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http://home.howstuffworks.com/composting2.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Home Improvement Outdoor Living How Composting Works by Craig Freudenrich , Ph . D . Making Compost Prev NEXT Photo courtesy Karim Nice Where do you want your compost pile ? To make compost , you must do the following : Choose a site for the compost pile . Choose a structure . Add the ingredients . Care for and feed the compost pile . Collect the finished compost for use . Choose a Site Where you want your compost pile is an important question . You want to be able to compost discretely away from your house , but not so far away that you may not want to go out and attend to it . Also , you do not want it so close to the boundaries of your property that your neighbors might complain . Part of the answer may be dictated by local housing ordinances or homeowner organization rules that may specify where a compost pile can be located . Other factors to consider include the following : Downwind from your house - Even a well - managed compost pile may occasionally emit unpleasant odors . Wind - Although wind provides air , too much wind can dry and / or scatter the material . Sunlight Sunlight can help warm the compost pile in the winter , but too much sunlight can dry it out . If the pile is located by a large deciduous tree , you will have cool shade in the summer and sunlight in the winter . Drainage - You want good drainage so that water will not accumulate by the pile . Surface - Bare earth is better than concrete . Make sure to give yourself a sufficient work area around the pile ( 6 to 8 ft , or about 2 m ) . Compost structures come in many shapes . Choose a Structure Compost structures can be as simple as a heap where you just pile all of the ingredients and let nature take its course - - this is passive composting . Passive composting is less efficient and slower than active composting , in which you manage the compost process on a daily basis . You can also build more complicated compost bins out of chicken wire , wood or concrete blocks . They can be simple , one - compartment structures in which you add new materials to the top , turn the compost frequently and collect the finished compost from the bottom . Photo courtesy Karim Nice Commercial home composting unit They can also be multi - compartment ( three - bin ) structures in which you add new material to one bin , transfer partially - completed compost to the middle bin and move finished compost to the final bin . There should be some covering on the top of the bin to minimize excess rainwater and reduce scattering from the wind . Many varieties of compost bins are available commercially . The choice depends entirely on the effort and expense that you wish to devote to the project , as well as the amount of compost that you wish to make . Also , local ordinances may dictate what kind of bin you can use . Add the Ingredients You can compost the following materials easily : Composting Meat & Dairy Meat and dairy products are high in fat . They will cause an unpleasant odor if added to a passive pile or poorly - managed active compost pile . For a hot , well - turned compost pile , meat and dairy wastes are not a problem . However , it is better to run the wastes through a blender or food processor to reduce their size and speed their decomposition . Kitchen waste - best to chop up or grind the wastes so that they can be broken down faster Fruit and vegetable wastes - peels , skins , seeds , leaves Egg shells Coffee grounds ( including paper filters ) , tea bags , used paper napkins Corncobs - should be shredded to make them break down quickly Meat / dairy products - see sidebar Yard waste Grass clippings - Some grass is okay , but too much will add excess nitrogen to the compost pile and make it smell bad . It may be best to use a mulching lawn mower for your grass . Leaves Pine needles Weeds Woody materials ( branches , twigs ) Straw or hay Newspaper Seaweed , kelp or marsh grass hay - If you live by the ocean and it is legal to harvest these , they are excellent , nutrient - rich materials . Rinse or soak them thoroughly in fresh water to remove excess salt before adding them to your compost pile . Sawdust - This is an excellent source of carbon . Kitchen and yard waste in a compost bin The following materials SHOULD NOT BE COMPOSTED Human waste or pet litter - They carry diseases and parasites , as well as cause an unpleasant odor . Diseased garden plants - They can infect the compost pile and influence the finished product . Invasive weeds - Spores and seeds of invasive weeds ( buttercups morning glory , quack grass ) can survive the decomposition process and spread to your desired plants when you use the finished compost . Charcoal ashes - They are toxic to the soil microorganisms . Pesticide - treated plant material - These are harmful to the compost foodweb organisms , and pesticides may survive into the finished compost . Cover the composting materials with plenty of soil in the compost bin . Some sources say that it is best to arrange carbon - rich and nitrogen - rich materials in alternating layers . Add water to moisten the compost , but do not soak it . Turn the compost with a shovel or compost fork to mix it and provide plenty of air . 1 2 3 4 6 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/define-celosia.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Lawn & Garden Gardening Annual Gardens Celosia by Betty Barr Mackey Up Next © 2006 Publications International , Ltd . Celosia is a Celosia is an annual flower whose silky blooms get attention wherever they grow with a wide choice of appearance , size , and color . Description : Celosia offers large flower clusters on top of green or reddish leaves . Colors include yellow , gold , red , pink , orange , and wine . Velvety crested types ( cockscomb ) are rippled , whereas others are shaped like plumes or spikes . Heights range from 6 to 36 inches ; flower size is not determined by height . How to grow : Grow in rich to average well - drained soil in full sun . Space 6 to 24 inches apart . Outdoors , sow seeds or set out plants during warm weather , after the danger of frost has passed . Propagation : Start celosia seeds indoors six to eight weeks before outdoor planting time . Seeds germinate in ten days at 70 degrees Fahrenheit . Uses : Use dwarf types in containers and as edgings . Mass tall types in borders or grow them in garden rows for use as cut or dried flowers . To dry , pick before flowers open fully and hang upside down in a cool , dark place . Related varieties : Amigo Mix has huge crests on dwarf plants . Bombay Pink is a rippled pink and white marvel . Century Fire has big red plumes on 20 - inch plants and blooms early . Scientific name : Celosia argentea Want more information ? Try : Annual Flowers Annuals Perennial Flowers | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/define-weeping-willow.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Lawn & Garden Trees , Shrubs & Vines Weeping Willow by Betty Barr Mackey Up Next © 2006 Publications International , Ltd . , but it can lose branches almost as quickly Weeping willows are wide , tall trees with curtains of drooping branches that sweep the ground . Their small , narrow leaves appear in very late winter , giving the trees a golden look . They become green as they mature and turn yellow in autumn . These fast - growing trees have great beauty , but they also drop many small and large branches quite frequently . How to grow : Plant weeping willows only in moist locations , well away from houses or other structures and underground pipes and wires . The roots can block pipes and drainage tiles in their search for water . New plants grow very easily from cuttings or even from relatively large branches that are stuck into boggy soil and kept moist for several months in spring . Uses : Weeping willows should be planted in open spaces where there is a lot of moisture in the soil . They are especially useful if planted where you need something to help drain the soil or next to a pond or lake where the full beauty of the weeping willow can be appreciated . Related species : Willows ( Salix species ) are extremely diverse , with shrubs and trees of many shapes for diverse climates . Scientific name : Salix species Want more information ? Try : Flowering Trees Shade Trees Specimen Trees | [
"Weeping Willow"
] |
http://home.howstuffworks.com/gardening/garden-design/community-garden.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Lawn & Garden Gardening Garden Design How to Start a Community Garden by Jennifer Horton NEXT Neighbors working in their community garden can see the city in the background . Tony Anderson / Digital Vision / Getty Images Many people enjoy working with the soil and coaxing seeds into healthy , productive plants . Gardening offers physical and mental health benefits as well . But what if you do n ' t have any land to start a plot of your own ? If you live in an apartment or a condo , how can you have a garden ? In recent years , people across the United States and around the world have banded together to create community gardens . These grassroots enterprises give groups of people the chance to garden . Community gardens have lots of benefits : They ' ve been shown to reduce crime , foster relationships , provide low - cost food and benefit psychological health [ source : Surls ] . They also set aside much - needed green space and encourage physical activity . Along with all their benefits , community gardens take a lot of work . They require more than just gathering up some buddies , grabbing some shovels and heading to a vacant field down the street . Along with an infrastructure , community gardens need an organizational committee , funding , rules , sponsorship and , above all else , committed people . In this article , you ' ll learn what it takes to start a community garden - - from how to secure a site and raise money to how to organize the planting process . We ' ll also look at how to maintain the garden once it gets going . To get started , it helps to ask two questions : Who is interested , and who is in charge ? 1 2 4 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/gas-vs-electric-stoves.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Appliances Household Appliances Gas vs . Electric Stoves : Which is really more efficient ? by Stephanie Watson NEXT Do you prefer a gas or electric stove ? DCI When you ' re whipping up your famous beef Bourguignon or paella , the thought of saving money and energy probably is n ' t at the front of your mind . Yet you could be saving money every single time you cook these recipes - - or any other dish - - if you have an energy - efficient stove . You may have comparison shopped for the least expensive stove at your local appliance store , but looking at the purchase price alone wo n ’ t tell you how much you ' ll end up paying in the long run . Both gas and electric stoves are in essentially the same price range , depending on the brand and model . Generally , you ' ll spend $ 650 to $ 2,800 for an electric stove , and $ 800 to $ 2,300 for a gas stove , according to Consumer Reports . If you buy a lower - end electric stove , you may save money upfront , but the costs of operating that stove will start to add up the more you cook . According to the California Energy Commission , most Americans currently cook on an electric stove , and they may not be taking advantage of the greatest energy savings . Click on the next page to learn why switching to gas could save you money on your annual energy bills . 1 2 3 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/household-hints-tips/cleaning-organizing/how-to-remove-hard-water-spots-from-windows.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Home Improvement Household Hints & Tips Cleaning How to Remove Hard Water Spots From Windows by HowStuffWorks . com Contributors Up Next Water is not the same everywhere . In some areas the water has a high content of minerals , such as calcium and magnesium . This water is called hard water [ source : Britannica ] . After the water has evaporated from a surface , such as a window , it will leave spots known as calcium deposits or lime scale . At first it ' s not very noticeable , but after a while the deposits build up and there ' s a thick whitish glaze . In the early stages , these deposits are easy to get off , but over time as they are baked on by the sun , they become more difficult to remove , giving your windows a rough texture and unpleasant haziness [ source : Glass polishing ] . Here is a foolproof way to get rid of hard water stains on your windows . Prepare a mixture of half water and half vinegar . Soak a towel in the solution . Press the towel onto the rough spots on the window . Let it sit there for a minute or two . The acidity in the vinegar will soften the mineral deposits making it easier to wipe off . You can also try draping the towel over the window , if it will remain hanging and not fall down . Wipe and press the towel on the window until the spots disappear . You may have to repeat the process several times until all the spots are gone . Dry the window with a rag . You may want to shine the window with a window spray . Another tried and true way to remove hard water spots from your windows is by rubbing them with some white wine [ source : BBC ] . | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/remodeling/cut-molding2.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Home Improvement Remodeling How to Cut Molding by Richard Winter Cutting Molding on an Angle Prev NEXT Before making the first cut , a number of things have to be considered . What kind of trim are you cutting ? Different trims require different positions in the miter box or on the saw : In a vertical position , the back of the molding should be placed against the back of the miter box or saw ' s fence . This is used to cut baseboard , chair rail , quarter round and splice miters . For a horizontal position , the molding should lie flat on the saw table or miter box , decorative side up . This position is used when cutting window and door casings . A compound position is used for crown molding . Unlike other molding , the back of a piece of crown molding does not lie flat against the wall . Instead , it creates a triangular space between the wall and ceiling . A lower flat edge lies against the wall ; an upper edge meets the ceiling . So , when cutting crown molding , it ' s the edges that rest against the fence and the table base , not the back of the molding . The decorative side should face down , the top of the molding should Carter ] . Which piece are you cutting ? Each molding joint has a left side and a right side . For a left - hand cut , most of the molding will be to the left of blade ( when the finished side of the molding is face up , bottom down ) . For a right - hand cut with the trim in the same position , you ' re cutting the right side of the joint [ source : Royal Mouldings ] . What type of joint are you cutting ? Spliced joints are 45 - degree cuts . Coping joints require both a 90 - degree and a 45 - degree cut . Depending upon the tool used , mitering can allow more precise cutting . Because crown molding is installed at an angle to the wall , the angle of the molding needs to be taken into account . Detailed charts that specify settings for the saw ' s bevel angle and miter angle are based on the angles of the walls [ source : DEWALT To find out the key tools you ' ll need to cut molding , read on . Avoiding Mitering Not fond of mitering ? Put square trim in the corners . For window and door surrounds , using rosettes or plinth blocks at the corners will only require straight cuts . In corners created by walls , square block - type manufactured corners can be used [ source : Royal Mouldings ] . 1 2 3 4 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/how-to-repair-small-appliances9.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Appliances Appliance Repair How to Repair Small Appliances by Fix - It Club How to Repair a Hair Dryer Prev Up Next Publications International , Ltd . A cross section of a hair dryer . Hair dryers combine both types of small appliances : those that heat and those that move something . Therefore , a hair dryer includes both a heating element and a fan motor . Most people do n ' t bother to fix even the simplest problems on their hair dryers because they are generally inexpensive to replace . It ' s easier to toss them and buy new ones . In the long run , however , it may be more efficient to purchase a better - quality hair dryer and make most of the repairs yourself . How Hair Dryers Work Personal hair dryers come in a variety of shapes and sizes , but they all contain the same components and work in the same way . The typical hair dryer includes an on / off switch , a fan - speed switch , a fan and motor , a heat switch , a heating element , and a thermal cutout switch . The heating switch controls the amount of current delivered to the heating element , thus controlling the heat delivered by the hair dryer . The fan - speed switch controls the speed of the fan motor and fan , thus controlling the force of the air delivered by the hair dryer . The thermal cutout switch , a safety feature , shuts off the heating element if it gets too hot . How to Repair a Hair Dryer Common hair dryer repairs include servicing the switch , fan , heating element , and thermal cutout . Servicing a Switch : On / off , fan - speed , and heat switches all work in the same way . They control the current going to the hair dryer , the fan , or the elements . Some switches have only two positions : on or off , high or low . Others have three or more . However , they are all tested and replaced in the same way . Here ' s how to test a hair dryer switch : Step 1 : Unplug the hair dryer and carefully unscrew and remove the housing . Screws are typically recessed near the motor vent . Step 2 : Switches will be mounted in the handle or main housing between the electrical cord and the fan motor and heating element . Remove the switch and disconnect it . Step 3 : Using a continuity tester or multitester , make sure the switch functions as it should . That is , an on / off switch will indicate an open circuit ( continuity light off ) in the OFF position , and a closed circuit ( continuity light on ) in the ON position . Fan - speed switches and heating element switches will show continuity in all settings . Servicing a Fan : The fan in a hair dryer pulls air in through a vent and pushes it out the nozzle . The fan - speed switch feeds it electrical current . Hair dryer fans are generally quite durable . The primary causes of problems are hair and moisture - - two elements found in abundance in a bathroom . Hair , lint , and other debris can clog up the screen filter on the air intake . To clean it , use compressed air or a soft - bristle toothbrush . Publications International , Ltd . You can clean built - up debris from a screen filter by using a soft - bristle toothbrush . Moisture can damage any motor by shorting out components . To test and repair a hair dryer fan and motor : Step 1 : Remove housing screws and lift off the housing . Step 2 : Remove and inspect the fan blades , repairing or replacing as necessary . Step 3 : Test the motor using a continuity tester to ensure that current has a closed path ( continuity light on ) through the motor . If not , remove and replace the motor with one of an identical rating in watts and size . If a replacement motor can not be found , or if it costs more than half the price of a new hair dryer , consider replacing the entire hair dryer . Servicing a Heating Element : The heating element in a hair dryer is a continuous high - resistance wire wound around a nonconducting frame . It is installed in the appliance nozzle or output vent . When electrical current is applied to it , the element heats up . The adjacent fan forces air past the element , warming it before it exits the nozzle . To test a hair dryer element if you suspect a problem : Remove the housing of the hair dryer and the element shield . Find the two wires leading to the element . Visually inspect the wires and the element coils for any obvious breaks or debris . Use a continuity tester or multitester to check for continuity . The circuit between the two lead wires should be closed ( continuity light on ) . If not , check the thermal cutout . Step 4 : If the thermal cutout functions properly , replace the heating element with an exact replacement part . Servicing a Thermal Cutout : A thermal cutout is located in the element assembly of most electrical hair dryers . The purpose of a bimetallic thermostat is to shut the hair dryer element off if it gets too hot . To test the thermal cutout : Open the housing and gain access to the element assembly . Find and inspect the thermal cutout for debris , distortion , or discoloration . Clean the contact points with emery paper . Loosen debris with a few short blasts of compressed air held at sufficient distance to avoid damage to the sensitive element wires . So , before you toss out that malfunctioning hair dryer , toaster , or other small appliance , make sure the problem is n ' t an easy one to fix . The tips in this article will help you get those household necessities up and running again . © Publications International , Ltd . Troubleshooting Hair Dryers Whether the fan on your hair dryer does n ' t work or the device is n ' t generating enough heat , there may be a solution . Click here to see troubleshooting tips for hair dryers . 1 9 10 UP NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/lima-beans.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Lawn & Garden Gardening Herb & Vegetable Gardens Lima Beans by the Editors of Publications International , Ltd . NEXT Ripe lima beans , in and out of the pod . See more pictures of lima beans & lima bean recipes Lima beans are popular with origins in South and Central America . Some varieties of lima beans are called butter beans , particularly in the southern United States About Lima Beans This large - seeded annual bean grows as either a bush or a vine . Bush lima beans are generally easier to handle than pole varieties . Bushes grow only 1 or 2 feet tall , and they mature earlier . Pole beans require a trellis for support . They grow more slowly but produce more beans per plant . Lime Beans & Lima Beans Recipes Image Gallery Common Names : Lima beans , butter beans Scientific Name : Phaseolus limensis Hardiness : Very Tender ( will not survive first frost ) In the next section , we ' ll show you how to grow lima beans . Want more information about lima beans ? Try : Vegetable Gardens : Grow a full harvest of great vegetables this year . Gardening : We answer your questions about all things that come from the garden . Lima Bean Stains : Here ' s our guide to getting out green and yellow veggie stains . Cooking Lima Beans : Our guide helps you prepare and cook your lima beans . 1 2 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/lumber.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Home Improvement Tools & Materials Lumber by Fix - It Club Up Next Lumber is the raw wood material that goes into building houses , fences , and some furniture . Among the more common pieces in construction is the 2 X 4 , but lumber is available in many dimensions . Maybe you ' ve noticed that lumber sizes are often misleading . The " nominal " cross - section dimensions of a piece of lumber , such as 2 X 4 or 1 X 6 , are always somewhat larger than the actual , or dressed , dimensions . The reason is that dressed lumber has been surfaced or planed smooth on four sides ( called S4S ) . The nominal measurement is made before the lumber is surfaced . Board and Lumber Dimensions One - by ( 1 X ) lumber is called " board " : Nominal Size Dressed Dimensions ( inches ) 1 6 3 / 4 51 / 2 1 X 8 3 / 4 71 / 4 10 91 / 4 Two - by ( 2 ) and four - by ( 4 ) lumber is called " dimension lumber " : Nominal Size Dressed Dimensions ( inches ) 2 X 2 11 / 2 11 / 2 2 4 31 / 2 2 6 51 / 2 8 71 / 4 10 91 / 4 12 111 / 4 4 4 31 / 2 31 / 2 Board measure is a method of measuring lumber in which the basic unit is 1 foot long by 1 foot wide by 1 inch thick , called a board foot . It is calculated by nominal , not actual , dimensions of lumber . The easiest formula for figuring nominal board feet is : Thickness x Width x L ength 12 The answer is in board feet . Lumber is often priced in board feet . However , most building material retailers and lumberyards also price lumber by the running foot for easier calculation . That is , a 2 4 8 is priced at eight times the running foot cost rather than as 5.333 board feet . Lumber is one of the essential building blocks of house construction . Not what you ' re looking for ? Try these : Home Repair Tools : Whether you prefer to use the Yellow Pages for anything that needs fixing around the house or consider yourself a regular do - it - yourselfer , there are a handful of tools that everyone should have in their tool box . Learn all about them in this article . Materials : Just having the tools you need on hand for repairs is n ' t always enough to do the job . You ' ll often need various materials , such as lumber or drywall , to complete a task . Check out this article for tips on materials . Plywood : Available at home centers , hardware stores , and lumberyards , plywood is often better than lumber for some jobs . Learn about the various grades of plywood in this article . | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/plasma-cutter4.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Home Improvement Tools & Materials How Plasma Cutters Work by Robert Valdes Inside a Plasma Cutter Prev NEXT Inside a plasma cutter : The electrode is at the center , and the nozzle is just below it . The orange piece is the swirl ring , which causes the plasma to turn rapidly as it passes . Photo courtesy Torchmate CNC Cutting Systems Plasma cutters come in all shapes and sizes . There are monstrous plasma cutters that use robotic arms to make precise incisions . There are also compact , handheld units that you might find in a handyman ' s shop . Regardless of size , all plasma cutters function on the same principle and are constructed around roughly the same design . Plasma cutters work by sending a pressurized gas , such as nitrogen , argon , or oxygen , through a small channel . In the center of this channel , you ' ll find a negatively charged electrode . When you apply power to the negative electrode , and you touch the tip of the nozzle to the metal , the connection creates a circuit . A powerful spark is generated between the electrode and the metal . As the inert gas passes through the channel , the spark heats the gas until it reaches the fourth state of matter . This reaction creates a stream of directed plasma , approximately 30,000 F ( 16,649 C ) and moving at 20,000 feet per second ( 6,096 m / sec ) , that reduces metal to molten slag . The plasma itself conducts electrical current . The cycle of creating the arc is continuous as long as power is supplied to the electrode and the plasma stays in contact with the metal that is being cut . In order to ensure this contact , protect the cut from oxidation and regulate the unpredictable nature of plasma , the cutter nozzle has a second set of channels . These channels release a constant flow of shielding gas around the cutting area . The pressure of this gas flow effectively controls the radius of the plasma beam . Click the On / Off switch to watch a plasma cutter in action . 1 4 5 6 7 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/potatoes3.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Lawn & Garden Gardening Herb & Vegetable Gardens Potatoes by the Editors of Publications International , Ltd . Health Benefits of Potatoes Prev Up Next Potatoes have been getting a bad rap in the food world . But the pride of Idaho actually has much to boast about . Potatoes are filling , moderate in calories , and non - fattening , and are an excellent way to ensure your continued success in eating healthy . Potatoes are an excellent source of almost every essential vitamin and mineral . Whoever coined the phrase " the lowly potato " certainly was n ' t aware of its nutrient values . And anyone who still shuns the potato thinking it is fattening is missing out on a food tailor - made for the calorie - conscious person . Potatoes are nutrient - dense , meaning you receive many nutrients for the amount of calories they have . The fiber is half soluble , half insoluble , so it helps to keep you regular and helps to lower cholesterol . And slowing down digestion helps to keep you full longer . Phytochemicals in potatoes include flavanoids and a recently identified compound called kukoamine that appears to help lower blood pressure . With the exception of vitamin A , white potatoes have just about every nutrient . Did you know potatoes are full of vitamin C ? However , since we do not eat potatoes raw , most of the vitamin C is lost due to the heat of cooking . In addition , one baked potato offers about 20 percent of the daily recommended amount of vitamin B6 , which is good news for your heart . They are also very high in potassium , beating other potassium - rich foods . They are a good source of iron and copper , too . In fact , a potato a day is good for your heart , promoting normal blood - pressure levels . As it turns out , the bad rap belongs to the toppings and preparation methods we often use to turn potatoes from a healthful food to a fatty , salty snack . The health - conscious will want to bake , not fry , and be conscious of the nutritional value of the oils , toppings , and condiments that touch our spuds . Nutritional Values for White Potato , Fresh , Baked ( with Skin ) Serving Size : 1 large baking potato ( 3 - 4 " ) Calories 278 Fat < 1 g Saturated Fat < 1 g Cholesterol 0 mg Carbohydrate 63 g Protein 6 g Dietary Fiber 6 g Sodium 21 mg Vitamin C 37 mg Thiamin < 1 mg Niacin 5 mg Vitamin B6 1 mg Copper < 1 mg Iron 2 mg Magnesium 81 mg Manganese Phosphorus 224 mg Potassium 1,627 mg Want more information about potatoes ? Try : Vegetable Recipes : Find delicious recipes that feature potatoes . Vegetable Gardens : Grow a full harvest of great vegetables this year . Nutrition Find out if potatoes fit into your nutritional plan . Gardening : We answer your questions about all things that come from the garden . This information is solely for informational purposes . IT IS NOT INTENDED TO PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICE . Neither the Editors of Consumer Guide ( R ) , Publications International , Ltd . , the author nor publisher take responsibility for any possible consequences from any treatment , procedure , exercise , dietary modification , action or application of medication which results from reading or following the information contained in this information . The publication of this information does not constitute the practice of medicine , and this information does not replace the advice of your physician or other health care 1 3 4 UP NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/question292.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Appliances Bath and Laundry How can an electric toothbrush recharge its batteries when there are no metal contacts between the toothbrush and the base ? Up Next An electric toothbrush battery can recharge even though there are n ' t any metal contacts . Getty Images If you own an electric toothbrush , there ' s a good chance that it has a completely sealed toothbrush unit . The toothbrush rests on the charger without any metal contacts to connect the toothbrush to the base . This has the great advantage of allowing the toothbrush to be completely sealed so that water can not enter through exposed contacts . It also avoids any problems with water getting into the contacts and shorting out the charger . This sort of sealed arrangement is called inductive charging . Essentially , the toothbrush and the base form a two - part transformer , with the base having one part of the transformer and the toothbrush having the other . When you slide the toothbrush onto the base , the complete transformer is created and charge can flow . The base contains one of the coils and the metal bar . The toothbrush contains the second coil . When you drop the toothbrush onto the base , you create the complete transformer ! 10 Cool Tools House Quiz How Inductors Work Inside A Power - Cube Transformer More Great Links EV : Inductive Charging | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/real-estate/buying-home/5-requirements-for-section-8.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Real Estate Buying a Home 5 Requirements for Applying for Section 8 Housing by John Perritano NEXT Start the Countdown Section 8 housing has been an economic lifeline for millions in the United States . See more real estate pictures iStockphoto / Thinkstock For a quarter of a century Bob Hachey has called Waltham , Mass . , home . Most recently , he has lived in a rented basement apartment in this hardscrabble city just a few miles from leafy Harvard Yard and Boston ' s historic North End . These days Hachey , 47 , struggles to pay his rent . He wants to buy a house , but he knows that is now out of the question . Hachey lost his full - time job three years ago . He is blind and lives on disability benefits . His girlfriend works at a day - care center . Although more than 30 percent of their household income goes toward keeping a roof over their heads , Hachey does n ' t think he could qualify for federal housing assistance under the Section 8 program [ source : Kocian and Carroll ] . Hachey is not alone . According to Waltham ' s regional planning council , 44 percent of local renters spend more than 30 percent of their income on housing . That leaves little money for life ' s other bills . Even if Hachey could qualify for Section 8 assistance , he would n ' t get a voucher anytime soon . There is five - year waiting list [ source : Kocian and Carroll ] . The situation wo n ' t remedy itself in the near future . Lawmakers in Washington plan to cut money from the Section 8 program hoping to reduce the national deficit . Administered by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) , the Section 8 rental - assistance program makes it easier for underprivileged families to find suitable housing by spending no more than 30 percent of their income on rent . The government pays the balance . While HUD administers the program , 2,400 local , state and regional agencies , known as Public Housing Authorities ( PHA ) , run Section 8 . Each agency has a limited number of vouchers . Section 8 has been an economic lifeline for millions , allowing some to save for their own homes while helping others move out of blighted neighborhoods . However , the demand of housing assistance often exceeds supply , especially during tough economic times . That leaves many low - income people scrambling to find housing . Some wait months , if not years , for vouchers . As such , a PHA may be forced to close its waiting list when there are more families than it can serve . Under the program , the landlord must provide Section 8 tenants with a clean and safe place to live , while also charging a reasonable rent . The PHA gives tenants the funds to cover their portion of the rent [ source : U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development ] . Over the years , the program has provided more than 2 million people with a decent place to live [ source : Center of Budgeting Policy Priorities ] . Read on to learn more about the Section 8 requirements . NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/real-estate/buying-home/is-there-way-out-of-restrictive-covenant.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Real Estate Buying a Home Is there any way to get out of a restrictive covenant ? NEXT Restrictive covenants are designed to enforce standards in neighborhoods , and prevent things like this Pepto pink eyesore . See more home construction pictures © iStockphoto . com / Brandon Laufenberg That new pool in the backyard is going to be perfect . You paid the contractor the deposit last week , and they ' re scheduled to come break ground on Monday . You ' ve even got a brand new bathing suit waiting in the dresser for the first hot day of summer . Then , you get a note in your mailbox from your neighborhood association . It turns out your property is subject to a restrictive covenant banning any pools on the premises . How can this be ? You do n ' t remember signing any covenant . Is In short , yes . In the simplest terms , a restrictive covenant is an agreement between a property owner and other parties that limits the use of a property [ source : American Bar Association ] . The covenant is typically written into the deed , or referenced in the deed and kept on file with a county or municipal government , or with a private entity like a homeowner ' s association . In legal terms , restrictive covenants " run with the land . " In other words , they apply to the property itself , and not the specific owner who makes the agreement . So , their limitations are legally binding for anybody who subsequently buys the property [ source : American Bar Association ] . Restrictive covenants date back to 18th - and 19th - century England . During the Industrial Revolution , private landowners used covenants to come to agreements about the use of land . A particular property ' s deed might contain a covenant preventing a factory from operating , for example , to protect surrounding farmers [ source : McKenzie ] . In the United States , deed restrictions initially served a purpose similar to those made in England . Before zoning laws became common , restrictive covenants were used to prevent livestock or machinery from encroaching on residential areas [ source : Dehring ] . By the 1920s , restrictive covenants began to serve the purpose they do today : enforcing standards of neatness and uniformity in more affluent neighborhoods [ source : McKenzie ] . These days , restrictive covenants are most commonly put into place by subdivisions , builders , developers or homeowner ' s associations ( HOAs ) . Covenants are used to keep property values from falling by enforcing certain standards . Those standards can apply to landscaping , architecture , outbuildings , fences , paint color , building materials , driveways , and even things that might seem out of the bounds of a property deed , like how many vehicles a homeowner can keep parked in front of their house , and what type of pets they can own . Restrictive covenants can be very difficult to avoid , as residents of particularly finicky neighborhoods will often attest . But there are 1 2 3 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/self-cleaning-ovens.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Appliances Kitchen Appliances How Self - cleaning Ovens Work NEXT Cleaning ovens by hand is annoying - - do self - cleaning ovens really take all the drudgery out of the task ? Wavebreak Media / Thinkstock Ovens get dirty : Roasting meat spatters ; lasagna overflows ; pies drip . Soon you have a black , petrified crust coating the inside of your appliance . Globs of fat are bad - - fossilized sugars are even worse . Ordinary oven cleaning forces you to get down on your knees and scrub like mad . Alternatively , you can saturate the stains with toxic chemicals and hope for the best . What ' s a body to do ? Way back in 1963 , General Electric came up with a solution : the self - cleaning oven . The company ' s innovative P7 model introduced the pyrolytic cleaning method [ source : GE Appliances ] . That was a fancy name for heating the residue until it carbonized and turned to ash . The oven included extra thermodynamic controls to allow it to reach the high temperatures needed . Today , another option is the steam - cleaning oven , which loosens dirt without resorting to extremes of heat . Self - cleaning is a slight exaggeration - - you still need to get involved . You ' ll want to remove any drippings or build - up that come off easily before turning on the self - cleaning cycle in order to reduce smoke and fumes . And no matter which self - cleaning method you choose , you ' ll need to wipe up the residue when the cleaning cycle is over . As you can imagine , the heat needed for the self - clean cycle requires a lot of energy . The ovens can also give off a smell like barbecued roadkill , especially while burning off thick layers of grime . And the fumes they emit can be toxic to pet birds . But for the most part , self - cleaning ovens are a boon for anyone who bakes . They let you toss out your chemical cleaners . They clean the whole oven , even those hard - to - reach areas , without excess elbow grease . As a bonus , pyrolytic ovens save energy during normal baking because of the extra insulation that ' s added to contain the high heat . In the next section , you ' ll open the oven door and take a look at how the different types of self - cleaning mechanisms work . 1 2 5 NEXT | [
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http://home.howstuffworks.com/what-is-air-conditioner-freon.htm | HowStuffWorks Home & Garden Stain Removal What is air conditioner Freon ? by HowStuffWorks . com Contributors Up Next You ' re all hot and bothered because your air conditioner is n ' t cooling as well as it should . Do n ' t despair - - there is plenty you can do to keep it running smoothly . © iStockphoto . com / Janice Richard Freon is the cooling agent used in most air conditioning systems . Every air conditioning system needs a refrigerant ( also called a coolant ) that actually creates the cool air - - that ' s the role of Freon . As necessary as Freon is to the optimal performance of your your air conditioner , you do not want to handle a potential Freon problem yourself . If you do believe your air conditioner ' s refrigerant lines might need recharging , call a professional to do it . In fact , it ' s probably a good idea to call a professional to inspect your air conditioning system just before the beginning of each cooling season . There are very few air conditioning repairs you can handle yourself , so it makes sense to bring in a professional to AC a check - up before you need it to do any serious cooling ( in the hottest summer months ) . However , one repair you might be able to make yourself is replacing the insulation around the cooling lines . You can check out the refrigerant lines to see if they look a little worn . Most refrigerant lines run from the condenser , which sits outside your air conditioning system ( and probably outside your house ) , to the evaporator inside the house . The refrigerant lines are covered with insulation . If the insulation looks worn , your air conditioner is not working as efficiently as it can be . So you ' ll want to have Remember , before you do any work on your air conditioner make sure you ' ve turned off both the condenser and the evaporator . | [
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http://home.intekom.com/restore/History_Recording.html | HISTORY OF RECORDING Ordering Home Contact Details News & Information 60 Nerina Street , Gardenia Park , Bloemfontein , South Africa Phone : 051 5224319 Email address : johanlr @ intekom . co . za Audio Recording : History and Development Overview Thomas Alva Edison ' s phonograph , invented in 1877 , and its close technological relatives and corporate rivals , the Bell - Tainter graphophone and the Berliner gramophone , stood alone for several decades as the dominant modern innovations in sound reproduction . The rise in the 1920s of radio , electronic audio recording , and motion picture " talkies " began an era in which records and the machines that played them would begin to develop within a much more tangled web of audio technologies . The Recording Industry Rebounds From its beginning in the early 1920s until the Great Depression , radio broadcasting seemed to alternate between serving as a perfect partner and as insurmountable competition for the recording industry . With the Depression and the continuing rise of free live radio , the idea of spending money on " canned " entertainment quickly lost its appeal . For a few years it seemed that the legacy of the phonograph had been buried and replaced . The industry did not begin to show signs of life again until 1934 . The cautious corporate return to recording was built on making records more affordable . Stiff competition in an uncertain market kept prices down . In 1929 Italian opera great Arturo Toscanini had declared the current recording technology unfit for great art . In 1936 he finally became satisfied that recent advances in quality had redeemed the process and provided a symbolic boost to the industry ' s return when he agreed to record for RCA Victor . Radio fueled a surge of interest in recorded classical Meanwhile , the jukebox craze of the late 30s marked a major boom in the youth market . Thirteen million records a year were sold just to fill the thousands of contraptions that provided teenagers with a steady diet of Big Band swing from the likes of Benny Goodman , Tommy Dorsey and Glenn Miller . The teens also enthusiastically collected their own copies of the songs they danced to in diners and drugstores . In the early 1940s bobbysoxers screamed and passed out at Frank Sinatra performances , popular vocalists like Doris Day and Perry Como crooned sentimental love As World War II began to unfold , however , shellac and other materials for making records became scarce . Members of the powerful American Federation of Musicians union agreed to stop recording any work that did not contribute to the war effort as of August , 1942 , and the record companies saw production grind to a halt for two years . War of the Speeds The short playing time of 78 revolutions per minute ( RPM ) records meant that a 50 - minute symphony would be packaged in the brown paper sleeves of a five - disc leatherbound " album " resembling the cover of photograph scrapbooks . Perhaps out of habit , people would later refer to single disc LPs as albums . Experiments with longer playing records that could allow for an uninterrupted listening experience had been conducted since Edison ' s later years . Technologies developed during the war sparked some key transformations in the late 1940s . Columbia Records ' ( owned by CBS ) Peter Goldmark finally perfected long - playing ( LP ) records that could play at 33 1 / 3 RPM for over twenty minutes on each side in 1947 . CBS executive William Paley joined Goldmark in demonstrating the LP for RCA ' s David Sarnoff . Goldmark decribed the results of that meeting : With the first few bars Sarnoff was out of his chair . I played it for ten seconds and then switched back to the 78 . The effect was electrifying , as I knew it would be . . . . Turning to Paley , Sarnoff said loudly and with some emotion : " I want to congratulate you , Bill . It is very good . " . . .I later learned what happened after the group returned to RCA headquarters . Sarnoff , who had been so affable and congratulatory , had gone into what could only be described as an executive tantrum . How could little CBS , with a two - by - four laboratory , beat RCA ? . . . A few days later , Sarnoff phoned Paley to say that he had decided not to come in with us on the record . RCA had already developed seven - inch single - song " 45s , " which were portable , stackable and well - suited to easy mechanical manipulation in juke boxes . The resulting " war of the speeds " forced consumers to either choose one size exclusively or buy two different record players . It was finally Toscanini who convinced Sarnoff to relent . When the dust settled in 1951 , both RCA and CBS manufactured both kinds of records and multi - speed record players went into widespread production . Magnetic Tape Recording The late 1940s also saw magnetic tape recording emerge as a viable method of sound reproduction . The most important pioneering experiments in magnetic tape had been conducted in Germany starting in the late 1920s . By the mid 1930s a " magnetophone " that recorded and played on magnetic tape had been perfected . Like Edison phonographs , magnetic tape recorders were first thought of as business dictation devices . The German BASF corporation developed tape technology that began to approach the frequency range of records in the late 1930s and early 1940s , during which they began to demonstrate the advances by recording and playing music . It was n ' t until the years during and immediately following World War II that the U.S. found and appropriated German tape recording technology . The 3M company ( Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing ) was the first major American corporation to pioneer the development of high quality magnetic tape , and Ampex began to produce viable professional tape recorders . In Hi Fi and Studio Tape Recording During the postwar boom the superior quality of the new records sparked a surge in demand for better equipment to play them on . Enthusiasts of high fidelity or " hi fi " equipment coaxed superior amplifiers , sensitive pickups and powerful , separately enclosed speakers out of expensive radio supply houses and into common retail outlets . In 1949 high fidelity magnetic tape recording became the industry standard almost overnight . Once the recording quality of tape matched and surpassed that of the old direct recording process , its advantages became irresistible . Artists could sustain the momentum of a particular performance without having to break every four minutes for a disc change . Seamless splice editing allowed producers to include the best material from each of several takes in one final product . The revolution in recording quality that magnetic tape represented added fuel to audiophiles ' obsession with new trends in quality improvement . ASCAP and BMI In 1914 the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) was established to protect recording artists from unsanctioned use of their material . ASCAP used a blanket licensing agreement to collect a pre - set annual fee from anyone using its members ' material for any commercial purpose . The money was divided among ASCAP artists . As major players in the radio industry became more interested in broadcasting recorded work , ASCAP reinforced its control over distribution . Artists who were not ASCAP members had little hope of exposing their work to wide audiences . During the recording boom of the late 30s and early 40s , ASCAP had doubled the fees they charged radio stations . In the midst of court battles and the dearth of music not protected by ASCAP , frustrated broadcasters formed their own blanket licensing system , Broadcast Music , Incorporated ( BMI ) , in 1939 . The BMI camp sought alternatives to ASCAP acts . In the process BMI would later become the dominant force in the discovery and marketing of a new sound that would breed a new culture . Rock and Roll Rock and roll echoed the cross - pollenation of black and white music cultures from the jazz age , including the heights of passion expressed by both the youthful fans and the puritanical detractors . This hybrid of country & western and rhythm & blues , what record industry insiders categorized as " hillbilly " and " race , " was first popularized by Bill Haley and the Comets in 1954 . In Shadow Dancing in the USA , Michael Ventura describes " the moment this black music attracted these white musicians " as " one of the most important Record sales once again reached for unprecedented heights , thanks to what the ASCAP camp called " untalented twitchers and twisters whose appeal is largely to the zoot suiter and the juvenile delinquent , " who cranked out " obscene junk pretty much on a level with dirty comic magazines . " They also blamed " the current climate on radio and TV " for promoting the likes of " Elvis Presley and his animal posturings . . . " Ventura confers even more importance on Elvis turned loose on culture : When Elvis Presley hit the charts in 1956 there was no such thing as a " youth market . " By 1957 , almost solely through the demand for his recordings , there was . It was a fundamental , structural change in American society . In a few years we would learn how fundamental , as that " market " revealed itself also to have qualities of a community , one that had the power to initiate far - reaching social changes that seemed unimaginable in 1955 . The antiwar movement , the second wave of the civil rights The explosive new youth market also prompted recording artist representatives to scramble for radio air time . The term " payola , " a blend of " payoff " and " Victrola , " was coined to refer to rising corruption in the music industry fueled by under - the - table fees paid to disc - jockies in exchange for air play . Stereo and Studio Production In 1958 stereo records hit the market to a lukewarm reception . The process of recording two separate channels onto adjacent tracks of the same tape continued to improve , however . By 1959 the added dimension of the stereo listening experience was quite compelling . Enthusiasts upgraded their equipment and the recent mini boom in home reel - to - reel tape recordings died down in the wake of stereo records . Between rock and roll and the new wave of sophistication in recording techniques , studio recording became much more than a way of simply reproducing live performances . As they gained experience , producers began to bring technological skill and editorial precision to what was becoming a new arena of artistic vision . Many of the early 1960s recording artists were recruited by producers as ingredients in complex preconceived musical recipes that included sophisticated mixing and processing strategies . In 1967 the Beatles and George Martin collaborated on the most legendary breakthrough in the aesthetic sophistication of studio production . Sgt . Pepper ' s Lonely Hearts Club Band is widely thought of as the first studio " concept album . " Its admirers experience it as a sustained listening journey through an expansively crafted landscape of musical effects , moods and surreal imagery . Although John Lennon has wryly pointed to the lack of conceptual connection among the tracks on Sgt . Pepper , the 700 studio hours that went into it crystallize as a masterwork that countless After the Beatles the rock performer began to be seen not just as an entertainer but as a social visionary , a cultural trendsetter , a questing , fashionable , archetypal citizen of a new society - - Beau Brummell , William Blake , and Thomas Jefferson rolled into one and put on stage with an electric guitar . The Beatles expanded the conception and scope of operations of pop music and made rock and roll the centerpiece of an entire youthful culture . Cartridges and Cassettes The new way of appreciating LPs contributed to a further decline in sales of 45s , which had enjoyed 25 % of the record market just after the " war of the speeds " ( RCA claimed the figure was closer to 50 % ) , and unravelled to 7 % by 1975 . Meanwhile , recording industry executives saw great promise in the concept of creating a magnetic tape delivery system that would not involve manual threading and would be more portable than records . Philips marketed the first encased audio tapes in 1964 , and within a few Cassette tapes eventually won the battle , however . A robust market in blank and prerecorded cassettes and cassette tape decks was established because of the less cumbersome size , the advent in 1969 of Dolby Noise Reduction as an answer to the unpleasant hiss that limited cassettes to the voice dictation market , and the possibility of consumers doing their own recording . Eight - track tapes , like Edison phonograph cylinders and 78 RPM records before them , were eventually relegated to the trash heap of antiquity . Cassette players took over domination of the car sound system Cassettes also sparked a revolution in recording piracy - - millions of people copied borrowed records onto blank tapes and circulated " bootleg " recordings of concerts . Countries with loose interpretations of or indifference to Western copyright law marketed cheap pirated cassette versions of popular LPs . Digital Recording Technologies The piracy issue has provided the recording industry with major legal and technological challenges since the advent of cassette tapes . By 1982 the computer revolution spawned a strong answer to the challenges . Compact discs ( CDs ) , on which master recordings are converted to digital information , provided clear , superior resolution that cassette tape quality could n ' t match . For the first few years vinyl record purists claimed that CDs were sterile , lacking the " humanness " of random imperfections . These voices died down , however , as CDs gradually and irreversibly As video tape recording reached its stride in the 1980s , Sony took the lead in efforts to combine the helical - scan recording technology used for video signals with the latest in audio recording . The result was the introduction in 1987 of Digital Audio Tapes ( DAT ) and DAT recorders to the semi - professional and professional recording studio market . By 1992 , 80 percent of recording studios in a Pro Sound News survey said they made use of a DAT machine . Today , several formats , each with its own advantages , survive together . Audio cassettes have quietly secured a key ongoing niche in the recording market . Their quality has gradually approached that of CDs , they are clearly the least expensive way to acquire and play music , and their use in cars and mini - headphone systems like the Walkman continues to undercut pricier , motion - sensitive CD systems . Meanwhile , CDs dominate sales of prerecorded music , DAT machines have broken the " under $ 1000 " barrier and are sparking broader consumer interest The market viability of DCCs and MDs remains to be seen . Public familiarity with the history of new formats that may or may not endure has lead to increasing consumer hesitation to embrace new technologies as they are first introduced . The introduction of recordable video discs and " CD+ " or " CD enhanced " products to the market makes consumer caution about DCCs and MDs all the more understandable . CD+ is a format that provides high quality CD sound on a regular CD player , but also provides listeners with interactive opportunities to experiment with varying mixes and learn more about the artists ' creative process when they use the product as CD Rom software on a multimedia computer . Major corporate players in the CD+ and recordable video disc markets ( such as Sony , Toshiba , and Philips ) have come to agreements on industry standard formats in advance , attempting to avoid the headaches associated with format conflicts of the past : the " war of Mixing It Up : Recording Culture in the 1990s If digital recording technology is igniting a revolution comparable in scope to the one sparked by rock and roll , it is certainly a quieter , more interior revolution . Rock and roll helped fuel a generational and cultural rupture of unprecedented proportions . Recent advances in digital technologies , on the other hand , help to blur old distinctions , especially those between audio and visual artistic genres and between artist and audience , producer and consumer . Musical Intrument Digital Interface ( MIDI ) and digital sequencing technologies allow solitary musicians to draw on a full spectrum of instruments simultaneously , and remove musical sophistication as a requirement for producing technically sophisticated sound . Rap music highlights the increased use of appropriated and recontextualized audio material , which is facilitated by digital sampling . Interactive multimedia gives listeners the ability to design their own versions of a recording . MTV has , for the major marketplace , firmly established the commercial interdependence of music , dance , film , and computer graphics . Multimedia production tools are increasingly easy to access and use , and since both audio and video information can be stored and processed digitally , mixing them becomes more seamlessly natural . Desktop artists and hobbyists of moderate means can now manipulate digital material with the same technical precision that recently required expensive studio equipment and substantially more time . Internet enthusiasts on different continents can collaborate on multimedia creations . Even the cultural polarization that characterized the early years of rock and roll was prompted by the fusion of what had been separate worlds : black and white , blues and country , " hillbilly " and " race . " The history of recording has been a history of merging cultures , technologies and sensory experiences . Often enough in this ongoing blending process , blazing moments of creativity are stirred into a homogenous commercial stew , made blandly palatable to a lowest common demographic . At times , though , these collisions can clear a view to something Copyright � 1994 - 99 Jones International and Jones Digital Century . All rights reserved . Sources Block , Debbie Galante ; With a Choice of Audio Formats , Consumers Still Stick With Tape ; Billboard ; March 12 , 1994 Butterworth , William E . ; Hi - Fi : From Edison ' s Phonograph to Quadrophonic Sound ; Four Winds Press ; New York ; 1977 Du Moncel , Theodore A . L . ; The Telephone , The Microphone and the Phonograph ; Arno Press ; New York ; 1974 Gellat , Roland ; The Fabulous Phonograph 1877 - 1977 ; Macmillan Publishing , Inc . ; New York ; 1977 Grossman , Loyd ; A Social History of Rock and Roll ; as quoted in Gallat , Roland : The Fabulous Phonograph 1877 - 1977 ( ibid . ) Hitchcock , Wiley , ed . ; The Phonograph and Our Musical Life : Proceedings of a Centennial Conference ; Brooklyn College , Brooklyn , NY ; 1977 Jewell , Brian ; Veteran Talking Machines ; Midas Books ; Great Britain ; 1977 Maddox , Richard ; TheDAT Technical Service Handbook ; Van Nostrand Reinhold ; New York ; 1994 Miller , Russel and Roger Boar ; The Incredible Music Machine ; Quartet / Visual Arts ; London ; 1982 Read , Oliver and Walter L . Welch ; From Tinfoil to Stereo : Evolution of the Phonograph ; Howard W . Sams & Co . , Inc . ; Indianapolis ; 1976 Schoennherr , Steve ; Recording Technology : A Chronology With Pictures and Links Maddox , Richard TheDAT Technical Service Handbook ( New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold ) 1994 Ventura , Michael ; " Hear That Long Snake Moan " essay from Shadow Dancing in the USA | [
