patrickbdevaney/mia9 · Datasets at Hugging Face

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We focus on Miami Beach to investigate the temperature variability and ocean dynamics over this coastal urban region during 2018 (weak formation) and 2019 (extensive
formation). The evolutions of the SST anomaly averaged over the coastal region for the two
years are presented in Figure 14b. There is a clear difference of more than 0.4 ◦C between
the 2018 and 2019 timeseries (Figure 14b). The SST with the seasonal cycle (Figure 14c)
also showed higher values in 2019, exceeding the monthly 90th percentile several times
during the year justifying the high number of MHWs detected during 2019 (Figures 8b
and 13b). The westward shift of the FC was apparent throughout the entire year of 2019,
Water 2022, 14, 3840 21 of 28
compared to 2018 (Figure 14a); the mean FC longitude was 79.77◦ W in 2019 and 79.66◦ W
in 2018, while the 6th order polynomial fits between the two years, gradually diverging by
the end of the year. March of 2019 was characterized by successive peaks of westward FC
shifts (Figure 14a) that coincided with the SST anomaly increases (Figure 14b) above the
monthly threshold of the 90th percentile (Figure 14c). Moreover, the gradual movement of
the FC towards Miami Beach during the first half of November 2019 (Figure 14a) increased
the SST anomaly in values higher than 2 ◦C, resulting in continuous high levels of SST
that exceeded the 90th percentile of November for more than 15 days (formation of a
long MHW event). The spatial distributions of the total number of MHW events in 2019
and the respective total durations in days over the broader Miami area are presented in
Figure 15b,d, respectively. The MHWs east of Miami Beach, were more than 10, exceeding
the 100 days duration, while Biscayne Bay showed significantly lower numbers.
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 31
Figure 14. Daily evolution of (a) the Florida Current (FC) longitude, based on the 20 °C temperature
contour line at 150 m along 26° N that is derived from the FKEYS-HYCOM numerical simulations,
the Miami Beach Sea Surface Temperature (b) without (SST anomaly) and (c) with the seasonal cycle
(satellite observations) for 2018 (blue lines) and 2019 (red lines). The mean monthly 90th percentiles
of SST derived for the Miami Beach coastal area from the 1982–2021 satellite dataset (black line) is
presented in (c). The 6th order polynomial fits and the annual means of the FC longitude and the
SST for each year are also shown.
Figure 14. Daily evolution of (a) the Florida Current (FC) longitude, based on the 20 ◦C temperature
contour line at 150 m along 26◦ N that is derived from the FKEYS-HYCOM numerical simulations,
the Miami Beach Sea Surface Temperature (b) without (SST anomaly) and (c) with the seasonal cycle
(satellite observations) for 2018 (blue lines) and 2019 (red lines). The mean monthly 90th percentiles
of SST derived for the Miami Beach coastal area from the 1982–2021 satellite dataset (black line) is
presented in (c). The 6th order polynomial fits and the annual means of the FC longitude and the SST
for each year are also shown.
Water Water 2022 2022,
,1414, 3840 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 2522 of 28 of 31
Figure 15. Horizontal distribution of (a,b) MHWs number, (c,d) MHW duration for 2018 and 2019,
derived from the satellite SST dataset over Biscayne Bay and Miami Beach. The SST, the surface
currents and the position of the FC front (black lines along the Straits), derived from the FKEYSHYCOM simulations are averaged over (e) 2018 and (f) 2019. The Miami Beach and Biscayne Bay
areas are marked in (a). The horizontal thick lines consists of all daily FC positions at 25.5° N and
26° N for years (e) 2018 and (f) 2019 together with the Standard Deviation (Stdev) and 99th Percentile
(Per) of the annual longitude positions.
4.3. Implications of MHWs on the Sustainability of the Coastal Natural and
Urban Environments
MHWs, similarly to the atmospheric heat waves [57,58], have disastrous impacts on
the ecosystem affecting the health of marine species [13]. Increasing ocean temperatures
over South Florida induce extended coral bleaching, fish diseases, losses of sponges and
other marine plants and animals, decreased biodiversity, changes in the distribution of
native and invasive exotic marine species, changes in food webs, and increased occurrence
of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia [59]. The increase of the MHW frequency and duration at global scale during the last century caused widespread loss of habitat-forming species such as corals [60]. Coral bleaching is strongly related to extreme temperature events,
