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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brian_Lara&diff=4779438&oldid=4779378 | '''Brian Charles Lara''' (born [[May 2]], [[1969]] in Cantaro, Santa Cruz, [[Trinidad and Tobago]]), is a [[West Indies|West Indian]] [[cricket (sport)|cricket]]er.
He is a talented left-handed [[batsman]] with an exceptional ability to build massive [[innings]]. Lara is the world record holder for the highest individual score in both [[first-class cricket]] (501 not out for [[Warwickshire County Cricket Club|Warwickshire]] against [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] in [[1994]]) and [[Test cricket]] (400 not out for the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] against [[English cricket team|England]] on [[12 April]], [[2004]]). In scoring the innings of 400 not out, he became the first man to reclaim the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in [[1994]] (a record that stood until [[Matthew Hayden]]'s 380 against [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]] in [[2003]]). The score also meant that he was the second player (after [[Donald Bradman]]) to score two Test innings of more than 300, and only the second ever to score 400+ in two first-class innings.
*Comfortably [[batting average|averaging]] over 50 per innings (a benchmark for batting greatness in test cricket), as of [[28 June]], [[2004]]), Lara is ranked the number one batsman in test cricket according to the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] Cricket Ratings [http://www.pwcratings.com].
*Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15. [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm] His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in [[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind [[Donald Bradman]]'s 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since [[1990]] under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top inning. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Career in graphs==
The following four graphs show Brian Lara's batting average in four sections by chronological order:
<br><br>
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_1.gif|100px|The beginning]]
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_2.gif|100px|First drop]]
| 06:47, 22 July 2004 | '''Brian Charles Lara''' (born [[May 2]], [[1969]] in Cantaro, Santa Cruz, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and referred to on scorecards as 'BC Lara'), is a [[West Indies|West Indian]] [[cricket (sport)|cricket]]er.
He is a talented left-handed [[batsman]] with an exceptional ability to build massive [[innings]]. Lara is the world record holder for the highest individual score in both [[first-class cricket]] (501 not out for [[Warwickshire County Cricket Club|Warwickshire]] against [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] in [[1994]]) and [[Test cricket]] (400 not out for the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] against [[English cricket team|England]] on [[12 April]], [[2004]]). In scoring the innings of 400 not out, he became the first man to reclaim the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in [[1994]] (a record that stood until [[Matthew Hayden]]'s 380 against [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]] in [[2003]]). The score also meant that he was the second player (after [[Donald Bradman]]) to score two Test innings of more than 300, and only the second ever to score 400+ in two first-class innings.
*Comfortably [[batting average|averaging]] over 50 per innings (a benchmark for batting greatness in test cricket), as of [[28 June]], [[2004]]), Lara is ranked the number one batsman in test cricket according to the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] Cricket Ratings [http://www.pwcratings.com].
*Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15. [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm] His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in [[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind [[Donald Bradman]]'s 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since [[1990]] under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top inning. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Batting average==
Lara has a batting average in [[test cricket|test]] is over 53 and in [[One Day International|one-dayers]] he averages over 42 at a strike rate of close to 80. The following four graphs shows his batting average in four sections by chronological order:
<br><br>
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_1.gif|100px|The beginning]]
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_2.gif|100px|First drop]]
| 06:56, 22 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brian_Lara&diff=4883076&oldid=4824638 | *Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15. [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm] His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in [[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind [[Donald Bradman]]'s 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne_cricket_ground|Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since [[1990]] under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top inning. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Batting average==
Lara's batting average in [[test cricket|tests]] is over 53 and in [[One Day International|one-dayers]] he averages over 42 at a strike rate of close to 80. The following four graphs shows his test batting average over the years in four chronological sections:
<br><br>
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_1.gif|100px|The beginning]]
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_2.gif|100px|First drop]]
| 20:18, 24 July 2004 | *Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15. [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm] His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in [[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind [[Donald Bradman]]'s 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne_cricket_ground|Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since [[1990]] under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top inning. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Batting average==
Lara's batting average in [[test cricket|tests]] is over 53 an inning and in [[One Day International|one-dayers]] he averages over 42 an inning at a strike rate (% of runs scored per ball) of close to 80. The following four graphs shows his test batting average over the years in four chronological sections:
<br><br>
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_1.gif|100px|The beginning]]
[[Image:Lara_Career_Graph_2.gif|100px|First drop]]
| 20:21, 24 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brian_Lara&diff=7335082&oldid=7331302 | *A devastating batsman when in form, Lara holds the world record of scoring most runs (28) in a single [[over (cricket)|over]] in Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS_OVER.html].
*He is also a fine fielder and has taken 147 catches in tests (as of October, 2004), which places him fourth all-time in the category of most catches in a career by a non-Wicketkeeper [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/FIELDING/CATCHES_CAREER.html].
*In [[1994]], he was awarded the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality]] Award. In [[1995]], he was a [[Wisden Cricketer of the Year]].
*Comfortably [[batting average|averaging]] over 50 per innings (a benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has often been ranked the number one batsman in Test cricket according to the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] Cricket Ratings [http://www.pwcratings.com].
*Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm]. His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in [[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne cricket ground|Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since [[1990]] under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top inning. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Batting average==
| 21:34, 12 October 2004 | *A devastating batsman when in form, Lara holds the world record of scoring most runs (28) in a single [[over (cricket)|over]] in Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS_OVER.html].
*He is also a fine fielder and has taken 147 catches in tests (as of October, 2004), which places him fourth all-time in the category of most catches in a career by a non-Wicketkeeper [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/FIELDING/CATCHES_CAREER.html].
*In [[1994]], he was awarded the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality]] Award. In [[1995]], he was a [[Wisden Cricketer of the Year]].
*Comfortably [[batting average|averaging]] over 52 per innings (a benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has often been ranked the number one batsman in Test cricket according to the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] Cricket Ratings [http://www.pwcratings.com].
*Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm]. His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in [[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne cricket ground|Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since [[1990]] under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top inning. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Batting average==
| 06:36, 11 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brian_Lara&diff=7760897&oldid=7747418 | '''Brian Charles Lara''' (born [[May 2]], [[1969]] in Cantaro, Santa Cruz, [[Trinidad and Tobago]]) is an outstanding [[West Indies|West Indian]] [[cricket]]er.
He is a talented left-handed [[batsman]] with an exceptional ability to build massive [[innings]]. Lara is the world record holder for the highest individual score in both [[first-class cricket]] (501 not out for [[Warwickshire County Cricket Club|Warwickshire]] against [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] in [[1994]]) and [[Test cricket]] (400 not out for the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] against [[English cricket team|England]] on [[12 April]], [[2004]]). In scoring the innings of 400 not out, he became the first man to reclaim the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in [[1994]] (a record that stood until [[Matthew Hayden]]'s 390 against [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]] in [[2003]]). The score also meant that he was the second player (after [[Donald Bradman]]) to score two Test innings of more than 322, and only the second ever (after [[Bill Ponsford]]) to score 700 or more in two first-class innings.
Lara captained the West Indies from [[1985]] to [[1999]]. He was reappointed as captain against the touring [[Australian cricket team|Australians]] in [[2003]], and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing signs of him returning to his best. In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy and seemed to have finally started their comeback from years of poor performance.
==Career highlights==
*Lara showed his talent in his 5th Test, striking 475 runs against Australia in [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Sydney]], his maiden Test century. It remains the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HIGHEST_MAIDEN_TONS.html].
*He became the first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings, the first being the historic record 376 against the english [bloody pommys] and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham.
*He has made an aggregate of 10,000 runs in Test cricket (as of [[August 16]], [[2004]]), which makes him the all-time leading run scorer for West Indies and the 4th leading run scorer in all of Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS.html]. He also holds the world record for the fastest 10,000 runs, a feat achieved in 111 matches and 195 innings.
*He has scored 26 centuries (the most for a West Indian and 7th for all Test cricket), of which 7 are double centuries (surpassed only by Bradman) [http://usa.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_200S.html]. He has scored centuries against all Test-playing nations except [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]].
*Over the years, Lara has fought many lone battles as the West Indies batting line-up has become a shadow of its glorious past. He has scored an astonishing 19% of his team runs [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/CRICKET_NEWS/2004/JUN/159724_COL-STATS_02JUN2004.html], a feat surpassed only by Bradman (24%) and [[George Headley]] (21%). Lara scored 688 runs (a record 42% of team output and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001-02 tour of [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HI_AGG_RUNS_IN_SERIES.html].
| 02:28, 22 November 2004 | '''Brian Charles Lara''' (born [[May 2]], [[1969]] in Cantaro, Santa Cruz, [[Trinidad and Tobago]]) is an outstanding [[West Indies|West Indian]] [[cricket]]er.
He is a talented left-handed [[batsman]] with an exceptional ability to build massive [[innings]]. Lara is the world record holder for the highest individual score in both [[first-class cricket]] (501 not out for [[Warwickshire County Cricket Club|Warwickshire]] against [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] in [[1994]]) and [[Test cricket]] (400 not out for the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] against [[English cricket team|England]] on [[12 April]], [[2004]]). In scoring the innings of 400 not out, he became the first man to reclaim the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in [[1994]] (a record that stood until [[Matthew Hayden]]'s 380 against [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]] in [[2003]]). The score also meant that he was the second player (after [[Donald Bradman]]) to score two Test innings of more than 300, and only the second ever (after [[Bill Ponsford]]) to score 400 or more in two first-class innings.
Lara captained the West Indies from [[1997]] to [[1999]]. He was reappointed as captain against the touring [[Australian cricket team|Australians]] in [[2003]], and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing signs of him returning to his best. In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy and seemed to have finally started their comeback from years of poor performance.
==Career highlights==
*Lara showed his talent in his 5th Test, striking 277 runs against Australia in [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Sydney]], his maiden Test century. It remains the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HIGHEST_MAIDEN_TONS.html].
*He became the first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings, the first being the historic record 375 against England and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham.
*He has made an aggregate of 10,000 runs in Test cricket (as of [[August 16]], [[2004]]), which makes him the all-time leading run scorer for West Indies and the 4th leading run scorer in all of Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS.html]. He also holds the world record for the fastest 10,000 runs, a feat achieved in 111 matches and 195 innings.
*He has scored 26 centuries (the most for a West Indian and 7th for all Test cricket), of which 7 are double centuries (surpassed only by Bradman) [http://usa.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_200S.html]. He has scored centuries against all Test-playing nations except [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]].
*Over the years, Lara has fought many lone battles as the West Indies batting line-up has become a shadow of its glorious past. He has scored an astonishing 19% of his team runs [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/CRICKET_NEWS/2004/JUN/159724_COL-STATS_02JUN2004.html], a feat surpassed only by Bradman (24%) and [[George Headley]] (21%). Lara scored 688 runs (a record 42% of team output and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001-02 tour of [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HI_AGG_RUNS_IN_SERIES.html].
| 10:59, 22 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brewing&diff=2989456&oldid=2734703 |
All beers are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is [[malted]] [[barley]] which has been allowed to germinate and is then dried in a kiln and sometimes roasted. Depending on the amount of roasting, the "malted barley" will take on dark color and strongly influence the color and flavour of the beer.
The malt is ground into a coarse powder, known as '''grist''', which is mixed with heated water in a vat called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural enzymes within the malt break down much of the starch into sugars which play a vital part in the fermentation process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours. The mash is held at a temperature of 149-154 deg. F. The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain.
After mashing the resulting liquid is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. At this point it is known as '''wort'''. The Wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or kettle where it is boiled with [[hops]] and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins and sterilize the wort. Hops add flavour, [[odor|aroma]] and [[bitter|bitterness]] to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled.
====Ale====
'''Ale''' yeast was used exclusively until the mid-late 1700s. Ale yeasts fement at warmer temperatures (65-75F) and tend to collect on the surface of the fermenting beer. Because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.
====Lager====
| 16:58, 3 March 2004 |
All beers are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is [[malted]] [[barley]] which has been allowed to germinate and is then dried in a kiln and sometimes roasted. Depending on the amount of roasting, the "malted barley" will take on dark color and strongly influence the color and flavour of the beer.
The malt is ground into a coarse powder, known as '''grist''', which is mixed with heated water in a vat called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural enzymes within the malt break down much of the starch into sugars which play a vital part in the fermentation process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours. The mash is held at a temperature of 149 to 154 °F (65 °C). The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain.
After mashing the resulting liquid is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. At this point it is known as '''wort'''. The Wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or kettle where it is boiled with [[hops]] and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins and sterilize the wort. Hops add flavour, [[odor|aroma]] and [[bitter|bitterness]] to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled.
====Ale====
'''Ale''' yeast was used exclusively until the mid-late 1700s. Ale yeasts fement at warmer temperatures of 65 to 75 °F (18 to 24 °C) and tend to collect on the surface of the fermenting beer. Because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.
====Lager====
| 16:22, 12 March 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brewing&diff=7288089&oldid=7242730 |
The malt is ground into a coarse [[powder]], known as '''grist''', which is mixed with heated [[water]] in a [[vat]] called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural [[enzyme]]s within the malt break down much of the [[starch]] into [[sugar]]s which play a vital part in the [[fermentation]] process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various [[temperature]] rests activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the [[brewmaster]]. The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain.
A mash rest at 104 °F or 40 °C activates [[glucanase]], which breaks down gummy beta-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. A mash rest from 120°F to 130 °F (49°C to 55°C) activates various [[proteinase]]s, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]], or non-malted grains such as [[corn]] and [[rice]], which are widely used in North American beers. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 149 to 160 °F (65 to 71 °C) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range produces more low-order sugars which are more fermentable by the [[[yeast]]. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in [[alcohol]]. While a rest closer to the higher end of the range creates more higher-order sugars, which are less fermentable by the yeast so a fuller-bodied beer is the result, with less alcohol.
After mashing the resulting [[liquid]] is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. At this point it is known as '''wort'''. The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or [[kettle]] where it is boiled with [[hops]] and sometimes other ingredients such as [[herbs]] or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, [[precipitation|precipitate]] proteins, [[isomerization|isomerize]] [[hop]] [[resin]]s, concentrate and [[sterilization|sterilize]] the wort. Hops add flavour, [[odor|aroma]] and [[bitter|bitterness]] to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled.
| 13:06, 7 November 2004 |
The malt is ground into a coarse [[powder]], known as '''grist''', which is mixed with heated [[water]] in a [[vat]] called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural [[enzyme]]s within the malt break down much of the [[starch]] into [[sugar]]s which play a vital part in the [[fermentation]] process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various [[temperature]] rests activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the [[brewmaster]]. The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain.
A mash rest at 104 °F or 40 °C activates [[glucanase]], which breaks down gummy beta-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. A mash rest from 120°F to 130 °F (49°C to 55°C) activates various [[proteinase]]s, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]], or non-malted grains such as [[corn]] and [[rice]], which are widely used in North American beers. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 149 to 160 °F (65 to 71 °C) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range produces more low-order sugars which are more fermentable by the [[yeast]]. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in [[alcohol]]. While a rest closer to the higher end of the range creates more higher-order sugars, which are less fermentable by the yeast so a fuller-bodied beer is the result, with less alcohol.
After mashing the resulting [[liquid]] is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. At this point it is known as '''wort'''. The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or [[kettle]] where it is boiled with [[hops]] and sometimes other ingredients such as [[herbs]] or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, [[precipitation|precipitate]] proteins, [[isomerization|isomerize]] [[hop]] [[resin]]s, concentrate and [[sterilization|sterilize]] the wort. Hops add flavour, [[odor|aroma]] and [[bitter|bitterness]] to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled.
| 02:28, 9 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brewing&diff=14731128&oldid=14731097 | There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing.
===Ale (top fermenting yeasts)===
[[Ale]] yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures of 65 to 75 °F (18 to 24 °C) and tend to collect on the surface of the fermenting beer. Because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.
===Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)===
While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until [[Emil Hansen]] of the [[Carlsberg brewery]] in [[Denmark]] isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in [[Bavaria]] had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting Lager yeasts by storing or "Lagern" their beers in cold alpine [[cave]]s. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were stolen and brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work.
| 07:07, 5 June 2005 | There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing.
===Ale (top fermenting yeasts)===
[[Ale]] yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures between 15°C and 20°C (60°F to 68°F), and occasionally as high as 24°C (75°F). Pure ale yeasts form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, though many British yeasts contain yeast strains that settle to the bottom. Because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, though they benefit from additional storage of up to two months. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.
===Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)===
While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until [[Emil Hansen]] of the [[Carlsberg brewery]] in [[Denmark]] isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in [[Bavaria]] had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting Lager yeasts by storing or "Lagern" their beers in cold alpine [[cave]]s. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were stolen and brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work.
| 07:14, 5 June 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Benz&diff=54613649&oldid=54612506 |
==business or brand==
*[[Karl Benz | Benz]] the brand of [[automobile]]s, [[engine]]s, and [[truck]]s built by any of several companies founded by Karl Benz, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1924 to become Daimler-Benz (''see'' article for the names of the companies)
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1924 of the two companies named, (by another merger, in 2000, becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]])
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobiles]] and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1924 and a retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler
*[[Benz (group)]] were a London-based pop-RnB group of the mid-1990s, best known for Top 40 singles "Urban City Girl" and "Miss Parker"
| 23:21, 22 May 2006 |
==business or brand==
*[[Karl Benz | Benz]] the brand of [[automobile]]s, [[engine]]s, and [[truck]]s built by any of several companies founded by Karl Benz, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz (''see'' article for the names of the companies)
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 of the two companies named, (by another merger, in 2000, becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]])
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and a retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler
*[[Benz (group)]] were a London-based pop-RnB group of the mid-1990s, best known for Top 40 singles "Urban City Girl" and "Miss Parker"
| 23:29, 22 May 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Benz&diff=195358214&oldid=187743830 | *[[Karl Benz]], [[Germans|German]] automobile [[engineer]] and [[inventor]] of Benz, later known as [[Mercedes-Benz ]] (also Carl due to temporarily fashionable French spelling)
*[[Bertha Benz]] (''née'', Ringer), Karl Benz's wife, the first person to drive an [[automobile]] a long distance (over 106 km or 66 miles)
*[[Benz & Cie.]] the most important of several companies founded by Karl Benz in 1885, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 (becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]] in 1998 by another merger), and now known as [[Daimler AG]]
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler, and now known as Daimler AG
== Other references ==
| 18:56, 29 January 2008 | *[[Karl Benz]], [[Germans|German]] automobile [[engineer]] and [[inventor]] of Benz, later known as [[Mercedes-Benz ]] (also Carl due to temporarily fashionable French spelling)
*[[Bertha Benz]] (''née'', Ringer), Karl Benz's wife, the first person to drive an [[automobile]] a long distance (over 106 km or 66 miles)
*[[Benz & Cie.]] the most important of several companies founded by Karl Benz in 1885, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 (becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]] in 1998-2007 by another merger), and now known as [[Daimler AG]]
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler, and now known as Daimler AG
== Other references ==
| 17:47, 2 March 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Benz&diff=195358270&oldid=195358214 | *[[Karl Benz]], [[Germans|German]] automobile [[engineer]] and [[inventor]] of Benz, later known as [[Mercedes-Benz ]] (also Carl due to temporarily fashionable French spelling)
*[[Bertha Benz]] (''née'', Ringer), Karl Benz's wife, the first person to drive an [[automobile]] a long distance (over 106 km or 66 miles)
*[[Benz & Cie.]] the most important of several companies founded by Karl Benz in 1885, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 (becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]] in 1998-2007 by another merger), and now known as [[Daimler AG]]
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler, and now known as Daimler AG
== Other references ==
| 17:47, 2 March 2008 | *[[Karl Benz]], [[Germans|German]] automobile [[engineer]] and [[inventor]] of Benz, later known as [[Mercedes-Benz ]] (also Carl due to temporarily fashionable French spelling)
*[[Bertha Benz]] (''née'', Ringer), Karl Benz's wife, the first person to drive an [[automobile]] a long distance (over 106 km or 66 miles)
*[[Benz & Cie.]] the most important of several companies founded by Karl Benz in 1885, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 (becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]] in 1998-2007 by another merger), and now known as [[Daimler AG]] (2007+)
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler, and now known as Daimler AG
== Other references ==
| 17:47, 2 March 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Benz&diff=195358310&oldid=195358270 | *[[Karl Benz]], [[Germans|German]] automobile [[engineer]] and [[inventor]] of Benz, later known as [[Mercedes-Benz ]] (also Carl due to temporarily fashionable French spelling)
*[[Bertha Benz]] (''née'', Ringer), Karl Benz's wife, the first person to drive an [[automobile]] a long distance (over 106 km or 66 miles)
*[[Benz & Cie.]] the most important of several companies founded by Karl Benz in 1885, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 (becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]] in 1998-2007 by another merger), and now known as [[Daimler AG]] (2007+)
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler, and now known as Daimler AG
== Other references ==
| 17:47, 2 March 2008 | *[[Karl Benz]], [[Germans|German]] automobile [[engineer]] and [[inventor]] of Benz, later known as [[Mercedes-Benz ]] (also Carl due to temporarily fashionable French spelling)
*[[Bertha Benz]] (''née'', Ringer), Karl Benz's wife, the first person to drive an [[automobile]] a long distance (over 106 km or 66 miles)
*[[Benz & Cie.]] the most important of several companies founded by Karl Benz in 1885, sometimes along with partners and his sons, the last of which that merged in 1926 to become Daimler-Benz
*[[Daimler-Benz]], automobile manufacturer founded by merger in 1926 (becoming [[DaimlerChrysler]] in 1998-2007 by another merger), and now known as [[Daimler AG]] (2007-Present)
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], the brand of [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s produced by Daimler-Benz after 1926 and retained as a brand after the merger creating DaimlerChrysler, and now known as Daimler AG
== Other references ==
| 17:47, 2 March 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Benz&diff=227123131&oldid=225280543 | '''Benz''' may refer to:
== People ==
*[[Bertha Benz]] (1849-1872), German entrepreneur
*[[Karl Benz]] (1844-1929), German engineer & entrepreneur
*Maria Benz (1906-1946), German-born model & artistic-family member a.k.a. [[Nusch Éluard]]
*[[Walter Benz]] (born c. 1930), German mathematician <!-- Presumably http://www.genealogy.ams.org/id.php?id=21533 ; CAUTION, don't confuse with http://genealogy.impa.br/id.php?id=54637&fChrono=1 -->
| 21:26, 12 July 2008 | '''Benz''' may refer to:
== People ==
*[[Bertha Benz]] (1849-1944), German entrepreneur
*[[Karl Benz]] (1844-1929), German engineer & entrepreneur
*Maria Benz (1906-1946), German-born model & artistic-family member a.k.a. [[Nusch Éluard]]
*[[Walter Benz]] (born c. 1930), German mathematician <!-- Presumably http://www.genealogy.ams.org/id.php?id=21533 ; CAUTION, don't confuse with http://genealogy.impa.br/id.php?id=54637&fChrono=1 -->
| 02:12, 22 July 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Backward_compatibility&diff=6360669&oldid=6284828 |
* A [[computer program|program]] is backward compatible if it can share data with an earlier version of itself. For example, [[WordPerfect]] 6.0 can read WordPerfect 5.1 files, so it is backward compatible. It can be said that [[Perl]] is backward compatible with [[awk]], because Perl was (among other things) intended to replace awk, and can, with a converter, run awk programs.