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http://home.iwichita.com/rh1/hold/av/avhist/acm/acm_hist.htm | Return to Aviation Answer - Man Gateway The Aero Commander Line Copyright 2000 , 2001 by Richard Harris All Rights Reserved Revised September 2001 In the late 1940 ' s / early 1950 ' s , aeronautical engineer Ted Smith designed the first Aero Commander twin , the Model 520 - - which would become the forerunner of a long line of respected medium - sized , twin - engine private aircraft . The first prototype flew on April 27 , 1948 , and the first production Model 520 came out of the Bethany , Oklahoma factory in August of 1951 . Using using modern , slim , " flat - six " piston engines , and modern , lightweight , sheet - metal hollow - shell ( " semi - monocoque " ) construction , Smith ' s Model 520 was the first true , modern " light twin The 520 bore more than a passing resemblance to the Douglas A - 26 Invader - - a World - War - II attack bomber ( shown at left ) which Ted Smith had helped design . With its high wings ( 45 feet long ) , and a 7 - foot - tall tail , the spacious Aero Commander 520 ( 1952 model shown at top , right ) was a remarkably grand airplane for a " light twin . " It had lots of interior room , and considerable load capacity , easily seating 5 , and able In the early 1950 ' s , World - War - II vintage , war - surplus military transports and light bombers had flooded the civilian market , being converted to carry passengers or serve as executive transports . They were generally either fast or capable of great loads , or both . But most were tugged along by antiquated , massive , roaring , fuel - hungry , oil - burning radial engines ( shown at right ) . In general , the war - surplus , twin - engine planes , themselves , were heavy , gas - The only currently - manufactured civilian twin competing with the Aero Commander Model 520 was the the 15 - year - old Beechcraft Model 18 " Twin Beech " which - - though powerful , fast and roomier than the Model 520 - - was still powered by noisy , thirsty , 1930 ' s - vintage radial engines , and was supported on awkward , obsolete , " tail - dragging " landing gear ( two main wheels and a tailwheel ) . These features , added to its great bulk and crude aerodynamics , meant that the Twin Beech was not nearly as graceful , efficent , gentle , or well - mannered craft as the Aero Commander Model 520 . And so the first Aero Commander was - - at first - - in a class by itself . It was soon joined in the market by the Beechcraft Model 50 Twin Bonanza ( only loosely related to the popular Beech Bonanza ) - - a low - winged modern medium twin with performance and cabin space comparable to the Model 520 . But the Aero Commander , with a slight edge in efficiency and capacity , and better flying characteristics , remained the better buy . Hundreds were sold over the next few years . Despite the grand aura of a private airliner , the Model 520 was blessed with superb handling characteristics , great visibility , an easy - to - manage cockpit , and good short - field / rough - field capability ( important in an age when most airfields were still crude , unpaved landing strips ) . To demonstrate its great resistance to engine - out handling problems ( which plagued light twins of the day ) , a propellor was removed from the " critical " engine of the first prototype - - which was then flown , non Jerrie Cobb and a high - flying company vice - president named Bob Hoover ( see below ) . To manufacture his design , Smith had created a company called Aero Design and Engineering , in Bethany , Oklahoma - - a suburb of Oklahoma City . The company quickly became known as Aero Commander , a name commonly applied to its line of twin - engine light airplanes . By 1965 , it would become the Aero Commander Division of the much larger Rockwell - Standard Corp . Though Ted Smith , like most great airplane designers , was soon separated from the company he ' d created , his creative genius was not wasted . Though , at first , Aero Commander produced light twin - engine airplanes exclusively , the original Aero Commander design spawned a generation of great airplanes ( some of which Ted Smith helped design ) , and the company soon expanded into a wide range of aircraft , from light singles and cropdusters to full - sized business jets . Meanwhile , Smith , himself would continue his creative genius . Above , right , he ' s shown surrounded by models of the various aircraft he helped create , and behind him is the prototype of his next accomplishment - - another great " pilot ' s airplane " which he created in the 1970 ' s the sleek , fast Aerostar . The world ' s fastest piston - engined personal aircraft , the Aerostar ( also shown at left ) is capable of speeds of over 300 miles per hour , and a pressurized version can climb to jet altitudes . Though the Aerostar was bounced from company to company , ( first being dropped by Aero Commander , and picked back up by Ted Smith , himself - - then bought up by Mooney and later by Piper ) , Ted Smith ' s Aerostar design would endure . For a quarter of a century - - living beyond In the meantime , though , Smith ' s original Aero Commander design would also prosper , in a variety of incarnations - - some of which Smith himself would help design . U.S. Air Force Museum The 500 Series In 1954 , Aero Commander ' s 500 series expanded from the original Model 520 to include the more - powerful 560 and 580 ( early Aero Commander model names roughly matched their horsepower ) - - and the less - powerful / more - efficent 500 ( a 1958 Model 500 is shown at right ) . All of them looked about the same - - and generally were , except for the engines . Several were bought by the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Army for military liaison / utility use ( designated L - 26 , U - 4 and U - 9 ) , particularly as a short - haul transport and reconnaisance plane operating from " unimproved " grass strips in forward areas . One was even used as President Eisenhower ' s personal transport ( Click here for more details , on another website . ) . Even more Aero Commanders were bought by civilian operators , excited at the prospect of owning a personal plane with the headroom and grandeur of a private airliner . ( The idea of owning a plane chosen for the President of the United States did n ' t hurt sales , either . ) The Aero Commanders ' long wings and tailbooms - - and hefty bulk - - gave them a remarkably smooth ride in turbulent air , compared to other private planes of the time . Thrumming along at speeds up to 225 miles per hour , and A streamlined version of the 500 became the Shrike Commander , which soon became famous for its spectacular appearances at airshows , with former fighter pilot ( and later Vice President of Rockwell ) Bob Hoover at the controls . After flying an airshow routine in his World - War - II vintage North American P - 51 Mustang fighter , Hoover would get into his big , twin - engined Shrike Commander and perform the same stunts - - with both engines running , then again with one engine runing , and finally the whole routine with no engines running - - eventually gliding to a landing , and coasting smoothly to the same spot on the airport from which he ' d departed . Taking advantage of the Shrike ' s smooth ride and easy controllability , Hoover would take journalists and photographers aloft and demonstrate his most famous stunt pouring tea into a glass balanced on the throttle quadrant - - while performing a complete , perfect vertical loop , allowing the centrifugal force of the loop maneuver to keep the tea flowing towards the glass , even when upside - down . Though earning himself a reputation as " the pilot ' s pilot , " Hoover also brought fame , credibility and sex - appeal to the Aero Commander line . The Shrike ' s many virtues , and the spectacular Hoover exhibitions , soon made the Shrike Commander one of the most lusted - after planes pilot ' s airplane . " Sharing the Skies : Competition Despite its appeal as a pilot ' s airplane , most pilots could n ' t afford the big plane , and by the early 1960 ' s the Aero Commander twin was being beaten in the market by cheaper , lighter , sleeker , more - efficient and speedier light twins from Cessna , Beech and Piper . The big Commander twins were not nearly as efficient and speedy as these newer twins in the same class with it ( with comparable price , horsepower and seating capacity ) . To get you anywhere , Aero Commanders simply guzzled Beech Aircraft ' s hefty Model 50 Twin Bonanza - - a towering beast with performance , capabilites and costs comparable to Aero Commander ' s 520 - - had given way to Beech ' s smaller , more efficient , 4 - seat D95A Travel Air - - derived directly from Beech ' s popular single - engine Bonanza . The Travel Air would , in turn , soon become the fast , popular 4 - seat Beech Baron light twin ( a 6 - seat version is still in production today , shown at left ) . Meanwhile , on the high end , the Twin Bonanza had evolved into Beech ' s elegant Queen Air with a grand , airliner - style cabin seating 6 to 9 people . Entering the plane by its " airstair " door , was reminiscent of boarding an airliner of the times . After entering , passengers walked to their seats , through a generous aisle , almost standing upright . A partition separated the cockpit from the cabin . Carrying the airliner style a bit further , the Queen Air offered optional air - conditioning and even included a private lavatory for long trips . With these developments , Aero Commander lost its dominance in the " top Piper Aircraft had introduced its cheap , efficient 5 - seat Apache - - the first truly popular light twin . Homely , but cheap and durable , the Apache would become one of the biggest - selling twins of all time . By 1960 , it would be stretched into the stout , swift 6 - seat Aztec . In 1963 , Piper would also introduce the sleek , efficient Twin Comanche ( derived from Piper ' s popular 4 - seat , single - engine Comanche speedster ) , shown at right . Cessna Aircraft had already introduced its speedy , efficient Model 310 , which could speed past most Aero Commanders , carrying 4 people , while using far less fuel . Each of these manufacturer ' s smaller twins would soon be stretched to accomodate 6 people , largely neutralizing the value of the Aero Commander ' s popular 7 - seat capacity ( which - - in reality - - was seldom fully useable , if full fuel tanks or husky passengers were to be carried ) . To improve efficiency and speed , Aero Commander streamlined engine nacelles ( which helped ) , and added the pointed Shrike nose to other models ( which made little difference , except to appearances and making room for an optional weather radar ) . But making the Aero Commander twins lighter and slimmer was n ' t really practical Aero Commanders had been designed around the big - twin idea , and could only get bigger - - not smaller and more efficient . The " Super " Commanders If Aero Commander could n ' t make the 500 series smaller , at least they could make it bigger . So The 500 series was expanded to produce the 600 series , hauling between 7 and 10 people ( counting the cockpit seats ) . First came the Model 680 Super , which was actually just a strengthened Model 500 , with much - more - powerful , geared - and - turbocharged , 350 - hp engines . Various refined versions followed , including the 680E , whose longer " extended " wing allowed a greater load , while providing higher aerodynamic efficiency . Next was the " 680F " whose flatter engine nacelles reduced drag substantially , though the wheels had to rotate sideways during retraction , to fit into the slimmer space . ( The 680F owned by NASA is shown at right , " tufted " with tiny pieces of yarn to analyze the airflow around the plane ) . From the 680F model , the Aero Commander line briefly split into two different cabin - comfort directions pressurization and lengthening First , to permit passengers to ride in the comfortable , clear ( but thin ) air high above stormy weather , Aero Commander developed a pressurized version of the 680F - - the 680FP , which in 1958 became the 720 Alti - Cruiser , the world ' s first government - approved , pressurized , non - airline business plane . Pressurizing the cabin overcame the problem of the too - thin - to - breathe air of high altitudes . Rising above the turbulent air below , Aero Commander passengers and crew enjoyed a gentler , safer ride , while overcoming the barriers to flight created by many high - rising dangerous storms . But the idea was a bit ahead of its time , and only a few were sold . By 1960 , though continuing the idea with the lower An un - pressurized version of the 680F was lengthened into the 680FL , making room for up to 9 people in all ( shown here , recently modified with " winglet " wingtips ) . Interestingly , lengthening the 680F airframe into the 680FL , despite the addition of weight , reportedly did nothing to increase the airplane ' s drag . An aerodynamic analysis revealed that extra drag created by the extra surface area was offset by the more - aerodynamic hull shape created by stretching the airplane a bit . With an aisle between the seats , it was like a mini - airliner . ( In fact , several of the 680FL ' s and their successors were actually used as short - haul airliners ) . This class of plane came to be known as " airliner - cabin class , " or simply " cabin - class . " The Beech Model 18 had first claim to the class , and by 1960 Beech had debuted its elegant Queen Air . The Aero Commander 680FL was introduced the very next year . Cessna and Piper would soon Grand Commander Finally , in late 1965 , the stretched ( 680FL ) and pressurized ( 680FP ) versions were reunited in the 680FLP Pressurized Grand Commander , which later became known as the Courser Commander . The last production version would be the 685 ( shown here ) , - - actually a Model 690 Turbo Commander ( see below ) , with piston engines in place of the usual engines , and with drag - reducing up - swept " winglets " on its wingtips . By the end of 1979 , when production of piston - engined , stretched Commanders ended , 66 copies of the Model 685 had been built , along with dozens of the various 680FL and 680FLP models . By the mid - 1960 ' s , Aero Commander twins - - colloquially known as " Twin Commanders " - - had become quite popular as executive transports , but still suffered from sluggish speed in the 500 series , and so - so speed in the 600 - series . Also , the big 600 - series were powered by notoriously - troublesome geared engines - - the only efficient engines big enough for the job . By taking ordinary airplane engines , then " turbocharging " them ( forcing more air / fuel mixture into the engines with compressor fans , spun by exhaust - driven turbines ) , and then gearing the engines to turn at higher speeds than they were originally designed for , the engine - company ' s engineers were able to squeeze more power from the piston engines - - but at a severe The problem came to a head in the mid - 1960 ' s , when Beech Aircraft began introducing powerful , compact " jet - prop " turbine engines ( Pratt & Whitney PT - 6A turboprops , to be exact ) to executive planes - - with their wildly successful , high - flying Beech King Air ( shown at right ) . These " turboprops " were jet engines driving propellors , for an ideal compromise between the low - speed , low - altitude effiency of propellor - driven engines , and the high - speed , The Beech King Air swept the market like a storm , as executives and tycoons and foreign potentates ( and even military generals ) began lusting after this grand " personal airliner " that could soar high above the clouds ( higher than any pressurized Commander ) , and blast along at " airliner " speeds ( though the bulky King Air was really only slightly faster than the Aero Commanders ) . The King Air quickly began siphoning sales away from all other top - of - the - line business twins , including Aero Commander ' s best Turbo Commander It took Aero Commander until 1967 to respond , by putting powerful , new Garrett AirResearch TPE - 331 turboprops on its 680FLP . The result was the Aero Commander 681 ( commonly known as the Turbo Commander , or - - briefly - - Hawk Commander ) . It soon evolved into the slightly more powerful , and more - refined 690 . ( A 1986 Model 690B II is shown at left . ) This roomy , fast , high - flyer helped Aero Commander regain much of its status in the business aircraft market . Faster , by far , than Beech ' s King Air , let alone any of the large Cessna or Piper piston - engined twins , the well - mannered Turbo Commander was blessed with a cockpit that afforded great visibility for pilots , and remarkably simple cockpit systems , while exuding the sophisticated image of an airliner ' s flight deck . The low - slung 690 nevertheless lacked the awe - inspiring " ramp presence " of the King Air ' s towering high stance , and - - worse - - had engines ( Garrett AiResearch TPE - 331 ' s ) with greater operating costs than that Beech ' s King Air ( powered by Pratt & Whitney PT - 6A ' s ) . A final disadvantage was the placement of the Turbo Commander ' s engines and propellors . While Beech ' s engines and propellors were well forward of the passenger compartment , the high - Still , with a roomy cabin and the advantage of a spectacular earthward view for passengers through huge picture windows ( the King Air ' s low wing prevented much of a view from its small , round porthole windows ) , the Turbo Commander retained a great appeal . And no one could deny their speed . Until the Japanese Mitsubishi MU - 2 turboprop came on the scene , no prop - driven business twin afforded greater speed - - let alone more scenic views - - than the Turbo Commander . Throughout the 1970 ' s and early 1980 ' s , the 690 / 695 / 840 / 900 / 980 / 1000 series of turboprop twins followed , each expanding the performance and capacity of the plane before it , but all of them retaining the distinctive basic Aero Commander design high - wing twins , with long graceful wings and tall tails , roomy , rectangular cabins ( versus the cramped , round cabins of competing planes ) , magnificent flying characteristics and hefty load capacities . A 1980 - model 840 is shown here , incorporating tiny up - swept " winglets " at the wingtips , to reduce drag caused by wingtip vortices at cruise speed . By the time the Aero Commander ' s Model 900 came on the scene , more efficient and reliable versions of the Garrett engine ( particularly the TPE - 331 - 10 , colloquially known simply as " Dash 10 " ) were available , increasing the reliability , affordability and value of the Turbo Commander . Many older models have since been modified - - re - Jet Commander Ironically , Aero Commander produced a pure - jet version before it could come up with a turbo - prop model . In 1963 , Aero Commander first flew the Model 1121 Jet Commander , one of the earliest business jets - - or " bizjets . " It used a fuselage similar to the Pressurized Grand Commander ( though with smaller windows , to allow for the higher pressurization required at high - flying jet altitudes ) , mated to completely - different , shorter wings ( projecting straight out from the mid - section of the fuselage ) and twin turbojet engines ( mounted in pods on each side of the tailcone ) . Though it lacked the long range of some competing business jets , the Jet Commander was popular with By 1965 , Aero Commander had delivered its first Jet Commander , for a price of about a half - million dollars . Over the next few years , up to 8 jets a month would come off the assembly lines . Though the Jet Commander design would eventually be sold off to a string of future owners , it would continue to be a popular aircraft , with over 500 built , sold and flown world - wide by the end of the century . The Cost of Business At about the same time as the Jet Commander ' s debut , in 1965 , big changes were underway for the independent Aero Commander Co . Preparing for the production of aircraft - - particularly new business jets in a hotly - competitive market - - was an enormously expensive business . To finance the rapid development of aircraft , and the very costly business of tooling up and stocking up for aircraft production , the company needed access to large amounts of cash . Just buying engines for aircraft on the assembly line required millions of dollars . While a company could finance a steady , continuous production rate from current sales , it could not finance an expansion - - in product lines or production volume - - that way . The sales would come too late . The highly competitive , high - dollar business aircraft market waited for no one , and the first company to the market with a new product , or the first company to reduce costs ( and prices ) through mass production , quickly became a dominator in the market - - and would then begin to take away the Although Aero Commander had had the business - twin market largely to itself during the early 1950 ' s , it was now facing some tough , established competition . In the business - twin market , Beech Aircraft - - the leader - - had a rock - solid footing stretching back for a generation , and its popular King Air turboprop had almost total dominance among turboprop executive aircraft . Cessna Aircraft , making do with piston - engined aircraft , had a loyal following of customers , progressing up from its single - engine line ( the most popular in the world ) to its light twins to its newly - developed cabin - class twins - - in direct competition with Aero Commander . Piper Aircraft - - the second - leading producer of single - engine aircraft - - was quickly moving into the twin - engine market with popular , low - priced , efficient twins . Already its " entry - level " light twins owned the lion ' s share of that market , and Piper was moving into the Aero Commander ' s " cabin class " with the 6 - seat Aztec and the roomy Navajo . On the other end , in the business - jet market , four companies had beaten the Jet Commander to market . Lockheed ( famous for military aircraft and commercial airliners ) and North American Aviation ( a leading producer of military jets ) were closing in from above with their JetStar and Sabreliner , respectively . Overseas , Britain ' s deHavilland had introduced the DH - 125 business jet ( soon acquired by Hawker - Siddley as the HS - 125 ) . And not to be outdone , the French had produced a mini - bizjet , the Moraine Saulnier MS . 760 Top business - aircraft competitor Beech Aircraft had already introduced the MS . 760 briefly in the U.S. , and was soon to team with Hawker Siddley to sell the HS - 125 in the U.S. ( as the Beech - Hawker BH - 125 ) . And Bill Lear was on the verge of introducing a plane that would rock the aviation world , and become a household word : the Learjet This was no time for a business - aircraft company to be caught short on investment money . But banks were loathe to invest in the technical , highly - specialized , and volatile general aviation industry . They were especially reluctant to loan money to a small - plane manufacturer who lagged well behind the " Big Three " ( Cessna , Beech and Piper ) in longevity , sales and assets . How then to get access to the investment capital needed to stay in the game ? The solution was to merge with another company . By 1965 , Aero Commander had arranged to become the Aero Commander Division of the much larger Rockwell - Standard Corp . . With the new ownership providing deeper pockets from which to invest , Aero Commander now had a brighter future . Even the process of getting bank loans would be easier , now that the bankers could see that there was a backer to pay the bills if Aero Commander failed . At the same time , Rockwell - Standard , a company mired in the aging industrial technology of its old product line of mechanical parts , tools and industrial machinery , could invest its old wealth in a booming new technology - - aviation - - that Rockwell was not suited to enter on its own ( for a sense of Rockwell ' s creative limitations , consider that board chairman Willard Rockwell , Sr . had begun his industrial career in 1908 ) . And Aero Commander ' s highly regarded aircraft - - including its noteworthy progress towards But with marriage comes baggage . After its successful acquisition of little Aero - Commander , Rockwell - Standard became even more interested in aviation , and set its sights on something far more ambitious : buying North American Aviation North American Aviation was one of the most famous names in cutting - edge military aviation . North American started tinkering with military aircraft just before World War II . Its first truly successful design was the T - 6 Texan trainer ( left , sometimes called the AT - 6 or Harvard ) , an advanced - training plane that prepared most of the American and British fighter pilots of World War II to step into fighter planes . Then came North American ' s most famous design : With the start of the World War II in Europe In 1967 , Aero Commander ' s parent company , Rockwell - Standard Corp . began its move on North American Aviation . One major obstacle stood in the way the Jet Commander . North American ( as noted earlier ) was also building a business jet - - the Sabreliner - - which was in competition with the JetCommander . Because of anti - monopoly laws , the U.S. government would not approve the merger of the two companies , unless one of the business jet lines was sold off . ( This was a time when these two jet planes comprised about half of the models on the newly - developed bizjet market . ) Which jet to keep and which to let go ? The U.S. Air Force , which had bought a number of North American ' s Sabreliners as the T - 39 ( see The g , below ) , angrily insisted that the newly merged companies keep the Sabreliner , so that the Air Force could not only purchase more ( under its existing contracts ) , but so that the Air Force could count on continuing technical support and a continuing production of spare parts - - without which its large investment in T - 39 ' s would quickly be lost . The newly - merged company , North American Rockwell , could not afford to anger its main customer , the U.S. Air Force , upon whom it would surely depend for future big - ticket sales of military aircraft . A single lost military deal could cost hundreds of millions of dollars . One jet fighter could make the company millions , compared to the " mere " half - million - dollar price of the Jet Commander . The loss of military business would hurt the new North American Rockwell company much more than the loss of the bizjet trade . And by keeping the Sabreliner , they Reluctantly , North American Rockwell sold off the Jet Commander line . But the highly - regarded bizjet quickly found an eager buyer - - a long , long way away . The government of Israel , whose defense in ongoing wars with its Arab neighbors depended heavily on airpower , had begun creating its own aviation industry , with Israel Aircraft Industries , Ltd . IAI ) . The company started out modifying foreign military aircraft to meet Israel ' s unique needs , and producing licensed versions of foreign aircraft . But the resources invested in military work for Israel could also be made to pay for themselves by using IAI ' s factories to build civilian products for export . IAI saw an opportunity in the 1121 design , and bought it , along with all the tooling and parts , and 49 aircraft still not completed , and moved production to Israel . In 1969 , IAI re - started production of the plane , renaming it the 1121 Commodore Jet . In 1970 , adding tip tanks for greater range , IAI modified it into the popular 1123 Westwind . Later versions have included the popular 1124 Westwind ( which introduced modern , efficient Garrett AiResearch TFE - 731 turbofan engines , extending range by 10 % , and reducing runway length requiremnts ) , and the 1124B Westwind II ( adding winglets and an improved wing for better performance and range ) . About 200 of the Model 1124 ' s were sold . In the mid - 1980 ' s , a radical transformation produced the 1125 Astra , which kept only the 1124 ' s original tail and engine nacelles , and switched to a new , low - mounted , swept wing , supporting a longer , more - tubular fueselage ( although the 1121 lineage is still visible ) . The result was a bigger cabin - - putting the plane in a better position to compete with the stand - up room of bigger jets - - and better performance , paticularly extending range by nearly a thousand miles . About this time , IAI created a marketing company to sell the jet , Astra Jet Corp . In 1997 , IAI spun off the Jet Commander line to a new company which aviation executive Brian Barents ( later president of Learjet ) helped them form in partnership with the Pritzker family ( who had helped develop Hyatt Hotels and Braniff Airways ) . The result was Galaxy Aerospace , which was formed around the newly transferred design . The company began design work on the 1126 Galaxy - - a new design , emulating the style of the Astra in an enlarged , longer - range version . The design , owned for a few years by Galaxy Aerospace , Ltd . , is now owned by General Dynamics , who have renamed the Astra as the G - 100 , and the Galaxy as the G - 200 . A generation after the debut of the Jet Commander , its basic design is still a hot product , and over 400 of the Jet Commanders and their offspring are currently flying around the world , today . The Sabreliners In the following years , the Sabreliner - - though expensive to buy and operate ( compared to the Jet Commander , Learjets , Cessna Citations , and other popular bizjets ) - - remained a significant presence in the business jet market . Its large , luxurious cabin , pilot - friendly cockpit , and elegant , racy good looks kept the plane alive for several years , while Aero Commander ( later Rockwell ) modified the plane with more - efficient engines and stretched cabins . The stretched 1977 model 60ELXM Sabreliner is shown here . North American ' s Sabreliner line , often a bit of a mis - fit to the Aero Commander line , was one of the nation ' s first business jets . It originated as an attempt ( eventually successful , as the T - 39 ) to win a contract to provide the U.S. Air Force with a small , cabin - class jet aircraft which could be used as a light , fast transport for utility use ( particularly as a " general ' s jet " ) , and as a systems - training platform for navigators , bombardiers and weapons - systems officers headed for duty aboard jet fighters and bombers ( in the late 1990 ' s , the Navy would restore Sabreliners to a similar use ) . The early model reputedly was based in large measure on the design of North American ' s F - 100 Super Sabre , the first supersonic jet fighter . Using the F - 100 ' s wings , landing gear and tail , the plane was configured like a minature airliner , with a roomy passenger cabin , behind the two - seat ( side - by - side ) cockpit . Though never as fast as its miltary sibling , the Model 40 Sabreliner - - at over 500 miles per hour - - was one of the fastest , highest - flying cabin - class planes of the day ( only Lockheed ' s JetStar , the only other cabin - class small jet plane of the day , was faster ) . It quickly found a civilian market niche as a minature , private jet airliner for high - powered executives - - helping to launch the concept of bizjets , which William Lear would soon make practical with the compact Learjet . Though discontinued in the early 1980 ' s , in 1983 the rights to the civilian Sabreliner Division of Rockwell International ( based in Perryville , Missouri , near St . Louis ) were purhcased by a St . Louis , MO , investment group - - and the resulting company was named Sabreliner Corp . This company keeps refurbishing Sabreliners to this day , keeping the design alive and flying . As late as the turn of the century , various aviation companies ( like St . Louis ' Sabreliner Corp . and Wichita ' s Executive Aircraft ) were doing a steady business specializing in the Sabreliner . Age has taken its toll , though , and most Sabreliners have " worn out " from thousands of hours of operation , the impact of thousands of landings , and the inevitable toll of corrosion . Nevertheless , a few can still be bought , inexpensively ( compared to other bizjets ) , and continue in service to this day . NOTE : For the full , tangled story on North American Aviation , and the Sabreliner , see Aerofiles . com , particularly http : / / aerofiles . com / noram - co . html Little Commanders Aero Commander had long been competing with the " Big Three " general aviation aircraft manufacturers - - Beech , Cessna , and Piper - - - for the " cabin - class " twin market . A major disadvantage for Aero Commander was that the Big Three each had a " full line " of aircraft , from two - seat trainers to cabin - class twins . Owners could " move up " to bigger Cessnas / Beeches / Pipers as their interests and finances permitted , and many did . Starting out in a particular brand of Aero Commander wanted a way to draw customers into their line , as they moved up . So - - in the mid - 1960 ' s - - Aero Commander began buying up other reputable designs . Among its early acquistions , Aero Commander bought Volaircraft ( formerly Volaire Aircraft ) , maker of the small , high - winged , 2 - 4 - seat Model 1050 ( similar to the Cessna 172 , and sturdy , though not as efficient ) . These planes - - distinguished by their backswept vertical tails ( like Mooney aircraft ) provided a respectable " bottom end " to the Aero Commander line . But these light , fixed - gear singles never became nearly as popular as the well - established competing models from Cessna ( Models 150 / 172 / 182 ) , Piper ( the Cherokees ) and Beech ( the Musketeers ) . From 1965 to 1968 , Aero Commander produced the 150 - horsepower plane as the Aero Commander 100 , with the name Cadet added briefly . In 1968 , in keeping with a fleeting attempt to rename all Aero Commanders with the names of birds , the 100 became the Darter Commander , and - - with a bigger , 180 - hp engine and a normally - swept tail - - the Lark Commander . Neither name - change , nor tail - sweep nor extra horsepower helped sales , and the next year both planes were dropped from the Aero Commander line . The Model 200D For its next acquisition , Aero Commander sought an airplane that was the " next rung up the ladder " from the Lark and Darter . It found the next rung in the Meyers Aircraft Company , of South Carolina . The Meyers company had a long history , dating back to 1939 , which included the respected and durable Meyers OTW biplane - - used as a trainer throughout World War II , and as a sport and utility plane long after the war . But tiny Meyers Aircraft had moved on to modern aircraft , and had done Meyers produced a sporty two - seat , low - winged , retractable - geared taildragger , the MAC - 145 . With an automotive style cockpit and canopy - enclosed cabin , the 145 was a fast and sexy plane for the playboy pilot - - a sort of " T - bird " sports car of the air . ( A 1954 Model 145 , still flying , is shown here ) . Well - made , the 145 was reportedly ( as of 1999 ) the only American production aircraft never cited by the FAA for an Airworthiness Directive ( " AD notice " ) requiring correction of a design or manufacturing defect , or dangerous aging flaw Aero Commander was more interested in the pilots who were building loyalty to Beech , Cessna and Piper aircraft ( including their heavy twins ) - - after being introduced to those companies through their 4 - seat , retractable , tricycle - geared aircraft ( the Beech Model 33 / 35 Bonanza , Cessna 210 Centurion and Piper Comanche ) . These owner - pilots were among the people most likely to migrate up to the light and medium twins ( such as the Aero Commander twins ) , as their fortunes progressed . Once used to a particular Meyers Aircraft had taken the sleek , smart design of the Meyers 145 , and stretched it into the 4 - seat Meyers 200 with retractable tricycle gear ( a 1966 Model 200D is shown here ) . And this was the plane Aero Commander adopted , as the Aero Commander 200D - - a sleek , 4 - place , low - wing retractable - geared hot - rod , with a canopy - enclosed , automobile - like cabin . With an automotive - style interior , the occupants felt the comfort of the familiar surroundings . But with hot - rod performance , aided by slick , flush - riveted wings and hefty engines ranging from 225 - hp to a very hot 285 horsepower , the Model 200 was no mere automobile aloft , blasting through the air at well over 200 miles per hour - - almost But the Model 200 was a very late entrant in a field that was already well - populated with popular designs . In addition to the Beech , Cessna and Piper models mentioned above , Piper added a retractable - geared version of its popular Cherokee 180 ( the Cherokee " Arrow " ) , while the Bonanza , 210 and Comanche were stretched to accomodate 6 people ( if the last two passengers were mighty small ) . All along , too , Mooney Aircraft ( which specialized almost exclusively in fast , efficient 4 - seat retractables ) In 1967 , it was " upgraded " to the Aero Commander 200E by the mostly - cosmectic act of sweeping the vertical tail back , giving the 200 a more modern appearance . But it was to no avail . In the late 1960 ' s , after selling a total of just 77 of the Aero Commander 200 ' s ( compared with thousands of Beech Bonanzas , and hundreds of Piper Comanches , Cherokee Arrows , Cessna 210 ' s , Cessna 177 / Cardinal RG ' s , and Mooneys sold in the same time frame ) Aero Commander quietly withdrew the Model 200 from the market . In the 1968 , after the Aero Commander line dropped the Model 200 , though , some enthusiasts started a new company around the old design , called Interceptor Corp . , in Norman , Oklahoma ( later moving to Boulder , Colorado in 1973 under the name Interceptor Co . ) . Adding a 400 - horsepower version of the same turboprop engine which powered the Turbo Commander , the Interceptor folks boosted the hot - rod single to speeds approaching 300 miles per hour . The hot " new " plane became the Interceptor 400 ( shown at right ) . Though creating much excitement in the general aviation community , only a few were sold before the general aviation market collapsed in 1982 . The rights were then passed on to Prop - jets , in San Antonio TX , where - - at last report - - they lay dormant . The sporty , two - seat , taildragging Model 145 , too , was revived , in the late 1990 ' s , by MICCO as the SP20 SP30 ( shown at left ) . With a few aerodyanmic refinements , and a new engine , the new / old hot - rod airplane arrived on the scene to rave reviews from aviation editors eager for a sport plane that combined " exciting performance " ( industry codeword for " high - performance , stunt - flying capability " ) with affordability ( compared to other new retractable aircraft ) and long - range speed . The airplane is in production today . And now for something completely different : Cropdusters . As long as it was buying , Aero Commander joined Cessna and Piper in the " agricultural plane " market . " Cropdusting " ( " agricultrual / aerial application " ) aircraft were a highly specialized type of aircraft , which provided services of great value to hundreds of thousands of crop producers . With a stout " crash cage " to protect the low - flying pilot from accidents , each plane had a large " hopper " in front of the pilot for carrying up to a half ton or more of agriultural chemicals , dispensed through Two noted experts in ag planes were Ruell T . Call , of Call Aircraft Co . , Afton Wyoming , and Leland Snow , of Snow Aeronautical Co . , Olney TX , whose similar ag planes were popular with cropdusters . In 1965 , Aero Commander bought the rights to both company ' s designs . The two companies ' product lines were consolidated in Albany , Georgia , where Fred Ayres became the Aero Commander ' s chief seller of ag planes . Aero Commander produced the big , beefy Snow Commander ( later renamed the Ag Commander , then , in 1967 , the Thrush Commander , with giant radial engines of up to 600 horsepower - - making it the most powerful mass - produced cropdusting plane in the world , able to carry up to a ton - and - a - half of chemicals for spraying . While Cessna ( with its Agwagon series ) and Piper ( with its Pawnee and Brave ) captured the low end of the cropdusting market , the Aero Commander cropdusters - - with their beefy 300 - 600 horsepower engines - - were popular for hauling heavy loads , and working in tight places and high altitudes where maximum power was needed for maneuverability . Their radial engines , though aerodynamically inefficent and mechanically " obsolete " , enabled operators to inspect them and work on them quickly and easily , permitting greater safety and continuity of operation - - At the same time , Aero Commander produced the smaller Call - Air designs as the Sparrow Commander Quail Commander , competing with smaller cropdusters like the Piper Pawnee and the Cessna AgWagon . However , that was a tougher market , and in 1971 Rockwell sold the two Call - Air designs to AAMSA ( AERON - UTICA AGR - COLA MEXICANA S.A. ) and Industrias Unidas S.A. , of Mexico , where they were subsequently produced . Eventually , Aero Commander got out of the cropduster - building business , and in 1977 the Thrush Commander design was acquired by Aero Commander salesman Fred Ayres , who resumed production on his own . Ayres later produced a turboprop - powered variation of the Thrush as the Turbo Thrush , which is still in production today , at Ayres Aircraft , in Albany , Georgia . To date , since their inception , over 2,000 of the Thrush and Turbo Thrush aircraft have been sold - - spread over 70 countries worldwide . Creating from Scratch : the Commander singles Eventually , Aero Commander discontinued its entire single - engine line of acquired designs , and developed its own single - engine line from scratch : a stout , low - winged line with distinctive cross - shaped ( " cruciform " ) tail . The 111 112 were fixed gear , while The 114 was a retractable . Though overbuilt , and cursed with excessive weight , poor aerodynamics and mediocre performance on its 200 - hp engine , the 114 ( now known simply as the Commander ) offered a particularly comfortable cabin , and generally mild behavior for a retractable - geared plane . Like the Model 200 before it , the new Commander single - engine line was never very popular , and failed to get a strong foothold in the highly - competitive light - retractable market . Its competition included the cheap , gentle Piper Arrow , the fast - and - efficient Mooneys , Cessna ' s beautiful , efficient , graceful Cardinal RG and strong , safe Skylane RG , and the classy , ever - popular Beech Bonanza . Changing Hands In 1973 , North American Rockwell ( headed by Williard Rockwell , Sr . ) merged with yet another company - - the Rockwell Mamufacturing Company ( headed by Williard Rockwell , Jr . ) - - the resulting corporation become Rockwell International Through the following years , the Aero Commander and Sabreliner divisions rose and fell with the waves of corporate change and the winds of the volatile aviation market . Rockwell International gradually discontinued or sold off one Aero Commander line after another , until only the Sabreliner and the Twin Commander lines remained . In 1978 , Williard Rockwell , Sr . - - having begun his industrial career before World War II - - died at the ripe old age of 90 . With his death , and the resignation the following year of his son , Willard , In late 1980 , the Twin Commander line was sold to Gulfstream Aircraft , who wanted it to complement the company ' s Gulfstream super - bizjet line ( sold off previously by Grumman Aircraft ) . The Aero Commander line became known as the Gulfstream Commander line , until discontinued in 1985 . During this time , Gulfstream developed and produced the ultimate upgrade of the Twin Commander prop - driven line : the Commander Jetprop 1000 , with a cruising speed of over 350 mph , and a range of over 1,000 miles . At the end of 1980 , Aero Commander ( by now the General Aviation Division of Rockwell International Corp . ) was sold off to Gulfstream American - - makers of the Gulfstream exectuive jet on the one end , and the small Grumman - American light planes on the other end . Grumman had spun off Gulfstream to rid itself of general - aviation aircraft - - a distraction from its main business of making military aircraft . The Aero Commander line fit well into the gap between Gulfstream ' s tiny Tigers and Trainers and the giant , top - of - the - line Gulfstream III business jet , though Gulfstream discontinued the small Grumman - American line at about the same time they In 1982 , the Reagan - era recession - - and rapidly escalating cost of post - crash lawsuits - - brought about the catastrophic collapse of the general aviation market . Many smaller manufacturers were driven out of business . In 1984 , industry - leader Cessna Aircraft , halted all production of its piston - engined aircraft , and eventually halted even turboprop sales . Piper Aircraft went in and out of business . Of the light / medium - twin builders , only Beech ( buoyed by military sales ) and Gulfstream kept producing . But the " recovery " from the recession was the slowest in modern history , and aircraft sales suffered enormously . In 1985 , all manufacturing of the " Twin Commanders " was stopped . Gulfstream continued to produce its large and small Grummans , but eventually sold off the rights to the Twin Commanders to a company called - - not surprisingly - - Twin Commander Aircraft Corporation , who developed the " Rennaisance Commander " modification . This " mod " is actually the unusual business of " re - manufacturing " Aero Commanders - - stripping them to their skeletons , and reassembling them largely with new parts - - resulting in an aircraft which is ( legally , at least ) " brand - new . " This has been particularly important as aging Twin Commanders suffer from two potentially deadly weaknesses as they age the many rubber fuel bladders in the multi - compartment wings deteriorate , and a poor design in the wing structure gradually weakens the wing ( a " spar cap " on the wing ' s main spar is aluminum , which corrodes on contact with the steel wing spar ) . The " Renaissance Commander " remanufacturing process includes the necessary correction of these delicate ( and dangerous ) flaws . During the prosperous 1990 ' s , the Rennaisance Commanders commanded prices on a par with new planes , and were extremely popular . As times get tough , and fuel prices skyrocket , however , it remains to be seen if the elegant , but not - so - efficient , " Twin Commanders " will keep their popularity . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ RH Barron Thomas ( leading Aero Commander dealer and aviator , who has owned every twin Commander model ever built ) Bill Thompson , long - time Aero Commander factory photographer Twin Commander Aircraft Corp . Commander Aircraft Corp . Aerostar Aircraft Corp . Service Center , Inc . U.S. Air Force Museum Hill AFB Museum Federal Aviation Administration , Alaska Div . NASA Dryden Flight Research Center Click here to return to the top | [
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http://home.trainingpeaks.com/blog/article/3-structured-workouts-for-mountain-bike-racing | 3 Structured Workouts For Mountain Bike Racing April 21 , 2014 · BY Lynda Wallenfels Most mountain bikers enjoy riding trails recreationally for a long time before thinking of racing . The more time a rider spends on the bike the better their skills , fitness and speed becomes - leading to thoughts of racing and testing their limits . Those tests range from racing a cross country event to completing a 50 miler or more . After a couple of races everybody wants to get faster . That ’ s what racing is all about ! Just riding around made you fit , so even more time riding will make you fast , right ? This is the training strategy a large majority of mountain bike racers default to – just going out and riding more . This strategy does make you fit , and it is fun , but if you want to be faster you need to put some structured training into your plan . Mountain bikers are an independent group of people who love their dirt . The good news is you do n ’ t have buy a road bike or give up your trail time to get structured training done . Here are three workouts done in the dirt on your mountain bike to improve your race speed . Climbing Endurance Not surprisingly , mountain bike races are typically held on mountainous to hilly terrain . Even in the Midwest race organizers find every hill they can . To do well and finish strong you ’ ll need to be a strong climber . Terrain Find a long , steady jeep road climb connecting to a single - track descent . Alternate terrain for those riders living in the flatlands is a long flat dirt road with no stops connecting to some fun trails . Workout Warm up , and then ride up a jeep road in the middle of heart rate zone 3 , power L3 or tempo pace . Stay on the gas non - stop the entire climb . The key is keeping your heart rate up with no breaks . Start with a 30 minute climb and work your way up to a 90 minute climb over a few weeks . Climbing in heart rate zone 3 will feel easy for the first half of the tempo . Hold back and stick to the target intensity so you can keep it up in the second half . When you achieve 90 minutes non - stop with no fade in the work on your cadence . Do this workout 1 - 2 times per week in the base training period . At the top of your climb , take a short rest to refuel then hit the single - track descent . Descend how you feel . Focus on riding quietly , smoothly and flowing down the descent , or rip it and practice your race pace descending skills . Climbing Power Along with stamina , you ’ ll need sheer power to get up the climbs . When you encounter a steep grade that is rutted out or has roots over it you ’ ll need to put out a big effort to power through and just stay on the bike . Terrain Use a short loop or an out and back on a trail with a 3 - 4 minute climb . The trail can have some moderate technical features but you must be able to ride them 100 % of the time . The goal is to ride non - stop up the climb . Workout Warm up very well , then ride uphill for 3 - 4 minutes in heart rate zone 5 or power L5 or VO2max pace . Without stopping , descend to the start , coasting and recovering for 3 minutes . This is one interval . Start with 4 intervals and work up to 6 intervals over a few weeks . Do this workout once per week in the build training period . Fast Starts The start of a mountain bike race is a crucial separation point . Getting the hole - shot to the single - track gives you the advantage and strings out your opponents on the trail behind you . The ability to start fast and recover at race pace is trainable and key for cross country racers . Mimic the start of your most important race or your next race . Generally this is a flat wide open area that narrows down to single - track after a few minutes . This is a great session to do with a group of riders to increase your motivation , add some competition and adapt to riding at max pace elbow to elbow . Practice your race - day warm - up before the start . Line up on your start line with one foot clipped in and the other foot on the ground . Check you are in the correct gear for a fast acceleration . Practice different gears on each start until you have it nailed . Clip in smoothly and accelerate quickly off the start line . Ride at max Any mountain biker with no interest in riding on the road can add a smart structured mountain bike training plan staying 100 % in the dirt . A few well - placed structured workouts added to a base diet of just riding around will quickly increase performance and improve race results . # CYCLING # MOUNTAIN - BIKE About Lynda Wallenfels Lynda Wallenfels is a Level 1 certified USA Cycling coach . She coaches mountain bike , cross country and endurance athletes to personal bests and national championships . Lynda has been coaching off - road athletes for 16 years and racing professionally for 18 years . Contact her through her website for information on mountain bike training plans , coaching and consulting at lwcoaching . com Visit ' s Coach Profile | [
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http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/Business-stat/stat-data/Forecast.htm | Para mis visitantes del mundo de habla hispana , este sitio se encuentra disponible en espaà ± ol en : Sitio Espejo para Amà © rica Latina Sitio en los E.E.U.U . Realization of the fact that " Time is Money " in business activities , the dynamic decision technologies presented here , have been a necessary tool for applying to a wide range of managerial decisions successfully where time and money are directly related . In making strategic decisions under uncertainty , we all make forecasts . We may not think that we are forecasting , but our choices will be directed by our anticipation of results of our actions or inactions . Indecision and delays are the parents of failure . This site is intended to help managers and administrators do a better job of anticipating , and hence a better job of managing uncertainty , by using effective forecasting and other predictive techniques . Professor Hossein Arsham To search the site , try E dit | F ind in page [ Ctrl + f ] . Enter a word or phrase in the dialogue box , e.g . " cash flow " or " capital cycle " If the first appearance of the word / phrase is not what you are looking for , try F ind Next MENU Chapter 1 : Time - Critical Decision Modeling and Analysis Chapter 2 : Causal Modeling and Forecasting Chapter 3 : Smoothing Techniques Chapter 4 : Box - Jenkins Methodology Chapter 5 : Filtering Techniques Chapter 6 : A Summary of Special Models Chapter 7 : Modeling Financial and Economics Time Series Chapter 8 : Cost / Benefit Analysis Chapter 9 : Marketing and Modeling Advertising Campaign Chapter 10 : Economic Order and Production Quantity Models for Inventory Management Chapter 11 : Modeling Financial Economics Decisions Chapter 12 : Learning and the Learning Curve Chapter 13 : Economics and Financial Ratios and Price Indices Chapter 14 : JavaScript E - labs Learning Objects Companion Sites : Business Statistics Excel For Statistical Data Analysis Topics in Statistical Data Analysis Computers and Computational Statistics Questionnaire Design and Surveys Sampling Probabilistic Modeling Systems Simulation Probability and Statistics Resources Success Science Leadership Decision Making Linear Programming ( LP ) and Goal - Seeking Strategy Linear Optimization Solvers to Download Artificial - variable Free LP Solution Algorithms Integer Optimization and the Network Models Tools for LP Modeling Validation The Classical Simplex Method Zero - Sum Games with Applications Computer - assisted Learning Concepts and Techniques Linear Algebra and LP Connections From Linear to Nonlinear Optimization with Business Applications Construction of the Sensitivity Region for LP Models Zero Sagas in Four Dimensions Business Keywords and Phrases Collection of JavaScript E - labs Learning Objects Compendium of Web Site Review Chapter 1 : Time - Critical Decision Modeling and Analysis Introduction Effective Modeling for Good Decision - Making Balancing Success in Business Modeling for Forecasting Stationary Time Series Statistics for Correlated Data Chapter 2 : Causal Modeling and Forecasting Introduction and Summary Modeling the Causal Time Series How to Do Forecasting by Regression Analysis Predictions by Regression Planning , Development , and Maintenance of a Linear Model Trend Analysis Modeling Seasonality and Trend Trend Removal and Cyclical Analysis Decomposition Analysis Chapter 3 : Smoothing Techniques Introduction Moving Averages and Weighted Moving Averages Moving Averages with Trends Exponential Smoothing Techniques Exponenentially Weighted Moving Average Holt ' s Linear Exponential Smoothing Technique The Holt - Winters ' Forecasting Technique Forecasting by the Z - Chart Concluding Remarks Chapter 4 : Box - Jenkins Methodology Box - Jenkins Methodology Autoregressive Models Chapter 5 : Filtering Techniques Adaptive Filtering Hodrick - Prescott Filter Kalman Filter Chapter 6 : A Summary of Special Modeling Techniques Neural Network Modeling and Simulation Probabilistic Models Event History Analysis Predicting Market Response Prediction Interval for a Random Variable Census II Method of Seasonal Analysis Delphi Analysis System Dynamics Modeling Transfer Functions Methodology Testing for and Estimation of Multiple Structural Changes Combination of Forecasts Measuring for Accuracy Chapter 7 : Modeling Financial and Economics Time Series Modeling Financial Time Series and Econometrics Econometrics and Time Series Models Simultaneous Equations Further Readings Chapter 8 : Cost / Benefit Analysis The Best Age to Replace Equipment Pareto Analysis Economic Quantity Chapter 9 : Marketing and Modeling Advertising Campaign Marketing and Modeling Advertising Campaign Selling Models Buying Models The Advertising Pulsing Policy Internet Advertising Predicting Online Purchasing Behavior Concluding Remarks Further Readings Chapter 10 : Economic Order and Production Quantity Models for Inventory Management Economic Order and Production Quantity for Inventory Control Optimal Order Quantity Discounts Finite Planning Horizon Inventory Inventory Control with Uncertain Demand Managing and Controlling Inventory Chapter 11 : Modeling Financial Economics Decisions Markov Chains Leontief ' s Input - Output Model Risk as a Measuring Tool and Decision Criterion Break - even and Cost Analyses Modeling the Bidding Process Product ’ s Life Cycle Analysis and Forecasting Chapter 12 : Learning and The Learning Curve Psychology of Learning Modeling the Learning Curve An Application Time - Critical Decision Modeling and Analysis The ability to model and perform decision modeling and analysis is an essential feature of many real - world applications ranging from emergency medical treatment in intensive care units to military command and control systems . Existing formalisms and methods of inference have not been effective in real - time applications where tradeoffs between decision quality and computational tractability are essential . In practice , an effective approach to time - critical dynamic decision modeling should provide explicit support for the modeling of temporal processes and for dealing with time - critical situations . One of the most essential elements of being a high - performing manager is the ability to lead effectively one ' s own life , then to model those leadership skills for employees in the organization . This site comprehensively covers theory and practice of most topics in forecasting and economics . I believe such a comprehensive approach is necessary to fully understand the subject . A central objective of the site is to unify the various forms of business topics to link them closely to each other and to the supporting fields of statistics and economics . Nevertheless , Almost all managerial decisions are based on forecasts . Every decision becomes operational at some point in the future , so it should be based on forecasts of future conditions . Forecasts are needed throughout an organization - - and they should certainly not be produced by an isolated group of forecasters . Neither is forecasting ever " finished " . Forecasts are needed continually , and as time moves on , the impact of the forecasts on actual performance is measured ; original forecasts are updated ; and decisions are modified , and so on . For example , many inventory systems cater for uncertain demand . The inventory parameters in these systems require estimates of the demand and forecast error distributions . The two stages of these systems , forecasting and inventory control , are often examined independently . Most studies tend to look at demand forecasting as if this were an end in itself , or at stock control models as if there were no preceding stages of computation . Nevertheless , it is important to understand the interaction between demand forecasting and inventory control since this influences the performance of the inventory system The decision - maker uses forecasting models to assist him or her in decision - making process . The decision - making often uses the modeling process to investigate the impact of different courses of action retrospectively ; that is , " as if " the decision has already been made under a course of action . That is why the sequence of steps in the modeling process , in the above figure must be considered in reverse order . For example , the output ( which is the result of the action ) must be considered first . It is helpful to break the components of decision making into three groups : Uncontrollable , Controllable , and Resources ( that defines the problem situation ) . As indicated in the above activity chart , the decision - making process has the following components : Performance measure ( or indicator , or objective ) : Measuring business performance is the top priority for managers . Management by objective works if you know the objectives . Unfortunately , most business managers do not know explicitly what it is . The development of effective performance measures is seen as increasingly important in almost all organizations . However , the challenges of achieving this in the public and for non - profit sectors are arguably considerable . Performance measure provides the desirable level of outcome , i.e. , objective of your decision . Objective is important in identifying the forecasting activity . The following table provides a few examples of performance measures for different levels of management : Level Performance Measure Strategic Return of Investment , Growth , and Innovations Tactical Cost , Quantity , and Customer satisfaction Operational Target setting , and Conformance with standard Clearly , if you are seeking to improve a system ' s performance , an operational view is really what you are after . Such a view gets at how a forecasting system really works ; for example , by what correlation its past output behaviors have generated . It is essential to understand how a forecast system currently is working if you want to change how it will work in the future . Forecasting activity is an iterative process . It starts with effective and efficient planning and ends in compensation of other forecasts for their performance What is a System ? Systems are formed with parts put together in a particular manner in order to pursue an objective . The relationship between the parts determines what the system does and how it functions as a whole . Therefore , the relationships in a system are often more important than the individual parts . In general , systems that are building blocks for other systems are called subsystems The Dynamics of a System : A system that does not change is a static system . Many of the business systems are dynamic systems , which mean their states change over time . We refer to the way a system changes over time as the system ' s behavior . And when the system ' s development follows a typical pattern , we say the system has a behavior pattern . Whether a system is static or dynamic depends on which time horizon you choose and on which variables you concentrate . The time horizon is the time period within which you study the system Resources : Resources are the constant elements that do not change during the time horizon of the forecast . Resources are the factors that define the decision problem . Strategic decisions usually have longer time horizons than both the Tactical and the Operational decisions Forecasts : Forecasts input come from the decision maker ' s environment . Uncontrollable inputs must be forecasted or predicted . Decisions : Decisions inputs ate the known collection of all possible courses of action you might take . Interaction : Interactions among the above decision components are the logical , mathematical functions representing the cause - and - effect relationships among inputs , resources , forecasts , and the outcome . Interactions are the most important type of relationship involved in the decision - making process . When the outcome of a decision depends on the course of action , we change one or more aspects of the problematic situation with the intention of bringing about a desirable change in some other aspect of it . We succeed if we have knowledge about the interaction among the components of the problem . There may have also sets of constraints which apply to each of these components . Therefore , they do not need to be treated separately . Actions : Action is the ultimate decision and is the best course of strategy to achieve the desirable goal . Decision - making involves the selection of a course of action ( means ) in pursue of the decision maker ' s objective ( ends ) . The way that our course of action affects the outcome of a decision depends on how the forecasts and other inputs are interrelated and how they relate to the outcome . Controlling the Decision Problem / Opportunity : Few problems in life , once solved , stay that way . Changing conditions tend to un - solve problems that were previously solved , and their solutions create new problems . One must identify and anticipate these new problems . Remember : If you can not control it , then measure it in order to forecast or predict it Forecasting is a prediction of what will occur in the future , and it is an uncertain process . Because of the uncertainty , the accuracy of a forecast is as important as the outcome predicted by the forecast . This site presents a general overview of business forecasting techniques as classified in the following figure : Progressive Approach to Modeling : Modeling for decision making involves two distinct parties , one is the decision - maker and the other is the model - builder known as the analyst . The analyst is to assist the decision - maker in his / her decision - making process . Therefore , the analyst must be equipped with more than a set of analytical methods . Integrating External Risks and Uncertainties : The mechanisms of thought are often distributed over brain , body and world . At the heart of this view is the fact that where the causal contribution of certain internal elements and the causal contribution of certain external elements are equal in governing behavior , there is no good reason to count the internal elements as proper parts of a cognitive system while denying that status to the external elements . In improving the decision process , it is critical issue to translating environmental information into the process and action . Climate can no longer be taken for granted : Societies are becoming increasingly interdependent . The climate system is changing . Losses associated with climatic hazards are rising . These facts must be purposeful taken into account in adaptation to climate conditions and management of climate - related risks . The decision process is a platform for both the modeler and the decision maker to engage with human - made climate change . This includes ontological , ethical , and historical aspects of climate change , as well as relevant questions such as : Does climate change shed light on the foundational dynamics of reality structures ? Does it indicate a looming bankruptcy of traditional conceptions of human - nature interplays ? Does it indicate the need for utilizing nonwestern approaches , and if so , how ? Does the imperative of sustainable development entail a new groundwork for decision maker ? How will human - made climate change affect academic modelers - - and how can they contribute positively to the global science and policy of climate change ? Quantitative Decision Making : Schools of Business and Management are flourishing with more and more students taking up degree program at all level . In particular there is a growing market for conversion courses such as MSc in Business or Management and post experience courses such as MBAs . In general , a strong mathematical background is not a pre - requisite for admission to these programs . Perceptions of the content frequently focus on well - understood functional areas such as Marketing , Human Resources , Accounting , Strategy , and Production and Operations . A Quantitative Decision Making , such as this Specialists in model building are often tempted to study a problem , and then go off in isolation to develop an elaborate mathematical model for use by the manager ( i.e. , the decision - maker ) . Unfortunately the manager may not understand this model and may either use it blindly or reject it entirely . The specialist may believe that the manager is too ignorant and unsophisticated to appreciate the model , while the manager may believe that the specialist lives in a dream world of unrealistic assumptions and irrelevant mathematical language . Such miscommunication can be avoided if the manager works with the specialist to develop first a simple model that provides a crude but understandable analysis . After the manager has built up confidence in this model , additional detail and sophistication can be added , perhaps progressively only a bit at a time . This process requires an investment of time on the part of the manager and sincere interest on the part of the specialist in solving the manager ' s real problem , rather than in creating and trying to explain sophisticated models . This progressive model building is often the bootstrapping approach and is the most important factor in determining successful implementation of a decision model . Moreover the bootstrapping approach simplifies the otherwise difficult task of model validation and verification processes . The time series analysis has three goals : forecasting ( also called predicting ) , modeling , and characterization . What would be the logical order in which to tackle these three goals such that one task leads to and / or and justifies the other tasks ? Clearly , it depends on what the prime objective is . Sometimes you wish to model in order to get better forecasts . Then the order is obvious . Sometimes , you just want to understand and explain what is going on . Then modeling is again the key , though out Outliers : One can not nor should not study time series data without being sensitive to outliers . Outliers can be one - time outliers or seasonal pulses or a sequential set of outliers with nearly the same magnitude and direction ( level shift ) or local time trends . A pulse is a difference of a step while a step is a difference of a time trend . In order to assess or declare " an unusual value " one must develop " the expected or usual value " . Time series techniques extended for outlier detection , i.e. intervention variables Further Readings : Borovkov K . , Elements of Stochastic Modeling , World Scientific Publishing , 2003 . Christoffersen P . , Elements of Financial Risk Management , Academic Press , 2003 . Holton G . , Value - at - Risk : Theory and Practice , Academic Press , 2003 . Effective Modeling for Good Decision - Making What is a model ? A Model is an external and explicit representation of a part of reality , as it is seen by individuals who wish to use this model to understand , change , manage and control that part of reality . " Why are so many models designed and so few used ? " is a question often discussed within the Quantitative Modeling ( QM ) community . The formulation of the question seems simple , but the concepts and theories that must be mobilized to give it an answer are far more sophisticated . Would there be a selection process from " many models designed " to " few models used " and , if so , which particular properties do the " happy few " have ? This site first analyzes the various definitions of " models " presented Succeeding in Implementing a Model : In order that an analyst succeeds in implementing a model that could be both valid and legitimate , here