when the algae living on corals escape from the heat, leaving the corals white [61,62].
Other environmental factors (e.g., solar radiation, wind speed and direction, currents,
stratification) additionally deteriorate the resilience of the corals. The recorded coral reef
decline in the Florida Keys is strongly related to the increasing thermal stress due to ocean
warming from climate change [55]. The most lethal coral-disease incident ever recorded
on a contemporary coral reef occurred over southeast Florida during 2014–2015 [63], when
very high occurrence frequencies of MHWs with total durations above 100 days were
computed (Figure 8). Precht et al. [63] associated the coral losses with unusually warmwinter and spring temperatures followed by an anomalously warm summer, in agreement with our satellite-derived results that showed high minimum (winter) SST values
(Figure 3c) in 2014 and high maximum (summer) values in 2015 (Figure 3b). Besides 2014
and 2015, Manzello et al. [64] reported one more major bleaching event at Cheeca Rocks,
located between Marathon and Key Largo, in 2011, when increased number of MHWs
Figure 15. Horizontal distribution of (a,b) MHWs number, (c,d) MHW duration for 2018 and 2019,
derived from the satellite SST dataset over Biscayne Bay and Miami Beach. The SST, the surface
currents and the position of the FC front (black lines along the Straits), derived from the FKEYSHYCOM simulations are averaged over (e) 2018 and (f) 2019. The Miami Beach and Biscayne Bay
areas are marked in (a). The horizontal thick lines consists of all daily FC positions at 25.5◦ N and
26◦ N for years (e) 2018 and (f) 2019 together with the Standard Deviation (Stdev) and 99th Percentile
(Per) of the annual longitude positions.
We examine the relationship between coastal MHWs and ocean influence, which is
suggested by the SST and FC variability discussed above for 2018 and 2019. The highest
number of MHWs were observed along the Miami Beach in 2019 (Figure 15b) showing
total duration of more than 110 days, especially over the northern areas (Figure 15d). On
the contrary, the same area revealed very small durations in 2018 (<40 days; Figure 15c)
associated with very low number of events (<8; Figure 15a). The warm waters of the northward FC (>28 ◦C) affected the temperature levels along the coastline (>26 ◦C) during 2019
(Figure 15f). In 2018, the surface waters along the coast of Miami Beach were significantly
colder (<25 ◦C), while Biscayne Bay waters were warmer (>26 ◦C; Figure 15e). The overall
position of the FC and the respective daily values at offshore Miami Beach (26◦ N) and
Biscayne Bay (25.5◦ N) are presented in Figure 15e (2018) and Figure 15f (2019). The annual
deviation of the FC longitudes is larger in 2019 than in 2018, when the FC flowed more
offshore (eastward) at the area south of the 26◦ N latitude. In 2019, the 99th percentile of
the FC longitude at 26◦ N was 79.995◦ W (Figure 15f), approximately 0.2 degrees more to
the west (onshore) than the respective 2018 percentile (79.825◦ W; Figure 15e); this was
the area where the highest MHW frequencies of 2019 occurred (Figure 15b,d). The 99th
percentile at 25.5◦ N was 80.015◦ W for 2019 and 79.905◦ W for 2018. Both Miami Beach
and Biscayne Bay revealed similar MHW distributions in 2018 (Figure 15a,c), when the FC
flowed further offshore from the coast (Figure 15e), supporting the SST reduction along
the Miami Beach coasts. It is shown that the SST and MHW variability, especially over
the more exposed coastal areas of Miami Beach, are largely controlled by ocean dynamics
(in addition to atmospheric conditions), related to the evolution and zonal (longitudinal)
position of the warm FC over the northern Straits of Florida.
Water 2022, 14, 3840 23 of 28
4.3. Implications of MHWs on the Sustainability of the Coastal Natural and Urban Environments
MHWs, similarly to the atmospheric heat waves [57,58], have disastrous impacts on
the ecosystem affecting the health of marine species [13]. Increasing ocean temperatures
over South Florida induce extended coral bleaching, fish diseases, losses of sponges and
other marine plants and animals, decreased biodiversity, changes in the distribution of
native and invasive exotic marine species, changes in food webs, and increased occurrence
of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia [59]. The increase of the MHW frequency and duration
at global scale during the last century caused widespread loss of habitat-forming species
such as corals [60]. Coral bleaching is strongly related to extreme temperature events,