* A [[library (computer programming)|library]] or [[system platform|platform]] is said to be backward compatible if programs that interfaced with the old version continue to work with the new version as well. For example, the [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
: We distinguish between ''binary compatibility'' and ''[[source-compatibility]]''. Binary compatibility means that programs can work correctly with the new version of this library without requiring [[compiler|recompilation]]. Source compatibility requries recompilation but no changes to the source code.
==See also==
| 18:36, 25 September 2004 |
* A [[computer program|program]] is backward compatible if it can share data with an earlier version of itself. For example, [[WordPerfect]] 6.0 can read WordPerfect 5.1 files, so it is backward compatible. It can be said that [[Perl]] is backward compatible with [[awk]], because Perl was (among other things) intended to replace awk, and can, with a converter, run awk programs.
* A [[library (computer science)|library]] or [[system platform|platform]] is said to be backward compatible if programs that interfaced with the old version continue to work with the new version as well. For example, the [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
: We distinguish between ''binary compatibility'' and ''[[source-compatibility]]''. Binary compatibility means that programs can work correctly with the new version of this library without requiring [[compiler|recompilation]]. Source compatibility requries recompilation but no changes to the source code.
==See also==
| 04:09, 2 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Backward_compatibility&diff=32202915&oldid=32200521 | ** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
** The [[Nintendo Revolution]] will be backward compatible with every [[Nintendo]] system. The [[Gamecube]] discs can go in the revolution, but older games ([[NES]], [[SNES]] and [[Nintendo 64]]) will be available through download.
*A piece of [[software]] is backward compatible if it can read or write data created by an older version.
** [[WordPerfect]] 6.0 can read WordPerfect 5.1 files
** It can be said that [[Perl]] is backward compatible with [[awk]], because Perl was (among other things) intended to replace awk, and can, with a converter, run awk programs.
==See also==
*[[Forward compatibility]]
| 05:00, 21 December 2005 | ** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
** The [[Nintendo Revolution]] will be backward compatible with every [[Nintendo]] system. The [[Gamecube]] discs can go in the revolution, but older games ([[NES]], [[SNES]] and [[Nintendo 64]]) will be available through download.
*Other examples of backwards compatible software
** Microsoft Word 2000 was backwards compatible with Word `97 because it could read and write files in Word `97 format, with the understanding that features unique to Word 2000 would not appear in Word `97.
==See also==
*[[Forward compatibility]]
| 05:28, 21 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Backward_compatibility&diff=36947640&oldid=35889979 | *A [[computer system]] is backward compatible if it is able to work with software or accessories designed for the system it is meant to replace.
** The [[Atari 7800]] is backward compatible with most [[Atari 2600]] games.
** The [[Game Boy Advance]] is backward compatible with previous [[Game Boy]] systems, meaning all [[Game Boy]] & [[Game Boy Color]] titles are playable on this system.
** The [[PlayStation 2]] is backward compatible with the original [[PlayStation]], meaning older games like ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' can be played on a PlayStation 2.
** The [[PlayStation 3]] is backward compatible with PlayStation 2 games.
** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
| 01:14, 20 January 2006 | *A [[computer system]] is backward compatible if it is able to work with software or accessories designed for the system it is meant to replace.
** The [[Atari 7800]] is backward compatible with most [[Atari 2600]] games.
** The [[Game Boy Advance]] is backward compatible with previous [[Game Boy]] systems, meaning all [[Game Boy]] & [[Game Boy Color]] titles are playable on this system.
** The [[PlayStation 2]] is backward compatible with the original [[PlayStation]].
* The [[Nintendo DS]] is backward compatible with [[Game Boy Advance]] games only.
** The [[PlayStation 3]] is backward compatible with PlayStation 2 games.
** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
| 14:51, 27 January 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Backward_compatibility&diff=50468304&oldid=49699432 | ** The [[PlayStation 3]] is said to be backward compatible with PlayStation 1 & 2 games.
** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
** The [[Nintendo Revolution]] will be backward compatible with most games from previous [[Nintendo]] systems. The [[GameCube]] discs can go in the Revolution, but older games ([[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] and [[Nintendo 64]]) will be available through download.
*Other examples of backward-compatible software
** [[Microsoft Office Word|Microsoft Word]] 2000 was backward compatible with Word '97 because it could read and write files in Word '97 format, with the understanding that features unique to Word 2000 would not appear in Word '97.
** By adding the proper external software, many consoles can become backwards compatible. This includes:
| 03:29, 23 April 2006 | ** The [[PlayStation 3]] is said to be backward compatible with PlayStation 1 & 2 games.
** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
** The [[Nintendo Wii]] will be backward compatible with most games from previous [[Nintendo]] systems. The [[GameCube]] discs can go in the Wii, but older games ([[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] and [[Nintendo 64]]) will be available through download.
*Other examples of backward-compatible software
** [[Microsoft Office Word|Microsoft Word]] 2000 was backward compatible with Word '97 because it could read and write files in Word '97 format, with the understanding that features unique to Word 2000 would not appear in Word '97.
** By adding the proper external software, many consoles can become backwards compatible. This includes:
| 19:45, 27 April 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Billy_Bob_Thornton&diff=204618&oldid=173695 | <b>Billy Bob Thornton</b> was born in [[1955]], in [[Hot Springs]], [[Arkansas]]. He's currently married to actress [[Angelina Jolie]], after a previous relationship with actress [[Laura Dern]] and several previous marriages.
He first came to semi-prominence as a cast member on the NBC sit-com "Hearts Afire" with [[John Ritter]] and [[Markie Post]]. He also had small roles in films like "Indecent Proprosal", "On Deadly Ground", and "Tombstone". In 1996, he wrote, directed, and starred in an independent film called "Sling Blade". "Sling Blade" garnered international acclaim, and made Thornton a star. He's also appeared in "Pushing Tin", "Armaggedon", "The Apostle", "Primary Colors", "A Simple Plan", and "Bandits".
| 18:45, 27 May 2002 | <b>Billy Bob Thornton</b> was born in [[1955]], in [[Hot Springs]], [[Arkansas]]. He has married several times and his most recent ex-wife is actress [[Angelina Jolie]].
He first came to semi-prominence as a cast member on the NBC sit-com "Hearts Afire" with [[John Ritter]] and [[Markie Post]]. He also had small roles in films like "Indecent Proprosal", "On Deadly Ground", and "Tombstone". In 1996, he wrote, directed, and starred in an independent film called "Sling Blade". "Sling Blade" garnered international acclaim, and made Thornton a star. He's also appeared in "Pushing Tin", "Armaggedon", "The Apostle", "Primary Colors", "A Simple Plan", and "Bandits". | 12:03, 25 August 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Billy_Bob_Thornton&diff=7350761&oldid=7143694 | * ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Primary Colors]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' (voice) ([[1997]])
* ''[[Sling Blade]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Tombstone]]'' ([[1993]])
| 01:17, 25 October 2004 | * ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Primary Colors]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' (voice) ([[1997]])
* ''[[U-Turn]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Sling Blade]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Tombstone]]'' ([[1993]])
| 02:29, 6 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=B_(programming_language)&diff=3369369&oldid=2030646 | [[ja:B言語]]
The best-known programming language named '''B''' is now obsolete, and is principally significant because it was a transitional phase between [[BCPL programming language|BCPL]] and [[C programming language|C]]. It was mostly the work of [[Ken Thompson]], and first appeared in [[1969]] or thereabouts.
| 19:24, 25 October 2003 | [[ja:B言語]][[fr:Langage B]]
The best-known programming language named '''B''' is now obsolete, and is principally significant because it was a transitional phase between [[BCPL programming language|BCPL]] and [[C programming language|C]]. It was mostly the work of [[Ken Thompson]], and first appeared in [[1969]] or thereabouts.
| 18:26, 23 December 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=B_(programming_language)&diff=18385764&oldid=15902741 | '''B''' was the name of a programming language developed at [[Bell Labs]]. It is almost extinct, as it was replaced by [[BCPL]] and [[C programming language|C]].
It was mostly the work of [[Ken Thompson]] with contributions from [[Dennis Ritchie]], and first appeared in [[1969]] or thereabouts.
It was essentially the BCPL system stripped of any component that Thompsons felt he could do without, in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time. The language also included some changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program).
| 12:32, 24 June 2005 | '''B''' was the name of a programming language developed at [[Bell Labs]]. It is almost extinct, as it was replaced by the [[C programming language|C]].
It was mostly the work of [[Ken Thompson]] with contributions from [[Dennis Ritchie]], and first appeared in [[1969]] or thereabouts.
It was essentially the BCPL system stripped of any component that Thompsons felt he could do without, in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time. The language also included some changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program).
| 09:10, 8 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=B_(programming_language)&diff=63804203&oldid=58693913 |
Early implementations were for the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-7]] and [[PDP-11]] minicomputers using early [[Unix]], and [[Honeywell]] 36 bit mainframes running the operating system, [[General Comprehensive Operating System|GCOS]]. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to [[threaded code]], then Ritchie wrote a compiler which produced machine code. In 1970 a [[PDP-11]] was acquired and threaded code was used for the port. The first version of [[yacc]] was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period.
The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support. Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables. During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into "New B" and then C, with the [[preprocessor]] being added in 1972 and early 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder. The effort was sufficiently complete that during the summer of 1973 the Unix kernel for the PDP-11 was rewritten in C. During the 1972-73 period there was a need to port to Honeywell 635 and IBM 360/370 machines, so Lesk wrote the "portable I/O package" which would become the C "standard I/O" routines.
B continued to see use as late as the 1990s on Honeywell mainframes, and on certain [[embedded systems]] for a variety of reasons, including limited hardware in the small systems; extensive libraries, tools, licensing cost issues; and simply being good enough for the job on others. The highly influential [[AberMUD]] was written in B.
| 02:32, 15 June 2006 |
Early implementations were for the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-7]] and [[PDP-11]] minicomputers using early [[Unix]], and [[Honeywell]] 36 bit mainframes running the operating system, [[General Comprehensive Operating System|GCOS]]. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to [[threaded code]], then Ritchie wrote a compiler which produced machine code. In 1970 a [[PDP-11]] was acquired and threaded code was used for the port. The first version of [[yacc]] was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period.
The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support. Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables. During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into "New B" and then C, with the [[preprocessor]] being added in 1972 and early 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder. The effort was sufficiently complete that during the summer of 1973 the Unix kernel for the PDP-11 was rewritten in C. During the 1972-73 period there was a need to port to Honeywell 635 and IBM 360/370 machines, so [[Mike Lesk]] wrote the "portable I/O package" which would become the C "standard I/O" routines.
B continued to see use as late as the 1990s on Honeywell mainframes, and on certain [[embedded systems]] for a variety of reasons, including limited hardware in the small systems; extensive libraries, tools, licensing cost issues; and simply being good enough for the job on others. The highly influential [[AberMUD]] was written in B.
| 16:26, 14 July 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Biotechnology&diff=35277934&oldid=35277893 |
I know biotechnology is widely regarded as a good thing. The definition is broad enough to include selective breeding. But at a certain point we have to leave room for its abysmal failures.
[[Africanized Bees]] | 15:45, 15 January 2006 |
I know biotechnology is widely regarded as a good thing. The definition is broad enough to include selective breeding. But at a certain point we have to leave room for its abysmal failures.
[[Africanized Bee]] | 15:46, 15 January 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Biotechnology&diff=49566442&oldid=49002011 | :''8000 BC Collecting of seeds for replanting. Evidence that Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans used selective breeding (artificial selection) practices to improve livestock.''
8000 BCE is pretty early--it's almost certainly inaccurate to have Romans in this list, as they came on the scene significantly later. ~ [[User:Dpr|Dpr]] 07:58, 3 September 2005 (UTC)
== Neutrality? ==
I know biotechnology is widely regarded as a good thing. The definition is broad enough to include selective breeding. But at a certain point we have to leave room for its abysmal failures.
| 13:51, 18 April 2006 | :''8000 BC Collecting of seeds for replanting. Evidence that Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans used selective breeding (artificial selection) practices to improve livestock.''
8000 BCE is pretty early--it's almost certainly inaccurate to have Romans in this list, as they came on the scene significantly later. ~ [[User:Dpr|Dpr]] 07:58, 3 September 2005 (UTC)
Someone ought to make the timeline convention consistent. AD (Anno Domini) preceeds years; if we want to keep using it, we need to convert (for example) 2003 AD to AD 2003. For legibility, I suggest switching BC to BCE and AD to CE instead; both can follow the year.
== Neutrality? ==
I know biotechnology is widely regarded as a good thing. The definition is broad enough to include selective breeding. But at a certain point we have to leave room for its abysmal failures.
| 07:58, 22 April 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Biotechnology&diff=91481977&oldid=90233580 |
== Timeline ==
Why has been deleted the Biotechnology timeline and the link to the expanded article? [[User:81.36.160.44|81.36.160.44]] 09:14, 23 September 2006 (UTC) | 15:55, 26 November 2006 |
== Timeline ==
Why has been deleted the Biotechnology timeline and the link to the expanded article? [[User:81.36.160.44|81.36.160.44]] 09:14, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
:The timeline was moved to the [[History of Biotechnology]] article. [[User:Derek.cashman|Dr. Cash]] 23:09, 1 December 2006 (UTC) | 23:09, 1 December 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Biotechnology&diff=141781301&oldid=141743913 |
== Herbicide Tolerance ==
This article doesn't mention that increase herbicide tolerance often leads to increased application of the herbicide to the crop and potentially increased residue in the end product. This is one of the reason GM crops have faced opposition. | 05:17, 1 July 2007 |
== Herbicide Tolerance ==
This article doesn't mention that increase herbicide tolerance often leads to increased application of the herbicide to the crop and potentially increased residue in the end product. This is one of the reason GM crops have faced opposition.
==== Better organization ===
I sure would like to see a better organized introduction. What I'm reading now feels like a biotech advertisement for something, not a biotech overview explaining what the field is about. Sorry to be so wishy-washy, but I came to this site to learn, and I came away feeling I did not. I feel I got an opinion on a subset of the field rather than a balanced overview of it. (The discussion above about the "color biotechnology" is a good example of what I'm feeling. What? Huh? This comes out of the blue.)
[[User:121.136.81.52|121.136.81.52]] 11:16, 1 July 2007 (UTC) | 11:16, 1 July 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Biotechnology&diff=158663877&oldid=156050023 | {{WikiProject Technology|class=B|nested=yes}}
{{Biology|class=B|importance=top|nested=yes}}
}}
{{WP1.0|class=Start|category=category|VA=yes|WPCD=yes}}
{{to do}}
==Nothing on Proteomics==
| 13:46, 6 September 2007 | {{WikiProject Technology|class=B|nested=yes}}
{{Biology|class=B|importance=top|nested=yes}}
}}
{{WP1.0|v0.7=pass|class=B|category=Natsci|VA=yes|WPCD=yes}}
{{to do}}
==Nothing on Proteomics==
| 05:55, 18 September 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bongo_(antelope)&diff=31059848&oldid=31059631 |
== History ==
In [[2004]] an unamed West [[African]] man was attacked when he tried to play a Bongo after hearing about an [[instrument]] with the same name as the antelope. He later died of his injuries, and [[United States]] [[media watchdog]] [[Jack Thompson]] attempted to sue the person who invented the Bongo instrument for inadvertently killing the man. This [[lawsuit]] was later dropped.
== External link ==
{{Commons|Tragelaphus eurycerus}}
| 16:03, 12 December 2005 |
== History ==
In [[2004]] an unamed West [[African]] man was brutally attacked when he tried to play a Bongo after hearing an [[American]] talk about [[bongo drums]] . He later died of his injuries, and [[United States]] [[media watchdog]] [[Jack Thompson]] attempted to sue the person who invented [[bongo drums]] for inadvertently killing the man. This [[lawsuit]] was later dropped.
== External link ==
{{Commons|Tragelaphus eurycerus}}
| 16:05, 12 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bongo_(antelope)&diff=43231187&oldid=40810162 | [[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[de:Bongo (Antilope)]]
[[fr:Tragelaphus eurycerus]]
[[lt:Bonga]]
[[nl:Bongo (antilope)]] | 03:58, 23 February 2006 | [[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[de:Bongo (Antilope)]]
[[fr:Bongo (animal)]]
[[lt:Bonga]]
[[nl:Bongo (antilope)]] | 02:05, 11 March 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brick&diff=14874603&oldid=14874537 | [[fr:Brique (matériau)]]
[[nl:Baksteen]]
[[ja:煉瓦]]
[[pl:Cegła]] | 00:55, 8 June 2005 | [[fr:Brique (matériau)]]
[[nl:Baksteen]]
[[ja:煉瓦]]
[[pl:Cegła]]
A brick can also be a very large poo or a not-so-good mobile phone.
For example:
"He was bricking it" and "You're phone is a brick" | 13:20, 8 June 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brick&diff=18892689&oldid=18520177 |
==Use==
[[Image:Dixie_Highway_Maitland.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A brick section of the old [[Dixie Highway]] East Florida Connector ([[Pre-1945 Florida State Road 3|SR 3]]) on the west side of [[Lake Lily]] in [[Maitland, Florida]]. It was built in [[1915]] or [[1916]], paved over at some point, and restored in [[1999]].]]
