer ( 1993 -- 1996 for Blackburn Rovers , 1996 -- 1997 for Newcastle United ) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 20 goals : 5 ( 2001 -- 2006 ) , Thierry Henry ( all for Arsenal ) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 10 goals : 11 ( 2004 -- 2015 ) , Wayne Rooney ( all for Manchester United ) Most consecutive seasons to score at least 1 goal : 21 ( 1992 -- 2013 ) , Ryan Giggs ( all for Manchester United ) Fastest Premier League hat - trick : 2 minutes 56 seconds , Sadio Mané ( for Southampton v. Aston Villa , 16 May 2015 ) Most different clubs to score for : 7 , Craig Bellamy ( for Coventry City , Newcastle United , Blackburn Rovers , Liverpool , West Ham United , Manchester City , Cardiff City ) Most own goals : 10 , Richard Dunne Most own goals in a season : 4 , joint record : Martin Škrtel ( 2013 -- 14 ) Lewis Dunk ( 2017 -- 18 ) Most hat - tricks against a single club : 3 , Luis Suárez ( for Liverpool v. Norwich City ) Most goals in a calendar month : 10 ( December 2013 ) , Luis Suárez ( Liverpool ) Assists ( edit ) Most assists ( career ) Rank Player Assists Ryan Giggs 162 Cesc Fàbregas 111 Wayne Rooney 103 Frank Lampard 102 5 Dennis Bergkamp 94 6 Steven Gerrard 92 7 David Beckham 80 8 James Milner 78 9 Teddy Sheringham 76 10 David Silva 75 Most Premier League assists in a season : 20 , Thierry Henry ( Arsenal , 2002 -- 03 ) Most consecutive Premier League matches with an assist : 7 , Mesut Özil ( for Arsenal , 26 September to 21 November 2015 ) Most assists in a single Premier League match : 4 , joint record : Dennis Bergkamp ( for Arsenal v. Leicester City , 20 February 1999 ) José Antonio Reyes ( for Arsenal v. Middlesbrough , 14 January 2006 ) Cesc Fàbregas ( for Arsenal v. Blackburn Rovers , 4 October 2009 ) Emmanuel Adebayor ( for Tottenham Hotspur v. Newcastle United , 11 February 2012 ) Santi Cazorla ( for Arsenal v. Wigan Athletic , 14 May 2013 ) Dušan Tadić ( for Southampton v. Sunderland , 18 October 2014 ) Goalkeepers ( edit ) Further information : Premier League Golden Glove Most clean sheets ( career ) Rank Player Clean sheets Petr Čech 201 David James 169 Mark Schwarzer 151 David Seaman 140 5 Nigel Martyn 137 6 Pepe Reina 134 7 Edwin van der Sar 132 Tim Howard Brad Friedel 10 Peter Schmeichel 128 Most clean sheets in one season : 24 , Petr Čech ( for Chelsea , 2004 -- 05 ) Longest consecutive run without conceding a goal : 14 games ( 1,311 minutes ) , Edwin van der Sar ( for Manchester United , 2008 -- 09 ) Goalscoring goalkeepers ( excluding own goals ) : Peter Schmeichel ( Everton 3 -- 2 Aston Villa , 20 October 2001 ) Brad Friedel ( Charlton Athletic 3 -- 2 Blackburn Rovers , 21 February 2004 ) Paul Robinson ( Tottenham Hotspur 3 -- 1 Watford , 17 March 2007 ) Tim Howard ( Everton 1 -- 2 Bolton Wanderers , 4 January 2012 ) Asmir Begović ( Stoke City 1 -- 1 Southampton , 2 November 2013 ) Disciplinary ( edit ) Most red cards : 8 , joint record : Duncan Ferguson Patrick Vieira Richard Dunne Most yellow cards for a player : 103 , Gareth Barry Most yellow cards for a single team in one game : 9 ( Tottenham Hotspur v. Chelsea , 2 May 2016 ) Fouling record : 782 , Kevin Davies ( since 2000 -- 01 , the first season for which reliable records are available ) Longest ban : 12 matches , Joey Barton . After being dismissed for violent conduct , Barton was found guilty of two further separate counts of violent conduct after his dismissal against Manchester City , 23 May 2012 Youngest Goalscorers ( edit ) This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League . Player Date Team Age Opposition James Vaughan 10 April 2005 Everton 16 years , 270 days Crystal Palace James Milner 26 December 2002 Leeds United 16 years , 346 days Sunderland Wayne Rooney 19 October 2002 Everton 16 years , 351 days Arsenal Cesc Fàbregas 25 August 2004 Arsenal 17 years , 114 days Blackburn Rovers 5 Michael Owen 6 May 1997 Liverpool 17 years , 144 days Wimbledon 6 Andy Turner 5 September 1992 Tottenham 17 years , 166 days Everton 7 Federico Macheda 5 April 2009 Manchester United 17 years , 226 days Aston Villa 8 Raheem Sterling 20 October 2012 Liverpool 17 years , 317 days Reading 9 Mikael Forssell 20 February 1999 Chelsea 17 years , 342 days Nottingham Forest 10 Danny Cadamarteri 20 September 1997 Everton 17 years , 344 days Barnsley Match records ( edit ) Scorelines ( edit ) Further information : List of Premier League highest scoring games Biggest home win : 9 -- 0 , Manchester United v. Ipswich Town ( 4 March 1995 ) Biggest away win : 1 -- 8 , Nottingham Forest v. Manchester United ( 6 February 1999 ) Biggest aggregate win : 12 -- 1 , joint record : Blackburn Rovers 7 -- 0 Nottingham Forest ( 18 November 1995 ) & Nottingham Forest 1 -- 5 Blackburn Rovers ( 13 April 1996 ) Tottenham Hotspur 9 -- 1 Wigan Athletic ( 22 November 2009 ) & Wigan Athletic 0 -- 3 Tottenham Hotspur ( 21 February 2010 ) Biggest loss by reigning champions : 1 -- 6 , joint record : Manchester United 1 -- 6 Manchester City ( 23 October 2011 ) , after Manchester United won the 2010 -- 11 season Leicester City 1 -- 6 Tottenham Hotspur ( 18 May 2017 ) , after Leicester City won the 2015 -- 16 season Largest goal deficit overcome to win : 3 Leeds United 4 -- 3 Derby County ( 8 November 1997 ) West Ham United 3 -- 4 Wimbledon ( 9 September 1998 ) Tottenham Hotspur 3 -- 5 Manchester United ( 29 September 2001 ) Wolverhampton Wanderers 4 -- 3 Leicester City ( 25 October 2003 ) Largest goal deficit overcome to draw : 4 , Newcastle United 4 -- 4 Arsenal ( 5 February 2011 ) Highest scoring : 7 -- 4 , Portsmouth v. Reading ( 29 September 2007 ) Highest scoring draw : 5 -- 5 , West Bromwich Albion v. Manchester United ( 19 May 2013 ) Highest scoring in the first half : 7 goals , joint record : Blackburn Rovers 3 -- 4 Leeds United ( 14 September 1997 -- final score ; 3 -- 4 ) Bradford City 4 -- 3 Derby County ( 21 April 2000 -- final score ; 4 -- 4 ) Reading 3 -- 4 Manchester United ( 1 December 2012 -- final score ; 3 -- 4 ) Most individual goal scorers in one game : 9 , joint record : Tottenham Hotspur 4 -- 5 Arsenal ( 13 November 2004 ) Portsmouth 7 -- 4 Reading ( 29 September 2007 ) Most individual goal scorers in one game for the same team : 7 , joint record : Chelsea 8 -- 0 Aston Villa ( 23 December 2012 ) Manchester City 7 -- 0 Norwich City ( 2 November 2013 ) Southampton 8 -- 0 Sunderland ( 18 October 2014 ) All - time Premier League Table ( edit ) The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results , points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992 . The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season . Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League . Numbers in bold are the record ( highest either positive or negative ) numbers in each column . Pos . Club Seasons Pld Win Draw Loss GF GA GD Pts 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Relegated Avg Pts Best Pos . Manchester United 26 1000 629 215 156 1924 875 1049 2102 13 6 80.85 Arsenal 26 1000 544 253 203 1772 962 810 1885 6 5 7 72.50 Chelsea 26 1000 537 248 215 1707 963 744 1859 5 71.50 Liverpool 26 1000 499 255 246 1685 1024 661 1752 5 7 67.38 5 Tottenham Hotspur 26 1000 423 255 322 1480 1267 213 1524 58.62 6 Everton 26 1000 362 287 351 1303 1265 38 1373 52.81 7 Manchester City 21 810 359 194 257 1279 952 327 1271 60.52 8 Newcastle United 23 882 334 225 323 1207 1187 20 1227 53.35 9 Aston Villa 24 924 316 275 333 1117 1186 − 69 1223 50.96 10 West Ham United 22 844 275 221 348 1012 1214 − 202 1046 47.55 5 11 Blackburn Rovers 18 696 262 184 250 927 907 20 970 53.89 12 Southampton 19 734 229 202 303 892 1022 − 130 889 46.79 6 13 Leeds United 12 468 189 125 154 641 573 68 692 57.67 14 Middlesbrough 15 574 165 169 240 648 794 − 146 661 44.01 7 15 Sunderland 16 608 153 159 296 612 904 − 292 618 38.63 7 16 Fulham 13 494 150 136 208 570 697 − 127 586 45.08 7 17 Bolton Wanderers 13 494 149 128 217 575 745 − 170 575 44.23 6 18 Leicester City 12 460 142 129 189 572 670 − 98 555 46.25 19 West Bromwich Albion 12 456 112 128 216 475 696 − 221 464 38.67 8 20 Stoke City 10 380 116 109 155 398 525 − 127 457 45.70 9 21 Coventry City 9 354 99 112 143 387 490 − 103 409 45.40 11 22 Sheffield Wednesday 8 316 101 89 126 409 453 − 44 392 49.00 7 23 Wimbledon 8 316 99 94 123 384 472 − 88 391 48.88 6 24 Crystal Palace 9 350 97 89 164 374 511 − 137 380 42.22 10 25 Charlton Athletic 8 304 93 82 129 342 442 − 100 361 45.13 7 26 Norwich City 8 316 89 92 135 365 510 − 145 359 44.88 27 Wigan Athletic 8 304 85 76 143 316 482 − 166 331 41.38 10 28 Swansea City 7 266 82 66 118 306 383 − 77 312 44.57 8 29 Queens Park Rangers 7 278 81 65 132 339 431 − 92 308 44.00 5 30 Birmingham City 7 266 73 82 111 273 360 − 87 301 43.00 9 31 Portsmouth 7 266 79 65 122 292 380 − 88 293 41.86 8 32 Derby County 7 266 68 70 128 271 420 − 149 274 39.14 8 33 Nottingham Forest 5 198 60 59 79 229 287 − 58 239 47.80 34 Ipswich Town 5 202 57 53 92 219 312 − 93 224 44.80 5 35 Watford 5 190 45 43 102 188 318 − 130 178 35.60 13 36 Hull City 5 190 41 48 101 181 323 − 142 171 34.20 16 37 Burnley 152 40 37 75 145 229 − 84 157 39.25 7 38 Wolverhampton Wanderers 152 32 40 80 156 281 − 125 136 34.00 15 39 Sheffield United 122 32 36 54 128 168 − 40 132 44.00 14 40 Bournemouth 114 34 30 50 145 195 − 50 132 44.00 9 41 Reading 114 32 23 59 136 186 − 50 119 39.67 8 42 Oldham Athletic 84 22 23 39 105 142 − 37 89 44.50 19 43 Bradford City 76 14 20 42 68 138 − 70 62 31.00 17 44 Brighton & Hove Albion 38 9 13 16 34 54 -- 20 40 40.00 15 45 Blackpool 38 10 9 19 55 78 − 23 39 39.00 19 46 Huddersfield Town 38 9 10 19 28 58 -- 30 37 37.00 16 47 Barnsley 38 10 5 23 37 82 − 45 35 35.00 19 48 Cardiff City 38 7 9 22 32 74 − 42 30 30.00 20 49 Swindon Town 42 5 15 22 47 100 − 53 30 30.00 22 League or status at 2018 -- 19 : 2018 -- 19 Premier League teams 2018 -- 19 EFL Championship teams 2018 -- 19 EFL League One teams 2018 -- 19 EFL League Two teams Defunct teams Notes By a 2007 agreement , neither Milton Keynes Dons nor AFC Wimbledon regards itself as custodian of Wimbledon F.C. 's statistics . Managers ( edit ) Most Premier League titles : 13 , Sir Alex Ferguson ( Manchester United ) -- 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 , 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2003 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 Most Premier League Manager of the Month awards : 27 , Sir Alex Ferguson Most consecutive Premier League Manager of the Month awards : 4 , Pep Guardiola Most promotions to the Premier League : 4 , Steve Bruce ( Birmingham City in 2001 -- 02 and 2006 -- 07 and Hull City in 2012 -- 13 and 2015 -- 16 ) Most relegations from the Premier League : 3 , Dave Bassett ( Sheffield United in 1993 -- 94 , Nottingham Forest in 1996 -- 97 , and Leicester City in 2001 -- 02 ) Longest spell as manager : 21 years , 224 days , Arsène Wenger ( Arsenal , 1 October 1996 to 13 May 2018 ) Shortest spell as manager ( excluding caretakers ) : 41 days , Les Reed ( Charlton Athletic , 14 November 2006 to 24 December 2006 ) ( 8 games ) References ( edit ) General `` For the record : Premier League facts and figures '' . premierleague.com . 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-1389944757447020306 | Charles's law | Charles 's law - wikipedia Charles 's law Relationship between volume and temperature of a gas at constant pressure An animation demonstrating the relationship between volume and temperature Continuum mechanics Laws ( show ) Conservations Energy Mass Momentum Inequalities Clausius -- Duhem ( entropy ) Solid mechanics ( show ) Stress Deformation Compatibility Finite strain Infinitesimal strain Elasticity ( linear ) Plasticity Bending Hooke 's law Material failure theory Fracture mechanics Contact mechanics ( frictional ) Fluid mechanics ( show ) Fluids Statics Dynamics Archimedes ' principle Bernoulli 's principle Navier -- Stokes equations Poiseuille equation Pascal 's law Viscosity ( Newtonian non-Newtonian ) Buoyancy Mixing Pressure Liquids Surface tension Capillary action Gases Atmosphere Boyle 's law Charles 's law Gay - Lussac 's law Combined gas law Plasma Rheology ( show ) Viscoelasticity Rheometry Rheometer Smart fluids Magnetorheological Electrorheological Ferrofluids Scientists ( show ) Bernoulli Boyle Cauchy Charles Euler Gay - Lussac Hooke Pascal Newton Navier Stokes Charles 's law ( also known as the law of volumes ) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated . A modern statement of Charles 's law is : When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant , the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be directly related . This directly proportional relationship can be written as : V ∝ T ( \ displaystyle V \ propto T ) or V T = k , ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( V ) ( T ) ) = k , ) where : V is the volume of the gas , T is the temperature of the gas ( measured in kelvins ) , k is a constant . This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases ; conversely , a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume . For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions , the law can be written as : V 1 T 1 = V 2 T 2 or V 2 V 1 = T 2 T 1 or V 1 T 2 = V 2 T 1 . ( \ displaystyle ( \ frac ( V_ ( 1 ) ) ( T_ ( 1 ) ) ) = ( \ frac ( V_ ( 2 ) ) ( T_ ( 2 ) ) ) \ qquad ( \ text ( or ) ) \ qquad ( \ frac ( V_ ( 2 ) ) ( V_ ( 1 ) ) ) = ( \ frac ( T_ ( 2 ) ) ( T_ ( 1 ) ) ) \ qquad ( \ text ( or ) ) \ qquad V_ ( 1 ) T_ ( 2 ) = V_ ( 2 ) T_ ( 1 ) . ) The equation shows that , as absolute temperature increases , the volume of the gas also increases in proportion . Contents 1 Discovery and naming of the law 2 Relation to absolute zero 3 Relation to kinetic theory 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links Discovery and naming of the law ( edit ) The law was named after scientist Jacques Charles , who formulated the original law in his unpublished work from the 1780s . In two of a series of four essays presented between 2 and 30 October 1801 , John Dalton demonstrated by experiment that all the gases and vapours that he studied expanded by the same amount between two fixed points of temperature . The French natural philosopher Joseph Louis Gay - Lussac confirmed the discovery in a presentation to the French National Institute on 31 Jan 1802 , although he credited the discovery to unpublished work from the 1780s by Jacques Charles . The basic principles had already been described by Guillaume Amontons and Francis Hauksbee a century earlier . Dalton was the first to demonstrate that the law applied generally to all gases , and to the vapours of volatile liquids if the temperature was well above the boiling point . Gay - Lussac concurred . With measurements only at the two thermometric fixed points of water , Gay - Lussac was unable to show that the equation relating volume to temperature was a linear function . On mathematical grounds alone , Gay - Lussac 's paper does not permit the assignment of any law stating the linear relation . Both Dalton 's and Gay - Lussac 's main conclusions can be expressed mathematically as : V 100 − V 0 = k V 0 ( \ displaystyle V_ ( 100 ) - V_ ( 0 ) = kV_ ( 0 ) \ , ) where V is the volume occupied by a given sample of gas at 100 ° C ; V is the volume occupied by the same sample of gas at 0 ° C ; and k is a constant which is the same for all gases at constant pressure . This equation does not contain the temperature and so has nothing to do with what became known as Charles ' Law . Gay - Lussac 's value for k ( ⁄ ) , was identical to Dalton 's earlier value for vapours and remarkably close to the present - day value of ⁄ . Gay - Lussac gave credit for this equation to unpublished statements by his fellow Republican citizen J. Charles in 1787 . In the absence of a firm record , the gas law relating volume to temperature can not be named after Charles . Dalton 's measurements had much more scope regarding temperature than Gay - Lussac , not only measuring the volume at the fixed points of water , but also at two intermediate points . Unaware of the inaccuracies of mercury thermometers at the time , which were divided into equal portions between the fixed points , Dalton , after concluding in Essay II that in the case of vapours , `` any elastic fluid expands nearly in a uniform manner into 1370 or 1380 parts by 180 degrees ( Fahrenheit ) of heat '' , was unable to confirm it for gases . Relation to absolute zero ( edit ) Charles ' law appears to imply that the volume of a gas will descend to zero at a certain temperature ( − 266.66 ° C according to Gay - Lussac 's figures ) or − 273.15 ° C. Gay - Lussac was clear in his description that the law was not applicable at low temperatures : but I may mention that this last conclusion can not be true except so long as the compressed vapours remain entirely in the elastic state ; and this requires that their temperature shall be sufficiently elevated to enable them to resist the pressure which tends to make them assume the liquid state . At absolute zero temperature the gas possesses zero energy and hence the molecules restrict motion . Gay - Lussac had no experience of liquid air ( first prepared in 1877 ) , although he appears to have believed ( as did Dalton ) that the `` permanent gases '' such as air and hydrogen could be liquified . Gay - Lussac had also worked with the vapours of volatile liquids in demonstrating Charles ' law , and was aware that the law does not apply just above the boiling point of the liquid : I may however remark that when the temperature of the ether is only a little above its boiling point , its condensation is a little more rapid than that of atmospheric air . This fact is related to a phenomenon which is exhibited by a great many bodies when passing from the liquid to the solid state , but which is no longer sensible at temperatures a few degrees above that at which the transition occurs . The first mention of a temperature at which the volume of a gas might descend to zero was by William Thomson ( later known as Lord Kelvin ) in 1848 : This is what we might anticipate , when we reflect that infinite cold must correspond to a finite number of degrees of the air - thermometer below zero ; since if we push the strict principle of graduation , stated above , sufficiently far , we should arrive at a point corresponding to the volume of air being reduced to nothing , which would be marked as − 273 ° of the scale ( − 100 /. 366 , if . 366 be the coefficient of expansion ) ; and therefore − 273 ° of the air - thermometer is a point which can not be reached at any finite temperature , however low . However , the `` absolute zero '' on the Kelvin temperature scale was originally defined in terms of the second law of thermodynamics , which Thomson himself described in 1852 . Thomson did not assume that this was equal to the `` zero - volume point '' of Charles ' law , merely that Charles ' law provided the minimum temperature which could be attained . The two can be shown to be equivalent by Ludwig Boltzmann 's statistical view of entropy ( 1870 ) . However , Charles also stated : The volume of a fixed mass of dry gas increases or decreases by ⁄ times the volume at 0 ° C for every 1 ° C rise or fall in temperature . Thus : V T = V 0 + ( 1 273 × V 0 ) × T ( \ displaystyle V_ ( T ) = V_ ( 0 ) + ( ( \ tfrac ( 1 ) ( 273 ) ) \ times V_ ( 0 ) ) \ times T ) V T = V 0 ( 1 + T 273 ) ( \ displaystyle V_ ( T ) = V_ ( 0 ) ( 1 + ( \ tfrac ( T ) ( 273 ) ) ) ) where V is the volume of gas at temperature T , V is the volume at 0 ° C . Relation to kinetic theory ( edit ) The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties of gases , such as pressure and volume , to the microscopic properties of the molecules which make up the gas , particularly the mass and speed of the molecules . In order to derive Charles ' law from kinetic theory , it is necessary to have a microscopic definition of temperature : this can be conveniently taken as the temperature being proportional to the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules , E : T ∝ E k _̄ . ( \ displaystyle T \ propto ( \ bar ( E_ ( \ rm ( k ) ) ) ). \ , ) Under this definition , the demonstration of Charles ' law is almost trivial . The kinetic theory equivalent of the ideal gas law relates PV to the average kinetic energy : P V = 2 3 N E k _̄ ( \ displaystyle PV = ( \ frac ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ) N ( \ bar ( E_ ( \ rm ( k ) ) ) ) \ , ) See also ( edit ) Boyle 's law Combined gas law Gay - Lussac 's law Avogadro 's law Ideal gas law Hand boiler Thermal expansion References ( edit ) Jump up ^ Fullick , P. ( 1994 ) , Physics , Heinemann , pp. 141 -- 42 , ISBN 0 - 435 - 57078 - 1 . Jump up ^ J. Dalton ( 1802 ) , `` Essay II . On the force of steam or vapour from water and various other liquids , both in vacuum and in air '' and Essay IV . `` On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat , '' Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester , vol. 8 , pt. 2 , pages 550 -- 574 and pages 595 -- 602 . ^ Jump up to : Gay - Lussac , J.L. ( 1802 ) , `` Recherches sur la dilatation des gaz et des vapeurs '' ( Researches on the expansion of gases and vapors ) , Annales de chimie , 43 : 137 -- 175 . English translation ( extract ) . On page 157 , Gay - Lussac mentions the unpublished findings of Charles : `` Avant d'aller plus loin , je dois prévenir que quoique j'eusse reconnu un grand nombre de fois que les gaz oxigène , azote , hydrogène et acide carbonique , et l'air atmosphérique se dilatent également depuis 0 ° jusqu'a 80 ° , le cit . Charles avait remarqué depuis 15 ans la même propriété dans ces gaz ; mais n'avant jamais publié ses résultats , c'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus . '' ( Before going further , I should inform ( you ) that although I had recognized many times that the gases oxygen , nitrogen , hydrogen , and carbonic acid ( i.e. , carbon dioxide ) , and atmospheric air also expand from 0 ° to 80 ° , citizen Charles had noticed 15 years ago the same property in these gases ; but having never published his results , it is by the merest chance that I knew of them . ) Jump up ^ See : Amontons , G. ( presented 1699 , published 1732 ) `` Moyens de substituer commodément l'action du feu à la force des hommes et des chevaux pour mouvoir les machines '' ( Ways to conveniently substitute the action of fire for the force of men and horses in order to power machines ) , Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de Paris ( presented 1699 , published 1732 ) , 112 -- 126 ; see especially pages 113 -- 117 . Amontons , G. ( presented 1702 , published 1743 ) `` Discours sur quelques propriétés de l'Air , & le moyen d'en connoître la température dans tous les climats de la Terre '' ( Discourse on some properties of air and on the means of knowing the temperature in all climates of the Earth ) , Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de Paris , 155 -- 174 . Review of Amontons ' findings : `` Sur une nouvelle proprieté de l'air , et une nouvelle construction de Thermométre '' ( On a new property of the air and a new construction of thermometer ) , Histoire de l'Academie royale des sciences , 1 -- 8 ( submitted : 1702 ; published : 1743 ) . Jump up ^ Englishman Francis Hauksbee ( 1660 -- 1713 ) independently also discovered Charles ' law : Francis Hauksbee ( 1708 ) `` An account of an experiment touching the different densities of air , from the greatest natural heat to the greatest natural cold in this climate , '' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 26 ( 315 ) : 93 -- 96 . Jump up ^ Gay - Lussac ( 1802 ) , from page 166 : `` Si l'on divise l'augmentation totale de volume par le nombre de degrés qui l'ont produite ou par 80 , on trouvera , en faisant le volume à la température 0 égal à l'unité , que l'augmentation de volume pour chaque degré est de 1 / 223.33 ou bien de 1 / 266.66 pour chaque degré du thermomètre centrigrade . '' If one divides the total increase in volume by the number of degrees that produce it or by 80 , one will find , by making the volume at the temperature 0 equal to unity ( 1 ) , that the increase in volume for each degree is 1 / 223.33 or 1 / 266.66 for each degree of the centigrade thermometer . From page 174 : `` ... elle nous porte , par conséquent , à conclure que tous les gaz et toutes les vapeurs se dilatent également par les mêmes degrés de chaleur . '' ... it leads us , consequently , to conclude that all gases and all vapors expand equally ( when subjected to ) the same degrees of heat . Jump up ^ Thomson , William ( 1848 ) , `` On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot 's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat , and calculated from Regnault 's Observations '' , Philosophical Magazine : 100 -- 6 . Jump up ^ Thomson , William ( 1852 ) , `` On the Dynamical Theory of Heat , with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule 's equivalent of a Thermal Unit , and M. Regnault 's Observations on Steam '' , Philosophical Magazine , 4 . Extract . Further reading ( edit ) Krönig , A. ( 1856 ) , `` Grundzüge einer Theorie der Gase '' , Annalen der Physik , 99 : 315 -- 22 , Bibcode : 1856AnP ... 175 ... 315K , doi : 10.1002 / andp. 18561751008 . Facsimile at the Bibliothèque nationale de France ( pp. 315 -- 22 ) . Clausius , R. ( 1857 ) , `` Ueber die Art der Bewegung , welche wir Wärme nennen '' , Annalen der Physik und Chemie , 176 : 353 -- 79 , Bibcode : 1857AnP ... 176 ... 353C , doi : 10.1002 / andp. 18571760302 . Facsimile at the Bibliothèque nationale de France ( pp. 353 -- 79 ) . Joseph Louis Gay - Lussac -- Liste de ses communications , archived from the original on October 23 , 2005 . ( in French ) External links ( edit ) The Wikibook School Science has a page on the topic of : Making Charles ' law tubes Charles 's law simulation from Davidson College , Davidson , North Carolina Charles 's law demonstration by Prof. Robert Burk , Carleton University , Ottawa , Canada Charles 's law animation from the Leonardo Project ( GTEP / CCHS , UK ) Charles 's law Calculator from EngineeringUnits.com , USA , UK ) Diving medicine , physiology , physics and environment Diving medicine Injuries and disorders Pressure Oxygen Freediving blackout Hyperoxia Hypoxia ( medical ) Oxygen toxicity Inert gases Atrial septal defect Avascular necrosis Decompression sickness Dysbaric osteonecrosis High - pressure nervous syndrome Hydrogen narcosis Isobaric counterdiffusion Nitrogen narcosis Taravana Uncontrolled decompression Carbon dioxide Hypercapnia Hypocapnia Aerosinusitis Air embolism Alternobaric vertigo Barodontalgia Barostriction Barotrauma Compression arthralgia Decompression illness Dental barotrauma Dysbarism Ear clearing Frenzel maneuver Valsalva maneuver Immersion Asphyxia Drowning Hypothermia Immersion diuresis Instinctive drowning response Laryngospasm Salt water aspiration syndrome Swimming - induced pulmonary edema List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders Cramps Diving disorders Motion sickness Surfer 's ear Treatments Diving chamber Diving medicine Hyperbaric medicine Hyperbaric treatment schedules In - water recompression Oxygen therapy Fitness to dive Diving physiology Artificial gills ( human ) Blood -- air barrier Blood shift Breathing Circulatory system CO2 retention Cold shock response Dead space ( physiology ) Decompression ( diving ) Decompression theory Diving reflex Gas exchange History of decompression research and development Lipid Maximum operating depth Metabolism Normocapnia Oxygen window in diving decompression Perfusion Physiological response to water immersion Physiology of decompression Pulmonary circulation Respiratory exchange ratio Respiratory quotient Respiratory system Systemic circulation Tissue ( biology ) Diving physics Ambient pressure Amontons ' law Anti-fog Archimedes ' principle Atmospheric pressure Boyle 's law Breathing performance of regulators Buoyancy Charles 's law Combined gas law Dalton 's law Diffusion Force Gay - Lussac 's law Henry 's law Hydrophobe Hydrostatic pressure Ideal gas law Molecular diffusion Neutral buoyancy Oxygen fraction Partial pressure Permeation Pressure Psychrometric constant Snell 's law Solubility Solution Supersaturation Surface tension Surfactant Torricellian chamber Underwater vision Weight Diving environment Algal bloom Breaking wave Ocean current Current ( stream ) Ekman transport Halocline List of diving hazards and precautions Longshore drift Rip current Stratification Surf Surge ( wave action ) Thermocline Tides Turbidity Undertow ( water waves ) Upwelling Researchers in diving medicine and physiology Arthur J. Bachrach Albert R. Behnke Paul Bert George F. Bond Robert Boyle Albert A. Bühlmann John R Clarke William Paul Fife John Scott Haldane Robert William Hamilton Jr . Leonard Erskine Hill Brian Andrew Hills Felix Hoppe - Seyler Christian J. Lambertsen Simon Mitchell Charles Momsen John Rawlins R.N. Charles Wesley Shilling Edward D. 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-7047898625889884359 | List of largest cities in Brazil | List of largest cities in Brazil - wikipedia List of largest cities in Brazil Jump to : navigation , search Population distribution in Brazil . Brazil has a high level of urbanization : 82 out of every 100 Brazilians live in cities . The criteria used by the IBGE ( Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics ) in determining whether households are urban or rural , however , are based on political divisions , not on the built environment . Nowadays , the country has more than 5,570 municipalities . About 87.86 % of Brazilians live in urban areas . The state capitals are also the largest cities in their respective states , exceptions being Florianópolis ( which is the capital and the second largest city of Santa Catarina state after Joinville ) and Vitória ( which is the capital but only the fourth largest city of Espírito Santo state ) . Contents ( hide ) 1 Most populated cities in Brazil 1.1 Distribution 1.2 Image gallery 2 Largest metropolitan areas 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Most populated cities in Brazil ( edit ) This is a list of the most populous cities based on the population of the municipality where the city is located , rather than its metropolitan area . As IBGE considers the entire Federal District synonymous to Brasília , the population of the Federal District is shown for Brasília . IBGE Census counts as of 1 August 2010 . Estimates of 1 July 2016 State capitals are in bold and states ' largest cities are in italics . 2016 rank City State 2016 estimate Census Change São Paulo São Paulo 12,038,175 10,659,386 7001129349758044230 ♠ + 12.93 % Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 6,498,837 5,940,224 7000940390463389930 ♠ + 9.40 % Brasília Distrito Federal 2,977,216 2,469,489 7001205600024944430 ♠ + 20.56 % Salvador Bahia 2,938,092 2,480,790 7001184337247409090 ♠ + 18.43 % 5 Fortaleza Ceará 2,609,716 2,315,116 7001127250643164320 ♠ + 12.73 % 6 Belo Horizonte Minas Gerais 2,513,451 2,258,096 7001113084208997310 ♠ + 11.31 % 7 Manaus Amazonas 2,094,391 1,718,584 7001218672465238820 ♠ + 21.87 % 8 Curitiba Paraná 1,893,997 1,678,965 7001128074140914190 ♠ + 12.81 % 9 Recife Pernambuco 1,625,583 1,472,202 7001104184751820740 ♠ + 10.42 % 10 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul 1,481,019 1,365,039 7000849646054068779 ♠ + 8.50 % 11 Goiânia Goiás 1,448,639 1,256,514 7001152903190891630 ♠ + 15.29 % 12 Belém Pará 1,446,042 1,351,618 7000698599752296880 ♠ + 6.99 % 13 Guarulhos São Paulo 1,337,087 1,176,804 7001136201950367270 ♠ + 13.62 % 14 Campinas São Paulo 1,173,370 1,024,912 7001144849509031020 ♠ + 14.48 % 15 São Luís Maranhão 1,082,935 966,989 7001119904156096920 ♠ + 11.99 % 16 São Gonçalo Rio de Janeiro 1,044,058 945,752 7001103944797367600 ♠ + 10.39 % 17 Maceió Alagoas 1,021,709 917,086 7001114081994491250 ♠ + 11.41 % 18 Duque de Caxias Rio de Janeiro 886,917 818,432 7000836783019236780 ♠ + 8.37 % 19 Natal Rio Grande do Norte 877,662 785,722 7001117013396595740 ♠ + 11.70 % 20 Campo Grande Mato Grosso do Sul 863,982 766,461 7001127235436636700 ♠ + 12.72 % 21 Teresina Piauí 847,430 797,029 7000632360930405290 ♠ + 6.32 % 22 São Bernardo do Campo São Paulo 822,242 746,718 7001101141260824030 ♠ + 10.11 % 23 João Pessoa Paraíba 801,718 716,042 7001119652199172670 ♠ + 11.97 % 24 Nova Iguaçu Rio de Janeiro 797,435 767,505 7000389964886222240 ♠ + 3.90 % 25 Santo André São Paulo 712,749 654,354 7000892406862340570 ♠ + 8.92 % 26 Osasco São Paulo 696,382 637,617 7000921634774480600 ♠ + 9.22 % 27 São José dos Campos São Paulo 695,992 597,425 7001164986399966520 ♠ + 16.50 % 28 Jaboatão dos Guararapes Pernambuco 691,125 623,471 7001108511863422680 ♠ + 10.85 % 29 Ribeirão Preto São Paulo 674,405 583,842 7001155115596342850 ♠ + 15.51 % 30 Uberlândia Minas Gerais 669,672 579,005 7001156591048436540 ♠ + 15.66 % 31 Contagem Minas Gerais 653,800 568,640 7001149760832864380 ♠ + 14.98 % 32 Sorocaba São Paulo 652,481 570,434 7001143832590623980 ♠ + 14.38 % 33 Aracaju Sergipe 641,523 552,365 7001161411385587429 ♠ + 16.14 % 34 Feira de Santana Bahia 622,639 542,476 7001147772436015600 ♠ + 14.78 % 35 Cuiabá Mato Grosso 585,367 530,308 7001103824569872600 ♠ + 10.38 % 36 Joinville Santa Catarina 569,645 509,293 7001118501530553140 ♠ + 11.85 % 37 Juiz de Fora Minas Gerais 559,636 497,778 7001124268248094530 ♠ + 12.43 % 38 Londrina Paraná 553,393 493,358 7001121686483243410 ♠ + 12.17 % 39 Aparecida de Goiânia Goiás 532,135 442,978 7001201267331560480 ♠ + 20.13 % 40 Porto Velho Rondônia 511,219 410,520 7001245296209685280 ♠ + 24.53 % 41 Ananindeua Pará 510,834 456,316 7001119474224002660 ♠ + 11.95 % 42 Niterói Rio de Janeiro 497,883 441,078 7001128786745201530 ♠ + 12.88 % 43 Belford Roxo Rio de Janeiro 494,141 455,598 7000845987032427710 ♠ + 8.46 % 44 Serra Espírito Santo 494,109 384,469 7001285172536667460 ♠ + 28.52 % 45 Campos dos Goytacazes Rio de Janeiro 487,186 442,363 7001101326286330460 ♠ + 10.13 % 46 Vila Velha Espírito Santo 479,664 393,941 7001217603651308190 ♠ + 21.76 % 47 Caxias do Sul Rio Grande do Sul 479,236 427,664 7001120589995884619 ♠ + 12.06 % 48 Florianópolis Santa Catarina 477,798 404,224 7001182012943318560 ♠ + 18.20 % 49 Macapá Amapá 465,495 387,539 7001201156528762270 ♠ + 20.12 % 50 São João de Meriti Rio de Janeiro 460,541 439,497 7000478820105711760 ♠ + 4.79 % 51 Mauá São Paulo 457,696 394,698 7001159610639020210 ♠ + 15.96 % 52 São José do Rio Preto São Paulo 446,649 406,220 7000995248879917289 ♠ + 9.95 % 53 Santos São Paulo 434,359 407,506 7000658959622680400 ♠ + 6.59 % 54 Mogi das Cruzes São Paulo 429,321 366,216 7001172316337898940 ♠ + 17.23 % 55 Betim Minas Gerais 422,354 367,044 7001150690380444850 ♠ + 15.07 % 56 Diadema São Paulo 415,180 370,184 7001121550364143240 ♠ + 12.16 % 57 Campina Grande Paraíba 407,754 383,941 7000620225503397660 ♠ + 6.20 % 58 Jundiaí São Paulo 405,740 357,909 7001133640115224820 ♠ + 13.36 % 59 Maringá Paraná 403,063 349,860 7001152069399188250 ♠ + 15.21 % 60 Montes Claros Minas Gerais 398,288 355,401 7001120672142171800 ♠ + 12.07 % 61 Carapicuíba São Paulo 394,465 344,878 7001143781279176980 ♠ + 14.38 % 62 Piracicaba São Paulo 394,419 356,179 7001107361747885190 ♠ + 10.74 % 63 Olinda Pernambuco 390,144 357,965 7000898942634056400 ♠ + 8.99 % 64 Cariacica Espírito Santo 384,621 335,984 7001144759869517600 ♠ + 14.48 % 65 Rio Branco Acre 377,057 319,825 7001178947862112090 ♠ + 17.89 % 66 Anápolis Goiás 370,875 324,303 7001143606442123570 ♠ + 14.36 % 67 Bauru São Paulo 369,368 335,888 7000996760825036920 ♠ + 9.97 % 68 Vitória Espírito Santo 359,555 297,489 7001208632924242580 ♠ + 20.86 % 69 Caucaia Ceará 358,164 286,446 7001250371797825770 ♠ + 25.04 % 70 São Vicente São Paulo 357,989 316,324 7001131716215020040 ♠ + 13.17 % 71 Itaquaquecetuba São Paulo 356,774 314,843 7001133180664648730 ♠ + 13.32 % 72 Caruaru Pernambuco 351,686 306,788 7001146348618590040 ♠ + 14.63 % 73 Vitória da Conquista Bahia 346,069 295,277 7001172014752249580 ♠ + 17.20 % 74 Franca São Paulo 344,704 318,239 7000831607691074950 ♠ + 8.32 % 75 Blumenau Santa Catarina 343,715 299,159 7001148937521518660 ♠ + 14.89 % 76 Pelotas Rio Grande do Sul 343,651 321,818 7000678426936964370 ♠ + 6.78 % 77 Canoas Rio Grande do Sul 342,634 317,945 7000776517951217980 ♠ + 7.77 % 78 Ponta Grossa Paraná 341,130 305,545 7001116464023302620 ♠ + 11.65 % 79 Petrolina Pernambuco 337,683 287,233 7001175641378253890 ♠ + 17.56 % 80 Boa Vista Roraima 326,419 277,684 7001175505250572590 ♠ + 17.55 % 81 Ribeirão das Neves Minas Gerais 325,846 290,727 7001120797173981090 ♠ + 12.08 % 82 Paulista Pernambuco 325,590 278,651 7001168450857883159 ♠ + 16.85 % 83 Uberaba Minas Gerais 325,279 288,235 7001128520131142990 ♠ + 12.85 % 84 Cascavel Paraná 316,226 283,193 7001116644832322830 ♠ + 11.66 % 85 Guarujá São Paulo 313,421 260,477 7001203257869216860 ♠ + 20.33 % 86 Taubaté São Paulo 305,174 275,218 7001108844624988190 ♠ + 10.88 % 87 Praia Grande São Paulo 304,705 251,526 7001211425458998270 ♠ + 21.14 % 88 São José dos Pinhais Paraná 302,759 254,556 7001189361083612250 ♠ + 18.94 % 89 Limeira São Paulo 298,701 274,100 7000897519153593580 ♠ + 8.98 % 90 Petrópolis Rio de Janeiro 298,158 277,816 7000732211247732310 ♠ + 7.32 % 91 Santarém Pará 294,447 291,122 7000114213285151930 ♠ + 1.14 % 92 Camaçari Bahia 292,074 225,510 7001295170945856060 ♠ + 29.52 % 93 Mossoró Rio Grande do Norte 291,937 254,032 7001149213484915290 ♠ + 14.92 % 94 Suzano São Paulo 288,056 256,502 7001123016584666010 ♠ + 12.30 % 95 Palmas Tocantins 279,856 223,817 7001250378657563990 ♠ + 25.04 % 96 Governador Valadares Minas Gerais 279,665 255,475 7000946863685292100 ♠ + 9.47 % 97 Santa Maria Rio Grande do Sul 277,309 259,004 7000706745841763060 ♠ + 7.07 % 98 Taboão da Serra São Paulo 275,948 225,053 7001226146729881410 ♠ + 22.61 % 99 Gravataí Rio Grande do Sul 273,742 253,060 7000817276535209040 ♠ + 8.17 % 100 Várzea Grande Mato Grosso 271,339 248,130 7000935356466368440 ♠ + 9.35 % 101 Sumaré São Paulo 269,522 236,358 7001140312576684520 ♠ + 14.03 % 102 Juazeiro do Norte Ceará 268,248 244,701 7000962276410803390 ♠ + 9.62 % 103 Marabá Pará 266,932 224,014 7001191586240145710 ♠ + 19.16 % 104 Barueri São Paulo 264,935 228,962 7001157113407464990 ♠ + 15.71 % 105 Embu das Artes São Paulo 264,448 223,622 7001182567010401479 ♠ + 18.26 % 106 Foz do Iguaçu Paraná 263,915 250,918 7000517977984839670 ♠ + 5.18 % 107 Volta Redonda Rio de Janeiro 263,659 246,210 7000708703951910970 ♠ + 7.09 % 108 Ipatinga Minas Gerais 259,324 224,636 7001154418704036750 ♠ + 15.44 % 109 Imperatriz Maranhão 253,873 245,509 7000340679975072200 ♠ + 3.41 % 110 Viamão Rio Grande do Sul 252,872 236,999 7000669749661390980 ♠ + 6.70 % 111 Novo Hamburgo Rio Grande do Sul 249,113 237,044 7000509145981336800 ♠ + 5.09 % 112 Parnamirim Rio Grande do Norte 248,623 195,274 7001273200733328550 ♠ + 27.32 % 113 São Carlos São Paulo 243,765 219,865 7001108703067791600 ♠ + 10.87 % 114 Macaé Rio de Janeiro 239,471 194,497 7001231232358339720 ♠ + 23.12 % 115 Magé Rio de Janeiro 236,319 218,307 7000825076612293700 ♠ + 8.25 % 116 São José Santa Catarina 236,029 203,384 7001160509184596630 ♠ + 16.05 % 117 Indaiatuba São Paulo 235,367 188,639 7001247711236806810 ♠ + 24.77 % 118 Colombo Paraná 234,941 208,805 7001125169416441180 ♠ + 12.52 % 119 Sete Lagoas Minas Gerais 234,221 211,094 7001109557827318640 ♠ + 10.96 % 120 Cotia São Paulo 233,696 190,488 7001226827936667930 ♠ + 22.68 % 121 Marília São Paulo 233,639 214,742 7000879986216017360 ♠ + 8.80 % 122 Divinópolis Minas Gerais 232,945 206,867 7001126061672475550 ♠ + 12.61 % 123 Arapiraca Alagoas 232,671 212,216 7000963876427790550 ♠ + 9.64 % 124 Americana São Paulo 231,621 209,230 7001107016202265450 ♠ + 10.70 % 125 Itaboraí Rio de Janeiro 230,786 210,780 7000949141284751869 ♠ + 9.49 % 126 São Leopoldo Rio Grande do Sul 229,678 212,279 7000819628884628249 ♠ + 8.20 % 127 Araraquara São Paulo 228,664 204,934 7001115793377380030 ♠ + 11.58 % 128 Jacareí São Paulo 228,214 208,934 7000922779442311930 ♠ + 9.23 % 129 Itapevi São Paulo 226,488 192,184 7001178495608375310 ♠ + 17.85 % 130 Presidente Prudente São Paulo 223,749 205,340 7000896513100224020 ♠ + 8.97 % 131 Maracanaú Ceará 223,188 200,797 7001111510630138900 ♠ + 11.15 % 132 Itabuna Bahia 220,386 202,359 7000890842512564300 ♠ + 8.91 % 133 Juazeiro Bahia 220,253 194,327 7001133414296520810 ♠ + 13.34 % 134 Hortolândia São Paulo 219,039 186,461 7001174717501246910 ♠ + 17.47 % 135 Rondonópolis Mato Grosso 218,899 189,975 7001152251612054220 ♠ + 15.23 % 136 Santa Luzia Minas Gerais 217,610 198,773 7000947663918137780 ♠ + 9.48 % 137 Dourados Mato Grosso do Sul 215,486 191,638 7001124442960164480 ♠ + 12.44 % 138 Cabo Frio Rio de Janeiro 212,289 171,551 7001237468741074080 ♠ + 23.75 % 139 Rio Verde Goiás 212,237 169,611 7001251316247177360 ♠ + 25.13 % 140 Cachoeiro de Itapemirim Espírito Santo 210,325 180,984 7001162119303363830 ♠ + 16.21 % 141 Chapecó Santa Catarina 209,553 182,809 7001146294766669040 ♠ + 14.63 % 142 Criciúma Santa Catarina 209,153 191,473 7000923367785536340 ♠ + 9.23 % 143 Itajaí Santa Catarina 208,958 182,484 7001145075732666970 ♠ + 14.51 % 144 Rio Grande Rio Grande do Sul 208,641 192,582 7000833878555628250 ♠ + 8.34 % 145 Alvorada Rio Grande do Sul 207,392 194,837 7000644384793442720 ♠ + 6.44 % 146 Sobral Ceará 203,682 181,010 7001125252748466940 ♠ + 12.53 % 147 Cabo de Santo Agostinho Pernambuco 202,636 179,912 7001126306194139360 ♠ + 12.63 % 148 Rio Claro São Paulo 201,473 185,777 7000844883919968559 ♠ + 8.45 % 149 Passo Fundo Rio Grande do Sul 197,798 181,299 7000910043629584279 ♠ + 9.10 % 150 Luziânia Goiás 196,864 165,492 7001189568075798230 ♠ + 18.96 % 151 Parauapebas Pará 196,259 149,411 7001313551211088880 ♠ + 31.36 % 152 Lauro de Freitas Bahia 194,641 154,245 7001261895037116280 ♠ + 26.19 % 153 Araçatuba São Paulo 193,828 178,927 7000832797733153750 ♠ + 8.33 % 154 Castanhal Pará 192,571 168,559 7001142454570803100 ♠ + 14.25 % 155 Angra dos Reis Rio de Janeiro 191,504 148,294 7001291380635764090 ♠ + 29.14 % 156 Águas Lindas de Goiás Goiás 191,499 157,323 7001217234606510170 ♠ + 21.72 % 157 Santa Bárbara d'Oeste São Paulo 191,024 178,290 7000714229625890400 ♠ + 7.14 % 158 Ferraz de Vasconcelos São Paulo 186,808 164,591 7001134983079269219 ♠ + 13.50 % 159 Nova Friburgo Rio de Janeiro 185,102 173,989 7000638718539677800 ♠ + 6.39 % 160 Barra Mansa Rio de Janeiro 180,126 172,484 7000443055587764660 ♠ + 4.43 % 161 Nossa Senhora do Socorro Sergipe 179,661 158,470 7001133722471130180 ♠ + 13.37 % 162 Guarapuava Paraná 179,256 166,195 7000785884051866780 ♠ + 7.86 % 163 Ilhéus Bahia 178,210 176,917 6999730851190106100 ♠ + 0.73 % 164 São José de Ribamar Maranhão 176,008 160,775 7000947473176799880 ♠ + 9.47 % 165 Ibirité Minas Gerais 175,721 152,647 7001151159210465980 ♠ + 15.12 % 166 Teresópolis Rio de Janeiro 174,587 160,205 7000897724790112670 ♠ + 8.98 % 167 Araguaína Tocantins 173,112 149,313 7001159390006228530 ♠ + 15.94 % 168 Mesquita Rio de Janeiro 171,020 159,685 7000709834987631900 ♠ + 7.10 % 169 Francisco Morato São Paulo 169,942 148,935 7001141048108235140 ♠ + 14.10 % 170 Itapecerica da Serra São Paulo 169,103 143,448 7001178845295856340 ♠ + 17.88 % 171 Itu São Paulo 168,643 150,101 7001123530156361380 ♠ + 12.35 % 172 Jaraguá do Sul Santa Catarina 167,300 142,209 7001176437496923540 ♠ + 17.64 % 173 Linhares Espírito Santo 166,491 138,679 7001200549470359610 ♠ + 20.05 % 174 Timon Maranhão 166,295 147,214 7001129614031274200 ♠ + 12.96 % 175 Poços de Caldas Minas Gerais 164,912 149,667 7001101859461337500 ♠ + 10.19 % 176 Bragança Paulista São Paulo 162,435 139,726 7001162525227946119 ♠ + 16.25 % 177 Pindamonhangaba São Paulo 162,327 146,117 7001110938494494140 ♠ + 11.09 % 178 Caxias Maranhão 161,926 154,211 7000500288565666519 ♠ + 5.00 % 179 Jequié Bahia 161,880 151,820 7000662626794888680 ♠ + 6.63 % 180 Palhoça Santa Catarina 161,395 135,720 7001189176245210730 ♠ + 18.92 % 181 Teixeira de Freitas Bahia 159,813 133,261 7001199248092089960 ♠ + 19.92 % 182 São Caetano do Sul São Paulo 158,825 146,547 7000837819948548930 ♠ + 8.38 % 183 Lages Santa Catarina 158,620 154,122 7000291846718833130 ♠ + 2.92 % 184 Itapetininga São Paulo 158,561 144,395 7000981058900931470 ♠ + 9.81 % 185 Nilópolis Rio de Janeiro 158,319 154,232 7000264990404066600 ♠ + 2.65 % 186 Valparaíso de Goiás Goiás 156,419 122,771 7001274071238321750 ♠ + 27.41 % 187 Barreiras Bahia 155,519 130,620 7001190621650589500 ♠ + 19.06 % 188 Alagoinhas Bahia 155,362 136,473 7001138408329852790 ♠ + 13.84 % 189 Camaragibe Pernambuco 155,228 138,239 7001122895854281350 ♠ + 12.29 % 190 Abaetetuba Pará 151,934 139,749 7000871920371523230 ♠ + 8.72 % 191 Paranaguá Paraná 151,829 136,911 7001108961296024420 ♠ + 10.90 % 192 Parnaíba Piauí 150,201 145,293 7000337800169313040 ♠ + 3.38 % 193 Maricá Rio de Janeiro 149,876 116,216 7001289633096991810 ♠ + 28.96 % 194 Patos de Minas Minas Gerais 149,856 132,332 7001132424508055500 ♠ + 13.24 % 195 Mogi Guaçu São Paulo 148,327 137,208 7000810375488309719 ♠ + 8.10 % 196 Franco da Rocha São Paulo 147,650 126,092 7001170970402563210 ♠ + 17.10 % 197 Porto Seguro Bahia 147,444 122,525 7001203378902264840 ♠ + 20.34 % 198 Pouso Alegre Minas Gerais 145,535 126,836 7001147426598126710 ♠ + 14.74 % 199 Jaú São Paulo 144,828 131,050 7001105135444486840 ♠ + 10.51 % 200 Queimados Rio de Janeiro 144,525 131,163 7001101873241691640 ♠ + 10.19 % 201 Teófilo Otoni Minas Gerais 141,502 133,161 7000626384602098210 ♠ + 6.26 % 202 Botucatu São Paulo 141,032 122,659 7001149789253132670 ♠ + 14.98 % 203 Sapucaia do Sul Rio Grande do Sul 138,933 129,615 7000718898275662540 ♠ + 7.19 % 204 Atibaia São Paulo 138,449 120,886 7001145285641017160 ♠ + 14.53 % 205 Garanhuns Pernambuco 137,810 126,472 7000896483016003539 ♠ + 8.96 % 206 Vitória de Santo Antão Pernambuco 136,706 123,930 7001103090454288710 ♠ + 10.31 % 207 Rio das Ostras Rio de Janeiro 136,626 101,508 7001345962879773020 ♠ + 34.60 % 208 Santa Rita Paraíba 135,915 119,546 7001136926371438610 ♠ + 13.69 % 209 Barbacena Minas Gerais 135,829 121,571 7001117281259510900 ♠ + 11.73 % 210 Araucária Paraná 135,459 116,683 7001160914614811070 ♠ + 16.09 % 211 Sabará Minas Gerais 135,196 121,085 7001116537969195190 ♠ + 11.65 % 212 Simões Filho Bahia 134,674 112,099 7001201384490495010 ♠ + 20.14 % 213 Toledo Paraná 133,824 119,002 7001124552528528930 ♠ + 12.46 % 214 Varginha Minas Gerais 133,384 120,975 7001102574912171940 ♠ + 10.26 % 215 Sinop Mato Grosso 132,934 111,643 7001190706089947420 ♠ + 19.07 % 216 Cametá Pará 132,515 120,897 7000960983316376749 ♠ + 9.61 % 217 Balneário Camboriú Santa Catarina 131,727 106,220 7001240133684805120 ♠ + 24.01 % 218 Apucarana Paraná 131,571 119,159 7001104163344774630 ♠ + 10.42 % 219 Ji - Paraná Rondônia 131,560 115,593 7001138131201716370 ♠ + 13.81 % 220 Araras São Paulo 130,102 117,972 7001102821008374870 ♠ + 10.28 % 221 Uruguaiana Rio Grande do Sul 129,720 125,171 7000363422837558220 ♠ + 3.63 % 222 Crato Ceará 129,662 119,949 7000809760815013049 ♠ + 8.10 % 223 Santana de Parnaíba São Paulo 129,261 102,074 7001266345984285910 ♠ + 26.63 % 224 Pinhais Paraná 128,256 112,852 7001136497359373340 ♠ + 13.65 % 225 Cubatão São Paulo 127,887 116,010 7001102379105249550 ♠ + 10.24 % 226 Santa Cruz do Sul Rio Grande do Sul 126,775 117,214 7000815687545856300 ♠ + 8.16 % 227 Cachoeirinha Rio Grande do Sul 126,666 116,499 7000872711353745530 ♠ + 8.73 % 228 São Mateus Espírito Santo 126,437 106,974 7001181941406323030 ♠ + 18.19 % 229 Conselheiro Lafaiete Minas Gerais 126,420 115,578 7000938067798369930 ♠ + 9.38 % 230 Itapipoca Ceará 126,234 114,693 7001100625147131910 ♠ + 10.06 % 231 Resende Rio de Janeiro 126,084 117,243 7000754074870141500 ♠ + 7.54 % 232 Brusque Santa Catarina 125,810 103,944 7001210363272531360 ♠ + 21.04 % 233 Campo Largo Paraná 125,719 107,711 7001167188123775660 ♠ + 16.72 % 234 Marituba Pará 125,435 108,223 7001159041978137730 ♠ + 15.90 % 235 Maranguape Ceará 125,058 94,641 7001321393476400290 ♠ + 32.14 % 236 Araruama Rio de Janeiro 124,940 110,057 7001135229926310910 ♠ + 13.52 % 237 Colatina Espírito Santo 123,598 109,789 7001125777627995520 ♠ + 12.58 % 238 Bragança Pará 122,881 112,285 7000943670125128020 ♠ + 9.44 % 239 Valinhos São Paulo 122,163 100,905 7001210673405678610 ♠ + 21.07 % 240 Bagé Rio Grande do Sul 121,986 116,078 7000508968107651749 ♠ + 5.09 % 241 Guarapari Espírito Santo 121,506 102,009 7001191130194394610 ♠ + 19.11 % 242 Sertãozinho São Paulo 121,412 110,081 7001102933294574000 ♠ + 10.29 % 243 Ribeirão Pires São Paulo 121,130 102,741 7001178984047264480 ♠ + 17.90 % 244 Itaguaí Rio de Janeiro 120,855 100,362 7001204190829198300 ♠ + 20.42 % 245 São Félix do Xingu Pará 120,580 90,908 7001326395916751000 ♠ + 32.64 % 246 Codó Maranhão 120,548 115,076 7000475511835656430 ♠ + 4.76 % 247 Vespasiano Minas Gerais 120,510 95,279 7001264811763347640 ♠ + 26.48 % 248 Jandira São Paulo 120,177 103,784 7001157953056347800 ♠ + 15.80 % 249 Catanduva São Paulo 120,092 112,143 7000708827122513220 ♠ + 7.09 % 250 Barretos São Paulo 119,948 111,884 7000720746487433410 ♠ + 7.21 % 251 Paulo Afonso Bahia 119,930 107,520 7001115420386904760 ♠ + 11.54 % 252 Paço do Lumiar Maranhão 119,915 104,567 7001146776707756750 ♠ + 14.68 % 253 Guaratinguetá São Paulo 119,753 111,322 7000757352544869840 ♠ + 7.57 % 254 Birigui São Paulo 119,536 108,479 7001101927562016610 ♠ + 10.19 % 255 Trindade Goiás 119,385 98,159 7001216240996750170 ♠ + 21.62 % 256 Votorantim São Paulo 118,858 105,514 7001126466630020659 ♠ + 12.65 % 257 Barcarena Pará 118,537 94,641 7001252490992276070 ♠ + 25.25 % 258 Itabira Minas Gerais 118,481 105,694 7001120981323443150 ♠ + 12.10 % 259 Tatuí São Paulo 117,823 106,572 7001105571819990240 ♠ + 10.56 % 260 Várzea Paulista São Paulo 117,772 101,230 7001163410056307420 ♠ + 16.34 % 261 Arapongas Paraná 116,960 104,010 7001124507258917410 ♠ + 12.45 % 262 Araguari Minas Gerais 116,871 107,810 7000840460068639270 ♠ + 8.40 % 263 Três Lagoas Mato Grosso do Sul 115,561 98,311 7001175463579863900 ♠ + 17.55 % 264 Salto São Paulo 115,193 103,795 7001109812611397470 ♠ + 10.98 % 265 Caraguatatuba São Paulo 115,071 99,540 7001156027727546710 ♠ + 15.60 % 266 Itatiba São Paulo 114,912 99,705 7001152519933804720 ♠ + 15.25 % 267 Poá São Paulo 114,650 104,574 7000963528219251439 ♠ + 9.64 % 268 Eunápolis Bahia 114,275 98,078 7001165144069006300 ♠ + 16.51 % 269 Bento Gonçalves Rio Grande do Sul 114,203 104,470 7000931655020580070 ♠ + 9.32 % 270 Almirante Tamandaré Paraná 114,129 99,514 7001146863757863220 ♠ + 14.69 % 271 Formosa Goiás 114,036 97,903 7001164785553047400 ♠ + 16.48 % 272 Igarassu Pernambuco 113,956 97,032 7001174416687278420 ♠ + 17.44 % 273 Santana Amapá 113,854 99,029 7001149703622171280 ♠ + 14.97 % 274 Passos Minas Gerais 113,807 104,691 7000870752977810889 ♠ + 8.71 % 275 Parintins Amazonas 112,716 96,223 7001171403926296210 ♠ + 17.14 % 276 Ubá Minas Gerais 112,186 97,726 7001147964717680040 ♠ + 14.80 % 277 São Lourenço da Mata Pernambuco 111,197 101,762 7000927163381222849 ♠ + 9.27 % 278 Ourinhos São Paulo 111,056 102,302 7000855701745811419 ♠ + 8.56 % 279 Açailândia Maranhão 110,543 101,022 7000942467977272280 ♠ + 9.42 % 280 Altamira Pará 109,938 94,624 7001161840547852550 ♠ + 16.18 % 281 Coronel Fabriciano Minas Gerais 109,857 103,008 7000664899813606710 ♠ + 6.65 % 282 Corumbá Mato Grosso do Sul 109,294 102,209 7000693187488381650 ♠ + 6.93 % 283 Umuarama Paraná 109,132 100,025 7000910472381904520 ♠ + 9.10 % 284 Tucuruí Pará 108,885 96,343 7001130180708510220 ♠ + 13.02 % 285 Paragominas Pará 108,547 97,459 7001113770919053140 ♠ + 11.38 % 286 Novo Gama Goiás 108,410 92,788 7001168362288226929 ♠ + 16.84 % 287 Muriaé Minas Gerais 107,916 99,949 7000797106524327410 ♠ + 7.97 % 288 Patos Paraíba 107,067 100,675 7000634914328284080 ♠ + 6.35 % 289 Piraquara Paraná 106,132 91,783 7001156336140679650 ♠ + 15.63 % 290 Ariquemes Rondônia 105,896 88,330 7001198867881806860 ♠ + 19.89 % 291 Cambé Paraná 104,592 96,427 7000846754539703610 ♠ + 8.47 % 292 Ituiutaba Minas Gerais 103,945 96,097 7000816674818152490 ♠ + 8.17 % 293 Tubarão Santa Catarina 103,674 96,284 7000767521083461430 ♠ + 7.68 % 294 Santa Cruz do Capibaribe Pernambuco 103,660 82,649 7001254219651780420 ♠ + 25.42 % 295 Araxá Minas Gerais 103,287 93,071 7001109765662773580 ♠ + 10.98 % 296 Lagarto Sergipe 103,188 94,071 7000969161590713400 ♠ + 9.69 % 297 Bacabal Maranhão 103,020 98,445 7000464726497028800 ♠ + 4.65 % 298 Senador Canedo Goiás 102,947 82,712 7001244644066157270 ♠ + 24.46 % 299 Erechim Rio Grande do Sul 102,906 96,031 7000715914652560110 ♠ + 7.16 % 300 Santo Antônio de Jesus Bahia 102,469 86,982 7001178048331838770 ♠ + 17.80 % 301 Assis São Paulo 102,268 94,659 7000803832704761300 ♠ + 8.04 % 302 Iguatu Ceará 102,013 95,011 7000736967298523330 ♠ + 7.37 % 303 Itumbiara Goiás 101,544 91,892 7001105036347016060 ♠ + 10.50 % 304 Lavras Minas Gerais 101,208 89,380 7001132333855448650 ♠ + 13.23 % 305 Catalão Goiás 100,590 84,964 7001183913186761450 ♠ + 18.39 % 306 Japeri Rio de Janeiro 100,562 91,933 7000938618341618349 ♠ + 9.39 % 307 Tailândia Pará 100,300 79,282 7001265104311192960 ♠ + 26.51 % 308 Leme São Paulo 100,296 91,476 7000964187327823690 ♠ + 9.64 % 309 Paulínia São Paulo 100,128 80,874 7001238074041100970 ♠ + 23.81 % Brazil 's population , as recorded by the 2010 Census , was of 190,755,799 inhabitants ( 22.40 inhabitants per square kilometer ) , with 84.36 % of the population defined as urban . The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeast ( 80 , 4 million ) and Northeast ( 53.1 million ) . Distribution ( edit ) State Number of cities SP 78 MG 32 RJ 27 PR 20 RS 19 BA 17 PA 16 GO , PE , SC 13 CE , ES , MA 9 MS , MT , PB RN , RO , SE AL , AM , AP , PI , TO AC , DF , RR Image gallery ( edit ) 1 -- São Paulo 2 -- Rio de Janeiro 3 -- Brasília 4 -- Salvador 5 -- Fortaleza 6 -- Belo Horizonte 7 -- Manaus 8 -- Curitiba 9 -- Recife 10 - Porto Alegre 11 -- Goiânia 12 -- Belém 13 -- Guarulhos 14 - Campinas 15 -- São Luís 19 - Natal 25 - Santo André 26 - Osasco 30 - Uberlândia 32 - Sorocaba 38 - Londrina 42 - Niterói 46 - Vila Velha 48 - Florianópolis 53 - Santos 59 - Maringá 67 - Bauru 68 - Vitória 75 - Blumenau Largest metropolitan areas ( edit ) Main article : List of metropolitan areas in Brazil See also ( edit ) Municipalities of Brazil List of municipalities of Brazil List of largest cities in Brazil by state Largest metropolitan areas in the Americas Largest cities in the Americas Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Territorial units of the municipality level '' ( in Portuguese ) . Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Urban population as % of total '' . The World Bank . Retrieved 2015 - 05 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` IBGE Censo 2010 '' . 2010 . Retrieved 28 August 2017 . 2010 Brazilian Census Population Jump up ^ `` Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics '' ( PDF ) . 2016 . Retrieved 27 August 2017 . 2016 Estimates of Population Jump up ^ `` 2010 Census first final results : Brazil has a population of 190,755,799 residents '' . IBGE.gov.br . External links ( edit ) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Municipalities in Brazil . Cities by state IBGE Brazil History Timeline of Brazilian history Indigenous peoples Portuguese Colony ( 1500 -- 1815 ) United Kingdom ( 1815 -- 1822 ) Empire ( 1822 -- 1889 ) Old Republic ( 1889 -- 1930 ) Vargas Era ( 1930 -- 1946 ) Second Republic ( 1946 -- 1964 ) Military rule ( 1964 -- 1985 ) New Republic ( post 1985 ) Geography Amazon basin Climate Coastline Conservation Environment Environmental issues Extreme points Islands Largest cities Mountains Pantanal Protected areas Regions Rivers Water resources Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights Legal system Law Law enforcement Military National Congress Political parties President Economy Agriculture Car industry Central Bank Economic history Energy Exports Industry Mining Real ( currency ) Science and technology Stock index Telecommunications Tourism Transport Society Corruption Crime Demographics Education Health Immigration Income inequality Languages People Religion Social issues States by HDI Unemployment Water supply and sanitation Welfare Youth Culture Arts Animation Carnaval Cinema Comics Cuisine Literature Malandragem Music Newspapers Painting Public holidays Sculpture Science fiction Sports Television Outline Index Portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_largest_cities_in_Brazil&oldid=800211191 '' Categories : Lists of municipalities in Brazil Lists of cities by population Hidden categories : CS1 Portuguese - language sources ( pt ) Use dmy dates from November 2014 Commons category without a link on Wikidata Talk Contents About Wikipedia Languages Azərbaycanca Башҡортса Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Gaeilge 한국어 Hrvatski বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Interlingua Italiano ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски मराठी Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 12 September 2017 , at 03 : 08 . About Wikipedia | where is most of brazil's population located | [
"Brazil's population, as recorded by the 2010 Census, was of 190,755,799 inhabitants[5] (22.40 inhabitants per square kilometer), with 84.36% of the population defined as urban. The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeast (80,4 million) and Northeast (53.1 million)."
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"in the Southeast (80,4 million) and Northeast (53.1 million)"
] |
743098613944981177 | Penelope Garcia | Penelope Garcia - wikipedia Penelope Garcia This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in - universe style . Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective . ( January 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Penelope Garcia Criminal Minds character Kirsten Vangsness as Penelope Garcia First appearance `` Extreme Aggressor '' 1x01 , September 22 , 2005 ( on Criminal Minds ) `` Two of a Kind '' 1x01 , February 16 , 2011 ( on Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior ) `` Denial '' 1x03 , March 30 , 2016 ( on Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders ) Last appearance `` Death by a Thousand Cuts '' 1x13 , May 25 , 2011 ( on Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior ) `` Lost Souls '' 2x01 , March 8 , 2017 ( on Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders ) Created by Jeff Davis Portrayed by Kirsten Vangsness Other appearances Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders Information Nickname ( s ) Baby Girl , Doll Face , Sweetness , Mama ( by Morgan ) Occupation FBI Technical Analyst Co-Communications Liaison Support Group Leader Family Eddie Garcia ( step - brother ) Manny Garcia ( step - brother ) Ralphie Garcia ( step - brother ) Carlos Garcia ( step - brother ) Barbara Garcia ( mother ; deceased ) Unnamed father Emilio Garcia ( step - father ; deceased ) Henry LaMontagne ( godson , via JJ ) Hank Spencer Morgan ( godson , via Morgan ) Significant other ( s ) Kevin Lynch ( ex-boyfriend ) Seasons 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 Penelope Grace Garcia is a fictional character on the CBS crime dramas Criminal Minds and its short - lived spin - off Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior , portrayed by Kirsten Vangsness . She is the technical analyst of the Behavioral Analysis Unit that is the center of both shows . She also made a guest appearance during season 1 of Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders , making her the only character in the franchise to appear in all three series in the franchise . Contents ( hide ) 1 Life before the BAU 2 Personality 2.1 Criminal Minds 2.2 Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior 2.3 Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders 3 References 4 External links Life before the BAU ( edit ) Garcia is from San Francisco . A drunk driver killed her parents in a car accident when she was eighteen , and she now helps counsel the families of murder victims in her spare time . Garcia has stated that after her parents died , she dropped out of Caltech and went `` underground '' but continued to teach herself computer coding . She had been placed on one of the FBI 's hacker lists ( she was one of a small handful of extremely useful or dangerous hackers in the world ) , and they recruited her from there . It has also been mentioned , when she was not allowed to travel with the team to Langley , that she was on the CIA 's `` lists '' as well . JJ joked that Garcia belonged to that list when she ( unsuccessfully ) tried to hack the CIA for information ( namely , Prince William 's phone number ) and information on Diana , Princess of Wales ' death and other government conspiracies . Penelope is into online games , specifically MMOGs , as she was once seen playing a game about Camelot on the BAU network , constantly virtually meeting with `` Sir Kneighf '' , an online alter ego who turns out to be Randall Garner , who is keeping a young woman prisoner while sending the team several clues that , with tremendous help from Reid , they use to catch him and save the woman . Garner hacked into Garcia 's computer and accessed files about the BAU , then used the personal information to find out their whereabouts so he could send the clues there . Hotch states at one point that when Garcia applied for her position , she submitted her resume on `` pink , homemade stationery '' . Personality ( edit ) She is flamboyant , fun - loving , and provides the rest of the team with comic relief . She is very confident in her ability to find answers , and often answers her office phone with a know - it - all , yet joking , attitude ( e.g. ' The Office of Unmitigated Superiority ' , ' Penelope 's house of `` how may I save your ass today ? '' ' , ' Fount of all knowledge , check my flow ! ' , or similar ) . This self - confidence is fed by Morgan , who often initiates flirtatious banter , including calling her ' Baby Girl ' , or mama , and sweetness which Garcia seems to really enjoy . However , this banter has placed her in some awkward situations , such as when she opens up a phone conversation with a funny inappropriate comment , thinking it 's Morgan , and it turns out to be a superior on speakerphone . Although they have n't pursued a romantic relationship , Garcia has shown mild jealousy , e.g. at Morgan dancing with other women . She has cried twice when she thought Morgan was dead , and he has in turn had strong reactions when Garcia is in harm 's way . Criminal Minds ( edit ) Garcia is unabashedly emotional , which sometimes makes her job with the BAU more difficult . She has broken down , crying several times while listening to and watching terrifying things in her office as she analyzes them for the team . However , according to Agent Hotchner , she `` fills her office with figurines and color to remind herself to smile as the horror fills her screens '' . Garcia is , on the whole , an optimist . She has managed to remain so , even though the job occasionally requires her to dig into people 's secret lives , to `` find the god - awful thing that happened to them that made them do the god - awful thing to someone else '' . Many team members have commented in various ways , that her optimism is an aid to them , that ( as Hotch said ) they would never want her to change . He once commented to Reid and JJ , after contacting Garcia during a case , `` Remind me to have her drug tested , '' indicating her optimism could even be too much at times . Garcia was once shot by a man with whom she had just gone on a date , but survived when the bullet missed her heart and ricocheted into her abdomen . The attacker ( who turned out to be a type of serial killer known as a ' hero homicide ' ) was later killed . After this incident , Morgan insisted she keep a gun ; however , it is never shown whether she took this advice . She was romantically involved with fellow FBI Technical Analyst Kevin Lynch ( played by Nicholas Brendon ) . Garcia seems to have been the one most hurt by JJ transferring out of the Behavioral Analysis Unit , and in `` Compromising Positions '' , Garcia opted to replace JJ as their new Media Liaison . She was also emotional in the episode `` Lauren '' when Prentiss is stabbed by her nemesis , Ian Doyle . JJ joins the team waiting in the hospital lounge for results to inform them that Prentiss `` never made it off the table '' . We see that Garcia can tell the news is not good by the look on JJ 's face . In `` Hanley Waters '' , she is interviewed by Hotch about Prentiss ' `` apparent death '' and says she wants to talk about the times when Prentiss made her happy instead of about her being gone . Garcia is extremely and emotionally excited when she learns that Prentiss is alive and shocked when she returns . She 's also quick to forgive her , JJ , and Hotch for the deception . It is also revealed that she has been taking care of Emily 's cat , Sergio , and when Emily inquires about him , Garcia promptly demands visitation rights . Garcia is afraid of losing a partner , as she risked her career by taking down a federal website to stop her boyfriend , Kevin Lynch , from being transferred out of country for a job , though after she accidentally let a detail slip while talking to him , he was annoyed slightly , but happy for the action on her part . Her moment of truth came in the 9th season episode `` Demons '' when she was forced to shoot an assassin sent to kill Reid by a corrupt sheriffs deputy . Reid had been in a hospital after being shot in the previous episode . In an attempt to get some closure , she communicates with the man she shot while he 's on death row and later goes to his execution . Garcia is extremely close to JJ and Emily Prentiss . Time and again they have `` Girls Night Out '' which lasted till early morning instead of a couple of hours . Garcia is godmother of both JJ 's sons and Derek Morgan 's son as well . Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior ( edit ) The character of Garcia also appeared in the spin - off Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior as a series regular . Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders ( edit ) The character of Garcia also appeared in the spin - off Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders . Her first appearance was in season one in a scene with Russ `` Monty '' Montgomery , where Monty hides Garcia 's octopus mug and claims not to have it . In July 2016 , it was announced that Garcia would make several appearances in season 2 . References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` The Instincts '' , season 4 , episode 6 Jump up ^ `` Hit '' , season 7 , episode 23 Jump up ^ Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders Sneak Peek : Penelope Garcia Grills Monty ! Jump up ^ `` Penelope '' . Criminal Mind . Season 3 . Episode 9 . November 21 , 2007 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` Secrets and Lies '' . Criminal Mind . Season 1 . Episode 21 . May 3 , 2006 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` The Fisher King , Part 1 '' . Criminal Mind . Season 1 . Episode 22 . May 10 , 2006 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` House on Fire '' . Criminal Mind . Season 4 . Episode 19 . March 25 , 2009 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` Lucky '' . Criminal Mind . Season 3 . Episode 8 . November 14 , 2007 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` Compromising Positions '' . Criminal Mind . Season 6 . Episode 4 . October 13 , 2010 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` Lauren '' . Criminal Mind . Season 6 . Episode 18 . March 16 , 2011 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` Hanley Waters '' . Criminal Mind . Season 6 . Episode 20 . April 6 , 2011 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` It Takes a Village '' . Criminal Mind . Season 7 . Episode 1 . September 21 , 2011 . CBS . Jump up ^ `` Criminal Minds ' Kirsten Vangsness Joins Spin - Off as a Series Regular '' . TVGuide.com . Jump up ^ `` Denial '' . Criminal Minds : Beyond Borders . Season 1 . Episode 3 . March 30 , 2016 . CBS . Jump up ^ ( ( cite web url = http://criminalmindsfeed.tumblr.com/post/147660673600/criminalmindsbbcbs-we-have-some-very-exciting External links ( edit ) hide Criminal Minds Criminal Minds Episodes Season 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Characters Jason Gideon Aaron Hotchner Elle Greenaway Derek Morgan Spencer Reid Jennifer Jareau Penelope Garcia Emily Prentiss David Rossi Alex Blake Video game Suspect Behavior Sam Cooper Beyond Borders Episodes Season 1 Characters Jack Garrett Clara Seger Russ Montgomery Matt Simmons Mae Jarvis International South Korean Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penelope_Garcia&oldid=836022093 '' Categories : Criminal Minds characters Fictional characters of the Federal Bureau of Investigation Fictional hackers Fictional characters introduced in 2005 Crossover characters in television Hidden categories : Articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction from January 2014 All articles that need to differentiate between fact and fiction Articles using Infobox character with multiple unlabeled fields Talk Contents About Wikipedia Bosanski Español Français Српски / srpski Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 12 April 2018 , at 05 : 56 . About Wikipedia | what episode of criminal minds does garcia join the team | [
"\n\nPenelope Garcia\n\n\nCriminal Minds character\n\n\n\nKirsten Vangsness as Penelope Garcia\n\n\n\nFirst appearance\n\"Extreme Aggressor\"\n1x01, September 22, 2005\n(on Criminal Minds)\n\"Two of a Kind\"\n1x01, February 16, 2011\n(on Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior)\n\"Denial\"\n1x03, March 30, 2016\n(on Criminal Minds: Beyond Borders)\n\n\nLast appearance\n\"Death by a Thousand Cuts\"\n1x13, May 25, 2011\n(on Criminal Minds: Suspect Behavior)\n\"Lost Souls\"\n2x01, March 8, 2017\n(on Criminal Minds: Beyond Borders)\n\n\nCreated by\nJeff Davis\n\n\nPortrayed by\nKirsten Vangsness\n\n\nOther appearances\nCriminal Minds: Suspect Behavior\nCriminal Minds: Beyond Borders\n\n\nInformation\n\n\nNickname(s)\nBaby Girl, Doll Face, Sweetness, Mama\n(by Morgan)\n\n\nOccupation\nFBI Technical Analyst\nCo-Communications Liaison\nSupport Group Leader\n\n\nFamily\nEddie Garcia\n(step-brother)\nManny Garcia\n(step-brother)\nRalphie Garcia\n(step-brother)\nCarlos Garcia\n(step-brother)\nBarbara Garcia\n(mother; deceased)\nUnnamed father\nEmilio Garcia\n(step-father; deceased)\nHenry LaMontagne\n(godson, via JJ)[1]\nHank Spencer Morgan\n(godson, via Morgan)\n\n\nSignificant other(s)\nKevin Lynch (ex-boyfriend)[2]\n\n\nSeasons\n1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13\n\n"
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"Extreme Aggressor"
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6085197670154433124 | Bangladesh Naval Academy | Bangladesh Naval Academy - Wikipedia Bangladesh Naval Academy Jump to : navigation , search Bangladesh Naval Academy BNA Main Gate Type Govt . military college Established 1976 ( 1976 ) Commandant Commodore Golam Sadeq , ( G ) , ncc , psc , BN Location Patenga , Chittagong , Bangladesh Website bna.org.bd The Bangladesh Naval Academy is situated at the mouth of the Karnaphuli River at Patenga , Chittagong , Bangladesh . Contents ( hide ) 1 History 2 See also 3 References 4 External links History ( edit ) It was established in 1976 at the premises of the Marine Academy at Juludia , Chittagong , later shifted to BNS ISSA KHAN in Chittagong to train the cadets of the Bangladesh Navy . The Academy shifted to its present location in 1988 . Yuri V Redkin , a Soviet Union navy sailor who died clearing mines left from the Bangladesh Liberation war in Chittagong port , is buried here . All Cadets of the Bangladesh Navy undergo 10 weeks Joint Services training in Bangladesh Military Academy with the Army and Air force Cadets . In the Bangladesh Naval Academy they continue for another 15 months training till they become Midshipman . The Midshipmen are sent to ships for 6 months Sea Training . After sea training i.e. after 3 years of training they are commissioned in the Bangladesh Navy in the rank of Sub Lieutenant . Officers are also awarded with the Bachelor of Science degree as they graduate from the Academy with the affiliation of Bangladesh University of Professionals ( Bangladesh ) . In 2014 the Academy has introduced 04 years BSc ( Hons ) in Maritime Science and BBA in Logistics and Management under Bangladesh University of Professionals . Many foreign cadets like Palestinians , Sir - Lankan , Maldivian and Qatari , etc. are trained in BNA There are four wings in the Academy namely ; Professional wing , academic wing , training and administrative wing . Junior Staff Course ( JSC ) is also conducted at BNA under JSC Wing . There are 3 Divisions in Academy , namely , Foc 's ' l , Main Top and Quarter Deck . Presently , Commodore Golam Sadeq , ( G ) , ncc , psc , BN is the Commandant of BNA . See also ( edit ) List of active ships of the Bangladesh Navy References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Navy to get two subs this year '' . The Daily Star . 2016 - 03 - 20 . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Home '' . bna.navy.mil.bd . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . Jump up ^ `` Russia - Our sincere gratitude to them -- I '' . www.observerbd.com . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 17 . Jump up ^ `` Bangladesh Naval Academy - Banglapedia '' . en.banglapedia.org . Retrieved 2017 - 04 - 03 . External links ( edit ) BNA website Naval academies Africa The Egyptian Naval Academy Berbera Marine College The Americas Brazilian Naval School Royal Military College of Canada Heroica Escuela Naval Militar Peruvian Naval School United States Naval Academy Asia Bangladesh Naval Academy Dalian Naval Academy Imam Khomeini Naval University of Noshahr Indian Naval Academy Israeli Naval Academy Naval Academy Etajima Lebanese Army Naval Academy Pakistan Naval Academy Korea Naval Academy Naval and Maritime Academy Royal Thai Naval Academy Turkish Naval Academy Europe Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy Royal Danish Naval Academy École Navale Naval Academy Mürwik Hellenic Naval Academy Italian Naval Academy Royal Netherlands Naval College Norwegian Naval Academy Portuguese Naval School Mircea cel Bătrân Naval Academy N.G. Kuznetsov Naval Academy Escuela Naval Militar Royal Swedish Naval Academy Britannia Royal Naval College Military of Bangladesh Bangladesh Army Bangladesh Navy Bangladesh Air Force Organization Armed Forces Division Bangladesh Forces Ministry of Defence Directorate General of Forces Intelligence Inter-Service Public Relations Army formations Military installations East Bengal Regiment Senior Tigers Bangladesh Infantry Regiment UN Peacekeeping Force Armed Forces Day Leadership Commander - in - chief : President of Bangladesh Chief of Air Staff Chief of Army Staff Chief of Naval Staff Principal Staff Officer Serving Generals History and wars Military history Bengal Army Bengal Regiment Bangladesh Liberation War Gulf War Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict 2001 Indo - Bangla Border Skirmish War leaders Maulana Bhashani Tajuddin Ahmed Ziaur Rahman M. Hamidullah Khan Khaled Mosharraf Syed Nazrul Islam Muhammad Mansur Ali A.H.M. Qamaruzzaman M.A.G. Osmani M.A. Jalil Abul Manzoor Shafaat Jamil Abu Osman Chowdhury Quazi Nuruzzaman Abu Taher Decorations Bir Shreshtho Bir Uttom Bir Bikrom Bir Protik Order of Military Merit Personnel and equipment Ranks Air Force Army Navy Training ARTDOC National Defence College Defence Services Command and Staff College BUP BAIUST BAUET BAUST BIPSOT Military Academy Air Force Academy Naval Academy AFMC AFMI MIST National Cadet Corps Cadet Colleges Equipment Army equipment Active Military aircraft Historic Military aircraft Navy ships active historic Special ops President Guard Regiment SSF Para-Commandos SWADS Counter Terrorism and Intelligence Bureau This naval article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bangladesh_Naval_Academy&oldid=800571037 '' Categories : Naval academies Bangladesh Navy Bangladesh University of Professionals Bangladesh Armed Forces education and training establishments Navy stubs Hidden categories : Instances of Infobox university using image size All stub articles Talk Contents About Wikipedia বাংলা Edit links This page was last edited on 14 September 2017 , at 10 : 47 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where is bangladesh naval academy and bangladesh air force academy situated | [] | [] |
8976342819478647413 | Visa requirements for British citizens | Visa requirements for British citizens - wikipedia Visa requirements for British citizens Jump to : navigation , search A British citizen passport ( 2010 series ) Visa requirements for British citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the United Kingdom . As of 1 January 2017 , British citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 173 countries and territories , ranking the British passport 4th in terms of travel freedom ( tied with Austrian , Belgian , Dutch , French , Luxembourgish , Norwegian and Singaporean passports ) according to the Henley visa restrictions index . Additionally , the World Tourism Organization also published a report on 15 January 2016 ranking the British passport 1st in the world ( tied with Denmark , Finland , Germany , Italy , Luxembourg and Singapore ) in terms of travel freedom , with a mobility index of 160 ( out of 215 with no visa weighted by 1 , visa on arrival weighted by 0.7 , eVisa by 0.5 , and traditional visa weighted by 0 ) . Visa requirements for other classes of British nationals such as British Nationals ( Overseas ) , British Overseas Citizens , British Overseas Territories Citizens , British Protected Persons or British Subjects are different . Contents 1 History 2 Visa requirements map 3 Visa requirements 4 British Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories 5 Territories and disputed areas 6 Non-ordinary passports 7 Non-visa restrictions 7.1 Passport validity length 7.2 Blank passport pages 7.3 Vaccination 7.4 Israeli stamps 7.5 Armenian ethnicity 8 Right to consular protection in non-EU countries 9 Travel impact of Brexit 10 Fingerprinting 11 Foreign travel statistics 12 See also 13 References History ( edit ) This list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it . Visa requirements for British citizens were lifted by some European nations following World War II . The following list shows when countries abolished visa restrictions for British citizens : France 1 January 1947 Belgium 15 February 1947 Luxembourg 15 February 1947 Norway 1 March 1947 Denmark 22 March 1947 Sweden 1 April 1947 Netherlands 15 April 1947 Switzerland 24 June 1947 Liechtenstein 24 June 1947 Iceland 1 July 1947 Italy 1 January 1948 Monaco 8 November 1948 Austria 15 May 1955 Paraguay 27 November 1966 United States 1 July 1988 Ukraine 1 May 2005 Georgia 1 June 2006 Moldova 1 January 2007 Kyrgyzstan 27 July 2012 Armenia 10 January 2013 Kazakhstan 15 July 2014 Indonesia 13 June 2015 Vietnam 1 July 2015 Belarus 12 February 2017 Austria abolished the visa requirement for British citizens on 1 August 1927 but this was reversed after the Anschluss in 1938 . Visa - free travel was restored for British citizens in 1955 . Visas on arrival were discontinued for British citizens by Mali in March 2015 and Malawi on 1 October 2015 . Visa requirements map ( edit ) Visa requirements for British citizens United Kingdom Freedom of movement Visa not required Visa on arrival eVisa Visa available both on arrival or online Visa required prior to arrival Visa requirements ( edit ) Country Visa requirement Allowed stay Notes Afghanistan Visa required Albania Visa not required 90 days Algeria Visa required Andorra Visa not required Angola Visa required Antigua and Barbuda Visa not required 6 months Argentina Visa not required 90 days Armenia Visa not required 180 days Australia eVisitor 90 days If granted , eVisitor allows British citizens to stay in Australia for 90 days per visit . Issued free of charge and valid for one year . Austria EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Azerbaijan eVisa 30 days Bahamas Visa not required 21 days Extendable up to eight months . Bahrain eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months Visas can be issued on arrival for a stay up to 3 months . eVisa issued for 14 days , extendable once . Bangladesh Visa on arrival 30 days Visa on arrival available at Dhaka International Airport Barbados Visa not required 6 months Belarus Visa not required 5 days Must arrive and leave via Minsk International Airport Visas are also issued on arrival at the Minsk International Airport if the support documents were submitted by inviting organization / person not later than 3 business days before expected date of arrival . Visa and police registration required for stays of more than 5 days . Belgium EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Belize Visa not required 30 days Benin Visa required Bhutan Visa required Visa via approved tour operators only Bolivia Visa not required 90 days Bosnia and Herzegovina Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any 6 month period . Botswana Visa not required 90 days Brazil Visa not required 90 days Extendable for further 90 days Brunei Visa not required 90 days Bulgaria EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Burkina Faso Visa on arrival 1 month Burundi Visa required Cambodia eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days Extendable for another 30 days . Cameroon Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Canada Visa not required 6 months eTA required if arriving by air . Cape Verde Visa on arrival Central African Republic Visa required Chad Visa required Chile Visa not required 90 days May be extended . China Visa required 72 - hours visa free visit when in transit at Beijing , Changsha , Chengdu , Chongqing , Dalian , Guangzhou , Guilin , Harbin , Kunming , Qingdao , Shenyang , Tianjin , Wuhan , Xi'an and Xiamen . 144 - hours visa free visit when in transit at Hangzhou , Nanjing and Shanghai 's Hongqiao and Pudong international airports , Railway Station and port . Visiting visas issued to British citizens are generally valid for 2 years Colombia Visa not required 90 days Extendable up to 180 - days stay within a one - year period . Comoros Visa on arrival Republic of the Congo Visa required Democratic Republic of the Congo Visa required Costa Rica Visa not required 3 months Croatia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Cuba Visa required ! Tourist Card required Cyprus EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Czech Republic EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Denmark EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement ( DK ) Djibouti Visa on arrival Dominica Visa not required 6 months Dominican Republic Visa on arrival ! Tourist Card on arrival 30 days A tourist card must be purchased on arrival . Ecuador Visa not required 90 days May be extended . Egypt Visa on arrival 30 days El Salvador Visa not required 3 months Equatorial Guinea Visa required Eritrea Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Estonia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Ethiopia eVisa / Visa on arrival Visa on arrival only at Addis Ababa Bole International Airport . Fiji Visa not required 4 months Finland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement France EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Gabon e-Visa Must arrive via Libreville International Airport . Gambia Visa not required 90 days Georgia Visa not required 1 year Germany EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Ghana Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Greece EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Grenada Visa not required 6 months Guatemala Visa not required 90 days Guinea Visa required Guinea - Bissau eVisa / Visa on arrival 90 days Guyana Visa not required 3 months Haiti Visa not required 90 days Honduras Visa not required 3 months Hungary EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Iceland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement India e-Visa 60 days e-Visa holders must arrive via 24 designated airports or 3 designated seaports . Indonesia Visa not required 30 days Iran Visa required Iraq Visa required Visa on arrival for 30 days at Erbil and Sulaymaniyah airports . Ireland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Israel Visa not required 3 months Italy EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Ivory Coast ! Ivory Coast eVisa 3 months eVisa holders must arrive via Port Bouet Airport . Jamaica Visa not required 180 days Japan Visa not required 90 days May be extended once . Jordan Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival Conditions apply Kazakhstan Visa not required 30 days Kenya eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months Kiribati Visa not required 30 days North Korea Visa required South Korea Visa not required 90 days Kuwait eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months Kyrgyzstan Visa not required 60 days Laos Visa on arrival 30 days Latvia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Lebanon Visa on arrival 1 month Extendable for 2 additional months ; granted free of charge at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if there is no Israeli visa or seal , holding a telephone number , an address in Lebanon , and a non refundable return or circle trip ticket . Lesotho Visa not required 14 days Liberia Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Libya Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Liechtenstein EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Lithuania EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Luxembourg EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Macedonia Visa not required 90 days Madagascar Visa on arrival 30 days Malawi Visa on arrival Malaysia Visa not required 3 months Maldives Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 30 days Mali Visa required Malta EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Marshall Islands Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 90 days Free of charge . Mauritania Visa on arrival Available at Nouakchott -- Oumtounsy International Airport . Mauritius Visa not required 90 days Mexico Visa not required 180 days Micronesia Visa not required 30 days Moldova Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any 6 month period Monaco Visa not required Mongolia Visa required Montenegro Visa not required 90 days Must register with the local police station ( either through a tourist organisation or at hotel reception ) within 24 hours of arrival . Morocco Visa not required 90 days Mozambique Visa on arrival 30 days Myanmar eVisa 28 days eVisa holders must arrive via Yangon , Nay Pyi Taw or Mandalay airports Regular visa for up to three months Namibia Visa not required 3 months 3 months within a calendar year Nauru Visa required Nepal Visa on arrival 90 days Visa - on - arrival is extendable Netherlands EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement ( European Netherlands ) New Zealand Visa not required 6 months Nicaragua Visa not required 90 days Niger Visa required Nigeria Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Norway EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Oman eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months Pakistan Visa required Visa on arrival when travelling on business valid for 30 days . Conditions apply . Visa on arrival when travelling as part of a group through a designated tour operator . Palau Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 30 days Panama Visa not required 180 days Papua New Guinea Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 60 days Issued free of charge . Paraguay Visa not required 90 days Peru Visa not required 183 days Philippines Visa not required 30 days Poland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Portugal EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Qatar eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days Available at Hamad International Airport . eVisa is also available . Romania EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Russia Visa required Rwanda Visa on arrival 30 days Saint Kitts and Nevis Visa not required 3 months Saint Lucia Visa not required 6 weeks Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Visa not required 1 month Samoa Visa on arrival ! Free Entry Permit on arrival 60 days Free of charge . San Marino Visa not required São Tomé and Príncipe Visa not required 15 days Saudi Arabia Visa required Senegal Visa not required 90 days Serbia Visa not required 90 days Seychelles Visa on arrival ! Free Visitor 's Permit on arrival 3 months Issued free of charge . Sierra Leone Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Singapore Visa not required 90 days Slovakia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Slovenia EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Solomon Islands Visa on arrival ! Free Visitor 's permit on arrival 3 months Issued free of charge . Somalia Visa required Visa may be obtained on arrival , provided an invitation letter by the sponsor had been submitted to the authorities before arrival . South Africa Visa not required 90 days South Sudan Visa required Spain EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Sri Lanka eVisa / Visa on arrival 30 days British citizens are allowed to extend their stay twice when in the country to a maximum stay of 90 days in total . Sudan Visa required Suriname Visa on arrival ! Tourist Card on arrival 90 days Swaziland Visa not required 30 days Sweden EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Switzerland EU ! Visa not required Freedom of movement Syria Visa required Visa not required for citizens born in Syria . Tajikistan eVisa 45 days Tanzania Visa on arrival Thailand Visa not required 30 days If not arriving by air , British citizens are only permitted two visits per year . Timor - Leste Visa on arrival 30 days Visa on arrival is only available at the Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport or at the Dili Sea Port . Togo Visa on arrival 7 days Tonga Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 31 days Issued free of charge . Trinidad and Tobago Visa not required 90 days Tunisia Visa not required 3 months Turkey eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months Turkmenistan Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Tuvalu Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 1 month Issued free of charge . Uganda eVisa / Visa on arrival May apply online . Ukraine Visa not required 90 days 90 days within any 180 day period United Arab Emirates Visa on arrival ! Free visa on arrival 30 days Issued free of charge . United States Visa not required ! Visa Waiver Program 90 days ESTA required if arriving by air or cruise ship , which is valid for 2 years . ESTA is not required for Guam and Northern Mariana Islands . Uruguay Visa not required 90 days Uzbekistan Visa required Pre-approved visa can be picked up on arrival . Simplified procedure for British citizens . Vanuatu Visa not required 30 days Vatican City Visa not required Venezuela Visa not required 90 days Vietnam Visa not required 15 days Visa exemption is valid from 1 July 2015 until 30 June 2018 . A single entry eVisa valid for 30 days is also available . Yemen Visa required Zambia eVisa / Visa on arrival 90 days British citizens are eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zimbabwe . Zimbabwe eVisa / Visa on arrival 3 months British citizens are also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zambia . British crown dependencies and Overseas territories ( edit ) British Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories Visitor to Visa requirement Allowed stay Notes Ascension Island Visa not required 3 months Entry permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance . Anguilla Visa not required 3 months British citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode . Bermuda Visa not required 6 months British citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode . British Antarctic Territory Special permit required British Indian Ocean Territory Special permit required British Virgin Islands Visa not required 1 month Extension of stay possible . British citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode . Cayman Islands Visa not required 6 months British citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode . Falkland Islands Visitor 's permit on arrival 4 weeks The initial visitor 's permit is valid for 4 weeks . Visitors who have a connection with the Falkland Islands have right of abode . Guernsey EU ! Right of abode British citizens have right of abode in the Bailiwick of Guernsey . In Guernsey and Sark , a work or employment permit is not required . In Alderney , a work or employment permit is required for persons without Guernsey ( Alderney ) status . Isle of Man EU ! Right of abode Work or employment permit is required for persons without `` Isle of Man worker '' status . Jersey EU ! Right of abode Work or employment permit is not required . Gibraltar EU ! Right of abode British citizens have right of abode in Gibraltar . Montserrat Visa not required 6 months British citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode . Pitcairn Islands Visa not required 14 days Landing fee applies . Saint Helena Entry permit on arrival 183 days The entry permit costs £ 25 and is issued on arrival . South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Permit required Pre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required ( 72 hours / 1 month for 110 / 160 pounds sterling ) . Turks and Caicos Islands Visa not required 90 days British citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode . Tristan da Cunha Permission required Permission to land required for 15 / 30 pounds sterling ( yacht / ship passenger ) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island , Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands , unless connection with Tristan da Cunha , in which case right of abode . Territories and disputed areas ( edit ) Europe Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Abkhazia Visa required Artsakh Visa required Visa required ( issued for single entry for 21 days / 1 / 2 / 3 months or multiple entry visa for 1 / 2 / 3 months ) . Travellers with Artsakh visa ( expired or valid ) or evidence of travel to Artsakh ( stamps ) will be permanently denied entry to Azerbaijan . Mount Athos Special permit required Special permit required ( 4 days : 25 euro for Orthodox visitors , 35 euro for non-Orthodox visitors , 18 euro for students ) . There is a visitors ' quota : maximum 100 Orthodox and 10 non-Orthodox per day and women are not allowed . Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park Visa not required Visa - free for 3 days ; must first obtain an electronic pass Crimea Visa required Visa issued by Russia is required . Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Visa not required Visa free access for 3 months . Passport required . UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus Access Permit required Access Permit is required for travelling inside the zone , except Civil Use Areas . Faroe Islands Visa not required Jan Mayen Permit required Permit issued by the local police required for staying for less than 24 hours and permit issued by the Norwegian police for staying for more than 24 hours . Kosovo Visa not required Visa free 90 days Novorossiya Restricted area Crossing from Ukraine requires visit purpose to be explained to Ukrainian passport control on exit and those who entered from Russia are not allowed to proceed further into Ukraine . Russia Special authorization required Several closed cities require special authorization . South Ossetia Visa not required Visa free . Multiple entry visa to Russia and three - day prior notification are required to enter South Ossetia . Transnistria Visa not required Visa free . Registration required after 24h . Africa Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Eritrea outside Asmara Travel permit required Visa covers Asmara only ; to travel in the rest of the country , a Travel Permit for Foreigners is required ( 20 Eritrean nakfa ) . Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Visa not required Visa not required up to 3 months in the Western Sahara controlled territory . Somaliland Visa on arrival Visa issued on arrival ( 30 days for 30 US dollars , payable on arrival ) . Sudan Travel permit required All foreigners traveling more than 25 kilometers outside of Khartoum must obtain a travel permit . Darfur Travel permit required Separate travel permit is required . Asia Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Hainan Visa on arrival Visa on arrival for 15 days . Available at Haikou Meilan International Airport and Sanya Phoenix International Airport . Visa not required for 21 days for travelling as part of a tourist group ( 5 or more people ) Hong Kong Visa not required Visa not required for 180 days . Prior to April 1997 , British citizens were allowed to land and remain in Hong Kong for 12 months without being subject to any other condition of stay . India PAP / RAP PAP / RAP required Protected Area Permit ( PAP ) required for whole states of Nagaland and Sikkim and parts of states Manipur , Arunachal Pradesh , Uttaranchal , Jammu and Kashmir , Rajasthan , Himachal Pradesh . Restricted Area Permit ( RAP ) required for all of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Sikkim . Some of these requirements are occasionally lifted for a year . Iraqi Kurdistan Visa on arrival Visa on arrival for 15 days is available at Erbil and Sulaymaniyah airports . Kazakhstan Special permission required Special permission required for the town of Baikonur and surrounding areas in Kyzylorda Oblast , and the town of Gvardeyskiy near Almaty . Kish Island Visa not required Visitors to Kish Island do not require a visa . Macao Visa not required Visa not required for 6 months Sabah and Sarawak Visa not required These states have their own immigration authorities and passport is required to travel to them , however the same visa applies . Maldives Permission required With the exception of the capital Malé , tourists are generally prohibited from visiting non-resort islands without the express permission of the Government of Maldives . North Korea outside Pyongyang Special permit required People are not allowed to leave the capital city , tourists can only leave the capital with a governmental tourist guide ( no independent moving ) Palestine Visa not required Arrival by sea to Gaza Strip not allowed . Taiwan Visa not required Visa not required for 90 days Gorno - Badakhshan Autonomous Province OIVR permit required OIVR permit required ( 15 + 5 Tajikistani Somoni ) and another special permit ( free of charge ) is required for Lake Sarez . Tibet Autonomous Region TTP required Tibet Travel Permit required ( 10 US Dollars ) . Turkmenistan Special permit required A special permit , issued prior to arrival by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , is required if visiting the following places : Atamurat , Cheleken , Dashoguz , Serakhs and Serhetabat . Korean Demilitarized Zone Restricted zone . UNDOF Zone and Ghajar Restricted zone . Phú Quốc Visa not required Can visit without a visa for up to 30 days . Yemen Special permission required Special permission needed for travel outside Sana'a or Aden . Caribbean and North Atlantic Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Aruba Visa not required Visa not required for 30 days , extendable to 180 days . Bonaire , St. Eustatius and Saba Visa not required Visa not required up to 3 months San Andrés and Leticia Tourist Card on arrival Visitors arriving at Gustavo Rojas Pinilla International Airport and Alfredo Vásquez Cobo International Airport must buy tourist cards on arrival . Curaçao Visa not required Visa not required for 3 months . French West Indies Visa not required French West Indies refers to Martinique , Guadeloupe , Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy . Greenland Visa not required Margarita Island Visa not required All visitors are fingerprinted . Puerto Rico Visa not required Visa not required under the Visa Waiver Program , for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years . ESTA required . Saint Pierre and Miquelon Visa not required Visa not required for 90 days . Sint Maarten Visa not required Visa not required for 3 months . U.S. Virgin Islands Visa not required Visa not required under the Visa Waiver Program , for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years . ESTA required . Oceania Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) American Samoa Entry Permit required Ashmore and Cartier Islands Special authorisation required Special authorisation required . Clipperton Island Special permit required Special permit required . Cook Islands Visa not required Visa free access for 31 days . Lau Province Special permission required Special permission required . French Polynesia Visa not required Visa not required . Guam Visa not required 45 days New Caledonia Visa not required Visa not required for 3 months . Niue Visa on arrival Visa on arrival valid for 30 days is issued free of charge . Northern Mariana Islands Visa not required 45 days Tokelau Entry Permit required United States Minor Outlying Islands Special permits required Special permits required for Baker Island , Howland Island , Jarvis Island , Johnston Atoll , Kingman Reef , Midway Atoll , Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island . Wallis and Futuna Visa not required Visa not required . South America Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Galápagos Pre-registration required Online pre-registration is required . Transit Control Card must also be obtained at the airport prior to departure . South Atlantic and Antarctica Visitor to Visa requirement Notes ( excluding departure fees ) Antarctica Special authorisation required Special permits required for French Southern and Antarctic Lands , Argentine Antarctica , Australian Antarctic Territory , Chilean Antarctic Territory , Heard Island and McDonald Islands , Peter I Island , Queen Maud Land , Ross Dependency . Non-ordinary passports ( edit ) Holders of various categories of official British passports have additional visa - free access to the following countries - China ( diplomatic passports ) , Kuwait ( diplomatic or official passports ) , Mongolia ( diplomatic or official passports ) , Qatar ( diplomatic or official passports and British Diplomatic Messenger or Queen 's Messenger Passports ) and the United Arab Emirates ( diplomatic or official passports ) . Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde , Ethiopia , Mali and Zimbabwe . Holders of British official and diplomatic passports require a visa for South Africa . Non-visa restrictions ( edit ) This section is transcluded from Non-visa travel restrictions . ( edit history ) Passport validity length ( edit ) Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival . Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan , Algeria , Anguilla , Bahrain , Bhutan , Botswana , British Virgin Islands , Brunei , Cambodia , Cameroon , Cayman Islands , Central African Republic , Chad , Comoros , Côte d'Ivoire , Curaçao , Ecuador , Egypt , El Salvador , Equatorial Guinea , Fiji , Gabon , Guinea Bissau , Guyana , Indonesia , Iran , Iraq ( except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah ) , Israel , Jordan , Kenya , Kiribati , Laos , Madagascar , Malaysia , Marshall Islands , Micronesia , Myanmar , Namibia , Nicaragua , Nigeria , Oman , Palau , Papua New Guinea , Philippines , Qatar , Rwanda , Saint Lucia , Samoa , Saudi Arabia , Singapore , Solomon Islands , Somalia , Somaliland , Sri Lanka , Suriname , Taiwan , Tanzania , Thailand , Timor - Leste , Tokelau , Tonga , Tuvalu , Uganda , United Arab Emirates , Vanuatu , Venezuela , Vietnam , Yemen and Zimbabwe . Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia . Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries ( except Denmark , Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom , and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens ) , Albania , Belarus , Georgia , Honduras , Iceland , Jordan , Kuwait , Lebanon , Liechtenstein , Moldova , Monaco , Nauru , Panama , Saint Barthélemy , San Marino , Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates . Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry . Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea , Hong Kong , Macao , New Zealand and South Africa . Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay . Blank passport pages ( edit ) Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented , generally one or two pages . Vaccination ( edit ) Many African countries , including Angola , Benin , Burkina Faso , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Republic of the Congo , Côte d'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Ghana , Guinea , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Rwanda , São Tomé and Príncipe , Senegal , Sierra Leone , Uganda , and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination . Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area . Israeli stamps ( edit ) Iran , Kuwait , Lebanon , Libya , Saudi Arabia , Sudan , Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa , or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt . To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel , the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel . Since 15 January 2013 , Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport , giving passengers a card instead : `` Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival . You should keep this card with your passport until you leave . This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required , particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories . '' Passports are still ( as of 22 June 2017 ) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza . Also , passports are still stamped ( as of 22 June 2017 ) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan . Armenian ethnicity ( edit ) Due to a state of war existing between the Republic of Armenia and Azerbaijan , the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia , but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent , to the Republic of Azerbaijan ( although there have been exceptions , notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan ) . Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh ( the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh ) , its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki , Yuxarı Əskipara , Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia , without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan . Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories , will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their `` list of personae non gratae '' . Upon request , the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country . Right to Consular protection in non-EU countries ( edit ) When in a non-EU country where there is no British embassy , British citizens , like all other EU citizens , have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country . Travel impact of Brexit ( edit ) Main article : Brexit On 23 June 2016 , the British electorate voted to leave the European Union in a nationwide referendum in England , Scotland , Wales , Northern Ireland and Gibraltar . The UK sent notification of their intention to leave the EU to the European Council through Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty . After notifying the European Council , the UK has two years to negotiate with other member states until it leaves , and British citizens will only then cease to be citizens of the European Union . British citizens will still have the right of freedom of movement until the UK formally leaves . It has since been suggested that British citizens wishing to travel to EU countries may have to apply for a visa or apply online for an American style ESTA visa waiver and pay a fee in order to enter the country of destination . This issue will be a major topic of discussions taking place between the British government and all leaders of the 27 European Union countries during the two - year - long Brexit negotiations . Fingerprinting ( edit ) Several countries including Argentina , Cambodia , Japan , Malaysia , Saudi Arabia , South Korea and the United States demand all adult passengers ( age varies by country ) to be fingerprinted on arrival . Foreign travel Statistics ( edit ) This section is transcluded from British passport . ( edit history ) According to the Foreign travel advice provided by the British Government ( unless otherwise noted ) these are the numbers of British visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 ( unless otherwise noted ) : Foreign travel statistics Country Number of visitors Albania 80,000 American Samoa 119 Angola 18,363 Andorra 30,000 Antarctica 3,233 Antigua and Barbuda 76,512 Anguilla 6,272 Aruba 10,447 Australia 716,700 Austria 919,500 Azerbaijan 34,892 Bahamas 28,022 Bangladesh 150,000 Barbados 214,175 Belarus 4,000 Belgium 868,173 Belize 16,827 Bermuda 21,738 Bhutan 3,124 Bolivia 19,768 Bosnia and Herzegovina 10,223 Botswana 41,011 Brazil 202,671 Brunei 18,222 Bulgaria 281,777 Burkina Faso 2,192 Cambodia 159,489 Cameroon 16,008 Canada 850,841 Cape Verde 126,685 Cayman Islands 14,919 Chile 51,611 China 579,600 Colombia 39,715 Congo 6,115 Cook Islands 2,568 Costa Rica 71,392 Croatia 596,444 Cuba 155,802 Curacao 2,806 Cyprus 1,157,978 Czech Republic 470,643 Denmark 150,000 Dominica 4,951 Dominican Republic 165,111 Ecuador 27,126 Egypt 865,000 Ethiopia 20,000 Estonia 48,733 Fiji 16,712 Finland 199,654 France 12,235,713 French Polynesia 4,711 Gambia 60,424 Ghana 90,000 Georgia 19,191 Germany 2,551,061 Greece 2,397,169 Greenland 1,259 Grenada 25,791 Guadeloupe < 1,000 Guatemala 35,065 Hong Kong 551,930 Hungary 376,573 Iceland 316,395 Indonesia 328,882 India 941,883 Ireland 3,547,000 Israel 197,100 Italy 4,922,000 Jamaica 206,470 Japan 292,500 Jordan 60,820 Kazakhstan 24,201 Kiribati 60 Kuwait 5,000 Kenya 117,000 Kyrgyzstan 6,900 Laos 39,170 Latvia 85,139 Lebanon 48,504 Lesotho 2,380 Liechtenstein 2,200 Lithuania 58,200 Luxembourg 70,942 Macau 61,301 Macedonia 8,856 Madagascar 3,167 Malaysia 400,269 Malawi 51,145 Maldives 101,843 Malta 559,987 Mali 900 Mauritius 141,904 Mexico 545,055 Moldova 7,820 Mongolia 6,148 Montenegro 29,950 Montserrat 1,380 Morocco 501,000 Myanmar 45,120 Namibia 27,365 Nepal 29,730 Nigeria 117,000 Niue 47 Norway 581,000 Netherlands 2,043,000 New Zealand 220,976 Nicaragua 16,923 Oman 133,529 Pakistan 275,400 Palau 724 Panama 16,338 Papua New Guinea 6,974 Peru 63,213 Philippines 154,589 Poland 796,900 Portugal 2,600,000 Qatar 132,301 Romania 140,594 Russia 177,080 Saba 200 Saint Kitts and Nevis 8,693 Saint Lucia 68,175 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 17,045 Samoa 1,773 San Marino 5,750 São Tomé and Príncipe 83 Serbia 28,092 Seychelles 18,885 Singapore 489,205 Sint Eustatius 200 Slovakia 77,837 Slovenia 109,420 Solomon Islands 387 South Africa 407,486 South Korea 135,139 Spain 17,840,292 Sri Lanka 188,159 Suriname 1,474 Swaziland 15,503 Switzerland 709,925 Sweden 603,000 Taiwan 59,867 Tanzania 70,379 Thailand 1,003,386 Timor - Leste 548 Tonga 787 Trinidad and Tobago 37,473 Turkey 1,711,481 Turks and Caicos 6,399 Tuvalu 22 Uganda 43,009 Uruguay 20,000 Ukraine 70,296 United Arab Emirates 1,483,167 United States 4,968,049 Venezuela 20,837 Vietnam 254,841 Zambia 36,997 ^ Data for 2014 ^ Data for 2016 ^ Counting only guests in tourist accommodation establishments . ^ Data for 2013 ^ Data for 2011 ^ Data for arrivals by air only . ^ Data for 2012 ^ Data for 2010 ^ Data for 2009 ^ Data for 2005 ^ Total number includes tourists , business travelers , students , exchange visitors , temporary workers and families , diplomats and other representatives and all other classes of nonimmigrant admissions ( I - 94 ) . See also ( edit ) European Union portal United Kingdom portal Visa requirements for the European Union citizens British passport British National ( Overseas ) passport British nationality law Visa requirements for British Nationals ( Overseas ) Visa requirements for British Overseas Citizens Visa requirements for British Overseas Territories Citizens Visa policy of the United Kingdom References ( edit ) ^ `` Global Ranking - Visa Restriction Index 2017 '' ( PDF ) . Henley & Partners . Retrieved 14 March 2017 . ^ `` Visa Openness Report 2016 '' ( PDF ) . World Tourism Organization . Retrieved 17 January 2016 . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ `` UK Treaties Online '' . ^ Resolution of the Ministry on Internal Affairs of 28 July 1955 , concerning the abolition of visas for citizens of the United States of America , the French Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ( in German ) ^ `` ACUERDO POR NOTAS REVERSALES PARA LA SUPRESIÓN DE VISAS DE LOS PASAPORTES VÁLIDOS . REINO UNIDO '' . Paraguay Treaties Online ( in Spanish ) . Retrieved 25 June 2017 . ^ ( http://www.secomunidades.pt/vistos/images/docs/Ukrania%20en.pdf AGREEMENT between the European Community and Ukraine on the facilitation of the issuance of visas ) ^ ( 1 ) Commission proposes visa - free travel for Georgia ) ^ Law No. 151 - XVI on 8 June 2006 `` On the abolition of visa regime for citizens of member States of the European Union , the United States Of America , Canada , Swiss Confederation , Kingdom of Norway , the Republic of Iceland and Japan '' ( in Russian ) ^ Law of the Kyrgyz Republic On visa - free regime for citizens of some States within 60 days ( in Russian ) ^ Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan on 21 January 2012 No. 148 ( in Russian ) ^ ( http://www.ttgasia.com/article.php?article_id=25297 Finally , visa - free entry to Indonesia ( TTG Asia ) ^ Under Resolution No. 46 / NQ - CP ^ ( http://finland.mfa.gov.by/en/embassy/news/e9d8d87b86f70f50.html On the introduction of the 5 days visa - free entry to Belarus ^ Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom and Austria constituting an Agreement relating to the Abolition of Passport Visas for the Nationals of the Two States ^ `` Entry requirements - Afghanistan travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Entry requirements - Algeria travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Entry requirements - Angola travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Entry requirements - Antigua and Barbuda travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Entry requirements - Argentina travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Travelling to Argentina Londres '' . Clond.mrecic.gov.ar . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Visa - Embassy of Armenia to the United Kingdom '' . Uk.mfa.am . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ Electronic Visa System of Azerbaijan Republic ^ `` Entry requirements - Bahamas travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Consular Information '' . Bahamashclondon.net . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Frequently Asked Questions '' . Bahamashclondon.net . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Entry requirements - Bahrain travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Bahrain Electronic Visa Service '' . Evisa.gov.bh . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Bahrain Electronic Visa Service '' . Evisa.gov.bh . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Bangladesh High Commission , London '' . Bhclondon.org.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ ( 2 ) ^ Visa on arrival ( 2014 - 02 - 14 ) . `` Visa on arrival -- Embassy of Bangladesh '' . Bangladoot.se . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Entry requirements - Barbados travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade '' . Foreign.gov.bb . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Entry requirements - Belarus travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Particulars of issuance of entry visas at the `` National Airport Minsk '' - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus `` . Mfa.gov.by . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Entry requirements - Belize travel advice '' . GOV.UK . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 13 . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/benin/entry-requirements ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/bhutan/entry-requirements ^ http://www.abto.org.bt/ ^ http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/bolivia/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/brazil/entry-requirements ^ http://cglondres.itamaraty.gov.br/en-us/tourist_visa.xml ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/brunei/entry-requirements ^ http://www.mofat.gov.bn/Pages/Visa-Information.aspx ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . Retrieved 9 October 2015 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.evisa.gov.kh/images/documents/Press_Release_on_e-Visa_signed.pdf ^ https://www.evisa.gov.kh/ ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/cameroon/entry requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ canada.ca/eTA ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . 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International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ Mozambique Government Announces 30 - day Tourist Visas now Available at Borders for all Visitors ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/burma ^ http://evisa.moip.gov.mm/NoticetoTourists.aspx ^ http://www.myanmarembassylondon.com/#Tourist%20Visa ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ http://www.namibiahc.org.uk/need_visa.php ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/namibia/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ http://www.nepembassy.org.uk/visa.php ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . 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Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ Uganda Electronic Visa / Permit Application System ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ http://mfa.gov.ua/en/consular-affairs/entering-ukraine/visa-requirements-for-foreigners ^ http://uk.mfa.gov.ua/en/consular-affairs/services/visas ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/ukraine/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ ( 4 ) ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ http://mfa.uz/en/consular/visa/ ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ Visas ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/vietnam/entry-requirements ^ ( 5 ) ^ E-visa ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/yemen/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/zimbabwe/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/services/entry-permits/ ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/anguilla/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/bermuda/entry-requirements ^ http://britishantarcticterritory.fco.gov.uk/en/tourism/ ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/british-antarctic-territory/entry-requirements ^ http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/asia-oceania/british-indian-ocean-territory?ta=entryRequirements&pg=4 ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/british-indian-ocean-territory/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/british-virgin-islands/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/cayman-islands/entry-requirements ^ http://www.falklandislands.com/product.php/35/17/entry_and_exit_requirements/abce58e896311945651c12e01c7562dc ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/falkland-islands/entry-requirements ^ http://www.gov.gg/ccm/home-department/customs-immigration/immigration-and-nationality-division/immigration/visa-requirements-for-the-bailiwick-of-guernsey.en ^ http://www2.gov.gg/ccm/home-department/customs-immigration/immigration-and-nationality-division/employment/those-who-not-require-a-work-permit.en ^ http://www.alderney.gov.gg/Work-Permits/ ^ https://www.gov.im/infocentre/faqs/import.gov?menuid=10167&page=cso/immigrationfaqs.xml ^ https://www.gov.im/socialcare/security/useful.xml ^ https://www.gov.je/Working/WorkPermits/Pages/NeedWorkPermit.aspx ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ http://www.visitpitcairn.pn/visitpitcairn/visaslegalinfo/touristinfo/index.html ^ http://www.government.pn/visaInfo.php ^ http://www.government.pn/immigration%20ordinance.pdf ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/pitcairn-island/entry-requirements ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/st-helena-ascension-and-tristan-da-cunha/entry-requirements ^ http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/south-america/south-georgia-south-sandwich#entryRequirements ^ http://www.sgisland.gs/index.php/(v)Information_for_Visitors_to_South_Georgia?useskin=vis ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/south-georgia-and-south-sandwich-islands/entry-requirements ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/turks-and-caicos-islands/entry-requirements ^ http://www.tristandc.com/visitsadmin.php ^ http://mfaapsny.org/aps/council/visa.php ^ http://www.nkr.am/en/the-procedure-of-foreign-citizens-entry-to-the-nkr/92/ ^ http://www.nkrusa.org/nkr_office/visa_travel.shtml ^ http://mfa.gov.az/index.php?options=content&id=587 ^ http://www.athosfriends.org/PilgrimsGuide/planning/ ^ http://www.mountathosinfos.gr/pages/agionoros/pilgrims_info.en.html ^ Visa - free trips to Belovezhskaya Pushcha as from 12 June ^ VISA - FREE TRAVEL THROUGH THE CHECKPOINT `` PEREROV - BIALOWIEZA '' FOR FOREIGN CITIZENS ^ Foreigners Now Need Russian Visa to Visit Crimea ^ http://www.korinia.com/living-north-cyprus.php ^ http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/tourism/tourist.html ^ http://www.unficyp.org/nqcontent.cfm?a_id=1608&tt=graphic&lang=l1 ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/denmark/entry-requirements ^ http://www.jan-mayen.no/visit.htm ^ http://www.lovdata.no/for/sf/jd/xd-19620601-0001.html ^ http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,158 ^ Kiev declares passport control on border with rebel - held regions ^ Ukraine crisis : Kiev imposes passport control around rebel - held regions ^ `` Russian Federation Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . ^ http://mfa-rso.su/node/55 ^ http://mfa-rso.su/en/node/406 ^ http://www.luxlana.net/Transdniestr.html ^ http://transnistria-tour.com/en/rules-and-tipps ^ http://www.eritrea.be/MoT.htm ^ https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/western-sahara/entry-requirements ^ http://www.lonelyplanet.com/somaliland-puntland-and-somalia/practical-information/visas ^ http://www.somalilandgov.com/Visa%20Application.htm ^ `` Republic of South Sudan Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 19 November 2013 . ^ https://www.timaticweb.com/cgi-bin/tim_website_client.cgi?FullText=1&COUNTRY=CN&SECTION=VI&SUBSECTION=00&user=KLMB2C&subuser=KLMB2C ^ Tours must be organized by a travel agent registered in Hainan province and approved by the National Tourism Administration of China . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Changes in Immigration Control on British Citizens '' . Immigration Department . Retrieved 1 December 2016 . ^ https://www.timaticweb.com/cgi-bin/tim_website_client.cgi?FullText=1&COUNTRY=IN&SECTION=VI&SUBSECTION=00&user=KLMB2C&subuser=KLMB2C ^ http://as.and.nic.in/TourismAND/TCorner/ForeignersNew.htm ^ http://arunachaltourism.com/entry_formalities.php ^ http://manipurbhawan.nic.in/entryformalities.htm ^ http://manipurhub.com/news/manipur/protected-area-permit-requirement-lifted-from-manipur-for-one-year/ ^ http://lakshadweeptourism.nic.in/web9.htm ^ `` Kazakhstan Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . ^ `` Iran Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Malaysia Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . ^ `` Maldives Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) through Olympic Air . ^ `` Israel Country Specific Information '' . Bureau of Consular Affairs , U.S. Department of State . Retrieved 18 November 2013 . ^ `` Passport and visa requirements '' . Timatic . 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Archived from the original on 2016 - 05 - 07 . ^ `` Foreign citizens who visited Ukraine in 2016 year , by countries '' . ^ General statistics for the Emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai ^ Abu Dhabi Statistics ^ Dubai Statistics , Visitor by Nationality ^ `` Table 28 - Homeland Security '' . ^ ( 26 ) ^ TITC . `` International visitors to Viet Nam in December and 12 months of 2016 '' . ^ `` Downloads '' . Visa policies and requirements in the European Union Schengen Area Common Travel Area Special territories Policy / Requirements Policy / Requirements Policy / Requirements Overseas Visa policy of the British Overseas Territories Visa policy of the French overseas departments and territories Visa policy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Caribbean Candidates Albania Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Turkey Visa policy by country Visa Passport Travel document Africa Central Angola Cameroon Central African Republic Chad DR Congo R Congo Equatorial Guinea Gabon São Tomé and Príncipe Eastern Burundi Comoros Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Rwanda Seychelles Somalia ( Somaliland ) South Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Northern Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Sudan Tunisia Southern Botswana Lesotho Namibia Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Africa Swaziland Western Benin Burkina Faso Cape Verde Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea - Bissau Ivory Coast Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Americas Caribbean Dutch Caribbean ( Aruba , Caribbean Netherlands , Curaçao , Sint Maarten ) Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Haiti Jamaica Montserrat Puerto Rico St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands Central Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama North Bermuda Canada Mexico United States South Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Falkland Islands Guyana Paraguay Peru South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Central & North Afghanistan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russia Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan East China Hong Kong Macau Japan North Korea South Korea Mongolia Taiwan ( Republic of China ) South Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Southeast Brunei Cambodia East Timor Indonesia Laos Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Western Abkhazia Akrotiri and Dhekelia Armenia Artsakh Azerbaijan Bahrain Cyprus Egypt Georgia Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Northern Cyprus Oman Palestine Qatar Saudi Arabia South Ossetia Syria Turkey United Arab Emirates Yemen Europe European Union / EFTA Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Czech Republic Cyprus Denmark Faroe Islands Estonia Finland France Overseas Germany Gibraltar Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Overseas Norway Svalbard Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Overseas Other Europe Abkhazia Akrotiri and Dhekelia Albania Andorra Armenia Artsakh Azerbaijan Belarus Bosnia and Herzegovina Georgia Kazakhstan Kosovo Macedonia Moldova Monaco Montenegro Northern Cyprus Russia San Marino Serbia South Ossetia Transnistria Turkey Ukraine Vatican City Oceania American Samoa Australia Cook Islands Fiji Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Niue Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Pitcairn Islands Samoa Solomon Islands Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu British Overseas Territories . Open border with Schengen Area . Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia . The majority of its population ( 80 % ) lives in European Russia , therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here . Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe . Has part of its territory ( 3 % ) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace . Azerbaijan ( Artsakh ) and Georgia ( Abkhazia ; South Ossetia ) are transcontinental countries . Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus . Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country . Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe . Armenia and Cyprus ( Northern Cyprus ; Akrotiri and Dhekelia ) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe . Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East . Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula . Part of the Realm of New Zealand . Partially recognized . Unincorporated territory of the United States . Part of Norway , not part of the Schengen Area , special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty Visa requirements Visa Passport Travel document Africa Central Angolan Cameroonian Central African Republic Chadian DR Congo R Congo Equatorial Guinean Gabonese Santomean Eastern Burundian Comorian Djiboutian Eritrean Ethiopian Kenyan Malagasy Malawian Mauritian Mozambican Rwandan Seychellois Somali ( Somaliland ) South Sudanese Tanzanian Ugandan Zambian Zimbabwean Northern Algerian Egyptian Libyan Moroccan Sudanese Tunisian Southern Botswana Lesotho Namibian Saint Helena South African Swazi Western Beninese Burkinabe Cape Verdean Gambian Ghanaian Guinean Guinea - Bissauan Ivorian Liberian Malian Mauritanian Nigerian Nigerien Senegalese Sierra Leonean Togolese Americas Caribbean Anguillan Antigua and Barbuda Bahamian Barbadian British Virgin Islands Caymanian Cuban Dominica Dominican Republic Grenadian Haitian Jamaican Montserratian Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucian Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Islands Central Belizean Costa Rican El Salvador Guatemalan Honduran Nicaraguan Panamanian North Bermudian Canadian Mexican United States South Argentine Bolivian Brazilian Chilean Colombian Ecuadorian Guyanese Paraguayan Peruvian Surinamese Uruguayan Venezuelan Asia Central & North Afghan Kazakhstani Kyrgyzstani Russian Tajik Turkmen Uzbekistani East Chinese Hong Kongese Macanese Japanese North Korean South Korean Mongolian Taiwanese South Bangladeshi Bhutanese Indian Maldivian Nepalese Pakistani Sri Lankan Southeast Bruneian Cambodian East Timorese Indonesian Laotian Malaysian Myanmar Philippine Singaporean Thai Vietnamese Western Abkhaz Armenian Artsakh Azerbaijani Bahraini Cypriot Egyptian Georgian Emirati Iranian Iraqi Israeli Jordanian Kuwaiti Lebanese Northern Cypriot Omani Palestinian Qatari Saudi South Ossetian Syrian Turkish Yemeni Europe European Union Austrian Belgian British ( BOTC BN ( O ) BOC ) Bulgarian Croatian Cypriot Czech Danish Dutch Estonian ( Non-citizens ) Finnish French German Greek Hungarian Irish Italian Latvian ( Non-citizens ) Lithuanian Luxembourg Maltese Polish Portuguese Romanian Slovak Slovenian Spanish Swedish Other Europe Abkhaz Albanian Andorran Armenian Artsakh Azerbaijani Belarusian Bosnian and Herzegovinian Georgian Gibraltar Icelandic Kazakhstani Kosovan Liechtenstein Macedonia Moldovan Monégasque Montenegrin Northern Cypriot Norwegian Russian San Marino Serbian South Ossetian Sovereign Military Order of Malta Swiss Transnistrian Turkish Ukrainian Vatican City Oceania Australian Fijian Kiribati Marshallese Micronesian Nauruan New Zealand Palauan Papua New Guinean Pitcairn Islands Samoan Solomon Islands Tongan Tuvaluan Vanuatuan British Overseas Territories . Open border with Schengen Area . Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia . The vast majority of its population ( 80 % ) lives in European Russia . Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe . Has a small part of its territory ( 3 % ) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace . Azerbaijan and Georgia ( Abkhazia ; South Ossetia ) are transcontinental countries . Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus . Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country . Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe . Armenia ( Artsakh ) and Cyprus ( Northern Cyprus ) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe . Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East . Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula . Partially recognized . Immigration law Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visa_requirements_for_British_citizens&oldid=801128675 '' Categories : Visa requirements by nationality Foreign relations of the United Kingdom Hidden categories : CS1 Spanish - language sources ( es ) All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from July 2017 CS1 errors : external links Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint : Unrecognized language Articles with French - language external links Articles with dead external links from September 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links Use dmy dates from January 2016 Use British English from January 2016 Incomplete lists from June 2017 Articles containing potentially dated statements from June 2017 All articles containing potentially dated statements Talk Contents About Wikipedia 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 17 September 2017 , at 20 : 54 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where can you live on a british passport | [