are some guidelines : Be ready to work in close co - operation with the strategic stakeholders in order to acquire a sound understanding of the organizational context . In addition , the QM should constantly try to discern the kernel of organizational values from its more contingent part . The QM should attempt to strike a balance between the level of model sophistication / complexity and the competence level of stakeholders . The model must be adapted both to the task at hand and to the cognitive capacity of the stakeholders . The QM should attempt to become familiar with the various preferences prevailing in the organization . This is important since the interpretation and the use of the model will vary according to the dominant preferences of the various organizational actors . The QM should make sure that the possible instrumental uses of the model are well documented and that the strategic stakeholders of the decision making process are quite knowledgeable about and comfortable with the contents and the working of the model . The QM should be prepared to modify or develop a new version of the model , or even a completely new model , if needed , that allows an adequate exploration of heretofore unforeseen problem formulation and solution alternatives . The QM should make sure that the model developed provides a buffer or leaves room for the stakeholders to adjust and readjust themselves to the situation created by the use of the model and The QM should be aware of the pre - conceived ideas and concepts of the stakeholders regarding problem definition and likely solutions ; many decisions in this respect might have been taken implicitly long before they become explicit . In model - based decision - making , we are particularly interested in the idea that a model is designed with a view to action . Descriptive and prescriptive models : A descriptive model is often a function of figuration , abstraction based on reality . However , a prescriptive model is moving from reality to a model a function of development plan , means of action , moving from model to the reality . One must distinguishes between descriptive and prescriptive models in the perspective of a traditional analytical distinction between knowledge and action . The prescriptive models are in fact the furthest points in a chain cognitive , predictive , and decision making . Why modeling ? The purpose of models is to aid in designing solutions . They are to assist understanding the problem and to aid deliberation and choice by allowing us to evaluate the consequence of our action before implementing them . The principle of bounded rationality assumes that the decision maker is able to optimize but only within the limits of his / her representation of the decision problem . Such a requirement is fully compatible with many results in the psychology of memory : an expert uses strategies compiled in the long - term memory and solves a decision problem with the help of his / her short - term working memory . Problem solving is decision making that may involves heuristics such as satisfaction principle , and availability . It often , involves global evaluations of alternatives that could be supported by the short - term working memory and that should be compatible with various kinds of attractiveness scales . Decision - making might be viewed as the achievement of a more or less complex information process and anchored in the search for a dominance structure : the Decision Maker updates his / her representation of the problem with the goal of finding a case where one alternative dominant all the others Parsimony : the decision maker uses a small amount of information . Reliability : the processed information is relevant enough to justify - - personally or socially - - decision outcomes . Decidability : the processed information may change from one decision to another . Cognitive science provides us with the insight that a cognitive system , in general , is an association of a physical working device that is environment sensitive through perception and action , with a mind generating mental activities designed as operations , representations , categorizations and / or programs leading to efficient problem - solving strategies . Mental activities act on the environment , which itself acts again on the system by way of perceptions produced by representations . Designing and implementing human - centered systems for planning , control , decision and reasoning require studying the operational domains of a cognitive system in three dimensions : An environmental dimension , where first , actions performed by a cognitive system may be observed by way of changes in the environment ; and second , communication is an observable mode of exchange between different cognitive systems . An internal dimension , where mental activities ; i.e. , memorization and information processing generate changes in the internal states of the system . These activities are , however , influenced by partial factorizations through the environment , such as planning , deciding , and reasoning . An autonomous dimension where learning and knowledge acquisition enhance mental activities by leading to the notions of self - reflexivity and consciousness . Validation and Verification : As part of the calibration process of a model , the modeler must validate and verified the model . The term validation is applied to those processes , which seek to determine whether or not a model is correct with respect to the " real " system . More prosaically , validation is concerned with the question " Are we building the right system ? " Verification , on the other hand , seeks to answer the question " Are we building the system right ? " Balancing Success in Business Without metrics , management can be a nebulous , if not impossible , exercise . How can we tell if we have met our goals if we do not know what our goals are ? How do we know if our business strategies are effective if they have not been well defined ? For example , one needs a methodology for measuring success and setting goals from financial and operational viewpoints . With those measures , any business can manage its strategic vision and adjust it for any change . Setting a performance measure is a multi - perspective at The financial perspective provides a view of how the shareholders see the company ; i.e. the company ' s bottom - line . The customer perspective provides a view of how the customers see the company . While the financial perspective deals with the projected value of the company , the innovation and learning perspective sets measures that help the company compete in a changing business environment . The focus for this innovation is in the formation of new or the improvement of existing products and processes . internal business process perspective provides a view of what the company must excel at to be competitive . The focus of this perspective then is the translation of customer - based measures into measures reflecting the company ' s internal operations . Each of the above four perspectives must be considered with respect to four parameters : Goals : What do we need to achieve to become successful ? Measures : What parameters will we use to know if we are successful ? Targets : What quantitative value will we use to determine success of the measure ? Initiatives : What will we do to meet our goals ? Clearly , it is not enough to produce an instrument to document and monitor success . Without proper implementation and leadership , creating a performance measure will remain only an exercise as opposed to a system to manage change . Further Readings : Calabro L . On balance , Chief Financial Officer Magazine , February 01 , 2001 . Almost 10 years after developing the balanced scorecard , authors Robert Kaplan and David Norton share what they ' ve learned . Craven B . , and S . Islam , Optimization in Economics and Finance , Springer , 2005 . Kaplan R . , and D . Norton , The balanced scorecard : Measures that drive performance , Harvard Business Review , 71 , 1992 . Modeling for Forecasting : Accuracy and Validation Assessments Forecasting is a necessary input to planning , whether in business , or government . Often , forecasts are generated subjectively and at great cost by group discussion , even when relatively simple quantitative methods can perform just as well or , at very least ; provide an informed input to such discussions . Data Gathering for Verification of Model : Data gathering is often considered " expensive " . Indeed , technology " softens " the mind , in that we become reliant on devices ; however , reliable data are needed to verify a quantitative model . Mathematical models , no matter how elegant , sometimes escape the appreciation of the decision - maker . In other words , some people think algebraically ; others see geometrically . When the data are complex or multidimensional , there is the more reason for working with equations , though appealing to the intellect has a more down - to - earth The following flowchart highlights the systematic development of the modeling and forecasting phases : Modeling for Forecasting Click on the image to enlarge it and THEN print it The above modeling process is useful to : understand the underlying mechanism generating the time series . This includes describing and explaining any variations , seasonallity , trend , etc . predict the future under " business as usual " condition . control the system , which is to perform the " what - if " scenarios . Statistical Forecasting : The selection and implementation of the proper forecast methodology has always been an important planning and control issue for most firms and agencies . Often , the financial well - being of the entire operation rely on the accuracy of the forecast since such information will likely be used to make interrelated budgetary and operative decisions in areas of personnel management , purchasing , marketing and advertising , capital financing , etc . For example , any significant over - or - under sales forecast error may cause the firm to be overly burdened with excess inventory carrying costs or There are two main approaches to forecasting . Either the estimate of future value is based on an analysis of factors which are believed to influence future values , i.e. , the explanatory method , or else the prediction is based on an inferred study of past general data behavior over time , i.e. , the extrapolation method . For example , the belief that the sale of doll clothing will increase from current levels because of a recent advertising blitz rather than proximity to Christmas illustrates the difference between the two philosophies . It is possible that both approaches Autocorrelation : Autocorrelation is the serial correlation of equally spaced time series between its members one or more lags apart . Alternative terms are the lagged correlation , and persistence . Unlike the statistical data which are random samples allowing us to perform statistical analysis , the time series are strongly autocorrelated , making it possible to predict and forecast . Three tools for assessing the autocorrelation of a time series are the time series plot , the lagged scatterplot , and at least the first and second order autocorrelation values . Standard Error for a Stationary Time - Series : The sample mean for a time - series , has standard error not equal to S / n ½ , but S [ ( 1 - r ) / ( n - nr ) ] ½ , where S is the sample standard deviation , n is the length of the time - series , and r is its first order correlation . Performance Measures and Control Chart for Examine Forecasting Errors : Beside the Standard Error there are other performance measures . The following are some of the widely used performance measures : Performance Measures for Forecasting Click on the image to enlarge it and THEN print it If the forecast error is stable , then the distribution of it is approximately normal . With this in mind , we can plot and then analyze the on the control charts to see if they might be a need to revise the forecasting method being used . To do this , if we divide a normal distribution into zones , with each zone one standard deviation wide , then one obtains the approximate percentage we expect to find in each zone from a stable process . Modeling for Forecasting with Accuracy and Validation Assessments : Control limits could be one - standard - error , or two - standard - error , and any point beyond these limits ( i.e. , outside of the error control limit ) is an indication the need to revise the forecasting process , as shown below : A Zone on a Control Chart for Controlling Forecasting Errors The plotted forecast errors on this chart , not only should remain with the control limits , they should not show any obvious pattern , collectively . Since validation is used for the purpose of establishing a model ’ s credibility it is important that the method used for the validation is , itself , credible . Features of time series , which might be revealed by examining its graph , with the forecasted values , and the residuals behavior , condition forecasting modeling . An effective approach to modeling forecasting validation is to hold out a specific number of data points for estimation validation ( i.e. , estimation period ) , and a specific number of data points for forecasting accuracy ( i.e. , validation period ) . The data , which are not held out , are used to estimate the parameters of the model , the model is then tested on data in the validation period , if the results are satisfactory , and forecasts are then generated beyond the end of the estimation and validation periods . As an illustrative example Estimation Period , Validation Period , and the Forecasts In general , the data in the estimation period are used to help select the model and to estimate its parameters . Forecasts into the future are " real " forecasts that are made for time periods beyond the end of the available data . The data in the validation period are held out during parameter estimation . One might also withhold these values during the forecasting analysis after model selection , and then one - step - ahead forecasts are made . A good model should have small error measures in both the estimation and validation periods , compared to other models , and its validation period statistics should be similar to its own estimation period statistics . Holding data out for validation purposes is probably the single most important diagnostic test of a model : it gives the best indication of the accuracy that can be expected when forecasting the future . It is a rule - of - thumb that one should hold out at least 20 % of data for validation purposes . You may like using the Time Series ' Statistics JavaScript for computing some of the essential statistics needed for a preliminary investigation of your time series . Stationary Time Series Stationarity has always played a major role in time series analysis . To perform forecasting , most techniques required stationarity conditions . Therefore , we need to establish some conditions , e.g. time series must be a first and second order stationary process . First Order Stationary : A time series is a first order stationary if expected value of X ( t ) remains the same for all t . For example in economic time series , a process is first order stationary when we remove any kinds of trend by some mechanisms such as differencing . Second Order Stationary : A time series is a second order stationary if it is first order stationary and covariance between X ( t ) and X ( s ) is function of length ( t - s ) only . Again , in economic time series , a process is second order stationary when we stabilize also its variance by some kind of transformations , such as taking square root . You may like using Test for Stationary Time Series JavaScript . Statistics for Correlated Data We concern ourselves with n realizations that are related to time , that is having n correlated observations ; the estimate of the mean is given by mean = S X i / n , where the sum is over i = 1 to n . Let A = S [ 1 - j / ( m + 1 ) ] r j , x where the sum is over j = 1 to m , then the estimated variance is : [ 1 + 2A ] S 2 / n Where 2 = the usual variance estimate r j , x = the jth coefficient of autocorrelation m = the maximum time lag for which autocorrelations are computed , such that j = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . . , m As a good rule of thumb , the maximum lag for which autocorrelations are computed should be approximately 2 % of the number of n realizations , although each could be tested to determine if it is significantly different from zero . Sample Size Determination : We can calculate the minimum sample size required by n = [ 1 + 2A ] S t / ( d mean Application : A pilot run was made of a model , observations numbered 150 , the mean was 205.74 minutes and the variance S = 101 , 921.54 , estimate of the lag coefficients were computed as : 1 , x = 0.3301 2 , x = 0.2993 , and 3 , x = 0.1987 . Calculate the minimum sample size to assure the estimate lies within + d = 10 % of the true mean with a = 0.05 . n = ( 1.96 ) ( 101,921.54 ) 1 + 2 [ ( 1 - 1 / 4 ) 0.3301 + ( 1 - 2 / 4 ) 0.2993 + ( 1 - 3 / 4 ) 0.1987 ] / ( 0.1 ) ( 205.74 ) 2  » 1757 You may like using Statistics for Time Series , and Testing Correlation JavaScript . A Summary of Forecasting Methods Ideally , organizations which can afford to do so will usually assign crucial forecast responsibilities to those departments and / or individuals that are best qualified and have the necessary resources at hand to make such forecast estimations under complicated demand patterns . Clearly , a firm with a large ongoing operation and a technical staff comprised of statisticians , management scientists , computer analysts , etc . is in a much better position to select and make proper use of sophisticated forecast techniques than is a company with more limited resources . Notably , the bigger firm , through A time series is a set of ordered observations on a quantitative characteristic of a phenomenon at equally spaced time points . One of the main goals of time series analysis is to forecast future values of the series . A trend is a regular , slowly evolving change in the series level . Changes that can be modeled by low - order polynomials We examine three general classes of models that can be constructed for purposes of forecasting or policy analysis . Each involves a different degree of model complexity and presumes a different level of comprehension about the processes one is trying to model . Many of us often either use or produce forecasts of one sort or another . Few of us recognize , however , that some kind of logical structure , or model , is implicit in every forecast . In making a forecast , it is also important to provide a measure of how accurate one can expect the forecast to be . The use of intuitive methods usually precludes any quantitative measure of confidence in the resulting forecast . The statistical analysis of the individual relationships that make up a model , and of the model as a whole , makes it possible to attach a measure of confidence to the model ’ s forecasts . Once a model has been constructed and fitted to data , a sensitivity analysis can be used to study many of its properties . In particular , the effects of small changes in individual variables in the model can be evaluated . For example , in the case of a model that describes and predicts interest rates , one could measure the effect on a particular interest rate of a change in the rate of inflation . This type of sensitivity study can be performed only if the model is an explicit one . In Time - Series Models we presume to know nothing about the causality that affects the variable we are trying to forecast . Instead , we examine the past behavior of a time series in order to infer something about its future behavior . The method used to produce a forecast may involve the use of a simple deterministic model such as a linear extrapolation or the use of a complex stochastic model for adaptive forecasting . One example of the use of time - series analysis would be the simple extrapolation of a past trend in predicting population growth . Another example would be the development of a complex linear stochastic model for passenger loads on an airline . Time - series models have been used to forecast the demand for airline capacity , seasonal telephone demand , the movement of short - term interest rates , and other economic variables . Time - series models are particularly useful when little is known about the underlying process one is trying to forecast . The limited structure In the Single - Equation Regression Models the variable under study is explained by a single function ( linear or nonlinear ) of a number of explanatory variables . The equation will often be time - dependent ( i.e. , the time index will appear explicitly in the model ) , so that one can predict the response over time of the variable under study to changes in one or more of the explanatory variables . A principal purpose for constructing single - equation regression models is forecasting . A forecast is a quantitative estimate ( or set of estimates The term forecasting is often thought to apply solely to problems in which we predict the future . We shall remain consistent with this notion by orienting our notation and discussion toward time - series forecasting . We stress , however , that most of the analysis applies equally well to cross - section models . An example of a single - equation regression model would be an equation that relates a particular interest rate , such as the money supply , the rate of inflation , and the rate of change in the gross national product . The choice of the type of model to develop involves trade - offs between time , energy , costs , and desired forecast precision . The construction of a multi - equation simulation model may require large expenditures of time and money . The gains from this effort may include a better understanding of the relationships and structure involved as well as the ability to make a better forecast . However , in some cases these gains may be small enough to be outweighed by the heavy costs involved . Because the multi - equation model necessitates a good deal The decision to build a time - series model usually occurs when little or nothing is known about the determinants of the variable being studied , when a large number of data points are available , and when the model is to be used largely for short - term forecasting . Given some information about the processes involved , however , it may be reasonable for a forecaster to construct both types of models and compare their relative performance . Two types of forecasts can be useful . Point forecasts predict a single number in each forecast period , while interval forecasts indicate an interval in which we hope the realized value will lie . We begin by discussing point forecasts , after which we consider how confidence intervals ( interval forecasts ) can be used to provide a margin of error around point forecasts . The information provided by the forecasting process can be used in many ways . An important concern in forecasting is the problem of evaluating the nature of the forecast error by using the appropriate statistical tests . We define the best forecast as the one which yields the forecast error with the minimum variance . In the single - equation regression model , ordinary lest - squares estimation yields the best forecast among all linear unbiased estimators having minimum mean - square error . The error associated with a forecasting procedure can come from a combination of four distinct sources . First , the random nature of the additive error process in a linear regression model guarantees that forecasts will deviate from true values even if the model is specified correctly and its parameter values are known . Second , the process of estimating the regression parameters introduces error because estimated parameter values are random variables that may deviate from the true parameter values . Third , in the case of a conditional forecast , errors are introduced when forecasts are made for the Multi - predictor regression methods include logistic models for binary outcomes , the Cox model for right - censored survival times , repeated - measures models for longitudinal and hierarchical outcomes , and generalized linear models for counts and other outcomes . Below we outline some effective forecasting approaches , especially for short to intermediate term analysis and forecasting : Modeling the Causal Time Series : With multiple regressions , we can use more than one predictor . It is always best , however , to be parsimonious , that is to use as few variables as predictors as necessary to get a reasonably accurate forecast . Multiple regressions are best modeled with commercial package such as SAS or SPSS . The forecast takes the form : Y = b 0 + b 1 X 1 + X + . . . + n n where 0 is the intercept , , . . . are coefficients representing the contribution of the independent variables X , X , . . . , X Forecasting is a prediction of what will occur in the future , and it is an uncertain process . Because of the uncertainty , the accuracy of a forecast is as important as the outcome predicted by forecasting the independent variables X , X , . . . , X . A forecast control must be used to determine if the accuracy of the forecast is within acceptable limits . Two widely used methods of forecast control are a tracking signal , and statistical control limits . Tracking signal is computed by dividing the total residuals by their mean absolute deviation ( MAD ) . To stay within 3 standard deviations , the tracking signal that is within 3.75 MAD is often considered to be good enough . Statistical control limits are calculated in a manner similar to other quality control limit charts , however , the residual standard deviation are used . Multiple regressions are used when two or more independent factors are involved , and it is widely used for short to intermediate term forecasting . They are used to assess which factors to include and which to exclude . They can be used to develop alternate models with different factors . Trend Analysis : Uses linear and nonlinear regression with time as the explanatory variable , it is used where pattern over time have a long - term trend . Unlike most time - series forecasting techniques , the Trend Analysis does not assume the condition of equally spaced time series . Nonlinear regression does not assume a linear relationship between variables . It is frequently used when time is the independent variable . Detective Testing for Trend In the absence of any " visible " trend , you may like performing the Test for Randomness of Fluctuations , too . Modeling Seasonality and Trend : Seasonality is a pattern that repeats for each period . For example annual seasonal pattern has a cycle that is 12 periods long , if the periods are months , or 4 periods long if the periods are quarters . We need to get an estimate of the seasonal index for each month , or other periods , such as quarter , week , etc , depending on the data availability . 1 . Seasonal Index : Seasonal index represents the extent of seasonal influence for a particular segment of the year . The calculation involves a comparison of the expected values of that period to the grand mean . A seasonal index is how much the average for that particular period tends to be above ( or below ) the grand average . Therefore , to get an accurate estimate for the seasonal index , we compute the average of the first period of the cycle , and the second period , etc , and divide each by the overall average . The formula for computing seasonal factors is : S i = D / D , where : S = the seasonal index for i th period , D = the average values of i th period , D = grand average , i = the i seasonal period of the cycle . A seasonal index of 1.00 for a particular month indicates that the expected value of that month is 1 / 12 of the overall average . A seasonal index of 1.25 indicates that the expected value for that month is 25 % greater than 1 / 12 of the overall average . A seasonal index of 80 indicates that the expected value for that month is 20 % less than 1 / 12 of the overall average . 2 . Deseasonalizing Process : Deseasonalizing the data , also called Seasonal Adjustment is the process of removing recurrent and periodic variations over a short time frame , e.g. , weeks , quarters , months . Therefore , seasonal variations are regularly repeating movements in series values that can be tied to recurring events . The Deseasonalized data is obtained by simply dividing each time series observation by the corresponding seasonal index . Almost all time series published by the US government are already deseasonalized using the seasonal index to unmasking the underlying trends in the data , which could have been caused by the seasonality factor . 3 . Forecasting : Incorporating seasonality in a forecast is useful when the time series has both trend and seasonal components . The final step in the forecast is to use the seasonal index to adjust the trend projection . One simple way to forecast using a seasonal adjustment is to use a seasonal factor in combination with an appropriate underlying trend of total value of cycles . 4 . A Numerical Application : The following table provides monthly sales ( $ 1000 ) at a college bookstore . The sales show a seasonal pattern , with the greatest number when the college is in session and decrease during the summer months . M T Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total 196 188 192 164 140 120 112 140 160 168 192 200 1972 200 188 164 122 132 144 176 168 196 194 2016 3 212 202 180 150 156 144 186 230 2160 4 242 240 220 176 184 204 228 250 260 2592 Mean : 208.6 207.0 192.6 182.0 157.6 143.6 144.0 153.0 177.6 187.6 209.6 221.0 2185 Index : 1.14 1.14 1.06 1.00 0.87 0.79 0.79 0.84 0.97 1.03 1.15 1.22 12 Suppose we wish to calculate seasonal factors and a trend , then calculate the forecasted sales for July in year 5 . The first step in the seasonal forecast will be to compute monthly indices using the past four - year sales . For example , for January the index is : S ( Jan ) = D ( Jan ) / D = 208.6 / 181.84 = 1.14 , where D ( Jan ) is the mean of all four January months , and D is the grand mean of all past four - year sales . Similar calculations are made for all other months . Indices are summarized in the last row of the above table . Notice that the mean ( average value ) for the monthly indices adds up to 12 , which is the number of periods in a year for the monthly data . Next , a linear trend often is calculated using the annual sales : Y = 1684 + 200.4T , The main question is whether this equation represents the trend . Determination of the Annual Trend for the Numerical Example Year No : Actual Sales Linear Regression Quadratic Regression 1972 1884 1981 2016 2085 1988 3 2160 2285 2188 4 2592 2486 2583 Often fitting a straight line to the seasonal data is misleading . By constructing the scatter - diagram , we notice that a Parabola might be a better fit . Using the Polynomial Regression JavaScript , the estimated quadratic trend is : Y = 2169 - 284.6T + 97T Predicted values using both the linear and the quadratic trends are presented in the above tables . Comparing the predicted values of the two models with the actual data indicates that the quadratic trend is a much superior fit than the linear one , as often expected . We can now forecast the next annual sales ; which , corresponds to year 5 , or T = 5 in the above quadratic equation : Y = 2169 - 284.6 ( 5 ) + 97 ( 5 ) = 3171 sales for the following year . The average monthly sales during next year is , therefore : 3171 / 12 = 264.25 . Finally , the forecast for month of July is calculated by multiplying the average monthly sales forecast by the July seasonal index , which is 0.79 ; i.e. , ( 264.25 ) . ( 0.79 ) or 209 . You might like to use the Seasonal Index JavaScript to check your hand computation . As always you must first use Plot of the Time Series as a tool for the initial characterization process . For testing seasonality based on seasonal index , you may like to use the Test for Seasonality Trend Removal and Cyclical Analysis : The cycles can be easily studied if the trend itself is removed . This is done by expressing each actual value in the time series as a percentage of the calculated trend for the same date . The resulting time series has no trend , but oscillates around a central value of 100 . Decomposition Analysis : It is the pattern generated by the time series and not necessarily the individual data values that offers to the manager who is an observer , a planner , or a controller of the system . Therefore , the Decomposition Analysis is used to identify several patterns that appear simultaneously in a time series . A variety of factors are likely influencing data . It is very important in the study that these different influences or components be separated or decomposed out of the ' raw ' data levels . In general , there are four types of components in time series analysis : easonality , T rend , C ycling and I rregularity . X t = S t . T . C . I The first three components are deterministic which are called " Signals " , while the last component is a random variable , which is called " Noise " . To be able to make a proper forecast , we must know to what extent each component is present in the data . Hence , to understand and measure these components , the forecast procedure involves initially removing the component effects from the data ( decomposition ) . After the effects are measured , making a forecast involves putting back the components on forecast estimates ( recomposition ) . The time Definitions of the major components in the above flowchart : Seasonal variation : When a repetitive pattern is observed over some time horizon , the series is said to have seasonal behavior . Seasonal effects are usually associated with calendar or climatic changes . Seasonal variation is frequently tied to yearly cycles . Trend : A time series may be stationary or exhibit trend over time . Long - term trend is typically modeled as a linear , quadratic or exponential function . Cyclical variation : An upturn or downturn not tied to seasonal variation . Usually results from changes in economic conditions . easonalities are regular fluctuations which are repeated from year to year with about the same timing and level of intensity . The first step of a times series decomposition is to remove seasonal effects in the data . Without deseasonalizing the data , we may , for example , incorrectly infer that recent increase patterns will continue indefinitely ; i.e. , a growth trend is present , when actually the increase is ' just because it is that time of the year ' ; i.e. , due to regular seasonal peaks . To measure seasonal effects , we calculate a T rend is growth or decay that is the tendencies for data to increase or decrease fairly steadily over time . Using the deseasonalized data , we now wish to consider the growth trend as noted in our initial inspection of the time series . Measurement of the trend component is done by fitting a line or any other function . This fitted function is calculated by the method of least squares and represents the overall trend of the data over time . C yclic oscillations are general up - and - down data changes ; due to changes e.g. , in the overall economic environment ( not caused by seasonal effects ) such as recession - and - expansion . To measure how the general cycle affects data levels , we calculate a series of cyclic indexes . Theoretically , the deseasonalized data still contains trend , cyclic , and irregular components . Also , we believe predicted data levels using the trend equation do represent pure trend effects . Thus , it stands to reason that the ratio of these respective data Due to the tremendous complexity of general economic factors on long term behavior , a general approximation of the cyclic factor is the more realistic aim . Thus , the specific sharp upturns and downturns are not so much the primary interest as the general tendency of the cyclic effect to gradually move in either direction . To study the general cyclic movement rather than precise cyclic changes ( which may falsely indicate more accurately than is present under this situation ) , we ' smooth ' out the cyclic plot by replacing each index calculation often with a centered I rregularities ( ) are any fluctuations not classified as one of the above . This component of the time series is unexplainable ; therefore it is unpredictable . Estimation of can be expected only when its variance is not too large . Otherwise , it is not possible to decompose the series . If the magnitude of variation is large , the projection for the future values will be inaccurate . The best one can do is to give a probabilistic interval for the future value given the probability of is known . Making a Forecast : At this point of the analysis , after we have completed the study of the time series components , we now project the future values in making forecasts for the next few periods . The procedure is summarized below . Step 1 : Compute the future trend level using the trend equation . Step 2 : Multiply the trend level from Step 1 by the period seasonal index to include seasonal effects . Step 3 : Multiply the result of Step 2 by the projected cyclic index to include cyclic effects and get the final forecast result . Exercise your knowledge about how to forecast by decomposition method ? by using a sales time series available at An Illustrative Application ( a pdf file ) Therein you will find a detailed workout numerical example in the context of the sales time series which consists of all components including a cycle . Smoothing Techniques : A time series is a sequence of observations , which are ordered in time . Inherent in the collection of data taken over time is some form of random variation . There exist methods for reducing of canceling the effect due to random variation . A widely used technique is " smoothing " . This technique , when properly applied , reveals more clearly the underlying trend , seasonal and cyclic components . Smoothing techniques are used to reduce irregularities ( random fluctuations ) in time series data . They provide a clearer view of the true underlying behavior of the series . Moving averages rank among the most popular techniques for the preprocessing of time series . They are used to filter random " white noise " from the data , to make the time series smoother or even to emphasize certain informational components contained in the time series . Exponential smoothing is a very popular scheme to produce a smoothed time series . Whereas in moving averages the past observations are weighted equally , Exponential Smoothing assigns exponentially decreasing weights as the observation get older . In other words , recent observations are given relatively more weight in forecasting than the older observations . Double exponential smoothing is better at handling trends . Triple Exponential Smoothing is better at handling parabola trends . Exponential smoothing is a widely method used of forecasting based on the time series itself . Unlike regression models , exponential smoothing does not imposed any deterministic model to fit the series other than what is inherent in the time series itself . Simple Moving Averages : The best - known forecasting methods is the moving averages or simply takes a certain number of past periods and add them together ; then divide by the number of periods . Simple Moving Averages ( MA ) is effective and efficient approach provided the time series is stationary in both mean and variance . The following formula is used in finding the moving average of order n , MA ( n ) for a period t+ 1 , MA t+ 1 = [ D + D t - 1 + . . . + D t - n+ 1 ] / n where n is the number of observations used in the calculation . The forecast for time period t + 1 is the forecast for all future time periods . However , this forecast is revised only when new data becomes available . You may like using Forecasting by Smoothing Javasript , and then performing some numerical experimentation for a deeper understanding of these concepts . Weighted Moving Average : Very powerful and economical . They are widely used where repeated forecasts required - uses methods like sum - of - the - digits and trend adjustment methods . As an example , a Weighted Moving Averages is : Weighted MA ( 3 ) = w .D + w .D t - 1 + w t - 2 where the weights are any positive numbers such that : w1 + w2 + w3 = 1 . A typical weights for this example is , w = 3 / ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) = 3 / 6 , w = 2 / 6 , and w = 1 / 6 . You may like using Forecasting by Smoothing JavaScript , and then performing some numerical experimentation for a deeper understanding of the concepts . An illustrative numerical example : The moving average and weighted moving average of order five are calculated in the following table . Week Sales ( $ 1000 ) MA ( 5 ) WMA ( 5 ) 105 100 105 95 5 100 101 6 95 99 98 7 8 120 103 107 9 115 107 111 10 125 117 116 11 119 12 119 Moving Averages with Trends : Any method of time series analysis involves a different degree of model complexity and presumes a different level of comprehension about the underlying trend of the time series . In many business time series , the trend in the smoothed series using the usual moving average method indicates evolving changes in the series level to be highly nonlinear . In order to capture the trend , we may use the Moving - Average with Trend ( MAT ) method . The MAT method uses an adaptive linearization of the trend by means of incorporating a combination of the local slopes of both the original and the smoothed time series . The following formulas are used in MAT method : X ( t ) : The actual ( historical ) data at time t . M ( t ) = å X ( i ) / n i.e. , finding the moving average smoothing M ( t ) of order n , which is a positive odd integer number ³ 3 , for i from t - n+ 1 to t . F ( t ) = the smoothed series adjusted for any local trend F ( t ) = F ( t - 1 ) + a [ ( n - 1 ) X ( t ) + ( n+ 1 ) X ( t - n ) - 2nM ( t - 1 ) ] , where constant coefficient a = 6 / ( n  – n ) . with initial conditions F ( t ) = X ( t ) for all t £ n , Finally , the h - step - a - head forecast f ( t + h ) is : F ( t + h ) = M ( t ) + [ h + ( n - 1 ) / 2 ] F ( t ) . To have a notion of F ( t ) , notice that the inside bracket can be written as : n [ X ( t )  – F ( t - 1 ) ] + n [ X ( t - m )  – F ( t - 1 ) ] + [ X ( t - m )  – X ( t ) ] , this is , a combination of three rise / fall terms . In making a forecast , it is also important to provide a measure of how accurate one can expect the forecast to be . The statistical analysis of the error terms known as residual time - series provides measure tool and decision process for modeling selection process . In applying MAT method sensitivity analysis is needed to determine the optimal value of the moving average parameter n , i.e. , the optimal number of period m . The error time series allows us to study many of its statistical properties for goodness - of - fit decision . Therefore it For computer implementation of the Moving Average with Trend ( MAT ) method one may use the forecasting ( FC ) module of WinQSB which is commercial grade stand - alone software . WinQSB ’ s approach is to first select the model and then enter the parameters and the data . With the Help features in WinQSB there is no learning - curve one just needs a few minutes to master its useful features . Exponential Smoothing Techniques : One of the most successful forecasting methods is the exponential smoothing ( ES ) techniques . Moreover , it can be modified efficiently to use effectively for time series with seasonal patterns . It is also easy to adjust for past errors - easy to prepare follow - on forecasts , ideal for situations where many forecasts must be prepared , several different forms are used depending on presence of trend or cyclical variations . In short , an ES is an averaging technique that uses unequal weights ; however , the weights applied to past observations decline in an Single Exponential Smoothing : It calculates the smoothed series as a damping coefficient times the actual series plus 1 minus the damping coefficient times the lagged value of the smoothed series . The extrapolated smoothed series is a constant , equal to the last value of the smoothed series during the period when actual data on the underlying series are available . While the simple Moving Average method is a special case of the ES , the ES is more parsimonious in its data usage . t+ 1 = a D + ( 1 - ) F where : D is the actual value F is the forecasted value is the weighting factor , which ranges from 0 to 1 t is the current time period . Notice that the smoothed value becomes the forecast for period t + 1 . A small provides a detectable and visible smoothing . While a large provides a fast response to the recent changes in the time series but provides a smaller amount of smoothing . Notice that the exponential smoothing and simple moving average techniques will generate forecasts having the same average age of information if moving average of order n is the integer part of ( 2 - ) / An exponential smoothing over an already smoothed time series is called double - exponential smoothing . In some cases , it might be necessary to extend it even to a triple - exponential smoothing . While simple exponential smoothing requires stationary condition , the double - exponential smoothing can capture linear trends , and triple - exponential smoothing can handle almost all other business time series . Double Exponential Smoothing : It applies the process described above three to account for linear trend . The extrapolated series has a constant growth rate , equal to the growth of the smoothed series at the end of the data period . Triple Double Exponential Smoothing : It applies the process described above three to account for nonlinear trend . Exponenentially Weighted Moving Average : Suppose each day ' s forecast value is based on the previous day ' s value so that the weight of each observation drops exponentially the further back ( k ) in time it is . The weight of any individual is ( 1 - k , where a is the smoothing constant . An exponenentially weighted moving average with a smoothing constant , corresponds roughly to a simple moving average of length n , where and n are related by = 2 / ( n+ 1 ) OR n = ( 2 - ) / Thus , for example , an exponenentially weighted moving average with a smoothing constant equal to 0.1 would correspond roughly to a 19 day moving average . And a 40 - day simple moving average would correspond roughly to an exponentially weighted moving average with a smoothing constant equal to 0.04878 . This approximation is helpful , however , it is harder to update , and may not correspond to an optimal forecast . Smoothing techniques , such as the Moving Average , Weighted Moving Average , and Exponential Smoothing , are well suited for one - period - ahead forecasting as implemented in the following JavaScript : Forecasting by Smoothing Holt ' s Linear Exponential Smoothing Technique : Suppose that the series { y } is non - seasonal but does display trend . Now we need to estimate both the current level and the current trend . Here we define the trend T at time t as the difference between the current and previous level . The updating equations express ideas similar to those for exponential smoothing . The equations are : L = y + ( 1 - ) F for the level and T ( L - L ) + ( 1 - ) T for the trend . We have two smoothing parameters and ; both must be positive and less than one . Then the forecasting for k periods into the future is : F n + k = L + k . T Given that the level and trend remain unchanged , the initial ( starting ) values are T = y  – y , L = y , and F = L + T An Application : A company ’ s credit outstanding has been increasing at a relatively constant rate over time : Applying the Holt ’ s techniques with smoothing with parameters = 0.7 and = 0.6 , a graphical representation of the time series , its forecasts , together wit a few - step ahead forecasts , are depicted below : Year - end Past credit Year credit ( in millions ) 133 155 165 171 5 194 6 231 7 274 8 312 9 313 10 333 11 343 K - Period Ahead Forecast K Forecast ( in millions ) 359.7 372.6 385.4 398.3 Demonstration of the calculation procedure , with = 0.7 and = 0.6 L = y = 155 , T = y - y = 155  – 133 = 22 L = .7 y + ( 1 - .7 ) F , T = .6 ( L - L ) + ( 1 - .6 ) T F = L + T , F = L + T L = .7 y + ( 1 - .7 ) F , T = .6 ( L ) + ( 1 - .6 ) T , F The Holt - Winters ' Forecasting Technique : Now in addition to Holt parameters , suppose that the series exhibits multiplicative seasonality and let S be the multiplicative seasonal factor at time t . Suppose also that there are s periods in a year , so s = 4 for quarterly data and s = 12 for monthly data . S t - s is the seasonal factor in the same period last year . In some time series , seasonal variation is so strong it obscures any trends or cycles , which are very important for the understanding of the process being observed . Winters ’ smoothing method can remove seasonality and makes long term fluctuations in the series stand out more clearly . A simple way of detecting trend in seasonal data is to take averages over a certain period . If these averages change with time we can say that there is evidence of a trend in the series . The updating equations are : L ( L + T ) + ( 1 - ) y / S t - s for the level , T ( L ) + ( 1 - ) T for the trend , and = g S + ( 1 - g ) y / L for the seasonal factor . We now have three smoothing parameters , and all must be positive and less than one . To obtain starting values , one may use the first a few year data . For example for quarterly data , to estimate the level , one may use a centered 4 - point moving average : L = ( y + 2y + 2y + y ) / 8 as the level estimate in period 10 . This will extract the seasonal component from a series with 4 measurements over each year . = L as the trend estimate for period 10 . = ( y / L + y ) / 2 as the seasonal factor in period 7 . Similarly , S = ( y + y ) / 2 , S ) / 2 , S ) / 2 For Monthly Data , the correspondingly we use a centered 12 - point moving average : 30 = ( y 24 25 26 + . . . . . + 2y 35 + y 36 ) / 24 as the level estimate in period 30 . 30 29 as the trend estimate for period 30 . 19 19 as the estimate of the seasonal factor in period 19 , and so on , up to 30 : 18 18 Then the forecasting k periods into the future is : F n + k = ( L + k . T ) S t + k - s , for k = 1 , 2 , . . . . , s Forecasting by the Z - Chart Another method of short - term forecasting is the use of a Z - Chart . The name Z - Chart arises from the fact that the pattern on such a graph forms a rough letter Z . For example , in a situation where the sales volume figures for one product or product group for the first nine months of a particular year are available , it is possible , using the Z - Chart , to predict the total sales for the year , i.e. to make a forecast for the next three months . It is assumed Year Month 2003 $ 2004 $ January 940 520 February 580 380 March 690 480 April 680 490 May 710 370 June 660 390 July 630 350 August 470 440 September 480 360 October 590 November 450 December 430 Total Sales 2003 7310 The monthly sales for the first nine months of a particular year together with the monthly sales for the previous year . From the data in the above table , another table can be derived and is shown as follows : The first column in Table 18 relates to actual sales ; the seconds to the cumulative total which is found by adding each month ’ s sales to the total of preceding sales . Thus , January 520 plus February 380 produces the February cumulative total of 900 ; the March cumulative total is found by adding the March sales of 480 to the previous cumulative total of 900 and is , therefore , 1,380 . The 12 months moving total is found by adding the sales in the current to the total of the previous 12 months and then subtracting the corresponding month for last year . Month 2004 Actual Sales Cumulative Total 12 months moving total $ January 520 6890 February 380 900 6690 March 1380 6480 April 490 1870 6290 370 2240 5950 June 390 2630 5680 July 350 2980 5400 August 440 3420 5370 September 360 3780 5250 Showing processed monthly sales data , producing a cumulative total and a 12 months moving total . For example , the 12 months moving total for 2003 is 7,310 ( see the above first table ) . Add to this the January 2004 item 520 which totals 7,830 subtract the corresponding month last year , i.e. the January 2003 item of 940 and the result is the January 2004 , 12 months moving total , 6,890 . The 12 months moving total is particularly useful device in forecasting because it includes all the seasonal fluctuations in the last 12 months period irrespective of the month from which it is calculated . The year could start in June and end the next July and contain all the seasonal patterns . The two groups of data , cumulative totals and the 12 month moving totals shown in the above table are then plotted ( A and B ) , along a line that continues their present trend to the end of the year where they meet : Click on the image to enlarge it In the above figure , A and B represent the 12 months moving total , and the cumulative data , respectively , while their projections into future are shown by the doted lines . Notice that , the 12 months accumulation of sales figures is bound to meet the 12 months moving total as they represent different ways of obtaining the same total . In the above figure these lines meet at $ 4,800 , indicating the total sales for the year and forming a simple and approximate method of short - term forecasting . The above illustrative monthly numerical example approach might be adapted carefully to your set of time series data with any equally spaced intervals . As an alternative to graphical method , one may fit a linear regression based on the data of lines A and / or B available from the above table , and then extrapolate to obtain short - term forecasting with a desirable confidence level . Concluding Remarks : A time series is a sequence of observations which are ordered in time . Inherent in the collection of data taken over time is some form of random variation . There exist methods for reducing of canceling the effect due to random variation . Widely used techniques are " smoothing " . These techniques , when properly applied , reveals more clearly the underlying trends . In other words , smoothing techniques are used to reduce irregularities ( random fluctuations ) in time series data . They provide a clearer view of the true underlying behavior of the series . Exponential smoothing has proven through the years to be very useful in many forecasting situations . Holt first suggested it for non - seasonal time series with or without trends . Winters generalized the method to include seasonality , hence the name : Holt - Winters Method . Holt - Winters method has 3 updating equations , each with a constant that ranges from ( 0 to 1 ) . The equations are intended to give more weight to recent observations and less weight to observations further in the past . This form of exponential smoothing can be used for The single exponential smoothing emphasizes the short - range perspective ; it sets the level to the last observation and is based on the condition that there is no trend . The linear regression , which fits a least squares line to the historical data ( or transformed historical data ) , represents the long range , which is conditioned on the basic trend . Holt ’ s linear exponential smoothing captures information about recent trend . The parameters in Holt ’ s model are the levels - parameter which should be decreased when the amount of data variation is Since finding three optimal , or even near optimal , parameters for updating equations is not an easy task , an alternative approach to Holt - Winters methods is to deseasonalize the data and then use exponential smoothing . Moreover , in some time series , seasonal variation is so strong it obscures any trends or cycles , which are very important for the understanding of the process being observed . Smoothing can remove seasonality and makes long term fluctuations in the series stand out more clearly . A simple way of detecting trend in seasonal data is to take averages over a certain period . If these averages change with time we can say that there is evidence of a trend in the series . How to compare several smoothing methods : Although there are numerical indicators for assessing the accuracy of the forecasting technique , the most widely approach is in using visual comparison of several forecasts to assess their accuracy and choose among the various forecasting methods . In this approach , one must plot ( using , e.g. , Excel ) on the same graph the original values of a time series variable and the predicted values from several different forecasting methods , thus facilitating a visual comparison . Forecasting by Smoothing Techniques Further Reading : Yar , M and C . Chatfield ( 1990 ) , Prediction intervals for the Holt - Winters forecasting procedure , International Journal of Forecasting 6 , 127 - 137 . Filtering Techniques : Often on must filters an entire , e.g. , financial time series with certain filter specifications to extract useful information by a transfer function expression . The aim of a filter function is to filter a time series in order to extract useful information hidden in the data , such as cyclic component . The filter is a direct implementation of and input - output function . Data filtering is widely used as an effective and efficient time series modeling tool by applying an appropriate transformation technique . Most time series analysis techniques involve some form of filtering out noise in order to make the pattern more salient . Differencing : A special type of filtering which is particularly useful for removing a trend , is simply to difference a given time series until it becomes stationary . This method is useful in Box - Jenkins modeling . For non - seasonal data , first order differencing is usually sufficient to attain apparent stationarity , so that the new series is formed from the original series . Adaptive Filtering Any smoothing techniques such as moving average which includes a method of learning from past errors can respond to changes in the relative importance of trend , seasonal , and random factors . In the adaptive exponential smoothing method , one may adjust to allow for shifting patterns . Hodrick - Prescott Filter : The Hodrick - Prescott filter or H - P filter is an algorithm for choosing smoothed values for a time series . The H - P filter chooses smooth values { s } for the series { x } of T elements ( t = 1 to T ) that solve the following minimization problem : min { { ( x - s . . . etc . } the positive parameter l is the penalty on variation , where variation is measured by the average squared second difference . A larger value of l makes the resulting { s } series smoother ; less high - frequency noise . The commonly applied value of l is 1600 . For the study of business cycles one uses not the smoothed series , but the jagged series of residuals from it . H - P filtered data shows less fluctuation than first - differenced data , since the H - P filter pays less attention to high frequency movements . H - P filtered data also shows more serial correlation than first - differenced data . This is a smoothing mechanism used to obtain a long term trend component in a time series . It is a way to decompose a given series into stationary and non - stationary components in such a way that their sum of squares of the series from the non - stationary component is minimum with a penalty on changes to the derivatives of the non - stationary component . Kalman Filter : The Kalman filter is an algorithm for sequentially updating a linear projection for a dynamic system that is in state - space representation . Application of the Kalman filter transforms a system of the following two - equation kind into a more solvable form : x = Ax + Cw , and y = Gx + v in which : A , C , and G are matrices known as functions of a parameter q about which inference is desired where : t is a whole number , usually indexing time ; x is a true state variable , hidden from the econometrician ; y is a measurement of x with scaling factor G , and measurement errors v , w are innovations to the hidden x process , E ( w w ' ) = 1 by normalization ( where , ' means the transpose ) , E ( v v ) = R , an unknown matrix , estimation of which is necessary but ancillary to the problem of interest , which is to get an estimate of q . The Kalman filter defines two matrices S and K such that the system described above can be transformed into the one below , in which estimation and inference about q and R is more straightforward ; e.g. , by regression analysis : z = Az + Ka , and y = Gz + a where z is defined to be E x , a is defined to be y - E ( y y , K is defined to be limit K as t approaches infinity . The definition of those two matrices S and K is itself most of the definition of the Kalman filters : K = AS G ' ( GS G ' + R ) - 1 , and S = ( A - K G ) S ( A - K G ) ' + CC ' + K RK ' , K is often called the Kalman gain . Hamilton J , Time Series Analysis , Princeton University Press , 1994 . Harvey A . , Forecasting , Structural Time Series Models and the Kalman Filter , Cambridge University Press , 1991 . Cardamone E . , From Kalman to Hodrick - Prescott Filter , 2006 . Mills T . , The Econometric Modelling of Financial Time Series , Cambridge University Press , 1995 . Neural Network : For time series forecasting , the prediction model of order p , has the general form : D = f ( D , D , . . . , D t - p ) + e Neural network architectures can be trained to predict the future values of the dependent variables . What is required are design of the network paradigm and its parameters . The multi - layer feed - forward neural network approach consists of an input layer , one or several hidden layers and an output layer . Another approach is known as the partially recurrent neural network that can learn sequences as time evolves and responds to the same input pattern differently at different times , depending on the previous input patterns as well . None of these approaches is superior to the other in all cases ; however , an additional dampened feedback , that possesses the characteristics of a dynamic memory , will improve the performance of both approaches . Outlier Considerations : Outliers are a few observations that are not well fitted by the " best " available model . In practice , any observation with standardized residual greater than 2.5 in absolute value is a candidate for being an outlier . In such case , one must first investigate the source of data . If there is no doubt about the accuracy or veracity of the observation , then it should be removed , and the model should be refitted . Whenever data levels are thought to be too high or too low for " business as usual " , we call such points the outliers . A mathematical reason to adjust for such occurrences is that the majority of forecast techniques are based on averaging . It is well known that arithmetic averages are very sensitive to outlier values ; therefore , some alteration should be made in the data before continuing . One approach is to replace the outlier by the average of the two sales levels for the periods , which immediately come before and after the period In light of the relative complexity of some inclusive but sophisticated forecasting techniques , we recommend that management go through an evolutionary progression in adopting new forecast techniques . That is to say , a simple forecast method well understood is better implemented than one with all inclusive features but unclear in certain facets . Modeling and Simulation : Dynamic modeling and simulation is the collective ability to understand the system and implications of its changes over time including forecasting . System Simulation is the mimicking of the operation of a real system , such as the day - to - day operation of a bank , or the value of a stock portfolio over a time period . By advancing the simulation run into the future , managers can quickly find out how the system might behave in the future , therefore making decisions as they deem appropriate . In the field of simulation , the concept of " principle of computational equivalence " has beneficial implications for the decision - maker . Simulated experimentation accelerates and replaces effectively the " wait and see " anxieties in discovering new insight and explanations of future behavior of the real system . Probabilistic Models : Uses probabilistic techniques , such as Marketing Research Methods , to deal with uncertainty , gives a range of possible outcomes for each set of events . For example , one may wish to identify the prospective buyers of a new product within a community of size N . From a survey result , one may estimate the probability of selling p , and then estimate the size of sales as Np with some confidence level . An Application : Suppose we wish to forecast the sales of new toothpaste in a community of 50,000 housewives . A free sample is given to 3,000 selected randomly , and then 1,800 indicated that they would buy the product . Using the binomial distribution with parameters ( 3000 , 1800 / 3000 ) , the standard error is 27 , and the expected sale is 50000 ( 1800 / 3000 ) = 30000 . The 99.7 % confidence interval is within 3 times standard error 3 ( 27 ) = 81 times the total population ratio 50000 / 3000 ; i.e. , 1350 . In other words , the range ( 28650 , 31350 ) contains the expected sales . Event History Analysis : Sometimes data on the exact time of a particular event ( or events ) are available , for example on a group of patients . Examples of events could include asthma attack ; epilepsy attack ; myocardial infections ; hospital admissions . Often , occurrence ( and non - occurrence ) of an event is available on a regular basis , e.g. , daily and the data can then be thought of as having a repeated measurements structure . An objective may be to determine whether any concurrent events or measurements have influenced the occurrence of the event of interest Predicting Market Response : As applied researchers in business and economics , faced with the task of predicting market response , we seldom know the functional form of the response . Perhaps market response is a nonlinear monotonic , or even a non - monotonic function of explanatory variables . Perhaps it is determined by interactions of explanatory variable . Interaction is logically independent of its components . When we try to represent complex market relationships within the context of a linear model , using appropriate transformations of explanatory and response variables , we learn how hard the work of statistics can be . Finding reasonable models is a challenge , and justifying our choice of models to our peers can be even more of a challenge . Alternative specifications abound . Modern regression methods , such as generalized additive models , multivariate adaptive regression splines , and regression trees , have one clear advantage : They can be used without specifying a functional form in advance . These data - adaptive , computer - intensive methods offer