We focus on Miami Beach to investigate the temperature variability and ocean dynamics over this coastal urban region during 2018 (weak formation) and 2019 (extensive

formation). The evolutions of the SST anomaly averaged over the coastal region for the two

years are presented in Figure 14b. There is a clear difference of more than 0.4 ◦C between

the 2018 and 2019 timeseries (Figure 14b). The SST with the seasonal cycle (Figure 14c)

also showed higher values in 2019, exceeding the monthly 90th percentile several times

during the year justifying the high number of MHWs detected during 2019 (Figures 8b

and 13b). The westward shift of the FC was apparent throughout the entire year of 2019,

Water 2022, 14, 3840 21 of 28

compared to 2018 (Figure 14a); the mean FC longitude was 79.77◦ W in 2019 and 79.66◦ W

in 2018, while the 6th order polynomial fits between the two years, gradually diverging by

the end of the year. March of 2019 was characterized by successive peaks of westward FC

shifts (Figure 14a) that coincided with the SST anomaly increases (Figure 14b) above the

monthly threshold of the 90th percentile (Figure 14c). Moreover, the gradual movement of

the FC towards Miami Beach during the first half of November 2019 (Figure 14a) increased

the SST anomaly in values higher than 2 ◦C, resulting in continuous high levels of SST

that exceeded the 90th percentile of November for more than 15 days (formation of a

long MHW event). The spatial distributions of the total number of MHW events in 2019

and the respective total durations in days over the broader Miami area are presented in

Figure 15b,d, respectively. The MHWs east of Miami Beach, were more than 10, exceeding

the 100 days duration, while Biscayne Bay showed significantly lower numbers.

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 31

Figure 14. Daily evolution of (a) the Florida Current (FC) longitude, based on the 20 °C temperature

contour line at 150 m along 26° N that is derived from the FKEYS-HYCOM numerical simulations,

the Miami Beach Sea Surface Temperature (b) without (SST anomaly) and (c) with the seasonal cycle

(satellite observations) for 2018 (blue lines) and 2019 (red lines). The mean monthly 90th percentiles

of SST derived for the Miami Beach coastal area from the 1982–2021 satellite dataset (black line) is

presented in (c). The 6th order polynomial fits and the annual means of the FC longitude and the

SST for each year are also shown.

Figure 14. Daily evolution of (a) the Florida Current (FC) longitude, based on the 20 ◦C temperature

contour line at 150 m along 26◦ N that is derived from the FKEYS-HYCOM numerical simulations,

the Miami Beach Sea Surface Temperature (b) without (SST anomaly) and (c) with the seasonal cycle

(satellite observations) for 2018 (blue lines) and 2019 (red lines). The mean monthly 90th percentiles

of SST derived for the Miami Beach coastal area from the 1982–2021 satellite dataset (black line) is

presented in (c). The 6th order polynomial fits and the annual means of the FC longitude and the SST

for each year are also shown.

Water Water 2022 2022,

,1414, 3840 , x FOR PEER REVIEW 2522 of 28 of 31

Figure 15. Horizontal distribution of (a,b) MHWs number, (c,d) MHW duration for 2018 and 2019,

derived from the satellite SST dataset over Biscayne Bay and Miami Beach. The SST, the surface

currents and the position of the FC front (black lines along the Straits), derived from the FKEYSHYCOM simulations are averaged over (e) 2018 and (f) 2019. The Miami Beach and Biscayne Bay

areas are marked in (a). The horizontal thick lines consists of all daily FC positions at 25.5° N and

26° N for years (e) 2018 and (f) 2019 together with the Standard Deviation (Stdev) and 99th Percentile

(Per) of the annual longitude positions.

4.3. Implications of MHWs on the Sustainability of the Coastal Natural and

Urban Environments

MHWs, similarly to the atmospheric heat waves [57,58], have disastrous impacts on

the ecosystem affecting the health of marine species [13]. Increasing ocean temperatures

over South Florida induce extended coral bleaching, fish diseases, losses of sponges and

other marine plants and animals, decreased biodiversity, changes in the distribution of

native and invasive exotic marine species, changes in food webs, and increased occurrence

of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia [59]. The increase of the MHW frequency and duration at global scale during the last century caused widespread loss of habitat-forming species such as corals [60]. Coral bleaching is strongly related to extreme temperature events,

when the algae living on corals escape from the heat, leaving the corals white [61,62].