Bricks are typically for building. At one time, it was popular to pave roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of [[traffic calming]].
| 09:39, 10 July 2005 |
==Use==
[[Image:Dixie_Highway_Maitland.jpg|thumb|3000px|right|A brick section of the old [[Dixie Highway]] East Florida Connector ([[Pre-1945 Florida State Road 3|SR 3]]) on the west side of [[Lake Lily]] in [[Maitland, Florida]]. It was built in [[1915]] or [[1916]], paved over at some point, and restored in [[1999]].]]
Bricks are typically for building. At one time, it was popular to pave roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of [[traffic calming]].
| 14:59, 15 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Brick&diff=18892754&oldid=18892689 |
==Use==
[[Image:Dixie_Highway_Maitland.jpg|thumb|3000px|right|A brick section of the old [[Dixie Highway]] East Florida Connector ([[Pre-1945 Florida State Road 3|SR 3]]) on the west side of [[Lake Lily]] in [[Maitland, Florida]]. It was built in [[1915]] or [[1916]], paved over at some point, and restored in [[1999]].]]
Bricks are typically for building. At one time, it was popular to pave roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of [[traffic calming]].
| 14:59, 15 July 2005 |
==Use==
[[Image:Dixie_Highway_Maitland.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A brick section of the old [[Dixie Highway]] East Florida Connector ([[Pre-1945 Florida State Road 3|SR 3]]) on the west side of [[Lake Lily]] in [[Maitland, Florida]]. It was built in [[1915]] or [[1916]], paved over at some point, and restored in [[1999]].]]
Bricks are typically for building. At one time, it was popular to pave roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of [[traffic calming]].
| 15:00, 15 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bill_Haley&diff=1013263&oldid=658928 | '''Bill Haley''' (born [[July 6]], [[1925]]) is a [[rock and roll]] musician.
He was born in [[Detroit, Michigan]] and was raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. After making a number of unsuccessful [[country music]] singles in the [[1940s]], whilst working as a touring musician and later a DJ. In [[1951]] he and his band, ''The Saddlemen'', changed styles, recording cover versions of [[Jackie Brenston]]'s ''"Rocket 88"'' and ''"Rock this Joint"''. The relative success of the latter of these convinced Haley that he could be a successful rock and roller. In [[1952]] ''The Saddlemen'' became [[Bill Haley and the Comets]], who were important in launching the music to a wider (white) audience. | 06:32, 11 February 2003 | '''Bill Haley''' ([[July 6]], [[1925]] - [[February 9]], [[1981]]) was a [[rock and roll]] musician.
He was born in [[Detroit, Michigan]] and was raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. After making a number of unsuccessful [[country music]] singles in the [[1940s]], whilst working as a touring musician and later a DJ. In [[1951]] he and his band, ''The Saddlemen'', changed styles, recording cover versions of [[Jackie Brenston]]'s ''"Rocket 88"'' and ''"Rock this Joint"''. The relative success of the latter of these convinced Haley that he could be a successful rock and roller. In [[1952]] ''The Saddlemen'' became [[Bill Haley and the Comets]], who were important in launching the music to a wider (white) audience. | 06:33, 11 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bill_Haley&diff=6639202&oldid=6639129 | '''Bill Haley''' ([[July 6]], [[1925]] - [[February 9]], [[1981]]) was a [[rock and roll]] musician.
He was born in [[Detroit, Michigan]] and was raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. In 1946, Haley joined his first professional group, a country band called the Down Homers, after which he set out on his own. He made a number of unsuccessful [[country music]] singles in the [[1940s]], for several labels, including [[Cowboy Records]] [[1948]]-[[1949]] whilst working as a touring musician and later a DJ. In [[1951]] he and his band, '''The Saddlemen''', changed styles, recording [[cover version]]s of [[Jackie Brenston]]'s "[[Rocket 88]]" and "Rock this Joint". The relative success of the latter of these convinced Haley that he could be a successful rock and roller. In [[1952]] The Saddlemen became [[Bill Haley & His Comets]], and in 1953 Haley's recording of his original composition, "Crazy Man Crazy" became the first rock and roll song to hit the American charts.
In 1953, a song entitled [[Rock Around the Clock]] was written for Haley, but he was unable to record it until April 12, 1954. Initially, it was unsuccessful, but Haley soon scored a major worldwide hit with a cover version of Big Joe Turner's "Shake, Rattle and Roll" which went on to sell a million copies. Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as "Rock and Roll" to a wider (white) audience after years of it being considered an underground movement. When "Rock Around the Clock" appeared on the soundtrack of the 1955 film [[Blackboard Jungle]], it launched a musical revolution and opened the doors for the likes of [[Elvis Presley]]. Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as "See You Later Alligator" and he starred in the first rock and roll musical movies. His star was soon surpassed in the USA by the younger, sexier Elvis, but Haley continued to be a major star in Latin America and in Europe for the rest of his career. He made his final performances in [[South Africa]] in 1980. He was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1986.
| 02:59, 17 October 2004 | '''Bill Haley''' ([[July 6]], [[1925]] - [[February 9]], [[1981]]) was a [[rock and roll]] musician.
He was born in [[Highland Park, Michigan]] and was raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. In 1946, Haley joined his first professional group, a country band called the Down Homers, after which he set out on his own. He made a number of unsuccessful [[country music]] singles in the [[1940s]], for several labels, including [[Cowboy Records]] [[1948]]-[[1949]] whilst working as a touring musician and later a DJ. In [[1951]] he and his band, '''The Saddlemen''', changed styles, recording [[cover version]]s of [[Jackie Brenston]]'s "[[Rocket 88]]" and "Rock this Joint". The relative success of the latter of these convinced Haley that he could be a successful rock and roller. In [[1952]] The Saddlemen became [[Bill Haley & His Comets]], and in 1953 Haley's recording of his original composition, "Crazy Man Crazy" became the first rock and roll song to hit the American charts.
In 1953, a song entitled [[Rock Around the Clock]] was written for Haley, but he was unable to record it until April 12, 1954. Initially, it was unsuccessful, but Haley soon scored a major worldwide hit with a cover version of Big Joe Turner's "Shake, Rattle and Roll" which went on to sell a million copies. Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as "Rock and Roll" to a wider (white) audience after years of it being considered an underground movement. When "Rock Around the Clock" appeared on the soundtrack of the 1955 film [[Blackboard Jungle]], it launched a musical revolution and opened the doors for the likes of [[Elvis Presley]]. Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as "See You Later Alligator" and he starred in the first rock and roll musical movies. His star was soon surpassed in the USA by the younger, sexier Elvis, but Haley continued to be a major star in Latin America and in Europe for the rest of his career. He made his final performances in [[South Africa]] in 1980. He was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1986.
| 02:59, 17 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bill_Haley&diff=38498695&oldid=37752948 |
==Biographies==
In 1980, Haley began work on an autobiography entitled ''The Life and Times of Bill Haley'' but died after completing only 100 pages. The work is registered with the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] and has yet to be released to the public.
In 1982, [[John Swenson]] wrote ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' (published in the [[UK]] under the title, ''Bill Haley''), which is controversial among Haley fans for alleged inaccuracies.
| 23:34, 1 February 2006 |
==Biographies==
In 1981, Haley began work on an autobiography entitled ''The Life and Times of Bill Haley'' but died after completing only 100 pages. The work is registered with the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] and has yet to be released to the public.
In 1982, [[John Swenson]] wrote ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' (published in the [[UK]] under the title, ''Bill Haley''), which is controversial among Haley fans for alleged inaccuracies.
| 19:33, 6 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bill_Haley&diff=39773943&oldid=39359320 |
Haley was born '''William John Clifton Haley''' (some sources append "Junior" to his name, but his eldest son states that this is erroneous) in [[Highland Park (Detroit), Michigan]] and was raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. Many sources (almost universally predating 1981) state that Haley was born in [[1927]], which is due to Haley knocking two years off his age for publicity purposes in the 1950s. A few recent sources erroneously give a birth year of [[1924]].
In [[1946]], Haley joined his first professional group, a [[western swing]] band called The [[Down Homers]] whose boss was Shorty Cook, after which he set out on his own. He made a number of unsuccessful country music [[Single (music)|single]]s in the [[1940s]] for several labels, including [[Cowboy Records]] [[1948]]-[[1949]] while working as a touring musician and later a radio [[DJ]] at WPWA's. (Many of Haley's early recordings would not be released until after his death.) In 1950, he formed is own group, '''The Saddlemen''' and in [[1951]] began to change musical styles, recording [[cover version]]s of "[[Rocket "88"]]" (previously recorded by [[Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats ]] which was released by Chess in Chicago the same year, Illinois featuring [[Ike Turner]] on lead guitar and "Rock this Joint", previously recorded by several bands including [[Jimmy Preston and His Prestonians]]. The relative success of the latter of these convinced Haley that his new and as-yet unnamed hybrid of country and [[rhythm and blues]] could be a commercial success. There's something goin' on ("snake in the grass"): Bill haley is building a music based on western swing, hillbilly and tex-mex which is called at that time "Cow-Boy-Jive".
==Bill Haley & His Comets==
| 17:15, 12 February 2006 |
Haley was born '''William John Clifton Haley''' (some sources append "Junior" to his name, but his eldest son states that this is erroneous) in [[Highland Park (Detroit), Michigan]] and was raised in [[Pennsylvania]]. Many sources (almost universally predating 1981) state that Haley was born in [[1927]], which is due to Haley knocking two years off his age for publicity purposes in the 1950s. A few recent sources erroneously give a birth year of [[1924]].
In [[1946]], Haley joined his first professional group, a [[western swing]] band called The [[Down Homers]] whose boss was Shorty Cook, after which he set out on his own. He made a number of unsuccessful country music [[Single (music)|single]]s in the [[1940s]] for several labels, including [[Cowboy Records]] [[1948]]-[[1949]] while working as a touring musician and later a radio [[DJ]] at WPWA's. (Many of Haley's early recordings would not be released until after his death.) In 1950, he formed is own group, '''The Saddlemen''' and in [[1951]] began to change musical styles, recording [[cover version]]s of "[[Rocket "88"]]" (previously recorded by [[Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats ]] which was released by Chess in Chicago the same year, Illinois featuring [[Ike Turner]] on lead guitar and "Rock this Joint", previously recorded by several bands including [[Jimmy Preston and His Prestonians]]. The relative success of the latter of these convinced Haley that his new and as-yet unnamed hybrid of country and [[rhythm and blues]] could be a commercial success. There's something goin' on ("snake in the grass"): Bill haley is building a music based on western swing, hillbilly, jive, bop, dixieland, jazz, rhythm'n'blues and tex-mex which is called at that time "Cow-Boy-Jive".
==Bill Haley & His Comets==
| 20:06, 15 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bill_Haley&diff=41758063&oldid=41756240 | ==Asteroid==
:''Main article - [[79896 Billhaley]]''
In [[February]] [[2006]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] announced the naming of [[asteroid]] [[79896 Billhaley]] to mark the 25th anniversary of Bill Haley's death in February 1981.
==Bill Haley in the US and UK charts==
* Billboard or Cash Box charts: "the best position".
| 14:50, 1 March 2006 | ==Asteroid==
:''Main article - [[79896 Billhaley]]''
In [[February]] [[2006]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] announced the naming of [[asteroid]] [[79896 Billhaley]] to mark the 25th anniversary of Bill Haley's death.
==Bill Haley in the US and UK charts==
* Billboard or Cash Box charts: "the best position".
| 15:06, 1 March 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bluescreen&diff=923617&oldid=923499 | '''Bluescreen''' is the film technique of shooting foreground action against a blue (or sometimes green, in which case the term is 'greenscreen') background, which is then replaced by a separately shot 'background plate' scene by either [[optical effects]] or [[digital compositing]].
Bluescreen is typically used for weather forecasts. The presenter appears to be standing in front of a large map. In fact, there is just a blue background behind them.
The television technique of [[chroma keying]] was originally developed as an inferior imitation of bluescreen. With modern [[digital compositing]] techniques, the two techniques have converged.
'''Bluescreen''' can also refer to an error message of [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems, generally called the [[blue screen of death]]. | 21:26, 27 April 2003 | '''Bluescreen''' is the film technique of shooting foreground action against a blue (or sometimes green, in which case the term is 'greenscreen', orange or even grey) background, which is then replaced by a separately shot 'background plate' scene by either [[optical effects]] or [[digital compositing]].
Bluescreen is typically used for weather forecasts. The presenter appears to be standing in front of a large map. In fact, there is just a blue background behind them.
The television technique of [[chroma keying]] was originally developed as an inferior imitation of bluescreen. With modern [[digital compositing]] techniques, the two techniques have converged.
The colour used in the background depends on the subject. Blue is normally used for people because human skin has very little blue colour to it. The same is also true for green, so the directory can choose which colour to use depending on makeup and costume. Orange screens are often used with model photography where the model contains both blue and green components. Grey screens are beginning to be used in television for digital compositing. The grey colour is a very precise shade that a computer can pick up, allowing the subject to wear any costume or makeup.
'''Bluescreen''' can also refer to an error message of [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems, generally called the [[blue screen of death]]. | 14:45, 15 May 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Boudica&diff=43307381&oldid=37189861 | -Royal Russell, 9:31 PM, 9/28/2005
That "bump sticking out" is in fact East Anglia, comprising the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Norwich is the main city in Norfolk.....
[[User:192.30.202.16|192.30.202.16]] 16:19, 26 November 2005 (UTC)Vivien Shiers | 08:16, 29 January 2006 | -Royal Russell, 9:31 PM, 9/28/2005
That "bump sticking out" is in fact East Anglia, comprising the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Norwich is the main city in Norfolk.....
[[User:192.30.202.16|192.30.202.16]] 16:19, 26 November 2005 (UTC)Vivien Shiers
== Roman forces outnumbered, or Boudica's forces? ==
In the second paragraph, this caught my attention:
"Roman emperor Nero briefly considered withdrawing Roman forces from the island, but ultimately Boudica was defeated at the Battle of Watling Street '''by the heavily outnumbered forces''' of Roman provincial governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus." ('''bold''' added for emphasis)
Is this correct? Were the Roman forces outnumbered, or were Boudica's forces outnumbered? I didn't edit it, since I don't the facts, but it makes more sense if Boudica's forces were outnumbered, not the Roman forces. Can someone look into this and make the necessary changes? | 16:59, 11 March 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Boudica&diff=115360112&oldid=107335049 | Is this correct? Were the Roman forces outnumbered, or were Boudica's forces outnumbered? I didn't edit it, since I don't know the facts, but it makes more sense if Boudica's forces were outnumbered, not the Roman forces. Can someone look into this and make the necessary changes?[[User:70.17.38.39|70.17.38.39]] 17:00, 11 March 2006 (UTC)
According to the History Channel special airing 3/26/06 - Boudica's forces outnumbered the Roman forces. However, her forces were more 'savage' and not highly trained nor protected like the Roman forces, hence the loss.
=="Early life" section==
| 16:01, 11 February 2007 | Is this correct? Were the Roman forces outnumbered, or were Boudica's forces outnumbered? I didn't edit it, since I don't know the facts, but it makes more sense if Boudica's forces were outnumbered, not the Roman forces. Can someone look into this and make the necessary changes?[[User:70.17.38.39|70.17.38.39]] 17:00, 11 March 2006 (UTC)
According to the History Channel special airing 3/26/06 - Boudica's forces outnumbered the Roman forces. However, her forces were more 'savage' and not highly trained nor protected like the Roman forces, hence the loss.
Boudiccas forces outnumbered the Romans by about 20 to 1.--[[User:Andy mci|Andy mci]] 17:49, 15 March 2007 (UTC)
=="Early life" section==
| 17:49, 15 March 2007 | 1 |
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| 01:40, 21 September 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blitzkrieg&diff=671706&oldid=671423 | [[History]] -- [[Military history]]
'''Blitzkrieg''': from the [[German language|German]] "lightning war", describing a military tactic used by the German army at the begining of [[World War II]], where rapid and unrestricted movement of troops allows no time for the opposition to set up a stable defense.
''Blitzkrieg'' was a fast and open style of warfare, heavily reliant on new technologies. First aircraft were used as long-range artillery to destroy enemy strongholds, attack troop concentrations, and spread panic. Then combined arms forces of tanks and motorised infantry coordinated by two-way radio destroyed tactical targets before moving on, deep into enemy territory. A key difference to previous tactical models was the devolution of command. Fairly junior officers in the field were encouraged to use their own initiative, rather than rely on a centralised command structure.
| 08:41, 14 February 2003 | [[History]] -- [[Military history]]
'''Blitzkrieg''': from the [[German language|German]] "lightning war", describing a military tactic used by the German army at the begining of [[World War II]], where rapid and unrestricted movement of troops allows no time for the opposition to set up a stable defense. Current United States military planning includes blitzkrieg as the strategy of [[shock and awe]]. [http://www.dodccrp.org/] (Look under publications for html version)
''Blitzkrieg'' was a fast and open style of warfare, heavily reliant on new technologies. First aircraft were used as long-range artillery to destroy enemy strongholds, attack troop concentrations, and spread panic. Then combined arms forces of tanks and motorised infantry coordinated by two-way radio destroyed tactical targets before moving on, deep into enemy territory. A key difference to previous tactical models was the devolution of command. Fairly junior officers in the field were encouraged to use their own initiative, rather than rely on a centralised command structure.
| 19:27, 15 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blitzkrieg&diff=684691&oldid=684687 |
The key to Blitzkrieg was to organize the troops into mobile forces with excellent communications and command, able to keep the momentum up while the battle unfolded. The basic concept was to concentrate all available forces at a single spot in front of the enemy lines, and then break a hole in it with artillery and infantry, easy enough to do even in the Great War. Once the hole was opened, tanks could rush through and strike hundreds of miles to the rear. This allowed the attacking force to fight against lightly armed [[logistics]] units, starving the enemy of information and supplies. In this way even a small force could destroy a much larger one through confusion, avoiding direct combat as much as possible.
Although trumpeted as a truly modern style of war, Blitzkrieg's theoretical basis was almost as old as war itself. Similar strategies were employed by [[Alexander the Great]] in classical times; [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] was a master of them; and they were used on a smaller scale by both sides in the closing stages of World War I. Germany itself had a long tradition of using deep penetration tactics: in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] the Prussian army, knowing that the French could field larger forces, devised a war plan that relied on speed. If, on declaration of war, they could mobilise, invade and seize Paris fast enough, then they would be victorious before the vast French army could form and retaliate. This tactic was developed into the [[Schlieffen Plan]], used in part at the start of [[World War I]]. However, this was ineffective due to the advent of [[trench warfare]].
In the early part of the Second World War, Blitzkrieg was put into practice only by the Germans. By the late 1930s they had re-organized their Army to include a number of elite ''Panzergruppen'', divisions consisting almost entirely of tanks, infantry in half-track [[APC]] and trucks to supply them. To this they had added a new weapon, the [[dive bomber]] (specifically the [[Junkers Ju 87]]) to replace artillery and allow for "breakthrough" attacks even far behind the lines.
| 12:08, 20 February 2003 |
The key to Blitzkrieg was to organize the troops into mobile forces with excellent communications and command, able to keep the momentum up while the battle unfolded. The basic concept was to concentrate all available forces at a single spot in front of the enemy lines, and then break a hole in it with artillery and infantry, easy enough to do even in the Great War. Once the hole was opened, tanks could rush through and strike hundreds of miles to the rear. This allowed the attacking force to fight against lightly armed [[logistics]] units, starving the enemy of information and supplies. In this way even a small force could destroy a much larger one through confusion, avoiding direct combat as much as possible.
Although trumpeted as a truly modern style of war, Blitzkrieg's theoretical basis was almost as old as war itself. Similar strategies were employed by [[Alexander the Great]] in classical times; [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] was a master of them; and they were used on a smaller scale by both sides in the closing stages of World War I. Germany itself had a long tradition of using deep penetration tactics: in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] the Prussian army, knowing that the French could field larger forces, devised a war plan that relied on speed. If, on declaration of war, they could mobilise, invade and seize Paris fast enough, then they would be victorious before the vast French army could form and retaliate. This tactic was used to devastating effect in 1871, and was developed into the [[Schlieffen Plan]], which was used at the start of [[World War I]] and very nearly succeeded. (See [[trench warfare]] and [[Battle of the Marne]].)