a more flexible approach to modeling than traditional statistical methods . How well do modern regression methods perform in predicting market response ? Some perform quite well based on the results of simulation studies . Delphi Analysis : Delphi Analysis is used in the decision making process , in particular in forecasting . Several " experts " sit together and try to compromise on something upon which they can not agree . System Dynamics Modeling : System dynamics ( SD ) is a tool for scenario analysis . Its main modeling tools are mainly the dynamic systems of differential equations and simulation . The SD approach to modeling is an important one for the following , not the least of which is that e.g. , econometrics is the established methodology of system dynamics . However , from a philosophy of social science perspective , SD is deductive and econometrics is inductive . SD is less tightly bound to actuarial data and thus is free to expand out and examine more complex , theoretically informed , and Delbecq , A . , Group Techniques for Program Planning , Scott Foresman , 1975 . Gardner H.S. , Comparative Economic Systems , Thomson Publishing , 1997 . Hirsch M . , S . Smale , and R . Devaney , Differential Equations , Dynamical Systems , and an Introduction to Chaos , Academic Press , 2004 . Lofdahl C . , Environmental Impacts of Globalization and Trade : A Systems Study , MIT Press , 2002 . Combination of Forecasts : Combining forecasts merges several separate sets of forecasts to form a better composite forecast . The main question is " how to find the optimal combining weights ? " The widely used approach is to change the weights from time to time for a better forecast rather than using a fixed set of weights on a regular basis or otherwise . All forecasting models have either an implicit or explicit error structure , where error is defined as the difference between the model prediction and the " true " value . Additionally , many data snooping methodologies within the field of statistics need to be applied to data supplied to a forecasting model . Also , diagnostic checking , as defined within the field of statistics , is required for any model which uses data . Using any method for forecasting one must use a performance measure to assess the quality of the method . Mean Absolute Deviation ( MAD ) Variance are the most useful measures . However , MAD does not lend itself to making further inferences , but the standard error does . For error analysis purposes , variance is preferred since variances of independent ( uncorrelated ) errors are additive ; however , MAD is not additive . Regression and Moving Average : When a time series is not a straight line one may use the moving average ( MA ) and break - up the time series into several intervals with common straight line with positive trends to achieve linearity for the whole time series . The process involves transformation based on slope and then a moving average within that interval . For most business time series , one the following transformations might be effective : slope / MA , log ( slope ) , log ( slope / MA ) , log ( slope ) - 2 log ( MA ) . Armstrong J . , ( Ed . ) , Principles of Forecasting : A Handbook for Researchers and Practitioners , Kluwer Academic Publishers , 2001 . Arsham H . , Seasonal and cyclic forecasting in small firm , American Journal of Small Business , 9 , 46 - 57 , 1985 . Brown H . , and R . Prescott , Applied Mixed Models in Medicine , Wiley , 1999 . Cromwell J . , W . Labys , and M . Terraza , Univariate Tests for Time Series Models , Sage Pub . , 1994 . Ho S . , M . Xie , and T . Goh , A comparative study of neural network and Box - Jenkins ARIMA modeling in time series prediction , Computers & Industrial Engineering , 42 , 371 - 375 , 2002 . Kaiser R . , and A . Maravall , Measuring Business Cycles in Economic Time Series , Springer , 2001 . Has a good coverage on Hodrick - Prescott Filter among other related topics . Kedem B . , K . Fokianos , Regression Models for Time Series Analysis , Wiley , 2002 . Kohzadi N . , M . Boyd , B . Kermanshahi , and I . Kaastra , A comparison of artificial neural network and time series models for forecasting commodity prices , Neurocomputing , 10 , 169 - 181 , 1996 . Krishnamoorthy K . , and B . Moore , Combining information for prediction in linear regression , Metrika , 56 , 73 - 81 , 2002 . Schittkowski K . , Numerical Data Fitting in Dynamical Systems : A Practical Introduction with Applications and Software , Kluwer Academic Publishers , 2002 . Gives an overview of numerical methods that are needed to compute parameters of a dynamical model by a least squares fit . How to Do Forecasting by Regression Analysis Regression is the study of relationships among variables , a principal purpose of which is to predict , or estimate the value of one variable from known or assumed values of other variables related to it . Variables of Interest : To make predictions or estimates , we must identify the effective predictors of the variable of interest : which variables are important indicators ? and can be measured at the least cost ? which carry only a little information ? and which are redundant ? Predicting the Future Predicting a change over time or extrapolating from present conditions to future conditions is not the function of regression analysis . To make estimates of the future , use time series analysis . Experiment : Begin with a hypothesis about how several variables might be related to another variable and the form of the relationship . Simple Linear Regression : A regression using only one predictor is called a simple regression . Multiple Regressions : Where there are two or more predictors , multiple regressions analysis is employed . Data : Since it is usually unrealistic to obtain information on an entire population , a sample which is a subset of the population is usually selected . For example , a sample may be either randomly selected or a researcher may choose the x - values based on the capability of the equipment utilized in the experiment or the experiment design . Where the x - values are pre - selected , usually only limited inferences can be drawn depending upon the particular values chosen . When both x and y are randomly drawn , inferences can generally be drawn over Scatter Diagram : A graphical representation of the pairs of data called a scatter diagram can be drawn to gain an overall view of the problem . Is there an apparent relationship ? Direct ? Inverse ? If the points lie within a band described by parallel lines , we can say there is a linear relationship between the pair of x and y values . If the rate of change is generally not constant , then the relationship is curvilinear . The Model : If we have determined there is a linear relationship between t and y we want a linear equation stating y as a function of x in the form Y = a + bx + e where a is the intercept , b is the slope and e is the error term accounting for variables that affect y but are not included as predictors , and / or otherwise unpredictable and uncontrollable factors . Least - Squares Method : To predict the mean y - value for a given x - value , we need a line which passes through the mean value of both x and y and which minimizes the sum of the distance between each of the points and the predictive line . Such an approach should result in a line which we can call a " best fit " to the sample data . The least - squares method achieves this result by calculating the minimum average squared deviations between the sample y points and the estimated line . A procedure is used for finding Solution Methods : Techniques of Matrix Algebra can be manually employed to solve simultaneous linear equations . When performing manual computations , this technique is especially useful when there are more than two equations and two unknowns . Several well - known computer packages are widely available and can be utilized to relieve the user of the computational problem , all of which can be used to solve both linear and polynomial equations : the BMD packages ( Biomedical Computer Programs ) from UCLA ; SPSS ( Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ) developed by the University of Chicago ; and SAS ( Statistical Analysis System ) . Another package that is also available is IMSL , the International Mathematical and Statistical Libraries , which contains a great variety of standard mathematical and statistical calculations . All Use and Interpretation of the Regression Equation : The equation developed can be used to predict an average value over the range of the sample data . The forecast is good for short to medium ranges . Measuring Error in Estimation : The scatter or variability about the mean value can be measured by calculating the variance , the average squared deviation of the values around the mean . The standard error of estimate is derived from this value by taking the square root . This value is interpreted as the average amount that actual values differ from the estimated mean . Confidence Interval : Interval estimates can be calculated to obtain a measure of the confidence we have in our estimates that a relationship exists . These calculations are made using t - distribution tables . From these calculations we can derive confidence bands , a pair of non - parallel lines narrowest at the mean values which express our confidence in varying degrees of the band of values surrounding the regression equation . Assessment : How confident can we be that a relationship actually exists ? The strength of that relationship can be assessed by statistical tests of that hypothesis , such as the null hypothesis , which are established using t - distribution , R - squared , and F - distribution tables . These calculations give rise to the standard error of the regression coefficient , an estimate of the amount that the regression coefficient b will vary from sample to sample of the same size from the same population . An Analysis of Variance ( ANOVA ) table can be generated which When you want to compare models of different size ( different numbers of independent variables and / or different sample sizes ) you must use the Adjusted R - Squared , because the usual R - Squared tends to grow with the number of independent variables . The Standard Error of Estimate , i.e. square root of error mean square , is a good indicator of the " quality " of a prediction model since it " adjusts " the Mean Error Sum of Squares ( MESS ) for the number of predictors in the model as follow : MESS = Error Sum of Squares / ( N - Number of Linearly Independent Predictors ) If one keeps adding useless predictors to a model , the MESS will become less and less stable . R - squared is also influenced by the range of your dependent value ; so , if two models have the same residual mean square but one model has a much narrower range of values for the dependent variable that model will have a higher R - squared . This explains the fact that both models will do as well for prediction purposes . You may like using the Regression Analysis with Diagnostic Tools JavaScript to check your computations , and to perform some numerical experimentation for a deeper understanding of these concepts . Predictions by Regression The regression analysis has three goals : predicting , modeling , and characterization . What would be the logical order in which to tackle these three goals such that one task leads to and / or and justifies the other tasks ? Clearly , it depends on what the prime objective is . Sometimes you wish to model in order to get better prediction . Then the order is obvious . Sometimes , you just want to understand and explain what is going on . Then modeling is again the key , though out - of - sample predicting may The following contains the main essential steps during modeling and analysis of regression model building , presented in the context of an applied numerical example . Formulas and Notations : x / n This is just the mean of the x values . y / n This is just the mean of the y values . xx = SS xx ( x ( i ) - x - ( S x ) / n yy = SS yy ( y ( i ) - y - ( y ) / n xy xy ( x ( i ) - ) ( y ( i ) - ) = x × y  – ( x ) × y ) / n Slope m = SS / SS Intercept , b = - m . y - predicted = yhat ( i ) = m x ( i ) + b . Residual ( i ) = Error ( i ) = y  – yhat ( i ) . SSE = S res res errors [ y ( i )  – yhat ( i ) ] Standard deviation of residuals = s = S = S errors = [ SS / ( n - 2 ) ] 1 / 2 Standard error of the slope ( m ) = S / SS 1 / 2 Standard error of the intercept ( b ) = S [ ( SS + n . ) / ( n SS A taxicab company manager believes that the monthly repair costs ( Y ) of cabs are related to age ( X ) of the cabs . Five cabs are selected randomly and from their records we obtained the following data : ( x , y ) = { ( 2 , 2 ) , ( 3 , 5 ) , ( 4 , 7 ) , ( 5 , 10 ) , ( 6 , 11 ) } . Based on our practical knowledge and the scattered diagram of the data , we hypothesize a linear relationship between predictor X Now the question is how we can best ( i.e. , least square ) use the sample information to estimate the unknown slope ( m ) and the intercept ( b ) ? The first step in finding the least square line is to construct a sum of squares table to find the sums of x values ( x ) , y values ( y ) , the squares of the x values ( ) , the squares of the x values ( ) , and the cross - product of the corresponding x and y values ( xy ) , as shown in the following table : y 15 25 16 28 49 50 36 66 121 SUM 20 35 90 163 299 The second step is to substitute the values of x , y , xy , and into the following formulas : SS xy  – ( x ) ( y ) / n = 163 - ( 20 ) ( 35 ) / 5 = 163 - 140 = 23 SS  – ( x ) / n = 90 - ( 20 ) / 5 = 90 - 80 = 10  – ( y ) / n = 299 - 245 = 54 Use the first two values to compute the estimated slope : Slope = m = SS = 23 / 10 = 2.3 To estimate the intercept of the least square line , use the fact that the graph of the least square line always pass through ( ) point , therefore , The intercept = b =  – ( m ) ( ) = ( y ) / 5  – ( 2.3 ) ( x / 5 ) = 35 / 5  – ( 2.3 ) ( 20 / 5 ) = - 2.2 Therefore the least square line is : y - predicted = yhat = mx + b = - 2.2 + 2.3x . After estimating the slope and the intercept the question is how we determine statistically if the model is good enough , say for prediction . The standard error of slope is : Standard error of the slope ( m ) = S = S / S and its relative precision is measured by statistic t slope = m / S For our numerical example , it is : t slope = 2.3 / [ ( 0.6055 ) / ( 10 ) ] = 12.01 which is large enough , indication that the fitted model is a " good " one . You may ask , in what sense is the least squares line the " best - fitting " straight line to 5 data points . The least squares criterion chooses the line that minimizes the sum of square vertical deviations , i.e. , residual = error = y - yhat : SSE = ( y  – yhat ) = ( error ) = 1.1 The numerical value of SSE is obtained from the following computational table for our numerical example . Predictor - 2.2 + 2.3x y - predicted observed error y squared errors 2.4 - 0.4 0.16 4.7 0.3 0.09 9.3 0.7 0.49 11.6 - 0.6 0.36 Sum = 0 Sum = 1.1 Alternately , one may compute SSE by : SSE = SS  – m SS = 54  – ( 2.3 ) ( 23 ) = 54 - 52.9 = 1.1 , as expected Notice that this value of SSE agrees with the value directly computed from the above table . The numerical value of SSE gives the estimate of variation of the errors s s = SSE / ( n - 2 ) = 1.1 / ( 5 - 2 ) = 0.36667 The estimate the value of the error variance is a measure of variability of the y values about the estimated line . Clearly , we could also compute the estimated standard deviation s of the residuals by taking the square roots of the variance s As the last step in the model building , the following Analysis of Variance ( ANOVA ) table is then constructed to assess the overall goodness - of - fit using the F - statistics : Analysis of Variance Components Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Prob > F Model 52.90000 52.90000 144.273 0.0012 Error SSE = 1.1 0.36667 Total SS = 54 For practical proposes , the fit is considered acceptable if the F - statistic is more than five - times the F - value from the F distribution tables at the back of your textbook . Note that , the criterion that the F - statistic must be more than five - times the F - value from the F distribution tables is independent of the sample size . Notice also that there is a relationship between the two statistics that assess the quality of the fitted line , namely the T - statistics of the slope and the F - statistics in the ANOVA table . The relationship is : = F This relationship can be verified for our computational example . Predictions by Regression : After we have statistically checked the goodness of - fit of the model and the residuals conditions are satisfied , we are ready to use the model for prediction with confidence . Confidence interval provides a useful way of assessing the quality of prediction . In prediction by regression often one or more of the following constructions are of interest : A confidence interval for a single future value of Y corresponding to a chosen value of X . A confidence interval for a single pint on the line . A confidence region for the line as a whole . Confidence Interval Estimate for a Future Value : A confidence interval of interest can be used to evaluate the accuracy of a single ( future ) value of y corresponding to a chosen value of X ( say , X ) . This JavaScript provides confidence interval for an estimated value Y corresponding to X with a desirable confidence level 1 - Y p ± e . t n - 2 , / 2 { 1 / n + ( X  – / S Confidence Interval Estimate for a Single Point on the Line : If a particular value of the predictor variable ( say , X ) is of special importance , a confidence interval on the value of the criterion variable ( i.e. average Y at X ) corresponding to X may be of interest . This JavaScript provides confidence interval on the estimated value of Y corresponding to X with a desirable confidence level 1 - Y p ± e . t n - 2 , / 2 { 1 + 1 / n + ( X  – / S It is of interest to compare the above two different kinds of confidence interval . The first kind has larger confidence interval that reflects the less accuracy resulting from the estimation of a single future value of y rather than the mean value computed for the second kind confidence interval . The second kind of confidence interval can also be used to identify any outliers in the data . Confidence Region the Regression Line as the Whole : When the entire line is of interest , a confidence region permits one to simultaneously make confidence statements about estimates of Y for a number of values of the predictor variable X . In order that region adequately covers the range of interest of the predictor variable X ; usually , data size must be more than 10 pairs of observations . { ( 2 F 2 , n - 2 , ) . [ 1 / n + ( X ] } In all cases the JavaScript provides the results for the nominal ( x ) values . For other values of X one may use computational methods directly , graphical method , or using linear interpolations to obtain approximated results . These approximation are in the safe directions i.e. , they are slightly wider that the exact values . Planning , Development , and Maintenance of a Linear Model Define the problem ; select response ; suggest variables . Are the proposed variables fundamental to the problem , and are they variables ? Are they measurable / countable ? Can one get a complete set of observations at the same time ? Ordinary regression analysis does not assume that the independent variables are measured without error . However , they are conditioned on whatever errors happened to be present in the independent data set . Is the problem potentially solvable ? Find correlation matrix and first regression runs ( for a subset of data ) . Find the basic statistics , correlation matrix . How difficult is the problem ? Compute the Variance Inflation Factor : VIF = 1 / ( 1 - r ij ) , for all i , j . For moderate VIF ' s , say between 2 and 8 , you might be able to come - up with a  ‘ good ' model . Inspect r ij ' s ; one or two must be large . If all are small , perhaps the ranges of the X variables are too small . Establish goal ; prepare budget and time table . a . The final equation should have Adjusted R 2 = 0.8 ( say ) . b . Coefficient of Variation of say ; less than 0.10 c . Number of predictors should not exceed p ( say , 3 ) , ( for example for p = 3 , we need at least 30 points ) . Even if all the usual assumptions for a regression model are satisfied , over - fitting can ruin a model ' s usefulness . The widely used approach is the data reduction method to deal with the cases where the number of potential predictors is large in comparison with the number of observations . d . All estimated coefficients must be significant at m = 0.05 ( say ) . e . No pattern in the residuals Are goals and budget acceptable ? B . Development of the Model : Collect date ; check the quality of date ; plot ; try models ; check the regression conditions . Consult experts for criticism . Plot new variable and examine same fitted model . Also transformed Predictor Variable may be used . Are goals met ? Have you found " the best " model ? C . Validation and Maintenance of the Model : Are parameters stable over the sample space ? Is there a lack of fit ? Are the coefficients reasonable ? Are any obvious variables missing ? Is the equation usable for control or for prediction ? Maintenance of the Model . Need to have control chart to check the model periodically by statistical techniques . Regression Analysis Process You might like to use Regression Analysis with Diagnostic Tools in performing regression analysis . Transfer Functions Methodology It is possible to extend regression models to represent dynamic relationships between variables via appropriate transfer functions used in the construction of feedforward and feedback control schemes . The Transfer Function Analyzer module in SCA forecasting & modeling package is a frequency spectrum analysis package designed with the engineer in mind . It applies the concept of the Fourier integral transform to an input data set to provide a frequency domain representation of the function approximated by that input data . It also presents the results in conventional engineering terms . Testing for and Estimation of Multiple Structural Changes The tests for structural breaks that I have seen are designed to detect only one break in a time series . This is true whether the break point is known or estimated using iterative methods . For example , for testing any change in level of the dependent series or model specification , one may use an iterative test for detecting points in time by incorporating level shift ( 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , . . . , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ) variables to account for a change in intercept . Other causes are the change in variance and changes in parameters . Further Reading : Bai J . , and P . Perron , Testing for and estimation of multiple structural changes , Econometrica , 66 , 47 - 79 , 1998 . Clements M . , and D . Hendry , Forecasting Non - Stationary Economic Time Series , MIT Press , 1999 . Maddala G . , and I - M . Kim , Unit Roots , Cointegration , and Structural Change , Cambridge Univ . Press , 1999 . Chapter 13 . Tong H . , Non - Linear Time Series : A Dynamical System Approach , Oxford University Press , 1995 . Box - Jenkins Methodology Forecasting Basics : The basic idea behind self - projecting time series forecasting models is to find a mathematical formula that will approximately generate the historical patterns in a time series . Time Series : A time series is a set of numbers that measures the status of some activity over time . It is the historical record of some activity , with measurements taken at equally spaced intervals ( exception : monthly ) with a consistency in the activity and the method of measurement . Approaches to time Series Forecasting : There are two basic approaches to forecasting time series : the self - projecting time series and the cause - and - effect approach . Cause - and - effect methods attempt to forecast based on underlying series that are believed to cause the behavior of the original series . The self - projecting time series uses only the time series data of the activity to be forecast to generate forecasts . This latter approach is typically less expensive to apply and requires far less data and is useful for short , to medium - term forecasting . Box - Jenkins Forecasting Method : The univariate version of this methodology is a self - projecting time series forecasting method . The underlying goal is to find an appropriate formula so that the residuals are as small as possible and exhibit no pattern . The model - building process involves a few steps , repeated as necessary , to end up with a specific formula that replicates the patterns in the series as closely as possible and also produces accurate forecasts . Box - Jenkins forecasting models are based on statistical concepts and principles and are able to model a wide spectrum of time series behavior . It has a large class of models to choose from and a systematic approach for identifying the correct model form . There are both statistical tests for verifying model validity and statistical measures of forecast uncertainty . In contrast , traditional forecasting models offer a limited number of models relative to the complex behavior of many time series , with little in the way of guidelines and statistical tests for verifying the validity of the Data : The misuse , misunderstanding , and inaccuracy of forecasts are often the result of not appreciating the nature of the data in hand . The consistency of the data must be insured , and it must be clear what the data represents and how it was gathered or calculated . As a rule of thumb , Box - Jenkins requires at least 40 or 50 equally - spaced periods of data . The data must also be edited to deal with extreme or missing values or other distortions through the use of functions such as log or inverse to achieve stabilization . Preliminary Model Identification Procedure : A preliminary Box - Jenkins analysis with a plot of the initial data should be run as the starting point in determining an appropriate model . The input data must be adjusted to form a stationary series , one whose values vary more or less uniformly about a fixed level over time . Apparent trends can be adjusted by having the model apply a technique of " regular differencing , " a process of computing the difference between every two successive values , computing a differenced series which has overall trend behavior removed . If a single differencing does not Pure Random Series : On the other hand , if the initial data series displays neither trend nor seasonality , and the residual plot shows essentially zero values within a 95 % confidence level and these residual values display no pattern , then there is no real - world statistical problem to solve and we go on to other things . Model Identification Background Basic Model : With a stationary series in place , a basic model can now be identified . Three basic models exist , AR ( autoregressive ) , MA ( moving average ) and a combined ARMA in addition to the previously specified RD ( regular differencing ) : These comprise the available tools . When regular differencing is applied , together with AR and MA , they are referred to as ARIMA , with the I indicating " integrated " and referencing the differencing procedure . Seasonality : In addition to trend , which has now been provided for , stationary series quite commonly display seasonal behavior where a certain basic pattern tends to be repeated at regular seasonal intervals . The seasonal pattern may additionally frequently display constant change over time as well . Just as regular differencing was applied to the overall trending series , seasonal differencing ( SD ) is applied to seasonal non - stationarity as well . And as autoregressive and moving average tools are available with the overall series , so too , are they available for seasonal phenomena using seasonal autoregressive Establishing Seasonality : The need for seasonal autoregression ( SAR ) and seasonal moving average ( SMA ) parameters is established by examining the autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation patterns of a stationary series at lags that are multiples of the number of periods per season . These parameters are required if the values at lags s , 2s , etc . are nonzero and display patterns associated with the theoretical patterns for such models . Seasonal differencing is indicated if the autocorrelations at the seasonal lags do not decrease rapidly . B - J Modeling Approach to Forecasting Click on the image to enlarge it Referring to the above chart know that , the variance of the errors of the underlying model must be invariant , i.e. , constant . This means that the variance for each subgroup of data is the same and does not depend on the level or the point in time . If this is violated then one can remedy this by stabilizing the variance . Make sure that there are no deterministic patterns in the data . Also , one must not have any pulses or one - time unusual values . Additionally , there should be no level or The reason for all of this is that if they do exist , then the sample autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation will seem to imply ARIMA structure . Also , the presence of these kinds of model components can obfuscate or hide structure . For example , a single outlier or pulse can create an effect where the structure is masked by the outlier . Improved Quantitative Identification Method Relieved Analysis Requirements : A substantially improved procedure is now available for conducting Box - Jenkins ARIMA analysis which relieves the requirement for a seasoned perspective in evaluating the sometimes ambiguous autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation residual patterns to determine an appropriate Box - Jenkins model for use in developing a forecast model . ARMA ( 1 , 0 ) : The first model to be tested on the stationary series consists solely of an autoregressive term with lag 1 . The autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation patterns are examined for significant autocorrelation often early terms and to see whether the residual coefficients are uncorrelated ; that is the value of coefficients are zero within 95 % confidence limits and without apparent pattern . When fitted values are as close as possible to the original series values , then the sum of the squared residuals will be minimized , a technique called least squares estimation . The residual mean and the mean ARMA ( 2 , 1 ) : Absent a satisfactory ARMA ( 1 , 0 ) condition with residual coefficients approximating zero , the improved model identification procedure now proceeds to examine the residual pattern when autoregressive terms with order 1 and 2 are applied together with a moving average term with an order of 1 . Subsequent Procedure : To the extent that the residual conditions described above remain unsatisfied , the Box - Jenkins analysis is continued with ARMA ( n , n - 1 ) until a satisfactory model reached . In the course of this iteration , when an autoregressive coefficient ( phi ) approaches zero , the model is reexamined with parameters ARMA ( n - 1 , n - 1 ) . In like manner , whenever a moving average coefficient ( theta ) approaches zero , the model is similarly reduced to ARMA ( n , n - 2 ) . At some Model Selection in B - J Approach to Forecasting Seasonal Analysis : In parallel with this model development cycle and in an entirely similar manner , seasonal autoregressive and moving average parameters are added or dropped in response to the presence of a seasonal or cyclical pattern in the residual terms or a parameter coefficient approaching zero . Model Adequacy : In reviewing the Box - Jenkins output , care should be taken to insure that the parameters are uncorrelated and significant , and alternate models should be weighted for these conditions , as well as for overall correlation ( R ) , standard error , and zero residual . Forecasting with the Model : The model must be used for short term and intermediate term forecasting . This can be achieved by updating it as new data becomes available in order to minimize the number of periods ahead required of the forecast . Monitor the Accuracy of the Forecasts in Real Time : As time progresses , the accuracy of the forecasts should be closely monitored for increases in the error terms , standard error and a decrease in correlation . When the series appears to be changing over time , recalculation of the model parameters should be undertaken . Autoregressive Models The autoregressive model is one of a group of linear prediction formulas that attempt to predict an output of a system based on the previous outputs and inputs , such as : Y ( t ) = Y ( t - 1 ) + X ( t - 1 ) + where X ( t - 1 ) and Y ( t - 1 ) are the actual value ( inputs ) and the forecast ( outputs ) , respectively . These types of regressions are often referred to as Distributed Lag Autoregressive Models Geometric Distributed Lags Adaptive Models in Expectation , among others . A model which depends only on the previous outputs of the system is called an autoregressive model ( AR ) , while a model which depends only on the inputs to the system is called a moving average model ( MA ) , and of course a model based on both inputs and outputs is an autoregressive - moving - average model ( ARMA ) . Note that by definition , the AR model has only poles while the MA model has only zeros . Deriving the autoregressive model ( AR ) involves estimating the coefficients of the model using Autoregressive processes as their name implies , regress on themselves . If an observation made at time ( t ) , then , p - order , [ AR ( p ) ] , autoregressive model satisfies the equation : X ( t ) = + X ( t - 1 ) + X ( t - 2 ) + X ( t - 3 ) + . . . . + X ( t - p ) + where is a White - Noise series . The current value of the series is a linear combination of the p most recent past values of itself plus an error term , which incorporates everything new in the series at time t that is not explained by the past values . This is like a multiple regressions model but is regressed not on independent variables , but on past values ; hence the term " Autoregressive " is used . Autocorrelation : An important guide to the properties of a time series is provided by a series of quantities called sample autocorrelation coefficients or serial correlation coefficient , which measures the correlation between observations at different distances apart . These coefficients often provide insight into the probability model which generated the data . The sample autocorrelation coefficient is similar to the ordinary correlation coefficient between two variables ( x ) and ( y ) , except that it is applied to a single time series to see if successive observations are correlated . Given ( N ) observations on discrete time series we can form ( N - 1 ) pairs of observations . Regarding the first observation in each pair as one variable , and the second observation as a second variable , the correlation coefficient is called autocorrelation coefficient of order one . Correlogram : A useful aid in interpreting a set of autocorrelation coefficients is a graph called a correlogram , and it is plotted against the lag ( k ) ; where is the autocorrelation coefficient at lag ( k ) . A correlogram can be used to get a general understanding on the following aspects of our time series : A random series : if a time series is completely random then for Large ( N ) , will be approximately zero for all non - zero values of ( k ) . Short - term correlation : stationary series often exhibit short - term correlation characterized by a fairly large value of 2 or 3 more correlation coefficients which , while significantly greater than zero , tend to get successively smaller . Non - stationary series : If a time series contains a trend , then the values of will not come to zero except for very large values of the lag . Seasonal fluctuations : Common autoregressive models with seasonal fluctuations , of period s are : X ( t ) = a + b X ( t - s ) + and X ( t ) = a + b X ( t - s ) + c X ( t - 2s ) + where is a White - Noise series . Partial Autocorrelation : A partial autocorrelation coefficient for order k measures the strength of correlation among pairs of entries in the time series while accounting for ( i.e. , removing the effects of ) all autocorrelations below order k . For example , the partial autocorrelation coefficient for order k = 5 is computed in such a manner that the effects of the k = 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 partial autocorrelations have been excluded . The partial autocorrelation coefficient of any particular order is the same as the autoregression coefficient of the same order . Fitting an Autoregressive Model : If an autoregressive model is thought to be appropriate for modeling a given time series then there are two related questions to be answered : ( 1 ) What is the order of the model ? and ( 2 ) How can we estimate the parameters of the model ? The parameters of an autoregressive model can be estimated by minimizing the sum of squares residual with respect to each parameter , but to determine the order of the autoregressive model is not easy particularly when the system being modeled has a biological interpretation . One approach is , to fit AR models of progressively higher order , to calculate the residual sum of squares for each value of p ; and to plot this against p . It may then be possible to see the value of p where the curve " flattens out " and the addition of extra parameters gives little improvement in fit . Selection Criteria : Several criteria may be specified for choosing a model format , given the simple and partial autocorrelation correlogram for a series : If none of the simple autocorrelations is significantly different from zero , the series is essentially a random number or white - noise series , which is not amenable to autoregressive modeling . If the simple autocorrelations decrease linearly , passing through zero to become negative , or if the simple autocorrelations exhibit a wave - like cyclical pattern , passing through zero several times , the series is not stationary ; it must be differenced one or more times before it may be modeled with an autoregressive process . If the simple autocorrelations exhibit seasonality ; i.e. , there are autocorrelation peaks every dozen or so ( in monthly data ) lags , the series is not stationary ; it must be differenced with a gap approximately equal to the seasonal interval before further modeling . If the simple autocorrelations decrease exponentially but approach zero gradually , while the partial autocorrelations are significantly non - zero through some small number of lags beyond which they are not significantly different from zero , the series should be modeled with an autoregressive process . If the partial autocorrelations decrease exponentially but approach zero gradually , while the simple autocorrelations are significantly non - zero through some small number of lags beyond which they are not significantly different from zero , the series should be modeled with a moving average process . If the partial and simple autocorrelations both converge upon zero for successively longer lags , but neither actually reaches zero after any particular lag , the series may be modeled by a combination of autoregressive and moving average process . The following figures illustrate the behavior of the autocorrelations and the partial autocorrelations for AR ( 1 ) models , respectively , AR1 Autocorrelations and Partial Autocorrelations Similarly , for AR ( 2 ) , the behavior of the autocorrelations and the partial autocorrelations are depicted below , respectively : AR2 Autocorrelations and Partial Autocorrelations Adjusting the Slope ' s Estimate for Length of the Time Series : The regression coefficient is biased estimate and in the case of AR ( 1 ) , the bias is - ( 1 + 3 ) / n , where n is number of observations used to estimate the parameters . Clearly , for large data sets this bias is negligible . Stationarity Condition : Note that an autoregressive process will only be stable if the parameters are within a certain range ; for example , in AR ( 1 ) , the slope must be within the open interval ( - 1 , 1 ) . Otherwise , past effects would accumulate and the successive values get ever larger ( or smaller ) ; that is , the series would not be stationary . For higher order , similar ( general ) restrictions on the parameter values can be satisfied . Inevitability Condition : Without going into too much detail , there is a " duality " between a given time series and the autoregressive model representing it ; that is , the equivalent time series can be generated by the model . The AR models are always invertible . However , analogous to the stationarity condition described above , there are certain conditions for the Box - Jenkins MA parameters to be invertible . Forecasting : The estimates of the parameters are used in Forecasting to calculate new values of the series , beyond those included in the input data set and confidence intervals for those predicted values . An Illustrative Numerical Example : The analyst at Aron Company has a time series of readings for the monthly sales to be forecasted . The data are shown in the following table : Aron Company Monthly Sales ( $ 1000 ) X ( t ) X ( t ) 50.8 48.1 50.8 16 53.1 21 49.7 50.3 50.1 52.8 17 51.6 22 50.3 50.2 48.7 13 53.0 23 49.9 48.7 49.2 14 51.8 50.6 24 51.8 48.5 51.1 15 53.6 20 49.7 51.0 By constructing and studying the plot of the data one notices that the series drifts above and below the mean of about 50.6 . By using the Time Series Identification Process JavaScript , a glance of the autocorrelation and the partial autocorrelation confirm that the series is indeed stationary , and a first - order ( p = 1 ) autoregressive model is a good candidate . X ( t ) = + X ( t - 1 ) + where is a White - Noise series . Stationary Condition : The AR ( 1 ) is stable if the slope is within the open interval ( - 1 , 1 ) , that is : | | < 1 is expressed as a null hypothesis H that must be tested before forecasting stage . To test this hypothesis , we must replace the t - test used in the regression analysis for testing the slope with the - test introduced by the two economists , Dickey and Fuller . This test is coded in the Autoregressive Time Series Modeling The estimated AR ( 1 ) model is : X ( t ) = 14.44 + 0.715 X ( t - 1 ) The 3 - step ahead forecasts are : X ( 26 ) = 14.44 + 0.715 X ( 25 ) = 14.44 + 0.715 ( 51.0 ) = 50.91 X ( 27 ) = 14.44 + 0.715 X ( 26 ) = 14.44 + 0.715 ( 50.91 ) = 50.84 X ( 28 ) = 14.44 + 0.715 X ( 27 ) = 14.44 + 0.715 ( 50.84 ) = 50.79 Notice : As always , it is necessary to construct the graph and compute statistics and check for stationary both in mean and variance , as well as the seasonality test . For many time - series , one must perform , differencing , data transformation , and / or deasonalitization prior to using this JavaScript . Ashenfelter , et al . Statistics and Econometrics : Methods and Applications , Wiley , 2002 . The five major economic sectors , as defined by economists , are agriculture , construction , mining , manufacturing and services . The first four identified sectors concern goods , which production dominated the world ' s economic activities . However , the fastest growing aspect of the world ' s advanced economies includes wholesale , retail , business , professional , education , government , health care , finance , insurance , real estate , transportation , telecommunications , etc . comprise the majority of their gross national product and employ the majority of their workers . In contrast We are attempting to ' model ' what the reality is so that we can predict it . Statistical Modeling , in addition to being of central importance in statistical decision making , is critical in any endeavor , since essentially everything is a model of reality . As such , modeling has applications in such disparate fields as marketing , finance , and organizational behavior . Particularly compelling is econometric modeling , since , unlike most disciplines ( such as Normative Economics ) , econometrics deals only with provable facts , not with beliefs and opinions . Modeling Financial Time Series Time series analysis is an integral part of financial analysis . The topic is interesting and useful , with applications to the prediction of interest rates , foreign currency risk , stock market volatility , and the like . There are many varieties of econometric and multi - variate techniques . Specific examples are regression and multi - variate regression ; vector auto - regressions ; and co - integration regarding tests of present value models . The next section presents the underlying theory on which statistical models are predicated . Financial Modeling : Econometric modeling is vital in finance and in financial time series analysis . Modeling is , simply put , the creation of representations of reality . It is important to be mindful that , despite the importance of the model , it is in fact only a representation of reality and not the reality itself . Accordingly , the model must adapt to reality ; it is futile to attempt to adapt reality to the model . As representations , models can not be exact . Models imply that action is taken only after careful thought and reflection . This The examples of univariate and multivariate regression , vector autoregression , and present value co - integration illustrate the application of modeling , a vital dimension in managerial decision making , to econometrics , and specifically the study of financial time series . The provable nature of econometric models is impressive ; rather than proffering solutions to financial problems based on intuition or convention , one can mathematically demonstrate that a model is or is not valid , or requires modification . It can also be seen that modeling is an iterative process , as the models must change continuously Univariate and Multivariate Models : The use of regression analysis is widespread in examining financial time series . Some examples are the use of foreign exchange rates as optimal predictors of future spot rates ; conditional variance and the risk premium in foreign exchange markets ; and stock returns and volatility . A model that has been useful for this type of application is called the GARCH - M model , which incorporates computation of the mean into the GARCH ( generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedastic ) model . This sounds complex and esoteric , but it only means that the serially correlated errors and the One application of this model is the analysis of stock returns and volatility . Traditionally , the belief has been that the variance of portfolio returns is the primary risk measure for investors . However , using extensive time series data , it has been proven that the relationship between mean returns and return variance or standard deviation are weak ; hence the traditional two - parameter asset pricing models appear to be inappropriate , and mathematical proof replaces convention . Since decisions premised on the original models are necessarily sub - optimal because the original premise is flawed , Correct specification of a model is of paramount importance , and a battery of mis - specification testing criteria has been established . These include tests of normality , linearity , and homoskedasticity , and these can be applied to a variety of models . A simple example , which yields surprising results in the Capital Asset Pricing Model ( CAPM ) , one of the cornerstones of elementary economics is the application of the testing criteria to data concerning companies ' risk premium shows significant evidence of non - linearity , non - normality and parameter non - constancy Multivariate linear regression models apply the same theoretical framework . The principal difference is the replacement of the dependent variable by a vector . The estimation theory is essentially a multivariate extension of that developed for the univariate , and as such can be used to test models such as the stock and volatility model and the CAPM . In the case of the CAPM , the vector introduced is excess asset returns at a designated time . One application is the computation of the CAPM with time - varying covariances . Although , in this example the null hypothesis Vector Autoregression : General regression models assume that the dependent variable is a function of past values of itself and past and present values of the independent variable . The independent variable , then , is said to be weakly exogenous , since its stochastic structure contains no relevant information for estimating the parameters of interest . While the weak exogenicity of the independent variable allows efficient estimation of the parameters of interest without any reference to its own stochastic structure , problems in predicting the dependent variable may arise if " feedback " from the dependent to the independent variable develops over Results of this testing are useful in determination of whether an independent variable is strictly exogenous or is predetermined . Strict exogenicity can be tested in DSEMs by expressing each endogenous variable as an infinite distributed lag of the exogenous variables . If the independent variable is strictly exogenous , attention can be limited to distributions conditional on the independent variable without loss of information , resulting in simplification of statistical inference . If the independent variable is strictly exogenous , it is also predetermined , meaning that all of its past and current values are independent of the current It can be seen that this type of analysis is helpful in verifying the appropriateness of a model as well as proving that , in some cases , the process of statistical inference can be simplified without losing accuracy , thereby both strengthening the credibility of the model and increasing the efficiency of the modeling process . Vector autoregressions can be used to calculate other variations on causality , including instantaneous causality , linear dependence , and measures of feedback from the dependent to he independent and from the independent to the dependent variables . It is possible to proceed Co - Integration and Present Value Modeling : Present value models are used extensively in finance to formulate models of efficient markets . In general terms , a present value model for two variables y1 and x1 , states that y1 is a linear function of the present discounted value of the expected future values of x1 , where the constant term , the constant discount factor , and the coefficient of proportionality are parameters that are either known or need to be estimated . Not all financial time series are non - integrated ; the presence of integrated variables affects standard regression results and procedures of inference One such test is stock market volatility . Assuming co - integration , second - order vector autoregressions are constructed , which suggest that dividend changes are not only highly predictable but are Granger - caused by the spread . When the assumed value of the discount rate is increased , certain restrictions can be rejected at low significance levels . This yields results showing an even more pronounced " excess volatility " than that anticipated by the present value model . It also illustrates that the model is more appropriate in situations where the discount rate is higher . Mean absolute error is a robust measure of error . However , one may also use the sum of errors to compare the success of each forecasting model relative to a baseline , such as a random walk model , which is usually used in financial time series modeling . Franses Ph . , and D . Van Dijk , Nonlinear Time Series Models in Empirical Finance , Cambridge University Press , 2000 . Taylor S . , Modelling Financial Time Series , Wiley , 1986 . Tsay R . , Analysis of Financial Time Series , Wiley , 2001 . Econometrics and Time Series Models Econometrics models are sets of simultaneous regressions models with applications to areas such as Industrial Economics , Agricultural Economics , and Corporate Strategy and Regulation . Time Series Models require a large number of observations ( say over 50 ) . Both models are used successfully for business applications ranging from micro to macro studies , including finance and endogenous growth . Other modeling approaches include structural and classical modeling such as Box - Jenkins approaches , co - integration analysis and general micro econometrics in probabilistic models ; e.g. , Logit , and Probit , panel data and cross Ericsson N . , and J . Irons , Testing Exogeneity , Oxford University Press , 1994 . Granger C . , and P . Newbold , Forecasting in Business and Economics , Academic Press , 1989 . Hamouda O . , and J . Rowley , ( Eds . ) , Time Series Models , Causality and Exogeneity , Edward Elgar Pub . , 1999 . Simultaneous Equations The typical empirical specification in economics or finance is a single equation model that assumes that the explanatory variables are non - stochastic and independent of the error term . This allows the model to be estimated by Least Squares Regression ( LSR ) analysis , such an empirical model leaves no doubt as to the assumed direction of causation ; it runs directly from the explanatory variables to the dependent variable in the equation . The LSR analysis is confined to the fitting of a single regression equation . In practice , most economic relationships interact with others in a system of simultaneous equations , and when this is the case , the application of LSR to a single relationship in isolation yields biased estimates . Therefore , it is important to show how it is possible to use LSR to obtain consistent estimates of the coefficients of a relationship . The general structure of a simultaneous equation model consists of a series of interdependent equations with endogenous and exogenous variables . Endogenous variables are determined within the system of equations . Exogenous variables or more generally , predetermined variables , help describe the movement of endogenous variables within the system or are determined outside the model . Applications : Simultaneous equation systems constitute a class of models where some of the economic variables are jointly determined . The typical example offered in econometrics textbooks is the supply and demand model of a good or service . The interaction of supply and demand forces jointly determine the equilibrium price and quantity of the product in the market . Due to the potential correlation of the right - hand side variables with the error term in the equations , it no longer makes sense to talk about dependent and independent variables . Instead we distinguish between endogenous variables and exogenous variables Simultaneous equation estimation is not limited to models of supply and demand . Numerous other applications exist such as the model of personal consumption expenditures , the impact of protectionist pressures on trade and short - term interest rate model . Simultaneous equation models have natural applications in the banking literature Due to the joint determination of risk and return and the transformation relationship between bank deposits and bank assets . Structural and Reduced - Form Equations : Consider the following Keynesian model for the determination of aggregate income based on a consumption function and an income identity : C = Y + Y = C + I , Where : C is aggregate consumption expenditure in time period t , I is aggregate investment in period t , Y is aggregate income in period t , and is a disturbance ( error ) term with mean zero and constant variance . These equations are called Structural Equations that provide a structure for how the economy functions . The first equation is the consumption equation that relates consumption spending to income . The coefficient is the marginal propensity to consume which is useful if we can estimate it . For this model , the variables C and Y are the endogenous variables . The other variables are called the exogenous variables , such as investment I . Note that there must be as many equations as endogenous variables . Reduced - Form Equations : On the condition that I is exogenous , derive the reduced - form equations for C and Y . Substituting for Y in the first equation , C = + ( C + I ) + Hence C = / ( 1 - ) + I / ( 1 - ) + / ( 1 - ) , and Y = / ( 1 - ) + I / ( 1 - ) + / ( 1 - ) , Now we are able to utilize the LSR analysis in estimating this equation . This is permissible because investment and the error term are uncorrelated by the fact that the investment is exogenous . However , using the first equation one obtains an estimate slope / ( 1 - ) , while the second equation provides another estimate of 1 / ( 1 - ) . Therefore taking the ration of these reduced - form slopes will provide an estimate for An Application : The following table provides consumption capital and domestic product income in US Dollars for 33 countries in 1999 . Country Y Country Y Australia 15024 4749 19461 South Korea 4596 1448 6829 Austria 19813 6787 26104 Luxembourg 26400 9767 42650 Belgium 18367 5174 24522 Malaysia 1683 873 3268 Canada 15786 4017 20085 Mexico 3359 1056 4328 China - PR 446 293 768 Netherlands 17558 4865 24086 China - HK 17067 7262 24452 New Zealand 11236 2658 13992 Denmark 25199 6947 32769 Norway 23415 9221 32933 Finland | [
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http://home2suites3.hilton.com/en/hotels/south-carolina/home2-suites-by-hilton-columbia-downtown-CAEHTHT/index.html | Home2 Suites by Hilton Columbia Downtown All Skip secondary navigation Hotel Home Amenities Services Maps Directions Rooms Suites Plan An Event Special Offers Dining Things To Do Giving Back Not what youre looking for Find Nearby Hotels Print Hotel Information Checkin 300 pm Checkout 1100 am Smoking NonSmoking A fee of up to 250 USD will be assessed for smoking in a nonsmoking room Please ask the Front Desk for locations of designated outdoor smoking areas Parking Self parking 1000 Valet Not Available Pets Service animals allowed Yes Pets allowed Yes Deposit 5000 NonRefundable Maximum Weight 50 lbs Hotel Policies WHERE WE ARE Find where we are located View the Maps Directions Page Meetings Events Need guest rooms or meeting space for your group meeting or special event At A Glance Your Modern Home2 in Downtown Columbia Enjoy a comfortable stay at our contemporary Home2 Suites by Hilton Columbia Downtown hotel Located in the heart of the business financial and entertainment districts our hotel is within walking distance of the University of South Carolina Nearby attractions include the South Carolina State House South Carolina Museum of Art Colonial Life Arena Williams Brice Stadium Ed Venture Childrens Museum and Riverbanks Zoo and Garden Our spacious suites are ideal for an extended stay providing flexible workstations a fully equipped kitchen and separate seating area with a sofa bed Our Columbia hotel provides modern amenities to make you feel right at home Connect to complimentary WiFi and surf the web from the comfort of your suite Stay entertained with a 40inch HDTV and premium cable channels The hotel features a Home2MKT convenience store the perfect place to grab snacks on the go We also provide a Spin2Cycle center where you can access fitness equipment and a laundry facility at the same time ABOUT THE HOTEL Hotel Facts Walking distance to the University of South Carolina 19 minutes from Columbia Metropolitan Airport Near Riverbanks Zoo and Garden Colonial Life Arena and Ed Venture Childrens Museum Petfriendly hotel with heated indoor pool fitness center and guest laundry 100 spacious suites with full kitchens and separate living and sleeping areas Our Suites Included in Every Stay Free Breakfast Cooking and Work Spaces in All Suites Free WiFi Spin2 Cycle CenterLaundry and Fitness Facility Amenities and Services | [
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http://homeappliance.manualsonline.com/manuals/mfg/crown_boiler/xe4.html | Crown Boiler XE4 Boiler User Manual Open as PDF of 20 Problems Solutions Sponsored Listings | [
"Manual",
"Crown Boiler"
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http://homebusiness.about.com/od/linkedin/a/how-does-linkedin-work.htm | Home Business Marketing & Sales Introduction to LinkedIn LinkedIn can help you grow your business or career • • • By Randy Duermyer Updated December 17 , 2018 LinkedIn is a valuable resource for career and business professionals to network ; obtain resources and support ; and build relationships with potential customers , clients , and partners . It ' s ideal for home - based business owners , freelancers , and telecommuters , as it can help them build their business and career , as well as stay connected to the outside world . Overview of LinkedIn LinkedIn is a social network specifically designed for career and business professionals to connect . Over 65 million professionals use LinkedIn to cultivate their careers and businesses . Unlike other social networks in which you might become " friends " with anyone and everyone , LinkedIn is about building strategic relationships . Thus , the number of connections is less important than the type of connections . In fact , LinkedIn stops showing your actual number of connections once you have 500 because it ' s about quality , not quantity . The site boasts members from just about every country and every industry imaginable . In fact , many Fortune 500 executives are on LinkedIn . The site has some advertising , but it ’ s not as invasive as other networking sites . Working much like the " Six Degrees of Separation " concept , you start by connecting with those you know and who know you , and through them build a larger network for the purpose of gaining resources , finding freelance work or clients , and building alliances and partnerships . LinkedIn is ideal for building connections for freelance work , a customer base , potential partners , or simply to keep your job prospects open . How to Use LinkedIn LinkedIn has its own platform and system different from other networks , but learning how to use LinkedIn is no more difficult than learning how to use any other social networking site . Start by creating a personal LinkedIn account and profile . However , networking on LinkedIn is much different . You wo n ' t find members posting cat videos or pictures of what they made for dinner . LinkedIn is a site for professionals , so everything is geared toward careers and business . As you build your profile and seek out connections , endorsements , and recommendations , you ' ll want to be professional . Create a LinkedIn Profile All you need to get started is to create a LinkedIn login . You can also upgrade to one of the paid LinkedIn subscriptions ; Premium Career , Business Plus , LinkedIn Learning , Sales Navigator ( three levels ) , and Recruiter Lite . Using just the basic free services is sufficient for many employees and home business owners and gets you features such as : Having a professional profile of skills , experiences , and more Limited insight into who ' s viewed your profile Ability to see 100 profiles per search Ability to save three searches Upgrading increases some of these features such as seeing more information about who ' s viewed your profile , the number of profiles per search , and the number of searches . Plus , upgrades can include additional features such as InMail credits , which allows you to message people who are not connected to you , and premium filters , which make searching faster and easier . Once you sign up for a LinkedIn account , either free or paid , you can create your own professional profile . Remember , this is a professional - minded website , so it ’ s important that information in your profile represents your business or career . LinkedIn is not the place to share cute baby photos or party pictures . Some of the items you can add to a profile include the basics of your resume , a summary of yourself , your contact information , links to your website or blog , your previous employers , published books , and notable projects . Do n ' t forget to add a professional picture , as people are reluctant to connect with someone without a photo . Because your LinkedIn profile is like a resume or business card , it ' s essentially a marketing tool . For that reason , consider writing a benefits - oriented profile , so potential partners can recognize the advantage of working with you . Once your profile is complete , you can publish it and start looking for “ connections . ” A connection is a person that you know or would like to know . Essentially , the idea is to create as many direct connections as you can by adding people within your own professional circle and branching out to include their connections . Your connections can also provide introductions to other professionals you might be interested in meeting . Connections can also endorse you for skills and provide you with recommendations . Use LinkedIn to Build a Home Business LinkedIn can help you to start and grow a home business . It provides you with an opportunity to communicate and collaborate with other professionals interested in sharing business and industry knowledge . It is an efficient tool for locating those who may contribute to the success of your business . LinkedIn allows you to : Have an online resume and business card where potential clients , customers , and joint venture partners can learn about and connect with you . Get online endorsements and recommendations for your professional abilities and character . Get introductions to potential clients , customers , and colleagues . Search available job postings placed on the LinkedIn website by members . While you can also search the web for jobs , through LinkedIn , the big benefit is that many job posts are exclusive to LinkedIn : They are n ' t advertised elsewhere . Those postings often have a requirement that you have one or more LinkedIn recommendations . Additionally , there is a chance that someone within your LinkedIn network already works there or knows someone who does , increasing your chances for an interview . Join various groups that align with your interests and participate in discussions . Having a group in common with another LinkedIn user is one way you can invite others to your network . Each group discussion contains its own job listings . Further , it ' s a place to share your expertise and build the trust and rapport needed to cultivate new clients and customers . Staying connected with the outside world is n ' t the only benefit of LinkedIn . Learning how to use LinkedIn and maximizing all it offers can provide strong professional connections and boost your online reputation better than most other social networking resources . Continue Reading + | [