"\n\nBritish Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories\n\n\nVisitor to\nVisa requirement\nAllowed stay\nNotes\n\n\n Ascension Island\nVisa not required\n3 months\n\n\nEntry permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance.[286]\n\n\n\n\n Anguilla\nVisa not required\n3 months[287][288]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Bermuda\nVisa not required\n6 months[289][290]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n British Antarctic Territory\nSpecial permit required[291][292]\n\n\n\n\n British Indian Ocean Territory\nSpecial permit required[293][294]\n\n\n\n\n British Virgin Islands\nVisa not required\n1 month[295][296]\n\n\nExtension of stay possible.\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Cayman Islands\nVisa not required\n6 months[297][298]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Falkland Islands\nVisitor's permit on arrival\n4 weeks[299][300]\n\n\nThe initial visitor's permit is valid for 4 weeks.\nVisitors who have a connection with the Falkland Islands have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Guernsey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in the Bailiwick of Guernsey.[301]\nIn Guernsey and Sark, a work or employment permit is not required.[302]\nIn Alderney, a work or employment permit is required for persons without Guernsey (Alderney) status.[303]\n\n\n\n\n Isle of Man\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is required for persons without \"Isle of Man worker\" status.[304][305]\n\n\n\n\n Jersey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is not required.[306]\n\n\n\n\n Gibraltar\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in Gibraltar.\n\n\n\n\n Montserrat\nVisa not required\n6 months[307]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Pitcairn Islands\nVisa not required\n14 days[308]\n\n\nLanding fee applies.[309][310][311][312]\n\n\n\n\n Saint Helena\nEntry permit on arrival\n183 days[313]\n\n\nThe entry permit costs £25 and is issued on arrival.\n\n\n\n\n South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands\nPermit required\n\n\n\nPre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[314][315][316]\n\n\n\n\n Turks and Caicos Islands\nVisa not required\n90 days[317][318]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Tristan da Cunha\nPermission required\n\n\n\nPermission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands, unless connection with Tristan da Cunha, in which case right of abode.[319]\n\n\n\n",
"\n\nBritish Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories\n\n\nVisitor to\nVisa requirement\nAllowed stay\nNotes\n\n\n Ascension Island\nVisa not required\n3 months\n\n\nEntry permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance.[286]\n\n\n\n\n Anguilla\nVisa not required\n3 months[287][288]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Bermuda\nVisa not required\n6 months[289][290]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n British Antarctic Territory\nSpecial permit required[291][292]\n\n\n\n\n British Indian Ocean Territory\nSpecial permit required[293][294]\n\n\n\n\n British Virgin Islands\nVisa not required\n1 month[295][296]\n\n\nExtension of stay possible.\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Cayman Islands\nVisa not required\n6 months[297][298]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Falkland Islands\nVisitor's permit on arrival\n4 weeks[299][300]\n\n\nThe initial visitor's permit is valid for 4 weeks.\nVisitors who have a connection with the Falkland Islands have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Guernsey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in the Bailiwick of Guernsey.[301]\nIn Guernsey and Sark, a work or employment permit is not required.[302]\nIn Alderney, a work or employment permit is required for persons without Guernsey (Alderney) status.[303]\n\n\n\n\n Isle of Man\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is required for persons without \"Isle of Man worker\" status.[304][305]\n\n\n\n\n Jersey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is not required.[306]\n\n\n\n\n Gibraltar\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in Gibraltar.\n\n\n\n\n Montserrat\nVisa not required\n6 months[307]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Pitcairn Islands\nVisa not required\n14 days[308]\n\n\nLanding fee applies.[309][310][311][312]\n\n\n\n\n Saint Helena\nEntry permit on arrival\n183 days[313]\n\n\nThe entry permit costs £25 and is issued on arrival.\n\n\n\n\n South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands\nPermit required\n\n\n\nPre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[314][315][316]\n\n\n\n\n Turks and Caicos Islands\nVisa not required\n90 days[317][318]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Tristan da Cunha\nPermission required\n\n\n\nPermission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands, unless connection with Tristan da Cunha, in which case right of abode.[319]\n\n\n\n",
"\n\nBritish Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories\n\n\nVisitor to\nVisa requirement\nAllowed stay\nNotes\n\n\n Ascension Island\nVisa not required\n3 months\n\n\nEntry permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance.[286]\n\n\n\n\n Anguilla\nVisa not required\n3 months[287][288]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Bermuda\nVisa not required\n6 months[289][290]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n British Antarctic Territory\nSpecial permit required[291][292]\n\n\n\n\n British Indian Ocean Territory\nSpecial permit required[293][294]\n\n\n\n\n British Virgin Islands\nVisa not required\n1 month[295][296]\n\n\nExtension of stay possible.\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Cayman Islands\nVisa not required\n6 months[297][298]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Falkland Islands\nVisitor's permit on arrival\n4 weeks[299][300]\n\n\nThe initial visitor's permit is valid for 4 weeks.\nVisitors who have a connection with the Falkland Islands have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Guernsey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in the Bailiwick of Guernsey.[301]\nIn Guernsey and Sark, a work or employment permit is not required.[302]\nIn Alderney, a work or employment permit is required for persons without Guernsey (Alderney) status.[303]\n\n\n\n\n Isle of Man\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is required for persons without \"Isle of Man worker\" status.[304][305]\n\n\n\n\n Jersey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is not required.[306]\n\n\n\n\n Gibraltar\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in Gibraltar.\n\n\n\n\n Montserrat\nVisa not required\n6 months[307]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Pitcairn Islands\nVisa not required\n14 days[308]\n\n\nLanding fee applies.[309][310][311][312]\n\n\n\n\n Saint Helena\nEntry permit on arrival\n183 days[313]\n\n\nThe entry permit costs £25 and is issued on arrival.\n\n\n\n\n South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands\nPermit required\n\n\n\nPre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[314][315][316]\n\n\n\n\n Turks and Caicos Islands\nVisa not required\n90 days[317][318]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Tristan da Cunha\nPermission required\n\n\n\nPermission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands, unless connection with Tristan da Cunha, in which case right of abode.[319]\n\n\n\n",
"\n\nBritish Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories\n\n\nVisitor to\nVisa requirement\nAllowed stay\nNotes\n\n\n Ascension Island\nVisa not required\n3 months\n\n\nEntry permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance.[286]\n\n\n\n\n Anguilla\nVisa not required\n3 months[287][288]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Bermuda\nVisa not required\n6 months[289][290]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n British Antarctic Territory\nSpecial permit required[291][292]\n\n\n\n\n British Indian Ocean Territory\nSpecial permit required[293][294]\n\n\n\n\n British Virgin Islands\nVisa not required\n1 month[295][296]\n\n\nExtension of stay possible.\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Cayman Islands\nVisa not required\n6 months[297][298]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Falkland Islands\nVisitor's permit on arrival\n4 weeks[299][300]\n\n\nThe initial visitor's permit is valid for 4 weeks.\nVisitors who have a connection with the Falkland Islands have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Guernsey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in the Bailiwick of Guernsey.[301]\nIn Guernsey and Sark, a work or employment permit is not required.[302]\nIn Alderney, a work or employment permit is required for persons without Guernsey (Alderney) status.[303]\n\n\n\n\n Isle of Man\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is required for persons without \"Isle of Man worker\" status.[304][305]\n\n\n\n\n Jersey\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nWork or employment permit is not required.[306]\n\n\n\n\n Gibraltar\nEU !Right of abode\n\n\nBritish citizens have right of abode in Gibraltar.\n\n\n\n\n Montserrat\nVisa not required\n6 months[307]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Pitcairn Islands\nVisa not required\n14 days[308]\n\n\nLanding fee applies.[309][310][311][312]\n\n\n\n\n Saint Helena\nEntry permit on arrival\n183 days[313]\n\n\nThe entry permit costs £25 and is issued on arrival.\n\n\n\n\n South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands\nPermit required\n\n\n\nPre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[314][315][316]\n\n\n\n\n Turks and Caicos Islands\nVisa not required\n90 days[317][318]\n\n\nBritish citizens with a connection to the territory have right of abode.\n\n\n\n\n Tristan da Cunha\nPermission required\n\n\n\nPermission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands, unless connection with Tristan da Cunha, in which case right of abode.[319]\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Guernsey",
"Isle of Man",
"Jersey",
"Gibraltar"
] |
2178904892813823831 | Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution | Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 29 October 2018 . This article is part of a series on the Constitution of the United States of America Preamble and Articles of the Constitution Preamble II III IV V VI VII Amendments to the Constitution Bill of Rights II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV XXVI XXVII Unratified Amendments Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Child Labor Equal Rights D.C. Voting Rights History Drafting and ratification timeline Convention Signing Federalism Republicanism Full text of the Constitution and Amendments Preamble and Articles I -- VII Amendments I -- X Amendments XI -- XXVII Unratified Amendments United States portal U.S. Government portal Law portal Wikipedia book The Sixth Amendment ( Amendment VI ) to the United States Constitution is the part of the United States Bill of Rights that sets forth rights related to criminal prosecutions . The Supreme Court has applied the protections of this amendment to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . Contents 1 Text 2 Rights secured 2.1 Speedy trial 2.2 Public trial 2.3 Impartial jury 2.3. 1 Impartiality 2.3. 2 Venire of juries 2.3. 3 Sentencing 2.4 Vicinage 2.5 Notice of accusation 2.6 Confrontation 2.7 Compulsory process 2.8 Assistance of counsel 2.8. 1 Self - representation 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Text ( edit ) In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law , and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor , and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence . The Bill of Rights in the National Archives The hand - written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights , 1789 , cropped to just show the text that would later be ratified as the Sixth Amendment Rights secured ( edit ) Speedy trial ( edit ) Main article : Speedy Trial Clause Criminal defendants have the right to a speedy trial . In Barker v. Wingo , 407 U.S. 514 ( 1972 ) , the Supreme Court laid down a four - part case - by - case balancing test for determining whether the defendant 's speedy trial right has been violated . The four factors are : Length of delay . A delay of a year or more from the date on which the speedy trial right `` attaches '' ( the date of arrest or indictment , whichever first occurs ) was termed `` presumptively prejudicial , '' but the Court has never explicitly ruled that any absolute time limit applies . Reason for the delay . The prosecution may not excessively delay the trial for its own advantage , but a trial may be delayed to secure the presence of an absent witness or other practical considerations ( e.g. , change of venue ) . Time and manner in which the defendant has asserted his right . If a defendant agrees to the delay when it works to his own benefit , he can not later claim that he has been unduly delayed . Degree of prejudice to the defendant which the delay has caused . In Strunk v. United States , 412 U.S. 434 ( 1973 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that if the reviewing court finds that a defendant 's right to a speedy trial was violated , then the indictment must be dismissed and / or the conviction overturned . The Court held that , since the delayed trial is the state action which violates the defendant 's rights , no other remedy would be appropriate . Thus , a reversal or dismissal of a criminal case on speedy trial grounds means that no further prosecution for the alleged offense can take place . Public trial ( edit ) Main article : Public trial In Sheppard v. Maxwell , 384 U.S. 333 ( 1966 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the right to a public trial is not absolute . In cases where excess publicity would serve to undermine the defendant 's right to due process , limitations can be put on public access to the proceedings . According to Press - Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court , 478 U.S. 1 ( 1986 ) , trials can be closed at the behest of the government if there is `` an overriding interest based on findings that closure is essential to preserve higher values and is narrowly tailored to serve that interest . '' The accused may also request a closure of the trial ; though , it must be demonstrated that `` first , there is a substantial probability that the defendant 's right to a fair trial will be prejudiced by publicity that closure would prevent , and second , reasonable alternatives to closure can not adequately protect the defendant 's right to a fair trial . '' Impartial jury ( edit ) Main article : Juries in the United States The right to a jury has always depended on the nature of the offense with which the defendant is charged . Petty offenses -- those punishable by imprisonment for no more than six months -- are not covered by the jury requirement . Even where multiple petty offenses are concerned , the total time of imprisonment possibly exceeding six months , the right to a jury trial does not exist . Also , in the United States , except for serious offenses ( such as murder ) , minors are usually tried in a juvenile court , which lessens the sentence allowed , but forfeits the right to a jury . Originally , the Supreme Court held that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial indicated a right to `` a trial by jury as understood and applied at common law , and includes all the essential elements as they were recognized in this country and England when the Constitution was adopted . '' Therefore , it was held that juries had to be composed of twelve persons and that verdicts had to be unanimous , as was customary in England . When , under the Fourteenth Amendment , the Supreme Court extended the right to a trial by jury to defendants in state courts , it re-examined some of the standards . It has been held that twelve came to be the number of jurors by `` historical accident , '' and that a jury of six would be sufficient , but anything less would deprive the defendant of a right to trial by jury . The Sixth Amendment mandates unanimity in a federal jury trial . However , the Supreme Court has ruled that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , while requiring states to provide jury trials for serious crimes , does not incorporate all the elements of a jury trial within the meaning of the Sixth Amendment . Thus , states are not mandated to require jury unanimity , unless the jury has only six members . Impartiality ( edit ) The Sixth Amendment requires juries to be impartial . Impartiality has been interpreted as requiring individual jurors to be unbiased . At voir dire , each side may question potential jurors to determine any bias , and challenge them if the same is found ; the court determines the validity of these challenges for cause . Defendants may not challenge a conviction because a challenge for cause was denied incorrectly if they had the opportunity to use peremptory challenges . In Peña - Rodriguez v. Colorado ( 2017 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment requires a court in a criminal trial to investigate whether a jury 's guilty verdict was based on racial bias . For a guilty verdict to be set aside based on the racial bias of a juror , the defendant must prove that the racial bias `` was a significant motivating factor in the juror 's vote to convict . '' Venire of juries ( edit ) Another factor in determining the impartiality of the jury is the nature of the panel , or venire , from which the jurors are selected . Venires must represent a fair cross-section of the community ; the defendant might establish that the requirement was violated by showing that the allegedly excluded group is a `` distinctive '' one in the community , that the representation of such a group in venires is unreasonable and unfair in regard to the number of persons belonging to such a group , and that the under - representation is caused by a systematic exclusion in the selection process . Thus , in Taylor v. Louisiana , 419 U.S. 522 ( 1975 ) , the Supreme Court invalidated a state law that exempted women who had not made a declaration of willingness to serve from jury service , while not doing the same for men . Sentencing ( edit ) In Apprendi v. New Jersey , 530 U.S. 466 ( 2000 ) , and Blakely v. Washington , 542 U.S. 296 ( 2004 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that a criminal defendant has a right to a jury trial not only on the question of guilt or innocence , but also regarding any fact used to increase the defendant 's sentence beyond the maximum otherwise allowed by statutes or sentencing guidelines . In Alleyne v. United States , 11 - 9335 ( 2013 ) , the Court expanded on Apprendi and Blakely by ruling that a defendant 's right to a jury applies to any fact that would increase a defendant 's sentence beyond the minimum otherwise required by statute . Vicinage ( edit ) Main article : Vicinage Clause Article III , Section 2 of the Constitution requires defendants be tried by juries and in the state in which the crime was committed . The Sixth Amendment requires the jury to be selected from judicial districts ascertained by statute . In Beavers v. Henkel , 194 U.S. 73 ( 1904 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that the place where the offense is charged to have occurred determines a trial 's location . Where multiple districts are alleged to have been locations of the crime , any of them may be chosen for the trial . In cases of offenses not committed in any state ( for example , offenses committed at sea ) , the place of trial may be determined by the Congress . Notice of accusation ( edit ) Main article : Notice A criminal defendant has the right to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him . Therefore , an indictment must allege all the ingredients of the crime to such a degree of precision that it would allow the accused to assert double jeopardy if the same charges are brought up in subsequent prosecution . The Supreme Court held in United States v. Carll , 105 U.S. 611 ( 1881 ) , that `` in an indictment ... it is not sufficient to set forth the offense in the words of the statute , unless those words of themselves fully , directly , and expressly , without any uncertainty or ambiguity , set forth all the elements necessary to constitute the offense intended to be punished . '' Vague wording , even if taken directly from a statute , does not suffice . However , the government is not required to hand over written copies of the indictment free of charge . Confrontation ( edit ) Main article : Confrontation Clause The Confrontation Clause relates to the common law rule preventing the admission of hearsay , that is to say , testimony by one witness as to the statements and observations of another person to prove that the statement or observation was accurate . The rationale was that the defendant had no opportunity to challenge the credibility of and cross-examine the person making the statements . Certain exceptions to the hearsay rule have been permitted ; for instance , admissions by the defendant are admissible , as are dying declarations . Nevertheless , in California v. Green , 399 U.S. 149 ( 1970 ) , the Supreme Court has held that the hearsay rule is not the same as the Confrontation Clause . Hearsay is admissible under certain circumstances . For example , in Bruton v. United States , 391 U.S. 123 ( 1968 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that while a defendant 's out of court statements were admissible in proving the defendant 's guilt , they were inadmissible hearsay against another defendant . Hearsay may , in some circumstances , be admitted though it is not covered by one of the long - recognized exceptions . For example , prior testimony may sometimes be admitted if the witness is unavailable . However , in Crawford v. Washington , 541 U.S. 36 ( 2004 ) , the Supreme Court increased the scope of the Confrontation Clause by ruling that `` testimonial '' out - of - court statements are inadmissible if the accused did not have the opportunity to cross-examine that accuser and that accuser is unavailable at trial . In Davis v. Washington 547 U.S. 813 ( 2006 ) , the Court ruled that `` testimonial '' refers to any statement that an objectively reasonable person in the declarant 's situation would believe likely to be used in court . In Melendez - Diaz v. Massachusetts , 557 U.S. ___ ( 2009 ) , and Bullcoming v. New Mexico , 564 U.S. ___ ( 2011 ) , the Court ruled that admitting a lab chemist 's analysis into evidence , without having him testify , violated the Confrontation Clause . In Michigan v. Bryant , 562 U.S. ___ ( 2011 ) , the Court ruled that the `` primary purpose '' of a shooting victim 's statement as to who shot him , and the police 's reason for questioning him , each had to be objectively determined . If the `` primary purpose '' was for dealing with an `` ongoing emergency '' , then any such statement was not testimonial and so the Confrontation Clause would not require the person making that statement to testify in order for that statement to be admitted into evidence . The right to confront and cross-examine witnesses also applies to physical evidence ; the prosecution must present physical evidence to the jury , providing the defense ample opportunity to cross-examine its validity and meaning . Prosecution generally may not refer to evidence without first presenting it . In the late 20th and early 21st century this clause became an issue in the use of the silent witness rule . Compulsory Process ( edit ) Main article : Compulsory Process Clause The Compulsory Process Clause gives any criminal defendant the right to call witnesses in his favor . If any such witness refuses to testify , that witness may be compelled to do so by the court at the request of the defendant . However , in some cases the court may refuse to permit a defense witness to testify . For example , if a defense lawyer fails to notify the prosecution of the identity of a witness to gain a tactical advantage , that witness may be precluded from testifying . Assistance of counsel ( edit ) Main article : Assistance of Counsel Clause A criminal defendant has the right to be represented by counsel . In Powell v. Alabama , 287 U.S. 45 ( 1932 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that `` in a capital case , where the defendant is unable to employ counsel , and is incapable adequately of making his own defense because of ignorance , feeble mindedness , illiteracy , or the like , it is the duty of the court , whether requested or not , to assign counsel for him . '' In Johnson v. Zerbst , 304 U.S. 458 ( 1938 ) , the Supreme Court ruled that in all federal cases , counsel would have to be appointed for defendants who were too poor to hire their own . In 1961 , the Court extended the rule that applied in federal courts to state courts . It held in Hamilton v. Alabama , 368 U.S. 52 ( 1961 ) , that counsel had to be provided at no expense to defendants in capital cases when they so requested , even if there was no `` ignorance , feeble mindedness , illiteracy , or the like . '' Gideon v. Wainwright , 372 U.S. 335 ( 1963 ) , ruled that counsel must be provided to indigent defendants in all felony cases , overruling Betts v. Brady , 316 U.S. 455 ( 1942 ) , in which the Court ruled that state courts had to appoint counsel only when the defendant demonstrated `` special circumstances '' requiring the assistance of counsel . Under Argersinger v. Hamlin , 407 U.S. 25 ( 1972 ) , counsel must be appointed in any case resulting in a sentence of actual imprisonment . Regarding sentences not immediately leading to imprisonment , the Court in Scott v. Illinois , 440 U.S. 367 ( 1979 ) , ruled that counsel did not need to be appointed , but in Alabama v. Shelton , 535 U.S. 654 ( 2002 ) , the Court held that a suspended sentence that may result in incarceration can not be imposed if the defendant did not have counsel at trial . As stated in Brewer v. Williams , 430 U.S. 387 ( 1977 ) , the right to counsel `` ( means ) at least that a person is entitled to the help of a lawyer at or after the time that judicial proceedings have been initiated against him , whether by formal charge , preliminary hearing , indictment , information , or arraignment . '' Brewer goes on to conclude that once adversary proceedings have begun against a defendant , he has a right to legal representation when the government interrogates him and that when a defendant is arrested , `` arraigned on ( an arrest ) warrant before a judge '' , and `` committed by the court to confinement '' , `` ( t ) here can be no doubt that judicial proceedings ha ( ve ) been initiated . '' Self - representation ( edit ) Main article : Pro se legal representation in the United States A criminal defendant may represent himself , unless a court deems the defendant to be incompetent to waive the right to counsel . In Faretta v. California , 422 U.S. 806 ( 1975 ) , the Supreme Court recognized a defendant 's right to pro se representation . However , under Godinez v. Moran , 509 U.S. 389 ( 1993 ) , a court that believes the defendant is less than fully competent to represent himself can require that defendant to be represented by counsel . In Martinez v. Court of Appeal of California , 528 U.S. 152 ( 2000 ) , the Supreme Court ruled the right to pro se representation did not apply to appellate courts . In Indiana v. Edwards , 554 U.S. 164 ( 2008 ) , the Court ruled that a criminal defendant could be simultaneously competent to stand trial , but not competent to represent himself . In Bounds v. Smith , 430 U.S. 817 ( 1977 ) , the Supreme Court held that the constitutional right of `` meaningful access to the courts '' can be satisfied by counsel or access to legal materials . Bounds has been interpreted by several United States courts of appeals to mean a pro se defendant does not have a constitutional right to access a prison law library to research his defense when access to the courts has been provided through appointed counsel . See also ( edit ) Trial in absentia United States constitutional criminal procedure References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Bill of Rights Transcript '' . Archives.gov . Retrieved 2011 - 06 - 09 . Jump up ^ District of Columbia v. Clawans , 300 U.S. 617 ( 1937 ) and Baldwin v. New York , 399 U.S. 66 ( 1970 ) Jump up ^ Lewis v. United States , 518 U.S. 322 ( 1996 ) Jump up ^ Patton v. United States , 281 U.S. 276 ( 1930 ) Jump up ^ Williams v. Florida , 399 U.S. 78 ( 1970 ) Jump up ^ Ballew v. Georgia , 435 U.S. 223 ( 1978 ) Jump up ^ Apodaca v. Oregon , 406 U.S. 404 ( 1972 ) Jump up ^ Burch v. Louisiana 441 U.S. 130 ( 1979 ) Jump up ^ `` Jury Size and Unanimity under the 6th and 14th Amendments '' . Social Science Research Network . Jump up ^ Howe , Amy ( March 6 , 2017 ) . `` Opinion analysis : Divided court rules for defendant in juror - bias case '' . SCOTUSblog . Retrieved March 7 , 2017 . Jump up ^ Plank , Doug ( December 20 , 2011 ) . `` Criminal Fines - Applicability of Apprendi v. New Jersey '' . National Legal Research Group . Retrieved December 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Gottlieb , Mike ( June 17 , 2013 ) . `` Reconciling ceilings and floors : Alleyne v. United States '' . SCOTUSblog . Retrieved December 7 , 2013 . Jump up ^ United States v. Cruikshank , 92 U.S. 542 ( 1876 ) Jump up ^ United States v. Van Duzee , 140 U.S. 169 ( 1891 ) Jump up ^ Kirby v. United States , 174 U.S. 47 ( 1899 ) ( `` It is scarcely necessary to say that ... the admission of dying declarations ... was well established before the adoption of the constitution , and was not intended to be abrogated . '' ) Jump up ^ Denniston , Lyle ( June 25 , 2009 ) . `` Analysis : Law need not bow to chemistry '' . SCOTUSblog . Retrieved June 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Bullcoming v. New Mexico Resource Page '' . Federal Evidence Review . Retrieved September 8 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Blackman , Josh ( February 28 , 2011 ) . `` Instant Analysis of Michigan v. Bryant : The Confrontation of Social Cost '' . Retrieved March 1 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Johnathan M. Lamb , Pepperdine Law Review , Vol. 36 , p. 213 ( 2008 ) . `` The Muted Rise of the Silent Witness Rule in National Security Litigation '' . Social Science Research Network . SSRN 1125459 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) ; access - date = requires url = ( help ) CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ `` Compulsory Process Clause '' . Revolutionary War and Beyond . Jump up ^ United States v. Cooper , 4 U.S. ( 4 Dallas ) 341 ( 1800 ) Jump up ^ Taylor v. Illinois , 484 U.S. 400 ( 1988 ) Jump up ^ 430 U.S. at 398 Jump up ^ 430 U.S. at 401 , citing Massiah v. United States , 377 U.S. 201 ( 1964 ) Jump up ^ `` 2nd Circuit : Having a Lawyer Satisfies Test for Court Access '' . Law.com . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2011 . External links ( edit ) Kilman , Johnny and George Costello ( Eds ) . ( 2000 ) . The Constitution of the United States of America : Analysis and Interpretation . CRS Annotated Constitution : Sixth Amendment Chin , Gabriel and Scott Wells . ( 1998 ) . Can A Reasonable Doubt have an Unreasonable Price ? Limitations on Attorneys Fees in Criminal Cases , 41 Boston College Law Review 1 . United States Constitution Articles Preamble II III IV V VI VII Amendments Ratified Bill of Rights 5 6 7 8 9 10 1795 -- 1804 11 12 Reconstruction 13 14 15 Twentieth century 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Pending Congressional Apportionment Titles of Nobility Corwin Amendment Child Labor Unsuccessful Equal Rights District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment proposals in Congress Convention to propose amendments State ratifying conventions Formation History Articles of Confederation Mount Vernon Conference Annapolis Convention Philadelphia Convention Virginia Plan New Jersey Plan Connecticut Compromise Three - Fifths Compromise Committee of Detail Signing Independence Hall Syng inkstand The Federalist Papers Anti-Federalist Papers Massachusetts Compromise Virginia Ratifying Convention Hillsborough Convention Rhode Island ratification Drafting and ratification timeline Clauses Appointments Appropriations Assistance of Counsel Case or Controversy Citizenship Commerce Compact Compulsory Process Confrontation Congressional enforcement Contract Copyright and Patent Double Jeopardy Due Process Equal Protection Establishment Exceptions Excessive Bail Ex post facto Extradition Free Exercise Free Speech Fugitive Slave Full Faith and Credit General Welfare Guarantee Impeachment Import - Export Ineligibility Militia Natural - born citizen Necessary and Proper New States No Religious Test Oath or Affirmation Origination Pardon Petition Postal Presentment Presidential succession Privileges and Immunities Privileges or Immunities Recess appointment Recommendation Self - Incrimination Speech or Debate Speedy Trial State of the Union Supremacy Suspension Take Care Takings Taxing and Spending Territorial Title of Nobility Treaty Trial by Jury Vesting Vicinage War Powers List of clauses Interpretation Concurrent powers Constitutional law Criminal procedure Criminal sentencing Dormant Commerce Clause Enumerated powers Equal footing Executive privilege Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Judicial review Nondelegation doctrine Preemption Saxbe fix Separation of church and state Separation of powers Taxation power Unitary executive theory Display and legacy National Archives Charters of Freedom Rotunda Independence Mall Constitution Day Constitution Gardens National Constitution Center Scene at the Signing of the Constitution ( painting ) A More Perfect Union ( film ) USS Constitution Worldwide influence US Government Portal Law Portal Wikipedia book United States Sixth Amendment case law Speedy Trial Clause Beavers v. Haubert ( 1905 ) United States v. Provoo ( 1955 ) Pollard v. United States ( 1957 ) United States v. Ewell ( 1966 ) Klopfer v. North Carolina ( 1967 ) Smith v. Hooey ( 1969 ) Dickey v. Florida ( 1970 ) United States v. Marion ( 1971 ) Barker v. Wingo ( 1972 ) Strunk v. United States ( 1973 ) United States v. Lovasco ( 1977 ) United States v. MacDonald ( 1982 ) United States v. Loud Hawk ( 1986 ) Doggett v. United States ( 1992 ) Vermont v. Brillon ( 2009 ) Betterman v. Montana ( 2016 ) Public Trial Clause Gaines v. Washington ( 1928 ) In re Oliver ( 1948 ) Gannett Co. , Inc. v. DePasquale ( 1979 ) Waller v. Georgia ( 1984 ) Presley v. Georgia ( 2010 ) Impartial Jury Clause Availability Callan v. Wilson ( 1888 ) Natal v. State ( 1891 ) Schick v. United States ( 1904 ) District of Columbia v. Colts ( 1930 ) District of Columbia v. Clawans ( 1937 ) United States v. Barnett ( 1964 ) Cheff v. Schnackenberg ( 1966 ) Duncan v. Louisiana ( 1968 ) Bloom v. Illinois ( 1968 ) DeStefano v. Woods ( 1968 ) Frank v. United States ( 1969 ) Baldwin v. New York ( 1970 ) Mayberry v. Pennsylvania ( 1971 ) Taylor v. Haynes ( 1974 ) Codispoti v. Pennsylvania ( 1974 ) Blanton v. North Las Vegas ( 1989 ) United States v. Nachtigal ( 1993 ) Lewis v. United States ( 1996 ) Impartiality Reynolds v. United States ( 1878 ) Connors v. United States ( 1895 ) Aldridge v. United States ( 1931 ) Glasser v. United States ( 1942 ) Dennis v. United States ( 1950 ) Irvin v. Dowd ( 1961 ) Beck v. Washington ( 1962 ) Rideau v. Louisiana ( 1963 ) Sheppard v. Maxwell ( 1966 ) Witherspoon v. Illinois ( 1968 ) Ham v. South Carolina ( 1973 ) Murphy v. Florida ( 1975 ) Ristaino v. Ross ( 1976 ) Adams v. Texas ( 1980 ) Rosales - Lopez v. United States ( 1981 ) Patton v. Yount ( 1984 ) Wainwright v. Witt ( 1985 ) Turner v. Murray ( 1986 ) Lockhart v. McCree ( 1986 ) Gray v. Mississippi ( 1987 ) Ross v. Oklahoma ( 1988 ) Mu'Min v. Virginia ( 1991 ) Morgan v. Illinois ( 1992 ) United States v. Martinez - Salazar ( 2000 ) Skilling v. United States ( 2010 ) McDonnell v. United States ( 2016 ) Facts found McMillan v. Pennsylvania ( 1986 ) Walton v. Arizona ( 1990 ) Almendarez - Torres v. United States ( 1998 ) Jones v. United States ( 1999 ) Apprendi v. New Jersey ( 2000 ) Harris v. United States ( 2002 ) Ring v. Arizona ( 2002 ) Blakely v. Washington ( 2004 ) Schriro v. Summerlin ( 2004 ) United States v. Booker ( 2005 ) Washington v. Recuenco ( 2006 ) Cunningham v. California ( 2007 ) Oregon v. Ice ( 2009 ) Southern Union Co. v. United States ( 2012 ) Alleyne v. United States ( 2013 ) Hurst v. Florida ( 2016 ) Size and unanimity Thompson v. Utah ( 1898 ) Maxwell v. Dow ( 1900 ) Rassmussen v. United States ( 1905 ) Patton v. United States ( 1930 ) Williams v. Florida ( 1970 ) Apodaca v. Oregon ( 1972 ) Ballew v. Georgia ( 1978 ) Burch v. Louisiana ( 1979 ) Vicinage Clause United States v. Dawson ( 1853 ) Jones v. United States ( 1890 ) Cook v. United States ( 1891 ) Burton v. United States ( 1905 , 1906 ) Ruthenberg v. United States ( 1918 ) Lewis v. United States ( 1929 ) United States v. Cabrales ( 1998 ) Impeachment of verdicts McDonald v. Pless ( 1915 ) Tanner v. United States ( 1987 ) Warger v. Shauers ( 2014 ) Peña - Rodriguez v. Colorado ( 2017 ) Information Clause Twitchell v. Pennsylvania ( 1868 ) Cole v. Arkansas ( 1948 ) Russell v. United States ( 1962 ) Rabe v. Washington ( 1972 ) Confrontation Clause Out - of - court statements Reynolds v. United States ( 1878 ) Mattox v. United States ( 1895 ) Kirby v. United States ( 1899 ) Motes v. United States ( 1900 ) Dowdell v. United States ( 1911 ) Pointer v. Texas ( 1965 ) Brookhart v. Janis ( 1966 ) Barber v. Page ( 1968 ) Bruton v. United States ( 1968 ) Berger v. California ( 1969 ) Frazier v. Cupp ( 1969 ) California v. Green ( 1970 ) Dutton v. Evans ( 1970 ) Mancusi v. Stubbs ( 1972 ) Ohio v. Roberts ( 1980 ) Tennessee v. Street ( 1985 ) Delaware v. Fensterer ( 1985 ) United States v. Inadi ( 1986 ) Lee v. Illinois ( 1986 ) Crawford v. Washington ( 2004 ) Davis v. Washington ( 2006 ) Whorton v. Bockting ( 2007 ) Giles v. California ( 2008 ) Melendez - Diaz v. Massachusetts ( 2009 ) Michigan v. Bryant ( 2011 ) Bullcoming v. New Mexico ( 2011 ) Williams v. Illinois ( 2012 ) Ohio v. Clark ( 2015 ) Face - to - face confrontation Snyder v. Massachusetts ( 1934 ) Kentucky v. Stincer ( 1987 ) Coy v. Iowa ( 1988 ) Maryland v. Craig ( 1990 ) Restrictions on cross-examination Douglas v. Alabama ( 1965 ) McCray v. Illinois ( 1967 ) Smith v. Illinois ( 1968 ) Chambers v. Mississippi ( 1973 ) Davis v. Alaska ( 1974 ) Delaware v. Fensterer ( 1985 ) Delaware v. Van Arsdall ( 1986 ) Right to present relevant evidence Cooper v. California ( 1967 ) McCray v. Illinois ( 1967 ) Pennsylvania v. Ritchie ( 1987 ) Olden v. Kentucky ( 1988 ) Michigan v. Lucas ( 1991 ) Compulsory Process Clause Washington v. Texas ( 1967 ) United States v. Valenzuela - Bernal ( 1982 ) Taylor v. Illinois ( 1988 ) Assistance of Counsel Clause Choice Chandler v. Fretag ( 1954 ) Morris v. Slappy ( 1983 ) Wheat v. United States ( 1988 ) Caplin & Drysdale , Chartered v. United States ( 1989 ) United States v. Gonzalez - Lopez ( 2006 ) Appointment Powell v. Alabama ( 1932 ) Johnson v. Zerbst ( 1938 ) Betts v. Brady ( 1942 ) Hamilton v. Alabama ( 1961 ) Gideon v. Wainwright ( 1963 ) Anders v. California ( 1967 ) Argersinger v. Hamlin ( 1972 ) Gagnon v. Scarpelli ( 1973 ) Scott v. Illinois ( 1979 ) Baldasar v. Illinois ( 1980 ) Pennsylvania v. Finley ( 1987 ) McCoy v. Court of Appeals of Wisconsin ( 1988 ) Penson v. Ohio ( 1988 ) Murray v. Giarratano ( 1989 ) Nichols v. United States ( 1994 ) Smith v. Robbins ( 2000 ) Alabama v. Shelton ( 2002 ) Constructive denial Avery v. Alabama ( 1940 ) Ferguson v. Georgia ( 1961 ) Brooks v. Tennessee ( 1972 ) Herring v. New York ( 1975 ) Geders v. United States ( 1976 ) Perry v. Leeke ( 1989 ) Conflict - free Glasser v. United States ( 1942 ) Dukes v. Warden ( 1972 ) Holloway v. Arkansas ( 1978 ) Cuyler v. Sullivan ( 1980 ) Burger v. Kemp ( 1987 ) Wheat v. United States ( 1988 ) Mickens v. Taylor ( 2002 ) Ineffective assistance McMann v. Richardson ( 1970 ) Jones v. Barnes ( 1983 ) United States v. Cronic ( 1984 ) Strickland v. Washington ( 1984 ) Hill v. Lockhart ( 1985 ) Nix v. Whiteside ( 1986 ) Kimmelman v. Morrison ( 1986 ) Lockhart v. Fretwell ( 1993 ) Smith v. Robbins ( 2000 ) Roe v. Flores - Ortega ( 2000 ) Williams v. Taylor ( 2000 ) Glover v. United States ( 2001 ) Bell v. Cone ( 2002 ) Woodford v. Visciotti ( 2002 ) Wiggins v. Smith ( 2003 ) Holland v. Jackson ( 2004 ) Florida v. Nixon ( 2004 ) Rompilla v. Beard ( 2005 ) Schriro v. Landrigan ( 2007 ) Wright v. Van Patten ( 2008 ) Knowles v. Mirzayance ( 2009 ) Bobby v. Van Hook ( 2009 ) Wong v. Belmontes ( 2009 ) Porter v. McCollum ( 2009 ) Wood v. Allen ( 2010 ) Padilla v. Kentucky ( 2010 ) Sears v. Upton ( 2010 ) Premo v. Moore ( 2011 ) Harrington v. Richter ( 2011 ) Cullen v. Pinholster ( 2011 ) Missouri v. Frye ( 2012 ) Lafler v. Cooper ( 2012 ) Buck v. Davis ( 2017 ) Weaver v. Massachusetts ( 2017 ) Jae Lee v. United States ( 2017 ) Uncounseled statements Massiah v. United States ( 1963 ) Brewer v. Williams ( 1977 ) United States v. Henry ( 1980 ) Maine v. Moulton ( 1985 ) Kuhlmann v. Wilson ( 1986 ) Kansas v. Ventris ( 2009 ) Pro se representation Faretta v. California ( 1975 ) McKaskle v. Wiggins ( 1984 ) Rock v. Arkansas ( 1987 ) Martinez v. California Court of Appeals ( 2000 ) Indiana v. Edwards ( 2008 ) WorldCat Identities GND : 4489473 - 9 LCCN : n97009290 VIAF : 184789309 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&oldid=866358404 '' Categories : Amendments to the United States Constitution United States Sixth Amendment case law 1791 in American law 1791 in American politics United States criminal constitutional law Hidden categories : Pages using web citations with no URL Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list Wikipedia pending changes protected pages Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Ænglisc Беларуская Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 עברית Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Türkçe Українська 中文 7 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 October 2018 , at 21 : 26 ( UTC ) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where is a right to a trial by jury found | [
"Originally, the Supreme Court held that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial indicated a right to \"a trial by jury as understood and applied at common law, and includes all the essential elements as they were recognized in this country and England when the Constitution was adopted.\"[4] Therefore, it was held that juries had to be composed of twelve persons and that verdicts had to be unanimous, as was customary in England.\n"
] | [
"Sixth Amendment"