Although trumpeted as a truly modern style of war, Blitzkrieg's theoretical basis was almost as old as war itself. Similar strategies were employed by [[Alexander the Great]] in classical times; [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] was a master of them; and they were used on a smaller scale by both sides in the closing stages of World War I. Germany itself had a long tradition of using deep penetration tactics: in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] the Prussian army, knowing that the French could field larger forces, devised a war plan that relied on speed. If, on declaration of war, they could mobilise, invade and seize Paris fast enough, then they would be victorious before the vast French army could form and retaliate. This tactic was developed into the [[Schlieffen Plan]], used in part at the start of [[World War I]]. However, this was ineffective due to the advent of [[trench warfare]].
In the early part of the Second World War, Blitzkrieg was put into practice only by the Germans. By the late 1930s they had re-organized their Army to include a number of elite ''Panzergruppen'', divisions consisting almost entirely of tanks, infantry in half-track [[APC]] and trucks to supply them. To this they had added a new weapon, the [[dive bomber]] (specifically the [[Junkers Ju 87]]) to replace artillery and allow for "breakthrough" attacks even far behind the lines.
| 12:31, 20 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blitzkrieg&diff=829815&oldid=829808 | In [[military history]], '''blitzkrieg''', from the [[German language|German]] '''lightning war''', describes a military tactic used by the German army at the begining of [[World War II]], where rapid and unrestricted movement of troops allows no time for the opposition to set up a stable defense.
Blitzkrieg was a fast and open style of [[warfare]], heavily reliant on new technologies. First [[aircraft]] were used as long-range artillery to destroy enemy strongholds, attack troop concentrations, and spread [[panic]]. Then [[combined arms]] forces of [[tank]]s and [[motorised infantry]] coordinated by [[two-way radio]] destroyed tactical targets before moving on, deep into enemy territory. A key difference to previous tactical models was the [[devolution]] of command. Fairly junior officers in the field were encouraged to use their own initiative, rather than rely on a centralised command structure.
| 00:56, 3 April 2003 | In [[military history]], '''Blitzkrieg''', from the [[German language|German]] '''lightning war''', describes a military tactic used by the German army at the begining of [[World War II]], where rapid and unrestricted movement of troops allows no time for the opposition to set up a stable defense.
In [[2003]], the term '''effects-based warfare''' has also been used to describe Blitzkrieg.
Blitzkrieg was a fast and open style of [[warfare]], heavily reliant on new technologies. First [[aircraft]] were used as long-range artillery to destroy enemy strongholds, attack troop concentrations, and spread [[panic]]. Then [[combined arms]] forces of [[tank]]s and [[motorised infantry]] coordinated by [[two-way radio]] destroyed tactical targets before moving on, deep into enemy territory. A key difference to previous tactical models was the [[devolution]] of command. Fairly junior officers in the field were encouraged to use their own initiative, rather than rely on a centralised command structure.
| 16:58, 14 April 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blitzkrieg&diff=3350529&oldid=3334207 | Blitzkrieg is not without its disadvantages; there is a real danger of the attacking force overextending its [[supply line]]s, and the strategy as a whole can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm. In addition, the defending army can maintain strong points which the attacking army must either eliminate thereby disrupting its momentum or bypass which creates the possiblity that the defender will use them to encircle the attacker. Once the attack loses momentum,
the war becomes one of [[attrition]] in which the mobility and surprise involved with blitzkrieg are no longer useful.
The limits of blitzkrieg were seen in [[Operation Barbarossa]] in [[1942]].
Although the [[German]] attack took huge areas of [[Russia]], the overall strategic effect was more limited and the [[Red Army]] was able to regroup far to the rear, and eventually defeat the German forces, for the first time in the [[Battle of Moscow]]. In the following summer of 1942, when Germany launched another Blitzkrieg offensive in southern Russia against [[Stalingrad]] and the [[Caucasus]], the Soviets let the Germans conquer vast territories in the steppes, just to counter-attack them again when they would be exhausted, their frontlines and supply lines overstretched. The last Blitzkrieg offensive in the war against the Soviet Union, now on a more modest scale, was carried out by the Germans during the [[Battle of Kursk]] in [[1943]], which resulted in a German failure. From then on, the Germans had neither the element of surprise, nor sufficient manpower or resources to launch another successful Blitzkrieg, let alone to wear the Soviet Union down in attrition warfare. The last major Blitzkrieg-style offensive was launched against the Western Allies in the Ardennes ([[Battle of the Bulge]]) in 1944. Again, the Germans lacked the resources to sustain their initial territorial gains.
==Sucessors==
| 17:03, 24 April 2004 | Blitzkrieg is not without its disadvantages; there is a real danger of the attacking force overextending its [[supply line]]s, and the strategy as a whole can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm. In addition, the defending army can maintain strong points which the attacking army must either eliminate thereby disrupting its momentum or bypass which creates the possiblity that the defender will use them to encircle the attacker. Once the attack loses momentum,
the war becomes one of [[attrition]] in which the mobility and surprise involved with blitzkrieg are no longer useful.
The limits of blitzkrieg were seen in [[Operation Barbarossa]] in [[1941]].
Although the [[German]] attack took huge areas of [[Russia]], the overall strategic effect was more limited and the [[Red Army]] was able to regroup far to the rear, and eventually defeat the German forces, for the first time in the [[Battle of Moscow]]. In the following summer of 1942, when Germany launched another Blitzkrieg offensive in southern Russia against [[Stalingrad]] and the [[Caucasus]], the Soviets let the Germans conquer vast territories in the steppes, just to counter-attack them again when they would be exhausted, their frontlines and supply lines overstretched. The last Blitzkrieg offensive in the war against the Soviet Union, now on a more modest scale, was carried out by the Germans during the [[Battle of Kursk]] in [[1943]], which resulted in a German failure. From then on, the Germans had neither the element of surprise, nor sufficient manpower or resources to launch another successful Blitzkrieg, let alone to wear the Soviet Union down in attrition warfare. The last major Blitzkrieg-style offensive was launched against the Western Allies in the Ardennes ([[Battle of the Bulge]]) in 1944. Again, the Germans lacked the resources to sustain their initial territorial gains.
==Sucessors==
| 14:59, 25 April 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Binomial_theorem&diff=642367&oldid=641954 | The '''binomial theorem''' is an important formula about the expansion of powers of sums. It simplest version reads
:<math>(x+y)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n{n \choose k}x^ky^{n-k}</math>(1)
whenever ''n'' is any positive integer (but see below) and the numbers
:<math>{n \choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}</math>
are the [[binomial coefficient|binomial coefficients]]. This formula, and the [[Pascal's triangle|triangular arrangement]] of the binomial coefficients, are often attributed to [[Blaise Pascal]] who described them in the [[17th century]]. It was however known long before to Chinese mathematicians.
[[Isaac Newton]] generalized the formula to non-integral and negative powers by considering an [[infinite series]]:
:<math>(x+y)^r=\sum_{k=0}^\infty C(r, k) x^ky^{r-k}</math> (2)
Here, ''r'' can be any real or complex number, and the sum will converge whenever the real or complex numbers ''x'' and ''y'' are "close together" in the sense that the [[absolute value]] |''x/y''| is less than one.
The [[geometric series]] is a special case of (2) where we chose ''y'' = 1 and ''r'' = -1. | 07:58, 4 February 2003 | The '''binomial theorem''' is an important formula about the expansion of powers of sums. Its simplest version reads
:<math>(x+y)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n{n \choose k}x^ky^{n-k}\quad\quad(1)</math>
whenever ''n'' is any positive integer and the numbers
:<math>{n \choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}</math>
are the [[binomial coefficient|binomial coefficients]]. This formula, and the [[Pascal's triangle|triangular arrangement]] of the binomial coefficients, are often attributed to [[Blaise Pascal]] who described them in the [[17th century]]. It was however known long before to Chinese mathematicians.
[[Isaac Newton]] generalized the formula to non-integral and negative powers by considering an [[infinite series]]:
:<math>(x+y)^r=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r \choose k} x^ky^{r-k}\quad\quad(2)</math>
Here, ''r'' can be any real or complex number, and the sum will converge whenever the real or complex numbers ''x'' and ''y'' are "close together" in the sense that the [[absolute value]] |''x/y''| is less than one. The definition of binomial coefficients for non-integral arguments is given in the [[binomial coefficient]] article.
The [[geometric series]] is a special case of (2) where we chose ''y'' = 1 and ''r'' = -1.
Formula (2) is also valid for elements ''x'' and ''y'' of a [[Banach algebra]] as long as ''xy'' = ''yx'', ''y'' is invertible and ||''x/y''|| < 1. | 18:56, 4 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Binomial_theorem&diff=12009275&oldid=12006816 |
== See also ==
* [[Pascal's triangle]]
* [[multinomial theorem]]
* [[Binomial (disambig)]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Theorems]]
| 07:44, 7 April 2005 |
== See also ==
* [[binomial (disambiguation)]]
* [[multinomial theorem]]
* [[Pascal's triangle]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Theorems]]
| 19:37, 7 April 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Binomial_theorem&diff=12267280&oldid=12213095 | [[ko:이항정리]]
[[nl:Binomium van Newton]]
[[ja:二項定理]]
[[sv:Binomialsatsen]] | 00:11, 11 April 2005 | [[ko:이항정리]]
[[nl:Binomium van Newton]]
[[ja:二項定理]]
[[sv:Binomialsatsen]]
[[zh:二项式定理]] | 17:02, 12 April 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Binomial_theorem&diff=26006621&oldid=25305538 |
A particularly handy but non-obvious form holds for the reciprocal power:
:<math>\frac{1}{(1-x)^r}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose r-1} x^k.</math>
For a more extensive account of Newton's generalized binomial theorem, see [[binomial series]].
| 21:26, 11 October 2005 |
A particularly handy but non-obvious form holds for the reciprocal power:
:<math>\frac{1}{(1-x)^r}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose r-1} x^k \equiv \sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose k} x^k.</math>
For a more extensive account of Newton's generalized binomial theorem, see [[binomial series]].
| 13:46, 20 October 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Binomial_theorem&diff=26043398&oldid=26043307 |
:<math>{r \choose k}=\frac{(-1)^k}{k!}(-r)_k,</math>
which is important when one is working with infinite series and would like to represent them in terms of [[generalized hypergeometric function]]s. The notation <math>(\cdot)_k</math> represents the [[Pochhammer symbol]]. This form is vital in applied mathematics, for example, when evaluating the formulas that model the statistical properties of the phase-front curvature of a light wave as it propagates through optical atmospheric turbulence.
A particularly handy but non-obvious form holds for the reciprocal power:
:<math>\frac{1}{(1-x)^r}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose k} x^k \equiv \sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose r-1} x^k.</math>
| 21:59, 20 October 2005 |
:<math>{r \choose k}=\frac{(-1)^k}{k!}(-r)_k,</math>
which is important when one is working with infinite series and would like to represent them in terms of [[generalized hypergeometric function]]s. The notation <math>(\cdot)_k</math> is the [[Pochhammer symbol]]. This form is vital in applied mathematics, for example, when evaluating the formulas that model the statistical properties of the phase-front curvature of a light wave as it propagates through optical atmospheric turbulence.
A particularly handy but non-obvious form holds for the reciprocal power:
:<math>\frac{1}{(1-x)^r}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose k} x^k \equiv \sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose r-1} x^k.</math>
| 22:00, 20 October 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Berkeley_DB&diff=49937440&oldid=49752967 | '''Berkeley DB''' (DB) is a high-performance, embedded [[database]] library with bindings in [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]] and many other programming languages. DB stores arbitrary key/data pairs, and supports multiple data items for a single key. DB can support thousands of simultaneous threads of control manipulating databases as large as 256 terabytes, on a wide variety of systems including most [[UNIX-like]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] systems as well as [[real-time operating system]]s.
Berkeley DB is developed by [[Sleepycat Software]] (owned by [[Oracle Corporation]]). It is available with source code under a [[free software license]]. Developers who want to redistribute DB with proprietary applications must license it from Sleepycat.
Berkeley DB includes compatibility interfaces for some historic UNIX database libraries: [[dbm]], [[ndbm]] and [[hsearch]].
| 14:01, 23 April 2006 | '''Berkeley DB''' (DB) is a high-performance, embedded [[database]] library with bindings in [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]] and many other programming languages. DB stores arbitrary key/data pairs, and supports multiple data items for a single key. DB can support thousands of simultaneous threads of control manipulating databases as large as 256 terabytes, on a wide variety of systems including most [[UNIX-like]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] systems as well as [[real-time operating system]]s.
Berkeley DB is developed by [[Sleepycat Software]] (recently acquired by [[Oracle Corporation]]). It is available with source code under a [[free software license]]. Developers who want to redistribute DB with proprietary applications must license it from Sleepycat.
Berkeley DB includes compatibility interfaces for some historic UNIX database libraries: [[dbm]], [[ndbm]] and [[hsearch]].
| 16:27, 24 April 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bayonne&diff=14945760&oldid=14081270 |
==History==
[[Image:Bayonne.JPG|right|thumb|400px|Bayonne. View from the other side]]
In the [[3rd century]] AD, the area was the site of a [[Roman]] ''[[castrum]]'', named ''Lapurdum''.
By the [[12th century]], the city, now known as Bayonne, was an important port, with a mixed [[Basque]] and [[Gascon]] population. As part of [[Aquitaine]], it was ruled by [[England]] between [[1151]] to [[1452]] and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom.
Its importance waned somewhat when the French king, [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]], took the city at the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]] and the Adour changed course shortly afterwards, leaving Bayonne without its access to the sea. The French, however, realised Bayonne's strategic site near the [[Spain|Spanish]] border and in [[1578]] dug a canal to redirect the river through the city once again.
| 19:07, 19 May 2005 |
==History==
[[Image:Bayonne.JPG|right|thumb|400px|Bayonne. View from the other side]]
In the [[3rd century]] AD, the area was the site of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[castrum]]'', named ''Lapurdum''.
By the [[12th century]], the city, now known as Bayonne, was an important port, with a mixed [[Basque]] and [[Gascon]] population. As part of [[Aquitaine]], it was ruled by [[England]] between [[1151]] to [[1452]] and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom.
Its importance waned somewhat when the French king, [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]], took the city at the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]] and the Adour changed course shortly afterwards, leaving Bayonne without its access to the sea. The French, however, realised Bayonne's strategic site near the [[Spain|Spanish]] border and in [[1578]] dug a canal to redirect the river through the city once again.
| 21:41, 22 May 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bayonne&diff=33244573&oldid=33244513 | ==History==
In the [[3rd century]] AD, the area was the site of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[castrum]]'', named ''Lapurdum''. It was a military place, but not a port.
In 840, the Vikings appeared in front of Lapurdum. In 842, they launched a huge offensive very deeply inland and settle outside the city on the river bank. Lapurdum is an oppidum and they need a port. Their leader Björn gave his name to this port. Björhamn became "Baionam" and finally "Baiona". Björnhamn is a key place on the route between river Adour et river Ebro, between, Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean sea. This commercial route was the main goal of danish invaders in France. They could esasily reach Tortosa in Spain which was the main market place in Europe dealing with slaves.
By the [[12th century]], the city, now known as Bayonne, was an important port, with a mixed [[Basque people|Basque]] and [[Gascon]] population. As part of [[Aquitaine]], it was ruled by [[England]] between [[1151]] to [[1452]] and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom.
| 12:15, 30 December 2005 | ==History==
In the [[3rd century]] AD, the area was the site of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[castrum]]'', named ''Lapurdum''. It was a military place, but not a port.
In 840, the Vikings appeared in front of Lapurdum. In 842, they launched a huge offensive very deeply inland and settled outside the city on the river bank. Lapurdum is an oppidum and they needed a port. Their leader Björn gave his name to this port. Björhamn became "Baionam" and finally "Baiona". Björnhamn is a key place on the route between river Adour et river Ebro, between, Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean sea. This commercial route was the main goal of danish invaders in France. They could esasily reach Tortosa in Spain which was the main market place in Europe dealing with slaves.
By the [[12th century]], the city, now known as Bayonne, was an important port, with a mixed [[Basque people|Basque]] and [[Gascon]] population. As part of [[Aquitaine]], it was ruled by [[England]] between [[1151]] to [[1452]] and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom.
| 12:16, 30 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bayonne&diff=34502818&oldid=34417978 | * [[Michel Camdessus]] (born [[1933]]), Managing Director of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) from [[1997]] to [[2000]]
* [[Didier Deschamps]] (born [[1968]]), [[Football World Cup|World-Cup]]-winning footballer
* [[Imanol Harinordoquy]] (born [[1980]]), [[France national rugby union team|French international]] [[rugby union|rugby]] player
==Civic information==
The Mayor of Bayonne (1995-2007) is Jean Grenet of the centre-right [[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]. The 39-strong town council is also dominated by the UMP, who hold 31 of the seats. The centre-left group has five seats, the Basque nationalist ''Baiona Berria'' have two and the communist [[Revolutionary Communist League (France)|LCR]] one.
| 23:02, 8 January 2006 | * [[Michel Camdessus]] (born [[1933]]), Managing Director of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) from [[1997]] to [[2000]]
* [[Didier Deschamps]] (born [[1968]]), [[Football World Cup|World-Cup]]-winning footballer
* [[Imanol Harinordoquy]] (born [[1980]]), [[France national rugby union team|French international]] [[rugby union|rugby]] player
* [[Chaperon Patrice]] ([[1986]]-[[2082]]), [[student]] and [[best gamer of pes5]]
==Civic information==
The Mayor of Bayonne (1995-2007) is Jean Grenet of the centre-right [[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]. The 39-strong town council is also dominated by the UMP, who hold 31 of the seats. The centre-left group has five seats, the Basque nationalist ''Baiona Berria'' have two and the communist [[Revolutionary Communist League (France)|LCR]] one.
| 15:22, 9 January 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bayonne&diff=41396716&oldid=39984410 | intercomm=[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz|Communauté<br>d'agglomération de<br>Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]|
longitude=1° 28' 30<nowiki>''</nowiki> W|latitude=43° 29' 37<nowiki>''</nowiki> N|
alt moy=4 m|alt mini=0 m|alt maxi=85 m|
hectares=2,168|km²=21.68|sans=40,078|date-sans=1999|dens=1,850}}
[[Image:Bayonne.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Bayonne. View from the other side]]
'''Bayonne''' ([[Basque language|Basque]]: ''Baiona''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Bayona'') is a city and [[commune in France|commune]] of southwest [[France]] at the confluence of the [[Nive]] and [[Adour]] rivers, in the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]''.
Bayonne has a population of 42,000.
It is, together with nearby [[Anglet]] and [[Biarritz]], part of "[[BAB]]", an urban area or ''[[communauté d'agglomération]]''.
It is the main town of [[Labourd]]/[[Lapurdi]] in the French [[Basque Country]].
==History==
| 07:17, 17 February 2006 | intercomm=[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz|Communauté<br>d'agglomération de<br>Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]|
longitude=1° 28' 30<nowiki>''</nowiki> W|latitude=43° 29' 37<nowiki>''</nowiki> N|
alt moy=4 m|alt mini=0 m|alt maxi=85 m|
hectares=2,168|km²=21.68|sans=<br>44,300<br>40,078|date-sans=July 1, 2004 estimate)<br>(March 8, 1999 census|dens=1,850|date-dens=2004}}
[[Image:Bayonne.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Bayonne. View from the other side]]
'''Bayonne''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bayonne'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/bajɔn/}}; [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Basque language|Basque]]: ''Baiona'') is a city and [[commune in France|commune]] of southwest [[France]] at the confluence of the [[Nive]] and [[Adour]] rivers, in the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]''.
Together with nearby [[Anglet]], [[Biarritz]], [[Saint-Jean-de-Luz]], and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an [[urban area]] with 178,965 inhabitants at the 1999 census, 40,078 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper (44,300 as of 2004 estimates).
The communes of Bayonne, Biarritz, and Anglet have joined into an [[Commune in France#Intercommunality|intercommunal]] entity called the ''[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]''.
Bayonne is the main town of [[Labourd]] in the French [[Basque Country]].