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http://homebuying.about.com/od/financingadvice/qt/BuyClosingCosts.htm | Home Buying Home Financing Home Buyers Closing Costs • • • By Elizabeth Weintraub Updated February 03 , 2019 Buying a home involves more money out - of - pocket than just the down payment . Buyers also need money to pay for services rendered . These are known as closing costs , which are used to pay for items such as title policies , recording fees , inspections , courier charges , reserves to set up an escrow or impound account and fees that a lender charges . It is the fees a lender charges to make a loan that typically cost the most . Closing costs are on top of ( in addition to ) the purchase price . This can come as a sudden shock to many home buyers who are only looking at the amount of their down payment , especially if the down payment is very low . They might not have the extra money to pay the buyer ' s closing costs , and without money to close , the transaction might not close at all . How Much a Buyer Can Expect to Pay for Closing Costs As a rule of thumb closing costs to buy a home run about 2 to 4 percent of the purchase price , with the average around 3 % of the sales price . Much depends on the points and origination fees a lender charges to make the loan , which used to be disclosed on the buyer ' s Good Faith Estimate , but today is now called a loan estimate . The total closing costs to purchase a $ 300,000 home could cost anywhere from approximately $ 6,000 to $ 12,000 or more . Typically , the funds can not be borrowed because that could raise the buyer ' s ratios to a point where the buyer may no longer qualify for a loan . Where a Buyer Can Get " Free " Closing Costs Sometimes , first - time home buyers can get their closing costs paid by a government agency . Depending on where you live , it could make sense to check into county or state down payment assistance programs . Not only do these programs provide the down payment to buy a home , but they often will either give you or lend the closing costs Programs that provide for buyer ' s closing costs assistance often will record an instrument in the public records that provide security for the loan but typically carries zero interest and has no set due date . It generally is paid off at the time of sale or upon a refinance , whichever first occurs . Non - Recurring Buyer Closing Costs Buyer ' s closing cost fees that are paid once and never again are called non - recurring . These fees are one - time charges for such items as : Title Policies Escrow or closing Notary Wire fees Courier / Delivery Attorney fees Endorsements Recording State , County or City Transfer Taxes Home Protection Plans Natural Hazard Disclosures Home Inspection Lender fees paid in conjunction with the loan on the loan estimate . Recurring Buyer Closings Costs Recurring fees are those buyer ' s closing costs that you will pay again and again . They are often fees collected in advance of closing for prepaid premiums and establishing impound / escrow accounts . They include such fees as : Fire Insurance Premium Flood Insurance ( if required in your area ) Property Taxes Mutual or Private Mortgage Insurance Premiums Prepaid Interest The time of the year that you close will dictate how many prorata months of premiums the lender will collect to hold against future payments of taxes and insurance . Not every loan requires an impound or escrow account , but typically loans totaling more than 80 % of your purchase price will demand an impound / escrow account . Seller Credits Always check with your lender before you negotiate an offer that involves a seller credit because the lender might not allow it . Further , TRID might not allow any changes in your closing statement within the final days of closing your transaction . If you are financing 100 % of the purchase price , the lender might limit your credit to 3 % of the purchase price . Depending on your FICO score and the amount of your down payment , the lender might allow a seller to credit you as much as 6 % of the purchase price . Lenders will not let a borrower receive cash from a seller at closing , regardless of what you may hear at those no - money - down seminars At the time of writing , Elizabeth Weintraub , CalBRE # 00697006 , is a Broker - Associate at Lyon Real Estate in Sacramento , California Continue Reading + | [
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http://homebuyinginstitute.com/help/2009/01/is-fico-credit-score-of-750-considered.html | Is FICO Credit Score of 750 Considered Good or Excellent ? By Brandon Cornett © 2011 All rights reserved Reader question : " I recently ordered my FICO credit scores and found out that my highest one ( Experian ) is 750 points . Is a credit score of 750 considered good or excellent ? Will it help my get qualified for a mortgage loan ? What about a car loan ? " This is one of the most common questions we get from our readers ( credit scores in general , not just the 750 number ) . That ' s what prompted me to create this ongoing tutorial on the subject . This article is specific to home buyers , and you did ask about mortgage loans . So you might want to read this one next . It ' s one of the only articles on the website that gets updated on a regular basis . So it ' s certainly worth a read . Now , on to the question at hand : Is a FICO credit score of 750 considered good or excellent ? There are n ' t any exact definitions for " good " and " excellent " within the context of credit scoring . But I ' d say you are right on the line between the two - - and leaning toward the excellent side . Some lenders will consider a 750 as a very good credit score , while others will consider it to be excellent . So , you ' re in pretty good shape , as far as getting a loan . Your score is above average . From a credit standpoint , you should have no trouble qualifying for a mortgage loan . Auto financing will be even easier for you . Credit Scores and " Labels " are Hard to Connect In reality , it ' s hard to connect words like " good " and " excellent " to a certain FICO score . This is what leaves home buyers confused and frustrated . If you ' ve been researching this subject for any length of time , you probably realize this already . You see people talk about good or bad credit , but you do n ' t see any numbers assigned to those labels . The words , by themselves , are useless . For instance , a subprime borrower is defined as a person who can not qualify for prime financing . But what does this equate to , in terms of the actual credit score ? A FICO score of 620 or below ? A score of 599 or below ? It ' s hard to say . It varies from one lender to the next . I ' ve also seen people define a subprime borrower as someone with " less than ideal " credit . This is even less helpful than the previous definition . I ' ve made an effort to solve this problem by inserting some actual numbers . You ' ll find this information in the article I mentioned earlier FICO 750 Should Open Plenty of Doors A few years ago , a credit score of 650 or higher might have qualified you for the best mortgage rates available . But not anymore . The current housing market ( 2011 - 2012 ) is vastly different from the market we saw in the bubble days . Today , you ' ll probably need a FICO score of 750 or higher to get the best rates . And even then , you might have to pay additional points at closing . But even today , a 750 is still considered a good credit score . It ' s certainly better than average . So it should help your cause when applying for a mortgage loan . And if you measure up well in other areas ( such as your income and debt levels ) , you should have no trouble getting approved for a mortgage . What is an Excellent Score ? So that answers one of your questions : Is a credit score of 750 considered good ? Yes , that is still a good score in the current economy . You also asked if it was considered an excellent score . It really depends on how you define these words . If you define the word " good " as meaning you ' ll be able to qualify for a mortgage loan , then a 750 meets that definition in this economy . You are clearly on that side of the fence . If you define an " excellent " score as one that qualifies you for the best interest rates a mortgage lender has to offer , then I would say you ' re sitting on the fence . Some lenders will offer you their best rates with a FICO credit score of 750 while others may not . On the MyFICO . com website , you can download a booklet in PDF format that gives a pretty good overview of what FICO scores are and how they work . The document was created by the same company that created the actual FICO scoring model ( Fair Isaac Corporation ) . Who better to listen to on this subject ? Here is what they had to say in a section labeled as " What is a Good FICO Score ? " " Since there ' s no one score cutoff used by all lenders , it ' s hard to say what a good FICO score is . . . one lender may offer lower interest rates to people with scores above 680 , while another lender may use 720 , and so on . " This quote only underscores what I ' ve said already . A score of 750 will probably be considered good by most lenders today . So you probably wo n ' t have any trouble getting qualified for a mortgage loan with that score , as long as the loan is within your budget . But whether or not those same lenders will consider a FICO credit score of 750 " excellent " - - and whether they are prepared to offer you their best rates - - is something else entirely . Here ' s the good news . Most lenders will tell you what their general criteria are , in terms of credit scores . They will tell you , for example , what their cut - off score is for getting the best rate on a loan . You can also find out where you stand by applying for a quote with a lender . So there ' s really no reason to listen to speculation and opinions on this subject - - just go out and get the real scoop from a mortgage lender . You ' ve got One of Several Qualifying Factors Of course , the lender will consider other things beyond your FICO score . A lender will also want to know how much money you make , in order to judge the affordability of the loan you want . To do this , they will also consider your total amount of debt in relation to your gross monthly income . This is known as the debt - to - income ratio , and it ' s another key factor in mortgage approval . So while a FICO score of 750 may be considered excellent by some lenders , it ' s not the only factor in their decision - making process . They also want to know where you stand in terms of debt , income , employment , down payment , etc . Something to keep in mind . | [
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http://homebuyinginstitute.com/mortgageprocess_article13.php | Earnest Money Deposit - The Buyer ' s Good - Faith Gesture By Brandon Cornett | © 2019 , all rights reserved | Copyright policy Get up to 5 Offers at LendingTree . com to see how much you can afford . Editor ' s note : We get a lot of questions from home buyers about the earnest money deposit when buying a home . How much money do I need to put down ? What happens to the money when the offer is accepted ? Will I get it back if I back out of the deal ? Under what circumstances can the seller keep it ? You ' ll find answers to these and other earnest money questions below . Here are some of the more frequently asked questions we have received over the years : What is earnest money ? When you make an offer to buy a house , you want the seller to take your offer seriously . So you offer a " good faith " deposit toward the purchase price . This is also referred to as the earnest money deposit . You are using this money to show the seller you are earnest ( an old - fashioned word for serious ) about buying their house . Do n ' t confuse this with the down payment on the house . They are two separate things , though both can be applied toward the purchase price . If the seller accepts your offer and the deal goes through , the earnest money will be go toward the purchase of the house . So it becomes part of your investment in the property . If you back out of the deal , however , you could wind up forfeiting the earnest money to the seller . We will talk more about these scenarios below . It ' s more of a real estate tradition than anything else . But it does send a signal about you as the buyer . It says you ' re not trying to waste anyone ' s time , and that you are seriously interested in the property . You may hear this referred to as the deposit , the good - faith money , or the earnest money . These terms are used interchangeably , but they all mean the same thing . When do I pay it ? In most cases , you would pay the earnest money when making an offer to buy a house . In fact , the exact amount should be spelled out in the contract . When I say " contract " in this context , I am referring to the purchase agreement that you write up . Your real estate agent should help you prepare this document . The purchase agreement will include the amount you are offering to pay for the house , as well as the amount of earnest money you are paying . The purchase agreement should also include certain contingencies that allow you to back out of the deal . We will talk more about contingencies below . How much should I pay ? Earnest money deposits usually range between 1 % and 3 % of the purchase price . Here in California where I am , most home buyers put down 3 % for earnest money . It varies from one real estate market to the next . In some markets , the standard amount might be $ 500 to $ 1,000 - - regardless of the purchase price being offered . There are no laws governing this , by the way . It ' s more a matter of local custom and tradition . Your real estate agent is your best resource in this area . He or she can tell you how much earnest money you should pay when making your offer When my wife and I were selling our house in Texas , we had a buyer who put down $ 500 in earnest money . We were also in a situation where we had multiple offers from buyers . We were selling the house for about $ 275,000 , so the $ 500 deposit was n ' t even equal to 1 % of the purchase price . This told us that these particular buyers were n ' t very " earnest " about buying our house . The other offers included earnest money in the 1 % - 2 % range . It seemed to us that the buyers with the lower deposit amount were trying to hedge their bet , because they felt they might back out of the deal . This worried us and made us less inclined to accept their offer . And that ' s exactly what happened . We accepted a stronger offer , and that was the last we heard of the low - ball earnest money people . See also : How much should I offer for a house ? My advice is to follow the local custom when making your earnest money payment . Offer the average amount - - no more and no less . That way , you wo n ' t risk insulting the sellers . Nor will you have an unusually large amount of money on the line if you back out of the deal . When does the buyer get the earnest money back ? There are two scenarios where you could get your earnest money back . The first scenario is if the seller rejects your offer . If you make an offer to buy a house and the seller turns it down , they are required to give you the earnest money back . This should be clearly stated in the purchase agreement . It only makes sense , when you think about it . You are offering this money as a good - faith deposit toward the purchase of the home . But if the seller rejects your offer outright , they have no business keeping your earnest money . The second scenario where the buyer can get the earnest money back has to do with contingencies . I talked about contingencies earlier , when I was describing the components of a standard purchase agreement . When you make an offer to buy a house , the offer should be contingent upon certain things ( such as mortgage financing ) . The home inspection is a good example . You should have something in your purchase agreement that says if the home inspector uncovers a serious flaw that you are unwilling to accept , you can back out of the deal and keep your earnest money . Similarly , if the seller refuses to repair something on the home inspector ' s list , you should be able to back out . When can the seller keep the deposit ? If you back out of the contract for no good reason , you could forfeit your earnest money . This is why contingencies are so important in a real estate purchase agreement . If you change your mind after the offer has been accepted , it ' s going to come down to the contingencies you ' ve included in the contract . If you simply had a change of heart , the seller will probably be able to keep the earnest money payment . Again , all of this should be clearly expressed within the purchase contract . Review this document with your real estate agent , and make sure you understand how the contingencies work before submitting the offer . Who holds onto the money when the offer is made ? Normally , the buyer gives the earnest money payment to an escrow or title company . The escrow agent will act as a middleman between the buyer and seller . This neutral third party is responsible for closing the deal and ensuring all funds are distributed properly . In rare cases , the earnest money is paid directly to the seller ( not recommended ) . In closing , I would like to stress that the earnest money part of this process is mostly standardized . You should n ' t spend a lot of time analyzing this . Just ask your agent what a standard deposit amount is for your area , and pay that amount when you make your offer . If you pay a lot less than the average good - faith payment , you risk having your offer rejected . If you pay a lot more than the standard amount , you risk losing more money if you back out of the contract . It ' s simply a check in the box that ' s needed to show the seller you are serious . So just pay the standard amount , include the appropriate contingencies in your offer , and move on with the process . If you would like to learn more about the home buying process , you can use the search box at the top of this website . It will give you access to more than 1,000 articles about buying a house . | [
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http://homegirlcafe.org/ | What We Do Homegirl Cafe Homegirl Cafe Make a reservation call 213 6170380 Homegirl Cafe is a favorite farmtotable breakfast and lunch spot featuring Latino flavors with a healthy contemporary twist where homegirls serve tables instead of serving time Homegirl offers an extensive training program empowering women and men to undertake what is often their first real job in the restaurant industry and urban farming Our Homegirl trainees and staff grow in selfunderstanding to prepare themselves to serve as leaders in their families and communities Homegirl also offers full catering services for private parties and events EXPLORE OUR MENUS Breakfast PDF Lunch PDF Brunch PDF CATERING AND EVENTS Homegirl offers fullservice catering perpared in our kitchen all the way to large multiday large events Make a request for cateriing services quote here Explore the Catering Menu PDF Email hgcateringhomeboyindustriesorg HOMEGIRL STYLE Homegirl Cafe serves breakfast lunch and Saturday brunch featuring an innovative veggie foward menu of contemporary Latin American cooked fresh daily Homegirl Café Catering is one of Homeboys many social enterprises where young men and women are placed in what is often their first real job learning to work side by side with their former enemies and gaining fundamental job skills in a supportive environment The café assists highrisk and formerly ganginvolved young women and a few young men to become contributing members of our community through training in restaurant service and culinary arts Homegirl Café has an 18month training certificate program that empowers women to support themselves and their families while receiving needed services as they work toward a better Trainees cycle through three stations café catering maintenance while regularly meeting with their case manager to address underlying needs including mental health GED preparation and testing substance abuse domestic violence tattoo removal and legal services and attending weekly classes on life skills restaurant operations and management in the café The best part 100 of proceeds benefit comprehensive intervention and wraparound services for thousands of former gang members whose lives are being transformed Your purchase helps increase public safety and decreases levels of violence incarceration and abuse for our great city Information Address Homeboy Café Catering 130 W Bruno St Los Angeles CA 90012 Hours Monday Friday 700 AM to 230 PM Saturday 900 AM to 230 PM Sunday CLOSED Email hgcafehomeboyindustriesorg Phone 213 6170380 Catering 213 3005044 Website httphomegirlcafeorg Map Click to be Directed to Google Maps Bakery Homegirl Cafe Farmers Markets Homeboy Merch Diner at City Hall Grocery Silkscreen Embroidery Homegirl Catering Homeboy Electronics Recycling | [
"Latino flavors"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/add-eviction-tenants-credit-report-1738.html | How to Add an Eviction to a Tenant ' s Credit Report Written by Candace Webb ; Reviewed by Jann Seal , Licensed Real Estate Sales Associate . Former California Real Estate Sales Associate . ; Updated December 20 , 2018 Your previous tenant turned out to be a huge problem and you had to file an eviction . You already know if a tenant stopped paying rent on time , or conducted illegal activities on the property , there is a good chance you are never going to collect the money you are due . The next best thing will be to add the fact of the eviction to the credit reporting agencies . There are ways to be sure it appears as a monetary judgment , which triggers red flags for future potential landlords . According to Experian . com , landlords can not add actual evictions to the credit reports of their former tenants , they can , however , add unpaid debts by former tenants , which scream to future landlords that the tenant was a problem . Tip An eviction will also show up in a tenant ' s background report , which most landlords rely on for information on the reliability of a possible tenant . Was it a Voluntary Eviction ? A voluntary eviction is when your tenant voluntarily leaves after not complying with the lease , usually by not paying rent , and you want him out . As mandated by law , you give him a notice to pay or quit , which depending on your state , gives him X number of days to pay everything owed and stay , or vacate the premises . Another method of voluntary eviction , commonly called a “ midnight move - out ” happens when the tenant leaves without telling you he plans to do so . You show up to Recording a Court Ordered Eviction Your tenant left you with unpaid rent . You filed a claim in court . The tenant was served and you won your case . A judgment was entered on your behalf for all back rent due , your attorney fees if you used an attorney and all court costs . This is recorded at the court clerk ' s office and is public record for anyone who wishes to look it up . Now you can add this information to the tenant ' s credit file . Show Them the Money It is all about having a monetary debt to add to the tenant ' s report . If you evict through the courts but do not seek any monetary damages , only to have them move , you will not be able to add it to the tenant ' s credit file . A monetary award in a civil suit is the only way to get it added , so even if you know you will probably never see a dime from the tenant , request a dollar amount equal to all back rents , minus any deposits you are Adding It to the Credit Report The three heavy hitters in the credit record arena are TransUnion ® , Equifax ® and Experian ® . To be effective , you should report to all three . They each have a massive database in which they store many millions of data points regarding credit , loans , payments , defaults and judgments of almost every adult in the nation . To add information to a person ' s credit report , you have to register as a client , otherwise , you are prohibited from reporting payments and judgments of your tenants . Once registered as a reporter , what you will actually be adding to the tenant ' s credit report is the money the tenant owes you . Be sure you have documented proof to submit with your claim and keep copies for yourself . If you do have a judgment , that also can be reported to the credit bureaus and appears in a different area on the report as well where judgments and liens appear . Dealing with deadbeat tenants can be tedious , time - consuming and costly . At least you have a method for revenge by adding monetary damages to that tenant ' s credit report . References ( 3 ) Credit . com : What Happens To Your Credit When You Get Evicted ? TenantFactory . com : Landlords Beware : Prospective Tenants and Hidden Eviction Experian : How Does an Eviction Affect Your Credit ? Resources ( 2 ) California Courts : Forms California Courts : Find A Court About the Author Candace has been writing professionally since 1989 , with real estate being a favorite niche of hers . Whether it is exploring better ways to find a mortgage , stage a home , or get creative in buying and selling , she is up to the challenge of mastering it and writing about it . In addition , she enjoys writing about commercial properties , rental properties and all types of property insurance . Photo Credits performance report image by Christopher Hall from Fotolia . com Cite this Article | [
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/adjust-ph-lawn-sulfur-75218.html | How to Adjust the pH of a Lawn With Sulfur Grass lawns grow best when they have the proper fertilization , watering and soil conditions . A soil with a pH within the range of 6 to 7 has the most available nutrients for the grass root system . Nutrient availability becomes restricted as pH values go above 7.5 or below 6.0 . Amendments such as sulfur and ammonium sulfate can be used to lower the pH to within the proper range . Sulfur is the chemical of choice for those who do n ' t want to change their current nitrogen fertilization practice . Taking a Soil Sample and Testing It 1 Get a baseline pH value before you add the sulfur by testing the soil . You can take a soil sample and send it to a laboratory for testing , or you can test it yourself . Take the soil sample from your lawn by taking 6 - inch - depth soil slice samples with a trowel or shovel . Use a diagonal or z - shaped sampling pattern across the lawn . Take at least eight soil samples . 2 Mix the soil samples thoroughly , and place a subsample in a gallon resealable bag . Send this off for testing , or take out a sample of the soil and put 4 ounces in an 8 - ounce plastic cup . Add 4 ounces of distilled water , mix with the plastic spoon and let the sample sit undisturbed for 30 minutes . 3 Test the pH with a wide range pH strip by dipping the strip into the soil solution . Compare the resultant color on the pH strip with the color seen on the color reference chart provided with the pH strip packaging . Color changes should be distinguishable within half a pH unit . Adding Sulfur to the Soil 1 Measure the amount of surface area you have to treat . The rate of sulfur addition per 1,000 square feet to obtain a 1 unit pH reduction varies according to the type of soil . If you have a clay soil , you will need to apply 18 to 23 pounds per 1,000 square feet . Sandy soils need much less , from 9 to 14 pounds per 1,000 square feet . 2 Weigh the sulfur , and apply it at the recommended rates per 1,000 square feet with a fertilizer spreader . Water the sulfur into the soil using your normal irrigation practice . 3 Check the soil pH at two to three months after the application to determine the amount of pH reduction . For sandy soils , wait two months . For clay soils , wait three months . It takes this amount of time for the sulfur to bring about its total range of pH change in the upper 6 inches of soil . Reapply sulfur if needed . Things You Will Need Trowel or shovel Bucket Gallon resealable bag 8 - ounce plastic cup Distilled water Plastic spoon pH test strips , 0 - 14 pH Measuring tape Weighing scale Fertilizer spreader Tips Silt loams will have application rates between those of clay and sandy soils . Soil pH change due to sulfur addition can last for several years . Check the soil every few years to see whether additional applications are necessary . If the pH goes lower than you wish , adjust the pH upward with either lime or dolomite . Warning Do not reapply sulfur until the pH has stabilized at two to three months after the initial application and you have tested the soil . References ( 4 ) University of Wisconsin : Lowering Soil pH University of California , Davis : Changing Soil pH Ohio State University : Soil Acidification : How to Lower Soil pH Oregon State University : Soil pH Testing Procedures Resources ( 3 ) Oregon State University : Soil Nutrient Availability and pH Colorado State University : Soil pH University of Rhode Island : Lime and pH About the Author As a scientist , Randy McLaughlin has been a professional technical writer since 1980 . He has a Master of Science from Texas A&M University and a Ph . D . in plant pathology from the University of Wisconsin . McLaughlin covers diverse topics , including Costa Rica , technical guides , alternative healing and spiritual development . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"pH",
"Grass lawns",
"Sulfur"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/adjust-springloaded-door-hinge-31659.html | How to Adjust a Spring - Loaded Door Hinge Written by Cecilia Harsch ; Updated December 17 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Disable Spring Door Hinges 2 Change the Pressure on a Door Closer 3 Fixing Springed Hinges 4 Adjust a Swing Door A spring - loaded hinge contains a spring inside the hinge cylinder that helps close a door . This type of hinge is ideal for use in a door leading to the basement , garage or any door throughout your home . The mechanism inside the hinge is adjustable , allowing you to increase or decrease the tension . There are two types of spring - loaded hinges : one that requires a hex key and one that requires a tension lever to rotate the cylinder . Regardless of how you rotate the cylinder , they both require tension pins Close and secure the door . Adjusting a spring - loaded hinge must be done with the door closed . If your hinge has a tension pin inserted into the side of the hinge , you need to pull the pin from the hinge with needle - nose pliers . Insert a 5 / 32 - inch hex key into the opening at the top of the spring - loaded hinge if your hinge has an opening at the top of the hinge . If your hinge has a horizontal slot on the side of the hinge , insert the tension lever that came with the hinge into the hole on the far right of the slot . Rotate the hex key clockwise , or move the tension level to the left . This action exposes the next tension pin hole in the side of the hinge . Insert the tension pin into the exposed hole in the hinge . Do not push the pin all the way into the hole . Remove the hex key or tension lever from the hinge . If the door fails to close with the amount of force you desire , reinsert the hex key or tension lever into the hinge . Remove the tension pin and rotate the hinge to expose the next hole in the side of the hinge . Reinsert the pin and test the door again . Continue to adjust the hinge until you are satisfied with the way the hinge closes the door . Things You Will Need Needle - nose pliers 5 / 32 - inch hex key Warning Do not move the tension pin more than three holes if your door swings 180 degrees or more than four holes if you door opens only to 90 degrees . References ( 3 ) The Hinge Outlet : Spring - Loaded Hinge Instructions Hardware Source : Installation Instructions National : Automatic Door - Closing Spring Hinge Instructions About the Author Cecilia Harsch has been writing professionally since 2009 . She writes mainly home improvement , health and travel articles for various online publications . She has several years of experience in the home - improvement industry , focusing on gardening , and a background in group exercise instruction . Harsch received her Certified Nurses Assistant license in 2004 . She attended Tarrant County College and studied English composition . Cite this Article | [
"Door Hinge",
"hinge cylinder",
"hex key"
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/advantages-disadvantages-acrylic-bathtubs-92357.html | The Advantages and Disadvantages of Acrylic Bathtubs When choosing a bathtub , one of the choices a homeowner has to make is what material the tub will be constructed of . There are many options available , and price , durability and style should all be considered when choosing a tub . One of the choices is an acrylic tub . Like any type of tub , an acrylic tub has its advantages and disadvantages . Variety of Shapes and Sizes Because acrylic comes in sheets that are soft and malleable , acrylic bathtubs come in a large variety of shapes , sizes , and colors . Whether you are planning a small functional bathroom or a large spa - like setting , this wide assortment of tub styles can increase your options when designing a bathroom . Heat Retaining Properties Acrylic bathtubs have a smooth nonporous surface . The surface is warm to the touch in normal temperatures and has very good heat - retaining properties , keeping water warm for a longer time than some other bathtub materials . For a homeowner who enjoys soaking in a hot tub , this can be an important advantage . Scratches Easily An acrylic surface is quite soft and can scratch easily . For this reason , abrasive cleaners should not be used on acrylic tubs . While the fact that the surface scratches easily is a disadvantage , it can also be an advantage because the scratches can often be polished out or filled with acrylic . Other types of tub surfaces chip instead of scratch , making them more difficult to repair than acrylic . Not Rigid The surface of an acrylic bathtub is relatively soft and not very rigid . Acrylic tubs can be reinforced with fiberglass , which will increase durability and rigidity but will also increase the price of the tub . Budget acrylic tubs have little reinforcement and can feel quite flimsy when installed , so it may be worth paying the extra cost to purchase one of higher quality products with fiberglass reinforcement . References ( 3 ) Green Goods : Types of Bathtubs Anping Sunshine Sanitary Wear Co : Acrylic Bathtubs vs . Steel Enamel Bathtub L ' Essenziale : Selecting the Bath : Pros and Cons of Different Materials About the Author Gary Sprague is a master plumber with more than 25 years of experience . His articles have appeared in many online and print publications . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Acrylic Bathtubs"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/agave-poisonous-85296.html | Is Agave Poisonous ? Related Articles 1 Is the Sap From the Century Plant Poisonous ? 2 Is Agave Toxic to Dogs ? 3 Get Rid of Agaves 4 What Are the Dangers of Brugmansia Sap ? Although highly toxic , the desert agave ( Agave spp . ) is often used as an ornamental plant due to its unusual and attractive leaves and flowers , particularly in hot , dry areas such as Arizona and New Mexico . Most types of agave are hardy in U.S. Department of Agriculture zones 8 through 10 , but a few will live in colder temperatures , down to zone 5 . Historical Uses The fibers of this plant have historically been used to make mats , cloth and ropes , but it must be handled carefully because the agave plant is also toxic . The Mexican Tarahumara Indians made use of this a by tipping their hunting arrows with poison agave and also putting the juice into water where it would kill the fish . Toxicity Agave has a toxic sap that immediately causes pain and burning upon contact with skin . Typically the skin will also turn red and may begin to develop blisters soon after exposure to agave . Exposed skin may also be sensitive to sunlight . If ingested , the saponin in the agave plant can have serious consequences including kidney and liver damage . Treatment Immediately use plenty of soap and water to wash agave sap off of skin . Repeat washing until all traces of sap are gone . Also remove any clothing that might have the sap on it . If any part of the plant was ingested , call the poison control center immediately . Remove all traces of plant from the mouth and give the victim a little water to drink , if he ’ s safely able to . Get medical help as soon as possible for people or pets . References ( 5 ) North Carolina State University : Poisonous Plants of North Carolina : Agave Texas A&M University : Plant Poisons University of Arizona College of Agriculture and Life Sciences : A Beginner ’ s Guide to Agaves ( pg 8 ) University of Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center : Poisonous Plants University of Florida IFAS Extension : Agave and Yucca : Tough Plants for Tough Times Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
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"Agave Poisonous",
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/anything-repel-lizards-83280.html | Will Anything Repel Lizards ? Related Articles 1 Design a Teen Lounge 2 Hiding Interior Columns 3 How Long to Germinate a Petunia Seed ? 4 Propagating a Native Hibiscus Although most lizards are harmless and do n ' t bite unless they ' re handled roughly , their clawed feet , long tails and scaly skin can make them look scary . Lizards also rid your yard of insects . But if their presence bothers you , you can try a few methods to keep them off your property . About Lizards To repel lizards you must learn about their habits . Although some lizards can eat plants , the damage they do to your garden is minimal . When it comes to food , most lizards feed on insects including aphids , beetles , wasps and grasshoppers , which can be beneficial if you ' re growing fruits and vegetables . Lizards are great climbers , and in addition to roaming the ground , they can often be found on trees , buildings and fences , except during winter when they ' re inactive and hibernate . Insecticide Because there are no repellents or toxicants registered to repel or kill lizards , your best bet is to get rid of their primary food source - - insects . Applying a ready - to - use insecticide to plants in your garden and around the perimeter of your home can reduce the presence of bugs . If there are n ' t many bugs around your home , lizards might prefer to look for food elsewhere . Ensure the insecticide you ' re using is safe to use on the plants that you ' re growing . Cleaning Up If you do n ' t see lizards in your garden , they might be hiding . They seek shelter in cracks in the foundation of your home , in rocks , logs or leaf piles . Clearing up your garden and its perimeter can minimize areas that can double as their shelter . Also , remove thick plants , rake up and remove fallen leaves and seal cracks in the foundation of your home . Proper cleaning can also keep insects at bay , giving lizards one more reason to leave your property . Indoors Lizards may enter your home - - they can creep through cracks as small as 1 / 4 inch or slip through door and window openings . If you find one of the critters in your home , place a box over it and slide a piece of cardboard underneath the opening . Then , release the lizard outside . Alternatively , use a sticky board trap that ' s meant for mice . When the lizard steps on the glue , he wo n ' t be able to move . Wear gloves , pick him up and place References ( 4 ) University of California Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program : Lizards Ask the Exterminator : Lizards Mississippi State University Extension Service : Bug - Wise WalterReeves . com : Lizard - – Control About the Author Kimberly Caines is a well traveled model , writer and licensed physical fitness trainer who was first published in 1997 . Her work has appeared in the Dutch newspaper " De Overschiese Krant " and on various websites . Caines holds a degree in journalism from Mercurius College in Holland and is writing her first novel . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"lizards",
"clawed feet",
"Insecticide"
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/apply-fertilizer-iris-plants-97483.html | When Do I Apply Fertilizer to Iris Plants ? Related Articles 1 Fertilize Bearded Iris 2 When to Cut Back a Bearded Iris 3 Why Is My Iris Not Blooming ? 4 Trim Iris Leaves After Blooming Irises are garden showstoppers in spring , when their large , ruffled blooms appear in many colors atop green stalks . Hundreds of iris species and cultivars exist , from the classic bearded iris ( Iris germanica ) , hardy in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 3 through 10 , to smaller types such as the stinking iris ( Iris foetidissima ) , hardy in USDA zones 6 through 9 and named for its unpleasant odor . Fertilizer Types When fertilizing irises , be careful about the type of fertilizer you use . Fertilizers high in nitrogen encourage leaf growth but do n ’ t do much for flowers and also lead to bulb rot . This includes commercial fertilizers as well as high - nitrogen composts , or those that were produced with a lot of green material such as leaves and grass clippings . When choosing a fertilizer , opt for superphosphate , or choose a fertilizer where the first number in the NPK ratio is lower than the second two , such as 5 - 10 Planting Time When preparing beds for iris planting , add fertilizer . Ideally , you should take a soil test to see which nutrients - - nitrogen , phosphorous and potassium - - you need , and fertilize accordingly . In the absence of a soil test , the North Carolina State University Extension recommends you use ½ pounds low - nitrogen fertilizer such as 5 - 10 - 10 per 50 square feet of iris bed . Till the fertilizer in to the planting depth , which should be about as deep as the iris rhizome . Annual Fertilization Before fertilizing irises , examine them to see if they need it . If they regularly perform well , with strong , green growth , they probably do not require fertilization . Older iris varieties will likely need less than modern varieties , as their blooms are smaller and less abundant . If your irises do need some help , add ½ cup 5 - 10 - 10 fertilizer per iris clump after the plants have have finished flowering . Other Considerations Generally irises prefer full sun , although some varieties tolerate partial shade . While they like a medium amount of water , irises need well - drained soil and can rot if left in standing water . Plant irises either in spring or in late summer to early fall . Bearded iris , for instance , prefers planting between July and September , giving it enough time to establish before winter . Leave the top of the rhizome slightly about soil level . Divide clumps every three to five years , or whenever clumps become too dense . References ( 4 ) Rainbow Iris Farm : Growing Bearded Iris North Carolina State University Extension : Bearded Iris for the Home Landscape Missouri Botanical Garden : Iris Germanica Missouri Botanical Garden : Iris Foetidissima About the Author Sarah Moore has been a writer , editor and blogger since 2006 . She holds a master ' s degree in journalism . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Iris Plants",
"Hearst Newspapers"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/attach-handrail-deck-48670.html | How to Attach a Handrail to a Deck Local building codes differ from one municipality to another , but typically require any deck over 30 inches above ground level to have a handrail between 36 and 48 inches tall . But a deck handrail is more than just a safety device to protect those using the deck from falling over the edge - - it can add to the aesthetic beauty of the deck . Wood balustrades are a common choice for filling the open space between the top rail and the deck ; metal or glass can be used for a different look . Building a Wooden Handrail 1 Measure the length of the deck span to receive the railing with a tape measure . Lay out positions for the posts evenly spaced along the rail , no more than 8 feet apart . Also measure the height of the deck from the bottom of the rim joist to the top of the deck planking . 2 On a 4 - by - 4 - inch board , measure the length of the post by adding the height of the deck to the desired height of the handrail , and place a pencil mark at this length on the 4 - by - 4 . Cut the post at the pencil mark using a circular saw . Repeat for each additional post required for the railing . 3 Measure the distance of the height of the deck on the bottom of one post , and make a pencil mark . Using a combination square for a straight - edge , draw a line perpendicular to the long axis of the post through this mark . Set the depth of cut on your circular saw to 1 - 1 / 2 inches and make a cut at the perpendicular line . Then , notch out the area between the area between the cut and the bottom of the post , using your circular saw and a chisel . Repeat 4 Place a post against the rim joist of the deck at the desired spot , with the notched cutout resting on the top of the deck . Place a level against the post to ensure that it is plumb . Hold the post in place and drill two 1 / 2 - inch diameter pilot holes through the post and the rim joist . Insert a carriage bolt into the holes , then apply a flat washer , lock washer and nut to each bolt underneath the deck . Tighten the nuts with a socket and ratchet . Repeat for 5 Measure the distance between the inside edges of two adjacent posts , and cut a section of 2 - by - 4 - inch treated lumber at this length . Position the board between the two posts on edge , with the narrow side of the board flush with the top of each post and the wider side flush with the front edge of the post ( facing the center of the deck ) . Attach each rail to the posts , using 3 - inch deck screws . This board will act as a top rail to receive the 6 Measure the distance between the center point on top of two adjacent posts , and cut a 2 - by - 6 - inch board to this length . Place the cut board in position centered over the two posts , and attach to the posts with 3 - inch treated deck screws . Repeat until the handrail extends fully across all deck posts . 7 Measure the distance between the top of each post ( just beneath the handrail ) and the top of the deck . Add 3 inches to this length , and cut enough balustrades from 2 - by - 2 - inch lumber to fill the span between the posts . Position the first balustrade plumb no more than 4 inches from one post , butted up against the underside of the handrail , and attach it to the top rail ( the 2 - by - 4 board beneath the hand rail ) and the rim joist using a 2 Attaching a Pre - Built Handrail 1 Assemble or lay out the pre - built handrail on the deck along the edge to receive the handrail . Align the bottoms of the posts along the edge of the deck . 2 Mark the areas to receive the posts onto the decking with a pencil . If the decking protrudes beyond the edge of the rim joists , make cut lines on the decking outlining both sides of each post . 3 Cut out the notches in the decking along the pencil lines , using a circular saw . The back edge of each notch should be flush with the edge of the rim joist . A chisel can be used to clean up the notch . 4 Lift the railing into place with the posts sliding into the notches . Hold the railing at the desired height and drill pilot holes through the posts and rim joists . Insert a 1 / 2 - inch by 5 - inch carriage bolt through the hole , with the threads exposed beneath the deck on the back side of the rim joist . Place a flat washer , lock washer and nut onto the threads and tighten the nut , using a ratchet and socket . Things You Will Need 4 - by - 4 - inch treated lumber 2 - by - 6 - inch treated lumber 2 - by - 4 - inch treated lumber 2 - by - 2 - inch treated lumber 3 - inch treated deck screws 2 - 1 / 2 - inch treated deck screws Drill and bits Circular saw Wood chisel Tape measure 1 / 2 - inch by 5 - inch carriage bolts , with nuts , washers and lock washers Socket set Pencil Combination square Carpenter ' s level Tip To give a clean , professional look to your balustrades , cut a 45 - degree miter to the bottom of each 2 - by - 2 - inch board before attaching it to the rim joist . Warning When using treated lumber on a deck , use only appropriate treated deck screws designed for use with treated lumber . Untreated deck screws can corrode and weaken over time , which can cause the deck to weaken and collapse . References ( 3 ) How to Install a Wood Railing How to Install Deck Railings Installing Railings Resources ( 1 ) Deck Failures Due to Use of Improper Fasteners About the Author Chris Baylor has been writing about various topics , focusing primarily on woodworking , since 2006 . You can see his work in publications such as " Consumer ' s Digest , " where he wrote the 2009 Best Buys for Power Tools and the 2013 Best Buys for Pressure Washers . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Handrail",
"Building"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/automatic-icemaker-work-96299.html | How Does an Automatic Icemaker Work ? Automatic icemakers in modern refrigerators are a popular convenience feature . They use electric motors , valves , timers and thermostats to control filling , freezing and emptying the ice - making trays . Once ice has been frozen , the icemaker dumps it into a holding bin where people can take it out for use . Sensors in the holding bin stop the ice - making process when the bin is full . Two Basic Types Automatic icemakers fall into two general types : One type uses a flexible plastic tray that the machine inverts and twists to release the cubes . The other type uses mechanical fingers that flip the frozen cubes out of a hard metal freezing tray . Both types include heaters that warm the ice trays slightly to facilitate release of the cubes . Both types are connected to a solenoid - controlled fill valve and hose that refills the trays after they ’ ve been emptied . Automatic Ice Flexible - tray icemakers are timer controlled . After the tray has filled with water , a timer starts the ice ejection cycle after about two hours of freezing time . The flexible tray ejects its contents into a holding bin , returns to its starting position and is automatically refilled with water for more ice . Hard - tray icemakers use a thermostat to sense when the ice in the freezing tray has fully frozen . The thermostat then triggers motor - driven “ fingers ” that push the ice out of the tray and into the holding bin References ( 2 ) Appliance Assistant . com : How Ice Makers Work Appliance Repair . net : Domestic ( Refrigerator ) Icemakers About the Author Herb Kirchhoff has more than three decades of hands - on experience as an avid garden hobbyist and home handyman . Since retiring from the news business in 2008 , Kirchhoff takes care of a 12 - acre rural Michigan lakefront property and applies his experience to his vegetable and flower gardens and home repair and renovation projects . Cite this Article | [
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/average-yield-hydroponic-yearround-tomatoes-100617.html | What Is the Average Yield for Hydroponic Year - Round Tomatoes ? With the advent of hydroponic growing systems , people who love the fruits of tomato plants ( Lycopersicon spp . ) no longer have to wait for summer or fall to bite into a vine - ripened tomato . They can do it all year and in any U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zone . The number of vine - ripened tomato fruits to expect from a hydroponic garden depends on several factors . Average Yield The typical average yield for hydroponic tomatoes is about 40 pounds per square foot per year . The yield may be less than that if your tomato plants lack the proper care and nutrients . According to Texas A&M AgriLife Extension , growers can get 46 to 50 pounds per 1.4 square feet under optimum conditions . Basic Care Hydroponically grown tomato plants do best when they receive 16 to 18 hours of light each day and are watered through a drip - irrigation system or a flood - and - drain table . The optimum pH range of the nutrient solution for growing tomato plants is 5.8 to 6.3 . Lower the pH level by adding phosphoric acid , and raise it by adding potassium hydroxide . Keep the “ daylight ” temperatures for your tomatoes 65 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit and nighttime temperatures about 55 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit . Change the nutrient solution weekly . Pollinating Diseases The tomato plants ' yield can be greatly reduced if they become diseased . Hydroponic tomatoes can suffer from bacterial , viral and / or fungal diseases . Bacterial infections may cause small , water - soaked spots on fruits , and later the spots become scabby . Infected leaves may develop dark - brown spots . Hydroponic tomatoes may also succumb to the tobacco mosaic virus , which causes mottled , puckered areas on the leaves . Fungal infections such as botrytis blight , powdery mildew , Verticillium wilt and Fusarium wilt also can affect your tomatoes . Plants Pests A number of kinds of pests can be a problem for your hydroponic tomatoes , even if the plants are grown indoors . Pests such as whiteflies , tomato fruitworms , leafminers , tomato pinworms , cabbage loopers and two - spotted spider mites actually can be more of a problem for hydroponically grown tomatoes than conventionally grown , outdoor tomatoes because of the absence of the pests ' natural predators in the indoor environment . Whiteflies leave a sticky coating behind on leaves , and the coating sometimes grows mold . Tomato fruitworms chew the fruits , making deep References ( 5 ) Texas A&M AgriLife Extension : Greenhouse Vegetable Production Economic Considerations , Marketing and Financing Hydroponic Tomato Production ; Jack Ross Simply Hydroponics and Organics : Home - Grown Tomatoes Hydro - Gardens : Tomato Production Estimates University of Arizona : Growing Tomatoes Hydroponically - - Insects About the Author D . J . is the author of two children ’ s books . She has written articles on a number of topics including home improvement , pet care , health and physiology . Besides having studied journalism , she has degrees in business management and biology . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/bagged-vs-bulk-topsoil-83463.html | Bagged vs . Bulk Topsoil Cultivating deep , rich topsoil is a goal of every gardener . Plants are healthier , more vigorous and less likely to be attacked by pests or disease if soil conditions are optimal . Yet very few gardeners inherit perfect garden soil , remaining reliant on bringing in compost , topsoil and other amendments in the long - term process of soil building . If you fall into this category , you may want to consider getting your topsoil in bulk form rather than bags from the garden center . Composition Bagged topsoil is a manufactured product that is usually a mix of sand , organic matter , fertilizers and other amendments - - it does not actually contain soil . Bulk topsoil can be the exact same product as bagged topsoil , minus the bag . Or , it can be soil that has been removed from the earth somewhere else and stockpiled for sale to gardeners and landscapers . The quality of topsoil can very tremendously , from the “ black gold ” that all gardeners covet to soil of medium or low fertility that can do more harm Logistics Deciding to use bagged or bulk topsoil depends in part on the scale of the landscape and whether you can accommodate the delivery of a big pile of bulk material . It ’ s easy to pick up a few bags of topsoil in your car for small gardening projects , but for a larger garden renovation , bulk soil is a more economical choice . A pickup truck can accommodate 1 to 2 cubic yards of topsoil , but suppliers of bulk landscape materials can deliver much larger quantities with a dump truck . However , consider where it Uses To make a single planting bed in an area of hard - packed clay , a few bags of topsoil can be spread directly over the soil and used as a planting medium . It can also be used as a soil amendment , by forking or tilling it into existing soil . For beds of annual flowers or vegetables , adding a fresh layer of bagged topsoil before planting each year replenishes the nutrients that were consumed in the previous year ’ s planting . Bulk manufactured topsoil is useful for filling large raised planters for growing vegetables . Green Gardening Overall , natural topsoil purchased in bulk rates a little higher as an environmentally sound product than bagged topsoil . Although some specialty organic blends are on the market , the ingredients in bagged topsoil are largely by - products of the forestry industry that have been composted and mixed with sand , a mined product . Often a synthetic source of nitrogen has been used to aid in the composting process , and sometimes these are also blended with the product to give plants an initial boost . Bagged soil generates a lot of waste for the landfill , References ( 2 ) University of Connecticut : Purchasing Topsoil Growise : Best Soil Amendments About the Author Brian Barth works in the fields of landscape architecture and urban planning and is co - founder of Urban Agriculture , Inc . , an Atlanta - based design firm where he is head environmental consultant . He holds a Master ' s Degree in Environmental Planning and Design from the University of Georgia . His blog , Food for Thought , explores the themes of land use , urban agriculture , and environmental literacy . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/block-heat-register-openings-floor-69766.html | How to Block the Heat Register Openings in a Floor Written by Karie Lapham Fay ; Updated December 10 , 2018 When you use a forced - air heating system in your home , you ' re bound to have heat registers too . Sections of duct work , like hallways in a school , run through your home ' s framing , carrying heated or cooled air to various rooms . Sometimes the ducts run through the attic , but under the floor remains the standard . Wherever each room has a heat register opening ( at least one per room ) , it also has a register cover that prevents items from dropping into duct . Before blocking your Why Close Registers ? Forget images of exploding duct work or a furnace bursting into flames . If you have a heat register or two that you wish to close off , you can do it quickly and easily , without fear of catastrophic consequences in most instances . In fact , stopping the heat or cold - air flow into a room can save you from 5 percent to 10 percent of your heating and cooling dollars , suggests Carroll Energy Services . The reason is simple - - with less house to heat , it ca n ' t help but to Blocking Exceptions For every rule there ' s usually an exception . When it comes to blocking off heat registers in certain rooms to save energy and money , never close off a register vent supplied by a heat pump furnace . Heat pumps are designed to operate very efficiently and are installed with a precise number of air outlets ( heat registers ) and air inlets ( return air vents ) . Blocking off rooms and registers is likely to not only impair the heat pump ' s efficiency but may also damage the furnace . Otherwise , closing off up Metal Registers Assuming the cover is temporary , and you ' ll wish to use the register again at some future date , simply get a magnetic vent cover to block a metal heat register in the floor . You can find these at hardware and other assorted stores . Before purchasing , check the size , quantity and thickness or other features . Most are 1 / 4 to 1 / 3 inch thick , but the height and width varies . If it fits the register precisely , simply align it and slap it in place , over top the Wood Registers Whether they are made from metal or wood , your heat registers likely have louvers that open and close to block the air flow or allow it . Shifting the lever to the closed position - - which you want to do before blocking it with magnetic covers - - will block some of the air but not all of it . You can still use magnetic vent covers on wooden registers . Simply apply magnetic tape material around the register edges . ( Some manufacturers supply this as part of the kit . ) The cover will then stick Permanent Blocking You can also permanently block heat registers by cutting through the subfloor ( with the finished flooring cleared to permit access ) with a jigsaw and enlarging the opening to end in the middle of the floor joists on each side . Rip up the old subfloor - - with the duct opening where the register sits - - and replace with a solid square of the same thickness of plywood . Insert two two - by - fours between the joists on each end of the opening to support the opposite edges of the floor patch . Secure with Considerations If the blocked room also has a return air vent - - usually a much larger opening with an always - open register over top - - do n ' t neglect it during your blocking efforts . Return air vents suck in conditioned air from your living space and cycle it through the furnace to supply freshly heated air . If you block the heat register , the return air vent is left with cold air to deliver to the furnace . This defeats your conservation efforts . Instead , attach a cover to the return air vent to References ( 4 ) Carroll Energy Services : Heating and Cooling Your Home Clark Public Utilities : Heating and Cooling The Family Handyman : Save Energy by Closing Heat Registers Home Depot : Magnetic Vent Covers Resources ( 2 ) Chiff : Cutting Home Heating Bills - - 50 Ways to Save Your Money Midstate Electric Cooperative : Conservation Tips About the Author Karie Fay earned a Bachelor of Science in psychology with a minor in law from the University of Arkansas at Monticello . After growing up in construction and with more than 30 years in the field , she believes a girl can swing a hammer with the best of them . She enjoys " green " or innovative solutions and unusual construction . Cite this Article | [
"air heating system",
"heat registers",
"catastrophic consequences"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/building-code-steps-3168.html | Building Code for Steps Written by Michael Logan ; Updated December 09 , 2018 Building codes keep stairways safe with rules that apply to the height and depth of each step , support and handrails . Building code enforcement personnel take stairway building codes seriously , because a small error may result in serious injury . The International Building Code provides for step and stairway rules in chapter 10 of the IBC code book . California ' s building code is adopted from and closely mirrors the IBC ; local ordinances may change or alter the code to fit local requirements and practices . Significance Encountering a step that is a significantly different height , width or depth than other steps on a stairway may upset the climber ' s balance , causing a fall . Step building codes are based on the fact that people using stairways expect each step to be the same height . Stairway building codes keep stairways safer by making sure people using stairs do n ' t encounter the unexpected . Treads Treads are the part of a step that is stepped upon . They support the weight of the user . The depth of all the treads on a staircase must be the same from front to back , with a maximum variation of 0.375 inches between the deepest and shallowest treads . Treads shall be a minimum depth of 11 inches . Tread depth is measured from the front and rear edges of the adjacent treads . Risers A step riser is the distance from the top of one step to the top of the next step , measured vertically . Risers must have a maximum variance of 0.375 inches between the highest and lowest risers on the staircase . Risers must have a maximum height of seven inches and a minimum height of four inches . Single - family homes and townhouses are permitted to have a maximum riser height of 7.75 inches . Handrails A single step within a residential home such as a detached house , townhouse or residential condominium does not require a handrail . Stairways of more than a single step within or attached to these structures must have a handrail along either or both sides of the stairway . One handrail is required , but two are permitted . Space Considerations Stairways must be a minimum of 36 inches wide and have a headroom minimum of 80 inches along the full course of the stairs and one tread length beyond the bottom step . Headroom is a vertical measurement from the front edge of the tread to the ceiling above . Every stairway is required to have a landing with a length equal to the width of the stair , but landing lengths over 48 inches are not required . Stairs with a total vertical rise of more than 12 feet must have a landing between the top and bottom landings Special Staircases Spiral and circular steps and staircases have special codes that apply only to them , as specified by IBC sections 1009.7 , 1009.8 and 1009.9 . There are also alternating tread devices are also allowed in special circumstances , as provided for in section 1009.10 . References ( 2 ) International Code Council : International Building Code California Building Standards Commission : 2007 California Building Code Resources ( 1 ) California Building Standards Commission About the Author Michael Logan is a writer , editor and web page designer . His professional background includes electrical , computer and test engineering , real estate investment , network engineering and management , programming and remodeling company owner . Logan has been writing professionally since he was first published in " Test & Measurement World " in 1989 . Cite this Article | [
"Building Code",
"IBC code book"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/bunk-bed-twin-mattresses-same-size-93497.html | Are Bunk Bed and Twin Mattresses the Same Size ? Written by Kathy Adams ; Updated December 14 , 2018 In many cases , a twin - sized mattress is exactly what is needed for a bunk bed . When it comes to a typical bunk with both mattresses the same size , most manufacturers make the bunk bed to accept a standard twin mattress . But not all bunk beds are created equally - - some feature a twin bed on top , a full on the bottom or even a futon for the bottom bunk area . Bunk Mattress Basics A typical bunk bed for a child ' s room features two twin mattresses . A twin mattress is 39 inches wide and 75 inches long . But a different type of twin mattress exist : a twin XL . The extra long variety has the same width , but an extra five inches of length at 80 inches long . The extra long twin has the same length as a queen or king mattress . If you are unsure which type of twin mattress is right for a narrow bunk , measure the length inside the bed area where Bunk Bed Variations A bunk that has a narrow bed on top and a wide one on the bottom requires one twin and one full - sized mattress . If the bottom area contains a futon that folds into a chair , a futon mattress is needed , as these types of mattresses flex to achieve the desired position . References ( 2 ) Bedding Experts : Mattress Size Chart Cymax : Bunkbed Mattresses for Dummies Resources ( 1 ) Bunk Beds : Mattress Guide About the Author Kathy Adams is an award - winning journalist and freelance writer who traveled the world handling numerous duties for music artists . She writes travel and budgeting tips and destination guides for USA Today , Travelocity and ForRent , among others . She enjoys exploring foreign locales and hiking off the beaten path stateside , snapping pics of wildlife and nature instead of selfies . Cite this Article | [