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-3426434706618436020 | History of video games | History of video games - wikipedia History of video games Jump to : navigation , search ( hide ) This article has multiple issues . Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page . ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages ) This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( December 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate . ( April 2016 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The Atari 2600 was a popular home video game console in the late 1970s and early 1980s . Pictured is the four - switch model from 1980 -- 1982 . An Atari 2600 game joystick controller , which also had a button . Part of a series on the History of video games General ( show ) Early history of video games Early mainframe games Golden age of arcade video games Video game crash of 1983 Consoles ( show ) 1st generation ( 1972 -- 1980 ) 2nd generation ( 1976 -- 1992 ) 3rd generation ( 1983 -- 2003 ) 4th generation ( 1987 -- 2004 ) 5th generation ( 1993 -- 2005 ) 6th generation ( 1998 -- 2013 ) 7th generation ( 2005 -- 2017 ) 8th generation ( 2012 -- ) Genres ( show ) History of Eastern role - playing video games History of Western role - playing video games History of online games History of massively multiplayer online games Lists ( show ) List of video games in development Timeline of arcade video game history The history of video games goes as far back as the early 1950s , when academic computer scientists began designing simple games and simulations as part of their research . Video gaming did not reach mainstream popularity until the 1970s and 1980s , when video arcade games and gaming consoles using joysticks , buttons , and other controllers , along with graphics on computer screens and home computer games were introduced to the general public . Since the 1980s , video gaming has become a popular form of entertainment and a part of modern popular culture in most parts of the world . One of the early games was Spacewar ! , which was developed by computer scientists . Early arcade video games developed from 1972 to 1978 . During the 1970s , the first generation of home consoles emerged , including the popular game Pong and various `` clones '' . The 1970s was also the era of mainframe computer games . The golden age of arcade video games was from 1978 to 1982 . Video arcades with large , graphics - decorated coin - operated machines were common at malls and popular , affordable home consoles such as the Atari 2600 and Intellivision enabled people to play games on their home TVs . During the 1980s , gaming computers , early online gaming and handheld LCD games emerged ; this era was affected by the video game crash of 1983 . From 1976 to 1992 , the second generation of video consoles emerged . The third generation of consoles , which were 8 - bit units , emerged from 1983 to 1995 . The fourth generation of consoles , which were 16 - bit models , emerged from 1987 to 1999 . The 1990s saw the resurgence and decline of arcades , the transition to 3D video games , improved handheld games , and PC gaming . The fifth generation of consoles , which were 32 and 64 - bit units , was from 1993 to 2006 . During this era , mobile phone gaming emerged . During the 2000s , the sixth generation of consoles emerged ( 1998 -- 2013 ) . During this period , online gaming and mobile games became major aspects of gaming culture . The seventh generation of consoles was from 2005 to 2012 . This era was marked by huge development budgets for some games , with some having cinematic graphics ; the launch of the top - selling Wii console , in which the user could control the game actions with real - life movement of the controller ; the rise of casual PC games marketed to non-gamers ; and the emergence of cloud computing in video games . In 2013 , the eighth generation of consoles emerged , including Nintendo 's Wii U and Nintendo 3DS , Microsoft 's Xbox One , and Sony 's PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita . PC gaming has been holding a large market share in Asia and Europe for decades and continues to grow due to digital distribution . Since the development and widespread consumer use of smartphones , mobile gaming has been a driving factor for games , as they can reach people formerly uninterested in gaming , and those unable to afford or support dedicated hardware , such as video game consoles . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early history ( 1948 -- 1972 ) 1.1 Defining the video game 1.2 Origins of electronic computer games 1.3 Spacewar ! 1.4 The commercialization of video games 2 A new industry 2.1 Early arcade video games ( 1972 -- 1978 ) 2.2 First generation of home consoles and the Pong clones ( 1972 -- 1978 ) 2.3 Mainframe computer games ( 1971 -- 1979 ) 3 Golden Age 3.1 Golden age of arcade video games ( 1978 -- 1982 ) 3.2 Second generation consoles ( 1976 -- 1982 ) 3.3 Early home computer games ( 1976 -- 1982 ) 4 1980s 4.1 Gaming computers 4.2 Early online gaming 4.3 Handheld LCD games 4.4 Video game crash of 1983 4.5 Third generation consoles ( 1983 -- 1995 ) ( 8 - bit ) 4.6 Fourth generation consoles ( 1987 -- 2003 ) ( 16 - bit ) 5 1990s 5.1 Resurgence and decline of arcades 5.1. 1 Transition to 3D 5.2 Handhelds come of age 5.3 PC gaming 5.4 Fifth generation consoles ( 1993 -- 2005 ) ( 32 - and 64 - bit ) 5.4. 1 Transition to 3D and CDs 5.5 Mobile phone gaming 6 2000s 6.1 Sixth generation consoles ( 1998 -- 2013 ) 6.1. 1 Return of alternative controllers 6.2 Online gaming rises to prominence 6.3 Mobile games 6.4 Seventh generation consoles ( 2005 -- present ) 6.4. 1 Increases in development budgets 6.5 Rise of casual PC games 6.6 Cloud computing comes to games 7 2010s 7.1 Eighth generation consoles ( 2012 -- present ) 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Early history ( 1948 -- 1972 ) Main article : Early history of video games Defining the video game The term video game has evolved over the decades from a purely technical definition to a general concept defining a new class of interactive entertainment . Technically , for a product to be a video game , there must be a video signal transmitted to a cathode ray tube ( CRT ) that creates a rasterized image on a screen . This definition would preclude early computer games that outputted results to a printer or teletype rather than a display , any game rendered on a vector - scan monitor , any game played on a modern high definition display , and most handheld game systems . From a technical standpoint , these would more properly be called `` electronic games '' or `` computer games . '' Today , however , the term `` video game '' has completely shed its purely technical definition and encompasses a wider range of technology . While still rather ill - defined , the term `` video game '' now generally encompasses any game played on hardware built with electronic logic circuits that incorporates an element of interactivity and outputs the results of the player 's actions to a display . Going by this broader definition , the first video games appeared in the early 1950s and were tied largely to research projects at universities and large corporations . Origins of electronic computer games The first electronic digital computers , Colossus and ENIAC , were built during World War II to aid the Allied war effort against the Axis powers . Shortly after the war , the promulgation of the first stored program architectures at the University of Pennsylvania ( EDVAC ) , Cambridge University ( EDSAC ) , the University of Manchester ( Manchester Mark 1 ) , and Princeton University ( IAS machine ) allowed computers to be easily reprogrammed to undertake a variety of tasks , which facilitated commercializing computers in the early 1950s by companies like Remington Rand , Ferranti , and IBM . This in turn promoted the adoption of computers by universities , government organizations , and large corporations as the decade progressed . It was in this environment that the first video games were born . The computer games of the 1950s can generally be divided into three categories : training and instructional programs , research programs in fields such as artificial intelligence , and demonstration programs intended to impress or entertain the public . Because these games were largely developed on unique hardware in a time when porting between systems was difficult and were often dismantled or discarded after serving their limited purposes , they did not generally influence further developments in the industry . For the same reason , it is impossible to be certain who developed the first computer game or who originally modeled many of the games or play mechanics introduced during the decade , as there are likely several games from this period that were never publicized and are thus unknown today . The earliest known chess computer program was developed by Alan Turing and David Champernowne called Turochamp , which was completed in 1950 but not actually implemented by them on a computer . The earliest known idea for a fully electronic game is a `` Cathode - Ray Tube Amusement Device '' in US patent # 2,455,992 . The earliest known electronic computer games actually implemented were two custom built machines called Bertie the Brain and Nimrod , which played tic - tac - toe and the game of Nim , respectively . Bertie the Brain , designed and built by Josef Kates at Rogers Majestic , was displayed at the Canadian National Exhibition in 1950 , while Nimrod , conceived by John Bennett at Ferranti and built by Raymond Stuart - Williams , was displayed at the Festival of Britain and the Berlin Industrial Show in 1951 . Neither game incorporated a cathode ray tube ( CRT ) display . Before these , automated games like the simple chess simulator El Ajedrecista ( 1914 ) and Nimrod 's predecessor Nimatron ( 1940 ) had been created as electro - mechanical devices . The first games known to incorporate a monitor were two research projects completed in 1952 , a checkers program by Christopher Strachey on the Ferranti Mark 1 and a tic - tac - toe program called OXO by Alexander Douglas on the EDSAC . Both of these programs used a relatively static display to track the current state of the game board . The first known game incorporating graphics that updated in real time was a pool game programmed by William Brown and Ted Lewis specifically for a demonstration of the MIDSAC computer at the University of Michigan in 1954 . Tennis for Two -- Modern recreation Perhaps the first game created solely for entertainment rather than to demonstrate the power of some technology , train personnel , or aid in research was Tennis for Two , designed by William Higinbotham and built by Robert Dvorak at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1958 . Designed to entertain the general public at Brookhaven 's annual series of open houses , the game was deployed on an analog computer with graphics displayed on an oscilloscope and was dismantled in 1959 . Higinbotham never considered adapting the successful game into a commercial product , which would have been impractical with the technology of the time . Ultimately , the widespread adoption of computers to play games would have to wait for the machines to spread from serious academics to their students on U.S. college campuses . Spacewar ! Main article : Early mainframe games The mainframe computers of the 1950s were generally batch processing machines of limited speed and memory . This made them generally unsuited for games . Furthermore , they were costly and relatively scarce commodities , so computer time was a precious resource that could not be wasted on frivolous pursuits like entertainment . At the Lincoln Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , however , a team led by Jay Forrester developed a computer called Whirlwind in the early 1950s that processed commands in real time and incorporated a faster and more reliable form of random access memory ( RAM ) based around magnetic cores . Based on this work , two employees at the lab named Ken Olsen and Wes Clark developed a prototype real time computer called the TX - 0 that incorporated the recently invented transistor , which ultimately allowed the size and cost of computers to be significantly reduced . Olsen subsequently established the Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) with Harlan Anderson in 1957 and developed a commercial update of the TX - 0 called the PDP - 1 . Lincoln Laboratory donated the TX - 0 to MIT in 1958 . As the computer operated in real time and thus allowed for interactive programming , MIT allowed students to program the computer to conduct their own research , perhaps the first time that university students were allowed to directly access a computer for their own work . Further , the university decided to allow students to set the computer to tasks outside the bounds of classwork or faculty research during periods of time no one was signed up to do official work . This resulted in a community of undergraduate students led by Bob Saunders , Peter Samson , and Alan Kotok , many of them affiliated with the Tech Model Railroad Club , conducting their own experiments on the computer . In 1961 , MIT received one of the first PDP - 1 computers , which incorporated a relatively sophisticated point - plotting monitor . MIT provided a similar level of access to the computer for students as it did for the TX - 0 , resulting in the creation of the first ( relatively ) widespread , and thus influential , computer game , Spacewar ! Spacewar ! is credited as the first widely available and influential computer game . Conceived by Steve Russell , Martin Graetz , and Wayne Wiitanen in 1961 and programmed primarily by Russell , Saunders , Graetz , Samson , and Dan Edwards in the first half of 1962 , Spacewar ! was inspired by the science fiction stories of E.E. Smith and depicted a duel between two spaceships , each controlled by a player using a custom built control box . Immensely popular among students at MIT , Spacewar ! spread to the West Coast later in the year when Russell took a job at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ( SAIL ) , where it enjoyed similar success . The program subsequently migrated to other locations around the country through the efforts of both former MIT students and DEC itself , more so after cathode ray tube ( CRT ) terminals started becoming more common at the end of the 1960s . As computing resources continued to expand over the remainder of the decade through the adoption of time sharing and the development of simpler high - level programming languages like BASIC , an increasing number of college students began programming and sharing simple sports , puzzle , card , logic , and board games as the decade progressed . These creations remained trapped in computer labs for the remainder of the decade , however , because even though some adherents of Spacewar ! had begun to sense the commercial possibilities of computer games , they could only run on hardware costing hundreds of thousands of dollars . As computers and their components continued to fall in price , however , the dream of a commercial video game finally became attainable at the start of the 1970s . The commercialization of video games By 1970 , the introduction of medium scale integration ( MSI ) transistor -- transistor logic ( TTL ) circuits combining multiple transistors on a single microchip had resulted in another significant reduction in the cost of computing and ushered in a new wave of minicomputers costing under $10,000 . While still far too costly for the home , these advances lowered the cost of computing enough that it could be seriously considered for the coin - operated games industry , which at the time was experiencing its own technological renaissance as large electro - mechanical target shooting and driving games like Sega Enterprises 's Periscope ( 1967 ) and Chicago Coin 's Speedway ( 1969 ) pioneered the adoption of elaborate visual displays and electronic sound effects in the amusement arcade . Consequently , when a recent engineering graduate from Utah with experience running coin - operated equipment named Nolan Bushnell first saw Spacewar ! at SAIL in late 1969 or early 1970 , he resolved to build a coin - operated version for public consumption . Enlisting the aid of an older and more experienced engineer named Ted Dabney , Bushnell built a variant of the game called Computer Space in which a single player - controlled spaceship dueled two hardware - controlled flying saucers . Released in late November or early December 1971 through Nutting Associates , the game failed to have much impact in the coin - operated marketplace . The Magnavox Odyssey , the first home console Meanwhile , Ralph Baer , an engineer with a degree in television engineering working for defense contractor Sanders Associates , had been working on a video game system that could be plugged into a standard television set since 1966 . Working primarily with technician Bill Harrison , who built most of the actual hardware , Baer developed a series of prototype systems between 1966 and 1969 based around diode -- transistor logic ( DTL ) circuits that would send a video signal to a television set to generate spots on the screen that could be controlled by the players . Originally able to generate only two spots , the system was modified in November 1967 at the suggestion of engineer Bill Rusch to generate a third spot for use in a table tennis game in which each player controlled a single spot that served as a paddle and volleyed the third spot , which acted as a ball . In 1971 , Sanders concluded a licensing agreement with television company Magnavox to release the system , which reached the market in September 1972 as the Magnavox Odyssey . The system launched with a dozen games included in the box , four more sold with a separate light gun , and six games sold separately , most of which were chase , racing , target shooting , or sports games . These games were activated using plug - in circuit cards that defined how the spots generated by the hardware would behave . Due to the limited abilities of the system , which could only render three spots and a line , most of the graphic and gameplay elements were actually defined by plastic overlays attached to the TV set along with accessories like boards , cards , and dice . Like Computer Space the Odyssey only performed modestly and failed to jump start a new industry . However , the system did directly influence the birth of a vibrant video arcade game industry after Ralph Baer 's design ingenuity intersected Nolan Bushnell 's entrepreneurial ambition . A new industry Early arcade video games ( 1972 -- 1978 ) See also : Arcade game and First generation of video game consoles Pong was the first arcade game to ever receive universal acclaim . In 1972 , Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney decided to strike out on their own and incorporated their preexisting partnership as Atari . After seeing a demonstration of the Magnavox Odyssey ahead of its release , Bushnell charged new hire Allan Alcorn to create a version of that system 's table tennis game as a practice project to familiarize himself with video game design . Alcorn 's version ended up being so fun that Atari decided to release it as Pong . Available in limited quantities in late 1972 , Pong began reaching the market in quantity in March 1973 , after which it ignited a new craze for ball - and - paddle video games in the coin - operated amusement industry . The success of Pong did not result in the displacement of traditional arcade amusements like pinball , but did lay the foundation for a successful video arcade game industry . Roughly 70,000 video games , mostly ball - and - paddle variants , were sold in 1973 by a combination of recent startups like Atari , Ramtek , and Allied Leisure and established Chicago firms like Williams , Chicago Coin , and the Midway subsidiary of Bally Manufacturing . The video arcade game market remained in a state of flux for the remainder of the decade . The ball - and - paddle market collapsed in 1974 due to market saturation , which led to a significant drop in video game sales . Smaller manufacturers attempted to compensate by creating `` cocktail table '' cabinets for sale to non-traditional venues like higher class restaurants and lounges , but this market failed to fully develop . Larger companies like Atari and Midway turned to new genres to remain successful , especially racing games , one - on - one dueling games , and target shooting games . Early hits in these genres included Gran Trak 10 ( 1974 ) and Tank ( 1974 ) from Atari , and Wheels ( 1975 ) , Gun Fight , ( 1975 ) and Sea Wolf ( 1976 ) from Midway . Wheels and Gun Fight were licensed versions of Speed Race and Western Gun developed by the Taito Trading Company of Japan , marking the start of Japanese video game penetration into the United States . Gun Fight was also one of the first arcade games to incorporate a microprocessor , starting a shift away from video arcade games engineered using dedicated TTL hardware to video games programmed in software . The video game was one of several concepts that helped to reform the image of the arcade as a seedy hangout for delinquents . This in turn aided the growth of arcades in suburban shopping malls . The principle pioneer of the shopping mall arcade was Jules Millman , who established an arcade in a shopping mall in Harvey , Illinois , in 1969 . By banning eating , drinking , and smoking , and maintaining a full staff at all times to keep an eye on the facilities , Millman created a safe environment where parents could feel safe leaving their older children while browsing other stores in the mall . Millman founded American Amusements to establish more shopping mall arcades , which was purchased by Bally in 1974 and renamed Aladdin 's Castle . Other entrepreneur 's imitated Millman 's format , and arcades became a mainstay of the shopping mall by the end of the decade . The emergence of solid state pinball in the late 1970s , in which electro - mechanical technologies like relays were replaced by the newly emerging microprocessor , temporarily stole the limelight from video games , which once again entered a period of decline in 1977 and 1978 . While individual games like Atari 's Breakout ( 1976 ) and Cinematronics ' Space Wars ( 1978 ) sold in large numbers during this period , overall profitability began to lag . The market surged once again , however , after the introduction of the Taito game Space Invaders by Midway in 1979 . First generation of home consoles and the Pong clones ( 1972 -- 1978 ) Magnavox 's 1975 Odyssey game console The Magnavox Odyssey never caught on with the public , due largely to the limited functionality of its primitive technology . By the middle of the 1970s , however , the ball - and - paddle craze in the arcade had ignited public interest in video games and continuing advances in integrated circuits had resulted in large - scale integration ( LSI ) microchips cheap enough to be incorporated into a consumer product . In 1975 , Magnavox reduced the part count of the Odyssey using a three - chip set created by Texas Instruments and released two new systems that only played ball - and - paddle games , the Odyssey 100 and Odyssey 200 . Atari , meanwhile , entered the consumer market that same year with the single - chip Home Pong system designed by Harold Lee . The next year , General Instrument released a `` Pong - on - a-chip '' LSI and made it available at a low price to any interested company . Toy company Coleco Industries used this chip to create the million - selling Telstar console model series ( 1976 -- 77 ) , while dozens of other companies released models as well . Overall , sales of dedicated ball - and - paddle systems in the U.S. grew from 350,000 in 1975 to a peak of 5 -- 6 million in 1977 . A similar boom hit the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe , with much of the market supplied by clone manufacturers in Hong Kong . After 1977 , the dedicated console market in the United States collapsed . A new wave of programmable systems hit the market starting with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976 that offered the possibility of purchasing and playing a wider variety of games stored on cartridges containing mask ROM that could be plugged directly into the CPU of the console . As older model dedicated consoles were heavily discounted and consumers with more purchasing power transitioned to the new programmable systems , newer dedicated systems with more advanced features like Video Pinball from Atari and the Odyssey 4000 were squeezed out by their lower priced predecessors and their more sophisticated programmable replacements . This caused a brief dip in the market and the exit of industry leader Coleco , which failed to transition to programmable hardware . Fairchild remained in the new programmable market alongside Atari and Magnavox , which released the VCS ( 1977 ) and Odyssey ( 1978 ) respectively . Mainframe computer games ( 1971 -- 1979 ) The on - screen instructions from Will Crowther 's 1976 game Colossal Cave Adventure . In the 1960s , a number of computer games were created for mainframe and minicomputer systems , but these failed to achieve wide distribution due to the continuing scarcity of computer resources , a lack of sufficiently trained programmers interested in crafting entertainment products , and the difficulty in transferring programs between computers in different geographic areas . By the end of the 1970s , however , the situation had changed drastically . The BASIC and C high - level programming languages were widely adopted during the decade , which were more accessible than earlier more technical languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL , opening up computer game creation to a larger base of users . With the advent of time - sharing , which allowed the resources of a single mainframe to be parceled out among multiple users connected to the machine by terminals , computer access was no longer limited to a handful of individuals at an institution , creating more opportunities for students to create their own games . Furthermore , the widespread adoption of the PDP - 10 , released by Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) in 1966 , and the portable UNIX operating system , developed at Bell Labs in 1971 and released generally in 1973 , created common programming environments across the country that reduced the difficulty of sharing programs between institutions . Finally , the founding of the first magazines dedicated to computing like Creative Computing ( 1974 ) , the publication of the earliest program compilation books like 101 BASIC Computer Games ( 1973 ) , and the spread of wide - area networks such as the ARPANET allowed programs to be shared more easily across great distances . As a result , many of the mainframe games created by college students in the 1970s influenced subsequent developments in the video game industry in ways that , Spacewar ! aside , the games of the 1960s did not . In the arcade and on home consoles , fast - paced action and real - time gameplay were the norm in genres like racing and target shooting . On the mainframe , however , such games were generally not possible due both to the lack of adequate displays ( many computer terminals continued to rely on teletypes rather than monitors well into the 1970s and even most CRT terminals could only render character - based graphics ) and insufficient processing power and memory to update game elements in real time . While 1970s mainframes were more powerful than arcade and console hardware of the period , the need to parcel out computing resources to dozens of simultaneous users via time - sharing significantly hampered their abilities . Thus , programmers of mainframe games focused on strategy and puzzle - solving mechanics over pure action . Notable games of the period include the tactical combat game Star Trek ( 1971 ) by Mike Mayfield , the hide - and - seek game Hunt the Wumpus ( 1972 ) by Gregory Yob , and the strategic war game Empire ( 1977 ) by Walter Bright . Perhaps the most significant game of the period was Colossal Cave Adventure ( or simply Adventure ) , created in 1976 by Will Crowther by combining his passion for caving with concepts from the newly released tabletop role - playing game ( RPG ) Dungeons and Dragons ( D&D ) . Expanded by Don Woods in 1977 with an emphasis on the high fantasy of J.R.R. Tolkien , Adventure established a new genre based around exploration and inventory - based puzzle solving that made the transition to personal computers in the late 1970s . While most games were created on hardware of limited graphic ability , one computer able to host more impressive games was the PLATO system developed at the University of Illinois . Intended as an educational computer , the system connected hundreds of users all over the United States via remote terminals that featured high - quality plasma displays and allowed users to interact with each other in real time . This allowed the system to host an impressive array of graphical and / or multiplayer games , including some of the earliest known computer RPGs , which were primarily derived , like Adventure , from D&D , but unlike that game placed a greater emphasis on combat and character progression than puzzle solving . Starting with top - down dungeon crawls like The Dungeon ( 1975 ) and The Game of Dungeons ( 1975 ) , more commonly referred to today by their filenames , pedit5 and dnd , PLATO RPGs soon transitioned to a first - person perspective with games like Moria ( 1975 ) , Oubliette ( 1977 ) , and Avatar ( 1979 ) , which often allowed multiple players to join forces to battle monsters and complete quests together . Like Adventure , these games would ultimately inspire some of the earliest personal computer games . Golden age Golden age of arcade video games ( 1978 -- 1982 ) Main article : Golden age of arcade video games Space Invaders was a popular game during the golden age . The game introduced many elements which would become standard in video games . By 1978 , video games were well established in the U.S. coin - operated amusement industry , but their popularity was secondary to the industry stalwarts of pool and pinball . That changed with the introduction of a new game developed in Japan . While video games had been introduced to Japan soon after hitting the United States , the Japanese arcade industry had remained primarily focused on electro - mechanical driving and shooting games and a type of slot machine called the `` medal game '' that accepted and paid out in medals instead of currency so as not to be classified as a gambling game . In 1977 , the arrival of Breakout , distributed locally by the Nakamura Manufacturing Company , and the advent of table - top game units , pioneered by Taito , created new demand for video games in snack bars and tea houses . Taito designer Tomohiro Nishikado decided to build on the popularity of Breakout by replacing the paddle in the game with a gun battery and the bricks in the game with rows of aliens that would descend line - by - line while firing at the player . Taito released this game in 1978 as Space Invaders . Games such as Galaxian , Galaga and Donkey Kong were popular in arcades during the early 1980s . Space Invaders introduced or popularized several important concepts in arcade video games , including play regulated by lives instead of a timer or set score , gaining extra lives through accumulating points , and the tracking of the high score achieved on the machine . It was also the first game to confront the player with waves of targets that would shoot back at the player and the first to include background music during game play , a simple four - note loop . With its intense game play and competitive scoring features , Space Invaders became a national phenomenon as over 200,000 invader games -- counting clones and knockoffs -- entered Japanese game centers by the middle of 1979 . While not quite as popular in the United States , Space Invaders became the biggest hit the industry had seen since the Great Depression as Midway , serving as the North American manufacturer , moved over 60,000 cabinets . The one - two punch of Space Invaders and the Atari game Asteroids ( 1979 ) , which moved 70,000 units and popularized the recording of multiple high scores in a table , resulted in video arcade games completely displacing pinball and other amusements to become the central attraction of not just the shopping mall arcade , but also a variety of street locations from convenience stores to bowling alleys to pizza parlors . Many of the best - selling games of 1980 and 1981 such as Galaxian ( 1979 ) , Defender ( 1980 ) , Missile Command ( 1980 ) , Tempest ( 1981 ) , and Galaga ( 1981 ) focused on shooting mechanics and achieving high scores . Starting with Pac Man in 1980 , which sold 96,000 units in the United States , a new wave of games appeared that focused on identifiable characters and alternate mechanics such as navigating a maze or traversing a series of platforms . Aside from Pac Man and its sequel , Ms. Pac - Man ( 1982 ) , the most popular games in this vein were Donkey Kong ( 1981 ) and Q * bert ( 1982 ) . According to trade publication Vending Times , revenues generated by coin - operated video games on location in the United States jumped from $308 million in 1978 to $968 million in 1979 to $2.8 billion in 1980 . As Pac Man ignited an even larger video game craze and attracted more female players to arcades , revenues jumped again to $4.9 billion in 1981 . According to trade publication Play Meter , by July 1982 , total coin - op collections peaked at $8.9 billion , of which $7.7 billion came from video games . Meanwhile , the number of arcades -- defined as any location with ten or more games -- more than doubled between July 1981 and July 1983 from over 10,000 to just over 25,000 . These figures made arcade games the most popular entertainment medium in the country , far surpassing both pop music ( at $4 billion in sales per year ) and Hollywood films ( $3 billion ) . Second generation consoles ( 1976 -- 1982 ) Main article : Second generation of video game consoles Intellivision was a home console system introduced in 1979 . After the collapse of the dedicated console market in 1978 , focus in the home shifted to the new programmable systems , in which game data was stored on ROM - based cartridges . Fairchild semiconductor struck first in this market with the Channel F , but after losing millions in the digital watch business , the company took a conservative approach to the programmable console market and kept production runs of the system low . As a result , by the end of 1977 , Fairchild had only sold about 250,000 systems . Atari followed Fairchild into the market in 1977 and sold between 340,000 and 400,000 systems that year . Magnavox joined the programmable market in 1978 with the Odyssey , while toy company Mattel released the Intellivision in 1979 , which had superior graphics to any of its competitors . After both Atari and Fairchild made a strong showing in 1977 , the market hit a difficult patch in 1978 when retailers resisted building inventory , believing that the newly emerging electronic handheld market would displace video games . Atari , for example , manufactured 800,000 systems , but proved unable to sell more than 500,000 to retail . This helped precipitate a crisis at the company that saw co-founder and chairman Nolan Bushnell and president Joe Keenan forced out by Atari 's parent company , Warner Communications , which had purchased Atari in 1976 largely on the potential of the VCS . Ultimately , home video games did well in the 1978 holiday season , and retailers proved more amenable to stocking them again in 1979 . New Atari CEO Ray Kassar subsequently harnessed his company 's leftover stock to help transform video game consoles into a year - round product rather than something just purchased by retailers for sale during the holiday season . The real breakthrough for the home video game market occurred in 1980 when Atari released a conversion of the popular Space Invaders game for the VCS , which was licensed from Taito . Buoyed by the success of the game , Atari 's consumer sales almost doubled from $119 million to nearly $204 million in 1980 and then exploded to over $841 million in 1981 , while sales across the entire video game industry in the United States rose from $185.7 million in 1979 to just over $1 billion in 1981 . Through a combination of conversions of its own arcade games like Missile Command and Asteroids and licensed conversions like Defender , Atari took a commanding lead in the industry , with an estimated 65 % market share of the worldwide industry by dollar volume by 1981 . Mattel settled into second place with roughly 15 % - 20 % of the market , while Magnavox ran a distant third , and Fairchild exited the market entirely in 1979 . In the early days of the programmable market , all of the games for a given system were developed by the firm that released the console . That changed in 1979 when four Atari programmers , seeking greater recognition and financial reward for their contributions , struck out on their own to form Activision , the first third - party developer . The company went on to develop a string of hits including Kaboom ! ( 1981 ) , River Raid ( 1982 ) , and Pitfall ! ( 1982 ) , recognized as one of the foundational games of the scrolling platformer genre . In 1981 , another group of Atari employees joined with ex-Mattel staff to form Imagic and experienced success with games like Demon Attack ( 1982 ) and Atlantis ( 1982 ) . In 1982 , Atari released a more advanced console based on its 8 - bit computer line , the Atari 5200 , which failed to perform as well as its predecessor . That same year , Coleco returned to the video game market with a new console , the ColecoVision , that featured near - arcade - quality graphics and shipped with a port of the popular arcade game Donkey Kong . Coleco sold out its entire run of 550,000 units in the 1982 holiday season as overall U.S. video game sales reached $2.1 billion , which represented 31 % of the dollar volume of the entire toy industry . Ultimately , however , the rapid growth of the home console market could not be sustained , and the industry soon faced a serious downturn that nearly wiped it out . Early home computer games ( 1976 -- 1982 ) While the fruit of retail development in early video games appeared mainly in video arcades and home consoles , home computers began appearing in the late 1970s and were rapidly evolving in the 1980s , allowing their owners to program simple games . Hobbyist groups for the new computers soon formed and PC game software followed . Soon many of these games -- at first clones of mainframe classics such as Star Trek , and then later ports or clones of popular arcade games such as Space Invaders , Frogger , Pac - Man ( see Pac - Man clones ) and Donkey Kong -- were being distributed through a variety of channels , such as printing the game 's source code in books ( such as David Ahl 's BASIC Computer Games ) , magazines ( Creative Computing ) , and newsletters , which allowed users to type in the code for themselves . Early game designers like Crowther , Daglow and Yob would find the computer code for their games -- which they had never thought to copyright -- published in books and magazines , with their names removed from the listings . Early home computers from Apple , Commodore , Tandy and others had many games that people typed in . Games were also distributed by the physical mailing and selling of floppy disks , cassette tapes , and ROM cartridges . Soon a small cottage industry was formed , with amateur programmers selling disks in plastic bags put on the shelves of local shops or sent through the mail . Richard Garriott distributed several copies of his 1980 role - playing video game Akalabeth : World of Doom in plastic bags before the game was published . 