==History==
| 01:30, 27 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bestiary&diff=132097179&oldid=124148971 | [[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Bestiaries|*]]
[[de:Bestiarium]]
[[es:Bestiario]]
[[fr:Bestiaire]]
| 18:29, 19 April 2007 | [[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Bestiaries|*]]
[[bg:Бестиарий]]
[[de:Bestiarium]]
[[es:Bestiario]]
[[fr:Bestiaire]]
| 22:46, 19 May 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Battle_of_Marathon&diff=76741232&oldid=75689137 | {{Classical_greece_and_rome|importance=High|class=GA}}
{{GA}}
{{WPMILHIST|class=B|Classical-task-force=yes|A-Class=current}}
::: A Winner of the August 2004 '''West Dakota Prize'''
''This entry has won the '''West Dakota Prize''' for successfully employing the expression "''legend states''" in a complete sentence.
| 12:11, 14 September 2006 | {{Classical_greece_and_rome|importance=High|class=GA}}
{{GA}}
{{WPMILHIST
|class=GA
|Classical-task-force=yes
|A-Class=fail
}}
::: A Winner of the August 2004 '''West Dakota Prize'''
''This entry has won the '''West Dakota Prize''' for successfully employing the expression "''legend states''" in a complete sentence.
| 06:25, 20 September 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bermuda_Triangle&diff=2531055&oldid=2523838 | [[da:Bermudatrekanten]]
<div style="float:right;border:1px solid black;margin-left:0.5em;">[[image:bermtri.png]]</div>
The '''Bermuda Triangle''' is an area of supposed mystery in a triangle roughly defined by [[Bermuda]], [[Puerto Rico]], and [[Florida]]. Within this area it is said that a number of ships and planes have disappeared under highly unusual circumstances.
| 19:33, 24 February 2004 | [[da:Bermudatrekanten]][[nl:Bermuda driehoek]]
<div style="float:right;border:1px solid black;margin-left:0.5em;">[[image:bermtri.png]]</div>
The '''Bermuda Triangle''' is an area of supposed mystery in a triangle roughly defined by [[Bermuda]], [[Puerto Rico]], and [[Florida]]. Within this area it is said that a number of ships and planes have disappeared under highly unusual circumstances.
| 12:07, 25 February 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Roman_Breviary&diff=102134711&oldid=102033257 | *[http://brewiarz.pl Polish version of the Divine Office text incl. latin text for maior holidays.]
*[http://ia331302.us.archive.org/0/items/breviariumaberv196cathuoft/breviariumaberv196cathuoft.pdf The Aberdeen Breviary part 1]
*[http://ia331325.us.archive.org/0/items/breviariumaber9603cathuoft/breviariumaber9603cathuoft.pdf The Aberdeen Breviary part 2]
==Further reading==
| 17:50, 20 January 2007 | *[http://brewiarz.pl Polish version of the Divine Office text incl. latin text for maior holidays.]
*[http://ia331302.us.archive.org/0/items/breviariumaberv196cathuoft/breviariumaberv196cathuoft.pdf The Aberdeen Breviary part 1]
*[http://ia331325.us.archive.org/0/items/breviariumaber9603cathuoft/breviariumaber9603cathuoft.pdf The Aberdeen Breviary part 2]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/colbertinebrevia43cathuoft The Colbertine Breviary]
==Further reading==
| 02:56, 21 January 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Roman_Breviary&diff=105376608&oldid=105376559 | *[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC60796994&id=QyYBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA13-PA1&lpg=RA13-PA1&dq=breviarium&as_brr=1#PRA16-PA2,M1 Breviarium Romanum (1861)]
*[http://www.breviary.net/ The 1911 Roman Breviary in English]
*[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38200581&id=GokPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP239&lpg=PP239&dq=%22breviarium+romanum%22#PPP650,M1 Breviarium Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum (1799)]
*[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC03873016&id=3A0NAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA160-PT16&lpg=RA160-PT16&dq=%22bradshaw+society%22#PRA9-PA1,M1 The Breviary of Quignonez (1535)]
*[http://www.ecclesiacatholica.com/breviarium%20romanum/index%20breviarii.htm The 1960 Breviarium Romanum promulgated by Pope John XXIII]
==Breviaries according Pre-Tridentine Usages outside of Rome==
| 18:25, 3 February 2007 | *[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC60796994&id=QyYBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA13-PA1&lpg=RA13-PA1&dq=breviarium&as_brr=1#PRA16-PA2,M1 Breviarium Romanum (1861)]
*[http://www.breviary.net/ The 1911 Roman Breviary in English]
*[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC38200581&id=GokPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP239&lpg=PP239&dq=%22breviarium+romanum%22#PPP650,M1 Breviarium Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum (1799)]
*[http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC03873016&id=3A0NAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA160-PT16&lpg=RA160-PT16&dq=%22bradshaw+society%22#PRA9-PA1,M1 The Breviary of Quignonez (1537)]
*[http://www.ecclesiacatholica.com/breviarium%20romanum/index%20breviarii.htm The 1960 Breviarium Romanum promulgated by Pope John XXIII]
==Breviaries according Pre-Tridentine Usages outside of Rome==
| 18:25, 3 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bildungsroman&diff=19869478&oldid=19839979 | [[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Bildungsroman]]
[[ja:教養小説]] | 08:06, 29 July 2005 | [[Category:German loanwords]]
[[de:Bildungsroman]]
[[ja:教養小説]]
Another great example is Of Human Bondage by William Somerset Maugham | 18:25, 29 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bildungsroman&diff=23661776&oldid=23564230 | A '''''bildungsroman''''' ([[German language|German]]: "novel of education" or "novel of formation") is a [[novel]] which traces the spiritual, moral, psychological, or social development and growth of the main character from (usually) childhood to maturity.
==Some prominent examples==
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship]]''
*[[Marcel Proust]]'s ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]''
*[[Hermann Hesse]]'s ''[[Demian|Demian]]'', ''[[Siddhartha (book)|Siddhartha]]'' and ''[[Steppenwolf]]''
*[[James Joyce|Joyce]]'s ''[[Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]''
*[[Henry Fielding]]'s ''[[The_History_of_Tom_Jones%2C_a_Foundling|Tom Jones]]''
*[[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[Great Expectations]]'', ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'', ''[[A Christmas Carol]]''
*[[Laurence Sterne]]'s ''[[Tristram Shandy]]''
*[[Oscar Wilde]]'s ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]''
*[[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Moll Flanders]]''
*[[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''
*the 13th century ''[[Hrafnkels saga]]''
*[[Somerset Maugham]]'s [[Of Human Bondage]]
*[[Ralph Ellison]]'s [[Invisible Man]]
==More contemporary examples==
*[[Iain Banks]]' ''[[The Crow Road]]''
| 01:34, 20 September 2005 | A '''''bildungsroman''''' ([[German language|German]]: "novel of education" or "novel of formation") is a [[novel]] which traces the spiritual, moral, psychological, or social development and growth of the main character from (usually) childhood to maturity.
oh teri pannnnnnnnn
==More contemporary examples==
*[[Iain Banks]]' ''[[The Crow Road]]''
| 08:15, 21 September 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bruin&diff=45730913&oldid=45730812 | * [[University of California, Los Angeles]]
''High Schools''
* [[Henry A. Bradshaw High School]]
- Bradshaw Bruins
''Other uses''
*[[Bruin, Pennsylvania]] is a borough of [[Butler County, Pennsylvania]] in the [[United States]].
| 17:55, 27 March 2006 | * [[University of California, Los Angeles]]
''High Schools''
* former [[Henry A. Bradshaw High School]] - Bradshaw Bruins
''Other uses''
*[[Bruin, Pennsylvania]] is a borough of [[Butler County, Pennsylvania]] in the [[United States]].
| 17:55, 27 March 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bill_Mumy&diff=72220323&oldid=72211243 |
He has worked on over four hundred television shows, many of which have been deemed "classic" episodes due to his performances. Mumy is best known by fans around the world for the creation of his memorable role as the heroic boy astronaut "Will Robinson" on the classic [[Irwin Allen]] series ''[[Lost in Space]]'', which ran from September 15, 1965 to March 6, 1968.
Mumy survived and thrived beyond his [[child actor]] days, much to his credit and that of his family.
Mumy is a member of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] and has been in 18 feature films, including ''[[Dear Brigitte]]'', ''[[Rascal]]'', ''Bless the Beasts and Children'', and ''[[Papillion]]''.
From 1993 through 1998 he played the noble, mystical "[[Lennier]]" in the popular science fiction series ''[[Babylon 5]]''.
| 16:43, 27 August 2006 |
He has worked on over four hundred television shows, many of which have been deemed "classic" episodes due to his performances. Mumy is best known by fans around the world for the creation of his memorable role as the heroic boy astronaut "Will Robinson" on the classic [[Irwin Allen]] series ''[[Lost in Space]]'', which ran from September 15, 1965 to March 6, 1968.
Mumy survived and thrived beyond his [[child actor]] days, much to his credit and that of his family. Mumy is a member of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] and has been in 18 feature films, including ''[[Dear Brigitte]]'', ''[[Rascal]]'', ''Bless the Beasts and Children'', and ''[[Papillion]]''.
From 1993 through 1998 he played the noble, mystical "[[Lennier]]" in the popular science fiction series ''[[Babylon 5]]''.
| 17:43, 27 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bacardi&diff=308854624&oldid=308854356 | Hello, my name is Daria,could anybody help me,please,to find contact with Bacardi company. I`m working at one of the largest import company in Ukraine and we would like to offer our services for import Martini and other beverages to Ukraine. I`m looking forward for your reply.Thank you.
This is Daria again. Please contact us for any information you have for how to find e-mail of Bacardi-Martini Cjmpany to the e-mail adress [['''[email protected]''']]. I`ll be very grateful for you.
== rum's ==
| 10:09, 19 August 2009 | Hello, my name is Daria,could anybody help me,please,to find contact with Bacardi company. I`m working at one of the largest import company in Ukraine and we would like to offer our services for import Martini and other beverages to Ukraine. I`m looking forward for your reply.Thank you.
This is Daria again. Please contact us for any information you have for how to find e-mail of Bacardi-Martini Cjmpany to the e-mail adress [['''[email protected]''']]. I`ll be very grateful for you.
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> '''8-19-2009 6:13pm GMT+8'''
== rum's ==
| 10:13, 19 August 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blood_libel&diff=240837&oldid=240836 |
The blood libel still exists today. The blood libel was resurrected in 1840s Syria.
[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/reaction.html Bllod libel in 1840 Syria]
| 01:04, 10 January 2002 |
The blood libel still exists today. The blood libel was resurrected in 1840s Syria.
[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/reaction.html Blood libel in 1840 Syria]
The blood libel exploded onto the international scene with the 1913 Beilis case in Russia.
| 01:07, 10 January 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blood_libel&diff=633640&oldid=631323 | '''Blood libels''' are untrue allegations that a particular group kill children or infants as a form of [[human sacrifice]], and use their blood in various rituals. One famous example of something widely considered to be a blood libel, is the accusation that Jews kill Christian and Muslim children and use their blood to make [[Passover]] [[matzoh]]s. The story has been circulating since the medieval period. The ancient Phoenician practice of sacrificing infants to Molech appears well documented enough that we can say it is most likely a fact, and '''not''' a blood libel.
Although [[Satanism|Satanists]] have been the primary target of this sort of accusation in recent history, similar accusations have been made against a large variety of different groups throughout history, including [[Christian]]s, [[pagan]]s, [[witch]]es, and [[Judaism|Jews]]. See [[Satanic ritual abuse]], [[Inquisition]], and [[witch hunt]].
During the [[2nd century]], some [[Roman]] commentators misunderstood the ritual of the [[Eucharist]] and the Catholic doctrine of [[Transubstantiation]]. In this ritual, christians drink red wine in response to the words "This is the blood of Christ". The commentators thought that the Christians literally drank blood, and used this to [[persecution of Christians|persecute Christians]].
== Blood Libel against the Jews ==
In many cases, anti-Jewish blood libels served as the basis for a ''blood libel cult'', in which the alleged victim of human sacrifice was worshipped as a Christian martyr. The first recorded instance was that of Saint [[William of Norwich]], which originated in [[1144]]. Another example of was the cult of [[Anderl von Rinn]], who was allegedly murdered by Jews in the year [[1462]], in the town of [[Rinn, Tyrol]]. Stories of his death, however, do not emerge until the 17th century, when the cult of Anderl was founded. The cult continued until it was officially prohibited in [[1994]] by the Bishop of Innsbruck. (source [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/rinn.html]).
The attitude of the Catholic church towards these cults varied. The church sometimes opposed them, but it generally did little to stop them, and in some cases gave its clear approval. [[Pope Benedict XIV]] permitted the continuation of the cult of Anderl von Rinn as a local cult, but refused to canonize him as a [[saint]]. [[Pope Sixtus V]] cannonized one [[Simon of Trent]], who was allegedly murdered by Jews in [[1475]]. On the other hand, [[Pope Gregory X]] issued a letter rejecting the blood libel accusations (source [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g10-jews.html]).
Others allege that many Palestinians have adopted this form of the blood libel, and that it is now widely taught among Palestinians that Jews are in a conspiracy to inject Arab children with the HIV virus. One example is the statement by by Ambassador Nabil Ramlawi, Permanent Observer of Palestine to the UN Commission on Human Rights, who allegedly testified in 1997 to the UN in Geneva that "the Israelis authorities have infected by injection 300 Palestinian children with the HIV virus during the years of the Intifadah."
See also: [[vampirism]]
== External Links ==
* [http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme%5F62/3790%5F62.asp Anti-Defamation League condemns Egyptian blood libel]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/reaction.html Blood libel in 1840 Syria]
* [[http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_blib1.htm Blood Libel, Host desecration, and other Myths] (on religioustolerance.org | 13:48, 30 January 2003 | '''Blood libels''' are untrue allegations that a particular group kill children or infants as a form of [[human sacrifice]], and use their blood in various rituals. One famous example of something widely considered to be a blood libel, is the accusation that Jews kill Christian and Muslim children and use their blood to make [[Passover]] [[matzoh]]s. The story has been circulating since the medieval period. The ancient Phoenician practice of sacrificing infants to Molech appears well documented enough that we can say it is most likely a fact, and '''not''' a blood libel.
Many groups have been the target of these kinds of accusations, including [[Jew]]s, [[Christian]]s, [[Cathar]]s, [[Knights Templar]], [[Witches]], Christian [[heretic]]s, [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Gypsies]], [[Wiccan]]s, [[Druid]]s, [[neopagan]]s, [[satanic ritual abuse|Satanic cultists]], and [[evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[misionaries]].
During the [[2nd century]], some [[Roman]] commentators misunderstood the ritual of the [[Eucharist]] and the Catholic doctrine of [[Transubstantiation]]. In this ritual, christians drink red wine in response to the words "This is the blood of Christ". The commentators thought that the Christians literally drank blood, and used this to [[persecution of Christians|persecute Christians]].
== Blood Libel against the Jews ==
In many cases, [[anti-Semitic]] blood libels served as the basis for a ''blood libel cult'', in which the alleged victim of human sacrifice was worshipped as a Christian martyr. The first recorded instance was that of Saint [[William of Norwich]], which originated in [[1144]]. Another example of was the cult of [[Anderl von Rinn]], who was allegedly murdered by Jews in the year [[1462]], in the town of [[Rinn, Tyrol]]. Stories of his death, however, do not emerge until the 17th century, when the cult of Anderl was founded. The cult continued until it was officially prohibited in [[1994]] by the Bishop of Innsbruck. (source [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/rinn.html]).
The attitude of the Catholic church towards these cults varied. The church sometimes opposed them, but it generally did little to stop them, and in some cases gave its clear approval. [[Pope Benedict XIV]] permitted the continuation of the cult of Anderl von Rinn as a local cult, but refused to canonize him as a [[saint]]. [[Pope Sixtus V]] cannonized one [[Simon of Trent]], who was allegedly murdered by Jews in [[1475]]. On the other hand, [[Pope Gregory X]] issued a letter rejecting the blood libel accusations (source [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g10-jews.html]).
Others allege that many Palestinians have adopted this form of the blood libel, and that it is now widely taught among Palestinians that Jews are in a conspiracy to inject Arab children with the HIV virus. One example is the statement by by Ambassador Nabil Ramlawi, Permanent Observer of Palestine to the UN Commission on Human Rights, who allegedly testified in 1997 to the UN in Geneva that "the Israelis authorities have infected by injection 300 Palestinian children with the HIV virus during the years of the Intifadah."
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]]
== External Links ==
* [http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme%5F62/3790%5F62.asp Anti-Defamation League condemns Egyptian blood libel]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/reaction.html Blood libel in 1840 Syria]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_blib1.htm Blood Libel, Host desecration, and other Myths] (on religioustolerance.org) | 14:06, 30 January 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blood_libel&diff=635427&oldid=635355 | Here is an article on multiple Syrain attempts to spread blood-libels as if they were historical facts
http://mypage.bluewin.ch/ameland/Libel.html
Worldwide protests against the rapid rise in blood-libels and Holocaust denial among Arabs has led a few writers in the Arab world to speak out against their peers. After over a year of criticism, the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram publihsed a few articles which admitted that anti-Semitism is rampant in Arab nations. He writes that anti-Semitism should be considered to be European, and foreign to Islam. This series of articles expose the myths of [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] and the blood libel, and decries them and false and anti-Semitic. The writer, Al-Baz, warns thatanti-Semitism does, in fact, refer to hatred of Jews, many Arabs can and are anti-Semitic, and that Arabs have to finally recognize that the [[Holocaust]] really did happen. After speaking out against racism against all groups, including Jews, the writer finally states that all responsibility for the Arab-Israeli conflict is due to [[Zionism]]. In this view, Jewish Zionists are to blame for the rise of anti-Semitism.
(Source: Al-Ahram Weekly Online, January 2-8, 2003 (Issue No. 619), http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/619/focus.htm)
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]]
| 14:07, 1 February 2003 | Here is an article on multiple Syrain attempts to spread blood-libels as if they were historical facts
http://mypage.bluewin.ch/ameland/Libel.html
Worldwide protests against the rapid rise in blood-libels and Holocaust denial among Arabs has led a few writers in the Arab world to speak out against their peers. The Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles which admitted that anti-Semitism is rampant in Arab nations. The author of this series was Osam Al-Baz, a senior advisor to Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]]. In his articles he writes that anti-Semitism should be considered to be of European origin, and foreign to Islam. This series of articles expose the myths of [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] and the blood libel, and decries them and false and anti-Semitic. Al-Baz warns that the term "anti-Semitism" refers specifically to hatred of Jews, and that many Arabs are anti-Semitic. He writes that Arabs have to recognize that the [[Holocaust]] really did occur. After speaking out against racism against all groups, including Jews, the writer states that responsibility for the Arab-Israeli conflict is due to [[Zionism]], and that not all Israelies are bad. (Source: Al-Ahram Weekly Online, January 2-8, 2003 (Issue No. 619), http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/619/focus.htm)
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]]
| 14:23, 1 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blood_libel&diff=656844&oldid=656833 |
[[Egypt]]ian newspapers sometimes run newspaper articles promulgating the matzoh blood libel to incite hatred against Jews. [[Syria]]n state-owned media have promulgated the same libel -- among other unlikely accusations, such as that "Zionists" spread aphrodisiac-laced chewing gum among Arab students. [http://mypage.bluewin.ch/ameland/Libel.html]
Worldwide protests against the rapid rise in blood-libels and Holocaust denial among Arabs has led a few writers in the Arab world to speak out against their peers. The Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles which admitted that anti-Semitism is rampant in Arab nations. The author of this series was Osam Al-Baz, a senior advisor to Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]]. In his articles he writes that anti-Semitism should be considered to be of European origin, and foreign to Islam. This series of articles expose the myths of [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] and the blood libel, and decries them and false and anti-Semitic. Al-Baz warns that the term "anti-Semitism" refers specifically to hatred of Jews, and that many Arabs are anti-Semitic. He writes that Arabs have to recognize that the [[Holocaust]] really did occur. After speaking out against racism against all groups, including Jews, the writer states that responsibility for the Arab-Israeli conflict is due to [[Zionism]], and that not all Israelies are bad. (Source: Al-Ahram Weekly Online, January 2-8, 2003 (Issue No. 619), http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/619/focus.htm)
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]]
| 14:58, 4 February 2003 |
[[Egypt]]ian newspapers sometimes run newspaper articles promulgating the matzoh blood libel to incite hatred against Jews. [[Syria]]n state-owned media have promulgated the same libel -- among other unlikely accusations, such as that "Zionists" spread aphrodisiac-laced chewing gum among Arab students. [http://mypage.bluewin.ch/ameland/Libel.html]
Some Arab writers have condemned these blood libels. The Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles by Osam Al-Baz, a senior advisor to Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]]. Amongst other things, Osam Al-Baz explained the origins of the anti-Jewish blood libel. Some excerpts from the series are:
* "Have the Arabs or Muslims ever been anti-Semitic, in the sense of anti-Jewish? I believe that the impartial scholar must reply in the negative".