Other environmental factors (e.g., solar radiation, wind speed and direction, currents,

stratification) additionally deteriorate the resilience of the corals. The recorded coral reef

decline in the Florida Keys is strongly related to the increasing thermal stress due to ocean

warming from climate change [55]. The most lethal coral-disease incident ever recorded

on a contemporary coral reef occurred over southeast Florida during 2014–2015 [63], when

very high occurrence frequencies of MHWs with total durations above 100 days were

computed (Figure 8). Precht et al. [63] associated the coral losses with unusually warmwinter and spring temperatures followed by an anomalously warm summer, in agreement with our satellite-derived results that showed high minimum (winter) SST values

(Figure 3c) in 2014 and high maximum (summer) values in 2015 (Figure 3b). Besides 2014

and 2015, Manzello et al. [64] reported one more major bleaching event at Cheeca Rocks,

located between Marathon and Key Largo, in 2011, when increased number of MHWs

Figure 15. Horizontal distribution of (a,b) MHWs number, (c,d) MHW duration for 2018 and 2019,

derived from the satellite SST dataset over Biscayne Bay and Miami Beach. The SST, the surface

currents and the position of the FC front (black lines along the Straits), derived from the FKEYSHYCOM simulations are averaged over (e) 2018 and (f) 2019. The Miami Beach and Biscayne Bay

areas are marked in (a). The horizontal thick lines consists of all daily FC positions at 25.5◦ N and

26◦ N for years (e) 2018 and (f) 2019 together with the Standard Deviation (Stdev) and 99th Percentile

(Per) of the annual longitude positions.

We examine the relationship between coastal MHWs and ocean influence, which is

suggested by the SST and FC variability discussed above for 2018 and 2019. The highest

number of MHWs were observed along the Miami Beach in 2019 (Figure 15b) showing

total duration of more than 110 days, especially over the northern areas (Figure 15d). On

the contrary, the same area revealed very small durations in 2018 (<40 days; Figure 15c)

associated with very low number of events (<8; Figure 15a). The warm waters of the northward FC (>28 ◦C) affected the temperature levels along the coastline (>26 ◦C) during 2019

(Figure 15f). In 2018, the surface waters along the coast of Miami Beach were significantly

colder (<25 ◦C), while Biscayne Bay waters were warmer (>26 ◦C; Figure 15e). The overall

position of the FC and the respective daily values at offshore Miami Beach (26◦ N) and

Biscayne Bay (25.5◦ N) are presented in Figure 15e (2018) and Figure 15f (2019). The annual

deviation of the FC longitudes is larger in 2019 than in 2018, when the FC flowed more

offshore (eastward) at the area south of the 26◦ N latitude. In 2019, the 99th percentile of

the FC longitude at 26◦ N was 79.995◦ W (Figure 15f), approximately 0.2 degrees more to

the west (onshore) than the respective 2018 percentile (79.825◦ W; Figure 15e); this was

the area where the highest MHW frequencies of 2019 occurred (Figure 15b,d). The 99th

percentile at 25.5◦ N was 80.015◦ W for 2019 and 79.905◦ W for 2018. Both Miami Beach

and Biscayne Bay revealed similar MHW distributions in 2018 (Figure 15a,c), when the FC

flowed further offshore from the coast (Figure 15e), supporting the SST reduction along

the Miami Beach coasts. It is shown that the SST and MHW variability, especially over

the more exposed coastal areas of Miami Beach, are largely controlled by ocean dynamics

(in addition to atmospheric conditions), related to the evolution and zonal (longitudinal)

position of the warm FC over the northern Straits of Florida.

Water 2022, 14, 3840 23 of 28

4.3. Implications of MHWs on the Sustainability of the Coastal Natural and Urban Environments

MHWs, similarly to the atmospheric heat waves [57,58], have disastrous impacts on

the ecosystem affecting the health of marine species [13]. Increasing ocean temperatures

over South Florida induce extended coral bleaching, fish diseases, losses of sponges and

other marine plants and animals, decreased biodiversity, changes in the distribution of

native and invasive exotic marine species, changes in food webs, and increased occurrence

of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia [59]. The increase of the MHW frequency and duration

at global scale during the last century caused widespread loss of habitat-forming species

such as corals [60]. Coral bleaching is strongly related to extreme temperature events,