1980s Main article : 1980s in video gaming The video games industry experienced its first major growing pains in the early 1980s as publishing houses appeared , with many businesses surviving 20 + years , such as Electronic Arts -- alongside fly - by - night operations that cheated the games ' developers . While some early 1980s games were simple clones of existing arcade titles , the relatively low publishing costs for personal computer games allowed for bold , unique games . Gaming computers Following the success of the Apple II and Commodore PET in the late 1970s , a series of cheaper and incompatible rivals emerged in the early 1980s . This second batch included the Commodore VIC - 20 and 64 ; Sinclair ZX80 , ZX81 and ZX Spectrum ; NEC PC - 8000 , PC - 6001 , PC - 88 and PC - 98 ; Sharp X1 and X68000 ; and Atari 8 - bit family , BBC Micro , Acorn Electron , Amstrad CPC , and MSX series . These rivals helped to catalyze both the home computer and game markets , by raising awareness of computing and gaming through their competing advertising campaigns . The Sinclair , Acorn and Amstrad offerings were generally only known in Europe and Africa , the NEC and Sharp offerings were generally only known in Asia , and the MSX had a base in North and South America , Europe , and Asia , while the US - based Apple , Commodore and Atari offerings were sold in both the US and Europe . Games dominated home computers ' software libraries . A 1984 compendium of reviews of Atari 8 - bit software used 198 pages for games compared to 167 for all others . By that year the computer gaming market took over from the console market following the crash of that year ; computers offered equal gaming ability and , since their simple design allowed games to take complete command of the hardware after power - on , they were nearly as simple to start playing with as consoles . The Commodore 64 system The Commodore 64 was released to the public in August 1982 . It found initial success because it was marketed and priced aggressively . It had a BASIC programming environment , and advanced graphic and sound abilities for its time , similar to the ColecoVision console . It also used the same game controller ports popularized by the Atari 2600 , allowing gamers to use their old joysticks with the system . It would become the most popular home computer of its day in the USA and many other countries and the best - selling single computer model of all time internationally . At around the same time , the Sinclair ZX Spectrum was released in the United Kingdom and quickly became the most popular home computer in many areas of Western Europe -- and later the Eastern Bloc -- due to the ease with which clones could be produced . In 2008 Sid Meier listed the IBM PC as one of the three most important innovations in the history of video games . The IBM PC compatible platform became a technically competitive gaming platform with IBM 's PC / AT in 1984 . The primitive CGA graphics of prior models , with only 4 - color 320 × 200 pixel graphics ( or , using special programming , 16 - color 160 × 100 graphics ) had limited the PC 's appeal to the business segment , as its graphics failed to compete with the C64 or Apple II . The new 64 - color Enhanced Graphics Adapter ( EGA ) display standard allowed its graphics to approach the quality seen in popular home computers like the Commodore 64 . However , the sound abilities of the AT were still limited to the PC speaker , which was substandard compared to the built - in sound chips used in many home computers . Also , the relatively high cost of the PC compatible systems severely limited their popularity in gaming . The Apple Macintosh also arrived at this time . It lacked the color abilities of the earlier Apple II , instead preferring a much higher pixel resolution , but the operating system support for the graphical user interface ( GUI ) attracted developers of some games ( e.g. Lode Runner ) even before color returned in 1987 with the Mac II . The arrival of the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga in 1985 was the start of a new era of 16 - bit machines . For many users they were too costly until later on in the decade , at which point advances in the IBM PC 's open platform had caused the IBM PC compatibles to become comparably powerful at a lower cost than their competitors . The VGA standard developed for the new IBM Personal System / 2 ( PS / 2 ) line in 1987 gave the PC the potential for 256 - color graphics . This was a big jump ahead of most 8 - bit home computers but still lagged behind platforms with built - in sound and graphics hardware like the Amiga . This caused an odd trend around ' 89 -- 91 toward developing for a seemingly inferior machine . Thus while both the ST and Amiga were host to many technically excellent games , their time of prominence was shorter than that of the 8 - bit machines , which saw new ports well into the 1980s and even the 1990s . The Yamaha YM3812 sound chip Dedicated sound cards started to address the issue of poor sound abilities in IBM PC compatibles in the late 1980s . Ad Lib set an early de facto standard for sound cards in 1987 , with its card based on the Yamaha YM3812 sound chip . This would last until the introduction of Creative Labs ' Sound Blaster in 1989 , which took the chip and added new features while remaining compatible with Ad Lib cards , and creating a new de facto standard . However , many games would still support these and rarer things like the Roland MT - 32 and Disney Sound Source into the early 1990s . The initial high cost of sound cards meant they would not find widespread use until the 1990s . Shareware gaming first appeared in the mid-1980s , but its big successes came in the 1990s . Early online gaming See also : History of massively multiplayer online games Dial - up bulletin board systems were popular in the 1980s , and sometimes used for online game playing . The earliest such systems were in the late 1970s and early 1980s and had a crude plain - text interface . Later systems made use of terminal - control codes ( the so - called ANSI art , which included the use of IBM - PC - specific characters not part of an American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) standard ) to get a pseudo-graphical interface . Some BBSs offered access to various games which were playable through such an interface , ranging from text adventures to gambling games like blackjack ( generally played for `` points '' rather than real money ) . On some multiuser BBSs ( where more than one person could be online at once ) , there were games allowing users to interact with one another . Snipes was credited for popularizing the genre of many online games . SuperSet Software created Snipes , a text - mode networked computer game in 1983 to test a new IBM Personal Computer -- based computer network and demonstrate its abilities . Snipes is officially credited as being the original inspiration for NetWare . It is believed to be the first network game ever written for a commercial personal computer and is recognized alongside 1974 game Maze War ( a networked multiplayer maze game for several research machines ) and Spasim ( a 3D multiplayer space simulation for time shared mainframes ) as the precursor to multiplayer games such as 1987 's MIDI Maze , and Doom in 1993 . In 1995 iDoom ( later Kali.net ) was created for games that only allowed local network play to connect over the internet . Other services such as Kahn , TEN , Mplayer , and Heat.net soon followed after . These services ultimately became obsolete when game producers began including their own online software such as Battle.net , WON and later Steam . The first user interfaces were plain - text -- similar to BBSs -- but they operated on large mainframe computers , permitting larger numbers of users to be online at once . By the end of the decade , inline services had fully graphical environments using software specific to each personal computer platform . Popular text - based services included CompuServe , The Source , and GEnie , while platform - specific graphical services included PlayNET and Quantum Link for the Commodore 64 , AppleLink for the Apple II and Macintosh , and PC Link for the IBM PC -- all of which were run by the company which eventually became America Online -- and a competing service , Prodigy . Interactive games were a feature of these services , though until 1987 they used text - based displays , not graphics . Handheld LCD games In 1979 , Milton Bradley Company released the first handheld system using interchangeable cartridges , Microvision . While the handheld received modest success in the first year of production , the lack of games , screen size and video game crash of 1983 brought about the system 's quick demise . In 1980 , Nintendo released its Game & Watch line , handheld electronic game which spurred dozens of other game and toy companies to make their own portable games , many of which were copies of Game & Watch titles or adaptations of popular arcade games . Improving LCD technology meant the new handhelds could be more reliable and consume fewer batteries than LED or VFD games , most only needing watch batteries . They could also be made much smaller than most LED handhelds , even small enough to wear on one 's wrist like a watch . Tiger Electronics borrowed this concept of videogaming with cheap , affordable handhelds and still produces games in this model to the present day . Video game crash of 1983 Main article : North American video game crash of 1983 At the end of 1983 , the industry experienced a severe downturn . This was the `` crash '' of the video game industry . It bankrupted several companies that produced North American consoles and games from late 1983 to early 1984 . It ended what is considered to be the second generation of console video gaming . The main causes of the crash were : a market flooded with poor - quality games , partly because of the loss of control over third party developers ; the commercial failure of important Atari 2600 titles and home computers emerging as a new and more advanced gaming platform , making consoles quickly unpopular and obsolete . Effects and results of the crash include : Atari video game burial : a burial by Atari of thousands of unsold and returned consoles and games in New Mexico , 1983 ; the rise of a globally important video gaming industry in Japan , creating important rooms for companies like Nintendo and Sega and the worldwide popularity of the third - generation Nintendo Entertainment System , for which third - party game publishing was strictly overseen by Nintendo . Third generation consoles ( 1983 -- 1995 ) ( 8 - bit ) Main article : Third generation of video game consoles The Nintendo Entertainment System or NES Whilst a broken gaming industry in the US took several local businesses to bankruptcy and practically ended retail interest in video gaming products , an 8 - bit third generation of video game consoles started in Japan as early as 1983 with the release of both Nintendo 's Family Computer ( `` Famicom '' ) and Sega 's SG - 1000 on July 15 . The first clearly trumped the second in terms of commercial success in the country , causing Sega to replace it , two years later , by a severely improved and modernized version called the Sega Mark III . In efforts to make the Famicom marketable in the US , Nintendo created a completely redesigned version of it , called the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) , to be sold in the country as a product unrelated to video gaming . For this same reason , the company also developed a toy robot accessory called the R.O.B. to be sold together with some versions . The NES was released on 18 October 1985 in the US , reviving the video game market in the country and proving successful to the American audience , peaking in popularity between 1987 and the early 1990s . The console was later released in other Western countries , but because of heavy competition from home computers such as the ZX Spectrum , Amstrad CPC and Commodore 64 , and a lack of marketing , the NES was prevented from having as much success in Europe . The Sega Mark III , released to Western consumers as the Master System , dominated the markets of Europe , Oceania and Brazil , selling more than the NES in these regions . Soon , the Famicom / NES and the Master System became the great consoles of the third generation . While Sega focused on unique gameplay experiences and innovative technology ( with Master System 's superior technical properties which allowed better graphics , and accessories like LCD glasses ) , Nintendo focused on creating long and popular game franchises which often repeated the same features . Despite different regional dominances , the Famicom / NES sold a superior sum of 61.91 million worldwide copies , against 14.8 million of the Master System . In this generation , the gamepad or joypad , took over for joysticks , paddles , and keypads as the default game controller . The gamepad design of an 8 direction Directional - pad ( or D - pad for short ) with 2 or more action buttons became the standard . This generation also marked a shift in the dominance of home video game console hardware and console game production from the United States to Japan . The third console generation marked the debut of various high - profile role - playing franchises , such as The Legend of Zelda , Dragon Quest , Phantasy Star and Final Fantasy , the latter of which financially saved Japanese developer Square . 1987 saw the birth of the stealth genre with Hideo Kojima 's Metal Gear series ' first game , on the MSX 2 computer . In 1989 , Capcom released Sweet Home on the NES , which served as a precursor to the survival horror genre . In 1988 , Nintendo published their first issue of Nintendo Power magazine . By 1989 the market for cartridge - based console games was more than $2 billion , while that for disk - based computer games was less than $300 million . Large computer - game companies such as Epyx , Electronic Arts , and LucasArts began devoting much or all of their attention on console games . Computer Gaming World warned that computer gaming could become a `` cultural backwater , '' similar to what had happened a few years earlier with 8 - bit computers . In 1990 , Commodore and Amstrad entered the console market with their C64GS and GX4000 game machines respectively . These were both based on the 8 - bit computers of their manufacturers , and had only limited success due to a lack of software support and the arrival of 16 - bit machines . Amstrad 's GX4000 sold just over 15,000 units , with only 25 officially released game cartridges . Even though it was technically superior to the Master System and Nintendo Entertainment System , it was discontinued after 6 months . This generation ended with the discontinuation of the NES in 1995 . Fourth generation consoles ( 1987 -- 2003 ) ( 16 - bit ) Main article : Fourth generation of video game consoles Chiptuned sounds An original synthesized chiptune composition imitating early video game music . Problems playing this file ? See media help . A 16 - bit generation of video game consoles starts in the late 1980s . The TurboGrafx - 16 , named the PC Engine in Europe and Japan , debuted in 1987 as the first commercial 16 - bit game system . It had a large following in Japan , but , did poorly in North America and Europe because of its limited library of games and because of excessive distribution restrictions imposed by Hudson Soft . Sega 's Mega Drive / Genesis sold well worldwide early on after its debut in 1988 . Nintendo responded with its own next generation system named the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) , in 1990 . A model of the TurboGrafx - 16 This time was one of intense competition and not entirely truthful marketing . The TurboGrafx - 16 was billed as the first 16 - bit system but its central processor was an 8 - bit HuC6280 , with only its HuC6270 graphics processor being a true 16 - bit chip . Also , the much earlier Mattel Intellivision contained a 16 - bit processor . Sega used the term `` Blast Processing '' throughout its marketing to describe the simple fact that their console 's CPU ran at a higher clock speed than that of the SNES ( 7.67 MHz vs 3.58 MHz ) . In Japan , the PC Engine was a very successful competitor against the Famicom and a CD drive peripheral allowed it to fend off the Mega Drive in 1988 , though it never really caught on to the same degree outside Japan . The PC Engine eventually lost out to the Super Famicom , but , due to its popular CD add - ons , retained enough of a user base to support new games well into the late 1990s . CD - ROM drives were introduced in this generation , as add - ons for the PC Engine in 1988 and the Mega Drive in 1991 . Nintendo experimented with optical media formats for the SNES in a joint venture with Sony , who would go on to develop this concept into the PlayStation and rise to prominence as a major competitor to Nintendo and Sega . Basic 3D graphics entered the mainstream with flat - shaded polygons enabled by added processors in game cartridges like Virtua Racing and Star Fox , while the Mega Drive managed to produce such graphics without special processors , on the ≈ 8 MHz 68000 chip by using highly simplified polygon models , a slow frame rate ( < 4 fps ) , and reduced resolution . Sonic the Hedgehog , released in 1991 for the Mega Drive / Genesis , gave the console mainstream popularity , and rivaled Nintendo 's Mario franchise , starting the so - called `` console war . '' Its namesake character became the mascot of Sega and one of the most recognizable video game characters in history . SNK 's Neo-Geo was the most costly console by a wide margin when released in 1990 , and would remain so for years . Its 2D graphics were of a quality years ahead of other consoles . The reason for this was that it contained the same hardware that was found in SNK 's arcade games . This was the first time since the home Pong machines that a true - to - the - arcade experience could be had at home , but the system was commercially inviable . This era also saw a revival of handheld consoles , which were absent in the prior generation . Nintendo 's Game Boy , a portable released in 1989 with monochromatic 2D graphics and 35 - hours battery life , became widely popular in the world and sold much more than its three competitors , the Atari Lynx , the Sega Game Gear and NEC 's Turbo Express , released in Japan in North America until 1991 . Despite these three consoles having much more sophisticated 16 - bit graphics ( similar to home consoles of the time ) , graphic resource consumed too much battery life , which contributed to their unpopularity . The other consoles also had scarce game libraries compared to over one thousand games released for the Game Boy , including best - selling titles Pokémon Red and Blue , and which inspired an entire line of portable machines that continued through the following two generations . 1990s Main article : 1990s in video gaming This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( January 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) The 1990s were a decade of marked innovation in video gaming . It was a decade of transition from raster graphics to 3D graphics and gave rise to several genres of video games including first - person shooter , real - time strategy , and MMO . Handheld gaming began to become more popular throughout the decade , thanks in part to the release of the Game Boy in 1989 . Arcade games experienced a resurgence in the early - to - mid-1990s , followed by a decline in the late 1990s as home consoles became more common . Street Fighter II was the most popular fighting game franchise of its time . As arcade games declined , however , the home video game industry matured into a more mainstream form of entertainment in the 1990s , but their video games also became more and more controversial because of their violent nature , especially in games of Mortal Kombat , Night Trap , and Doom , leading to the formation of the Interactive Digital Software Association and their rating games by signing them their ESRB ratings since 1994 . Major developments of the 1990s include the popularizing of 3D computer graphics using polygons ( initially in arcades , followed by home consoles and computers ) , and the start of a larger consolidation of publishers , higher budget games , increased size of production teams , and collaborations with both the music and motion picture industries . Examples of this include Mark Hamill 's involvement with Wing Commander III , the introduction of QSound with arcade system boards such as Capcom 's CP System II , and the high production budgets of titles such as Squaresoft 's Final Fantasy VII and Sega 's Shenmue . Resurgence and decline of arcades In North America , arcade games , which had seen a slow decline with the increase in popularity of home gaming , experienced a resurgence in the early - to - mid-1990s , with the 1991 release of Capcom 's Street Fighter II popularizing competitive one - on - one fighting games and reviving the arcade industry to a level of popularity not seen since the days of Pac - Man . Its success led to a wave of other popular fighting games , such as Mortal Kombat and The King of Fighters . Sports games such as NBA Jam also briefly became popular in arcades during this period . Transition to 3D 3D computer graphics using polygons were soon popularized by Yu Suzuki 's Sega AM2 games Virtua Racing ( 1992 ) and Virtua Fighter ( 1993 ) , both running on the Sega Model 1 arcade system board ; some of the Sony Computer Entertainment ( SCE ) staff involved in the creation of the original PlayStation video game console credit Virtua Fighter as inspiration for the PlayStation 's 3D graphics hardware . According to SCE 's former producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama , the PlayStation was originally being considered as a 2D - focused hardware , and it was n't until the success of Virtua Fighter in the arcades that they decided to design the PlayStation as a 3D - focused hardware . Texture mapping and texture filtering were soon popularized by 3D racing and fighting games . However , with the advent of 32 - and 64 - bit consoles in the mid-1990s , home video game consoles such as the Sega Saturn , PlayStation and Nintendo 64 also became able to produce texture - mapped 3D graphics . Increasing numbers of players would wait for popular arcade games to be ported to consoles rather than pumping coins into arcade kiosks . This trend increased with the introduction of more realistic peripherals for computer and console game systems such as force feedback aircraft joysticks and racing wheel / pedal kits , which allowed home systems to approach some of the realism and immersion formerly limited to the arcades . To remain relevant , arcade manufacturers such as Sega and Namco continued pushing the boundaries of 3D graphics beyond what was possible in homes . Virtua Fighter 3 for the Sega Model 3 , for instance , stood out for having real - time 3D graphics approaching the quality of CGI full motion video ( FMV ) at the time . Likewise , Namco released the Namco System 23 to rival the Model 3 . By 1998 , however , Sega 's new console , the Dreamcast , could produce 3D graphics on - par with the Sega Naomi arcade machine . After producing the more powerful Hikaru board in 1999 and Naomi 2 in 2000 , Sega eventually stopped manufacturing custom arcade system boards , with their subsequent arcade boards being based on either consoles or commercial PC components . As patronage of arcades declined , many were forced to close down . Classic coin - operated games have largely become the province of dedicated hobbyists and as a tertiary attraction for some businesses , such as movie theaters , batting cages , miniature golf courses , and arcades attached to game stores such as F.Y.E. The gap left by the old corner arcades was partly filled by large amusement centers dedicated to providing clean , safe environments and costly game control systems unavailable to home users . These newer arcade titles offered games based on driving , sports like skiing or cycling , and rhythm games like Dance Dance Revolution and path - based shooting gallery games like Time Crisis , which have taken a large part of the market . Dave & Buster 's and GameWorks are two large chains in the United States with this type of environment . Aimed at adults and older kids , they feature full service restaurants with full liquor bars and have a wide variety of video game and hands on electronic gaming options . Chuck E. Cheese 's is a similar type of business for younger children . Handhelds come of age In 1989 , Nintendo released the Game Boy , the first handheld game console since the ill - fated Microvision ten years before . The design team headed by Gunpei Yokoi had also been responsible for the Game & Watch systems . Included with the system was Tetris , which became one of the best sold video games of all time and was ported to a large variety of systems . Several rival handhelds made their debut in the early 90s , including the Sega Game Gear and Atari Lynx ( the first handheld with color LCD display ) . Although these systems were more technologically advanced , they were hampered by higher battery consumption and less third - party developer support . While some of the other systems remained in production until the mid-1990s , the Game Boy , and its successive incarnations the Game Boy Pocket , Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance , would be virtually unchallenged for dominance in the handheld market , until the PlayStation Portable was released in 2004 to compete with Nintendo 's successor to the Game Boy line , the Nintendo DS . PC gaming The increasing computing power and decreasing cost of processors such as the Intel 80386 , Intel 80486 , and Motorola 68030 , caused the rise of 3D graphics , and multimedia abilities through sound cards and CD - ROMs . Early 3D games began with flat shading graphics ( Elite , Starglider 2 or Alpha Waves ) , and then simple forms of texture mapping ( such as in Wolfenstein 3D ) . 1989 and the early 1990s saw the release and spread of the Multi-User Dungeon ( MUD ) codebases DikuMUD and LPMud , leading to a tremendous increase in the proliferation and popularity of MUDs . Before the end of the decade , the evolution of the genre continued through graphical MUDs into the first massively multiplayer online role - playing games ( MMORPGs ) , which freed users from the limited number of simultaneous players in other games and brought persistent worlds to the mass market . Because of John Carmack 's adaptive tile refresh , Commander Keen was what popularized PC games because of its rapid , side - scrolling graphics ' running on Enhanced Graphics Adapter ( EGA ) running DOSes . In the early 1990s , shareware distribution was a popular method of publishing games for smaller developers , including then - fledgling companies such as Apogee ( now 3D Realms ) , Epic MegaGames ( now Epic Games ) , and id Software . This gave consumers the chance to try a trial portion of the game , usually restricted to a game 's complete first section or `` episode '' , before purchasing the full game . Racks of games on single 5 ⁄ '' and later 3.5 '' floppy disks were common in computer stores , often only costing a few dollars each . Since the shareware versions were essentially free , the cost only needed to cover the disk and minimal packaging . As the increasing size of games in the mid-1990s made them impractical to fit on floppies , and retail publishers and developers began to earnestly mimic the practice , shareware games were replaced by shorter game demos ( often only one or two levels ) , distributed free on CDs with gaming magazines and over the Internet . Real - time strategy became a popular genre of computer games in the early 90s , with Dune II setting the standard game mechanics of many games since . Meanwhile , Alone in the Dark influenced the survival - horror genre with its action - adventure elements . It established the formula that would later flourish on CD - ROM -- based consoles , with games such as Resident Evil , which coined the name `` survival horror '' and popularized the genre , and Silent Hill . Graphic adventure games continued to evolve during this period , with the creation of the point - and - click genre . Some of the genre 's most prolific titles were being produced by Sierra Entertainment and LucasArts during the 90s , and Myst and its sequels inspired a new style of puzzle - based adventure games . It was in the 1990s that Maxis began publishing its successful line of `` Sim '' games , starting with SimCity , and continuing with a variety of titles , such as SimEarth , SimCity 2000 , and eventually The Sims , which was first released in early 2000 . In 1996 , 3dfx Interactive released the Voodoo chipset , leading to the first affordable 3D accelerator cards for personal computers . These devoted 3D rendering daughterboards performed a portion of the computations and memory - handling required for more - detailed three - dimensional graphics ( mainly texture filtering ) , allowing for more - detailed graphics than would be possible if the CPU were required to handle both game logic and all the graphical tasks . First - person shooters ( FPS ) were among the first to take advantage of this new technology . While other games would also make use of it , the FPS would become the main driving force behind the development of new 3D hardware , and the yardstick by which its performance would be measured , usually quantified as the number of frames per second rendered for a given scene in a given game . Several other less mainstream genres were created in this decade . Looking Glass Studios ' Thief : The Dark Project and its sequel were the first to coin the term `` first person sneaker , '' and the turn - based strategy progressed further , with the Heroes of Might and Magic series popularizing the thus far niche and complex genre . Id Software 's 1996 game Quake pioneered play over the Internet in first - person shooters . Internet multiplayer ability became a de facto requirement in most FPS games since . Other genres also began to offer online play in the late 90s , including real - time strategy games as Age of Empires , the Warcraft and StarCraft series , and turn - based games such as Heroes of Might and Magic . Developments in web browser plug - ins like Java and Adobe Flash allowed for simple browser - based games . Fifth generation consoles ( 1993 -- 2005 ) ( 32 - and 64 - bit ) Main article : Fifth generation of video game consoles The Sony PlayStation . The Sega Saturn In 1993 , Atari re-entered the home console market with the introduction of the Atari Jaguar . Also in 1993 , The 3DO Company released the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer , which , though highly advertised and promoted , failed to catch up to the sales of the Jaguar , due to its high pricetag . Both consoles had very low sales and few quality games , eventually leading to their demise . In 1994 , three new consoles were released in Japan : the Sega Saturn , the Sony PlayStation , and the PC - FX , the Saturn and the PlayStation later seeing release in North America in 1995 . The PlayStation quickly outsold all of its competitors mainly on the strength of its available titles , with the exception of the aging Super Nintendo Entertainment System , which still had the support of many major game companies . The Virtual Boy from Nintendo was released in 1995 as one of the first consumer consoles providing 3D depth perception , but did not achieve high sales , largely due to the monochrome display and the lack of third - party support . In 1996 the Virtual Boy was taken off the market . After many delays , during which Sony 's PlayStation gained industry acceptance , Nintendo released its 64 - bit console , the Nintendo 64 in 1996 . The console 's flagship title , Super Mario 64 , became a defining title for 3D platformer games . PaRappa the Rapper popularized music video games in Japan with its 1996 debut on the PlayStation . Subsequent music and dance games like beatmania and Dance Dance Revolution became ubiquitous attractions in Japanese arcades . While Parappa , DDR , and other games found a cult following when brought to North America , music games would not gain a wide audience in the market until the next decade with titles like Guitar Hero . Also in 1996 Capcom released Resident Evil , the first well known survival horror game . It was a huge success selling over 2 million copies and is considered one of the best games on the PlayStation . Other milestone games of the era include Rare 's Nintendo 64 title GoldenEye 007 ( 1997 ) , which was critically acclaimed for bringing innovation as being the first major first - person shooter that was exclusive to a console , and for pioneering certain features that became staples of the genre , such as scopes , headshots , and objective - based missions . The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time ( 1998 ) for the Nintendo 64 is one of the most critically acclaimed games of all time , and is still the highest ranked game across all platforms on video game aggregator Metacritic . The title also featured many innovations such as Z - targeting , which has persisted through subsequent Zelda titles on newer consoles and is commonly used in many other franchises today . Nintendo 's choice to continue using ROM cartridges instead of moving to CD - ROMs for the Nintendo 64 , unique among the consoles of this period , proved to have negative consequences for the console and for Nintendo 's market share . While cartridges had faster access times , were more durable and resistant to unlicensed copying , CDs could hold far more data ( 650MB , over ten times the capacity of the largest N64 ROM at 64MB ) and cost far less to produce , causing many game companies to turn to Nintendo 's CD - based competitors . Notably , Square Enix , which had released all prior games in its Final Fantasy series for Nintendo consoles , now turned exclusively to the PlayStation ; Final Fantasy VII ( 1997 ) was a massive success , establishing the popularity of role - playing video games in the west and making the PlayStation the primary console for the genre , taking the crown from Nintendo who had enjoyed it with the SNES and Square 's then Nintendo - exclusive Final Fantasy , Secret of Mana and Chrono Trigger titles . Copies of FFVII still command like - new prices of between US $30 -- $50 on the used market . Square would not return to Nintendo 's main console platforms until 2003 with the GameCube and the cross-platform title Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles ( the only Square - published title for that console ) , and has not , to date , released a `` main series '' Final Fantasy title for a Nintendo platform since FFVI for the SNES . Capcom also largely departed from Nintendo during the N64 days ; the next 4 installments of its popular Mega Man 2D platform shooter were released on PlayStation and Saturn . Capcom was somewhat quicker and more eager to return than Square , however , providing two anthologies of Mega Man titles for the GameCube , including Mega Man 8 and Mega Man X4 - 6 that Nintendo players had missed . By the end of this period , Sony had become the leader in the video game market . The Saturn was moderately successful in Japan but a commercial failure in North America and Europe , leaving Sega outside of the main competition . The N64 achieved huge success in North America and Europe , though it never surpassed PlayStation 's sales or was as popular in Japan , and began to show a decline in third - party support for Nintendo 's home consoles . This generation ended with the discontinuation of the PlayStation ( known in its re-engineered form as the `` PSOne '' ) in March 2005 . Transition to 3D and CDs The fifth generation is most noted for the rise of fully 3D games . While there were games prior that had used three dimensional environments , such as Virtua Racing and Star Fox , it was in this era that many game designers began to move traditionally 2D and pseudo-3D genres into full 3D . Super Mario 64 and The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time on the N64 , Crash Bandicoot , and Spyro the Dragon on the PlayStation and Nights into Dreams ... on the Saturn , are prime examples of this trend . Their 3D environments were widely marketed , and they steered the industry 's focus away from side - scrolling and rail - style titles , and opened doors to more complex games and genres . Games like GoldenEye 007 , Ocarina of Time or Virtua Fighter were nothing like shoot - em - ups , RPGs or fighting games before them . 3D became the main focus in this period , as was a slow decline of cartridges in favor of CDs , which allowed far greater storage capacity than what formerly possible . The N64 was the last major home console to use the cartridge format , although it persists to this day in handheld games on Nintendo and Sony devices using memory cards similar to Secure Digital ( SD ) cards . Mobile phone gaming Main article : Mobile game Mobile phones began becoming video gaming platforms when Nokia installed Snake onto its line of mobile phones in 1997 ( Nokia 6110 ) . As the game gained popularity , every major phone brand offered `` time killer games '' that could be played in very short moments such as waiting for a bus . Mobile phone games early on were limited by the modest size of the phone screens that were all monochrome , the very limited amount of memory and processing power on phones , and the drain on the battery . 2000s This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( November 2007 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Main article : 2000s in video gaming The 2000s ( decade ) showed innovation on both consoles and PCs , and an increasingly competitive market for portable game systems . The phenomena of user - created modifications ( or `` mods '' ) for games , one trend that began during the Wolfenstein 3D and Doom - era , continued into the start of the 21st century . The most famous example is that of Counter-Strike ; released in 1999 , it is still one of the most popular online first - person shooter , even though it was created as a mod for Half - Life by two independent programmers . Eventually , game designers realized the potential of mods and custom content in general to enhance the value of their games , and so began to encourage its creation . Some examples of this include Unreal Tournament , which allowed players to import 3dsmax scenes to use as character models , and Maxis ' The Sims , for which players could create custom objects . In China , video game consoles were banned in June 2000 . This has led to an explosion in the popularity of computer games , especially MMOs . Consoles and the games for them are easily acquired however , as there is a robust grey market importing and distributing them across the country . Another side effect of this law has been increased copyright infringement of video games . Sixth generation consoles ( 1998 -- 2013 ) Main article : Sixth generation of video game consoles In the sixth generation of video game consoles , Sega exited the hardware market , Nintendo fell behind , Sony solidified its lead in the industry , and Microsoft developed their first gaming console . The generation opened with the launch of the Sega Dreamcast in 1998 . As the first console with a built - in modem for Internet support and online play , it was initially successful , but sales and popularity would start to fall . This has been attributed to Sega 's damaged reputation from the relative failures of the 32X and Saturn , copyright infringement , and the huge anticipation for the upcoming PlayStation 2 . The Dreamcast 's library contains many titles considered creative and innovative , including the Shenmue series which are regarded as a major step forward for 3D open - world gameplay and has introduced the quick time event mechanic in its modern form . Production for the console would discontinue in most markets by 2002 and it would be Sega 's final console before it reorganized its business as a third party game provider only , partnering primarily with its old rival Nintendo . The second release of the generation was Sony 's PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , which featured DVD - based game discs with 4.7 GB capacity , increased processor and graphics ability over its predecessor including progressive - scan component video connections , built - in 4 - player connection , available Ethernet adapter ( which became built - in with the winter 2004 release of the `` slimline '' PS2 chassis ) , and the ability to play DVD movies and audio CDs , eliminating the need for a separate DVD player and making the PS2 a complete home entertainment console . The console was highly successful during the generation . Nintendo followed a year later with the GameCube ( code - named `` Dolphin '' while in development ) , the company 's first optical disc - based console . While it had the component - video ability of its contemporaries , the GameCube suffered in several ways compared to Sony 's PS2 . First , the PS2 's high anticipation and one - year head start gained it player and developer attention before the GCN 's release . As a result , the GameCube had less third - party backing and very few third - party exclusives , mostly from Nintendo - faithful studios such as the now - defunct Rare and Midway Games . Cross-platform giants like Capcom , Electronic Arts and Activision released most of their GameCube titles on other consoles as well , while Square Enix released high - demand PS2 exclusives . The GCN 's game disc capacity was a third that of the PS2 's full - size DVD disks , forcing a few games to be released on multiple discs and most titles to compromise on texture quality and other features of GameCube games , when other platforms had no such limitations on their versions . It had no backward compatibility with the now - obsolete cartridges of the N64 . It was a dedicated game console , with the optical drive being too small to hold a full - size CD or DVD . Lastly , The GameCube was hindered by a not - undeserved reputation for being a `` kid 's console '' , due to its initial launch color scheme and lack of mature - content games which the current market appeared to want . Though T - and M - rated titles did exist on the GameCube , the almost all GCN games were E-rated and mostly cartoon - style in their art design . The Xbox , Microsoft 's entry into the video game console industry Before the end of 2001 , Microsoft Corporation , best known for its Windows operating system and its professional productivity software , entered the console market with the Xbox . Based on Intel 's Pentium III CPU , the console used a great deal of PC technology to leverage its internal development , making games for PC easily portable to the Xbox . To gain market share and maintain its toehold in the market , Microsoft reportedly sold the Xbox at a significant loss and concentrated on drawing profit from game developing and publishing . Shortly after its release in November 2001 Bungie Studio 's Halo : Combat Evolved instantly became the driving point of the Xbox 's success , and the Halo series would go on to become one of the most successful console shooter franchises of all time . By the end of the generation , the Xbox had drawn even with the Nintendo GameCube in sales globally , but since nearly all of its sales were in North America , it pushed Nintendo into third place in the American market . In 2001 Grand Theft Auto III was released , popularizing open world games by using a non-linear style of gameplay . It was very successful both critically and commercially and is considered a huge milestone in gaming . It was also yet another set piece in the debate over video game violence and adult content , with advocacy groups decrying the series ' glorification of prostitution , the mafia , and violence , including that against first responders such as police and EMS . Nintendo still dominated the handheld gaming market during this period . The Game Boy Advance , released in 2001 , maintained Nintendo 's market position with a high - resolution , full - color LCD screen and 16 - bit processor allowing ports of SNES games and simpler companions to N64 and GameCube games . Finnish cellphone maker Nokia entered the handheld scene with the N - Gage , but it failed to win a significant following . In January 2013 , Sony announced that the PlayStation 2 had been discontinued worldwide , ending the sixth generation . Return of alternative controllers One significant feature of this generation was various manufacturers ' renewed fondness for add - on peripheral controllers . While alternative controllers were n't new ( Nintendo supported several for the NES and PC games have long supported driving wheels and aircraft joysticks ) , console games built around them became some of the biggest hits of the decade . Konami sold a soft - plastic mat version of its foot controls for its Dance Dance Revolution franchise in 1998 . Sega came out with Samba de Amigo 's maraca controllers . Nintendo 's bongo controller worked with a few games in its Donkey Kong franchise . Publisher RedOctane introduced Guitar Hero and its distinctive guitar - shaped controllers for the PlayStation 2 . Meanwhile , Sony developed the EyeToy peripheral , a camera that could detect player movement , for the PlayStation 2 . This would further be developed into whole - body tracking technologies such as Sony 's PlayStation Move and Microsoft 's Kinect . Online gaming rises to prominence As affordable broadband Internet connectivity spread , many publishers turned to online gaming as a way of innovating . Massively multiplayer online role - playing games ( MMORPGs ) featured significant titles for the PC market like RuneScape , World of Warcraft , EverQuest , and Ultima Online . Historically , console - based MMORPGs have been few in number due to the lack of bundled Internet connectivity options for the platforms . This made it hard to establish a large enough subscription community to justify the development costs . The first significant console MMORPGs were Phantasy Star Online on the Sega Dreamcast ( which had a built in modem and aftermarket Ethernet adapter ) , followed by Final Fantasy XI for the Sony PlayStation 2 ( an aftermarket Ethernet adapter was shipped to support this game ) . Every major platform released since the Dreamcast has either been bundled with the ability to support an Internet connection or has had the option available as an aftermarket add - on . Microsoft 's Xbox also had its own online gaming service called Xbox Live . Xbox Live was a huge success and proved to be a driving force for the Xbox with games like Halo 2 that were highly popular . Mobile games Main article : Mobile game In the early 2000s ( decade ) , mobile games had gained mainstream popularity in Japanese mobile phone culture , years before the United States or Europe . By 2003 , a wide variety of mobile games were available on Japanese phones , ranging from puzzle games and virtual pet titles that use camera phone and fingerprint scanner technologies to 3D games with PlayStation - quality graphics . Older arcade - style games became very popular on mobile phones , which were an ideal platform for arcade - style games designed for shorter play sessions . Namco began making attempts to introduce mobile gaming culture to Europe in 2003 . Mobile gaming interest was raised when Nokia launched its N - Gage phone and handheld gaming platform in 2003 . While about two million handsets were sold , the product line was n't seen as a success and was withdrawn from Nokia 's lineup . Meanwhile , many game developers had noticed that more advanced phones had color screens and enough memory and processing power to do reasonable gaming . Mobile phone gaming revenues passed 1 billion dollars in 2003 , and passed 5 billion dollars in 2007 , accounting for a quarter of all videogaming software revenues . More advanced phones came to the market such as the N - Series smartphone by Nokia in 2005 and the iPhone by Apple in 2007 which strongly added to the appeal of mobile phone gaming . In 2008 Nokia did n't revise the N - Gage brand , but published a software library of games to its top - end phones . At Apple 's App Store in 2008 , more than half of all applications sold were iPhone games . Due to the debut of app stores created by Apple and Google , plus the low - cost retail price of downloadable phone apps , games available on smartphones increasingly rival the video game console market . Among the most successful mobile games of this period is Angry Birds , which , released in 2009 , reached 2 