* "One might possibly understand those Arab writers and media figures who attack Jews on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe had the Arab cause not been firmly grounded in just demands".
* "It is important that we refrain from succumbing to such myths as the Protocols of the Elders of Zion and the use of Christian blood in Jewish rituals".
* "Israelis and Zionists in general should cease accusing anyone who criticises Israel of being anti-Semitic." (Source: Al-Ahram Weekly Online, January 2-8, 2003 (Issue No. 619), [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/619/focus.htm]
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]]
| 15:22, 10 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blood_libel&diff=662564&oldid=662470 | '''Blood libels''' are untrue allegations that a particular group kill people as a form of [[human sacrifice]], and use their [[blood]] in various [[ritual]]s. Often, the alleged victims of these [[child sacrifice|sacifices are children]]. One famous example of something widely considered to be a blood libel, is the accusation that [[Judaism|Jews]] kill [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Muslim]] children and use their blood to make [[Passover]] [[matzoh]]s. The story has been circulating since, at least, the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]]. Many groups have been the target of these kinds of accusations, including [[Jew]]s, [[Christian]]s, [[Cathar]]s, [[Knights Templar]], [[Witches]], Christian [[heretic]]s, [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Gypsies]], [[Wiccan]]s, [[Druid]]s, [[neopagan]]s, [[satanic ritual abuse|Satanic cultists]], and [[evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]].
Some people, particularly those seeking to oppose [[anti-Semitism]], use ''blood libel'' as a [[propaganda]] term to mean any kind of [[anti-Semitic lie]]. This article will not focus on this meaning.
The ancient [[Phoenicia]]n practice of sacrificing infants to [[Molech]] appears well documented enough that we can say it is most likely a fact, and ''not'' a blood libel. It is possible that blood libels against Jews originate from this, as it was the Phoenicians who were largely involved with building the infrastructure of the early [[Hebrew]] [[city|cities]].
During the first and second centuries, some [[Roman]] commentators misunderstood the ritual of the [[Eucharist]] and related teachings. In this ritual, Christians drink red wine in response to the words "This is the blood of Christ". [[Propaganda]] was written which argued that the Christians literally drank blood, and used this to [[persecution of Christians|persecute Christians]]. They were also highly suspicious of Christian [[adoption]]s of abandoned Roman babies and this was suggested as a possible source of the blood.
== Blood Libel against the Jews ==
| 12:38, 12 February 2003 | '''Blood libels''' are untrue allegations that a particular group kill people as a form of [[human sacrifice]], and use their [[blood]] in various [[ritual]]s. Often, the alleged victims of these [[child sacrifice|sacifices are children]]. One famous example of something widely considered to be a blood libel, is the accusation that [[Judaism|Jews]] kill [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Muslim]] children and use their blood to make [[Passover]] [[matzoh]]s. The story has been circulating since, at least, the [[1st century]]. Many groups have been the target of these kinds of accusations, including [[Jew]]s, [[Christian]]s, [[Cathar]]s, [[Knights Templar]], [[Witches]], Christian [[heretic]]s, [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Gypsies]], [[Wiccan]]s, [[Druid]]s, [[neopagan]]s, [[satanic ritual abuse|Satanic cultists]], and [[evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]].
Some people, particularly those seeking to oppose [[anti-Semitism]], use ''blood libel'' as a [[propaganda]] term to mean any kind of [[anti-Semitic lie]]. This article will not focus on this meaning.
The ancient [[Phoenicia]]n practice of sacrificing infants to [[Molech]] appears well documented enough that we can say it is most likely a fact, and ''not'' a blood libel. It is possible that blood libels against Jews originate from this, as it was the Phoenicians who were largely involved with building the infrastructure of the early [[Hebrew]] [[city|cities]].
During the [[1st century|first]] and [[2nd century|second]] centuries, some [[Roman]] commentators misunderstood the ritual of the [[Eucharist]] and related teachings. In this ritual, Christians drink red wine in response to the words "This is the blood of Christ". [[Propaganda]] was written which argued that the Christians literally drank blood, and used this to [[persecution of Christians|persecute Christians]]. They were also highly suspicious of Christian [[adoption]]s of abandoned Roman babies and this was suggested as a possible source of the blood.
== Blood Libel against the Jews ==
| 12:43, 12 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Blood_libel&diff=744910&oldid=733596 |
According to some sources, on [[April 19]], [[1999]], Shawqi Hafez published ''The Matzos of Blood'' in the Al-Watan newspaper in Oman. This article alleged that some Jews bake matzohs with the blood of Christians. This story was only reported by a few pro-Jewish sources, and the details varied from report to report. [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&ie=ISO-8859-1&safe=off&as_qdr=all&q=%22of+blood%22+%22al-Watan%22+OR+%22al-Wattan%22+Hafez+OR+Matzos+OR+Matzahs+OR+Matzohs Google Search]
In [[1984]] the [[Saudi Arabia]]n delegate to the UN Human Rights Commission conference on religious tolerance, Marouf al-Dawalibi, told the UN that "The Talmud says that if a Jew does not drink every year the blood of a non-Jewish man, he will be damned for eternity".
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]], [[Simon of Trent]]
| 04:46, 9 March 2003 |
According to some sources, on [[April 19]], [[1999]], Shawqi Hafez published ''The Matzos of Blood'' in the Al-Watan newspaper in Oman. This article alleged that some Jews bake matzohs with the blood of Christians. This story was only reported by a few pro-Jewish sources, and the details varied from report to report. [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&ie=ISO-8859-1&safe=off&as_qdr=all&q=%22of+blood%22+%22al-Watan%22+OR+%22al-Wattan%22+Hafez+OR+Matzos+OR+Matzahs+OR+Matzohs Google Search]
On 5 [[Dec]] [[1984]], Ma’ruf al-Dawalibi, the [[Saudi Arabia]]n delegate to the UN Human Rights Commission conference on religious tolerance, told the UN that "The Talmud says that if a Jew does not drink every year the blood of a non-Jewish man, he will be damned for eternity".
See also: [[vampirism]], [[Inquisition]], [[witch hunt]], [[Simon of Trent]]
| 05:06, 9 March 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bovril&diff=7983692&oldid=7983665 | '''Bovril''' is the [[trademark]]ed name of a thick, salty [[beef]] extract, sold in a distinctive, bulbous jar.
A [[spoon]]ful of the semi-liquid paste in hot [[water]] makes a beef tea. It can also be used as a flavouring for [[soup]]s and [[stew]]s, or spread on [[bread]], especially [[toast]].
The name, like many late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[tradename]]s comes (partially) from [[Latin]], ''bos'' meaning "ox." The ''vril'' component of the name comes from [[Edward George Bulwer-Lytton|Bulwer-Lytton]]'s once-popular 19th century "lost race" [[novel]], ''[[The Coming Race]]'', in which a subterranean [[humanoid]] race have mental control over, and devastating powers from an energy fluid named "[[Vril]]."
In November 2004 the manufacturers, [[Unilever]], announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef to a [[yeast extract]], both in the hope of allaying fears of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] and to make the product more attractive to vegetarians.
==See also==
*[[Marmite]]
| 15:55, 18 November 2004 | '''Bovril''' is the [[trademark]]ed name of a thick, salty [[yeast]] extract, sold in a distinctive, bulbous jar.
A [[spoon]]ful of the semi-liquid paste in hot [[water]] makes a savoury drink. It can also be used as a flavouring for [[soup]]s, [[stew]]s or [[porridge]], or spread on [[bread]], especially [[toast]].
The name, like many late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[tradename]]s comes (partially) from [[Latin]], ''bos'' meaning "ox." The ''vril'' component of the name comes from [[Edward George Bulwer-Lytton|Bulwer-Lytton]]'s once-popular 19th century "lost race" [[novel]], ''[[The Coming Race]]'', in which a subterranean [[humanoid]] race have mental control over, and devastating powers from an energy fluid named "[[Vril]]."
In November 2004 the manufacturers, [[Unilever]], announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef to a [[yeast extract]], both in the hope of allaying fears of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] and to make the product more attractive to vegetarians and muslims.
==See also==
*[[Marmite]]
| 10:47, 30 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Bovril&diff=10842266&oldid=10359486 |
The name, like many late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[tradename]]s, comes (partially) from [[Latin]], ''bos'' meaning "ox." The ''vril'' component of the name comes from [[Edward George Bulwer-Lytton|Bulwer-Lytton]]'s once-popular 19th century "lost race" [[novel]], ''[[The Coming Race]]'', in which a subterranean [[humanoid]] race have mental control over, and devastating powers from, an energy fluid named "[[Vril]]."
In [[November 2004]] the manufacturers, [[Unilever]], announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef to a [[yeast extract]], both in the hope of allaying fears of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE), and to make the product suitable for [[vegetarian]]s. According to Unilever, "in blind taste tests 10% did not notice any difference and 50% preferred the new product." However, it implies that as many as 50% of consumers may not agree with their words.
==See also==
* [[Marmite]]
| 12:39, 22 January 2005 |
The name, like many late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[tradename]]s, comes (partially) from [[Latin]], ''bos'' meaning "ox." The ''vril'' component of the name comes from [[Edward George Bulwer-Lytton|Bulwer-Lytton]]'s once-popular 19th century "lost race" [[novel]], ''[[The Coming Race]]'', in which a subterranean [[humanoid]] race have mental control over, and devastating powers from, an energy fluid named "[[Vril]]."
In [[November 2004]] the manufacturers, [[Unilever]], announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef to a [[yeast extract]], both in the hope of allaying fears of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE), and to make the product suitable for [[vegetarian]]s. According to Unilever, "in blind taste tests 10% didn't notice any difference in taste, 40% preferred the original and 50% preferred the new product."
==See also==
* [[Marmite]]
| 16:26, 17 February 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Baltimore_Ravens&diff=107362591&oldid=96068598 |
==Sheild logo==
If they got sued for using that logo they why is it still used on the field at the 50 yard line? -- [[User:Coasttocoast|Coasttocoast]] 06:13, 23 December 2006 (UTC)
:It is NOT the same copyvio "B" logo with wings. If you look carefully at the current logo at the 50-yard line of [[M&T Bank Stadium]], the design inside the shield is similar to the [[Flag of Maryland]]. [[User:Zzyzx11|Zzyzx11]] [[User talk:Zzyzx11|(Talk)]] 07:39, 23 December 2006 (UTC) | 07:39, 23 December 2006 |
==Sheild logo==
If they got sued for using that logo they why is it still used on the field at the 50 yard line? -- [[User:Coasttocoast|Coasttocoast]] 06:13, 23 December 2006 (UTC)
:It is NOT the same copyvio "B" logo with wings. If you look carefully at the current logo at the 50-yard line of [[M&T Bank Stadium]], the design inside the shield is similar to the [[Flag of Maryland]]. [[User:Zzyzx11|Zzyzx11]] [[User talk:Zzyzx11|(Talk)]] 07:39, 23 December 2006 (UTC)
Yes, it is the [[Flag of Maryland]].[[User:64.31.99.175|64.31.99.175]] 18:32, 11 February 2007 (UTC) | 18:32, 11 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Baltimore_Ravens&diff=483898377&oldid=483898301 |
I'm no football buff, but some of the playoff information on the sidebar of the article seems a bit off. For instance, it states that the team made it to the playoffs in 2008, whilst ESPN's statistics show no such thing.
http://espn.go.com/nfl/playoffs/2011/story/_/id/7410425/baltimore-ravens [[Special:Contributions/209.250.204.140|209.250.204.140]] ([[User talk:209.250.204.140|talk]]) <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 19:12, 25 March 2012 (UTC).</span><!--Template:Undated--> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:It may sometimes get confusing for people who are not football buffs because the majority of the football season runs from September to December, while playoff games run into January of the next calendar year. The ESPN page you are referring to is giving you the specific dates of when those playoff occur, while the dates on the sidebar reflect the official NFL records – playoff games played in January ''2009'', for example, was played during the [[''2008'' NFL season|2008 NFL season]]. Hope that helps. [[User:Zzyzx11|Zzyzx11]] ([[User talk:Zzyzx11|talk]]) 20:20, 25 March 2012 (UTC) | 20:20, 25 March 2012 |
I'm no football buff, but some of the playoff information on the sidebar of the article seems a bit off. For instance, it states that the team made it to the playoffs in 2008, whilst ESPN's statistics show no such thing.
http://espn.go.com/nfl/playoffs/2011/story/_/id/7410425/baltimore-ravens [[Special:Contributions/209.250.204.140|209.250.204.140]] ([[User talk:209.250.204.140|talk]]) <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 19:12, 25 March 2012 (UTC).</span><!--Template:Undated--> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:It may sometimes get confusing for people who are not football buffs because the majority of the football season runs from September to December, while playoff games run into January of the next calendar year. The ESPN page you are referring to is giving you the specific dates of when those playoff occur, while the dates on the sidebar reflect the official NFL records – playoff games played in January ''2009'', for example, was played during the [[2008 NFL season|''2008'' NFL season]]. Hope that helps. [[User:Zzyzx11|Zzyzx11]] ([[User talk:Zzyzx11|talk]]) 20:20, 25 March 2012 (UTC) | 20:21, 25 March 2012 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Baltimore_Ravens&diff=534522866&oldid=534112792 |
I'm unsure how a team could win a Super Bowl being neither a division champ nor a wild card. Can someone explain, or was this sentence the result of someone's personal impairment? [[User:HuskyHuskie|HuskyHuskie]] ([[User talk:HuskyHuskie|talk]]) 23:31, 15 January 2012 (UTC)
== No mention of [[Edgar Allen Poe]] or [[The Raven (poem)]]? Seriously? ==
Why this oversight? [[Special:Contributions/216.197.66.61|216.197.66.61]] ([[User talk:216.197.66.61|talk]]) 00:11, 8 February 2012 (UTC)
| 04:33, 21 January 2013 |
I'm unsure how a team could win a Super Bowl being neither a division champ nor a wild card. Can someone explain, or was this sentence the result of someone's personal impairment? [[User:HuskyHuskie|HuskyHuskie]] ([[User talk:HuskyHuskie|talk]]) 23:31, 15 January 2012 (UTC)
:They may have been thinking of the 1969 Kansas City Chiefs, who finished second in their division but ended up as AFL champions due to a one-year-only crossover playoff system. They weren't commonly called a "wild card" at the time. [[User:WHPratt|WHPratt]] ([[User talk:WHPratt|talk]]) 18:08, 23 January 2013 (UTC)
== No mention of [[Edgar Allen Poe]] or [[The Raven (poem)]]? Seriously? ==
Why this oversight? [[Special:Contributions/216.197.66.61|216.197.66.61]] ([[User talk:216.197.66.61|talk]]) 00:11, 8 February 2012 (UTC)
| 18:08, 23 January 2013 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Battle_of_Adwa&diff=56752260&oldid=56752012 | the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Menlik's army would begin to melt away. However, his govenment insisted that General Baratieri act, and he accordingly took the initiative with a advancee on the night of [[February 29]] hoping to suprise the Ethiopians.
== The battle ==
The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General [[Matteo Albertone]] was made up of Italian officered [[askari]] (native infantry) recruited from Eritrea. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Generals [[Vittorio Dabormida]], [[Giuseppe Ellena]] and Baratieri. While these included elite [[Bersegalieri]] and Cacciatori units, a large proportion were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropoliton regiments in Italy into newly formed battalions for service in Africa.
The Ethiopian forces under Menelik outnumbered the Italians by an estimated five or six times. The four Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adowa over narrow mountain tracks. However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn on [[1 March]] were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain.
| 01:15, 4 June 2006 | the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Menlik's army would begin to melt away. However, his govenment insisted that General Baratieri act, and he accordingly took the initiative with a advancee on the night of [[February 29]] hoping to suprise the Ethiopians.
== The battle ==
The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 18,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General [[Matteo Albertone]] was made up of Italian officered [[askari]] (native infantry) recruited from Eritrea. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Generals [[Vittorio Dabormida]], [[Giuseppe Ellena]] and Baratieri. While these included elite [[Bersegalieri]] and Cacciatori units, a large proportion were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropoliton regiments in Italy into newly formed battalions for service in Africa.
The Ethiopian forces under Menelik outnumbered the Italians by an estimated five or six times. The four Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adowa over narrow mountain tracks. However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn on [[1 March]] were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain.
| 01:18, 4 June 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Battle_of_Adwa&diff=57620316&oldid=57610036 | The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over.
== Aftermath ==
The Italians suffered about 5,900 casualties in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, while the Ethiopian losses exceeded 10,000. Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 hundred died of their wounds in captivity.<ref>Chris Proutky notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". ''Empress Taytu and Menilek II'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 169f.</ref> However 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatement of the askari prisoners.
Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was descibed by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfitted" for his command. The [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]] government fell, and was replaced by a new administration with a policy of avoiding further colonial adventures.
| 23:15, 8 June 2006 | The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over.
== Aftermath ==
The Italians suffered about 5,900 casualties in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, while the Ethiopian losses exceeded 10,000. Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity.<ref>Chris Proutky notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". ''Empress Taytu and Menilek II'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 169f.</ref> However 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatement of the askari prisoners.
Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was descibed by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfitted" for his command. The [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]] government fell, and was replaced by a new administration with a policy of avoiding further colonial adventures.
| 00:29, 9 June 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Battle_of_Adwa&diff=57649961&oldid=57623191 | |commander1=[[Ras Makonnen]]
|commander2=[[Oreste Baratieri]]
|strength1=about 120,000; artillery,<br> machine guns, cavalry; 20,000 were armed only with spears
|strength2=14,527 men,<br> 56 guns
|casualties1=10,000
|casualties2=5,900{{fact}}
}}
The '''Battle of Adowa''' (also known as ''Adwa'' or sometimes by the Italian name ''Adua'') was fought on [[March 1]], [[1896]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] near the town of [[Adowa]], Ethiopia, in [[Tigray Region| Tigray]]. It was the climactic battle of the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]].
By late February, [[1896]], supplies on both sides were running low. General [[Oreste Baratieri]], commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Menlik's army would begin to melt away. However, his govenment insisted that General Baratieri act, and he accordingly took the initiative with a advance on the night of [[February 29]] hoping to suprise the Ethiopians.
== The battle ==
The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 18,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General [[Matteo Albertone]] was made up of Italian officered [[askari]] (native infantry) recruited from Eritrea. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Generals [[Vittorio Dabormida]], [[Giuseppe Ellena]] and Baratieri. While these included elite [[Bersaglieri]] and Cacciatori units, a large proportion were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed battalions for service in Africa.
The Ethiopian forces under Menelik outnumbered the Italians by an estimated five or six times.<ref>Richard Pankhurst has collected the various estimates for the Ethiopian forces, which range from a low of 80,000 to a high of 150,000. ''Economic History of Ethiopia'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie University, 1968), pp. 555-557.</ref> The four Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adowa over narrow mountain tracks. However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn on [[1 March]] were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain.
The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over.
== Aftermath ==
The Italians suffered about 5,900 casualties in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, while the Ethiopian losses exceeded 10,000. Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity.<ref>Chris Proutky notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". ''Empress Taytu and Menilek II'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 169f.</ref> However 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatement of the askari prisoners.
Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was descibed by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfitted" for his command. The [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]] government fell, and was replaced by a new administration with a policy of avoiding further colonial adventures.
As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]], recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. The humiliation remained with Italy for almost forty years, until [[1935]], when during the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] Italy commenced a short-lived conquest of Ethiopia.