"Bunk Mattress",
"Twin Mattresses",
"Size"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/calculate-yourself-home-building-costs-2504.html | How to Calculate Do It Yourself Home Building Costs Most building projects you tackle yourself will show a net savings in total costs due to the labor you put into the project . Cut out the contractors , and you ’ ll experience instant savings . But there ’ s still the costs of materials involved , and before beginning a project , it helps to know just what the project costs will likely be . To get an accurate estimate you ’ ll need to be familiar with every detail of the project , having it all planned out before taking the first step in building . The 1 Read through the project instructions carefully from beginning to end , paying attention to the materials and tools that each step uses . Make a list of the tools and materials , including quantities , on a piece of paper . If planning the project yourself without instructions , then include measurements and material quantities in your planning and make a list of those . 2 Check your listed items against the tools you already have at your disposal . Rent uncommon or expensive tools from a home improvement store or equipment rental shop at an additional cost to the project . Cross off the tools already in your possession from the materials list . 3 Call around for the best rental prices on the tools . Keep in mind the estimated timeline for your project to determine how long you will need each tool . Multiply the length of time needed by the daily rental cost of each tool and record the result on your tool list . 4 Obtain a materials pricing list from distributors in your area carrying the materials necessary to complete the project . Add 10 percent in additional materials to each item to account for waste during project construction . Calculate the prices of each material type listed in your materials list by multiplying material quantity with the price per unit listed in the pricing lists . Make sure you include any applicable delivery or shipping costs and taxes for the materials in the prices . List the prices next to the list of materials on your sheet of paper . 5 Determine any additional fees required for the building project . Additional fees may include architectural fees for plans needed to obtain a building permit , the cost of the building permit itself and insurance costs for protection of your home against damage . 6 Add the list of costs for the tools , the materials and the additional fees to calculate the total costs for the building project . Set aside an additional 10 percent for unexpected expenses . Things You Will Need Project instructions Paper Pencil Telephone Calculator Pricing list References ( 1 ) Misronnet : Civil Engineering Estimates Resources ( 2 ) DIY or Not : Online Tools You Can Use Ask the Builder : Fifty Cost Cutting Do ’ s and Don ’ ts About the Author Larry Simmons is a freelance writer and expert in the fusion of computer technology and business . He has a B.S. in economics , an M.S. in information systems , an M.S. in communications technology , as well as significant work towards an M.B.A. in finance . He ' s published several hundred articles with Demand Studios . Photo Credits Calculator image by Alhazm Salemi from Fotolia . com Cite this Article | [
"Home Building Costs"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-17-year-old-lease-apartment-60255.html | Can a 17 Year Old Lease an Apartment ? Written by Candace Webb ; Reviewed by Jann Seal , Licensed Real Estate Sales Associate . Former California Real Estate Sales Associate . ; Updated December 02 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Do Your Parents Have to Co - Sign on Apartments When You ' re in College ? 2 What Is the Difference Between a Studio & a Single Apartment ? 3 Do Apartments Have to Disclose if There ' s Been a Death ? 4 Requirements to Rent an Apartment Being 17 can be difficult . You are so close to being able to make your own decisions , but still under the age that the law believes you should be able to do so , and this includes signing a lease for an apartment . Situations arise and you may want or have to live separately from adults . Whatever the reason for wanting to lease your own apartment , one way to accomplish your goal is to become legally emancipated . If that is n ' t an option , there are alternatives to achieving your plan . Tip Leasing an apartment at age 17 thrusts you into the world of adults and is n ' t an easy transition . You can not legally sign a rental contract , but having adult guarantors is one way to get your own apartment . The Law Says No The vast majority of teenagers are not going to succeed in trying to lease an apartment . Most laws across the U.S. set the minimum age for being considered an adult at 18 years old . There is , however , an exception to that rule – emancipation . Unless you are emancipated , you are not legally allowed to enter into a contract , and a lease is a contract . In most states , emancipation equals adult rights and responsibilities . This includes the ability to sign a lease . If you do not qualify for adult rights When you go to court you will need to prove that you have your own income ( most states will not accept welfare payments for this purpose . ) You also have to show the court you can live separately from your parents or legal guardians and still make appropriate decisions . Each state has its own definition about what an emancipated minor is allowed to do . For example , in California , you can rent , buy and sell a property . Search emancipation in your state to determine the rules . Another way to legally rent an apartment at 17 is if you are in the military or married . Some states also consider you an adult if you have a child . What Happens Next Once you are sure you meet one of the criteria and are emancipated by definition , you can apply for an apartment . Take copies of paperwork with you when you fill out the application for the apartment . This could be a marriage license , military identification or court documents . Understand that landlords are typically hesitant to rent to a teenager , but if you have a good income , present yourself well and meet all other qualifications you may be able to lease an apartment . What if You Ca n ' t Emancipate If your petition is turned down by the court , or your guardians will not agree to you filing for emancipation , you have another option . Ask them to be guarantors on your lease application . This often happens when a child attends college away from home and wants to rent an apartment . If all else fails , look to renting a room in a private home and use this time until you turn 18 to save money toward your goal and to build up your credit history . References ( 4 ) Findlaw : California Legal Ages Laws SmartLaw : Message # 581 Emancipation of minors from parents Courts . ca . gov : Emancipation Manual pg 11 Rent Prep : Does Everyone Living in an Apartment Have to be on the Lease ? About the Author Candace has been writing professionally since 1989 , with real estate being a favorite niche of hers . Whether it is exploring better ways to find a mortgage , stage a home , or get creative in buying and selling , she is up to the challenge of mastering it and writing about it . In addition , she enjoys writing about commercial properties , rental properties and all types of property insurance . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"an apartment",
"ability"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-deduct-real-estate-taxes-second-home-47639.html | Can I Deduct the Real Estate Taxes on a Second Home ? Related Articles 1 Deduct Second Home Property Taxes on Your Income Taxes 2 Tax Deductions for Real Estate Taxes on Multiple Properties 3 Can I Claim Property Tax I Paid on My Parent ' s House ? 4 Can I Claim Property Taxes in the Year They Come Out of My Escrow Account or the Year They ' re Paid ? One of the benefits of home ownership is the real estate tax deduction most homeowners are allowed to take . For example , the Internal Revenue Service allows deductions for real estate taxes on any home or other real property you own . In other words , you can deduct real estate taxes you ' ve paid on first and second homes or any other homes and real properties you own . California , like most states , conforms to federal law on real estate tax deductions . Real Estate Taxes On your federal tax returns , assessed real estate or property taxes you pay to state and local government are tax deductible . And not only are the real estate taxes on your primary home deductible but so are the real estate taxes on other homes . Real estate taxes are claimed as itemized deductions on Form 1040 , Schedule A for federal tax filings . Additionally , assessed real estate taxes on any other real property such as commercial buildings are also tax deductible . State Level California and many other states conform to federal law when it comes to deducting assessed real estate taxes . In California , real estate taxes are deducted on Schedule CA ( 540 ) , Part II , Line 38 , " Federal intemized deductions . " Your federal Form 1040 , Schedule A , Line 6 , " Real estate taxes , " shows the amount of real estate taxes you can deduct in California . Certain California real estate taxes , though , such as Mello - Roos community facilities districts taxes , are n ' t tax deductible Deductible Taxes In general , the IRS considers deductible any state , local and even foreign taxes on your real property . Additionally , local benefits taxes charged for repair , maintenance or interest needed for those local benefits , such as sewer lines and sidewalks , is also deductible . Even real estate taxes on property owned in a cooperative are deductible on the portion you paid . Prorated real estate taxes paid when you sell real property are also deductible in the year they ' re paid . Considerations Tax experts advise keeping all receipts for any paid real estate taxes , though they do n ' t have to be submitted with federal tax returns . You can also deduct the full amount of real estate taxes paid on all homes and other real property . In other words , you wo n ' t have to prorate or allocate tax deductions on multiple homes . Just add up all real estate taxes you paid and place that figure on Line 6 of Schedule A , Form 1040 . References ( 6 ) Internal Revenue Service : Topic 503 - Deductible Taxes Internal Revenue Service : Publication 530 - Real Estate Taxes Zing ! : Homeowner Tax Deductions and Credits Kiplinger : Allowable Tax Deductions on Multiple Homes State of California Franchise Tax Board : Instructions for Schedule CA ( 540 ) - Part II , Adjustments to Federal Itemized Deductions KQED : California Tax Ruling Comes Too Late For Most Filers Resources ( 3 ) State of California Franchise Tax Board : California Property Tax - An Overview California Tax Data : California Property Tax Questions The Wall Street Journal : Second - Home Owner Asks : Can I Deduct Mortgage Interest ? About the Author Tony Guerra served more than 20 years in the U.S. Navy . He also spent seven years as an airline operations manager . Guerra is a former realtor , real - estate salesperson , associate broker and real - estate education instructor . He holds a master ' s degree in management and a bachelor ' s degree in interdisciplinary studies . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Real Estate Taxes",
"Second Home",
"Home Finance"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-draw-401k-home-purchase-being-penalized-taxes-47776.html | Can I Draw From a 401k for a Home Purchase Without Being Penalized With Taxes ? Written by Michelle Miley ; Reviewed by Jann Seal , Licensed Real Estate Sales Associate . Former California Real Estate Sales Associate . ; Updated December 19 , 2018 Buying a new home often requires a hefty down payment and finding the cash can be tricky . To make the numbers work , some homebuyers turn to the money in their 401 ( k ) . You do have the option of borrowing against your 401 ( k ) , but you ' ll have to pay that money back . Your plan may allow you to make a hardship withdrawal instead , but you ' ll get charged a penalty for doing so . If your 401 ( k ) is your only source of cash and you Tip Under the rules of many 401 ( k ) plans , if you take out a 401 ( k ) loan your contributions to the fund are stopped until the monies are paid back to the 401 ( K ) . The loan repayments are not tax deductible while the contributions were , so weigh the advantages and disadvantages , tax wise . Using 401 ( K ) Options If you have money in your 401 ( k ) , you may borrow from it without paying taxes or penalties on the money . This option is only available to you if your plan allows it , and not all plans do . If yours does , you can borrow half of the vested funds in your account , up to a $ 50,000 limit . Note , however , that you will have to pay yourself back and you ' ll only have a maximum of five years to do it . Most employers deduct the loan payment If you do n ' t want to pay the money back , see if your retirement plan allows hardship distributions . A hardship distribution lets you take money from your account without paying it back , but you ' ll have to pay taxes on it along with a 10 percent penalty if you ' re younger than 59 1 / 2 years old . Your plan will also bar you from making any contributions to your 401 ( k ) for the next six months . Your 401 ( k ) plan may disallow hardship distributions . It Consider an IRA Rollover The rules for IRAs are different than those for a 401 ( k ) and are more favorable to first time homebuyers . As a first time buyer , you can withdraw up to $ 10,000 from an IRA without paying any penalties on the money . If your IRA is a Roth IRA , you can make the withdrawal tax - free because you paid taxes on the money before you saved it . If you have a traditional IRA , you will have to pay taxes on the money because you did n ' t do so when If you have money in a 401 ( k ) but like the homebuying benefits of an IRA , all is not lost . You may take money out of your 401 ( k ) and roll it into a traditional IRA . To avoid any fees or penalties , ask your 401 ( k ) plan manager to transfer the funds directly or make the check out to your IRA rather than to you personally . Once the money becomes part of your IRA , you can withdraw it to purchase a house under IRA rules rather than under Can Versus Should As many science fiction films have cautioned , just because you can do something does n ' t mean you should . Although you have the option of using 401 ( k ) and IRA money to purchase a home , many financial advisers warn against doing so . One reason is time . You have only a limited number of years to save for your retirement . If you plan on hitting your retirement accounts to buy a home , make sure you have a plan to replace those funds . Yes , you can sell your home to Speaking of interest , consider how much you ' ll lose . Let ' s say you have $ 10,000 in a 401 ( k ) that earns 7 percent interest every year . If you leave that money where it is for 25 years , you ' ll have $ 54,000 . Do the same thing with $ 20,000 and you ' ll have $ 108,000 . Think long and hard about this before you pull your retirement money for any purchase , including a home . References ( 7 ) Investopedia : Can I Take My 401 ( k ) to Buy a House ? Zacks Investment Research : Can I Draw From a 401 ( k ) for a Home Purchase Without Being Penalized With Taxes ? IRS : Topic Number 557 - Additional Tax on Early Distributions from Traditional and Roth IRAs IRS : Publication 590 - B ( 2017 ) , Distributions from Individual Retirement Arrangements ( IRAs ) IRS : Retirement Topics - Exceptions to Tax on Early Distributions IRS : Retirement Plans FAQs regarding Hardship Distributions IRS : Retirement Plans FAQs regarding Loans Resources ( 3 ) ConsumerReports . org : Resist the Lure of a 401 ( k ) Loan GoBankingRates . com : Should You Ever Use Retirement Funds to Buy a House ? Good Financial Cents : 6 Ways to Claim Your 401k Early and Penalty Free About the Author Michelle has a knack for tackling tough topics and making them simple . She uses her accounting degree and financial savvy to help readers understand real estate markets and mortgage options . She also writes about landlord and tenant laws . From appraisals to zoning , Michelle makes real estate information accessible to everyone . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Taxes",
"Home Purchase"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-epoxy-floor-finish-recoated-90678.html | Can an Epoxy Floor Finish Be Recoated ? Epoxy floor paint creates a durable , impermeable surface that ' s harder than the concrete or wood substrate , but it does n ' t last forever . You can recoat an epoxy finish that has lost its sheen or otherwise been damaged , but you have to properly prepare it or the new epoxy wo n ' t adhere . This preparation must include careful cleaning with a grease - cutting detergent to remove the thin , oily layer that has probably built up , but may be invisible . That is n ' t all , though 1 Repair chips and holes in the floor . If you use fresh mortar , allow the repairs to cure for at least 60 days prior to recoating with epoxy . You can also make the repairs with epoxy patching compound , which cures in a matter of days rather than months . 2 Mix a solution of grease - cutting detergent and warm water to clean the floor . All - purpose household cleaner usually works for floors inside the house , but if you ' re recoating a concrete garage floor , choose an industrial - grade product that can remove heavy - duty grease and oil deposits . Mop the floor with the detergent solution , and use a scrub brush to remove grease deposits . 3 Rent a floor buffer , screening attachment and 80 - grit sanding screen . Sand the floor with the buffer to etch the finish . Use a pad sander with 80 - grit sandpaper to etch in corners and other places that the buffer ca n ' t reach . 4 Vacuum the floor and wipe it down with a damp rag to remove all traces of old finish leftover from sanding . 5 Mix the epoxy paint and hardener according to the instructions that come with the paint . Prepare only enough to cover the floor , because any leftover paint will be unusable . 6 Paint the edges of the floor with a paintbrush , and then use a paint roller and 3 / 8 - inch nap roller skin to paint the main area . If you ' re adding color flakes , roll the floor in sections and spread the flakes on each section as you finish it . 7 Let the paint cure for 12 to 24 hours , depending on the product you ' re using . Mix enough clear epoxy finish with hardener to cover the floor and spread it in the same way that you spread the color coat . 8 Allow the clear coat to cure for the recommended time , which is usually from 12 to 24 hours . If you ' re coating the garage floor , wait 72 hours before driving your car on it . Things You Will Need Mortar Epoxy patching compound Detergent Mop Scrub brush Floor buffer Screening attachment 80 - grit screen Pad sander 80 - grit sandpaper Vacuum Paintbrush Paint roller 3 / 8 - inch nap roller skins Tips Do n ' t recoat a finish that is peeling or extensively cracked , because the new finish wo n ' t adhere properly . Strip the old finish . Surfaces coated with epoxy can be slippery . You can make the floor safer to walk on by adding nonskid granules to the clear coat before you spread it . Spread the paint on a dry day when the temperature is between 50 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit . Warning Once you mix the paint with the hardener , you have a limited time to use it . It ' s usually about two hours , but check the instructions on the container to be sure . References ( 1 ) This Old House : How to Epoxy - Coat a Garage Floor About the Author Chris Deziel has a bachelor ' s degree in physics and a master ' s degree in humanities . Besides having an abiding interest in popular science , Deziel has been active in the building and home design trades since 1975 . As a landscape builder , he helped establish two gardening companies . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Epoxy Floor",
"concrete",
"mortar"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-out-real-estate-contract-before-closing-47972.html | Can I Get Out of a Real Estate Contract Before Closing ? Written by Glenda Taylor ; Updated December 15 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Legal Liability From Backing Out of a Real Estate Contract 2 What to Do if the Buyer Backs Out at a Real Estate Closing ? 3 How Can a Seller Get Out of a Real Estate Sales Contract ? 4 When Can You Back Out of Buying a House ? There are contingencies in nearly all contracts that allow the parties to get out before the sale closes if certain conditions are met . California realtors generally use the California Residential Purchase Agreement and Joint Escrow Instructions that sets forth timelines for contingencies . All real estate contracts are legal documents that bind all parties to the conditions set forth in the wording of the documents . Contract Stipulations : Contingencies Buyers can legally walk away from a purchase and get earnest money back during contingency periods . During the inspection period or disclosure period , buyers can back out of the deal without grounds or financial consequences . The first 17 days , the required inspections contingency , is critical for most purchases . Sellers are generally put at ease if the buyer releases this contingency , satisfied with the inspection results . Keep in mind that there does n ' t need to be " good reason " to walk in this contingency period . Earnest Money Earnest money is the amount paid by the buyer during the initial offer to purchase the property . The money goes into a trust account and is applied to the purchase price at the closing . If the contract fails , the trust account administrator disburses the earnest money according to the specifications in the contract . Earnest money is an indicator of the buyer ’ s faithful intent to go through with the purchase . If you ’ re a buyer and you pull out of a contract without a good reason , you could lose your earnest money Contract Breakers Safeguards that protect the parties are built into the contract . These generally include , but are not limited to , the buyer being unable to secure a loan , the seller not providing a clear title or the property ’ s appraised value falling short of the purchase price . Additional contract breakers include an inspection turning up termite infestation or mold , although some contracts address these issues and their remedies in the original document . You may get out of the contract if the seller fails to disclose a property or title defect or if the seller Agreeing to Cancel the Contract In general , the best course of action is to communicate and come to a mutual agreement to cancel the contract . If the buyer wants out , the seller can agree to cancel and return or split the earnest money . Often , the seller sees the futility of trying to force the buyer to purchase the property , because the buyer is likely to walk anyway , especially if the earnest money is a small amount . In addition , most sellers do n ’ t want hard feelings , and they would rather get their property back Escrow Holds Funds Escrow ' s job is to make sure each party does what they are supposed to . If the buyer decides to not release contingencies and it is within the scope of their rights , escrow would complete paperwork to cancel the transaction and refund the buyer . If the buyer walks away without cause , escrow would then give the good faith funds to the seller as indicated in contract terms . Specific Performance and Right of Rescission If the buyer walks for a reason not covered in the contract , the seller is legally allowed to keep the earnest money . If the seller tries to get out of the contract , however , the buyer can file a lawsuit for specific performance , forcing the seller to go ahead with the sale . Buyers have three days after the closing to change their minds if the property is a residence . Individual states might allow more time . Called the “ right of rescission , ” this protects buyers ; however , they still might forfeit References ( 2 ) Realtor . com : Canceling a Real Estate Contract US Legal Forms : California Uniform Residential Purchase Agreement and Joint Escrow Instructions About the Author Glenda Taylor is a contractor and a full - time writer specializing in construction writing . She also enjoys writing business and finance , food and drink and pet - related articles . Her education includes marketing and a bachelor ' s degree in journalism from the University of Kansas . Cite this Article | [
"Real Estate Contract"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-persons-name-deed-being-mortgage-56895.html | Can a Person ' s Name Be on a Deed Without Being on the Mortgage ? Written by Kimberlee Leonard ; Updated July 18 , 2017 It is possible to be named on the title deed of a home without being on the mortgage . However , doing so assumes risks of ownership because the title is not free and clear of liens and possible other encumbrances . Free and clear means that no one else has rights to the title above the owner . If a mortgage exists , it ' s best to work with the lender to make sure everyone on the title is protected . Quitclaim Versus Grant Deed A quitclaim deed releases ownership , literally " quitting " some or all interest in real property . When a notarized quitclaim deed is recorded with the county , a new title deed is issued . There are no warranties on this deed , though . Warranties are the guarantee that the given ownership interest is accurate and legally binding . Without a proper title search , there is no guarantee . Grant deeds are used when a deed holder releases interest for remuneration – the property is sold . In most sale situations , a review of all title claims should be completed and the mortgage addressed . However , in either scenario , if the deed is filed , the new title holder may have ownership interest while the original deed owner is still responsible for the mortgage . California established a Transfer on Death ( TOD ) deed , that is revocable but avoids probate for the next - of - kin to easily assume the property . This adds a name to the deed upon the death of the primary owner and is only executed after death . Mortgage Assumptions New deed holders might not want to refinance the property , especially if the terms were favorable on the loan or their bad credit prevents a new loan approval . It is possible to ask the lender if the new deed owner can assume the mortgage , called a " loan assumption . " This is common is when a child moves in with an aging parent and takes over all household upkeep and payments . Most loan contracts have clauses preventing assumptions , but discuss your situation with the lender . Those that allow assumptions will most likely underwrite the new owner and may even have " due on sale " clause requiring a lump sum payment . Most lenders do n ' t assume the new owner is creditworthy . Common Scenarios Looking at quitclaim deed scenarios , there are common circumstances that families are comfortable with to change ownership but not the loan . Family situations often use quitclaim deeds to add a new spouse to the title , gift property to children or add a relative to assist elderly family members with household administration . In these scenarios , the child or spouse may be comfortable with no warranties because they have full confidence in the person quitting ownership . Warning The IRS allows anyone to give $ 14,000 annually as a gift without requiring the recipient pay a gift tax . This is separate from the lifetime estate tax exclusion . Quitclaims can result in gifting issues ; seek advice from a tax advisor . References ( 3 ) IRS : What ' s New - Estate and Gift Tax The Law Dictionary : Filling Out a California Quitclaim Deed City and County of San Francisco : Title Deed About the Author With more than 15 years of professional writing experience , Kimberlee finds it fun to take technical mumbo - jumbo and make it fun ! Her first career was in financial services and insurance . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Deed",
"Mortgage"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-put-ortho-weed-killer-lawn-89304.html | How Often Can You Put Ortho Weed Killer on Your Lawn ? Weeds are almost as inevitable as death and taxes . Weekend lawn warriors dedicate much time and sweat to seeding , feeding , watering and mowing their lawns only to find that they still have to battle weeds . Chemical weed killers are effective in reducing the weed population on well - tended properties . Ortho weed killer , brand named Weed - B - Gon Weed Killer , is easy to use and can be applied to the lawn more than once in a season . Product Profile Like most broad - spectrum , broadleaf weed killers , Ortho Weed - B - Gone Weed Killer contains a combination of chemicals that targets more than 225 broadleaf , or non - grassy , weeds . The poisons translocate from the leaves to the roots , killing the weed . Ortho ' s formula contains Quinclorac , MCPP - p , 2 , 4 - D , and Dicamba . The product is readily available in concentrated form for home dilution , as well as ready - to - use spray bottles and larger , ready - to - Application Method Apply Ortho Weed - B - Gone Weed Killer while weeds are actively growing . Following all label instructions , start in spring , before weeds go to seed . Apply when rain is not expected for at least an hour . When the poison translocates to the weeds ' roots , you ' ll see plant damage . It could take a week for some weeds to fully succumb . If any stubborn weeds survive , spray them again in two to three weeks . No more applications should be needed until summer , when you can make two Limitations Ortho Weed - B - Gone Weed Killer will not kill crabgrass and other grassy weeds . It also wo n ' t prevent broadleaf weeds from germinating . Do n ' t spray perennial weeds in winter , either , as they are not actively growing . For crabgrass , use a granular pre - emergent crabgrass preventer in early spring , and a crabgrass killer or a broadleaf weed killer that contains crabgrass killer in summer . To prevent broadleaf weeds from germinating in early spring , you need granular , pre - emergent broadleaf weed killer . An Ounce of Prevention . . . Keep weeds at bay by growing thick , healthy turf . Timely fertilization , never in excess , promotes fast growth and thick coverage that chokes out weeds . Taller grass shades and cools weed seeds , reducing their germination rate . Mow the grass to about 3 inches and never remove more than one - third of the grass ' height . If you use a mulching attachment and leave the clippings on the lawn , they will also help shade weed seeds while naturally supplying nitrogen . Repair bald patches right away with new seed - - or References ( 2 ) The Scotts Company : Ortho Weed - B - Gon Weed Killer for Lawns Plus Crabgrass Control Ready - to - Use Turfgrass Science : Control of Broadleaf Weeds in Home Lawns About the Author Robert Lewis has been writing do - it - yourself and garden - related articles since 2000 . He holds a B.A. in history from the University of Maryland and has training experience in finance , garden center retailing and teaching English as a second language . Lewis is an antiques dealer specializing in Chinese and Japanese export porcelain . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Ortho Weed Killer",
"Weed-B-Gon",
"Quinclorac ,"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-split-dahlia-bulb-make-two-plants-92302.html | Can I Split a Dahlia Bulb to Make Two Plants ? Related Articles 1 Kill Bugs & Diseases That Affect Dahlias 2 Tuber Rot on a Dahlia 3 Feed Dahlias 4 Collect Dahlia Seeds From Plants The tuberous roots of a dahlia ( Dahlia spp . ) are sometimes grouped together with other fleshy root structures and called bulbs , but it ' s more accurate to refer to them as tubers . If you take good care of your dahlias during the growing season , they develop large , healthy tubers that you can dig up in fall and split apart in fall or spring . Dahlias are hardy in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 7 through 10 . Digging the Tubers Dig up dahlia tubers after a light frost or two , which is around December in mild , Mediterranean climates . Cut the stalk first , leaving a few inches above ground . While a few inches of stalk makes the tuber easier to handle when making the cuts , you risk injuring the tuber if you pull on it when digging up the roots . Loosen a circle of soil about 2 feet in diameter with the stalk at the center . Dig under the roots and lift upward . Brush the loose soil from the tubers and set When to Cut Dahlia Tubers You can cut dahlia tubers in fall or spring . The problem with cutting them apart in fall is that it ' s hard to see the eyes , and without an eye , the tuber wo n ' t sprout . Cutting the stalks a few days before you dig the tubers sometimes forces the eyes to show themselves . If you cut the stalks early , cover them with aluminum foil to keep water from getting inside the hollow stalk . It ' s easy to see the eyes when temperatures warm in spring . The problem with Making the Cuts Take care when handling clumps of dahlia tubers . If you damage the neck or break off the eyes , the tubers wo n ' t grow . Each piece of tuber you cut away must have at least one eye and a piece of the crown . You will probably have to cut into the tough stem to get both crown and eyes , so use a sharp knife . Storing the Tubers Until Spring If you are cutting in fall , clean the tubers well before you make the cuts . Dust the cuttings with sulfur powder after making the cuts , and package the tubers in a cardboard or other ventilated box with dry vermiculite . Store them in a cool location where they wo n ' t freeze . Store uncut tubers in their original clump of dry soil , or remove the soil and store them in vermiculite . Check for fungus and rot periodically through winter , and cut damaged areas from the tubers . References ( 3 ) The American Dahlia Society : Digging , Dividing , and Storing Tubers The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences : Dahlias Dahlia Society of California : Monthly Guide for Growing Dahlias in the Bay Area Resources ( 1 ) Fine Gardening Magazine : How to Dig , Divide and Store Dahlia Tubers About the Author Jackie Carroll has been a freelance writer since 1995 . Her home - and - garden and nature articles have appeared in " Birds & Blooms " and " Alamance Today . " She holds a Bachelor of Science in medical technology from the University of North Carolina . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Dahlia Bulb",
"Gardening"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/can-spray-crape-myrtles-prevent-mold-growing-base-trees-93900.html | What Can I Spray My Crape Myrtles With to Prevent Mold From Growing on the Base of the Trees ? The crape myrtle ( Lagerstroemia spp . ) genus of trees and shrubs are reliably hardy in zones 6 to 9 , depending on the species , variety or cultivar . Most often , mold problems , such as powdery mildew , associated with crape myrtle can be found primarily on its leaves , as can fungal spot . But it is possible for unsightly growth to take over the trunk of the tree itself . Identifying Sooty Mold Sooty mold looks much like it sounds - - as if black ashes had been rubbed over part of a plant . With crape myrtle , sooty mold does appear on leaves , but it can eventually cover the the trunk . Its host is honeydew , a substance excreted by aphids and some other insects . For this reason , sooty mold will often feel sticky . You can remove sooty mold and honeydew with a soap spray and soft brush , but to keep it from returning , you ' ll need to control the insects that leave Aphid Control If you suspect that the growth on your crape myrle trunk is sooty mold , examine the undersides of the tree ' s leaves , where the tiny aphids cluster . If there is an aphid infestation , blast the leaves , including their undersides with water to remove the aphids . Or kill the aphids with a homemade insecticide coat . Add 3 teaspoons of mild dish soap to 1 gallon plain water . Using a garden hose sprayer , coat the leaves thoroughly , especially lower leaves . Scale Control A group of roundish , slow - moving scale insects looks so much like a lumpy growth that gardeners often mistake scales for a plant disease . As with aphids , treating crape myrtles for the pests is the best way to eradicate sooty mold . Existing scales can be washed off , along with sooty mold , using a soft - bristled brush and a pail of soapy water - - about 3 teaspoons mild liquid soap to 1 gallon water . Rinse the trunk after scrubbing it . A dormant oil spray can also be effective at controlling Considerations Growths other than sooty mold can leave their mark on the trunks of crape myrtle trees . The most likely suspects are various fungal spores . These can develop in the center of the tree , but wounds or natural cavities on the outside of the trunk will encourage spores to reproduce there as well . Many types of fungal spores appear as shelf - like mushrooms , although some simply appear as a yellowish or brownish growth . Once the fungal growth has reach this stage , cutting down the tree may be the best option , especially if References ( 7 ) University of California IPM : Crape Myrtle Crape Myrtle Trails : Pest Control Texas A & M Agrilife Extension : Crape Myrtle Scale : New pest for US ? Rodale ' s Ultimate Guide to Organic Gardening : Fern Marshall Bradley , et al University of California IPM : Scale Management Missouri Botanical Garden : Lagerstroemia ' Acoma ' Fine Gardening : Lagerstroemia Indica Resources ( 1 ) The United States National Arboretum : Crape Myrtle Questions About the Author Ellen Douglas has written on food , gardening , education and the arts since 1992 . Douglas has worked as a staff reporter for the Lakeville Journal newspaper group . Previously , she served as a communication specialist in the nonprofit field . She received her Bachelor of Arts from the University of Connecticut . Cite this Article | [
"Crape Myrtles",
"Prevent Mold",
"honeydew"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cancel-mortgage-application-7555.html | How Do I Cancel a Mortgage Application ? The promise of a home loan that will help consolidate debt sounds good at the outset , but you may decide to cancel your mortgage application . A change in the interest rates or terms that you were quoted may cause you to distrust your loan representative and seek financing elsewhere . In August 2010 , the Federal Reserve Board proposed a rule that would allow consumers to have three days to cancel a mortgage application and receive a refund for up - front fees that were paid . Generally , a mortgage loan applicant can cancel at any time 1 Inform the lender of your decision to cancel a mortgage application . Speak with a representative of the company and communicate your desire to cancel the application process . Get the name of the person who accepts your notice of cancellation and record the date and time for your records . 2 Call or email the loan officer who started your mortgage application to notify her of your decision to cancel . Loan officers are difficult to reach sometimes ; however , most would appreciate a voice mail message , email or fax that signals your change of interest . 3 Fax or mail a written letter to the lender ’ s office to reiterate your notice of cancellation , as well as the date and time that you spoke with a representative to cancel your mortgage application . Include the name of the representative with whom you spoke and request a refund of fees that you paid . 4 Take a written notice to the local office . Request the return of any original documents that you provided such as W - 2s , pay stubs , tax returns and bank statements . Tip Federal law gives homeowners the right to cancel a new - loan or refinance transaction within three business days of the loan settlement . References ( 1 ) Federal Trade Commission : Putting Your Home on the Loan Line Is Risky Business Resources ( 1 ) Bank Rate : New Rule Would Refund Some Mortgage Fees About the Author Ray Cole has written professionally since 1999 and has designed dozens of Web sites . Cole writes for eHow and " SF Gate . " As a small business owner for over 15 years , he provides mortgage services , credit - related help and financial planning for his clients . Cole is currently writing a book about personal finance . He has also studied and taught martial arts for over 31 years . Photo Credits contract b image by Andrey Kiselev from Fotolia . com Cite this Article | [
"Mortgage Application",
"home loan",
"Federal Reserve Board"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/care-dracaena-house-plants-46662.html | How to Care for Dracaena House Plants Written by Susan Lundman ; Updated December 15 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Indoor Care for a Dracaena Marginata 2 Dracaena Marginata Care Instructions 3 Plant Dracaena 4 Transplant a Dracaena Marginata With its distinctive , sword - shaped leaves and its easy - care growing requirements , dracaena ( Dracaena ) makes a near - perfect houseplant . Growing naturally only in the warm climates of U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 10 through 12 , dracaena typically grows indoors for most Americans . Although the plants grow very tall in their native environments , the same plants reach much shorter heights indoors . One such example is the corn plant dracaena ( Dracaena fragrans ) , which grows up to 50 feet tall outdoors in tropical parts of Africa and from 4 to 6 feet tall indoors . Types of Dracaena While all dracaena are easy to grow , they do have different features . For instance , dragontree ( Dracaena marginata ) , which grows up to 6 feet tall indoors , resembles a small palm tree with narrow , green leaves on woody , upright stems_ . Song of India ( _Dracaena reflexa ' Variegata ' ) has a more compact shape with whorls of variegated green leaves edged with yellow ; it grows from 3 to 6 feet tall . The corn plant has broad , variegated leaves that are about 2 feet long and 3 inches wide . Containers and Placement Containers must promote good drainage . Choose clay pots with drainage holes that allow the soil to partially dry out in between watering , but do n ' t allow the soil to dry out completely . Place your pot where the plant can get bright light but is out of direct sunlight . If the leaves on your plant begin to fade and grow longer , the plant may need more light . Soil and Water Dracaena thrive in rich soil with plenty of organic material , such as a well - draining , peaty commercial potting soil . Water the plant thoroughly once a week , allowing the water to run through the container completely . Do this by placing the pot in the sink to water or by having a saucer deep enough to catch the water as it runs through . Water slowly , only until you begin to see water in the saucer . Feeding and Pruning Like all indoor plants , dracaena thrive with only one or two feedings with a fertilizer designed specifically for houseplants . Feed the plant only during the growing season , between March and September . Dracaena plants respond well to pruning , so if you want to reduce the height of a dragontree for example , cut off the stem and a new crown of leaves will grow back . If the leaves on your plant have turned brown from too little light or from underwatering , cut them off and new ones will grow in their place . Problems Pests and disease are rare problems with dracaena , but fluoride in your water may cause the plant ' s leaves to turn yellow or brown at the tips . Try using distilled water or rainwater to see if you can solve the problem . The same symptoms may result from low humidity , so add a layer of gravel in the bottom of the plant ' s saucer to create a more moist atmosphere . The water held by the pebbles will evaporate into the air directly around the plant in a slow and consistent way , thereby creating Warning Dracaena can be toxic to both dogs and cats if they eat the plant . Symptoms of poisoning can include vomiting , depression , weight loss , hypersalivation and dilated pupils . References ( 7 ) Missouri Botanical Garden : Dracaena University of Illinois Extension : Dracaena Missouri Botanical Garden : Dracaena Fragrans Missouri Botanical Garden : Dracaena Marginata Missouri Botanical Garden : Dracaena Reflexa ' Variegata ' University of Illinois Extension : Caring for Houseplants American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals : Dracaena Resources ( 1 ) Clemson Cooperative Extension : Dracaena About the Author Susan Lundman began writing about her love of gardening and landscape design after working for 20 years at a nonprofit agency . She has written about plants , garden design and gardening tips online professionally for ten years on numerous websites . Lundman belongs to numerous gardening groups , tends her home garden on 2 / 3 acre and volunteers with professional horticulturists at a 180 acre public garden where she lives on Bainbridge Island in Washington State . Cite this Article | [
"Dracaena House Plants",
"Susan Lundman"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/care-red-blanket-flowers-fall-23973.html | How to Care for Red Blanket Flowers in the Fall Red blanket flowers ( Gaillardia grandiflora ) produce an abundance of deep red or burgundy 4 - inch daisy - like blooms atop 12 - inch plants . Spreading to a width of 14 inches , red blanket flowers create a mass of bright color , especially when planted in groups . Blooming begins in spring and continues well into the fall , making this perennial a real showstopper . Red blanket flowers thrive in full sun and well - drained soil in a wide range of pH levels . They are tolerant of drought and environmental salts , growing 1 Cut back the foliage of red blanket flower to 6 inches in height in the fall , once the foliage has died and blooming has ceased . 2 Remove plant debris from around your blanket flowers and rake the area clean . Discard plant parts away from your flowerbed , as dead or dying plant material harbors insects and disease if allowed to remain in the garden . 3 Dig up overcrowded blanket flowers by sliding the blade of a spade under the root ball . 4 Gently pull apart the roots with your hands . If they resist your efforts , cut them apart with a sharp spade or large knife . 5 Replant the divisions in a prepared bed with similar growing conditions . Firm the soil around the roots to secure the new plants . 6 Water the newly planted divisions deeply to moisten the soil to the root level . Keep soil moist throughout the fall to encourage healthy root formation . Things You Will Need Garden shears Garden rake Garden spade Sharp knife Tips Blanket flowers typically require division every three to five years to revive the flowers . Pair red blanket flower with yellow flowers , such as rudbeckia , to create contrast . Red blanket flower makes an excellent cut flower with a long vase life . References ( 2 ) Gardenologist : How to Take Care of Red Blanket Flowers in the Fall Oakland Nurseries : Sunset Burgundy Blanket Flower Resources ( 2 ) Sunset : How to Design a Hot - Color Flower Garden Sunset : Flowers for Late Summer Color About the Author Nannette Richford is an avid gardener , teacher and nature enthusiast with more than four years ' experience in online writing . Richford holds a Bachelor of Science in secondary education from the University of Maine Orono and certifications in teaching 7 - 12 English , K - 8 General Elementary and Birth to age 5 . Cite this Article | [
"Red Blanket Flowers",
"Garden shears",
"plant debris"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/care-waffle-plant-66994.html | How to Take Care of a Waffle Plant Waffle plant ( Hemigraphis ) is a genus including approximately 90 species known by colorful names such as red ivy , red flame ivy , silver waffle plant , metallic plant and purple waffle plant . Named for their puckered leaves , waffle plants are tropical plants suitable for growing in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 10 and 11 and indoors elsewhere . At heights of only 6 to 9 inches , waffle plant is an effective ground cover , but it is also attractive in containers or hanging baskets . The plant is shade tolerant , but 1 Water your waffle plant whenever the top 2 to 4 inches of soil feels dry to the touch . Water the plant thoroughly , wetting the soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches , by letting a hose run gently 6 to 12 inches from the base of the plant . 2 Fertilize your waffle plant once every month during spring and summer , using a dry or water - soluble general - purpose fertilizer with a ratio such as 5 - 10 - 5 . Apply the fertilizer according to the rate specifications provided on the label . Water the plant deeply immediately after fertilizing to prevent scorching the roots . 3 Pinch the tips of your waffle plant whenever the plant needs a more compact , bushy shape . Pinch the stems just above a leaf , stem or bud . 4 Check the plant often for insect damage . Although healthy hemigraphis plants are relatively pest - resistant , they are sometimes bothered by whiteflies or scale . Direct a strong stream of water at the plant to dislodge the pests . Trim affected plant parts and spray heavy infestations with insecticidal spray or horticultural oil . Avoid pesticides , as toxic chemicals kill beneficial insects such as lady beetles . Things You Will Need Garden hose Dry or water - soluble general - purpose fertilizer Garden hose Insecticidal soap spray or horticultural oil Tips Scales are tiny insects covered by a waxy , shell - like substance , which may be either hard or soft . Severe infestations may cause the foliage to look discolored , curled or wilted . Whiteflies are tiny pests that suck the sap from the plant . They are often seen in large masses on the underside of the leaves . A severe infestation results in dry , yellow foliage that may eventually fall from the plant . References ( 6 ) University of Florida IFAS Extension : Silver Waffle Plant University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences : Exotic Angel Plants : Purple Waffle University of Hawaii Cooperative Extension : Hemigraphis University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources : Scales University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources : Whiteflies About the Author M.H. Dyer began her writing career as a staff writer at a community newspaper and is now a full - time commercial writer . She writes about a variety of topics , with a focus on sustainable , pesticide - and herbicide - free gardening . She is an Oregon State University Master Gardener and Master Naturalist and holds a Master of Fine Arts in creative nonfiction writing . Cite this Article | [
"Waffle Plant",
"puckered leaves",
"red ivy"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/causes-burner-flame-gas-stove-yellow-82498.html | What Causes the Burner Flame on a Gas Stove to Be Yellow ? Written by Herb Kirchhoff ; Updated December 27 , 2018 Gas stoves are popular with homeowners because they provide efficient heat transfer with precise heat control . They heat cookware with flame from a burner . A properly adjusted gas stove burner burns with a blue flame . But if the burner is out of adjustment , the gas flame will be yellow . Needs More Air Gas burners burn blue if the ratio of fuel to air is correct . A yellow burner flame is a symptom that the burner is not getting enough air for complete combustion of the gas . Correcting this problem involves adjusting the burner ’ s air shutter to admit more air , something that an experienced do - it - yourselfer can do . Open Stovetop If you want to fix the problem of a yellow flame yourself , allow the stove to cool , remove the top grates and lift up the stovetop to expose the burner piping . On most stoves , the air shutter is just behind the burner gas valve . It is a sliding plate or tube that covers the burner air vent . Loosen the set screw that keeps the shutter from moving . Turn the burner on fully and slowly open the shutter until the flame turns blue . Retighten the set screw , turn off the burner , References ( 1 ) Don Vandervort ’ s Home Tips : Gas Cooktop Burner Repairs About the Author Herb Kirchhoff has more than three decades of hands - on experience as an avid garden hobbyist and home handyman . Since retiring from the news business in 2008 , Kirchhoff takes care of a 12 - acre rural Michigan lakefront property and applies his experience to his vegetable and flower gardens and home repair and renovation projects . Cite this Article | [
"Burner Flame",
"Gas Stove",
"Yellow"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/change-cabinets-refrigerator-fits-67798.html | How to Change Cabinets So a Refrigerator Fits Written by Wade Shaddy ; Updated December 14 , 2018 Refrigerators typically have a place designated for them in a cabinet layout plan . If you ' re remodeling or adding a bigger refrigerator , chances are you need to change or alter your cabinets . This is not a big problem . You can add fillers , trim or add smaller cabinets according to your needs . Cabinet installers and builders do it all the time and so can you . Cabinet Removal Upper cabinets are screwed to the wall , using 3 - inch screws . The screws penetrate through the back of the cabinets directly into wall studs . Most cabinets are also screwed together together horizontally through the interior sides or the face frames in front . When removing upper cabinets , cut supports to relieve the weight . Unscrew the screws and remove the cabinet . If necessary , ask an assistant for help . Base cabinets are installed the same way , except they use screws that penetrate into the floor on each corner . Remove the baseboard Bases Typical refrigerators fit into a space 36 inches wide and 72 inches tall . The depth of most cabinets is 24 inches . Even though refrigerators are often deeper than 24 inches , the extra depth is usually not a problem . Some base cabinets are wide enough that , when removed , the space provided will accommodate a fridge . If the space is not wide enough , remove the adjoining cabinet . If you ' ve created too much space , purchase a modular cabinet of the same type to fit where the larger cabinet was removed . Upper Cabinets Renovate the upper cabinet to accommodate the extra height of the fridge . It ' s OK to simply cut the bottom half of the upper cabinet to fit over the refrigerator . If you need to remove two of them , cut them both . Take your measurements first , remove the doors , unscrew the cabinets and remove them from the wall . Use a straightedge to draw a line around the perimeter where the cabinet needs to be cut off . Use a circular saw to cut the cabinet one side at a time to shorten it Countertop Countertops are also an issue when changing cabinets to fit refrigerators . You do n ' t need to remove them . Use a laminate blade to cut through the laminated top . This type of blade cuts slowly but very cleanly . Start by taking your measurements . Draw a line where you wish to cut off the laminated top . Place masking tape on the line to prevent chipping . Set the blade depth on a circular saw to 1 / 8 inch . Cut along the line slowly to cut through the laminate only . The saw Option You have one other option when installing a different refrigerator . If you have room on one side of the cabinets for a fridge , you can add a simple vertical panel to one side . This is done all the time to make refrigerators appear incorporated into the cabinets . Take measurements between the cabinets and the fridge . Cut a full - sized panel , using 3 / 4 - inch hardwood plywood . Nail a piece of 3 / 4 - inch by 1 1 / 2 - inch hardwood to the bottom for a foot , About the Author Specializing in hardwood furniture , trim carpentry , cabinets , home improvement and architectural millwork , Wade Shaddy has worked in homebuilding since 1972 . Shaddy has also worked as a newspaper reporter and writer , and as a contributing writer for Bicycling Magazine . Shaddy began publishing in various magazines in 1992 , and published a novel , “ Dark Canyon , ” in 2008 . Cite this Article | [
"Cabinet Removal",
"Refrigerator",
"Countertops"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/change-grant-deeds-california-46775.html | How to Change Grant Deeds in California Written by Teo Spengler ; Reviewed by Jodi Thornton - O ' Connell , GRI , Fitness & Nutrition Coaching Certificate ; Updated December 02 , 2018 Change happens , whether you expect it or not , but it ' s easier to accept when you are the one bringing it about . If you decide to change ownership of a property in California , it ' s an action that has legal repercussions . Bringing in a new person or eliminating someone from the title may require a revision of other legal and financial documents as well , like your mortgage on the property . Since every transfer is different , you may want get professional advice on that issue . But switching out grant deeds Tip Download forms to change grant deeds from your state ' s law library , sign before a notary and file the change with the county recorder . Forms and fees vary by state and county . California Grant Deeds In California , the two most common types of deeds that property owners use are grant deeds and quitclaim deeds . All other deeds are considered variations on these two themes , but you can tailor either to fit your needs . A grant deed offers more promises and protections to the grantee than a quitclaim . Usually the grantor guarantees that he has an interest , that he has legal authority to sell or gift that interest and that there are no hidden liens or encumbrances on the property . When you are swapping out grant deeds , you are obviously intending to change something about the one you have . The most probable change you are making is to change who holds the title , adding or subtracting an owner or changing how the title is held , such as from joint tenants to tenants in common . Determine the exact changes you wish to make after consulting an attorney or other real estate professional . Do you want to transfer property to a trust ? Change from one type of ownership interest to another ? Add or subtract owners ? Only after you work through all the repercussions of the transaction should you turn to preparing a new grant deed . To do this in California , you will need a copy of the current deed – for San Francisco property , visit the assessor - recorder ' s office in city hall – as well as Changing Grant Deeds Fill in the new grant deed with the following information . The parcel number , names of grantors and legal description of the property will be available on the current grant deed . The names of the grantees and how they will hold title are matters to discuss with an attorney or real estate professional . Here ' s what you need to include : the assessor ’ s parcel number the document transfer tax amount , which is 1.1 percent of the value of the real property . Iif the transfer is exempt , the code to the exemption – e.g. gift , transfer to living trust , name change , transfer to legal spouse , etc . the names of the grantors signing the deed the names of the grantees who will be new or continuing owners the form of title the grantees take such as tenants in common , joint tenants , etc . and the legal description of the property . In San Francisco , only the grantor needs to sign the deed , but she must sign before a notary . Fill out the preliminary change of ownership report and file both documents with the San Francisco Office of the Assessor - Recorder . Pay the transfer tax . Most transfers trigger property tax reassessments , but some do n ' t , such as a parent - child transfer , transfers between spouses or domestic partners , etc . If your transfer is exempt , you ' ll also file a reassessment exclusion claim with the assessor - recorder References ( 5 ) Sacramento Law Library : Adding or Changing Names on Property Los Angeles County Registrar : Deeds SF Chronicle : How to Change the Title on Your Home Preliminary Chge of Ownership Report : Form San Francisco Assessor : Office About the Author From Alaska to California , from France ' s Basque Country to Mexico ' s Pacific Coast , Teo Spengler has dug the soil , planted seeds and helped trees , flowers and veggies thrive . A professional writer and consummate gardener , Spengler has written about home and garden for Gardening Know How , San Francisco Chronicle , Gardening Guide and Go Banking Rates . She earned a BA from U.C. Santa Cruz , a law degree from U.C. Berkeley ' s Boalt Hall , and an MA and MFA from San Francisco State . She currently divides her Cite this Article | [
"Grant Deeds",
"California",
"quitclaim deeds"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/check-kitchen-range-gas-leaks-49080.html | How to Check a Kitchen Range for Gas Leaks Written by Jerry Walch ; Updated December 17 , 2018 Natural gas , which fuels your kitchen range , is odorless in its natural form . During the refining process , the chemical Mercaptan is added to the gas to give it its distinctive odor for safety purposes . Any leak can be dangerous , but not all leaks produce gas in a large enough volume to be detected by smell . The volume of gas release resulting from some tiny leaks is dispersed into the surrounding air before the odor reaches your nose . Therefore , you need to test your gas appliances periodically for gas leaks . The Bubble Test Back in the days before the advent of the sophisticated electronic gas detectors , the bubble test was relied upon to find gas leaks . The first bubble testing solutions were nothing more than a mixture of soap and water , but today you can buy commercially prepared test solutions that perform consistently because they adhere to the pipes , valves and fittings better than the old soap - and - water solutions did . You can buy these solutions at most home centers and appliance parts stores . To use them , simply brush or spray them on the Electronic Leak Detectors Most electronic gas leak detectors are quite expensive , but there are such testers that cost under $ 40 as of the publication date and can be purchased at almost any appliance parts supplier . This type does not have the LCD readouts and all the bells and whistles that the professional instruments have , but it does give a visual and audio alarm when even a minute amount of gas is present . Many professional appliance technicians use these shirt - pocket - size testers on service calls . They are simple to use ; just install two AAA Where to Check for Leaks Begin your testing for leaks with the flex pipe that connects your gas range and the cut - off valve on the black pipe . The flex pipe is prone to develop leaks as it ages , so coat the whole pipe carefully with the leak - detection fluid or run the electronic sniffer slowly over the pipe , and do not forget to check the cut - off valve itself . Check all the individual control valves for the top burners , oven and broiler . Check the oven / broiler ' s thermostatically controlled valve and all the What to Do if You Find a Leak In most cases it will be safe for you to repair the leak yourself , but if the leak is coming from the cut - off valve itself or coming from around the valve ' s shaft , call in a professional to replace the valve . Replacing a leaking flex pipe , burner - control valves , oven thermostatic control valve or internal piping is easy and safe for even the beginner to do , and the parts are easily attainable at any appliance parts supplier . Warning Always turn off the gas at the shut - off valve and then light one of the top burners to burn out any gas remaining in the stove itself before making any repairs on a gas range . References ( 2 ) InspectAPedia : Find leaks in gas piping : How to Identify & Correct LP Gas or Natural Gas Leaks Propane 101 : How Do I Check for Propane Leaks ? About the Author Based in Colorado Springs , Colo . , Jerry Walch has been writing articles for the DIY market since 1974 . His work has appeared in “ Family Handyman ” magazine , “ Popular Science , ” " Popular Mechanics , " “ Handy ” and other publications . Walch spent 40 years working in the electrical trades and holds an Associate of Applied Science in applied electrical engineering technology from Alvin Junior College . Cite this Article | [
"Gas Leaks",
"Kitchen Range",
"chemical Mercaptan"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/check-plumbing-leaks-swimming-pool-63058.html | How to Check for Plumbing Leaks in a Swimming Pool The average in - ground residential pool in the United States contains about 20,000 gallons of water . Given that volume , leakage from a pool may be subtle and hard to detect . Tracing it to it ’ s source can be even more difficult . Leaks in the concrete shell of the pool often require high - tech leak detection methods such as underwater listening devices and / or dye testing . Fortunately , the majority of pool leaks occur outside the pool and above - ground in the plumbing and pump / filter circuit . Answering some Is Water Loss Always A Leak ? A sudden drop in the pool water level may not necessarily be the result of a leak . Evaporation rates from a pool can vary widely with changes in air temperature , relative humidity and wind speed . A simple test can rule out evaporation as a source of water loss in your pool . Fill a bucket with water and mark the level of water in the bucket and the water level in the pool . Place the bucket beside the pool and compare the two water levels 24 hours later . If the water level in the pool Is Leakage Greater When The Pump Is Circulating ? Leakage that is greater when the pump is circulating may be a sign of a leak in the return plumbing downstream from the pump , known as the pressure side of the system . After the pump is pressurized , leaks ranging from minor seepage to high - pressure sprays may develop in the any of the downstream plumbing fittings when the pump is running . Internal leaks may also occur in a defective filter multiport valve , causing the loss of clean water down the waste or backwash line into the sewer . Is Leakage Greater When The Pump Is Off ? While the pump is running , leaks in pipes , fittings or valves on the suction side of the system before the pump usually draw air in rather than leak water out . When the pump cycles off , however , water leakage may occur through these openings . Air locks in the pump that require frequent manual priming , bubbles emitted from the return jets in the pool and high - pressure readings in the filter that are relieved by opening the bleed valve are all signs that a leak somewhere before the pump is sucking air in while Does The Pool Leak Whether The Pump Is Running Or Not ? This tends to indicate a leak somewhere in the shell of the pool . However , it need not necessarily be a crack or other structural defect . If water loss continues only to a certain level and then subsides , check the water - tightness of any fixtures installed at that level such as underwater lights . Another common source of water loss may be suspected if the water level drops just below the level of the skimmers , then stabilizes . The joint between the plastic skimmer boxes and the concrete pool very frequently separates and allows leakage References ( 1 ) PoolCenter . com : Leak Detection About the Author Gus Stephens has written about aviation , automotive and home technology for 15 years . His articles have appeared in major print outlets such as " Popular Mechanics " and " Invention & Technology . " Along the way , Gus earned a Bachelor of Arts in communications . If it flies , drives or just sits on your desk and blinks , he ' s probably fixed it . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Plumbing Leaks",