million downloads within one year . Nintendo announced their intentions for developing more games and content for mobile devices in the early 2010s , while Sega company is also dedicating development resources toward creating more mobile games . Independent small developers are entering the game market en masse by creating mobile games with the hope they will gain popularity with smartphone gaming enthusiasts . Since 2007 , the fast growing mobile market in African countries such as Nigeria and Kenya has also resulted in a growth in mobile game development . Local developers have taken advantage of the recent increase in mobile internet connection in countries where broadband is rarely available and console games are costly , though locally developed applications have difficulty competing against millions of western applications available on the Google Play Store Seventh generation consoles ( 2005 -- present ) Main article : Seventh generation of video game consoles The Wii not only became a global success for Nintendo , but also made a massive gaming trend of playing with motion control . The generation opened early for handheld consoles , as Nintendo introduced their Nintendo DS and Sony premiered the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) within a month of each other in 2004 . While the PSP boasted superior graphics and power , following a trend established since the mid-1980s , Nintendo gambled on a lower - power design but featuring a novel control interface . The DS 's two screens proved extremely popular with consumers , especially young children and middle - aged gamers , who were drawn to the device by Nintendo 's Nintendogs and Brain Age series respectively . The PSP attracted a significant portion of veteran gamers in North America and was very popular in Japan , though a large portion of its visual novels and anime - based games have never been localized in the west . This combined allowed Nintendo to continue its dominance in handheld gaming . Nokia withdrew their N - Gage platform in 2005 but reintroduced the brand as a game - oriented service for high - end smartphones on April 3 , 2008 . In console gaming , Microsoft stepped forward first in November 2005 with the Xbox 360 , and Sony followed in 2006 with the PlayStation 3 , released in Europe in March 2007 . Setting the technology standard for the generation , both featured high - definition graphics over HDMI connections , large hard disk - based secondary storage for save games and downloaded content , integrated networking , and a companion on - line gameplay and sales platform , with Xbox Live and the PlayStation Network respectively . Both were formidable systems that were the first to challenge personal computers in power ( at launch ) , while offering a relatively modest price compared to them . While both cost more than most past consoles , the Xbox 360 enjoyed a substantial price edge , selling for either $300 or $400 depending on model , while the PS3 launched with models priced at $500 and $600 . Coming with Blu - ray Disc and Wi - Fi , the PlayStation 3 was the most costly game console on the market since Panasonic 's version of the 3DO , which retailed for little under $700 . The PlayStation 3 's high price led to the console being defeated by the Xbox 360 ( also resulting in Xbox 360 gaining market leadership until 2008 ) , thus breaking the streak of dominance that the PlayStation brand once had , which was started in 1994 with the success of the original PlayStation . However , the slim model and the PlayStation Move controllers caused a massive recovery for PlayStation 3 , and the console would soon outsell Xbox 360 by 2013 . In this generation , Nintendo not only secured its dominance in the handheld video game market , but also successfully regained total dominance on both the home video game market and the entire video game industry with the release of its home console , the Wii . While the Wii had lower technical specifications than both the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , only a modest improvement over the GameCube and the only 7th - gen console not to offer HD graphics , its new motion control was much touted , and its lower pricepoint of around $200 -- $250 appealed to a larger demographic . Nintendo took cues from PC gaming and their crafted games that capitalized on the intuitive nature of motion control . Emphasis on gameplay turned comparatively simple games into unlikely runaway hits , such as Wii Sports , and Wii Fit . Many gamers , publishers , and analysts initially dismissed the Wii as an underpowered curiosity , but were surprised as the console sold out through the 2006 Christmas season , and remained so through the next 18 months , becoming the fastest selling game console in most of the world 's gaming markets . As a result , the Wii became a global success and the runaway market leader of the seventh generate of consoles . As of September 2013 , the Wii has sold 100.3 million units worldwide and is currently Nintendo 's best selling home console . In June 2009 , Sony announced that it would release its PSP Go for US $249.99 on October 1 in Europe and North America , and Japan on November 1 . The PSP Go was a newer , slimmer version of the PSP , which had the control pad slide from the base , where its screen covers most of the front side . Increases in development budgets With high - definition video an undeniable hit with veteran gamers seeking immersive experiences , expectations for visuals in games along with the increasing complexity of productions resulted in a spike in the development budgets of gaming companies . While some game studios saw their Xbox 360 projects pay off , the unexpected weakness of PS3 sales resulted in heavy losses for a few developers , and many publishers broke formerly arranged PS3 exclusivity arrangements or cancelled PS3 game projects entirely due to rising budgets . Rise of casual PC games See also : Casual game , Social network game , and Mobile game Starting with PCs , a new trend in casual games , with limited complexity and designed for shortened or impromptu play sessions , began to draw attention from the industry . Many were puzzle games , such as Popcap 's Bejeweled and PlayFirst 's Diner Dash , while others were games with a more relaxed pace and open - ended play . The biggest hit was The Sims by Maxis , which went on to become the best selling computer game of all time , surpassing Myst . Other casual games include Happy Farm and Zynga games like Mafia Wars , FarmVille , and Café World , among many others , which are tied into social networking sites such as Myspace , Facebook , and Mixi . These games are typically free to play , with the option to buy in game items and stats with money and / or reward offers . In 2008 , social network games began gaining mainstream popularity following the release of Happy Farm in China . Influenced by the Japanese console RPG series Story of Seasons , Happy Farm attracted 23 million daily active users in China . It soon inspired many clones such as Sunshine Farm , Happy Farmer , Happy Fishpond , Happy Pig Farm , and Facebook games such as FarmVille , Farm Town , Country Story , Barn Buddy , Sunshine Ranch , Happy Harvest , Jungle Extreme , and Farm Villain . The most popular social network game is FarmVille , which has over 70 million active users worldwide . Other popular social network games include YoVille , Mob Wars , Mafia Wars , and FrontierVille . Cloud computing comes to games In 2009 , a few cloud computing services were announced targeted at video games . These services allow the graphics rendering of the video games to be done away from the end user , and a video stream of the game to be passed to the user . OnLive allows the user to communicate with their servers where the video game rendering is taking place . Gaikai streams games entirely in the user 's browser or on an internet - enabled device . Experts estimate the streaming games market will grow nine-fold by 2017 , reaching 8 billion dollars . 2010s Main article : 2010s in video gaming The new decade has seen rising interest in the possibility of next generation consoles being developed in keeping with the traditional industry model of a five - year console life cycle . However , in the industry there is believed to be a lack of desire for another race to produce such a console . Reasons for this include the challenge and massive expense of creating consoles that are graphically superior to the current generation , with Sony and Microsoft still looking to recoup development costs on their current consoles and the failure of content creation tools to keep up with the increased demands placed upon the people creating the games . On June 14 , 2010 , during E3 , Microsoft revealed their new Xbox 360 console referred to as the Xbox 360 S or Slim . Microsoft made the unit smaller and quieter , while also installing a 250GB hard drive and built - in 802.11 n WiFi . It started shipping to US stores the same day , not reaching Europe until July 13 . The Onlive cloud - based gaming system would be one of the first cloud gaming systems known in video game history . Eighth generation consoles ( 2012 -- present ) Main article : Eighth generation of video game consoles The Nintendo 3DS is a handheld video game console , revealed at Nintendo 's E3 2010 press conference . Released in Japan in February 2011 , it was released worldwide less than a month later . It uses autostereoscopic 3D to produce a 3D effect on - screen . On January 27 , 2011 , the PlayStation Vita ( code - named Next Generation Portable , or NGP , during development ) was announced . It has a 5 - inch OLED multi touch front screen and a rear touch pad , two analog sticks , 3G and WiFi connection , Sixaxis control and 3 - axis electronic compass . It was released on December 17 in Japan and has been released on 15 ( first edition bundle ) and on February 22 in Europe ( 3G / Wifi Vita , release bundle Vita , or the WiFi only Vita ) , as well as in the Middle East , Australia and North America . Sony is looking to have up to forty launch titles for the western release and up to 100 within the release window . The Wii U is a video game console from Nintendo . Billed as the successor to the Wii , it was mentioned in statement released by Nintendo on April 25 , 2011 , that the company was planning to reveal it during E3 2011 and that playable console units would be present as well . Code - named Project Café , it was officially introduced on June 7 , 2011 with its final name , Wii U . The console released in North America on November 18 , and in Europe , Australia and New Zealand on November 30 , 2012 , officially starting the `` eighth generation '' of video game consoles . Features of the new console include HD graphics support ( on Wii U only ) , and a controller , the Wii U GamePad , which features a 6.2 inch touch screen built - in that can be used as a second screen providing added info and interactivity , such as `` asymmetric gameplay '' . The Wii U GamePad allows some games to be played without needing a TV set , through Off - TV Play . Most peripheral hardware from its predecessor , the Wii , such as the Wii Remote and Wii Nunchuk , Classic Controller and Wii Balance Board are confirmed to work with the new console , and the console is backward compatible with all Wii and Virtual Console titles . The Wii U discontinues backward - compatibility support for GameCube discs and controllers , which also means that Wii games that support the GameCube 's controller will instead require use of an alternate control scheme such as the Classic Controller when playing them on the Wii U . The Wii U also has its own more conventional controller , the Wii U Pro Controller , which resembles an Xbox 360 controller in form and function and is compatible with most Wii U and Virtual Console titles , but not original Wii games . The console is available in two sets . The basic set includes the Wii U console with 8 GB of internal memory , the Wii U GamePad , an AC adapter , an HDMI cable and the Wii Sensor Bar . The Deluxe set includes all of the items in the basic set , but it has 32 GB of internal memory instead of only 8 GB and is bundled with a GamePad charging cradle , stands for the GamePad and the console , as well as Nintendo Land . On November 30 , 2012 , the Wii U was released in Europe , Australia and New Zealand . A sensor bar is not included in the Basic set in Europe , Australia and New Zealand . The PlayStation 4 ( or PS4 ) is a video game console from Sony Computer Entertainment . Billed as the successor to the PlayStation 3 , the PlayStation 4 was officially announced at a press conference on February 20 , 2013 . The fourth home console in Sony 's PlayStation series , it was launched on November 15 , 2013 in North America and on November 29 , 2013 in Europe , and was launched on February 22 , 2014 in Japan . Moving away from the Cell architecture , the PlayStation 4 is the first in the Sony series to feature compatibility with the x86 architecture , specifically x86 - 64 , which is a widely used platform common in many modern PCs . The idea is to make video game development easier on the next - generation console , attracting a broader range of developers large and small . These changes highlight Sony 's effort to improve upon the lessons learned during the development , production and release of the PS3 . Other notable hardware features of the PlayStation 4 include 8 GB of GDDR5 RAM memory and a faster Blu - ray drive . The Xbox One is a video game console from Microsoft . Billed as the successor to the Xbox 360 , the Xbox One was officially announced at a press conference on May 21 , 2013 . Microsoft had intended to implement strict controls over game resale and DRM controls , but later reversed its decision due to public backlash . It is the third home console in Microsoft 's Xbox series and launched on November 22 , 2013 in North America , United Kingdom , Spain , Mexico , Italy , Ireland , Germany , France , Canada , Brazil , Austria , New Zealand and Australia . The release was delayed until sometime in 2014 in eight European countries ( Belgium , Denmark , Finland , Netherlands , Norway , Russia , Sweden and Switzerland ) due to various localization issues . See also Video games portal Book : Video game Chronology of real - time strategy video games Chronology of real - time tactics video games Game On ( exhibition ) History of online games International Center for the History of Electronic Games List of video game consoles References Jump up ^ Wolf , Mark ( 2007 ) . `` Chapter 1 : What Is a Video Game ? '' . In Wolf , Mark . The Video Game Explosion . Westport , CT : Greenwood Press . p. 4 . ISBN 978 - 0313338687 . Jump up ^ `` Wolf 2007 '' , p. 5 Jump up ^ Wolf , Mark ( 2012 ) . `` Introduction '' . In Wolf , Mark . Encyclopedia of Video Games . Westport , Connecticut : Greenwood Press . p. xv . ISBN 978 - 0313379369 . 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Jump up ^ Elliott Ng ( October 29 , 2009 ) . `` China 's growing addiction : online farming games '' . VentureBeat . Archived from the original on May 7 , 2010 . Retrieved May 6 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Facebook 》 到 開心 農場 歡呼 收割 '' . China Times . September 1 , 2009 . Archived from the original on March 24 , 2012 . Retrieved September 12 , 2011 . ( chinatimes . com % 2F2009Cti % 2FChannel % 2FLife % 2Flife - article % 2F0 % 2C5047 % 2C100304 % 2B112009090100272 % 2C00. html&act = url Translation ) Jump up ^ `` FAQ '' . OnLive . Archived from the original on January 27 , 2010 . Retrieved July 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Kelly , Kevin . `` GDC09 : Rearden Studios introduces OnLive game service and ' microconsole ' '' . Joystiq.com . Archived from the original on March 25 , 2009 . Retrieved March 25 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` WoW streamed to iPad gets fans excited '' . Retrieved May 26 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Rise of Cloud Gaming '' Archived January 29 , 2013 , at the Wayback Machine ... Big Fish Games Archived June 13 , 2012 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Stuart , K. ( February 26 , 2010 ) . `` Natal vs Sony Motion Controller : is the console cycle over ? '' . The Guardian . London . Archived from the original on November 5 , 2013 . Retrieved May 13 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Totilo , Stephen . `` These Are The New Xbox 360 Specs '' . Kotaku . Archived from the original on June 29 , 2011 . Retrieved May 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Zenzi Mulder . `` NGP 's Official Name Revealed '' . Archived from the original on August 17 , 2011 . Retrieved May 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Kollar , Phil ( September 13 , 2011 ) . `` PlayStation Vita hit Japan on December 17 '' . Archived from the original on November 18 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Gilbert , Ben ( October 18 , 2011 ) . `` PlayStation Vita to launch in North America , Europe , the Middle East , and Australia on February 22 , 2012 '' . Archived from the original on January 19 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Hoggins , Tom ( October 19 , 2011 ) . `` Sony announce price and UK release date for PlayStation Vita '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on November 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Official Announcement '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on November 2 , 2012 . Retrieved August 7 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : `` Xbox One Launch Markets Confirmed '' . Xbox Leadership Team . August 14 , 2013 . Archived from the original on October 23 , 2013 . Retrieved November 1 , 2013 . Further reading Games vs. Hardware . A history of PC gaming : The 80 's ( Kindle Edition ) ASIN : B00I4KRI4E by John B. Purcaru . All Your Base Are Belong to Us : How 50 Years of Videogames Conquered Pop Culture . New York : Three Rivers , 2011 . Print . Halter , Ed ( 2006 ) . From Sun Tzu to Xbox : War and Video Games . Thunder 's Mouth Press . ISBN 1 - 56025 - 681 - 8 . Taylor , T.L. ( 2006 ) . Play Between Worlds : Exploring Online Game Culture . MIT Press . ISBN 0 - 262 - 20163 - 1 . Chaplin , Heather ; Ruby , Aaron ( 2006 ) . SMARTBOMB : The Quest for Art , Entertainment , and Big Bucks in the Videogame Revolution . Algonquin Books . ISBN 1 - 56512 - 545 - 2 . Baer , Ralph H. ( 2005 ) . Videogames : In The Beginning . Rolenta Press . ISBN 0 - 9643848 - 1 - 7 . Kushner , David ( 2004 ) . Masters of Doom : How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture . Random House , Inc . ISBN 0 - 8129 - 7215 - 5 . Kohler , Chris ( 2004 ) . Power - Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life . BradyGames . ISBN 0 - 7440 - 0424 - 1 . Wolf , Mark J.P. ; Perron , Bernard , eds. ( 2003 ) . The Video Game Theory Reader . Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 96579 - 9 . Takahashi , Dean ( 2002 ) . Opening the Xbox : Inside Microsoft 's Plan to Unleash an Entertainment Revolution . Prima . ISBN 0 - 7615 - 3708 - 2 . Kent , Steven L. ( 2001 ) . The Ultimate History of Video Games . San Val Inc . ISBN 0 - 613 - 91884 - 3 . Kent , Steven L. ( 2000 ) . The First Quarter : A 25 - year history of video games . BWD Press . ISBN 0 - 9704755 - 0 - 0 . J.C. , Herz ( 1997 ) . Joystick Nation . Little , Brown , and Co . ISBN 0 - 316 - 36007 - 4 . Sheff , David . Game Over : The Maturing of Mario . Herman , Leonard ( 2001 ) . Phoenix : The Fall & Rise of Videogames ( 3 ed . ) . Rolenta Press . ISBN 0 - 9643848 - 5 - X . Retrieved September 24 , 2009 . Kohler , Chris ( 2005 ) . Power - Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life . Brady Games . ISBN 0 - 7440 - 0424 - 1 . Forster , Winnie ( 2005 ) . The Encyclopedia of Game Machines -- Consoles , handheld & home computers 1972 -- 2005 . Gameplan . ISBN 3 - 00 - 015359 - 4 . Retrieved September 24 , 2009 . DeMaria , Rusel ( December 18 , 2003 ) . High Score ! : The Illustrated History of Electronic Games ( 2 ed . ) . McGraw - Hill Osborne Media . ISBN 0 - 07 - 223172 - 6 . Day , Walter . The Golden Age of Video Game Arcades ( 1998 ) -- A 200 - page story contained within Twin Galaxies ' Official Video Game & Pinball Book of World Records . ISBN 1 - 887472 - 25 - 8 Video Game Invasion : The History of a Global Obsession ( 2004 ) ( Documentary . Press Release , IMDb ) External links History of video games at DMOZ Brief history of Video Gaming , University of Nevada Thomas Dreher : History of Computer Art , chap . VII. 1 Computer - and Video Games The Video Game Revolution ( 2004 ) is a documentary from PBS that examines the evolution and history of the video game industry , from the 1950s through today , the impact of video games on society and culture , and the future of electronic gaming . 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-193646716014665891 | Kathleen Turner | Kathleen Turner - wikipedia Kathleen Turner Jump to : navigation , search Kathleen Turner Turner at the Planned Parenthood Rally in New York City in 2011 Mary Kathleen Turner ( 1954 - 06 - 19 ) June 19 , 1954 ( age 63 ) Spring City , Missouri , U.S. Nationality American Education American School in London Alma mater Missouri State University University of Maryland Baltimore County ( BFA , 1977 ) Occupation Actress , singer , theatre director Years active 1977 -- present Spouse ( s ) Jay Weiss ( m . 1984 ; div. 2007 ) Children Mary Kathleen Turner ( born June 19 , 1954 ) , better known as Kathleen Turner , is an American film and stage actress and director . Known for her distinctive husky voice , Turner has won two Golden Globe Awards and has been nominated for an Academy Award . Turner came to fame during the 1980s , after roles in Body Heat ( 1981 ) , Crimes of Passion ( 1984 ) , Romancing the Stone ( 1984 ) , and Prizzi 's Honor ( 1985 ) , the latter two earning her a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress . In the later 1980s and early 1990s , Turner had roles in The Accidental Tourist ( 1988 ) , The War of the Roses ( 1989 ) , Serial Mom ( 1994 ) and Peggy Sue Got Married ( 1986 ) , for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress . Turner later had roles in The Virgin Suicides ( 1999 ) , Baby Geniuses ( 1999 ) , and Beautiful ( 2000 ) , as well as guest - starring on the NBC sitcom Friends as Chandler Bing 's cross-dressing father Charles Bing , and in the third season of Showtime 's Californication as Sue Collini , the jaded , sex - crazed owner of a talent agency . Turner has also done considerable work as a voice actress , namely as Jessica Rabbit in Who Framed Roger Rabbit ( 1988 ) , as well as Monster House ( 2006 ) , and the television series The Simpsons and King of the Hill . In addition to film , Turner has worked in the theatre , and has been nominated for the Tony Award twice for her Broadway roles as Maggie in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and as Martha in Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? Turner has also taught acting classes at New York University . Contents ( hide ) 1 Early life 2 Career 2.1 Body Heat 2.2 Theatre work and Broadway debut 2.3 Stardom during the 1980s 2.4 1990s -- slowed by disease 2.5 2000s -- remission 2.6 Voice actress 2.7 Stage career 3 Personal life 4 Activism 5 Memoirs and interviews 6 Filmography 6.1 Film 6.2 Television 7 References 8 External links Early Life ( edit ) Turner was born June 19 , 1954 , in Spring City , Missouri , the daughter of Patsy ( née Magee 1923 - 2015 ) and Allen Richard Turner , a U.S. Foreign Service officer who grew up in China ( where Turner 's great - grandfather had been a Methodist missionary ) . She has a sister , Susan , and two brothers . Turner was raised in a strict conservative Christian household , and her interest in performing was discouraged by both of her parents : `` My father was of missionary stock , '' she later explained , `` so theater and acting were just one step up from being a streetwalker , you know ? So when I was performing in school , he would drive my mom ( there ) and sit in the car . She 'd come out at intermissions and tell him , ' She 's doing very well . ' '' Owing to her father 's employment in the Foreign Service , Turner grew up abroad and graduated from the American School in London in 1972 . Her father died of a coronary thrombosis that same year , and then the family moved back to the United States . At age 19 , Turner began volunteering at a local Planned Parenthood office . She attended Missouri State University in Springfield for two years , then studied theater at the University of Maryland , Baltimore County , where she received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1977 . During that period , Turner acted in several productions directed by the film and stage director Steve Yeager . Career ( edit ) Body Heat ( edit ) In 1977 , Turner made her television debut in the NBC daytime soap The Doctors as the second Nola Dancy Aldrich . She made her film debut in 1981 as the ruthless Matty Walker in the thriller Body Heat ; the role brought her to international prominence . Empire Magazine cited the film in 1995 when it named her one of the 100 Sexiest Stars in Film History . The New York Times wrote in 2005 that , propelled by her `` jaw - dropping movie debut ( in ) Body Heat ... she built a career on adventurousness and frank sexuality born of robust physicality . '' Turner ultimately became one of the top box office draws , and most sought - after actresses of the 1980s and early 1990s . The brazen quality of Turner 's screen roles was reflected in her public life . With her deep voice , Turner was often compared to a young Lauren Bacall . When the two met , Turner reportedly introduced herself by saying , `` Hi , I 'm the young you . '' In the 1980s , she boasted that `` on a night when I feel really good about myself , I can walk into a room , and if a man does n't look at me , he 's probably gay . '' Theatre work and Broadway debut ( edit ) Several months after moving to New York City in 1977 , Turner took over the female lead in Michael Zetter 's play Mister T , which co-starred Jonathan Frakes and played at Soho Repertory Theatre . That production marked her off - Broadway debut . Several months later , Turner made her Broadway debut as Judith Hastings in Gemini by Albert Innaurato , staged at The Little Theatre ( now known as the Helen Hayes Theater ) and starring Danny Aiello . It opened May 21 , 1977 , during the time when she was appearing in the soap The Doctors . Stardom during the 1980s ( edit ) After Body Heat , Turner steered away from femme fatale roles to `` prevent typecasting '' and `` because femme fatale roles had a shelf - life . '' Consequently , her first project after this was the 1983 comedy The Man With Two Brains . Turner co-starred in Romancing the Stone with Michael Douglas and Danny DeVito . The film critic Pauline Kael wrote of her performance as writer Joan Wilder , `` Turner knows how to use her dimples amusingly and how to dance like a woman who did n't know she could ; her star performance is exhilarating . '' Romancing the Stone was a surprise hit : she won a Golden Globe for her role in the film , and it became one of the top - ten - grossing movies of 1984 . Turner teamed with Douglas and DeVito again the following year for its sequel , The Jewel of the Nile . Several months before Jewel , Turner starred in Prizzi 's Honor with Jack Nicholson , winning a second Golden Globe award , and later starred in Peggy Sue Got Married , which co-starred Nicolas Cage . For Peggy Sue , she received the award for Best Actress from the U.S. National Board of Review of Motion Pictures . as well as an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress . In 1988 's toon - noir Who Framed Roger Rabbit , she was the speaking voice of cartoon femme fatale Jessica Rabbit , intoning the famous line , `` I 'm not bad , I 'm just drawn that way . '' Her uncredited , sultry performance was acclaimed as `` the kind of sexpot ball - breaker she was made for . '' ( Amy Irving provided Jessica Rabbit 's singing voice in the scene in which the character first appears in the movie . ) That same year Turner also appeared in Switching Channels , which was a loose remake of the 1940 hit film His Girl Friday ; this , in turn , was a loose remake of the Ben Hecht - Charles MacArthur comedy The Front Page . Turner appeared in the 1986 song `` The Kiss of Kathleen Turner '' by Austrian techno - pop singer Falco . In 1989 , Turner teamed with Douglas and DeVito for a third time , in The War of the Roses , but this time as Douglas 's disillusioned wife , with DeVito in the role of a divorce attorney who told their shared story . The New York Times praised the trio , saying that `` Mr. Douglas and Ms. Turner have never been more comfortable a team ... each of them is at his or her comic best when being as awful as both are required to be here ... ( Kathleen Turner is ) evilly enchanting . '' In that film , Turner played a former gymnast and , as in other roles , did many of her own stunts . ( She broke her nose two years afterward filming 1991 's V.I. Warshawski . ) 1990s -- slowed by disease ( edit ) Turner remained an A-list film star leading lady until the early 1990s , when rheumatoid arthritis seriously restricted her activities and her movie career went into rapid decline . She turned down lead roles in Ghost and The Bridges of Madison County , both of which became big hits . The arthritis diagnosis was made in 1992 after Turner had suffered `` unbearable '' pain for about a year . By the time she was diagnosed she `` could hardly turn her head or walk , and was told she would end up in a wheelchair . '' As the disease worsened and the medication greatly altered Turner 's looks , along with excess alcohol consumption that Turner said she used to kill her physical pain , her career as a leading lady went into a steep decline and Turner was seen in fewer and fewer very successful films -- though Turner also blamed her age , stating , `` when I was forty the roles started slowing down , I started getting offers to play mothers and grandmothers ... '' She appeared in the low - budget House of Cards , experienced moderate success with John Waters 's black comedy Serial Mom , and had supporting roles in A Simple Wish , The Real Blonde , and Sofia Coppola 's The Virgin Suicides . She also provided the voice of Malibu Stacy 's creator , Stacy Lovell , on the episode `` Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy '' on The Simpsons . 2000s -- remission ( edit ) Despite drug therapy to help her condition , the disease progressed for about eight years . Then , thanks to newly available treatments , her arthritis went into remission . She was seen increasingly on television , including three episodes of Friends , where she appeared as Chandler Bing 's estranged , gay father , who works as a drag queen in Las Vegas . In 2006 , Turner guest starred on FX 's Nip / Tuck , playing a phone sex operator in need of laryngeal surgery . She appeared in a small role in 2008 's Marley & Me and also played a defense attorney on Law & Order . In 2009 , she played the role of Charlie Runkle 's sexually hyperactive boss in season 3 of the television series Californication . Voice Actress ( edit ) In the same year as her Nip / Tuck cameo role , 2006 , Turner provided the voice of Constance in the animated film Monster House . More recently , she provided radio commercial voice - overs for Lay 's potato chips . BBC Radio 4 produced three radio dramas based on the V.I. Warshawski novels by Sara Paretsky . The first two , Deadlock and Killing Orders , featured Turner reprising her 1991 movie role , which had been based on Paretsky 's novel Deadlock ; however , the third , Bitter Medicine , saw Sharon Gless take over the part . Turner also provided the voice of Jessica Rabbit in the 1988 live action / animated film Who Framed Roger Rabbit , and again in the Disneyland attraction spinoff , Roger Rabbit 's Car Toon Spin . Stage career ( edit ) After 1990s roles in Broadway productions of Indiscretions and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ( for which she earned a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress ) , Turner moved to London in 2000 to star in a stage version of The Graduate . The BBC reported that initially mediocre ticket sales for The Graduate `` went through the roof when it was announced that Turner , then aged 45 , would appear naked on stage . '' While her performance as the infamous Mrs. Robinson was popular with audiences , with sustained high box office for the duration of Turner 's run , she received mixed reviews from critics . The play transferred to Broadway in 2002 to similar critical reaction . In 2005 , Turner beat a score of other contenders ( including Jessica Lange , Frances McDormand , and Bette Midler ) for the role of Martha in a 2005 Broadway revival of Edward Albee 's Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? Albee later explained to the New York Times that when Turner read for the part with her eventual co-star Bill Irwin , he heard `` an echo of the ' revelation ' that he had felt years ago when the parts were read by ( Uta ) Hagen and Arthur Hill . '' He added that Turner had `` a look of voluptuousness , a woman of appetites , yes ... but a look of having suffered as well . '' Ben Brantley praised Turner at length , writing : `` As the man - eating Martha , Ms. Turner , a movie star whose previous theater work has been variable , finally secures her berth as a first - rate , depth - probing stage actress ... ( A ) t 50 , this actress can look ravishing and ravaged , by turns . In the second act , she is as predatorily sexy as she was in the movie Body Heat . But in the third and last act she looks old , bereft , stripped of all erotic flourish . I did n't think I would ever be able to see Virginia Woolf again without thinking of Ms. Hagen ( Uta Hagen ) . But watching Ms. Turner in that last act , fully clothed but more naked than she ever was in The Graduate , I did n't see the specter of Ms. Hagen . All I saw was Ms. Turner . No , let 's be fair . All I saw was Martha . '' As Martha , Turner received her second Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Play , losing to Cherry Jones . The production was transferred to London 's Apollo Theatre in 2006 . She starred in Sandra Ryan Heyward 's one - woman show , Tallulah , which she toured across the U.S. In August 2010 , Turner portrayed the role of Sister Jamison Connelly in Matthew Lombardo 's drama High at Hartford TheaterWorks . The production transferred to Broadway , at the Booth Theater , where it opened in previews on March 25 , 2011 , officially on April 19 , 2011 , and an announced quick closing on April 24 , 2011 . However , in a rare move , the production was revived , still headed by Turner , to undertake a national tour , which began in Boston in December 2012 . From August to October 28 , 2012 , Turner appeared in Red Hot Patriot : The Kick - Ass Wit of Molly Ivins , a play about the legendary liberal Texas columnist , Molly Ivins , at the Arena Stage , in Washington , D.C. In December 2014 and January 2015 , Turner performed the same show at Berkeley Repertory Theatre . She appeared again at the Arena Stage in the title role of Bertolt Brecht 's Mother Courage which opened in February 2014 , and playing Joan Didion in the one - woman show The Year of Magical Thinking , based on Didion 's memoir of the same name , in October and November 2016 . Personal Life ( edit ) Turner married the real estate entrepreneur Jay Weiss of New York City in 1984 , and they had one child , their daughter , Rachel Ann Weiss , who was born on October 14 , 1987 . Turner had been born into a Methodist family , but she has said that she has `` taken on a certain amount of Jewish tradition and identity '' since marrying her Jewish husband and raising their daughter in Judaism . In 2006 , Turner announced that she and Weiss were planning a trial separation . Turner and Weiss carried this forward to a divorce that became official in December 2007 , but Turner has said , `` ( Jay ) 's still my best friend . '' By the late 1980s , Turner had acquired a reputation for being difficult : what The New York Times called `` a certifiable diva . '' She admitted that she had developed into `` not a very kind person , '' and the actress Eileen Atkins referred to her as `` an amazing nightmare . '' Turner slammed Hollywood over the difference in the quality of roles offered to male actors and female actors as they age , calling the disparity a `` terrible double standard . '' In 1990 , Turner received unfavorable publicity when a deliberately lit fire at the Happy Land Social Club , located in a building managed by her husband , claimed 87 lives . The club was operating without a license and the building had been cited for numerous fire safety violations , but The New Yorker quoted Turner saying , `` the fire was unfortunate , but could have happened at a McDonald 's . '' As a result of her altered looks and weight gain from her rheumatoid arthritis treatment , The New York Times published this statement in 2005 , `` Rumors began circulating that she was drinking too much . She later said in interviews that she did n't bother correcting the rumors because people in show business hire drunks all the time , but not people who are sick . '' Turner has had well - publicized problems with alcohol , which she used as an escape from the pain and symptoms of acute rheumatoid arthritis . Turner has admitted that because of her illness , she was in constant unbearable agony and that as a result , the people she was closest to would suffer from it , as she was constantly drinking to relieve the pain and it made her a very difficult person . A few weeks after leaving the production of the play The Graduate in November 2002 , Turner was admitted into the Marworth hospital in Waverly , Pennsylvania , for the treatment of alcoholism . `` I have no problem with alcohol when I 'm working , '' she explained . `` It 's when I 'm home alone that I ca n't control my drinking ... I was going toward excess . I mean , really ! I think I was losing my control over it . So it pulled me back . '' Activism ( edit ) Turner has worked with Planned Parenthood of America since age 19 , and later became a chairperson . She also serves on the board of People for the American Way , and volunteers at Amnesty International and Citymeals - on - Wheels . She was one of John Kerry 's first celebrity endorsers . She has been a frequent donor to the Democratic Party . She has also worked to raise awareness of rheumatoid arthritis . Memoirs and interviews ( edit ) In the mid-2000s , Turner collaborated with Gloria Feldt on the writing of her memoirs , Send Yourself Roses : Thoughts on My Life , Love , and Leading Roles . The book was published in 2008 . In the book , Turner claimed that Nicolas Cage had gotten drunk , and stole a chihuahua that he liked . In turn , Cage filed a lawsuit against Turner and her book publisher in the UK who took an excerpt from the book and posted it on their website ( pre-publication ) . Cage argued defamation and damage to character and won the case , resulting in retractions , legal fees , and a donation to charity . Turner later publicly apologized . During an interview on The View , Turner apologized for any distress she might have caused Cage regarding an incident that took place 20 years earlier . Filmography ( edit ) Film ( edit ) Year Title Role Notes 1981 Body Heat Matty Walker Nominated -- BAFTA Award for Best Newcomer Nominated -- Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year -- Actress Man with Two Brains , The The Man with Two Brains Dolores Benedict 1984 Romancing the Stone Joan Wilder Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress ( 2nd place ) Breed Apart , AA Breed Apart Stella Clayton Crimes of Passion Joanna Crane / China Blue Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress Sant Jordi Award for Best Foreign Actress 1985 Prizzi 's Honor Irene Walker Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Sant Jordi Award for Best Foreign Actress Jewel of the Nile , The The Jewel of the Nile Joan Wilder 1986 Peggy Sue Got Married Peggy Sue Bodell National Board of Review Award for Best Actress National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress ( 2nd place ) New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress ( 2nd place ) Nominated -- Academy Award for Best Actress Nominated -- Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Nominated -- Saturn Award for Best Actress Nominated -- Sant Jordi Award for Best Foreign Actress Julia and Julia Julia Nominated -- Sant Jordi Award for Best Foreign Actress Switching Channels Christy Colleran Who Framed Roger Rabbit Jessica Rabbit ( voice ) Accidental Tourist , The The Accidental Tourist Sarah Leary Tummy Trouble Jessica Rabbit ( voice ) War of the Roses , The The War of the Roses Barbara Rose Nominated -- David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actress Nominated -- Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Roller Coaster Rabbit Jessica Rabbit ( voice ) 1991 V.I. Warshawski Victoria ' V.I. ' Warshawski Trail Mix - Up Jessica Rabbit ( voice ) Naked in New York Dana Coles Undercover Blues Jane Blue House of Cards Ruth Matthews 1994 Serial Mom Beverly R. Sutphin 1995 Moonlight and Valentino Alberta Trager Friends at Last Fanny Connelyn Television film Bad Baby Mom ( voice ) Simple Wish , AA Simple Wish Claudia Real Blonde , The The Real Blonde Dee Dee Taylor 1999 Love and Action in Chicago Middleman Virgin Suicides , The The Virgin Suicides Mrs. Lisbon Baby Geniuses Elena Kinder 2000 Cinderella Claudette Beautiful Verna Chickle Prince of Central Park Rebecca Cairn 2006 Monster House Constance ( voice ) 2008 Marley & Me Ms. Kornblut 2011 The Perfect Family Eileen Cleary 2014 Dumb and Dumber To Fraida Felcher Television ( edit ) Year Series Role No. episodes Notes 1994 The Simpsons Stacy Lavelle ( voice ) 2000 King of the Hill Miss Liz Strickland ( voice ) Friends Charles Bing / Helena Handbasket 2006 Law & Order Rebecca Shane Nip / Tuck Cindy Plumb 2009 Californication Sue Collini 10 2013 Masterclass Herself 2016 The Path Brenda Roberts References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Television Tropes and Idioms -- Friends '' . TVTropes.org . Retrieved 2013 - 01 - 12 . ^ Jump up to : `` Elizabeth A. Sackler Foundation presents : Ask me a Question , Any Question with Kathleen Turner '' . Brooklyn Museum . 2009 - 11 - 14 . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ Kennedy , Louise ( 2007 - 08 - 05 ) . `` Kathleen Turner takes on a new role '' . Boston . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ Patsy Turner Obituary accessed 11 / 23 / 2016 Jump up ^ `` Kathleen Turner Biography '' . Filmreference.com . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : Turner , Kathleen . `` I 'm still a dip kid '' . Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : `` Kathleen Turner '' . Biography Channel . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 07 . ^ Jump up to : Star Kathleen Turner focuses on peace during first Israel trip ^ Jump up to : Jesse Green , ( 2005 - 03 - 20 ) . `` Kathleen Turner Meets Her Monster '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 21 . Jump up ^ `` University of Maryland -- Baltimore County '' . US News . Retrieved 2013 - 10 - 07 . Jump up ^ `` His Movies Bring To Life Those Living On The Edge - Baltimore Sun '' . Articles.baltimoresun.com. 2009 - 06 - 14 . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 14 . Jump up ^ Friends - Bada Bing - Google Books . Books.google.com . Retrieved 2014 - 05 - 14 . ^ Jump up to : Kay , William ( 2006 - 01 - 24 ) . `` Kathleen plays on through the pain barrier '' . London : Daily Mail . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Young Kathleen Turner '' . Anecdotage.com : Famous People . Funny Stories . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` '' Who 's Who in the Cast , '' Playbill for `` Gemini . '' 1978 . Jump up ^ Kael , Pauline. 5001 Nights at the Movies . New York : Henry Holt and Company , 1982 , 1984 , 1991 . p. 638 . Jump up ^ `` 1984 domestic grosses '' . Box Office Mojo . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` 1986 Award Winners '' . National Board of Review of Motion Pictures . 2016 . Retrieved October 31 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Kathleen Turner , '' Thomson , David . The New Biographical Dictionary of Film . New York : Alfred A. Knopf , 1975 , 1980 , 1994 , 2002 . page 884 . Jump up ^ Scott , A.O. ( 1989 - 12 - 08 ) . `` REVIEW : ' War of the Roses '' . by Janet Maslin , The New York Times . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ `` Book review : Kathleen Turner 's * Send Yourself Roses : Thoughts on My Life , Love , and Leading Roles * '' . Curledup.com. 2007 - 01 - 27 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Kathleen Turner MovieMaker Magazine '' . Moviemaker.com. 2007 - 06 - 18 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` The Graduate 's London term ends '' . BBC News . 2002 - 01 - 18 . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ Ben Brantley ( 2005 - 03 - 21 ) . `` Marriage as Blood Sport : A No - Win Game '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 2007 - 01 - 22 . Jump up ^ Isherwood , Charles ( August 10 , 2010 ) . `` Is This Rehab or an Exorcism ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved February 27 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Jones , Kenneth. `` ' High ' Hits a Low : Broadway Drama Will Close April 24 '' playbill.com , April 20 , 2011 Jump up ^ Healy , Patrick ( 22 September 2011 ) . `` ' High , ' a Broadway Flop , Will Go on the Road '' . The New York Times . Retrieved 24 September 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Red Hot Patriot '' . Jump up ^ Barmann , Jay ( 26 November 2014 ) . `` SFist Reviews : Kathleen Turner in ' Red Hot Patriot ' at Berkeley Rep '' . SFist . Retrieved 4 December 2014 . Jump up ^ Smith , Tim , ( February 11 , 2014 ) . `` Kathleen Turner leads gritty revival of ' Mother Courage and Her Children ' at Arena Stage '' . Baltimore Sun . Retrieved February 18 , 2014 Jump up ^ `` The Year of Magical Thinking '' . Jump up ^ Interview , `` Larry King Live , '' February 2008 . Jump up ^ McKinley , James C. Jr . ( March 26 , 1990 ) . Fire in the Bronx ; Happy Land Reopened and Flourished After Being Shut as a Hazard . New York Times Jump up ^ Logan , Andy ( April 23 , 1990 ) . Happy Land . The New Yorker Jump up ^ `` The View ( talk show , interview with Kathleen Turner ) '' . ABC Television . 2008 - 02 - 14 . Retrieved 2008 - 02 - 14 . Jump up ^ December 25 , 2010 . `` Kathleen Turner Raises Awareness About RA -- Arthritis and Arthritic Conditions , Medications , Symptoms , and Treatment on '' . Medicinenet.com . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Hachette Book Group '' . Hachettebookgroupusa.com . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 25 . ^ Jump up to : http://celebrityhiccup.com/latest-news/20-outrageous-celebrity-lawsuits/5 Jump up ^ `` Turner apologises for Cage libel '' . BBC News . 2008 - 04 - 04 . Retrieved 2008 - 04 - 04 . Jump up ^ `` Kathleen Turner Apologizes To Nicolas Cage '' . Starpulse.com. 2008 - 02 - 13 . Retrieved 2010 - 12 - 25 . Jump up ^ `` Kathleen Turner Apologizes to Nicolas Cage Over Dog Theft Allegation '' . Fox News . 2008 - 04 - 04 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Kathleen Turner Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kathleen Turner . Kathleen Turner on IMDb Kathleen Turner at the Internet Broadway Database Kathleen Turner at the Internet Off - Broadway Database 2006 Article on Turner on Theatre.com Interview and profile in The Guardian ( March 18 , 2000 ) Turner 's interview for Arthritis Today Hosts of the Tony Awards ceremonies 1947 -- 1960 Brock Pemberton ( 1947 ) Bert Lytell / Hiram Sherman / Harry Hirshfield ( 1948 ) Brock Pemberton / James Sauter ( 1949 ) None ( 1950 ) James Sauter ( 1951 ) Helen Hayes ( 1952 ) Faye Emerson ( 1953 ) James Sauter ( 1954 ) Helen Hayes ( 1955 ) Jack Carter ( 1956 ) Bud Collyer ( 1957 ) Bud Collyer ( 1958 ) Bud Collyer ( 1959 ) Eddie Albert ( 1960 ) 1961 -- 1980 Phil Silvers ( 1961 ) Ray Bolger / Robert Preston ( 1962 ) Abe Burrows / Robert Morse ( 1963 ) Sidney Blackmer ( 1964 ) Tom Bosley / José Ferrer / Van Johnson ( 1965 ) George Abbott / Ginger Rogers ( 1966 ) Mary Martin / Robert Preston ( 1967 ) Angela Lansbury / Peter Ustinov ( 1968 ) Diahann Carroll / Alan King ( 1969 ) Julie Andrews / Shirley MacLaine / Walter Matthau ( 1970 ) Lauren Bacall / Angela Lansbury / Anthony Quayle / Anthony Quinn ( 1971 ) Deborah Kerr / Henry Fonda / Peter Ustinov ( 1972 ) Rex Harrison / Celeste Holm ( 1973 ) Peter Falk / Florence Henderson / Robert Preston / Cicely Tyson ( 1974 ) Larry Blyden / George S. Irving / Larry Kert / Carol Lawrence / Michele Lee / Bernadette Peters / Bobby Van ( 1975 ) Eddie Albert / Richard Burton / Jane Fonda / Diana Rigg / George C. Scott / Trish Van Devere ( 1976 ) Jack Albertson / Bea Arthur / Buddy Ebsen / Damon Evans / Jean Stapleton / Leslie Uggams ( 1977 ) None ( 1978 ) Jane Alexander / Henry Fonda / Liv Ullmann ( 1979 ) Mary Tyler Moore / Jason Robards ( 1980 ) 1981 -- 2000 Ellen Burstyn / Richard Chamberlain ( 1981 ) Tony Randall ( 1982 ) Richard Burton / Lena Horne / Jack Lemmon ( 1983 ) Julie Andrews / Robert Preston ( 1984 ) None ( 1985 ) None ( 1986 ) Angela Lansbury ( 1987 ) Angela Lansbury ( 1988 ) Angela Lansbury ( 1989 ) Kathleen Turner ( 1990 ) Julie Andrews / Jeremy Irons ( 1991 ) Glenn Close ( 1992 ) Liza Minnelli ( 1993 ) Anthony Hopkins / Amy Irving ( 1994 ) Nathan Lane / Glenn Close / Gregory Hines ( 1995 ) Nathan Lane ( 1996 ) Rosie O'Donnell ( 1997 ) Rosie O'Donnell ( 1998 ) None ( 1999 ) Rosie O'Donnell ( 2000 ) 2001 -- 2020 Nathan Lane / Matthew Broderick ( 2001 ) Bernadette Peters / Gregory Hines ( 2002 ) Hugh Jackman ( 2003 ) Hugh Jackman ( 2004 ) Hugh Jackman ( 2005 ) None ( 2006 ) None ( 2007 ) Whoopi Goldberg ( 2008 ) Neil Patrick Harris ( 2009 ) Sean Hayes ( 2010 ) Neil Patrick Harris ( 2011 ) Neil Patrick Harris ( 2012 ) Neil Patrick Harris ( 2013 ) Hugh Jackman ( 2014 ) Kristin Chenoweth / Alan Cumming ( 2015 ) James Corden ( 2016 ) Kevin Spacey ( 2017 ) Awards for Kathleen Turner Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Comedy or Musical Judy Holliday ( 1950 ) June Allyson ( 1951 ) Susan Hayward ( 1952 ) Ethel Merman ( 1953 ) Judy Garland ( 1954 ) Jean Simmons ( 1955 ) Deborah Kerr ( 1956 ) Kay Kendall / Taina Elg ( 1957 ) Rosalind Russell ( 1958 ) Marilyn Monroe ( 1959 ) Shirley MacLaine ( 1960 ) Rosalind Russell ( 1961 ) Rosalind Russell ( 1962 ) Shirley MacLaine ( 1963 ) Julie Andrews ( 1964 ) Julie Andrews ( 1965 ) Lynn Redgrave ( 1966 ) Anne Bancroft ( 1967 ) Barbra Streisand ( 1968 ) Patty Duke ( 1969 ) Carrie Snodgress ( 1970 ) Twiggy ( 1971 ) Liza Minnelli ( 1972 ) Glenda Jackson ( 1973 ) Raquel Welch ( 1974 ) Ann - Margret ( 1975 ) Barbra Streisand ( 1976 ) Diane Keaton / Marsha Mason ( 1977 ) Ellen Burstyn / Maggie Smith ( 1978 ) Bette Midler ( 1979 ) Sissy Spacek ( 1980 ) Bernadette Peters ( 1981 ) Julie Andrews ( 1982 ) Julie Walters ( 1983 ) Kathleen Turner ( 1984 ) Kathleen Turner ( 1985 ) Sissy Spacek ( 1986 ) Cher ( 1987 ) Melanie Griffith ( 1988 ) Jessica Tandy ( 1989 ) Julia Roberts ( 1990 ) Bette Midler ( 1991 ) Miranda Richardson ( 1992 ) Angela Bassett ( 1993 ) Jamie Lee Curtis ( 1994 ) Nicole Kidman ( 1995 ) Madonna ( 1996 ) Helen Hunt ( 1997 ) Gwyneth Paltrow ( 1998 ) Janet McTeer ( 1999 ) Renée Zellweger ( 2000 ) Nicole Kidman ( 2001 ) Renée Zellweger ( 2002 ) Diane Keaton ( 2003 ) Annette Bening ( 2004 ) Reese Witherspoon ( 2005 ) Meryl Streep ( 2006 ) Marion Cotillard ( 2007 ) Sally Hawkins ( 2008 ) Meryl Streep ( 2009 ) Annette Bening ( 2010 ) Michelle Williams ( 2011 ) Jennifer Lawrence ( 2012 ) Amy Adams ( 2013 ) Amy Adams ( 2014 ) Jennifer Lawrence ( 2015 ) Emma Stone ( 2016 ) Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year 1951 -- 1975 Gertrude Lawrence ( 1951 ) Barbara Bel Geddes ( 1952 ) Mamie Eisenhower ( 1953 ) Shirley Booth ( 1954 ) Debbie Reynolds ( 1955 ) Peggy Ann Garner ( 1956 ) Carroll Baker ( 1957 ) Katharine Hepburn ( 1958 ) Joanne Woodward ( 1959 ) Carol Lawrence ( 1960 ) Jane Fonda ( 1961 ) Piper Laurie ( 1962 ) Shirley MacLaine ( 1963 ) Rosalind Russell ( 1964 ) Lee Remick ( 1965 ) Ethel Merman ( 1966 ) Lauren Bacall ( 1967 ) Angela Lansbury ( 1968 ) Carol Burnett ( 1969 ) Dionne Warwick ( 1970 ) Carol Channing ( 1971 ) Ruby Keeler ( 1972 ) Liza Minnelli ( 1973 ) Faye Dunaway ( 1974 ) Valerie Harper ( 1975 ) 1976 -- 2000 Bette Midler ( 1976 ) Elizabeth Taylor ( 1977 ) Beverly Sills ( 1978 ) Candice Bergen ( 1979 ) Meryl Streep ( 1980 ) Mary Tyler Moore ( 1981 ) Ella Fitzgerald ( 1982 ) Julie Andrews ( 1983 ) Joan Rivers ( 1984 ) Cher ( 1985 ) Sally Field ( 1986 ) Bernadette Peters ( 1987 ) Lucille Ball ( 1988 ) Kathleen Turner ( 1989 ) Glenn Close ( 1990 ) Diane Keaton ( 1991 ) Jodie Foster ( 1992 ) Whoopi Goldberg ( 1993 ) Meg Ryan ( 1994 ) Michelle Pfeiffer ( 1995 ) Susan Sarandon ( 1996 ) Julia Roberts ( 1997 ) Sigourney Weaver ( 1998 ) Goldie Hawn ( 1999 ) Jamie Lee Curtis ( 2000 ) 2001 -- present Drew Barrymore ( 2001 ) Sarah Jessica Parker ( 2002 ) Anjelica Huston ( 2003 ) Sandra Bullock ( 2004 ) Catherine Zeta - Jones ( 2005 ) Halle Berry ( 2006 ) Scarlett Johansson ( 2007 ) Charlize Theron ( 2008 ) Renée Zellweger ( 2009 ) Anne Hathaway ( 2010 ) Julianne Moore ( 2011 ) Claire Danes ( 2012 ) Marion Cotillard ( 2013 ) Helen Mirren ( 2014 ) Amy Poehler ( 2015 ) Kerry Washington ( 2016 ) Octavia Spencer ( 2017 ) Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress Florinda Bolkan ( 1975 ) Liv Ullmann ( 1976 ) Shelley Duvall ( 1977 ) Jane Fonda ( 1978 ) Sally Field ( 1979 ) Sissy Spacek ( 1980 ) Meryl Streep ( 1981 ) Meryl Streep ( 1982 ) Shirley MacLaine ( 1983 ) Kathleen Turner ( 1984 ) Meryl Streep ( 1985 ) Sandrine Bonnaire ( 1986 ) Holly Hunter / Sally Kirkland ( 1987 ) Christine Lahti ( 1988 ) Andie MacDowell / Michelle Pfeiffer ( 1989 ) Anjelica Huston ( 1990 ) Mercedes Ruehl ( 1991 ) Emma Thompson ( 1992 ) Holly Hunter ( 1993 ) Jessica Lange ( 1994 ) Elisabeth Shue ( 1995 ) Brenda Blethyn ( 1996 ) Helena Bonham Carter ( 1997 ) Fernanda Montenegro / Ally Sheedy ( 1998 ) Hilary Swank ( 1999 ) Julia Roberts ( 2000 ) Sissy Spacek ( 2001 ) Julianne Moore ( 2002 ) Naomi Watts ( 2003 ) Imelda Staunton ( 2004 ) Vera Farmiga ( 2005 ) Helen Mirren ( 2006 ) Marion Cotillard ( 2007 ) Sally Hawkins ( 2008 ) Yolande Moreau ( 2009 ) Kim Hye - ja ( 2010 ) Yoon Jeong - hee ( 2011 ) Jennifer Lawrence / Emmanuelle Riva ( 2012 ) Cate Blanchett / Adèle Exarchopoulos ( 2013 ) Patricia Arquette ( 2014 ) Charlotte Rampling ( 2015 ) Isabelle Huppert ( 2016 ) National Board of Review Award for Best Actress Joan Crawford ( 1945 ) Anna Magnani ( 1946 ) Celia Johnson ( 1947 ) Olivia de Havilland ( 1948 ) Gloria Swanson ( 1950 ) Jan Sterling ( 1951 ) Shirley Booth ( 1952 ) Jean Simmons ( 1953 ) Grace Kelly ( 1954 ) Anna Magnani ( 1955 ) Dorothy McGuire ( 1956 ) Joanne Woodward ( 1957 ) Ingrid Bergman ( 1958 ) Simone Signoret ( 1959 ) Greer Garson ( 1960 ) Geraldine Page ( 1961 ) Anne Bancroft ( 1962 ) Patricia Neal ( 1963 ) Kim Stanley ( 1964 ) Julie Christie ( 1965 ) Elizabeth Taylor ( 1966 ) Edith Evans ( 1967 ) Liv Ullmann ( 1968 ) Geraldine Page ( 1969 ) Glenda Jackson ( 1970 ) Irene Papas ( 1971 ) Cicely Tyson ( 1972 ) Liv Ullmann ( 1973 ) Gena Rowlands ( 1974 ) Isabelle Adjani ( 1975 ) Liv Ullmann ( 1976 ) Anne Bancroft ( 1977 ) Ingrid Bergman ( 1978 ) Sally Field ( 1979 ) Sissy Spacek ( 1980 ) Glenda Jackson ( 1981 ) Meryl Streep ( 1982 ) Shirley MacLaine ( 1983 ) Peggy Ashcroft ( 1984 ) Whoopi Goldberg ( 1985 ) Kathleen Turner ( 1986 ) Lillian Gish / Holly Hunter ( 1987 ) Jodie Foster ( 1988 ) Michelle Pfeiffer ( 1989 ) Mia Farrow ( 1990 ) Geena Davis / Susan Sarandon ( 1991 ) Emma Thompson ( 1992 ) Holly Hunter ( 1993 ) Miranda Richardson ( 1994 ) Emma Thompson ( 1995 ) Frances McDormand ( 1996 ) Helena Bonham Carter ( 1997 ) Fernanda Montenegro ( 1998 ) Janet McTeer ( 1999 ) Julia Roberts ( 2000 ) Halle Berry ( 2001 ) Julianne Moore ( 2002 ) Diane Keaton ( 2003 ) Annette Bening ( 2004 ) Felicity Huffman ( 2005 ) Helen Mirren ( 2006 ) Julie Christie ( 2007 ) Anne Hathaway ( 2008 ) Carey Mulligan ( 2009 ) Lesley Manville ( 2010 ) Tilda Swinton ( 2011 ) Jessica Chastain ( 2012 ) Emma Thompson ( 2013 ) Julianne Moore ( 2014 ) Brie Larson ( 2015 ) Amy Adams ( 2016 ) VIAF : 85102049 LCCN : n85376876 ISNI : 0000 0001 1450 227X GND : 129584835 SUDOC : 05955732X BNF : cb13945945m ( data ) MusicBrainz : 44000cba - ea6e - 4452 - a16f - dd5b5d5812f7 BNE : XX1167208 IATH : w6kh1b4k Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kathleen_Turner&oldid=801488572 '' Categories : 1954 births Living people 20th - century American actresses 21st - century American actresses Actresses from Missouri Alumni of the Central School of Speech and Drama American expatriates in Canada American expatriates in Cuba American expatriates in the United Kingdom American expatriates in Venezuela American film actresses American pro-choice activists American soap opera actresses American stage actresses American voice actresses Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe ( film ) winners Critics ' Circle Theatre Award winners Foreign Service brats LGBT rights activists from the United States Missouri Democrats Missouri State University alumni People For the American Way people People from Springfield , Missouri Planned Parenthood University of Maryland , Baltimore County alumni New York University faculty Women memoirists Hidden categories : Articles with hCards All articles with vague or ambiguous time Vague or ambiguous time from January 2013 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January 2013 Articles with IBDb links Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC - 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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | which actress played chandlers father in the tv series friends | [
"\n\nKathleen Turner\n\n\n\nTurner at the Planned Parenthood Rally in New York City in 2011\n\n\n\nBorn\nMary Kathleen Turner\n(1954-06-19) June 19, 1954 (age 63)\nSpring City, Missouri, U.S.\n\n\nNationality\nAmerican\n\n\nEducation\nAmerican School in London\n\n\nAlma mater\nMissouri State University\nUniversity of Maryland Baltimore County (BFA, 1977)\n\n\nOccupation\nActress, singer, theatre director\n\n\nYears active\n1977–present\n\n\nSpouse(s)\nJay Weiss\n(m. 1984; div. 2007)\n\n\nChildren\n1\n\n"
] | [
"Kathleen Turner"
] |
6807927944712705277 | Histamine | Histamine - wikipedia Histamine Jump to : navigation , search For the use as an immunostimulant drug , see Histamine dihydrochloride . Histamine Names IUPAC name 2 - ( 1H - Imidazol - 4 - yl ) ethanamine Identifiers CAS Number 51 - 45 - 6 3D model ( JSmol ) Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI : 18295 ChEMBL ChEMBL90 ChemSpider 753 ECHA InfoCard 100.000. 092 IUPHAR / BPS 1204 KEGG D08040 MeSH Histamine PubChem CID 774 UNII 820484N8I3 InChI ( show ) InChI = 1S / C5H9N3 / c6 - 2 - 1 - 5 - 3 - 7 - 4 - 8 - 5 / h3 - 4H , 1 - 2 , 6H2 , ( H , 7 , 8 ) Key : NTYJJOPFIAHURM - UHFFFAOYSA - N InChI = 1 / C5H9N3 / c6 - 2 - 1 - 5 - 3 - 7 - 4 - 8 - 5 / h3 - 4H , 1 - 2 , 6H2 , ( H , 7 , 8 ) Key : NTYJJOPFIAHURM - UHFFFAOYAP SMILES ( show ) NCCC1 = C ( N ) C = N1 Properties Chemical formula Molar mass 111.15 g mol Melting point 83.5 ° C ( 182.3 ° F ; 356.6 K ) Boiling point 209.5 ° C ( 409.1 ° F ; 482.6 K ) Solubility in water Easily soluble in cold water , hot water Solubility in other solvents Easily soluble in methanol . Very slightly soluble in diethyl ether . Easily soluble in ethanol . log P − 0.7 Acidity ( pK ) Imidazole : 6.04 Terminal NH : 9.75 Pharmacology ATC code L03AX14 ( WHO ) V04CG03 ( WHO ) ( phosphate ) Except where otherwise noted , data are given for materials in their standard state ( at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , 100 kPa ) . Y verify ( what is ? ) Infobox references Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses , as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter for the brain , spinal cord , and uterus . Histamine is involved in the inflammatory response and has a central role as a mediator of itching . As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens , histamine is produced by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues . Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins , to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues . Contents ( hide ) 1 Properties 2 Synthesis and metabolism 3 Storage and release 4 Mechanism of action 5 Roles in the body 5.1 Vasodilation and a fall in blood pressure 5.2 Effects on nasal mucous membrane 5.3 Sleep - wake regulation 5.4 Gastric acid release 5.5 Protective effects 5.6 Erection and sexual function 5.7 Schizophrenia 5.8 Multiple sclerosis 6 Disorders 7 History 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Properties ( edit ) Histamine base , obtained as a mineral oil mull , melts at 83 -- 84 ° C. Hydrochloride and phosphorus salts form white hygroscopic crystals and are easily dissolved in water or ethanol , but not in ether . In aqueous solution , histamine exists in two tautomeric forms : N - H - histamine and N - H - histamine . The imidazole ring has two nitrogens . The nitrogen farthest away from the side chain is the ' tele ' nitrogen and is denoted by a lowercase tau sign . The nitrogen closest to the side chain is the ' pros ' nitrogen and is denoted by the pi sign . The position of the nitrogen with the hydrogen on it determines how the tautomer is named . If the nitrogen with the hydrogen is in the tele position , then histamine is in the tele - tautomer form . The tele - tautomer is preferred in solution . Tautomers of histamine Histamine has two basic centres , namely the aliphatic amino group and whichever nitrogen atom of the imidazole ring does not already have a proton . Under physiological conditions , the aliphatic amino group ( having a pK around 9.4 ) will be protonated , whereas the second nitrogen of the imidazole ring ( pK ≈ 5.8 ) will not be protonated . Thus , histamine is normally protonated to a singly charged cation . Histamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter . Synthesis and metabolism ( edit ) Histamine is derived from the decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine , a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme L - histidine decarboxylase . It is a hydrophilic vasoactive amine . Conversion of histidine to histamine by histidine decarboxylase Once formed , histamine is either stored or rapidly inactivated by its primary degradative enzymes , histamine - N - methyltransferase or diamine oxidase . In the central nervous system , histamine released into the synapses is primarily broken down by histamine - N - methyltransferase , while in other tissues both enzymes may play a role . Several other enzymes , including MAO - B and ALDH2 , further process the immediate metabolites of histamine for excretion or recycling . Bacteria also are capable of producing histamine using histidine decarboxylase enzymes unrelated to those found in animals . A non-infectious form of foodborne disease , scombroid poisoning , is due to histamine production by bacteria in spoiled food , particularly fish . Fermented foods and beverages naturally contain small quantities of histamine due to a similar conversion performed by fermenting bacteria or yeasts . Sake contains histamine in the 20 -- 40 mg / L range ; wines contain it in the 2 -- 10 mg / L range . Storage and release ( edit ) Mast cells . Most histamine in the body is generated in granules in mast cells and in white blood cells ( leukocytes ) called basophils . Mast cells are especially numerous at sites of potential injury -- the nose , mouth , and feet , internal body surfaces , and blood vessels . Non-mast cell histamine is found in several tissues , including the brain , where it functions as a neurotransmitter . Another important site of histamine storage and release is the enterochromaffin - like ( ECL ) cell of the stomach . The most important pathophysiologic mechanism of mast cell and basophil histamine release is immunologic . These cells , if sensitized by IgE antibodies attached to their membranes , degranulate when exposed to the appropriate antigen . Certain amines and alkaloids , including such drugs as morphine , and curare alkaloids , can displace histamine in granules and cause its release . Antibiotics like polymyxin are also found to stimulate histamine release . Histamine release occurs when allergens bind to mast - cell - bound IgE antibodies . Reduction of IgE overproduction may lower the likelihood of allergens finding sufficient free IgE to trigger a mast - cell - release of histamine . Mechanism of action ( edit ) In humans , histamine exerts its effects primarily by binding to G protein - coupled histamine receptors , designated H through H. As of 2015 , histamine is believed to activate ligand - gated chloride channels in the brain and intestinal epithelium . Biological targets of histamine in the human body G - protein coupled receptor Location Function Sources Histamine H receptor CNS : Expressed on the dendrites of the output neurons of the histaminergic tuberomammillary nucleus , which projects to the dorsal raphe , locus coeruleus , and additional structures . Periphery : Smooth muscle , endothelium , sensory nerves CNS : Sleep - wake cycle ( promotes wakefulness ) , body temperature , nociception , endocrine homeostasis , regulates appetite , involved in cognition Periphery : Causes bronchoconstriction , bronchial smooth muscle contraction , vasodilation , promotes hypernociception ( visceral hypersensitivity ) , involved in itch perception and urticaria . Histamine H receptor CNS : Dorsal striatum ( caudate nucleus and putamen ) , cerebral cortex ( external layers ) , hippocampal formation , dentate nucleus of the cerebellum Periphery : Located on parietal cells , vascular smooth muscle cells , neutrophils , mast cells , as well as on cells in the heart and uterus CNS : Not established ( note : most known H receptor ligands are unable to cross the blood -- brain barrier in sufficient concentrations to allow for neuropsychological and behavioral testing ) Periphery : Primarily involved in vasodilation and stimulation of gastric acid secretion . Modulates gastrointestinal function . Histamine H receptor Located in the central nervous system and to a lesser extent peripheral nervous system tissue Autoreceptor and heteroreceptor functions : decreased neurotransmitter release of histamine , acetylcholine , norepinephrine , serotonin Modulates nociception , gastric acid secretion , and food intake . Histamine H receptor Located primarily on basophils and in the bone marrow . It is also expressed in the thymus , small intestine , spleen , and colon . Plays a role in mast cell chemotaxis , itch perception , cytokine production and secretion , and visceral hypersensitivity . Other functions ( inflammation , allergy , cognition , etc . ) have not been fully characterized . Ligand - gated ion channel Location Function Sources Histamine - gated chloride channel Putatively : CNS ( hypothalamus , thalamus ) and intestinal epithelium Brain : Produces fast inhibitory postsynaptic potentials Intestinal epithelium : chloride secretion ( associated with secretory diarrhea ) Roles in the body ( edit ) Although histamine is small compared to other biological molecules ( containing only 17 atoms ) , it plays an important role in the body . It is known to be involved in 23 different physiological functions . Histamine is known to be involved in many physiological functions because of its chemical properties that allow it to be versatile in binding . It is Coulombic ( able to carry a charge ) , conformational , and flexible . This allows it to interact and bind more easily . Vasodilation and a fall in blood pressure ( edit ) When injected intravenously , histamine causes most blood vessels to dilate , and hence causes a fall in the blood pressure . This is a key mechanism in anaphylaxis , and is thought to be caused when histamine releases nitric oxide , endothelium - derived hyperpolarizing factors and other compounds from the endothelial cells . Effects on nasal mucous membrane ( edit ) Increased vascular permeability causes fluid to escape from capillaries into the tissues , which leads to the classic symptoms of an allergic reaction : a runny nose and watery eyes . Allergens can bind to IgE - loaded mast cells in the nasal cavity 's mucous membranes . This can lead to three clinical responses : sneezing due to histamine - associated sensory neural stimulation hyper - secretion from glandular tissue nasal congestion due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability Sleep - wake regulation ( edit ) Histamine is released as a neurotransmitter . The cell bodies of histamine neurons are found in the posterior hypothalamus , in the tuberomammillary nuclei . From here , these neurons project throughout the brain , including to the cortex , through the medial forebrain bundle . Histamine neurons increase wakefulness and prevent sleep . Classically , antihistamines ( H histamine receptor antagonists ) which cross the blood - brain barrier produce drowsiness . Newer antihistamines are designed to not cross into the brain and thus are less likely to cause sedation , although individual reactions , concomitant medications and dosage may increase the sedative effect . Similar to the effect of older antihistamines , destruction of histamine releasing neurons , or inhibition of histamine synthesis leads to an inability to maintain vigilance . Finally , H receptor antagonists increase wakefulness . Histaminergic neurons have a wakefulness - related firing pattern . They fire rapidly during waking , fire more slowly during periods of relaxation / tiredness and completely stop firing during REM and NREM ( non-REM ) sleep . Gastric acid release ( edit ) Enterochromaffin - like cells , located within the gastric glands of the stomach , release histamine that stimulates nearby parietal cells by binding to the apical H receptor . Stimulation of the parietal cell induces the uptake of carbon dioxide and water from the blood , which is then converted to carbonic acid by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase . Inside the cytoplasm of the parietal cell , the carbonic acid readily dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions diffuse back through the basilar membrane and into the bloodstream , while the hydrogen ions are pumped into the lumen of the stomach via a K / H ATPase pump . Histamine release is halted when the pH of the stomach starts to decrease . Antagonist molecules , like ranitidine , block the H receptor and prevent histamine from binding , causing decreased hydrogen ion secretion . Protective effects ( edit ) While histamine has stimulatory effects upon neurons , it also has suppressive ones that protect against the susceptibility to convulsion , drug sensitization , denervation supersensitivity , ischemic lesions and stress . It has also been suggested that histamine controls the mechanisms by which memories and learning are forgotten . Erection and sexual function ( edit ) Libido loss and erectile failure can occur during treatment with histamine H receptor antagonists such as cimetidine , ranitidine , and risperidone . The injection of histamine into the corpus cavernosum in men with psychogenic impotence produces full or partial erections in 74 % of them . It has been suggested that H antagonists may cause sexual difficulties by reducing the uptake of testosterone . Schizophrenia ( edit ) Metabolites of histamine are increased in the cerebrospinal fluid of people with schizophrenia , while the efficiency of H receptor binding sites is decreased . Many atypical antipsychotic medications have the effect of increasing histamine production , because histamine levels seem to be imbalanced in people with that disorder . Multiple sclerosis ( edit ) Histamine therapy for treatment of multiple sclerosis is currently being studied . The different H receptors have been known to have different effects on the treatment of this disease . The H and H receptors , in one study , have been shown to be counterproductive in the treatment of MS . The H and H receptors are thought to increase permeability in the blood - brain barrier , thus increasing infiltration of unwanted cells in the central nervous system . This can cause inflammation , and MS symptom worsening . The H and H receptors are thought to be helpful when treating MS patients . Histamine has been shown to help with T - cell differentiation . This is important because in MS , the body 's immune system attacks its own myelin sheaths on nerve cells ( which causes loss of signaling function and eventual nerve degeneration ) . By helping T cells to differentiate , the T cells will be less likely to attack the body 's own cells , and instead attack invaders . Disorders ( edit ) As an integral part of the immune system , histamine may be involved in immune system disorders and allergies . Mastocytosis is a rare disease in which there is a proliferation of mast cells that produce excess histamine . History ( edit ) The properties of histamine , then called β - iminazolylethylamine , were first described in 1910 by the British scientists Henry H. Dale and P.P. Laidlaw . By 1913 the name histamine was in use , using combining forms of histo - + amine , yielding `` tissue amine '' . `` H substance '' or `` substance H '' are occasionally used in medical literature for histamine or a hypothetical histamine - like diffusible substance released in allergic reactions of skin and in the responses of tissue to inflammation . See also ( edit ) Anaphylaxis Diamine oxidase Hay fever ( allergic rhinitis ) Histamine intolerance Histamine receptor antagonist Red wine headache Scombroid food poisoning References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Histamine Material Safety Data Sheet ( Technical report ) . sciencelab.com. 2013 - 05 - 21 . Archived from the original on 2012 - 03 - 24 . ^ Jump up to : Vuckovic , Dajana ; Pawliszyn , Janusz ( 15 March 2011 ) . `` Systematic Evaluation of Solid - Phase Microextraction Coatings for Untargeted Metabolomic Profiling of Biological Fluids by Liquid Chromatography − Mass Spectrometry '' . Analytical Chemistry . Supporting Information . 83 ( 6 ) : 1944 -- 1954 . doi : 10.1021 / ac102614v . PMID 21332182 . Jump up ^ Marieb , E. ( 2001 ) . Human anatomy & physiology . San Francisco : Benjamin Cummings . p. 414 . ISBN 0 - 8053 - 4989 - 8 . Jump up ^ Nieto - Alamilla , G ; Márquez - Gómez , R ; García - Gálvez , AM ; Morales - Figueroa , GE ; Arias - Montaño , JA ( November 2016 ) . `` The Histamine H3 Receptor : Structure , Pharmacology , and Function '' . Molecular Pharmacology . 90 ( 5 ) : 649 -- 673 . doi : 10.1124 / mol. 116.104752 . PMID 27563055 . Jump up ^ Andersen HH , Elberling J , Arendt - Nielsen L ( 2015 ) . `` Human surrogate models of histaminergic and non-histaminergic itch '' . Acta Dermato - Venereologica. 95 : 771 -- 7 . doi : 10.2340 / 00015555 - 2146 . PMID 26015312 . Jump up ^ Di Giuseppe , M. ; et al. ( 2003 ) . Nelson Biology 12 . Toronto : Thomson Canada . p. 473 . ISBN 0 - 17 - 625987 - 2 . Jump up ^ `` Histamine '' . webbook.nist.gov . Archived from the original on 2018 - 04 - 27 . Jump up ^ `` Histamine dihydrochloride H7250 '' . Sigma - Aldrich . Archived from the original on 2015 - 08 - 09 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2015 - 01 - 04 . Retrieved 2015 - 01 - 04 . Jump up ^ Paiva , T.B. ; Tominaga , M. ; Paiva , A.C.M. ( 1970 ) . `` Ionization of histamine , N - acetylhistamine , and their iodinated derivatives '' . Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 13 ( 4 ) : 689 -- 692 . doi : 10.1021 / jm00298a025 . PMID 5452432 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived ( PDF ) from the original on 2011 - 07 - 19 . Retrieved 2010 - 02 - 20 . ^ Jump up to : Panula P , Chazot PL , Cowart M , et al. ( 2015 ) . `` International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology . XCVIII . Histamine Receptors '' . Pharmacol. Rev. 67 ( 3 ) : 601 -- 55 . doi : 10.1124 / pr. 114.010249 . PMC 4485016 . PMID 26084539 . ^ Jump up to : Wouters MM , Vicario M , Santos J ( 2015 ) . `` The role of mast cells in functional GI disorders '' . Gut. 65 : 155 -- 168 . doi : 10.1136 / gutjnl - 2015 - 309151 . PMID 26194403 . Jump up ^ Blandina , Patrizio ; Munari , Leonardo ; Provensi , Gustavo ; Passani , Maria B. ( 2012 ) . `` Histamine neurons in the tuberomamillary nucleus : a whole center or distinct subpopulations ? '' . Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 6 . doi : 10.3389 / fnsys. 2012.00033 . Jump up ^ Maguire JJ , Davenport AP ( 29 November 2016 ) . `` H receptor '' . IUPHAR / BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY . International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology . Archived from the original on 21 March 2017 . Retrieved 20 March 2017 . Jump up ^ Noszal , B. ; Kraszni , M. ; Racz , A. ( 2004 ) . `` Histamine : fundamentals of biological chemistry '' . In Falus , A. ; Grosman , N. ; Darvas , Z . Histamine : Biology and Medical Aspects . Budapest : SpringMed . pp. 15 -- 28 . ISBN 380557715X . Jump up ^ Dale , HH ; Laidlaw , PP ( 31 December 1910 ) . `` The physiological action of beta - iminazolylethylamine '' . The Journal of Physiology. 41 ( 5 ) : 318 -- 44 . doi : 10.1113 / jphysiol. 1910. sp001406 . PMC 1512903 . PMID 16993030 . Jump up ^ Monroe EW , Daly AF , Shalhoub RF ( February 1997 ) . `` Appraisal of the validity of histamine - induced wheal andï flare to predict the clinical efficacy of antihistamines '' . J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 99 ( 2 ) : S798 -- 806 . doi : 10.1016 / s0091 - 6749 ( 97 ) 70128 - 3 . PMID 9042073 . Jump up ^ Brown , RE ; Stevens , DR ; Haas , HL ( 2001 ) . `` The Physiology of Brain Histamine '' . Progress in Neurobiology. 63 ( 6 ) : 637 -- 672 . doi : 10.1016 / s0301 - 0082 ( 00 ) 00039 - 3 . PMID 11164999 . Jump up ^ Yanai , K ; Tashiro , M ( 2007 ) . `` The physiological and pathophysiological roles of neuronal histamine : an insight from human positron emission tomography studies '' . Pharmacology & Therapeutics . 113 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 15 . doi : 10.1016 / j. pharmthera. 2006.06. 008 . PMID 16890992 . Jump up ^ Alvarez , EO ( 2009 ) . `` The role of histamine on cognition '' . Behavioural Brain Research . 199 ( 2 ) : 183 -- 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. bbr. 2008.12. 010 . PMID 19126417 . ^ Jump up to : White , JM ; Rumbold , GR ( 1988 ) . `` Behavioural effects of histamine and its antagonists : a review '' . Psychopharmacology. 95 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 14 . doi : 10.1007 / bf00212757 . PMID 3133686 . Jump up ^ Cará , AM ; Lopes - Martins , RA ; Antunes , E ; Nahoum , CR ; De Nucci , G ( 1995 ) . `` The role of histamine in human penile erection '' . British Journal of Urology. 75 ( 2 ) : 220 -- 4 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1464 - 410X. 1995. tb07315. x . PMID 7850330 . Jump up ^ Ito , C ( 2004 ) . `` The role of the central histaminergic system on schizophrenia '' . Drug News & Perspectives. 17 ( 6 ) : 383 -- 7 . doi : 10.1358 / dnp. 2004.17. 6.829029 . PMID 15334189 . Many atypical antipsychotics also increased histamine turnovers . Jump up ^ Jadidi - Niaragh F , Mirshafiey A ( September 2010 ) . `` Histamine and histamine receptors in pathogenesis and treatment of multiple sclerosis '' . Neuropharmacology. 59 ( 3 ) : 180 -- 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. neuropharm. 2010.05. 005 . PMID 20493888 . Archived from the original on 2018 - 04 - 27 . Jump up ^ E. Zampeli ; E. Tiligada . `` The role of histamine H4 receptor in immune and inflammatory disorders '' . Department of Pharmacology , Medical School , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens , Athens , Greece . 157 : 24 -- 33 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1476 - 5381.2009. 00151. x . 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External links ( edit ) Histamine MS Spectrum DrugBank EXPT01785 Histamine bound to proteins in the PDB Histamine receptor modulators Agonists : 2 - Pyridylethylamine Betahistine Histamine HTMT L - Histidine UR - AK49 Antagonists : First - generation : 4 - Methyldiphenhydramine Alimemazine Antazoline Azatadine Bamipine Benzatropine ( benztropine ) Bepotastine Bromazine Brompheniramine Buclizine Captodiame Carbinoxamine Chlorcyclizine Chloropyramine Chlorothen Chlorphenamine Chlorphenoxamine Cinnarizine Clemastine Clobenzepam Clocinizine Cloperastine Cyclizine Cyproheptadine Dacemazine Decloxizine Deptropine Dexbrompheniramine Dexchlorpheniramine Dimenhydrinate Dimetindene Diphenhydramine Diphenylpyraline Doxylamine Embramine Etodroxizine Etybenzatropine ( ethylbenztropine ) Etymemazine Fenethazine Flunarizine Histapyrrodine Homochlorcyclizine Hydroxyethylpromethazine Hydroxyzine Isopromethazine Isothipendyl Meclozine Medrylamine Mepyramine ( pyrilamine ) Mequitazine Methafurylene Methapyrilene Methdilazine Moxastine Orphenadrine Oxatomide Oxomemazine Perlapine Phenindamine Pheniramine Phenyltoloxamine Pimethixene Piperoxan Pipoxizine Promethazine Propiomazine Pyrrobutamine Talastine Thenalidine Thenyldiamine Thiazinamium Thonzylamine Tolpropamine Tripelennamine Triprolidine Second / third - generation : Acrivastine Alinastine Astemizole Azelastine Bamirastine Barmastine Bepiastine Bepotastine Bilastine Cabastinen Carebastine Cetirizine Clemastine Clemizole Clobenztropine Desloratadine Dorastine Ebastine Efletirizine Emedastine Epinastine Fexofenadine Flezelastine Ketotifen Latrepirdine Levocabastine Levocetirizine Linetastine Loratadine Mapinastine Mebhydrolin Mizolastine Moxastine Noberastine Octastine Olopatadine Perastine Pibaxizine Piclopastine Quifenadine ( phencarol ) Rocastine Rupatadine Setastine Sequifenadine ( bicarphen ) Talastine Temelastine Terfenadine Vapitadine Zepastine Others : Atypical antipsychotics ( e.g. , aripiprazole , asenapine , brexpiprazole , clozapine , iloperidone , olanzapine , paliperidone , quetiapine , risperidone , RP - 5063 , ziprasidone , zotepine ) Phenylpiperazine antidepressants ( e.g. , hydroxynefazodone , nefazodone , trazodone , triazoledione ) Tetracyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amoxapine , loxapine , maprotiline , mianserin , mirtazapine , oxaprotiline ) Tricyclic antidepressants ( e.g. , amitriptyline , butriptyline , clomipramine , desipramine , dosulepin ( dothiepin ) , doxepin , imipramine , iprindole , lofepramine , nortriptyline , protriptyline , trimipramine ) Typical antipsychotics ( e.g. , chlorpromazine , flupenthixol , fluphenazine , loxapine , perphenazine , prochlorperazine , thioridazine , thiothixene ) Unknown / unsorted : Azanator Belarizine Elbanizine Flotrenizine GSK1004723 Napactadine Tagorizine Trelnarizine Trenizine Agonists : Amthamine Betazole Dimaprit Histamine HTMT Impromidine L - Histidine UR - AK49 Antagonists : Bisfentidine Burimamide Cimetidine Dalcotidine Donetidine Ebrotidine Etintidine Famotidine Isolamtidine Lafutidine Lamtidine Lavoltidine ( loxtidine ) Lupitidine Metiamide Mifentidine Niperotidine Nizatidine Osutidine Oxmetidine Pibutidine Quisultazine ( quisultidine ) Ramixotidine Ranitidine Roxatidine Sufotidine Tiotidine Tuvatidine Venritidine Xaltidine Zolantidine Agonists : α - Methylhistamine Cipralisant Histamine Imetit Immepip Immethridine L - Histidine Methimepip Proxyfan Antagonists : A-349,821 A-423,579 ABT - 239 ABT - 652 AZD5213 Bavisant Betahistine Burimamide Ciproxifan Clobenpropit Conessine Enerisant GSK - 189,254 Impentamine Iodophenpropit Irdabisant JNJ - 5207852 MK - 0249 NNC 38 - 1049 PF - 03654746 Pitolisant SCH - 79687 Thioperamide VUF - 5681 Agonists : 4 - Methylhistamine α - Methylhistamine Histamine L - Histidine OUP - 16 VUF - 8430 Antagonists : JNJ - 7777120 Mianserin Seliforant Thioperamide Toreforant VUF - 6002 See also : Receptor / signaling modulators Monoamine metabolism modulators Monoamine reuptake inhibitors Neurotransmitters Amino acid - derived Major excitatory / inhibitory systems : Glutamate system : Agmatine Aspartic acid ( aspartate ) Cycloserine Glutamic acid ( glutamate ) Glutathione Glycine GSNO GSSG Kynurenic acid NAA NAAG Proline Serine ; GABA system : GABA GABOB GHB ; Glycine system : α - Alanine β - Alanine Glycine Hypotaurine Proline Sarcosine Serine Taurine ; GHB system : GHB T - HCA ( GHC ) Biogenic amines : Monoamines : 6 - OHM Dopamine Epinephrine ( adrenaline ) NAS ( normelatonin ) Norepinephrine ( noradrenaline ) Serotonin ( 5 - HT ) ; Trace amines : 3 - Iodothyronamine N - Methylphenethylamine N - Methyltryptamine m - Octopamine p - Octopamine Phenylethanolamine Phenethylamine Synephrine Tryptamine m - Tyramine p - Tyramine ; Others : Histamine Neuropeptides : See here instead . Lipid - derived Endocannabinoids : 2 - AG 2 - AGE ( noladin ether ) 2 - ALPI 2 - OG AA - 5 - HT Anandamide ( AEA ) DEA LPI NADA NAGly OEA Oleamide PEA RVD - Hpα SEA Virodhamine ( O - AEA ) Neurosteroids : See here instead . Nucleobase - derived Nucleosides : Adenosine system : Adenosine ADP AMP ATP Vitamin - derived Cholinergic system : Acetylcholine Miscellaneous Gasotransmitters : Carbon monoxide ( CO ) Hydrogen sulfide ( H S ) Nitric oxide ( NO ) ; Candidates : Acetaldehyde Ammonia ( NH ) Carbonyl sulfide ( COS ) Nitrous oxide ( N O ) Sulfur dioxide ( SO ) Human trace amine - associated receptor ligands TAAR1 Agonists Endogenous Classical monoamine neurotransmitters Dopamine Histamine Norepinephrine Serotonin Trace amines 3 - Iodothyronamine 3 - Methoxytyramine N - Methylphenethylamine N - Methyltyramine m - Octopamine p - Octopamine Phenethylamine Phenylethanolamine Synephrine Tryptamine m - Tyramine p - Tyramine Synthetic Amphetamine DOB DOET 4 - Hydroxyamphetamine Isoprenaline MDA ( tenamfetamine ) MDMA ( midomafetamine ) 2 - Methylphenethylamine 3 - Methylphenethylamine 4 - Methylphenethylamine β - Methylphenethylamine Methamphetamine 3 - MMA Norfenfluramine Phentermine o - PIT Propylhexedrine RO5166017 N , N - Dimethylphenethylamine Neutral antagonists Inverse agonists EPPTB ( RO5212773 ) TAAR2 Agonists 3 - Iodothyronamine Phenethylamine Tyramine Neutral antagonists TAAR5 Agonists N , N - Dimethylethylamine Trimethylamine Neutral antagonists Inverse agonists 3 - Iodothyronamine References for all endogenous human TAAR1 ligands are provided at List of trace amines References for synthetic TAAR1 agonists can be found at TAAR1 or in the associated compound articles . For TAAR2 and TAAR5 agonists and inverse agonists , see TAAR for references . See also : Receptor / signaling modulators NDL : 00563274 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Histamine&oldid=843458225 '' Categories : Biogenic amines Amines Imidazoles Immune system Vasodilators Immunostimulants Neurotransmitters TAAR1 agonists Histamine Hidden categories : CS1 : Julian -- Gregorian uncertainty ECHA InfoCard ID from Wikidata Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes Wikipedia articles needing clarification from November 2010 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011 Talk Contents About Wikipedia تۆرکجه বাংলা Беларуская Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Қазақша Кыргызча Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk Occitan Polski Português Română Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 44 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018 , at 08 : 31 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | where does histamine come from in the body | [
"Histamine is an organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses, as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, and uterus.[3][4] Histamine is involved in the inflammatory response and has a central role as a mediator of itching.[5] As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues. Histamine increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins, to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues.[6]"
] | [
"basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues"
] |
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