== Significance ==
"The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Paul B. Henze, who compares this victory to Japan's naval victory over Russia at [[Battle of Tsushima|Tsushima]]. "Though apparent to very few historians at the time, these defeats were the beginning of the decline of Europe as the center of world politics."<ref>Henze, ''Layers of Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p.180.</ref>
On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian [[Bahru Zewde]] observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa." However, Bahru Zewde puts his emphasis on other elements of this triumph: "The racial dimension was what lent Adwa particular significance. It was a victory of blacks over whites. Adwa thus anticipated by almost a decade the equally shattering experience to the whites of the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905."<ref>Bahru Zewde, ''A History of Modern Ethiopia'' (London: James Currey, 1991), p. 81.</ref>
== References ==
<references/>
== Further reading ==
* David Levering Lewis, "Pawns of Pawns: Ethiopia and the Mahdiyya" in ''The Race for Fashoda''. New York: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1987. ISBN 1555840582
* Chris Prouty, "War with Italy: Amba Alage, Meqellle, Adwa" in ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910''. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986. ISBN 0932415113
== See also ==
*[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]
| 00:49, 9 June 2006 | |commander1=[[Ras Makonnen]]
|commander2=[[Oreste Baratieri]]
|strength1=about 120,000; artillery,<br> machine guns, cavalry; 20,000 were armed only with spears
|strength2=17,700 men,<br> 56 guns
|casualties1=11,000 (est.)
|casualties2=10,000
}}
The '''Battle of Adowa''' (also known as ''Adwa'' or sometimes by the Italian name ''Adua'') was fought on [[March 1]], [[1896]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] near the town of [[Adowa]], Ethiopia, in [[Tigray Region| Tigray]]. It was the climactic battle of the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]].
By late February, [[1896]], supplies on both sides were running low. General [[Oreste Baratieri]], commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Menlik's army would begin to melt away. However, his govenment insisted that General Baratieri act, and he accordingly took the initiative with a advance on the night of [[February 29]] hoping to suprise the Ethiopians.
== The battle ==
The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling 17,700 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces.<ref>David Levering Lewis, ''The Race for Fashoda'' (New York: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1987), pp. 116f. ISBN 1555840582 He breaks down their numbers into 10,596 Italian and 7,104 Eritrean officers and soldiers.</ref> One brigade under General [[Matteo Albertone]] was made up of Italian officered [[askari]] (native infantry) recruited from Eritrea. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Generals [[Vittorio Dabormida]], [[Giuseppe Ellena]] and Baratieri. While these included elite [[Bersaglieri]] and Cacciatori units, a large proportion were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed battalions for service in Africa.
The Ethiopian forces under Menelik outnumbered the Italians by an estimated five or six times.<ref>Richard Pankhurst has collected the various estimates for the Ethiopian forces, which range from a low of 80,000 to a high of 150,000. ''Economic History of Ethiopia'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie University, 1968), pp. 555-557.</ref> The four Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adowa over narrow mountain tracks. However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn on [[1 March]] were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain.
The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the battle was over.
== Aftermath ==
The Italians suffered about 10,000 killed or wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, and the Ethiopian losses have been estimated as slightly more -- but not much more. As Paul B. Henze notes, "Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians."<ref>Henze, ''Layers of Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (New York: Palgrave, 2000), p.170.</ref> Italian prisoners, who included General Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity.<ref>Chris Proutky notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". ''Empress Taytu and Menilek II'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 169f. ISBN 0932415113</ref> However 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. There does not appear to be any foundation for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatement of the askari prisoners.
Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was descibed by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfitted" for his command. The [[Francesco Crispi|Crispi]] government fell, and was replaced by a new administration with a policy of avoiding further colonial adventures.
As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]], recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. The humiliation remained with Italy for almost forty years, until [[1935]], when during the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] Italy commenced a short-lived conquest of Ethiopia.
== Significance ==
"The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze, who compares this victory to Japan's naval victory over Russia at [[Battle of Tsushima|Tsushima]]. "Though apparent to very few historians at the time, these defeats were the beginning of the decline of Europe as the center of world politics."<ref>Henze, ''Layers of Layers of Time'', p.180.</ref>
On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian [[Bahru Zewde]] observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa." However, Bahru Zewde puts his emphasis on other elements of this triumph: "The racial dimension was what lent Adwa particular significance. It was a victory of blacks over whites. Adwa thus anticipated by almost a decade the equally shattering experience to the whites of the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905."<ref>Bahru Zewde, ''A History of Modern Ethiopia'' (London: James Currey, 1991), p. 81.</ref>
== References ==
<references/>
== See also ==
*[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]
| 04:34, 9 June 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Battle_of_Adwa&diff=58140853&oldid=58139920 | |commander2=[[Oreste Baratieri]]
|strength1=~120,000 (20,000 armed only with spears),<br/> Unknown number of artillery and machine guns
|strength2=17,700,<br> 56 guns
|casualties1=11,000 (est.)
|casualties2=10,000
}}
The '''Battle of Adowa''' (also known as ''Adwa'' or sometimes by the Italian name ''Adua'') was fought on [[1 March]], [[1896]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] near the town of [[Adowa]], Ethiopia, in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]]. It was the climactic battle of the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]].
| 02:50, 12 June 2006 | |commander2=[[Oreste Baratieri]]
|strength1=~120,000 (20,000 armed only with spears),<br/> Unknown number of artillery and machine guns
|strength2=17,700,<br> 56 guns
|casualties1=* 4,000-6,000 killed<br>* 8,000 wounded
|casualties2=* 7,000 killed<br>* 1,500 wounded<br>* 3,000 captured
}}
The '''Battle of Adowa''' (also known as ''Adwa'' or sometimes by the Italian name ''Adua'') was fought on [[1 March]], [[1896]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] near the town of [[Adowa]], Ethiopia, in [[Tigray Region|Tigray]]. It was the climactic battle of the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]].
| 02:56, 12 June 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Banda_Islands&diff=7619076&oldid=6059096 | [[Image:BandaVolcano.JPG|thumb|right|150px|A volcano in the Banda Islands]]
[[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|150px|A volcano in the Banda Islands]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ('''Kepulauan Banda''' in [[Bahasa Indonesia]]) are are group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java island|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 sq km. They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
The Portuguese were the first [[Europe]]ans to discover the islands in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th centuries]]. At the time nutmeg was enormously expensive in Europe, and was an ingredient in quack cures for [[Black Death]] etc. and a monopoly over supply would be quite lucrative. [[Fort Belgica]], one of many forts built by the [[Dutch East India Company]], is the largest European fort in Indonesia. The Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese, who were of Melanesian origin, and the islands were subsequently settled by migrants from elsewhere in indonesia.
| 08:12, 14 September 2004 | [[Image:BandaVolcano.JPG|thumb|right|150px|A volcano in the Banda Islands]]
[[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|150px|A volcano in the Banda Islands]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ('''Kepulauan Banda''' in [[Bahasa Indonesia]]) are are group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java island|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km². They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
The Portuguese were the first [[Europe]]ans to discover the islands in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th centuries]]. At the time nutmeg was enormously expensive in Europe, and was an ingredient in quack cures for [[Black Death]] etc. and a monopoly over supply would be quite lucrative. [[Fort Belgica]], one of many forts built by the [[Dutch East India Company]], is the largest European fort in Indonesia. The Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese, who were of Melanesian origin, and the islands were subsequently settled by migrants from elsewhere in indonesia.
| 04:20, 22 September 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Banda_Islands&diff=66629929&oldid=64607826 | [[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Banda Besar island seen from [[Fort Belgica]].]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ('''Kepulauan Banda''' in [[Bahasa Indonesia]]) are a group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java (island)|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia]]n province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km². They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace (spice)|mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
== History ==
The Portuguese navigator [[António de Abreu]] was the first [[Europe]]an to encounter the islands, in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[Mace (spice)|mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the 1621, led by [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]]. At the time nutmeg was one of the "fine spices" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian [[Fernand Braudel]] notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe (Braudel 1984, p. 219). The lucrative monopoly over supply was ruthlessly enforced,: the Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese and the islands were subsequently settled by imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as in-migrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.
* floor : plur (Dutch vloer)
* porch: stup (Dutch stoep)
Banda Malay shares many [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in Indonesia's national language [[Bahasa Indonesia]]. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation.
Examples :
* turtle : tetaruga (Banda Malay); totoruga (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese tartaruga)
| 05:30, 19 July 2006 | [[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Banda Besar island seen from [[Fort Belgica]].]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ([[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]]: ''Kepulauan Banda'') are a group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java (island)|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia]]n province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km². They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace (spice)|mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
== History ==
The Portuguese navigator [[António de Abreu]] was the first [[Europe]]an to encounter the islands, in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[Mace (spice)|mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the 1621, led by [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]]. At the time nutmeg was one of the "fine spices" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian [[Fernand Braudel]] notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe (Braudel 1984, p. 219). The lucrative monopoly over supply was ruthlessly enforced,: the Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese and the islands were subsequently settled by imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as in-migrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.
* floor : plur (Dutch vloer)
* porch: stup (Dutch stoep)
Banda Malay shares many [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in the national language, [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]]. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation.
Examples :
* turtle : tetaruga (Banda Malay); totoruga (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese tartaruga)
| 03:51, 30 July 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Banda_Islands&diff=92933356&oldid=88913654 | [[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Banda Besar island seen from [[Fort Belgica]].]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Kepulauan Banda'') are a group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java (island)|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia]]n province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km². They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace (spice)|mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
== History ==
The Portuguese navigator [[António de Abreu]] was the first [[Europe]]an to encounter the islands, in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[Mace (spice)|mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the 1621, led by [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]]. At the time nutmeg was one of the "fine spices" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian [[Fernand Braudel]] notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe (Braudel 1984, p. 219). The lucrative monopoly over supply was ruthlessly enforced,: the Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese and the islands were subsequently settled by imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as in-migrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.
| 01:01, 20 November 2006 | [[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Banda Besar island seen from [[Fort Belgica]].]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Kepulauan Banda'') are a group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java (island)|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia]]n province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The main town and administration centre is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km². They have a population of about 15,000. Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace (spice)|mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].
== History ==
The Portuguese navigator [[António de Abreu]] was the first [[Europe]]an to encounter the islands, in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[Mace (spice)|mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the 1621, led by [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]]. At the time nutmeg was one of the "fine spices" kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian [[Fernand Braudel]] notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe (Braudel 1984, p. 219). The lucrative monopoly over supply was ruthlessly enforced,: the Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese and the islands were subsequently settled by imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as in-migrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.
| 15:02, 8 December 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bo_Diddley&diff=61532985&oldid=50005521 |
hey, what about the duchess...i thought i could get some infos about her on this page....? anybody knows something about ther?
marcel | 00:33, 25 April 2006 |
hey, what about the duchess...i thought i could get some infos about her on this page....? anybody knows something about ther?
marcel
== Diddley's real name... ==
Crackin' Up from Bo Diddley (alias Otha Ellas Bates but given the surname McDaniel in infancy on adoption by his mother's first cousin Gussie McDaniel), US POP chart #62, 07/1959.
Another fake info by Stephan KOENIG??? | 12:23, 1 July 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bo_Diddley&diff=216706187&oldid=216686320 | == pictures ==
i think this article could use some more pictures of a younger Bo insteed of all the pictures of him from after 2005 <small>—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/206.130.211.27|206.130.211.27]] ([[User talk:206.130.211.27|talk]]) 17:00, 12 May 2008 (UTC)</small><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
* Unfortunately Wikipedia's draconian image use rules pretty much prohibit the uploading of images that weren't personally taken by editors, so it makes sense that more recent images are likely to be available. [[Special:Contributions/68.146.41.232|68.146.41.232]] ([[User talk:68.146.41.232|talk]]) 16:37, 2 June 2008 (UTC) | 19:32, 2 June 2008 | == pictures ==
i think this article could use some more pictures of a younger Bo insteed of all the pictures of him from after 2005 <small>—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/206.130.211.27|206.130.211.27]] ([[User talk:206.130.211.27|talk]]) 17:00, 12 May 2008 (UTC)</small><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
* Unfortunately Wikipedia's draconian image use rules pretty much prohibit the uploading of images that weren't personally taken by editors, so it makes sense that more recent images are likely to be available. [[Special:Contributions/68.146.41.232|68.146.41.232]] ([[User talk:68.146.41.232|talk]]) 16:37, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
==diddley==
"diddley squat" is the slang term for money made by carnival workers on the nickle and dime games. If you weren't making any money, you couldn't "make diddley squat". I suspect this is not related to his stage name, though. [[User:Pustelnik|Pustelnik]] ([[User talk:Pustelnik|talk]]) 21:07, 2 June 2008 (UTC) | 21:07, 2 June 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bo_Diddley&diff=259331140&oldid=259300607 | Also known as [[hambone]] or "patted juba", it is a traditional west African rhythm. It not hard to believe that it got to Cuba, Haiti, and the US from there. [[Special:Contributions/167.73.110.8|167.73.110.8]] ([[User talk:167.73.110.8|talk]]) 21:17, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
Surprised you included "She's a Woman," equally surprised you left out Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away." <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.22.200.4|75.22.200.4]] ([[User talk:75.22.200.4|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
==Why the Chicago Wikiproject?==
(moved from User talk:Speciate page) My question is what category do you feel that he belongs in that warrants [[WP:WPChi]] attention. I do not see any categories listed. For us to justify our assessments we need to either ensure that an appropriate category be added to an article or an appropriate category be created to add to an article. I do not see how he belongs in our project. We can not every musician who makes frequent appearances in Chicago in our project. If so, we might end up including every company represented by the many Chicago advertising companies. [[User:TonyTheTiger|TonyTheTiger]] <small>([[User talk:TonyTheTiger|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/TonyTheTiger|cont]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/Antonio Vernon|bio]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM|tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM]])</small> 20:38, 25 May 2007 (UTC)
| 06:15, 21 December 2008 | Also known as [[hambone]] or "patted juba", it is a traditional west African rhythm. It not hard to believe that it got to Cuba, Haiti, and the US from there. [[Special:Contributions/167.73.110.8|167.73.110.8]] ([[User talk:167.73.110.8|talk]]) 21:17, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
Surprised you included "She's a Woman," equally surprised you left out Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away." <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.22.200.4|75.22.200.4]] ([[User talk:75.22.200.4|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:fixed! [[User:Sssoul|Sssoul]] ([[User talk:Sssoul|talk]]) 11:46, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
==Why the Chicago Wikiproject?==
(moved from User talk:Speciate page) My question is what category do you feel that he belongs in that warrants [[WP:WPChi]] attention. I do not see any categories listed. For us to justify our assessments we need to either ensure that an appropriate category be added to an article or an appropriate category be created to add to an article. I do not see how he belongs in our project. We can not every musician who makes frequent appearances in Chicago in our project. If so, we might end up including every company represented by the many Chicago advertising companies. [[User:TonyTheTiger|TonyTheTiger]] <small>([[User talk:TonyTheTiger|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/TonyTheTiger|cont]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/Antonio Vernon|bio]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM|tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM]])</small> 20:38, 25 May 2007 (UTC)
| 11:46, 21 December 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bo_Diddley&diff=259357048&oldid=259331140 |
Also known as [[hambone]] or "patted juba", it is a traditional west African rhythm. It not hard to believe that it got to Cuba, Haiti, and the US from there. [[Special:Contributions/167.73.110.8|167.73.110.8]] ([[User talk:167.73.110.8|talk]]) 21:17, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
Surprised you included "She's a Woman," equally surprised you left out Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away." <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.22.200.4|75.22.200.4]] ([[User talk:75.22.200.4|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:fixed! [[User:Sssoul|Sssoul]] ([[User talk:Sssoul|talk]]) 11:46, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
==Why the Chicago Wikiproject?==
| 11:46, 21 December 2008 |
Also known as [[hambone]] or "patted juba", it is a traditional west African rhythm. It not hard to believe that it got to Cuba, Haiti, and the US from there. [[Special:Contributions/167.73.110.8|167.73.110.8]] ([[User talk:167.73.110.8|talk]]) 21:17, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
Surprised you included "She's a Woman," equally surprised you left out Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away" and the Wo's "Magic Bus." <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.22.200.4|75.22.200.4]] ([[User talk:75.22.200.4|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:fixed! [[User:Sssoul|Sssoul]] ([[User talk:Sssoul|talk]]) 11:46, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
==Why the Chicago Wikiproject?==
| 15:44, 21 December 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bo_Diddley&diff=259359700&oldid=259357123 | Also known as [[hambone]] or "patted juba", it is a traditional west African rhythm. It not hard to believe that it got to Cuba, Haiti, and the US from there. [[Special:Contributions/167.73.110.8|167.73.110.8]] ([[User talk:167.73.110.8|talk]]) 21:17, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
Surprised you included "She's a Woman," equally surprised you left out Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away" and the Who's "Magic Bus." <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.22.200.4|75.22.200.4]] ([[User talk:75.22.200.4|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:fixed! [[User:Sssoul|Sssoul]] ([[User talk:Sssoul|talk]]) 11:46, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
==Why the Chicago Wikiproject?==
(moved from User talk:Speciate page) My question is what category do you feel that he belongs in that warrants [[WP:WPChi]] attention. I do not see any categories listed. For us to justify our assessments we need to either ensure that an appropriate category be added to an article or an appropriate category be created to add to an article. I do not see how he belongs in our project. We can not every musician who makes frequent appearances in Chicago in our project. If so, we might end up including every company represented by the many Chicago advertising companies. [[User:TonyTheTiger|TonyTheTiger]] <small>([[User talk:TonyTheTiger|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/TonyTheTiger|cont]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/Antonio Vernon|bio]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM|tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM]])</small> 20:38, 25 May 2007 (UTC)
| 15:44, 21 December 2008 | Also known as [[hambone]] or "patted juba", it is a traditional west African rhythm. It not hard to believe that it got to Cuba, Haiti, and the US from there. [[Special:Contributions/167.73.110.8|167.73.110.8]] ([[User talk:167.73.110.8|talk]]) 21:17, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
Surprised you included "She's a Woman," equally surprised you left out Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away" and the Who's "Magic Bus." <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.22.200.4|75.22.200.4]] ([[User talk:75.22.200.4|talk]]) 06:14, 21 December 2008 (UTC)</span><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot-->
:fixed! '''update:''' well, you can add the Who tune yourself, i reckon [[User:Sssoul|Sssoul]] ([[User talk:Sssoul|talk]]) 11:46, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
==Why the Chicago Wikiproject?==
(moved from User talk:Speciate page) My question is what category do you feel that he belongs in that warrants [[WP:WPChi]] attention. I do not see any categories listed. For us to justify our assessments we need to either ensure that an appropriate category be added to an article or an appropriate category be created to add to an article. I do not see how he belongs in our project. We can not every musician who makes frequent appearances in Chicago in our project. If so, we might end up including every company represented by the many Chicago advertising companies. [[User:TonyTheTiger|TonyTheTiger]] <small>([[User talk:TonyTheTiger|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/TonyTheTiger|cont]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/Antonio Vernon|bio]]/[[User:TonyTheTiger/tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM|tcfkaWCDbwincowtchatlotpsoplrttaDCLaM]])</small> 20:38, 25 May 2007 (UTC)
| 16:05, 21 December 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Bo_Diddley&diff=501248313&oldid=471167431 | *[[The Sweet]] "Blockbuster"
*[[David Bowie]] "The Jean Genie"
=="The Originator"==
This needs a reference. [[User:Rothorpe|Rothorpe]] ([[User talk:Rothorpe|talk]]) 20:01, 16 February 2011 (UTC) | 16:46, 13 January 2012 | *[[The Sweet]] "Blockbuster"
*[[David Bowie]] "The Jean Genie"
=="The Originator"==
This needs a reference. [[User:Rothorpe|Rothorpe]] ([[User talk:Rothorpe|talk]]) 20:01, 16 February 2011 (UTC)
== Door-knocking rhythm ==
In England, at least, there is a traditional rhythm for tapping or knocking on doors which resembles the Bo Diddley beat. I presume this goes back in time long before BD. I don't know if there is a similar tradition in the USA. I'm not suggesting that this is the origin of the BD beat, but it does imply that the rhythm is a fairly natural one, and not necessarily of African origin.[[Special:Contributions/86.173.167.113|86.173.167.113]] ([[User talk:86.173.167.113|talk]]) 14:34, 8 July 2012 (UTC) | 14:35, 8 July 2012 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=The_World_Factbook&diff=4792246&oldid=4542769 | See also: [[Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]], [[Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ 2003 CIA World Factbook] (Main CIA Site)
* [http://www.memoware.com/?screen=doc_detail&doc_id=11148&back=main 2002 CIA World Factbook] for [[Pocket PC]] and [[Palm OS]] devices
* [http://www.nationmaster.com Nationmaster.com]: statistics with bars, based on the Factbook
* [http://www.authorama.com Authorama CIA World Factbook]: The complete Factbook as XHTML1.0 (easily readable, no images, device-independent)
| 08:49, 8 June 2004 | See also: [[Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]], [[Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ 2004 CIA World Factbook] (Main CIA Site)
* [http://www.memoware.com/?screen=doc_detail&doc_id=11148&back=main 2002 CIA World Factbook] for [[Pocket PC]] and [[Palm OS]] devices
* [http://www.nationmaster.com Nationmaster.com]: statistics with bars, based on the Factbook
* [http://www.authorama.com Authorama CIA World Factbook]: The complete Factbook as XHTML1.0 (easily readable, no images, device-independent)
| 11:00, 10 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=The_World_Factbook&diff=8470014&oldid=8332082 | Federal law prohibits use of the words "Central Intelligence Agency," the initials "CIA," the seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency. [http://www.cia.gov/]
</blockquote>
==Controversy==
===Factual===
The Factbook caused some controversy in [[1998]] when [[United Kingdom|British]] journalists noticed it contained some glaring errors - most notably that 'the [[United Kingdom]] gained its independence in [[1801]]'.