"Swimming Pool",
"dye testing"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/choose-bathroom-mirror-size-37630.html | How to Choose a Bathroom Mirror Size Written by Amanda Bell ; Updated December 15 , 2018 The size of a bathroom mirror is often one of those pesky design details that is overlooked ; however , it has a pretty dramatic impact on the space . Whether you prefer one larger mirror or two smaller ones , or if you ’ re looking to custom order a mirror to fit a recessed space , there are plenty of factors to consider when picking the perfect mirror size for your bathroom . Measure the vanity that the mirror will be installed above . You will want to limit your choices to a mirror that is this size , including the frame , or smaller , as hanging a mirror that ' s too large for the vanity typically looks awkward . To prevent a box - like effect , keep two to four inches of open space between the edge of the mirror and the edge of the vanity . If you have dual vanities , you can treat the width as the edge of the vanity on one end to the Measure from the base of the vanity up to any existing lighting , and determine whether or not you want a gap between the top of the mirror and the lights or if you want them flush . To avoid water stains , consider sizing the mirror so that it starts about six inches above the vanity ; however , this can be left to personal preference . This measurement will give you an idea as to your height options . Note the location of any windows on adjacent walls if applicable . Ensuring that the mirror is big enough to reflect a window , but does n ' t going over the edge of the vanity , can dramatically increase the amount of natural light in the bathroom . If you have the option of choosing a mirror size that reflects a window , it can have a significant impact on the overall feel of your space . Determine the amount of useable mirror space you want or need , and factor in the thickness of the frame . Depending on the style of mirror you choose , the thickness of the frame can take up a good couple of inches , which may result in it being difficult for two people to use the mirror at once . If this is the case , consider two smaller mirrors , thinner frames , or frame - less options . Measure the recessed space where you want to install a mirror if applicable . In most cases , recessed spaces look best with a large , custom frame - less mirror , as the walls will naturally frame it . However , you can still treat it as just another wall , measuring the width of the space and determining frame thickness , one mirror versus two , etc . , just as you would a flat wall . Cut large pieces of paper to the potential sizes of the mirror and tape them to the wall . You can see what it looks like if the mirror is flush with the vanity , if there are gaps all the way around , or if you should install two mirrors for dual vanities rather than one long mirror . This will make it easier to visualize the end product , helping you to make the best choice when it comes to size . Things You Will Need Measuring tape Roll paper Pencil Scissors Tape Tip A quick consultation with a local interior designer may give you ideas for your space that you otherwise would n ' t consider . About the Author Amanda Bell spent six years working as an interior designer and project coordinator before becoming a professional writer in 2010 . She has published thousands of articles for various websites and clients , specializing in home renovation , DIY projects , gardening and travel . Bell studied English composition and literature at the University of Boston and the University of Maryland . Cite this Article | [
"Bathroom Mirror Size",
"pesky design",
"recessed space"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/clean-grout-before-resealing-28173.html | How to Clean Grout Before Resealing Grout sealer can repel moisture and stains , keeping your grout free from water damage and mold or mildew . Over time , exposure to water and cleaning products can wear away the seal , leaving grout porous and vulnerable to mildew growth . Before resealing the grout , you must clean it thoroughly to allow the sealer to penetrate the grout ' s porous surface . White vinegar or baking soda is safe and effective for all types of grout , but you may want to consider using bleach for tough mold or mildew stains on light - colored Cleaning With Vinegar 1 Fill a spray bottle with white vinegar and spray the grout thoroughly . Allow the vinegar to sit for at least 15 minutes . 2 Scrub the grout with an old toothbrush or grout brush , working on one grout line at a time . Rinse the brush often to remove any residue . 3 Rinse the grout thoroughly with water and dry it with a towel . Allow the grout to air - dry completely . Cleaning With Baking Soda 1 Mix 3 / 4 cup of baking soda with 1 / 4 cup of warm water to make a paste . 2 Apply the paste to the grout with an old toothbrush or grout brush and scrub it thoroughly , working on one grout line at a time . 3 Rinse the grout with water and dry it with a towel . Cleaning With Bleach Fill a bucket with 1 gallon of warm water and 3 / 4 cup of chlorine bleach . Dip an old toothbrush or grout brush into the bleach mixture and apply it to one grout line at a time . Allow the bleach to sit for at least five minutes and scrub the grout with the brush . Rinse the grout thoroughly with water to remove any bleach residue . Dry the grout with a towel . Things You Will Need White vinegar Spray bottle Old toothbrush or grout brush Towel Baking soda Bleach Tips If old grout sealer is still present , remove it with a floor stripper and rinse it thoroughly before cleaning and resealing . Wear rubber gloves and eye protection when working with bleach . Consider using a commercial tile and grout cleaner if you do n ' t have other products on hand . Warning Do not mix bleach with vinegar or any other cleaning products , as it can release toxic gases . References ( 3 ) Lowe ' s Creative Ideas : Clean and Seal Grout Good Housekeeping : Cleaning Tinted Grout Good Housekeeping : Removing Grout Stains About the Author Melissa Rae has been a writer since 2008 , specializing in home - and - garden , business , technology and education topics . Rae holds a Bachelor of Science in business administration from Herzing University . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Home Cleaning",
"Grout"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/clean-underground-gutter-drains-28281.html | How to Clean Underground Gutter Drains Written by Shala Munroe ; Updated December 28 , 2018 Your home ' s main gutter system gathers rainwater from the roof line and controls its path down the house to ground ; but the water could still puddle next to the foundation . That ' s where underground gutter drains are helpful . They attach to the downspouts on your home and move water away from the foundation underground . Although you ca n ' t see into these drains , cleaning them is similar to a process used to clear debris from the side gutter pipes on your house . Pull the underground drain , which is often a black , corrugated , plastic pipe , away from the end of the downspout . Place the end of a plumber ' s auger , also known as a snake , into the underground gutter . Turn the handle clockwise to extend the end of the auger . Turn the handle counterclockwise if it becomes hard to turn ; it ' s likely you ' ve encountered a blockage . Reverse the auger to pull it out of the drain and clear it of debris . Insert it back into the drain until you hit resistance again , then turn the handle back and forth to work some of the clog free . Pull the auger out periodically to remove debris until it moves past the blockage without resistance . Flush water through the drain using a garden hose . Stand where the drain terminates , usually at the edge of your yard , to make sure the water is flowing smoothly through the drain . Things You Will Need Plumber ' s auger Garden hose Measuring tape Tip If your plumber ' s auger line is too short to reach to the end of the pipe , go as far as you can from the front of the drain , then start at the end of the drain and work backward . Many home improvement stores rent plumber ' s augers that are likely long enough to meet your needs . Some underground gutter drains terminate in the sewer system instead of at the edge of your yard . In that case , measure from the downspout to the nearest manhole , and use an auger line at least that long to ensure you ' re cleaning the entire pipe . References ( 1 ) Three Mountains Plumbing : How to Use a Plumbing Snake on a Clogged Drain About the Author Based outside Atlanta , Ga . , Shala Munroe has been writing and copy editing since 1995 . Beginning her career at newspapers such as the " Marietta Daily Journal " and the " Atlanta Business Chronicle , " she most recently worked in communications and management for several nonprofit organizations before purchasing a flower shop in 2006 . She earned a BA in communications from Jacksonville State University . Cite this Article | [
"Gutter Drains",
"roof line",
"clear debris"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/climate-pistachio-tree-grow-in-39048.html | What Climate Will a Pistachio Tree Grow In ? Written by Ruth de Jauregui ; Updated November 28 , 2018 The pistachio tree ( Pistacia vera ) , not to be confused with its ornamental relative Chinese pistachio ( Pistacia chinensis ) , produces tasty nuts hidden within its fruits . You need two trees , a male and a female , to ensure a plentiful harvest from the small 10 - to 12 - foot - tall tree . It thrives in the long hot summers and chilly winters of U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 8 through 10 . USDA Zones While CalPoly ' s Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute places the tree ' s USDA hardiness zones at 7 to 11 , the most commonly used rootstock , Pistacia integerrima , can not tolerate the lower winter temperatures of zone 7 – and zone 11 is unlikely to provide the necessary chilling hours for fruiting . The National Gardening Association ' s rating of the pistachio ' s hardiness zone at 8 to 10 is a more realistic range for the average home orchard . Summer Heat Pistachios need the long hot days of summer to fully develop the nutty kernels inside the drupes , or fruits . The flowers are wind - pollinated , so spring and summer breezes are also necessary to ensure a good harvest . Winter Chilling and Rootstocks To break dormancy , pistachios require approximately 850 hours of winter temperatures below 45 degrees Fahrenheit . Although the trees require winter chilling , the rootstocks vary in their cold resistance . Pistacia terebinthus is tolerant of temperatures as low as 15 degrees , while Pistacia atlantica is susceptible to damage from temperatures lower than 15 to 20 degrees . Pistacia integerrima is the only rootstock resistant to Verticillium wilt , but it is the most vulnerable to cold temperatures . Two other rootstocks , hybrids of atlantica and integerrima , have a better resistance to cold than integerrima , but a lower resistance to Verticillium wilt . Male and Female Pistachio trees require a male and a female tree , or a male branch grafted onto a female tree , to pollinate the flowers and produce fruit . Because the trees are wind - pollinated , planting a male tree upwind of one or more female trees is a practical method of ensuring better pollination rates . ' Peters ' is the standard male variety used in commercial and home gardens . The female variety ' Kerman ' is often planted in commercial and home orchards . Its nuts are larger , and the fruits are easily shaken off the Water Requirements Pistachio trees prefer well - drained soil , but will grow in poor soils . While drought resistant once established in the home orchard , the tree will produce more fruits if deep - watered regularly during the growing season . Slowly add a minimum of 10 gallons of water for each inch of the trunk diameter , and allow the water to soak into the soil under the tree ' s canopy . Avoid using sprinklers and wetting the foliage ; drip irrigation allows you to apply water to the rootball . Keep the soil under the tree moist A layer of mulch under each tree ' s canopy , pulled approximately 6 inches from the trunk , will slow evaporation from the soil and help reduce weed germination . Pull weeds as soon as they appear , while they ' re easy to remove from the loose mulch . Fertilizing Options The trees grow slowly . Apply a slow - release 10 - 10 - 10 fertilizer according to the package directions in spring . Alternately , apply 5 pounds of ammonium sulfate between May and August , evenly divided into monthly applications . If you prefer organic fertilizers , rake 20 to 25 pounds of well - decomposed manure over the soil . Water thoroughly after fertilizing or adding manure . Pruning Requirements The trees require light pruning in late winter only to shape and remove broken , dead or crossing branches . The main pruning is conducted after the tree is planted and within the first few years of growth . Shape it to a central leader and four or five branches beginning 4 feet above the ground . The shorter branches are pruning spurs , so avoid removing them . Fruit Production The first fruits should appear between five and six years after you plant the trees . Expect approximately 5 pounds of nuts with the first harvest . Pistachios tend to be alternate bearing – producing a heavy crop one year and a lighter crop the following year . A pistachio tree may live up to 150 years . References ( 7 ) The National Gardening Association : Pistachio ( Pistacia Vera ) CalPoly Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute : Pistachio Monrovia : Chinese Pistachio University of California The California Backyard Orchard : Growing Temperate Tree Fruit and Nut Crops in the Home Garden and Landscape California Rare Fruit Growers : Pistachio University of California Fruit and Nut Research and Information Center : Pistachio Rootstocks University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources : Pistachio : Calendar of Operations for Home Gardeners Resources ( 1 ) Big Picture Agriculture : Global Top 5 Pistachio Producers About the Author Ruth de Jauregui is an old - school graphic artist and writer who focuses primarily on garden topics . She writes a weekly garden column and authored 50 Fabulous Tomatoes for Your Garden . She continues to write nonfiction articles on gardening and other topics and is working on a second " 50 " book about plants that attract hummingbirds . Cite this Article | [
"Pistachio Tree",
"U.S. Department of Agriculture",
"POS System"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/closing-costs-fha-streamline-loan-1546.html | What Are the Closing Costs of an FHA Streamline Loan ? The Federal Housing Administration is a government agency that helps facilitate home loans and refinancing for U.S. homeowners , specifically those who are having difficulty acquiring financing . Once you ’ re in an FHA loan , you have the option to go through what is called " streamline refinancing . " There is no universal way to determine closing costs , but some fees will always pop up - - and there are ways you can influence how much you will pay . " No Appraisal " Closing Costs If you choose to pay your closing costs out of your own pocket , you may elect to have a " no appraisal " closing . In order to forgo the appraisal , your refinanced loan must not exceed your original loan amount . It ’ s also important to note that if you own investment property with money loaned by FHA , the no appraisal approach is the only way you can streamline . " Appraisal " Closing Costs An appraisal closing means that you ’ re opting to have your property reappraised to determine the home ’ s value before the loan is written . With an appraisal method , you can roll your closing costs into the loan . The appraisal is necessary to determine if you have enough equity in the home to accommodate the extra amount . Types of Closing Fees While there ’ s no universal way to determine closing costs for an FHA streamline loan , there are several types of fees you can expect to pay when you close . Those fees can include fees for loan origination , credit reports , mortgage brokers , loan applications , loan underwriting and flood certification . You may also pay fees for a title examination , document preparation , a notary public , attorneys and escrow accounts . Not all of these fees may be applicable in your case . Requirements for Streamline Refinancing In order to qualify for FHA streamline refinancing , you must satisfy several criteria . First , you must already have an FHA loan that is up - to - date and features an on - time payment record for at least a year . Second , the new loan must lower both your mortgage payments and your interest payments . Third , you must submit to a verification process for employment . Fourth , your current FHA loan can not be less than six months old . Plus , you must use either an FHA lender or an FHA References ( 3 ) FHA . com : Cash Back , Closing Costs and FHA Streamline Loans FHA . com : FHA Streamline Loan Requirements U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development : Streamline Your FHA Mortgage Resources ( 2 ) U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Federal Housing Administration About the Author M.C. Postins has been a writer and editor since 1995 . His work has appeared in newspapers , magazines and websites across the country , such as the " Charlotte Sun - Herald " and the " Denton Record - Chronicle . " He received a Bachelor of Arts degree in journalism from Stephen F . Austin State University . Cite this Article | [
"Streamline Loan",
"FHA",
"government agency"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/colorado-blue-spruce-varieties-41600.html | Colorado Blue Spruce Varieties Because of its beautiful dense blue - green foliage and majestic pyramidal form , Colorado blue spruce ( Picea pungens ) is a highly regarded evergreen tree for landscaping . The tree grows at a rate of 2 feet a year , eventually reaching 30 to 65 feet tall . Native to the Rocky Mountains , the tree is grown in U.S. Department of Agriculture hardiness zones 3 through 8 . Since its discovery in 1862 , horticulturists and nurserymen grew Colorado blue spruce from seed to satisfy market demand . These observant growers selected strains of Colorado blue spruce Dwarf Varieties Dwarfed forms are regularly pruned to keep them to desired heights and shapes . Unpruned , they can grow more than 20 feet tall . They are generally 30 inches tall and wide when pruned . " Globosa , " also known as P . pungens " Glauca Globosa , " or " Blue Globe Spruce , " has blue - gray mature needles that are obscured in spring with the emergence of bright silver - blue new foliage . The similar " Montgomery " spruce is also widely planted . It has blue , dense foliage . Usually grafted Prostrate Varieties " Gloria " is a reliably low - growing variety . It is slow - growing - - about 2 inches a year - - reaching a mature height of 12 inches and spread of 5 to 6 feet . The blue - gray foliage makes a carpet of short upright branches . " St . Mary ' s Broom " is similar but growth is more rounded and slightly taller . Varieties " Prostrata " and " Procumbens " are available as grafted plants from side shoots of naturally prostrate Colorado blue spruce forms . The vigor given by Medium Trees " Moerheimii " or " Moerheim " blue spruce grows to 30 feet tall with dense blue foliage . Growth is not uniform in young plants , and requires more time and effort - - such as staking - - to train to upright garden form . Foliage is dense and the form compact . This variety was developed in 1912 . " Iseli Foxtail " or " Foxtail " blue spruce has an unusual pattern of needle growth on its branches . Needles are narrow at the branch tips and longer toward the base of the branch , giving Tall Trees The variety " Fat Albert " gets its name from the broad base of lower foliage that progresses upward to a pyramidal shape , giving a squat profile . Young trees appear more rounded . Needles are bright blue . A mature specimen can be quite tall and wide . Usually propagated from cuttings , the tree originated at the Iseli Nursery . It has more blue rather than gray or silver tones to the needles . " Hoopsii " has a strong silver - blue color on longer , thicker needles for a striking appearance . " Thomsen " Narrow Growth Forms " Oldenburg " grows vigorously into a narrow pyramid with blue - gray dense foliage and a height of 33 to 50 feet . " Koster " has good blue color , but this older selection has more variable growth and is harder to train to single - leader upright growth . " Iseli Fastigata " has a narrowly columnar shape with good blue color . Variegated Forms Lighter - colored foliage appears in some varieties , contrasting with the darker foliage . " Walnut Glen " exhibits creamy - yellow new growth in spring , reverting to more subdued color in summer . Formerly called " Goldie , " the tree has the usual pyramidal growth and gray - blue foliage . " Maigold " has creamy - gold new growth against dark blue - green older growth . A few plants have totally variegated growth , with yellow foliage year - round . " Aurea " is golden yellow , " Lutea " is deeper yellow References ( 6 ) Arbor Day Foundation : Spruce , Colorado Blue Picea Pungens California Polytechnic University Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute : Colorado Blue Spruce Gardening With Conifers ; Adrian Bloom University of Connecticut Extension : Picea Pungens North Dakota State University Extension : Colorado ( Blue ) Spruce Monrovia : Moerheim Blue Spruce About the Author Cathryn Chaney has worked as a gardening writer since 2002 . Her horticultural experience working in the nursery industry informs her garden articles , especially those dealing with arid landscaping and drought - tolerant gardening . Chaney also writes poetry , which has appears in " Woman ' s World " magazine and elsewhere . Chaney graduated from the University of Arizona in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts in English . Cite this Article | [
"Colorado",
"Blue Spruce",
"Varieties"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cover-ceramic-wall-kitchen-tiles-backsplashes-42766.html | How to Cover Ceramic Wall Kitchen Tiles With Backsplashes Written by Sarabeth Asaff ; Updated December 14 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Cover a Tile Backsplash 2 Tile Over Existing Wall Tile 3 Hide Kitchen Wall Tiles 4 Paint Over Old Ceramic Kitchen Tile If you have old ceramic wall tiles in your kitchen , it can really date the look of the room . Try covering the ceramic tiles with another material to create a new backsplash . Ceramic tiles can be covered over by several other materials , each of which can give your backsplash a fresh , new look . Paint One of the fastest and least invasive ways of covering up ceramic tiles is with paint . Oil or urethane - based paints stick well to clean , dry ceramic tiles . Paint the edges of each tile first , then move into the center for complete coverage . Use an angled paintbrush for control , and do n ' t cover over the grout joints . If the grout needs an update as well , use a special grout paint to cover the grout in a coordinating color . Seal the entire backsplash with a urethane sealer when you Tile Over Tile If the ceramic tiles are well bonded to the wall , it is possible to install new tiles right on top of the old ones . This technique works well in backsplash areas , because the new thickness of the wall wo n ' t be too noticeable . Use a cement - based thinset mortar to bond the new tiles onto the old ones . Beat the tiles in with a rubber mallet to keep them level and let the mortar set up for about 48 hours before grouting . Hide the edges of the installation with rail moldings Tin Tile Tin ceiling tiles use a special glue to adhere them to the backsplash area , and this glue can be applied right on top of ceramic tiles . Use either true tin , or thermoplastic sheets and trim them down to the size of the backsplash . Spread the glue according to the manufacturer ' s directions - some will specify applying it to the tin tiles , others to the wall - and press the sheets into place . Smooth them down firmly against the ceramic . Both metal and thermoplastic sheets are textured , which will help hide Beadboard Give your kitchen a cottage feel by installing beadboard over the ceramic tiles . Use a thin , veneer - style beadboard ; you wo n ' t be able to use nails to adhere it , so the thinner options will hold better with glue . Use a silicone adhesive and squeeze it in a serpentine pattern over the ceramic tiles . Press the beadboard into place and smooth it with your hand . Line up the pieces carefully with one another , so the seams between the sheets disappear into the grooves of the panels . Use a References ( 1 ) The Tile Doctor : Tile Over Tile About the Author Sarabeth Asaff has worked in and has written about the home improvement industry since 1995 . She has written numerous articles on art , interior design and home improvements , specializing in kitchen and bathroom design . A member in good standing with the National Kitchen and Bath Association , Asaff has working knowledge of all areas of home design . Cite this Article | [
"Ceramic Wall",
"Kitchen Tile"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/covering-exposed-tree-roots-hillside-58729.html | Covering Exposed Tree Roots on Hillside Exposed tree roots are often a sign of poor drainage and porosity in soil in which roots grow closer to the surface in order to better receive water and oxygen . Erosion also plays a major factor in exposing tree roots , which is an even greater problem on hillsides because heavy rainfall can quickly wash soil downhill . The roots can pose a tripping hazard , and the blades of mowing equipment can severely damage the exposed roots . You can cover the exposed roots , but you ca n ' t simply dump several inches of topsoil over Mulch Mulch allows you to cover the tree roots in one application without suffocating the tree roots . The key is using mulch with large pieces that allow water and oxygen to circulate freely to the roots . Mulch erosion is a major problem when used around trees on slopes , so you must add a border , such as a rock border around the tree to catch mulch as it washes downhill . Further , using pieces of mulch with long , jagged pieces , such as wood chips combined with shredded mulch , or gravel with square edges rather Groundcover If you want to hide the tree roots without making changes to the grade on the hillside , plant groundcover in the soil between the main tree roots . The groundcover plants quickly spread over the area , growing over and covering the tree roots . Trees are thirsty plants that quickly absorb much of the naturally available water in the soil , so you should choose drought - tolerant groundcover plants or plan to irrigate the groundcover frequently . The plants should also thrive in the shaded conditions under the tree canopy ; observe the tree for one day Soil If tree roots are exposed , that means the tree needs access to water and oxygen that it ca n ' t get below ground . Although you should never simply dump several inches of topsoil on the roots , that does n ' t mean you ca n ' t add soil at all . For best results , you must mix the topsoil with equal parts of coarse masonry sand to increase the soil porosity , reducing the risk of smothering compaction . The tree needs time to adjust to the new soil , so apply only 1 Tree Well When you want to level soil around the tree , making the area flat , build a tree well from stone , brick or even landscaping timbers stacked up to 3 feet high . Topsoil is added around the outside of the well , but the inside is left empty , essentially creating a pit in the yard that prevents the need to cover the exposed roots while still blocking your view of them . The material for the well works like a retaining wall , preventing the surrounding topsoil from spilling into the pit . The well should be References ( 8 ) California Invasive Plant Council : Ground Covers of the Bay Area Region Arbor Day Foundation Blog : Help ! My Roots Are Showing Grounds Magazine : Do n ' t Stumble Over Surface Tree Roots The Morton Arboretum : Coping With Exposed Tree - Root " Elbows " Old House Web : How to Deal With Exposed Tree Roots in Established Yards North Carolina State University Consumer Horticulture : Problems from Tree Roots West Virginia University Cooperative Extension Service : Tree Wells Colorado State University Extension : Healthy Roots and Healthy Trees About the Author A former cake decorator and competitive horticulturist , Amelia Allonsy is most at home in the kitchen or with her hands in the dirt . She received her Bachelor ' s degree from West Virginia University . Her work has been published in the San Francisco Chronicle and on other websites . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Tree Roots",
"Erosion",
"Mulch"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cultivate-red-potatoes-62404.html | When to Cultivate Red Potatoes Red potatoes are grown for their many culinary uses , because they are excellent potatoes for boiling and baking . They make quality chips and fries , and make an excellent addition to casseroles and other baked dishes . Planting and harvesting red potatoes at the correct times will contribute to the success of your crop . When to Plant Red potatoes are a cool - weather crop that take between 90 and 120 days to mature . In coastal areas with moderate temperatures , the best time to plant your potatoes is in February , when evening temperatures are 40 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit , and when daytime temperatures are in the 60 to 80 F . Alternatively , plant red potatoes in July for a fall harvest . Planting Tips Red potatoes grow best in well - draining , acidic soil . You can improve soil drainage by amending the soil a few days before planting , using organic matter like peat moss or compost . Peat moss is particularly useful because it has an acidifying effect . Potatoes are heavy feeders and this is also a good time to fertilize the soil with a tablespoon of 10 - 20 - 10 fertilizer per 10 feet of soil . To ensure quality , use certified seed potatoes instead of red potatoes from the grocery store . Seed pieces must be Cultivation Once the potatoes have grown to be 5 or 6 inches tall , you ' ll need to mound 3 inches of soil around the stems of the potatoes . In about six weeks , your potatoes will be ready to fertilize again . Use 5 tablespoons of 33 - 0 - 0 fertilizer per 10 feet of soil . Red potatoes need a lot of water as they grow . You can lessen your workload by spreading a layer of organic mulch on the soil around the potatoes . Mulch will keep moisture in the soil and control weed When to Harvest The usual time to harvest red potatoes is when most of the potato vine has died , sometime around 100 to 110 days after planting . Harvesting can be done early , around 90 days or slightly earlier , if you want your potatoes to be smaller . These smaller potatoes are known as new potatoes . Potatoes harvested in the fall can be left in the ground for storage as long as rain or frost is not a threat . References ( 5 ) Texas A&M University East Texas Gardening : Growing Red Potatoes Clemson Cooperative Extension : Potato University of Nebraska - Lincoln Extension : Growing Potatoes in the Home Garden University of California Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program : Planting University of California Vegetable Research and Information Center : Growing Potatoes About the Author Leslie Rose has been a freelance writer publishing with Demand Studios since 2008 . In addition to her work as a writer , she is an accomplished painter and experienced art teacher . She has a Bachelor of Arts degree in art with a minor in English . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Cultivate Red Potatoes",
"Planting Tips"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cut-back-zebra-grass-39309.html | How to Cut Back Zebra Grass Zebra grass ( Miscanthus sinensis " Zebrinus " ) , a native of southeast Asia , is an ornamental grass that grows to heights of 5 to 7 feet feet and has yellow or white horizontal stripes on its blades . The grass produces long , light pink plumes that last into the winter . Zebra grass grows in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 5 through 9 . The plant foliage suffers damage during periods of hard frost and needs to be cut back to remove dead foliage and make room for new shoots in the spring . 1 Rake the zebra grass to remove dead plumes and blades of grass . The raking process thins the remaining grass mound so you cut through the attached grass and not loose foliage . 2 Wrap the grass clump with twine at knee and shoulder height . This keeps the cut grass from scattering everywhere . Wrap the zebra grass in sections if the clump is overly large . 3 Cut the zebra grass below the lowest tie - off with pruning shears . The remaining grass should be 6 inches high . Use a hacksaw or handsaw if the grass is extremely thick . Another tool that works well to cut zebra grass is a pair of hedge trimmers . 4 Gather the tied sections of cut grass and either dispose of on the compost pile or as your ordinances dictate . Things You Will Need Heavy work gloves Rake Garden twine Sharp pruning shears Hedge trimmers Hacksaw or handsaw Tips A weed eater that is fitted with a cutting blade may work well for older zebra grass . Make the pruning job easier next year by dividing large zebra grass clumps . Warning The sharp edges of the zebra grass may cut exposed skin . Prolonged exposure to grasses may cause an allergic reaction in some people . Wash your hands thoroughly after pruning . References ( 4 ) Royal Horticultural Society : Miscanthus Sinensis " Zebrinus " University of Florida Extension Office : Miscanthus Sinensis " Zebrinus " North Carolina State University Horticulture Department : Miscanthus Sinensis " Zebrinus " Robertson Landscaping : Pruning Ornamental Grasses About the Author Julie Richards is a freelance writer from Ohio . She has been writing poetry and short stories for over 30 years , and published a variety of e - books and articles on gardening , small business and farming . She is currently enrolled at Kent State University completing her bachelor ' s degree in English . Cite this Article | [
"Back Zebra Grass",
"Rake",
"hacksaw"
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cut-bullnose-tile-corners-36930.html | How to Cut Bullnose Tile Corners Bullnose tiles are the finished - edge tiles that are used to complete a wall tile application . The edge of a bullnose tile is rounded slightly , obscuring the unfinished section of the tile . Bullnose tiles lay flat against the wall , with no void or space behind them . When a bullnose tile is only bullnosed on one side and the tile installation needs bullnosing on both the top and the connecting side , two bullnose tiles must be cut at 45 - degree angles . The two 45 - degree cut tiles will meet together to 1 Place a block of wood that has been cut to a 45 - degree angle on the plate of a tile wet saw . Line up the straight edge of the board with the side of the blade so the angle slants downward to the right . Ensure the wood itself is not lined up with the blade so it will not be cut . 2 Set the bullnose tile against the 45 - degree slant of the wooden block . Let the bullnose tile extend past the wooden block at the top edge . This is the section of the bullnose that will be cut . Ensure it intersects with the tile blade at a 45 - degree angle , so when it is pushed into the blade , it will be cut at exactly 45 - degrees . 3 Turn on the saw and slowly push the block of wood toward the blade . This will push the tile into the saw blade . Do not force the tile through the blade ; let the blade pull the tile along as it makes the cut . 4 Turn off the wet saw and remove the bullnose . Pull the block of wood back to the starting point and set a second tile on it . Repeat the cutting . You will now have two bullnose tiles that will turn a 90 - degree corner when fit together . Things You Will Need Block of wood cut at a 45 - degree angle Tile wet saw Tip Have a block of wood cut at the home improvement store when you purchase it to ensure the proper angle . References ( 2 ) Hometime How - To : Choosing Tile The Family Handyman : How to Make Precision Cuts with a Diamond Tile Saw About the Author Sarabeth Asaff has worked in and has written about the home improvement industry since 1995 . She has written numerous articles on art , interior design and home improvements , specializing in kitchen and bathroom design . A member in good standing with the National Kitchen and Bath Association , Asaff has working knowledge of all areas of home design . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Bullnose Tiles",
"finished-edge tiles",
"flat"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cutting-stem-planting-firestick-cactus-44219.html | Cutting the Stem for Planting a Firestick Cactus Written by Debra L Turner ; Updated November 28 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Replant a Firestick Cactus 2 Prune a Pencil Cactus 3 Prune a Pencil Bush 4 Root a Euphorbia Tirucalli Firestick cactus , or Euphorbia tirucalli ' Rosea , ' is also known as sticks of fire , sticks on fire or pencil tree . Often referred to as a cactus , the plant is actually a succulent that presents new growth with flare . Young stems are fiery orange to red and turn green with age . Hardy only in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant zones 9 through 11 , this sun - worshiper does n ’ t tolerate so much as a hint of freezing weather . Lovers of this plant often describe its willingness to propagate by cuttings by pointing out that if Look for a healthy , unblemished young branch on an attractive firestick cactus to take your stem cutting from in the spring before new growth begins . The cutting will grow into an exact duplicate of the parent plant , so pick one that you like . Choose a healthy young red , pink or very light green stem with unblemished reddish or pinkish pencil - like appendages . The redder the stem and appendages are , the younger the new growth is . You need a stem about 6 to 8 inches long . Make a clean cut right at the branching point that joins your stem to a larger branch with a clean , sharp knife or razor blade . Soak the cut end of the stem in a plastic disposable container of cold water to stop the flow of sticky white sap . Spray the wound on the parent plant with the garden hose until it stops bleeding sap . Pat the cutting dry with paper towels . Place it on a dry paper towel in a dry , warm , well - ventilated room out of direct sunlight for three to seven days to dry and form a callus over the cut end . This will help prevent the stem from rotting . Plant the cutting 3 inches deep in a 6 - inch pot of cactus mix . Firm the soil gently around the stem . Add a 1 / 2 - inch layer of gravel or very small stones on top of the potting medium to help steady the cutting and keep it from tilting . Place the firestick in a brightly lit , warm location near a window but out of direct sunlight . Keep the temperature between 70 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit . A heating mat keeps the soil temperature at the optimum 86 degrees . The succulent should root in four to eight weeks when new growth will begin to emerge . Water the plant thoroughly when you see new growth . The soil should be evenly moist but not soggy or wet . Move it to a sunny window in a warm , well - ventilated area to acclimate it to direct sun for a week or two . Plant the firestick outdoors after soil temperature rises above 65 degrees . Choose a well - draining spot where the plant will receive at least six hours of direct sun each day . Protect it from frost . Water the plant enough to evenly moisten the surface of the soil about once weekly when it feels dry to your touch throughout its first growing season . Let it dry out completely before watering again . Water no more than once every other week through the winter . Do n ’ t allow firestick cactus to have wet feet . Fertilize this plant with a balanced 20 - 20 - 20 cactus mix every other week throughout the spring and summer . Do n ’ t feed it during fall and winter . Things You Will Need Clean , sharp knife or razor blade Plastic disposable container Paper towels 6 - inch pot Cactus mix Gravel or very small stones 20 - 20 - 20 cactus mix Rubbing alcohol Heavy gloves , long pants , long sleeves , eye protection Tip Remove firestick cactus sap from your skin with rubbing alcohol . Trying to wash it off with water will only spread the sap ’ s irritation further . Warning Dress defensively to protect yourself from toxic white sap when you cut stems from firestick cactus . Wear heavy gloves , long pants and sleeves and protective eyewear . Keep pets and small children away from firestick cactus and any cuttings you take from the plant . References ( 8 ) International Euphorbia Society : About Euphorbiaceae - - Cultivation - - Vegetative Propagation Arizona State University : Euphorbia tirucalli “ Rosea ” Grow ’ Em Plant Propagation Database : Euphorbia Species Succulent Gardening : Euphorbia trigona Growing Guides : Pencil Plant / Tree / Bush ( Euphorbia tirucalli ) aka : Rubber Hedge , Milk Bush New York Botanical Garden : How do I propagate Euphorbia Trigona ? Michigan State University Extension : Secrets to Success When Propagating Succulent Plants Floridata : Euphorbia Tirucalli Resources ( 3 ) JC Raulston Arboretum at NC State University : Now Showing - - Euphorbia tirucalli ‘ Rosea ’ Floridata : Euphorbia tirucalli Euphorbiaceae : About the Genus Euphorbia About the Author A full - time writer since 2007 , Axl J . Amistaadt is a DMS 2013 Outstanding Contributor Award recipient . He publishes online articles with major focus on pets , wildlife , gardening and fitness . He also covers parenting , juvenile science experiments , cooking and alternative / home remedies . Amistaadt has written book reviews for Work At Home Truth . Cite this Article | [
"Firestick cactus"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/decorate-bedroom-light-mintgreen-walls-55277.html | How to Decorate a Bedroom With Light Mint - Green Walls Mint green may be a tricky color with which to work . If you correctly use it , you could find yourself with a tranquil nature - inspired bower or a cute , vintage hangout . However , mint green also may conjure up sterile , institutional images such as hospitals or government offices . For that reason , many people shy away from it . The key is to find ways to soften , brighten and warm up your mint - green walls so they do n ' t look too stark . Themes While you may build a number of themes around mint - green walls , there are a few that lend themselves particularly well to the color . Nature themes easily incorporate mint - green walls , evoking a sense of being in a cool , shady glen or a fresh , breezy ocean cove . The popularity of mint green in the 1950s and ' 60s makes it a great basis for a retro - themed room , and vintage furniture in warm leather and walnut or oak keeps the room from feeling too cold or clinical . Windows A lot of warm light is important in a mint - green room , so light , sheer curtains are a good choice . In a room with a natural theme , softly blowing white sheers can mimic fluffy clouds or the crests of waves . For an equally brightening but less - soft look , try translucent shades or accordion blinds . White paint on window trims and windowsills also help brighten the room . Light beige , antique white or natural window coverings and trim are another option for keeping the room bright , and these colors will Furniture Dark , highly - polished wood adds warmth to your room and gives it substance when contrasted with light walls , such as a large , dark - wood four - poster or sleigh bed with matching end tables and dresser . You may mix in white or light - colored furniture and upholstery to help brighten the room , but make sure there are a few dark pieces for substance . Leather upholstery helps establish a vintage theme . Accessories With the walls a sea of green , and the furniture and window coverings brightening and grounding the space , your textiles , accessories and art are where you need to create some interest and flair . How you do this depends on the theme of the room . For nature themes , create splashes of natural color in your accessories with photographed or framed flowers , natural prints and items from the outdoors . If you ' re using the ocean as a focus , you may incorporate deeper blues and greens , and the washed - out beiges If you ' re creating a vintage - inspired room , try to find decorations , art , advertisements and everyday items from the 1950s and ' 60s to display . Vintage clothing used as art is right at home in a bedroom . Resources ( 3 ) House Beautiful : Cool , Mint - Green Decor for Your Home Apartment Therapy : Color Spotlight - - Seafoam Green Remodelista : Mint Green From Ontwerpduo in Holland About the Author Amy Wilde has worked as a grant developer , copy editor , writing tutor and writer . Based in Portland , Ore . , she covers topics related to society , religion and culture . Wilde holds a Bachelor of Arts in English literature and classical civilization from the University of Toronto . Cite this Article | [
"Decorate",
"Bedroom"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/deductible-home-improvements-selling-house-81041.html | Deductible Home Improvements When Selling a House The Internal Revenue Services rewards you as a homeowner for maintaining your primary residence and making improvements over time . In addition to increasing the home ' s value , you also get to deduct home improvement costs after you sell the home . Deducting improvements effectively reduces your capital gains from selling the home and your tax bill at tax time . Rules If you ' ve lived in the home for two of the last five years leading up to the sale , you may deduct any improvement cost as long as it meets the IRS ' s criteria . By their standards , the improvement must " add to the value of your home , prolong its useful life , or adapt it to new uses . " Additionally , the improvement must be in place when you sell the home . Plumbing & Heating Any upgrades you ' ve made to your home ' s plumbing system qualify as a deductible home improvement . For example , if you ' ve added a septic system or a water filtration system , these would qualify . Do n ' t include like for like piping or toilet replacements . A water conserving toilet or a piping system upgrade would qualify , however . If you ' ve upgraded your boiler for one that ' s more energy efficient include it as a deduction . Interior Room additions such as a sun room , deck or bedroom qualify , too . If you ' ve upgraded your kitchen or added built - in appliances , these would also qualify . In general , the IRS favors any home modernization efforts that increase the home ' s value . Upgraded flooring replacements qualify if they ' re still in place at the time of sale . For example , if you installed new carpeting 10 years ago and replaced it before selling the home , you can not deduct it . ( See Reference 1 ) Exterior Qualifying home exterior improvements include landscaping , an in - ground swimming pool , a new fence or roof replacement . The IRS considers some exterior home improvements as repairs and may not apply , however . For example , painting the exterior of your home may increase its value in the market place and to a buyer . But , in the IRS ' s eyes , it does not add value , prolong its life or adapt it to new uses . Use these three rules when in doubt or speak with a tax professional . Miscellaneous Miscellaneous improvements that will stay with the home like a security or surround sound system or a built - in wireless network would also qualify as acceptable deductions . The IRS allows you to deduct the cost of window and door replacements that increase or improve its resistance to wind or storms . Attic , wall or piping insulation also qualifies since it adds value by reducing energy costs . Refer to IRS Publication 523 for additional examples and a guide to deducting improvement costs . References ( 1 ) Internal Revenue Service : Publication 523 Selling Your Home About the Author Monica Dillon has more than 10 years experience in real estate sales , marketing , investing and appraising . She specializes in energy efficiency building practices and renewable energy . Dillon has been syndicated by the National Newspaper Publisher ' s Association . Her work has also appeared in the " Journal Of Progressive Human Services . " Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
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"Home Improvements",
"Selling"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/difference-between-5-8inch-3-4inch-garden-hose-47010.html | The Difference Between 5 / 8 - Inch and 3 / 4 - Inch Garden Hose Written by Amy Rodriguez ; Updated December 10 , 2018 Whether manufactured as a coiled or straight tube , garden hoses are one of the most common tools used on daily for yard maintenance - - washing dirty pathways and saturating flower beds keeps your property looking spotless and beautiful . Although garden hoses may seem the same when hanging on sales racks , they may have different diameters , including 5 / 8 inch and 3 / 4 inch . Water Volume Hoses with the smaller 5 / 8 - inch diameter supply a narrower water stream compared to larger 3 / 4 - inch hoses - - the water volume expelled through the hose is directly related to the diameter and overall length . As you water your yard , the stream does not rush out in wide torrents using the 5 / 8 - inch hose , which might cause puddling and flooding . In contrast , the wider 3 / 4 - inch hose provides more water volume each minute because the flow has a larger pathway . Application You probably only need a 5 / 8 - inch diameter hose . Hose attachment accessories , like hand sprayers , typically fit onto this universal size in the United States . Use of 3 / 4 - inch hoses is normally reserved for professional uses , such as watering public parks or gardens . Extra water flow through the 3 / 4 - inch hose saves time for workers as they prune and work on large areas . Typical homes with front , side and backyards do not need the extra water for basic maintenance . Differing Lengths Both 5 / 8 - and 3 / 4 - inch hoses come in various lengths . From 25 to 100 feet long , choose the best length for your property . Be aware that a longer hose reduces the water volume expelled . For example , a 5 / 8 - inch hose 25 feet long produces 44 gallons per minute ( gpm ) . The same diameter hose at 100 feet long has a much smaller output at 11 gpm . Because 3 / 4 - inch hoses have a wider mouth , their output for a 100 Cost The larger diameter of the 3 / 4 - inch hose makes it more expensive than a standard 5 / 8 - inch hose . More tubing material and larger connector ends produce the higher price tag ; a better quality material , like rubber mixed with polyvinyl chloride ( PVC ) , commands a high price as well . In addition , if you choose the wide 3 / 4 - inch hose , be aware that its weight is typically heavier than the 5 / 8 - inch hose . The extra construction material makes these heavy - References ( 4 ) AZ Central : Garden Hose May Be One of the Most Important Tools You Own Iowa State University Extension and Outreach : Hose Care Washington State University Extension : Garden Hose Flow Rate and Time Yardener : Choosing A Garden Hose About the Author Writing professionally since 2010 , Amy Rodriguez cultivates successful cacti , succulents , bulbs , carnivorous plants and orchids at home . With an electronics degree and more than 10 years of experience , she applies her love of gadgets to the gardening world as she continues her education through college classes and gardening activities . Cite this Article | [
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/difference-between-lavender-culinary-lavender-28244.html | The Difference Between Lavender & Culinary Lavender Written by Katherine Barrington ; Updated November 28 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Increase Blooms on Lavender Plants 2 Seeds for Culinary Lavender 3 Growing French Lavender 4 Grow Food Grade Lavender Known for the sweet fragrance produced by their purple flowers , lavenders may be used for both ornamental and culinary purposes . This perennial flowering plant belongs to the genus Lavandula , which grows well in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 5 through 11 . Though there is no definitive difference between ornamental and culinary lavenders , some varieties are better for cooking than others . Lavender Varieties Lavender plants belong to the mint family . Perhaps the most common species of lavender is Lavandula angustifolia ( USDA zones 5 through 8 ) , a species that belongs to the group referred to as English lavenders . Hybrids created by crossing Lavandula angustifolia and Lavandula latifolia ( hardy to USDA zone 7 ) , are called lavandins . These hybrids are generally planted for ornamental use in gardens and commercially for use in cosmetics . Cultivars of the species include dwarf forms , such as ' Thumbelina Leigh , ' ( USDA zones 5 through 9 ) , as well as the pink - and blue - flowered ' Jean Davis ' ( USDA zones 5 through 11 ) and ' Grey Lady ' ( USDA zones 5 through 9 ) cultivars , respectively . Ornamental Lavender Lavender as an evergreen shrub grows upright and produces sweet - smelling , colorful flowers . The size of these plants depends on the species , but many specimens grow up to 4 feet tall and spread to a width of 3 feet or more . You can use lavender for ornamental purposes in your gardens , as edging or to add a pop of color to your herb garden . These herbs may be grown both indoors and outdoors and in pots as well as in the ground . When kept outdoors , lavenders thrive in full sunlight and these plants do not do well in areas that are particularly wet or dry . Culinary Lavender Although most varieties of lavender can be used in cooking , some varieties are more widely used , such as , particularly ' Munstead ' ( USDA zones 5 through 8 ) . These lavenders have the sweetest fragrance among all species of lavender , which creates flavor in cooking . The leaves and stems of lavender plants can be used for culinary purposes , but the flowers , in particular , give dishes a subtly sweet , citrus flavor . Cooking With Lavender Lavender can be used to add flavor and color to culinary recipes in either fresh or dried form . To dry lavender for culinary use , snip the stems off the plant just after the flowers have opened and hang them upside - down or lay them flat to dry . Wash the buds well , then dry - roast them to remove some of the floral taste or grind them in a coffee grinder to improve the texture . You can also make lavender - infused sugar for baking and swap it out for regular sugar in your favorite References ( 10 ) What ' s Cooking America - Lavender - Culinary Lavender University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources : Lavenders for California Gardens Grow Organic : How to Grow Lavender Seattle Times : Cooking With Lavender Requires Balance Santa Cruz Sentinel : Lavender Not Just for Soap Anymore Plants for a Future Database : Lavandula angustifolia - Mill . Missouri Botanical Garden : Lavandula Angustifolia Top Tropicals : Lavandula Latifolia Monrovia : Lavandula Angustifolia ' Thumbelina Leigh ' Missouri Botanical Garden : Lavandula Angustifolia ' Munstead ' About the Author Katherine Barrington has written on a variety of topics , from arts and crafts to pets , health and do - it - yourself projects . She has a Bachelor of Arts in English with a creative writing concentration from Marietta College . Cite this Article | [
"Lavender",
"Culinary Lavender",
"U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones"
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/difference-between-standard-extended-title-insurance-58582.html | What Is the Difference Between Standard & Extended Title Insurance ? Written by Steve Lander ; Reviewed by Jodi Thornton - O ' Connell , GRI , Fitness & Nutrition Coaching Certificate ; Updated November 20 , 2018 You ' ve saved a lot of money and potentially taken out a large mortgage to buy your dream home . The last thing you need is someone coming along and claiming a right or a lien over it . Title insurance covers you and , in most cases , your lender against these types of claims . The kind of title coverage you buy determines the types of title defects for which you ' re being covered . Get Familiar With Title Policies As the owner of the property , you want to ensure that you own the property without defects or " clouds " that could mess up your ownership rights . For example , you do n ' t want someone to claim that he has the right of way through your garden . Your lender wants to ensure a legal title exists , too , so the property is worth as much as the bank appraised it for . That way , the bank can recover its money if it has to foreclose on the loan . A lender ' California Standard : The CLTA Policy In California , standard coverage is frequently referred to as a California Land Title Association policy . A standard owner ' s policy will cover you against matters that are on the public record as well as against specific problems with deeds , including forgery , non - delivery and execution by someone who was not competent . In other words , if it turns up that the person who sold you the property acquired it through a forged deed and the previous owner returned to claim ownership rights , your title insurer would protect you . Understand Extended Policies An extended policy , also referred to as an ALTA , for American Land Title Association , policy , covers you against many more risks . To get an ALTA extended policy , you will probably have to have a professional surveyor come out and map the land that you are buying . Once he does that , you get coverage against other parties or buildings encroaching on your property . You also get protected against unrecorded mechanic ' s liens from workers , unrecorded tax liens and other imperfections in title . Everything Comes With Exclusions Extended policies theoretically cover you against a number of things , but they usually come with exclusions . When you get a title policy , the title insurer researches the title , identifies existing issues and excludes them . On a clean property , the title insurer will exclude predictable items such as the county ' s authority to levy property taxes or utility easements that let the gas man check the meter . While these exclusions from coverage are standard , others can be more serious , and you might want to work with your real estate agent , References ( 2 ) University of California : Title Insurance in California OC Real Estate Guy : Know What Title Insurance Policy You Are Getting : CLTA vs ALTA About the Author Steve Lander has been a writer since 1996 , with experience in the fields of financial services , real estate and technology . His work has appeared in trade publications such as the " Minnesota Real Estate Journal " and " Minnesota Multi - Housing Association Advocate . " Lander holds a Bachelor of Arts in political science from Columbia University . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Title Insurance",
"large mortgage",
"ownership right"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/differences-between-spruce-pine-82209.html | The Differences Between Spruce & Pine Easy to love for their gifts of staying green year - round and filtering car exhaust from the air , spruce ( Picea spp . ) and pine ( Pinus spp . ) trees dot the country ’ s landscape . But telling the difference between them takes a little sleuthing . Needles One of the easiest ways to tell the difference between a spruce tree and a pine tree is by looking closely at their needles . While spruce needles tend to be shorter than those of pines - - roughly 1 - inch long - - it ' s their notable stiffness that really gives them away . Each sharp needle erupts from the branch on a tiny , woody peg . Pine needles , on the other hand , are so soft and flexible that they produce the tell - tale whisper as wind moves through them . Cones & Bark With papery - thin scales that give their cones an almost flexible feel , spruce cones hang down on the branch , pointing toward the ground . Pine scales are noticeably thick , rigid and tough . Spruce bark typically feels rough when you run your hand across it , with a thin and scaly look that grows more furrowed as the tree ages . Pine bark in general is smooth when the tree is young but with age often develops a reddish - brown color and starts to flake . References ( 4 ) State University : Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest : Spruces ( Picea ) Oregon State University : Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest : Pine ( Pinus ) Sacramento Tree Foundation : Greenprint Tree Guide Iowa State University Extension : Extension News : Pine , Fir or Spruce Tree ? Resources ( 4 ) Arbor Day Foundation : Western U.S. Trees by Common Name The Forest Foundation : Know Your California Trees ! USGS : Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center : Digital Representation of Tree Species Range Maps . . . Northern Woodlands : Spruce Up Your ID Skills About the Author Suzanna Didier ' s work appears in online publications including the National Geographic website , SFGate and Local . com . She is an avid cook who lives on a hobby farm , direct - markets organic produce to local restaurants and has taught at the preschool , elementary and college levels . Didier holds a Master of Arts in education from the University of Oregon . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
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"Pine",
"Garden Care"
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http://homeguides.sfgate.com/different-types-nandina-shrubs-42890.html | What Are the Different Types of Nandina Shrubs ? Written by Jenny Green ; Updated December 02 , 2018 Nandina shrubs ( Nandina domestica ) are the kinds of plants that gardeners love . Dry soil and shady spots do n ' t faze nandinas , though they need morning or afternoon sunlight to put on their best display of colorful foliage , flowers and berries . The shrubs are also called heavenly bamboo due to their upright shoots , which resemble those of bamboo , but in fact they ' re no relation . In U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 6 through 9 , where nandina shrubs grow year - round , they can become invasive . Birds eat the berries Seasonal Foliage Vividly colored shoots and leaves are what set nandinas apart from many other shrubs . Growing up to 8 feet tall and 4 feet wide , nandina shrubs display bright - red fall foliage , and many varieties also provide beautifully colored new growth in spring . ' Sienna Sunrise ' is one such variety , putting on a spring show with its blazing red foliage and displaying red highlights in fall . ' Sienna Sunrise ' grows 2 feet wide and 3 to 4 feet tall . For an alternative nandina , consider ' Lemon Lime , ' which Dwarf Nandina Shrubs Dwarf nandinas brighten yards without taking up much room , and several varieties are noninvasive . Dwarf nandinas that do n ' t flower or set fruit include ' Fire Power , ' which grows 2 to 2 1 / 2 feet tall and wide and is named for its brilliant red fall and winter foliage . ' Gulfstream ' is slightly larger , growing 3 feet wide and 3 to 3 1 / 2 feet tall and featuring orange - tinted , coppery young foliage that matures to turquoise in summer , then turns orange - red in fall Pink - Flowered Nandinas Most nandina varieties that flower produce white blooms , but a few offer pink or pinkish - white blossoms . Nandinas flower in late spring , when sprays of tiny blooms appear . For a change from the usual white or creamy white , grow ' Moyer ' s Red ' or ' Royal Princess . ' ' Moyer ' s Red ' is a semidwarf variety that grows 2 to 5 feet wide and 4 to 6 feet tall and features light - pink flowers , while ' Royal Princess ' is larger , growing up to 8 feet Warning Nandina leaves and berries are toxic and may be harmful to birds , humans , grazing animals and cats . References ( 11 ) Missouri Botanical Garden : Nandina Domestica Clemson Cooperative Extension : Nandina University of Florida IFAS Extension : Nandina Domestica North Carolina State University Extension : Nandina Domestica San Marcos Growers : Nandina Domestica ' Royal Princess ' - Heavenly Bamboo Monrovia : Firepower Heavenly Bamboo Monrovia : Sienna Sunrise Heavenly Bamboo Monrovia : Gulf Stream Heavenly Bamboo Southern Living : ‘ Lemon Lime ’ Nandina Plant Lust : Nandina Domestica ' Moyer ' s Red T - Y Nursery : Nandina Domestica ‘ Royal Princess ’ About the Author A graduate of Leeds University , Jenny Green completed Master of Arts in English literature in 1998 and has been writing about gardening and homes since 2007 . Green ' s work appears in SFGate , Mom . me , The Pink Plumber and many home services blogs . Cite this Article | [
