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But the vicinity of the singularity won't be an inescapable prison anymore. | [
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You could get as close as you want and come back. | [
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This should count as destroying the black hole. | [
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Can we do it? | [
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All we have to do is to overcharge or overspin the black hole. | [
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We could do this by throwing objects with a small mass and a lot of charge or angular momentum so that the charge or spin increases faster than the mass. | [
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We have to overfeed the black hole until it reaches the point where it breaks open. | [
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However, whether you can actually do this is the subject of passionate argument among physicists. | [
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Think of a charged black hole. | [
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Equal charges repel each other, and the more of the same charges you squish together, the more they push back. | [
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So let's say that we have a negatively charged black hole and we want to overfeed it with electrons, for example, whose charge is far larger than its mass. | [
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The electrons will feel an electrostatic repulsion, and the more electrons we throw, the larger the negative charge of the black hole will be and the stronger the repulsion. | [
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But once we reach the upper limit, the electrostatic repulsion will be so strong that it won't allow any more electrons to come in. | [
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At this point, the black hole will refuse to be overfed. | [
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With the spin, it's similar. | [
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Once the black hole reaches its upper limit, it won't gobble more spin. | [
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But some scientists have discovered what looks like a loophole. | [
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If an instant before the black hole reaches the limit, we throw the right amount of matter in in just the right way, it looks like we could actually overfeed it. | [
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Most scientists are skeptical, but let's give it a try anyway. | [
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There is a catch, though. | [
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The horizon of a black hole hides the singularity. | [
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It could mean the end of physics as we know it. | [
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There's a big dirty secret about black holes. | [
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Contrary to widespread belief, the singularity of a black hole is not really at its center. | [
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It's in the future of whatever crosses the horizon. | [
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Black holes warp the universe so drastically that at the event horizon, space and time switch their roles. | [
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Once you cross it, falling towards the center means going towards the future. | [
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That's why you can't escape. | [
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Stopping your fall and turning back would be just as impossible as stopping time and traveling to the past. | [
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So the singularity is actually in your future, not in front of you. | [
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And just like you can't see your own future, you won't see the singularity until you hit it. | [
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But you also can't hit something that's in your future, you only sort of experience it, like you'll experience your next birthday when it happens. | [
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Singularities that are in the future are not a problem because we can't see them or interact with them. | [
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But a naked singularity would be in front of us for all of us to see. | [
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What would we see? | [
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Well, the whole point is that it's impossible to know. | [
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A singularity is a region of infinite gravity, and gravity is the bending of space-time. | [
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At a singularity, the bending is so radical that the fabric of space-time is literally broken. | [
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Space and time don't exist anymore. | [
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This means that you can't predict anything, since predicting means making a forecast about where and when something will happen. | [
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So we have an unpredictable thing with infinite gravity and therefore infinite energy. | [
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We think that singularities should exist in nature because we can prove that under very general conditions, gravitational collapse leads to the formation of singularities. | [
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Something enforces the creation of an event horizon around them to prevent their insanity from infecting the rest of the universe. | [
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Without event horizons, physics may not make sense at all. | [
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You know what? | [
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As far as we know, there's just one safe method to destroy a black hole. | [
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All black holes emit tiny particles, a phenomenon called Hawking radiation. | [
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This process causes them to slowly lose mass until they eventually evaporate, leaving behind no horizon and no naked singularity. | [
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The time it takes for a black hole to completely evaporate depends on its mass. | [
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For our mini black hole, the size of a speck of dust, it will be about 10 to the power of 44 years. | [
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But you don't have to wait that long. | [
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There are plenty of fascinating things to explore right here on this planet right now, if you have the knowledge to understand them. | [
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To help you with that, we've created a series of lessons to take your scientific knowledge to the next level. | [
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How big can they get? | [
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And will they put an end to humanity? | [
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There are many types of volcanoes, from towering mountains to lava domes, but they have two main sources. | [
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The first is at the boundaries between tectonic plates, the pieces of the crust that cover the Earth like a giant jigsaw puzzle. | [
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There are seven major tectonic plates and dozens of smaller ones, drifting against each other at up to 15 centimeters per year. | [
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This sounds slow, but on geological terms, it is a titanic struggle over who gets to stay on the surface. | [
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The winning plate crumples into a new mountain range, while the loser is shoved underneath, into an ocean of hot rock at 1,300 degrees Celsius. | [
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The temperature here is enough to melt rock into a liquid, but the insane pressures of all that mass keep it a superheated solid. | [
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Tectonic plates are usually in contact with water for thousands of years and absorb some of it. | [
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When they're submerged into the hot underworld, this water triggers chemical transformations that allow tiny portions to melt into magma. | [
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Liquid magma is less dense than solid rock, so it rises to the surface in furious bubbles that accumulate in sponge-like reservoirs right under the crust. | [
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If enough magma accumulates, it becomes powerful enough to pierce through the crust, which we experience as volcanoes. | [
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This happens under the winning plate, like a revenge attack by the loser before it's erased forever. | [
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The second main source of volcanoes are thought to be mantle plumes. | [
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These are columns of abnormally hot rock that rise all the way from the planet's core mantle boundary to the surface. | [
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Much less is known about them, but in a way, it's as if the Earth's mantle has weather patterns and mantle plumes are a little like hot air rising to form storm clouds. | [
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