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"Pink-Flowered Nandinas"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/eats-gerbera-daisies-44891.html | What Eats Gerbera Daisies ? Related Articles 1 Gerbera Daisy Problems 2 Pests on a Gerbera Daisy 3 Rabbits Eating Gerber Daisies 4 Grow Gerbera Daisy Outdoors Gerbera daisies ( Gerbera jamesonii ) produce large blooms in various vibrant colors on single stems , brightening up dull areas in your garden . These cheery perennials grow in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 8 to 11 and grow as a annuals elsewhere . Gerbera daisies are no stranger to pests that eat the foliage , flowers and roots of the plant . Sap - Sucking Insects Aphids , whiteflies , spider mites and thrips are a few of the annoying insects that pierce the tender areas of gerbera daisies with their mouthpart and suck the juice from the flower . Common symptoms of sap - sucking insects are wilted , curled and discolored leaves , buds and flowers that fall from the plant prematurely . Thankfully , attacks from sap - sucking insects rarely cause serious damage and healthy plants recover with little to no problems . Unless the infestation is large , chemical control of these pests is not required and introducing green lacewings , Leaf - Eating Insects Leafminers , caterpillars and cutworms are the most common leaf - eating insects that feast on gerbera daisies . Leafminers appear as tiny flies that lay their eggs on plant foliage . When the eggs hatch , the larva bores into the leaves by chewing tunnels or mines through the plant tissue . In large infestations , leafminers can cause the collapse of cells and the death of plant parts . The best defense against leafminers is to remove infected leaves from the plant and introduce parasitic wasps in the Diglyphus genus , which will feed on the leafminer larvae Root - Eating Insects Nematodes are microscopic parasites resembling eel - like roundworms that , depending on the species , feed on plant roots . Root knot nematodes are the most problematic nematodes in gardens , according to the University of California . These damaging pests , easily spread via infested soil on shoes , garden tools and infested plants , are difficult to control . Belowground symptoms include galls forming on the roots , which damage the gerbera daisies ' ability to take in nutrients and water . Aboveground symptoms include wilting and yellowing of leaves and loss of vigor . If not Deer Beautiful and elegant deer can be a welcome addition to your landscape until they begin to feed on your plants . Gerbera daisies are sometimes severely damaged by deer consuming the flowers and foliage and leaving bare stems protruding from the ground . Deterring the deer is the best defense against these mammals ; various products designed to keep deer out of your garden are available . Barriers , fences , repellents and devices that create loud noises to frighten the deer can help keep them away from your gerbera daisies . References ( 9 ) UC IPM Online : Gerbera Daisy , Barberton Daisy , Transvaal daisy — Gerbera Jamesonii Family Asteraceae ( Sunflower Family ) Missouri Botanical Garden : Gerbera Jamesonii University of Guam : Gerberas for Florida University of Florida IFAS Extension : Gerberas at a Glance Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station : Landscape Plants Rated by Deer Resistance UC IPM Online : Leafminers — Liriomyza spp . UC IPM Online : Foliage - Feeding Caterpillars UC IPM Online : Nematodes UC IPM Online : Deer About the Author Amanda Flanigan began writing professionally in 2007 . Flanigan has written for various publications , including WV Living and American Craft Council , and has published several eBooks on craft and garden - related subjects . Flanigan completed two writing courses at Pierpont Community and Technical College . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Gerbera Daisies"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/evict-someone-after-foreclosure-1761.html | How to Evict Someone After Foreclosure Related Articles 1 How Long Can Someone Remain in a House That Has Been Sold at Auction Due to Foreclosure ? 2 How Long Can I Stay At My House After It Is Sold at an Auction ? 3 Foreclosure Eviction Process 4 Rights of a Homeowner After a Home Has Been Foreclosed After a foreclosure , a bank or a private buyer has the right to seize the property . The only problem is that the person living in the foreclosed house may not have a new residence yet . To reasonably accommodate the previous owner , you must go through a highly regimented legal process before the owner can be evicted . The process typically takes upward of 30 days , but at the end of the eviction process , you will be able to freely access and use the foreclosed property . 1 Provide written notice to the previous owner , explaining that he is no longer the legal owner and is thereby required to leave the premises . This notice is usually drafted and delivered by the bank , but in rare instances , an individual who bought the house from the bank may need to draft this written notice . If this is the case , make sure the notice clearly explains that you are the legal owner , and you are requesting that the previous owner move out immediately . 2 File an eviction lawsuit with the county court if the previous owner does not vacate the premises . According to the Housing and Economic Rights Advocates , you can not file suit until after you ’ ve given the former owner three days to vacate after a notice has been issued . To file the lawsuit , you will need to fill out a short form at the county courthouse and pay a small filing fee . 3 Wait for the case to be heard by a judge . Although the law varies from state to state , in most locations the former owner will be given at least 30 days to respond to the suit before it goes before a judge . During this time , the previous owner could try to get the eviction case thrown out by furnishing proof that he made house payments on time and the bank had no legal right to foreclose on the house . If the case is thrown out , then you will not be able to evict the 4 Provide evidence of ownership at the eviction hearing . Foreclosure - related eviction cases are usually pretty straightforward , and the judge will usually only hear a few minutes of evidence from each side . You will simply need to furnish your closing papers or a deed to the property to prove that you own the house . After hearing the evidence , the former owner will be given a chance to explain any mitigating circumstances to the judge . Depending on the circumstances of the foreclosure , the judge may grant the previous homeowner a little more time to 5 Enter and inspect the house after the eviction date has passed . At this time , the home should be free of all occupants and possessions . The county sheriff will have posted the eviction notice and visited the property on the eviction date . If the former occupants were still living in the home , they would have been removed at this time . After the eviction date has passed , the process is complete and you can freely use the home . Things You Will Need Written notice to vacate Eviction lawsuit form References ( 1 ) HERA : California& ; rsquo ; s Foreclosure Process and Timelines About the Author Richard Kalinowski began writing professionally in 2006 . He also works as a website programmer and graphic designer for several clients . Kalinowski holds a Master of Fine Arts from Goddard College and a Bachelor of Science in education from the University of Wisconsin - Whitewater . Photo Credits bank image by Pefkos from < a href = ' http : / / www . fotolia . com ' > Fotolia . com < / a > Cite this Article | [
"Foreclosure",
"Eviction Process",
"private buyer"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fair-market-value-property-1448.html | How to Find the Fair Market Value of Property Written by Michelle Miley ; Reviewed by Jann Seal , Licensed Real Estate Sales Associate . Former California Real Estate Sales Associate . ; Updated November 20 , 2018 The fair market value of your home is the price you could expect to get for it if you put it on the market today . You ' ll clearly want an idea of a home ' s fair market value if you ' re planning to buy or sell it , but there are other times when knowing the value is handy . You may , for instance , want to shop for new homeowner ' s insurance , dispute a recent property tax assessment or provide the information to your financial planner . There are several ways to Tip An estimate of fair market value for real estate is the price a seller and buyer agree on once they know the relevant facts about the property . Reading a Comparative Market Analysis One of the most common ways to find your home ' s fair market value is to examine the market . A real estate agent can perform this service for you and will refer to it as a comparative market analysis ( CMA . ) He will evaluate your physical home , gathering data on number of rooms and square footage before researching current home sales in your area . Listings do not figure in a CMA . He ' ll then compare your home to similar ones that have sold in your area within the past few months to Understanding a Professional Appraisal A home appraisal goes a bit deeper than a comparative market analysis and gets performed by a neutral third party . In most states , real estate appraisers will be licensed after extensive study on the techniques of appraisals . Appraisers typically work for banks , assigning values to homes for lenders so they do n ' t lend more than they can recover if the borrower defaults . An appraiser will gather the same information that a real estate agent will , but then dig deeper . She will measure the home and any outbuildings , note the building A real estate comparative market analysis is a good estimate of a home ' s value at a given date and time , but a licensed appraiser ' s opinion is generally viewed as more authoritative . References ( 5 ) Contactually : Real Estate Agent vs . Appraiser : What ' s the Difference ? City & County of San Francisco : Real Property Assessments Fit Smal Business : Fair Market Value : Definition & How It ’ s Determined Nerd Wallet : How to Determine Home Value and Why It Matters One Word Real Estate : What is a Comparative Market Analysis ( CMA ) and How is it Different from a Real Estate Appraisal Report . Resources ( 2 ) National Association of Realtors Zillow About the Author Michelle has a knack for tackling tough topics and making them simple . She uses her accounting degree and financial savvy to help readers understand real estate markets and mortgage options . She also writes about landlord and tenant laws . From appraisals to zoning , Michelle makes real estate information accessible to everyone . Photo Credits Real Estate image by Stephen VanHorn from Fotolia . com Cite this Article | [
"Fair Market Value of Property",
"homeowner 's insurance",
"property tax assessment"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fannie-mae-loan-2036.html | What Is a Fannie Mae Loan ? Written by Mary Gallagher ; Updated June 19 , 2017 Fannie Mae , the commonly used nickname for the Federal National Mortgage Association , is a government - sponsored enterprise , or GSE , with the mission of bringing liquidity , stability and affordability to the U.S. housing market . It does this by purchasing mortgages from banks and then selling them , largely through a process called securitizing . Once the mortgages have been purchased , banks are freed up to make more loans . History In the 1930s , mortgages generally had short terms with balloon payments . When the payments came due , the borrowers went to refinance . During the Great Depression , however , banks refused to lend , leading to foreclosures , even by lenders who were willing and able to make loan payments . President Franklin Roosevelt ' s New Deal included creation of the Federal Housing Administration , or FHA , and Fannie Mae . The FHA first created and later insured fully amortized fixed - rate mortgages . Fannie Mae purchased FHA loans to free up bank capital Mechanics Fannie Mae buys mortgages from banks in a couple different ways . Often the bank retains the loan servicing ; many borrowers never even know their loans are owned by Fannie Mae . In one method , Fannie Mae securitizes mortgages , or turns their value into securities , which are an investment product . The GSE then sells the securities , often known as a mortgaged - backed security , or MBS , to investors all over the world . In another method , the lender itself securitizes the mortgages and sells them to Fannie Mae . MBS can Advantages The basic idea behind Fannie Mae - to provide a government - supported entity to buy mortgages and thus free up funds for banks to make more mortgages - is a simple and sound concept . Together with the FHA , Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac ( Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp . ) transformed the homeownership rate in this country from 44 percent in 1940 to over 66 percent in 2000 . Problems The complexity of the MBS blossomed throughout the same period the housing bubble developed . An MBS is a generic reference to an investment product . It can in fact be turned into hundreds of different types of products , each with different names and structures . Once the MBS became sufficiently complex , assessing the risk associated with the product did too . MBS were then linked with credit default swaps , or CDs , which is an equally complex form of betting that resembles insurance . With the housing recession , the value of CDs and MBS tumbled Food for Thought Fannie Mae and its GSE counterpart Freddie Mac are the two largest players in the secondary mortgage market , controlling as much as 90 percent of the business . Because of this near - monopoly , some think the government backing they receive should be removed to foster competition and reduce the market ' s dependence on them . In their current state , should they fail , taxpayers will have to pick up the tab and the mortgage market will be without its largest buyers . References ( 5 ) The Mortgage Professor& # 039 ; s Website : What Do Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac Do ? History News Network : What are the Origin of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac ? Fannie Mae : About Fannie Mae Investopedia : What is Securitization ? U.S. Census Bureau : Historical Census of Housing Tables About the Author Mary Gallagher runs Mary Gallagher Planning ( mgaplanning . com ) , an urban planning and consulting business in San Francisco . She is the former assistant planning director for San Francisco and planning director for San Mateo . Gallagher has been writing about real estate , development and land use for numerous websites since 1995 . She holds a master ' s degree in historic preservation planning from Cornell University . Photo Credits victorian home image by Michael Shake from Fotolia . com Cite this Article | [
"Fannie Mae Loan",
"government-sponsored enterprise",
"bringing liquidity"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/far-should-ground-rod-house-82281.html | How Far Should a Ground Rod Be From the House ? Written by Gus Stephens ; Updated December 10 , 2018 Installation of at least one ground rod is among the grounding methods now suggested by the National Electrical Code ( NEC ) , Article 250 , to ensure a safe path to ground for residential electrical systems . While the grounds for each individual electrical branch in the home lead to the main electrical panel , the panel itself must be well - grounded to a central ground . In the past , this requirement was fulfilled by grounding to the buried cold water pipe . NEC Article 250 and many local codes , however , now recommend that water Distance From the Electrical Panel NEC Article 250 does not specify a minimum or maximum distance between the main electrical panel and the ground rod . Because the panel must be connected to the ground rod by a buried copper wire , however , best practices suggest that the shorter the distance to the ground rod , the more efficient the ground . The standard copper wire size should be no smaller than No . 6 , and most codes recommend No . 4 wire . Where the ground rod is located far from the main electrical panel , thicker No . 3 wire may Distance From House to Ground Rod NEC Article 250 does not specify a distance from a house to a ground rod . But the 8 - foot rod should be driven into the ground far enough from the house that it will not contact the underground concrete footing of the house , which protrudes horizontally about 1 foot from the base of the foundation . To ensure there is no interference from the footing , the ground rod should be placed no closer than 2 feet from the exterior wall of the house . References ( 1 ) HomeInspector . org : Introduction To Electrical Grounding PDF About the Author Gus Stephens has written about aviation , automotive and home technology for 15 years . His articles have appeared in major print outlets such as " Popular Mechanics " and " Invention & Technology . " Along the way , Gus earned a Bachelor of Arts in communications . If it flies , drives or just sits on your desk and blinks , he ' s probably fixed it . Cite this Article | [
"National Electrical Code",
"ground rod"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fertilizers-increase-growth-rate-bean-plants-61935.html | Which Fertilizers Increase the Growth Rate of Bean Plants ? Written by Ellen Douglas ; Updated December 10 , 2018 Whether bush or vine , bean plants do n ' t require much in the way of extra fertilizer and in fact even provide some of their own nitrogen . A 3 - to 4 - inch layer of compost worked into your future bean patch is often all you ' ll need to grow high - yielding , healthy bean plants . However , if your soil is infertile or even lacking in one specific nutrient , you may find bean plant growth compromised , A soil test kit from a garden center determines deficiencies in major nutrients . The Nitrogen Question Nitrogen - rich fertilizers such as manure are often the first food we think of when it comes to plant growth . The exception for this is when growing beans and other legumes . That ' s because beans are nitrogen fixers , as they take nitrogen from the air and release it into the soil , fulfilling their own nitrogen needs . Giving your soil too much nitrogen fertilizer , combined with the nitrogen fixed by beans , can lead to too much stem and leaf growth , and too few or too small beans . The overly rapid When to Use Nitrogen In general , compost is a good soil amendment for adequate bean plant growth , because it improves soil texture while providing light amounts of macronutrients , like nitrogen . However , if the soil in which you are planting beans is exceptionally low in nutrients , a small amount of nitrogen fertilizer may be needed prior to planting . If using synthetic fertilizer , look for a 5 - 10 - 10 blend , which indicates that the blend has less nitrogen than phosphorus and potassium . Use 3 to 4 pounds per 100 square feet . Organic options Phosphorus Phosphorus primarily helps a bean plant ' s root system grow . Because beans are not heavy feeders of any nutrients , a 3 - inch layer of compost may be all that ' s needed for this element of bean plant growth . However , if a test shows that the soil is lacking in phosphorus , use a 5 - 10 - 10 fertilizer or add 1 pound of bone meal per 100 square feet for a light feeding of the nutrient . Potassium Potassium is a supporting player when it comes to bean plant growth . While it does n ' t directly impact stem or root growth as phosphorus and nitrogen do , it keeps plants healthy enough to support that growth . A light feeding of compost is generally all bean plants need for adequate potassium . For infertile soils , use 5 - 10 - 10 fertilizer or add 10 pounds of ground granite or 10 pounds of greensand per 100 square feet . Alkaline Soils Soils that are too alkaline reduce the growth rate of beans because they lock up nutrients in the soil and plants do n ' t have access to them . In areas with sandy , chalky soils , such as those found in areas with Mediterranean climates , bean growth is apt to be stunted if the pH level is higher that 6.8 . Use sulfur to correct alkalinity , at about 1 pound per 100 square feet for every point you need to lower the pH level . Alkaline soils are often also low in zinc . A zinc Growing After planting , watch beans to determine if they show signs of any nutrient deficiencies . Poor nitrogen , for example , is shown by slow growth and pale green or yellow leaves . Apply your chosen amendment by putting a narrow band of the plant food in a line in front of a bean row or in a circle around a pole bean tepee , and watering thoroughly . A balanced liquid fertilizer sprayed on bean plants is another effective method , because it delivers nutrients directly to the plants , rather than to to the soil first . References ( 6 ) Harvest to Table : How to Grow Green or Snap Beans Cornell University : Pole Beans Cornell University : Bush Beans Colorado State University Extension : Fertilizing Dry Beans National Gardening Association : Watering & Fertilizing Beans Rodale ' s Ultimate Encyclopedia of Organic Growing : Fern Marshall Bradley , et al . About the Author Ellen Douglas has written on food , gardening , education and the arts since 1992 . Douglas has worked as a staff reporter for the Lakeville Journal newspaper group . Previously , she served as a communication specialist in the nonprofit field . She received her Bachelor of Arts from the University of Connecticut . Cite this Article | [
"Fertilizers",
"Bean Plants",
"Nitrogen"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fico-score-need-refinance-house-7481.html | What FICO Score Do I Need to Refinance My House ? Written by Jayne Thompson ; Updated November 28 , 2018 Most lenders require a minimum credit score in the region of 620 in order to approve a refinancing application . Federal Housing Administration programs typically have lower minimums , although their lenders can insist on higher credit score requirements for some borrowers . If you qualify for a government - backed streamlined refinance , there ' s no minimum credit requirement at all . FHA Refinance Usually , the refinancing programs with the least FICO - sensitive requirements are those insured by the Federal Housing Administration . For example , the FHA ' s streamline refinance program – a fast track program for existing FHA home loans in good standing – does n ' t have a minimum credit score requirement . In theory , you can qualify for a streamline refinance with any score . If you ' re replacing a non - FHA mortgage with an FHA loan , you usually need a minimum credit score of 580 . Some FHA - approved lenders Veterans Affairs Refinance If you already have a VA mortgage , you can apply for the VA streamline refinance program known as the interest rate reduction refinance loan . Like the FHA streamlined program , the IRRRL does not require a credit check or minimum credit score . Be aware , however , that some lenders may establish their own credit requirements . If you do n ' t currently have a VA mortgage but are eligible for one , another option is the VA " cash out " refinance . These loans follow the VA standard underwriting process and lenders usually ask Conventional Loan Refinance The average minimum credit score for conventional refinancing programs is 620 to 680 , although the best rates are generally available to homeowners with scores of 740 or higher . Conventional refinances are always fully documented . This means that you have to qualify in the same manner as if you were purchasing the home , with income tax returns , pay stubs , credit history checks and a home appraisal in addition to other lending requirements . You ' ll Need to Have Skin in the Game Lenders ideally want to see that you own at least a 20 percent equity stake in your home before they approve a refinance . To work out your equity , divide the amount of borrowing by the fair market value of your home . For example , if your home is valued at $ 500,000 and you want to borrow $ 350,000 , you have 30 percent equity . The bank would have 70 percent equity , which is known as the " loan to value " or LTV . If you ' re attempting to refinance a loan with References ( 6 ) The Mortgage Reports : FHA Streamline Refinance Guidelines , Rates and Refunds FHA . com : Credit Requirements for FHA Loans Bankrate : Three Ways to Refinance Into a VA Home Loan Veterans United : Cash Out Refinancing The Lenders Network : 2017 VA Loan Requirements Home Town Lenders : Conventional Refinance Resources ( 2 ) The Federal Reserve Board : A Consumer ’ s Guide to Mortgage Refinancing MyFICO : Mortgages About the Author Jayne Thompson earned an LLB in Law and Business Administration from the University of Birmingham and an LLM in International Law from the University of East London . She practiced real estate law in various “ big law ” firms before launching a career as a commercial writer . Her work has appeared on numerous property sites including Housemaster , For Rent and Active Rain . Find her at www . whiterosecopywriting . com . Cite this Article | [
"FICO Score",
"refinancing application",
"home loans"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/figure-btus-hvac-sizing-68206.html | How to Figure BTUs for HVAC Sizing Written by Karie Lapham Fay ; Updated June 19 , 2017 The biggest problem with sizing your furnace and air conditioner is that so few people know how to do it accurately . Even many contractors rely on a simplified rule of thumb ( which is , incidentally , illegal ) that translates square footage into a one - size - fits - all answer . The result is usually oversized units that cost more , use more energy and fail to maintain the temperature you desire inside your home . Professional calculation factors in many of your home ' s unique characteristics to obtain the correct HVAC sizing . Online Find your home ' s total square footage if you will be heating and cooling the entire area . Multiply the length by the width to obtain the figure if you do n ' t have the exact amount from the house plans or sales contract . Include home additions and multiple stories in the square footage . Exclude areas of your home that will not be heated nor cooled . Calculate the British thermal units required to heat and cool your house , based on square footage alone . Multiply the square feet by 25 . The result is the base BTUs needed . Adjust the base BTUs if you have unusually high ceilings ( more thab 8 feet ) . Multiply the BTUs by 25 percent . Add the result to the base BTUs . Factor in the people who are usually in the house as each will affect the heat generated inside the home . Multiply the normal number of occupants by 400 and add that result to the base BTU calculation . Alternatively , for high levels of activity , boost the BTUs per person to 600 , if desired . Divide the total BTUs by 12,000 to calculate the equivalent air conditioning tonnage . Alternatively , use the BTUs to size the furnace required . With heating , the BTUs multiplied by the efficiency rating equals the output BTUs , which is the number your estimates require . For example , if you need 30,000 BTUs and the furnace is 85 - percent efficient , you need a furnace with 36,000 BTUs to match an output of 30,000 BTUs . Things You Will Need Measuring tape Calculator Tip With a variety of formulas available online , it ' s easy to get confused with which one to follow . Do n ' t allow salesmen and contractors talk you into larger units . The formula above is a good guideline , but is still imprecise . The best calculation uses the " Manual J , " a complicated guide of different factors to consider . Ask a third - party engineer - who will not profit from the sale of any given system - to use the " Manual J " to calculate your values . References ( 4 ) Ask Weldin : How Much Cooling Do I Need ? Ask The Builder : Sizing Air Conditioning Ace Hardware : Air Conditioners Hearth . com : BTU Calculator Resources ( 3 ) US Airconditioning Distributors : HVAC Equipment Size Finder AC4Life : Air Conditioning Sizing Chart Express HVAC : HVAC Sizing Help About the Author Karie Fay earned a Bachelor of Science in psychology with a minor in law from the University of Arkansas at Monticello . After growing up in construction and with more than 30 years in the field , she believes a girl can swing a hammer with the best of them . She enjoys " green " or innovative solutions and unusual construction . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"HVAC Sizing",
"Figure BTU"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/figure-rise-tread-stairs-95734.html | How to Figure the Rise & Tread of Stairs Related Articles 1 Get More Stair Tread Width 2 Make Steep Interior Stairs Bigger 3 Make Narrow Stairs Wider 4 Measure for Carpet Stair Runners For a standard straight run of stairs in a residence , the maximum stair riser height is 7 3 / 4 inches , and the minimum tread depth is 10 inches . The risers is the vertical part of a step , and a tread is the horizontal part that you walk on . To calculate how many risers are needed , measure the floor - to - floor height in inches , then divide the height by 7 3 / 4 . The result will likely be a fraction , so always round up . There are always one Verify Your Numbers Double - check your calculation by dividing the number of risers you determined were needed into the floor - to - floor height ( in inches ) . The result will be 7 3 / 4 inches or less . If it is more than 7 3 / 4 inches , re - examine your work . If you have a midlanding , count that as one of the treads . According to the 2012 International Residential Code , variation in each of the riser heights is not to exceed 3 / 8 inch , but keep them as equal Winder Stairs Calculating the number of risers and treads for winder stairs is done the same way . Winder stairs , which form a curve with pie - shaped treads , have the same riser height requirements as straight stairs . The tread depth varies because of the orthogonal shape ; the smallest dimension closest to inside the curve should be no less than 6 inches . Midway between the inside and outside of the stairs should be a minimum of 10 inches . References ( 1 ) International Residential Code for One - and Two - Family Dwellings : Section 311R - Means of Egress About the Author Kathy Russell has been a practicing architect for more than 20 years . She is licensed in the states of Montana and Washington and holds a National Council of Architectural Boards certificate . Her professional experience has been large , high - end homes ; multifamily housing ; commercial and industrial projects . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"standard straight",
"stair riser"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/finance-own-land-want-build-house-but-bad-credit-86789.html | Who Will Finance Me if I Own Land & Want to Build a House But Have Bad Credit ? Written by Steve Lander ; Updated June 28 , 2017 Construction loans finance building on land . Regardless of your credit history , financing home construction is usually going to be more challenging than finding a mortgage on a prebuilt home . When you have bad credit , the situation becomes even more challenging . Generally , your choices are to get creative or to delay your project and work on your credit . At times , you may need to do both . Builder Financing Sometimes , the builder will finance the construction for you . Given that the builder wants to get the job done and makes money through construction completion , extending financing regardless of your credit is feasible . This also has the advantage of making the builder more accountable . If he ' s paying the interest while he builds your home , he ' s going to be out - of - pocket for any delays in delivering your home . However , you ' ll still need to find a permanent loan once the construction is finished and your Private Financing Private lenders are individuals or small companies in the business of making loans that banks wo n ' t make . They can be both more and less understanding of credit issues than banks . On one hand , the private lender can overlook credit score issues or past problems . On the other hand , you ' ll have to convince the lender that you can repay the loan . Most private lenders charge higher rates than banks and require sizable down payments . This type of loan might last longer than your construction period , although you ' Small , Local Banks Small , local banks are an excellent alternative if you need construction financing . Like private lenders , they have a more flexible decision making process . If you can reasonably explain your bad credit , the bank might overlook it . The small bank lender might offer you a rate closer to what you ' d get in the broader mortgage market , saving you money . While you ' re unlikely to get a 30 - year fixed mortgage , especially if the bank makes the loan with depositor money and holds it in its portfolio , you Working With a Broker Another option is a mortgage broker who has experience in construction loans . Brokers have access to multiple lending sources and can shop around on your behalf to find the right loan . They can often help you with your credit issues , potentially opening up even more more opportunities for you or saving you money with a lower interest rate due to a higher credit score . References ( 3 ) The Mortgage Professor : Should the Builder Finance Construction ? Los Angeles Times : Lenders Venturing Back into Subprime Market The Mortgage Professor : Questions About Mortgage Brokers Versus Lenders About the Author Steve Lander has been a writer since 1996 , with experience in the fields of financial services , real estate and technology . His work has appeared in trade publications such as the " Minnesota Real Estate Journal " and " Minnesota Multi - Housing Association Advocate . " Lander holds a Bachelor of Arts in political science from Columbia University . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Construction loans",
"financing home construction",
"Builder Financing"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fix-drawer-bottom-falls-out-45136.html | How to Fix a Drawer Bottom That Falls Out Related Articles 1 Fix Dresser Drawers That Fall Off Track 2 Strengthen a Drawer 3 Measure & Replace a Broken Drawer 4 Fix a Wood Drawer Drawer bottoms made from thin hardboard or plywood are vulnerable to excessive weight when you overload a drawer . Over time , the bottom sags in the center and its edges are no longer supported in the recesses at the sides and back of a drawer . You can fix a drawer bottom with a method used by professionals who specialize in cabinet repair . 1 Place the drawer face down on a flat surface , with the recesses for the bottom at the upper edges of the sides and back . 2 Remove the back of the drawer by detaching each end from the drawer ' s sides . Note which direction nails are driven , and work the corners apart with a hammer . Pull out any nails left behind with pliers . If screws are used , remove them with the appropriate screwdriver . 3 Sand the edges of the drawer bottom with a sanding block to remove any burrs or irregularities that may prevent sliding the bottom into the recesses at the sides of the drawer . 4 Apply a uniform bead of wood glue into the recesses at each side of the drawer . Turn the drawer bottom over so any bow faces down . Align the edges of the bottom with the side recesses at the open end of the drawer and slide the bottom fully into place . 5 Apply a uniform bead of wood glue to the recess on the detached back piece of the drawer . Apply wood glue to the sides of the drawer at the ends where the back will attach . Fit the back edge of the drawer bottom into the recess on the back piece and push the piece into place . 6 Nail each corner where the back piece meets the ends of the sides using three 5 - penny finish nails evenly spaced . Drive the nails just above or below the holes where you removed the old nails , instead of in the same holes . If you removed screws , reinstall them in the original holes . 7 Secure the outer edges of the drawer bottom at the recesses with 3 / 4 - inch brads . Drive the brads through the edges of the drawer ' s side and back and into the bottom at 3 - inch intervals . Turn the drawer upright . Allow the glue to dry before using the drawer . Things You Will Need Hammer Screwdriver Sanding block Wood glue 3 / 4 - inch brads 5 - penny finish nails Tips For added support , attach a small corner bracket to the inside of the drawer where the bottom meets the center of the back . Put the drawer right side up on a flat surface . Place a small wooden block under the bottom where the bracket will attach . Secure the bracket with short screws driven into the back of the drawer and into the wooden block below the bottom . If a bottom has damage , use it as a template to cut a new bottom from hardboard of the same thickness . References ( 2 ) This Old House : Support for Sagging Drawers Fine Woodworking : Drawer - Building Basics About the Author William Machin began work in construction at the age of 15 , while still in high school . In 35 years , he ' s gained expertise in all phases of residential construction , retrofit and remodeling . His hobbies include horses , motorcycles , road racing and sport fishing . He studied architecture at Taft Junior College . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Drawer"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fix-peeling-laminate-cabinet-door-37859.html | How to Fix a Peeling Laminate Cabinet Door Written by Amanda Bell ; Updated December 09 , 2018 Laminate cabinets are a cost - effective way to provide a visually appealing finish for cabinets . Although generally durable , the laminate can begin to peel back with age or potentially crack . Depending on the damage , you can either fix the existing laminate or reface the door to fix the problem without installing entirely new units . As a general rule , if there are any cracks in the laminate , the entire piece needs to be replaced ; however , if there ’ s only peeling , you can reattach the laminate with adhesive . Just Peeling Slide a corner of sandpaper between the laminate and substrate , and gently scuff up the wood or particle board . This will remove any excess adhesive and make it easier for the new adhesive to hold the laminate in place . Squirt a small amount of waterproof adhesive between the substrate and the laminate . Push the laminate into the glue , and apply a heavy - duty masking tape to the repair . Wrap this around the door to the opposite side and secure it in place . You may need to use more than one layer of tape to hold the laminate down until the adhesive dries . If you have one on hand , a clamp is often an easier option ; however , a separate purchase for this project is not necessary . Simply close the clamp Remove the tape or clamp once the adhesive is fully set and use a sharp utility knife to scrape any excess off the cabinet . Peeled and Cracked Remove the door by unscrewing it from the hinges , and unscrew the hardware if there is any , setting the pieces aside . Move the door to a well - lit workspace . Use a flammable grade glue solvent to loosen the contact cement holding the laminate in place . Make sure the area is well ventilated and that there are no open flames . Wear gloves and spray the solvent to the exposed corner , working a knife between the laminate and the substrate using a sawing motion . Apply more solvent as necessary . Be careful with pieces that break off , as they will be sharp . Continue until the entire damaged piece is removed . Measure the area to be re - covered and cut a matching piece of self - sticking laminate or laminate with trim router a half - inch wider and 1 to 2 inches longer all the way around if you ’ re installing the laminate against a flat surface . For example , if the area is 16 inches high by 9 inches wide , you ’ ll cut the laminate to 17 or 18 inches high by 9½ inches wide . If you are installing the laminate into a recessed surface , cut it to size exactly and hold Sand the substrate lightly and wipe it with a damp cloth to remove any dust . Let this air dry , and then peel the top edge of the backing off the laminate , pressing the piece in place onto the cabinet . Ensure it is lined up perfectly , and then slowly peel the backing off as you press the laminate in place with your other hand . Work your way down until the entire piece is installed . If you are installing standard laminate , apply contact cement to the back of the laminate and the cabinet front Trim any excess off the edges using a trim router . Lightly sand the cut marks to smooth them out , and wipe off the cabinet with a damp cloth . Apply some petroleum jelly to a drill bit and drill through the back of the door into the existing hardware holes to create pilot holes for the hardware through the laminate . Reinstall the existing hardware and rehang the door . Things You Will Need Sandpaper Waterproof adhesive Masking tape Utility knife Screwdriver or drill Flammable grade glue solvent in spray form Measuring tape Cloth Self - sticking laminate or laminate Contact cement ( optional ) Tip For the cleanest cut lines , use a trim router with a laminate - cutting bit . References ( 2 ) Homeowners Clinic : Eliminate Termites , Fix Peeling Kitchen Cabinet Laminate , Age - Proof A Roof Deck and more Read more : Homeowners Clinic : Eliminate Termites , Fix Peeling Kitchen Cabinet Laminate , Age - Proof A Roof Deck and more This Old House : How to Laminate a Countertop About the Author Amanda Bell spent six years working as an interior designer and project coordinator before becoming a professional writer in 2010 . She has published thousands of articles for various websites and clients , specializing in home renovation , DIY projects , gardening and travel . Bell studied English composition and literature at the University of Boston and the University of Maryland . Cite this Article | [
"Laminate",
"Cabinet Door",
"ventilated"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fix-slope-driveway-99114.html | How to Fix a Slope Driveway Driveways should have a slight slope to allow water to drain away from the surface . If the slope is too steep , it is dangerous and slippery in bad weather . The rise of your slope should be no more than 15 percent . If your home is on a hill , adding curves to the driveway is one way to reduce the incline . Fixing a slope is a challenging project with several solutions , depending on its severity . 1 Extend the bottom sides of the driveway to form a V shape with the wide end facing the street . Fanning out the sides helps prevent a vehicle from bottoming out , and makes it easier to turn in and out of the driveway . 2 Remove any growth within the area and dig out 12 inches of soil on both sides with a shovel . Fill the hole with 8 inches of gravel and tamp it with a tamper . Pour concrete or asphalt over the expanded section and smooth it level with the existing surface . 3 Raise the height of the steepest section of the driveway . For instance , if the driveway is concrete , smooth successive thin layers of new concrete over the surface with a trowel . Build up the surface in thin layers to reduce the angle . 4 Cover a gravel driveway with decomposed granite and apply stabilizing resin over the top to prevent the rocks from washing away and to provide a surface with more traction . 5 Install underground drain pipes between the driveway and garage if the slope is toward the house . Cut the pavement with a concrete saw or handheld cutting tool fitted with a masonry cut - off wheel accessory . Break up the concrete with a jackhammer or sledge hammer . Dig a trench about 12 inches deep and wide with a shovel . 6 Fill the trench with clean gravel until the expanse is deep enough for the channel to sit level with the driveway and garage . Install a drain channel across the driveway and use PVC cement to seal the joints . Extend the course of the underground pipes to direct the water into a dry portion of the yard . Things You Will Need Shovel Gravel Tamper Concrete Trowel Concrete saw or handheld cutting tool Jackhammer or sledge hammer Shovel Drain channel PVC cement Decomposed granite Resin Warning Wear eye and ear protection when using power tools , as well as heavy gloves and protective clothing . References ( 1 ) Reliable Remodeler : The Truth about Decomposed Granite Driveways Resources ( 1 ) " This Old House " magazine ; The Well Planned Driveway ; Wendy Talarico About the Author Aurora LaJambre is a writer and editor living in Brooklyn , N.Y. For over five years she ' s covered topics in culture , lifestyle , travel , DIY design and green living for print and online media . Her publication credits include " WOW Women on Writing , " " Six States " and Catalogs . com . She graduated from New York University in 2003 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in creative writing . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Slope Driveway",
"V shape",
"shovel"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fix-steel-door-rubs-floor-31084.html | How to Fix a Steel Door That Rubs the Floor A properly installed door has enough room to swing out over the floor finishes below without rubbing or sticking . Doors that rub at the bottom not only slow you down , but can also create wear marks and fraying on carpet and other types of flooring . Protect your floors and get your door swinging properly with some basic adjustments to the door and hardware . Adjust the Top Hinge 1 Use a screwdriver to tighten the screws in the top hinge on the door and frame . Over time , these screws can work their way loose , causing the bottom of the door to drag on the floor . Test the door when you ' re done to see if the rubbing has stopped . 2 Replace stripped hinge screws with longer screws that are better equipped to support the door . Check the swing of the door when you ' re done to see if the problem has been fixed . 3 Unscrew the top hinge from the door frame . Take out any shims you see between the hinge plate and door frame . Reattach the hinge and test the door . 4 Replace damaged or warped hinges with new heavy - duty hinges . Stronger hinges can help support the door more effectively and allow it to swing properly . Cut the Bottom Edge of the Door 1 Take the door off the hinges by unscrewing the hinges from the frame . Set the door onto a work table . 2 Use a straightedge and marker to draw a line along the bottom of the door where you plan to cut it . 3 Put on your safety glasses . Use a circular saw with a metal cutting blade to carefully cut along the line you made in Step 2 . 4 Smooth the sharp edges of the cut area using a metal file . 5 Cover the cut edge of the door with a door sweep that wraps around the door . Predrill holes for fasteners using a drill with a carbide tip . Use the fasteners that came with your door sweep to attach the sweep to the door . 6 Reinstall the door by screwing the hinges back into the frame . Things You Will Need Screwdriver Drill Screws Heavy - duty hinges Safety glasses Straightedge Marker Circular saw with metal cutting blade Metal file Door sweep Tip If you prefer not to use a door sweep , you can also reattach the metal skin of your door to the bottom after cutting the door to size . Remove the wood or foam core from the piece you cut off , then apply construction adhesive to the strip of metal skin . Clamp the metal to the base of the door and allow it to dry before reinstalling the door . You may need to cut a piece of wood or foam core to fit within the base of the door for the skin to attach to . Warning Never cut into a fire - rated door , as this voids the fire rating and interferes with the function of the door . Fire - rated doors are typically found at basements , garages and stairways , but may also be found in other locations . All fire - rated doors have some type of fire label on both the door and frame to help with identification . References ( 2 ) Steel Door Institute : Installation and Troubleshooting Guide for Standard Steel Doors and Frames Family Handyman : Fix Sagging or Sticking Doors About the Author Emily Beach works in the commercial construction industry in Maryland . She received her LEED accreditation from the U.S. Green Building Council in 2008 and is in the process of working towards an Architectural Hardware Consultant certification from the Door and Hardware Institute . She received a bachelor ' s degree in economics and management from Goucher College in Towson , Maryland . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Steel Door",
"Hinge"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/fix-tufted-button-couch-100634.html | How to Fix a Tufted Button Couch Related Articles 1 Replace Sofa Cushion Buttons 2 Attach a Loose Sofa Button 3 Apply Button Tufting 4 Sewing a Button on a Leather Chair The sophisticated , polished look of a tufted sofa adds a touch of luxury to any room , but a single missing button can turn that sofa from fab to drab . The fix only requires a couple of simple tools so you do n ' t have to live with a shabby sofa . The buttons and heavy upholstery thread create the tufts on the cushions . When replacing the button , line it up properly with the remaining tufts so your sofa keeps its clean lines and pattern . 1 Measure the distance between the remaining tufted buttons , and use these measurements to find the location of the missing tuft if it ' s not obvious . Mark the button location with a fabric pen . Repeat on the opposite side of the cushion . 2 Cut a 24 - inch length from the waxed upholstery thread . Thread it through a long upholstery needle , doubling the thread and tying a secure double knot in the end . Upholstery needles come in 3 - to 12 - inch lengths , so select the length that works best with your cushion thickness . 3 Sew through the cushion from the marked spot on the cushion bottom , passing the needle through the tuft mark on top the cushion . Pass the needle through the button hole , and then pass it back through the cushion . Pull the thread tight so the button nestles down into the cushion , forming the tuft . 4 Pass the needle through the button on the bottom of the cushion . Sew through the cushion , between the two buttons , three more times to reinforce the tufting . 5 Bring the the final pass of the thread through the bottom of the cushion . Pull the thread tight and knot it securely . Trim off the loose threads and tuck the knots under the bottom button to hide them from view . Things You Will Need Fabric pen Waxed upholstery thread Upholstery needle Tip Grasp the needle tip with pliers and pull it through the upholstery fabric if the needle has trouble passing through tightly woven upholstery . Warning Pay attention to where you insert the needle to avoid poking yourself when it goes through the other side of the cushion . References ( 2 ) Sewing and Craft Alliance : Hand Sewing Needle Guide Sabina Vavra : DIY : Tufted Soda Cushion Repair About the Author Jenny Harrington has been a freelance writer since 2006 . Her published articles have appeared in various print and online publications . Previously , she owned her own business , selling handmade items online , wholesale and at crafts fairs . Harrington ' s specialties include small business information , crafting , decorating and gardening . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Tufted Button Couch",
"polished look",
"shabby sofa"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/flowers-deter-animals-43937.html | Flowers That Deter Animals Animals visiting your garden can quickly cause varying degrees of damage whether they mean to or not . Placing fencing around the area can help keep the animals out , but these fences also may lower the aesthetic look of the area . Instead , plant flowers known for their animal - deterrent properties to keep unwanted wildlife and pets out of your garden . Dogs and Cats Man ’ s best friend and cute kitty cats can cause severe damage quickly to your garden with their bathroom habits , digging and trampling through the plants . Fritillaria ( Fritillaria ) is a perennial growing in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 5 to 9 , producing bell - shape blooms that dangle downward from the tall flower stalk . This attractive plant will keep cuddly kittens away from your garden . Scaredy cat plant ( Coleus canina ) grows to about 1 to 2 feet tall as an annual bedding plant . It has deep green Deer and Rabbits Several aromatic herbs that add flavor to your recipes will deter deer from the area . For example , sage ( Salvia officinalis ) , mint ( Mentha ) , rosemary ( Rosmarinus officinalis ) , dill ( Anethumus graveolens ) and oregano ( Origanum ) will keep deer out of your garden while attracting beneficial insects with their bright flowers . These herbs generally are grown as annuals and will require replanting every year . To keep rabbits at bay , plant coneflowers ( Echinacea ) and daylilies ( Hemerocallis ) . Coneflowers are perennials that , depending on Rodents To repel mice and deter them from creating nests near the base of trees , plant aromatic annual herbs , such as mint , lavender and catnip . For perennial plants that repel mice , consider amaryllis ( Amaryllis ) , lavender ( Lavandula ) or daffodils ( Narcissus ) . Commonly grown as a houseplant , this bulb blooms during the winter months , but can grow outdoors in USDA zones 9 to 11 . This tropical perennial produces large blooms at the top of flower stalks . The lavender genus consists of evergreen shrubs producing purple - colored Raccoons and Squirrels Raccoons have sensitive toes and generally wo n ’ t walk across sharp or pokey surfaces . Plants with prickly foliage , such as squash and oriental poppies , added to your garden will help deter raccoons from the area . Squash ( Cucurbita ) is a member of the gourd family and is grown as an annual vegetable . The Oriental poppy ( Papaver orientale ) is a perennial flower growing in USDA zones 2 to 9 , producing small , vibrant blooms in various colors . Planting daffodils ( Narcissus ) bulbs will help keep squirrels out of References ( 10 ) Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station : Keeping Rabbits Away from Desirable Plants in Your Garden and Landscape Oregon State University Extension Service : Fend off Deer with Aromatic Plants Environment Canada : Insect and Animal Pests The Old Farmer ' s Almanac : Raccoons Fine Gardening : Genus Fritillaria ( Fritillary ) National Gardening Association : Plant Repels Dogs and Cats Fine Gardening : Genus Echinacea ( Coneflower ) Fine Gardening : Genus Hemerocallis ( Daylily ) American Meadows : Amaryllis Fine Gardening : Genus Lavandula ( Lavender ) Resources ( 5 ) Fine Gardening : Deter Rodents with Daffodils Fine Gardening : Genus Narcissus ( Daffodil ) University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign Extension : Daffodil , Narcissus , or Jonquil ? Cornell University : Crown Imperial Heritage Perennials : Papaver Orientale " Allegro " About the Author Amanda Flanigan began writing professionally in 2007 . Flanigan has written for various publications , including WV Living and American Craft Council , and has published several eBooks on craft and garden - related subjects . Flanigan completed two writing courses at Pierpont Community and Technical College . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Flowers",
"Animals",
"oregano"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/gardenia-veitchii-38165.html | Facts About the Gardenia Veitchii Related Articles 1 Grow a Gardenia Veitchii Inside 2 Growing a Potted Gardenia Plant 3 Prune Gardenia Veitchii 4 Different Kinds of Gardenias Everblooming gardenia ( Gardenia jasminoides " Veitchii " ) is a gardenia cultivar characterized by a low , mounding habit , evergreen leaves and sweetly fragrant flowers , which bloom throughout the spring and summer . Due to its short stature and compact habit , everblooming gardenia is a common choice for containers . Like other gardenia varieties , everblooming gardenia is a high - maintenance plant . Appearance Everblooming gardenia is a small gardenia cultivar that grows to a mature height of 4 feet , with a spread of about 3 feet . The plant has a round habit made up of glossy , dark green rounded leaves and delicate , highly fragrant white blooms . Everblooming gardenia is a useful plant for areas with limited space , and it fits in aesthetically in Asian - inspired gardens . The shrub is well utilized in pots and containers near doorways and on patios , where its fragrance can be enjoyed . Care Everblooming gardenia may be cultivated in U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 8 through 11 , where it grows in partial shade or full sunlight . The plant must have acidic , well - draining soil to thrive . Enhance the soil by applying an acidic fertilizer and adding iron compounds . Organic matter such as compost or ground bark can also help to make the area gardenia - friendly . Water regularly throughout the growing season to keep the soil evenly moist . Problems Gardenias are subject to a wide range of pest and diseases , including scales , aphids , spider mites , powdery mildew and die back . Gardenias grown in soil that is too alkaline often develop chlorosis , an unattractive yellowing of the leaves . Amend the soil with organic matter and avoid getting water on the plant ' s leaves to help prevent disease and cultural problems . Insects may have to be treated by releasing predatory insects or applying horticultural oil . History The common gardenia from which the everblooming gardenia is derived hails from China , where it has been in cultivation for hundreds of years . English botanist John Ellis named the plant in 1761 after his friend Dr . Alexander Garden , a Scottish naturalist and physician who lived in Charleston , South Carolina . In the Victorian era , the gardenia was a symbol for secret love . Today it is a popular garden plant and is often the centerpiece in corsages . References ( 4 ) Monrovia : Gardenia Jasminoides ' Veitchii ' Desert Tropicals : Gardenia Missouri Botanical Garden : Gardenia Jasminoides Southern Living : A Brief History of the Gardenia About the Author Michelle Wishhart is a writer based in Portland , Ore . She has been writing professionally since 2005 , starting with her position as a staff arts writer for City on a Hill Press , an alternative weekly newspaper in Santa Cruz , Calif . An avid gardener , Wishhart worked as a Wholesale Nursery Grower at Encinal Nursery for two years . Wishhart holds a Bachelor of Arts in fine arts and English literature from the University of California , Santa Cruz . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Gardenia Veitchii"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/gas-heater-pilot-light-troubleshooting-48538.html | Gas Heater Pilot Light Troubleshooting Written by Tim Anderson ; Updated December 17 , 2018 Gas heaters , whether they warm up air or water in a home , rely on a pilot light to trigger the flame of the actual heater . If this pilot light ever goes out , the heater has no way of actually turning on to heat the water or air that your particular type of heater circulates to warm the house or other elements . Knowing how to maintain the heater and troubleshoot the everyday type of issues with pilot lights will help you avoid costly repairs . Corroded Pilot Tip Gas is funneled to the tip of a pilot light via a supply line that is connected to a natural gas or propane supply . As the gas passes through the tip of the pilot light , it is ignited by the action of the pilot light , which is either electronic or manual . Over time , this tip can become corroded with soot and residue , blocking the gas from exiting the tip . It must be cleaned to operate at full capacity . A toothbrush works well , but you can also run a piece of flexible Size of Flame Most furnaces have an adjustment element on the pilot light that allows manual adjusting of the size of the pilot flame . The exact location of the adjustment element varies by heater and manufacturer , so always refer to your manual or the pilot light instruction label , which is usually near the pilot light on a wall panel . While ideally the adjustment screw or bolt never needs to be adjusted , over time situations such as accidentally turning it while cleaning or experiencing an earthquake can cause the adjuster to move . If you have a flame that Insufficient Gas Another culprit for not a large enough flame is insufficient gas . Alternatively , the pilot light may not stay lit after initially being triggered . First , make sure that you have sufficient gas in your reservoir by checking the pressure gauge on your supply tank . Also , make sure that all of the gas supply lines are in the “ open ” position . Tanks generally provide enough pressure until the reservoir is completely empty of gas , but in some cases once you reach the last 5 percent of a tank , the pressure will begin Bad Thermocouple The thermocouple is the co - pilot to the pilot light in electronic heaters . It senses when the flame of the pilot is hot enough to trigger ignition of the natural gas or propane that fuels the burner . In proper working conditions , the thermocouple will open the main gas valve in the pilot housing to ignite the burners . When it is n ’ t working properly , it wo n ’ t sense the heat from the pilot flame and thus refuses to open the valve to the burners . If your pilot light is staying References ( 3 ) Home Tips : Furnace Troubleshooting & Repair Sevacall : Water Heater Pilot Light Troubleshooting Preferred Home Repair and Services LLC : Gas Furnace Pilot Light About the Author Tim Anderson has been freelance writing since 2007 . His has been published online through GTV Magazine , Home Anatomy , TravBuddy , MMO Hub , Killer Guides and the Delegate2 group . He spent more than 15 years as a third - generation tile and stone contractor before transitioning into freelance writing . Cite this Article | [
"Gas Heater",
"Pilot Light Troubleshooting",
"natural gas"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/germinate-cananga-odorata-seeds-70106.html | How to Germinate Cananga Odorata Seeds Cananga odorata , commonly known as ylang - ylang , produces heavily scented flowers often used in perfumery and aromatherapy . On a breezy day , the flower ' s fragrance may travel more than 30 feet . Ylang - ylang grows outdoors in U.S. Department of Agriculture zone 10 and above , but if kept in a container , it can thrive indoors . The tree bears edible pods that contain two to 12 seeds each . Unlike many other plants , fresh seeds sprout erratically , but older ones have a higher germination rate . 1 Collect seed pods from a ylang - ylang tree when the fruits turn dark purple . 2 Cut the pods open with a knife and remove the seeds . Hold the seeds over a sieve , then run water over them to clean off the flesh . 3 Dry the seeds if you do n ' t plan to sow them immediately . Spread the seeds out in a single layer on a tray , then set the tray outside in a shady spot . Allow the seeds to dry completely before storing in a sealed bag or container . 4 Soak the seeds in lukewarm water for several hours before sowing . This softens the seed coat and may speed germination . 5 Fill a container with potting mix . Sow the ylang - ylang seeds 1 / 4 inch deep and about 3 inches apart . 6 Moisten the potting mix , but do not saturate it . Keep the mix damp until germination . If the room had dry air , seal the container inside a plastic bag . This will raise the humidity around the seeds . 7 Keep the seeds at 75 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit . To speed germination , put the tray on a heating pad or another source of warmth . Watch for germination , which occurs in three weeks to four months . Ylang - ylang seeds may not all sprout at the same time . Things You Will Need Knife Sieve Tray Cup Container Potting mix Plastic bag Heating pad ( optional ) Tips Transplant ylang - ylang seedlings into individual containers when they reach 6 inches tall . Six - to 12 - month - old ylang - ylang seeds germinate better than fresher ones . References ( 4 ) National Gardening Association : Germinating Ylang Ylang Seeds The Wisconsin Master Gardener Program : Ylang - Ylang The Miami Herald : How to Grow Ylang - Ylang Tree from Seed Seedaholic . com : Cananga Odorata " Ylang - Ylang " Resources ( 1 ) Top Tropicals : The Ylang - Ylang : Queen of the Perfume World About the Author Melissa King began writing in 2001 . She spent three years writing for her local newspaper , " The Colt , " writing editorials , news stories , product reviews and entertainment pieces . She is also the owner and operator of Howbert Freelance Writing . King holds an Associate of Arts in communications from Tarrant County College . Photo Credits Cite this Article | [
"Cananga odorata",
"Ylang-ylang",
"U.S. Department of Agriculture"
] |
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/grass-seed-itself-62728.html | Does Grass Seed Itself ? Written by Daniel Thompson ; Updated December 14 , 2018 Related Articles 1 Seed a Lawn by Letting the Grass Grow 2 Make Grass Spread 3 Harvest Grass Seed 4 My Grass Is Thin So How Do I Thicken the Grass ? Plants in the grass family ( Poaceae ) spread from seeds given the right conditions . Understanding how your grass grows and reproduces can help you maintain a healthy lawn , and the knowledge is essential if you wish to produce your own grass seed . Regularly mowed lawns typically do not seed themselves because grass can not produce seed unless it develops flowers . However , many species of grass are capable of spreading out vegetatively from side shoots that grow above or below the soil . Flowering Grass seeds are produced from a cluster of flowers known as an inflorescence . Grass species begin to develop flowers once the plant has developed a sufficient number of leaf blades . Once your grass has reached the necessary size , its stems elongates and then develop inflorescences in response to environmental conditions such as temperature and exposure to sunlight . Grass flowers can contain male and female reproductive organs together or in separate flowers . In most cases , these flowers begin to develop seed once they are fertilized with pollen from a genetically compatible grass flower . Seed Production In most grass species , seeds develop once the ovaries of the flower become fertilized with pollen . Pollen is typically transferred from the male flowers to the female by insects or the wind . Some species of grass produce seed through a process known as apomixis . During apomixis , seed production occurs when the ovary is stimulated by the release of pollen without becoming fertilized . This results in a seed that produces a clone of the parent plant . Rhizomes Grass can spread vegetatively through rhizomes that spread below the soil . Rhizomes are underground stems that grow outward from the base of the plant . New shoots known as tillers grow upward from the rhizomes of each plant . Each tiller that grows out from the grass can produce seed from its own inflorescence . Grass growing in dry conditions is less likely to spread out from rhizomes due to a lack of resources . You can also limit the spread of rhizome - producing grass species through regular mowing . Stolons Some grass species reproduce vegetatively from stolons - - lateral stems that grow above the soil from the crown at the base of the plant . Some species of lawn grass can spread through both stolons and rhizomes . Grass species that produce stolons can contribute to thatching in your lawn . Considerations Grass species that spread through rhizomes or stolons can create a dense lawn if they are encouraged to spread . In many cases you can use this property of grass to create a healthy - looking lawn without the need to sow more grass seed . Allowing your grass to grow taller and watering it regularly encourages it to spread more rapidly . References ( 4 ) University of California : Bunch - Type Grasses Oregon State University : Developmental Phases Oregon State University : Developmental Phases - - Reproductive Phase Oregon State University : Developmental Phases - - Vegetative Rhizomes and Stolons About the Author Daniel Thompson began writing about analytical literature in 2004 . He has written informative guides for a hardware store and was published at an academic conference as part of a collaborative project . He attained a Bachelors of Fine Arts in English literature from Eastern Kentucky University . Cite this Article | [
"Grass seeds",
"inflorescence",
"Rhizomes"
] |
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