===Political===
The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to [[Myanmar]] and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma." Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such a [[Kashmir]] and [[Kosovo]], are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the [[Spratly Islands]], have entries. Maps depicting Kashmir have the India-Pakistan border drawn at the [[Line of Control]], but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hashmarks. The occupied [[Golan Heights]] is not shown as part of Israel and [[Northern Cyprus]] is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps."
"Taiwan" is not listed alphabetically under "T" but last after Zimbabwe because of the U.S. recognition of the [[People's Republic of China]] and acknowledgement of its [[One-China Policy]]. The Factbook is careful to use diplomatic language as not to offend Beijing—the official name of Taiwan under its "Government" section is given as "none" while the title "[[Republic of China]]" does not appear once in the Factbook.
| 14:16, 11 December 2004 | Federal law prohibits use of the words "Central Intelligence Agency," the initials "CIA," the seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency. [http://www.cia.gov/]
</blockquote>
==Controversies==
===Factual Controversies===
The Factbook caused some controversy in [[1998]] when [[United Kingdom|British]] journalists noticed it contained some glaring errors - most notably that 'the [[United Kingdom]] gained its independence in [[1801]]'.
===Political Controversies===
The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to [[Myanmar]] and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma." Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such a [[Kashmir]] and [[Kosovo]], are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the [[Spratly Islands]], have entries. Maps depicting Kashmir have the India-Pakistan border drawn at the [[Line of Control]], but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hashmarks. The occupied [[Golan Heights]] is not shown as part of Israel and [[Northern Cyprus]] is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps."
"Taiwan" is not listed alphabetically under "T" but last after Zimbabwe because of the U.S. recognition of the [[People's Republic of China]] and acknowledgement of its [[One-China Policy]]. The Factbook is careful to use diplomatic language as not to offend Beijing—the official name of Taiwan under its "Government" section is given as "none" while the title "[[Republic of China]]" does not appear once in the Factbook.
| 14:24, 11 December 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=The_World_Factbook&diff=10640352&oldid=10636547 | <!-- For information about using The World Factbook on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook -->
[[Image:Wfbcover.jpg|right|210px|World Factbook cover]]
'''''The World Factbook''''' is an annual publication by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] with basic [[almanac]]-style information about the various [[countries of the world]]. The factbook gives a two- to three-page summary of the [[demography|demographics]], location, [[telecommunication]]s capacity, [[government]], [[industry]], [[military]] capability, ''etc'', of all [[diplomatic recognition|US-recognized]] countries and territories in the world.
As ''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of [[Federal Government of the United States|U.S. Government]] officials, the style, format, coverage, and content are designed to meet their specific requirements.
==Sources==
Information is provided by:
* [[Antarctic Information Program]] ([[National Science Foundation]]),
* [[Bureau of the Census]] ([[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]]),
* [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] ([[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]]),
* other public and private sources.
==Copyright==
Because this document is [[public domain]], i.e. not under [[copyright]], people are free not only to redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way they like, without permission of the CIA.
Many sites have used information and images from the CIA World Factbook, because of its public domain status, including the collaborative on-line encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]].
Besides the World Factbook, the CIA puts out a directory of ''[[Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments]]'' each week.
The official seal of the CIA, however, may NOT be copied without permission as required by the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act|CIA Act of 1949]] (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties.
<blockquote>
Federal law prohibits use of the words "Central Intelligence Agency," the initials "CIA," the seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency. [http://www.cia.gov/]
</blockquote>
==Controversies==
===Factual controversies===
Controversy about the Factbook arose in [[1998]] when [[United Kingdom|British]] journalists noticed it contained some glaring errors -- most notably that "the [[United Kingdom]] gained its independence in [[1801]]".
The maps of countries in the Factbook also appear to have strange anomalies. For example, the map of the United Kingdom lists the town of [[Grangemouth]] in [[Scotland]], although it is only a small town and in no way a major city. Or is it?
===Political controversies===
The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to [[Myanmar]] and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma." Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as [[Kashmir]] and [[Kosovo]], are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the [[Spratly Islands]], have entries. Maps depicting Kashmir have the India-Pakistan border drawn at the [[Line of Control]], but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hashmarks. The occupied [[Golan Heights]], [[Gaza Strip]], the [[West Bank]] are not shown as part of Israel and [[Northern Cyprus]] is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps."
"Taiwan" is listed alphabetically under "T", however when looking at the entry for [[China]] Taiwan is still shown as part of that country. Taiwan, interestingly, is listed next to last, after Zimbabwe, but before the [[European Union]]. Perhaps due to the U.S. recognition of the [[People's Republic of China]] and acknowledgement of its [[One-China Policy]], the Factbook was careful to use diplomatic language as not to offend Beijing—the official name of Taiwan under its "Government" section is given as "none" while the title "[[Republic of China]]" does appear in the Factbook due to a change on January 27, 2005 but it was changed back to "none" during its latest update on 10 February 2005
See also: [[Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ 2004 CIA World Factbook]
[[nl:CIA World Factbook]]
[[no:The World Factbook]]
[[zh:世界概况]]
[[Category:Almanacs]]
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency]] | 00:19, 28 February 2005 | <!--
For information about using The World Factbook on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook
-->
[[Image:Wfbcover.jpg|thumb|World Factbook 2004 cover]]
'''''The World Factbook''''' is an annual publication by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] with basic [[almanac]]-style information about the various [[countries of the world]]. The factbook gives a two- to three-page summary of the [[demography|demographics]], location, [[telecommunication]]s capacity, [[government]], [[industry]], [[military]] capability, ''etc'', of all [[diplomatic recognition|US-recognized]] countries and territories in the world.
As ''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of [[Federal Government of the United States|U.S. Government]] officials, the style, format, coverage, and content are designed to meet their specific requirements.
==Sources==
Information is provided by:
* [[Antarctic Information Program]] ([[National Science Foundation]]),
* [[Bureau of the Census]] ([[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]]),
* [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] ([[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]]),
* other public and private sources.
==Copyright==
Because the Factbook is [[public domain]], i.e. not under [[copyright]], people are free not only to redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way they like, without permission of the CIA.
The official seal of the CIA, however, may NOT be copied without permission as required by the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act|CIA Act of 1949]] (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties. Also, "Federal law prohibits use of the words "Central Intelligence Agency," the initials "CIA," the seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency. [http://www.cia.gov/]"
Many sites have used information and images from the CIA World Factbook, because of its public domain status, including this encyclopedia.
Besides the World Factbook, the CIA puts out a directory of ''[[Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments]]'' each week.
==Oddities and controversies==
===Factual===
Controversy about the Factbook arose in [[1998]] when [[United Kingdom|British]] journalists noticed it contained some glaring errors — most notably that "the [[United Kingdom]] gained its independence in [[1801]]".
The maps of countries in the Factbook also appear to have strange anomalies. For example, the map of the United Kingdom lists the town of [[Grangemouth]] in [[Scotland]], although it is only a small town and in no way a major city.
===Political===
The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to [[Myanmar]] and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma."
Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as [[Kashmir]] and [[Kosovo]], are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the [[Spratly Islands]], have entries.
Maps depicting Kashmir have the India-Pakistan border drawn at the [[Line of Control]], but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hashmarks.
The occupied [[Golan Heights]], [[Gaza Strip]], the [[West Bank]] are not shown as part of Israel.
[[Northern Cyprus]] is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps."
[[Taiwan]] has a separate entry not listed under "T", but at the bottom of the list, along the recently added entry for the [[European Union]]. The name ''[[Republic of China]]'' isn't used.
''See also'' [[Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ 2004 CIA World Factbook]
[[nl:CIA World Factbook]]
[[no:The World Factbook]]
[[zh:世界概况]]
[[Category:Almanacs||World Factbook, The]]
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency|World Factbook, The]] | 05:20, 28 February 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Country_music&diff=951384&oldid=915493 | *[[Emmylou Harris]]
*[[Alan Jackson]]
*[[The Judds]]
*[[Lyle Lovett]]
*[[Reba McEntire]]
*[[Buddy Miller]]
| 07:45, 30 April 2003 | *[[Emmylou Harris]]
*[[Alan Jackson]]
*[[The Judds]]
*[[k.d.lang]]
*[[Lyle Lovett]]
*[[Reba McEntire]]
*[[Buddy Miller]]
| 06:44, 13 May 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Country_music&diff=3782182&oldid=3782157 | [[de:Country-Musik]] [[es:Country]] [[nl:Countrymuziek]]
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{| align=right border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="300"
| 21:08, 22 May 2004 | [[de:Country-Musik]] [[es:Country]] [[nl:Countrymuziek]]
[[Category:Music]]
<!-- The above are interlanguage links to Spanish, Dutch and German articles on the subject, and the below are the code required to produce the table at the top of the article. To get to the text, scroll down. -->
{| align=right border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="300"
| 13:59, 30 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Country_music&diff=4499535&oldid=4226281 |
* ''Roadkill on the Three-Chord Highway'',<br>Colin Escott, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-93783-3
* ''Guitars & Cadillacs'',<br>Sabine Keevil, Thinking Dog Publishing, 2002, ISBN 0-968-9973-0
==See also==
*[[Academy of Country Music]]
| 20:21, 22 June 2004 |
* ''Roadkill on the Three-Chord Highway'',<br>Colin Escott, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-93783-3
* ''Guitars & Cadillacs'',<br>Sabine Keevil, Thinking Dog Publishing, 2002, ISBN 0-968-99730-9
==See also==
*[[Academy of Country Music]]
| 20:24, 22 June 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=3109654&oldid=2995660 | * [[Franz Schubert]] ([[1792]] - [[1828]])
* [[Fernando Sor]] ([[1778]] - [[1839]])
* [[Louis Spohr]] ([[1784]] - [[1859]])
* [[Johann Stamitz|Johann Wenzel Anton Stamitz]] ([[1717]] - [[1757]])
* [[Carl Maria von Weber]] ([[1786]] - [[1826]]) - although chronologically Classical, his music tends to be Romantic | 21:09, 30 March 2004 | * [[Franz Schubert]] ([[1792]] - [[1828]])
* [[Fernando Sor]] ([[1778]] - [[1839]])
* [[Louis Spohr]] ([[1784]] - [[1859]])
* [[Johann Stamitz|Johann Wenzel Anton Stamitz]] ([[1717]] - [[1757]]) | 16:38, 31 March 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=4553458&oldid=4553448 |
===The Early Classical Style (1770-1790)===
While overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it is difficult to over state Haydn's centrality to the new style, and the future of Western concert music, at the time, before Mozart and Beethoven, with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] known primarily to connisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music which set him above all other composers except perhaps [[George Friedrich Handel]]. Occupying a place equivalent to perhaps the Beatles in the history of Rock and Roll. It was he who, more than any other single individual, realized that the new style which had evolved, needed to be written according to new ideas and principles. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned - earning him the nicknames "father of the [[symphony]]" and [[father of the string quartet]]. One might truly say that he was the father of the [[sonata form]] - which, in its classical incarnation, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody against harmony, rhythm and involving the audience in the playing out of the dramatic structure of a work the cardinal virtues of the new style.
Strangely enough, one of the forces that worked as an impeteus for his pressing forward was the first stirrings of what would later be called "romanticism" - the "[[sturm und drang]]", or "storm and struggle" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference, which was the fad of the 1770's. This caused him to want more dramatic contrast and emotionally appealling melodies which had more character, more individuality. This period faded away in music and literature - however, it would color what came afterward, and eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in coming decades.
| 04:19, 11 July 2004 |
===The Early Classical Style (1770-1790)===
While overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it is difficult to over state Haydn's centrality to the new style, and the future of Western concert music, at the time, before Mozart and Beethoven, with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] known primarily to connisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music which set him above all other composers except perhaps [[George Friedrich Handel]]. Occupying a place equivalent to perhaps the Beatles in the history of Rock and Roll. It was he who, more than any other single individual, realized that the new style which had evolved, needed to be written according to new ideas and principles. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned - earning him the nicknames "father of the [[symphony]]" and father of the [[string quartet]]. One might truly say that he was the father of the [[sonata form]] - which, in its classical incarnation, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody against harmony, rhythm and involving the audience in the playing out of the dramatic structure of a work the cardinal virtues of the new style.
Strangely enough, one of the forces that worked as an impeteus for his pressing forward was the first stirrings of what would later be called "romanticism" - the "[[sturm und drang]]", or "storm and struggle" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference, which was the fad of the 1770's. This caused him to want more dramatic contrast and emotionally appealling melodies which had more character, more individuality. This period faded away in music and literature - however, it would color what came afterward, and eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in coming decades.
| 04:20, 11 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=4559387&oldid=4553480 |
Mozart rapidly came to Haydn's attention, who hailed the new composers, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. Their letters to each other are filled with the kind of asides that only two people working at a higher plane than their contemporaries, can share. From Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource - the learning relationship moved in two directions.
The arrival in Vienna by Mozart in 1780 marked the acceleration of the development of the classical style, here, Mozart absorbed the fusion of italianate brilliance and germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhytmically complex melodies and figures, long catilena melodies, virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. Strangely enough, it is at this point that war and inflation halts a trend to larger and larger orchestras and forces the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This presses the classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge. For example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to create a melody between them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.
It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of compostion. When Mozart arrived at age 25, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence of the early classical style in the 1750's. By the decades end, changes in performance practice, relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians and stylistic unity had become established in a composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart would compose his most famous operas, his six symphonies which would help redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which are still among the pinnacle works of the form.
One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style which Mozart and Haydn had formed is [[Muzio Clementi]], a gifted virtuoso pianist who dueled Mozart to a draw before the emperor in playing compositions. His own sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in London during this decade.
===The Late Classical Style (1790-1825)===
| 04:21, 11 July 2004 |
Mozart rapidly came to Haydn's attention, who hailed the new composers, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. Their letters to each other are filled with the kind of asides that only two people working at a higher plane than their contemporaries, can share. From Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource - the learning relationship moved in two directions.
The arrival in Vienna by Mozart in 1780 marked the acceleration of the development of the classical style, here, Mozart absorbed the fusion of italianate brilliance and germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long catilena melodies, virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. Strangely enough, it is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger and larger orchestras and forces the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This presses the classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge. For example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to create a melody between them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.
It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of compostion. When Mozart arrived at age 25, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence of the early classical style in the 1750's. By the decades end, changes in performance practice, relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians and stylistic unity had become established in a composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart would compose his most famous operas, his six late symphonies which would help redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which are still among the pinnacle works of the form.
One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style which Mozart and Haydn had formed is [[Muzio Clementi]], a gifted virtuoso pianist who dueled Mozart to a draw before the emperor in playing compositions. His own sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in London during this decade. The stage was set for a generation of composers, having absorbed the lessons of the new style earlier, and having clear examples to aim at, who would take the classical style in new directions.
===The Late Classical Style (1790-1825)===
| 04:23, 11 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=4673251&oldid=4673192 |
== History of the Classical Period ==
===Baroque into Classical (1740-1770)===
At first the new style took over baroque forms - the ternary "aria da capo" and the "sinfonia" and "concerto" - and simply composed with simpler parts and more emphatic sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together - the basic layouts changed. (See [[Sonata Form]]). Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisional ornament, and focused on the points of [[modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he created the ability for powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. He used instrumentation, melody and changes in mode to highlight these moments. Among the most successful composer, [[Gluck]] spawned many emulators, for example [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility was hugely successful in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios and chorouses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance, and hence produced the highest public estimation for success.
The phase between the baroque and the rise of the classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and idea, goes by many names. It is called "galant" or "rococo", or "pre-classical". It is a period where composers still working in the baroque style are still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present - Bach, Handel and Telemann all compose well past the point where the homophonic style is clearly on the rise. Musical culture was caught at a cross roads, the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. One of the reasons why CPE Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well, knew how to present them in new garb, and with a variety of form. However, it was clear, even to him, that this was a point of transition - Carl Phillip Emmanuel though of it as a fall from older norms - to something else.
By the late 1760's there are flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim and Paris, dozens of symphonies are composed, and there are "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera and vocal music is the feature of most musical events, with concerti and symphonies acting as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and even church services. The norms of a body of strings supplemented by winds, and of movements of particular rhytmic character are established by the late 1760's in Vienna. But the length and weight of pieces is still set in a baroque context: individual movements still focus on one affect, their length is not significantly greater than baroque movements and there is not, yet, a theory of how to compose in the new style which is clearly ennunciated. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.
The composer who made this breakthrough, and integrated the various stylistic pressures first and most successfully was [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750's he began composing symphonies, and by 1761, and composed a tryptich "Morning", "Noon" and "Evening" which were solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a "vice-kapellemeister" and later "kapellemeister", his output expanded, he would compose over 40 symphonies alone in the decade. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.
===The Early Classical Style (1770-1790)===
| 15:36, 16 July 2004 |
== History of the Classical Period ==
===Baroque into Classical (1730-1760)===
At first the new style took over baroque forms - the ternary "aria da capo" and the "sinfonia" and "concerto" - and simply composed with simpler parts and more emphatic sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together - the basic layouts changed. (See [[Sonata Form]]). Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisional ornament, and focused on the points of [[modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he created the ability for powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. He used instrumentation, melody and changes in mode to highlight these moments. Among the most successful composer, [[Gluck]] spawned many emulators, for example [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility was hugely successful in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios and chorouses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance, and hence produced the highest public estimation for success.
The phase between the baroque and the rise of the classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and idea, goes by many names. It is called "galant" or "rococo", or "pre-classical". It is a period where composers still working in the baroque style are still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present - Bach, Handel and Telemann all compose well past the point where the homophonic style is clearly on the rise. Musical culture was caught at a cross roads, the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. One of the reasons why CPE Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well, knew how to present them in new garb, and with a variety of form. However, it was clear, even to him, that this was a point of transition - Carl Phillip Emmanuel though of it as a fall from older norms - to something else.
Baroque music started to virtually die off about 1760.
===The Early Classical Style (1770-1790)===
| 15:39, 16 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=4673528&oldid=4673416 |
== History of the Classical Period ==
===Early Classical Style (1730-1760)===
At first the new style took over baroque forms - the ternary "aria da capo" and the "sinfonia" and "concerto" - and simply composed with simpler parts and more emphatic sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together - the basic layouts changed. (See [[Sonata Form]]). Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisional ornament, and focused on the points of [[modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he created the ability for powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. He used instrumentation, melody and changes in mode to highlight these moments. Among the most successful composer, [[Gluck]] spawned many emulators, for example [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility was hugely successful in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios and chorouses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance, and hence produced the highest public estimation for success.
| 15:52, 16 July 2004 |
== History of the Classical Period ==
===The Early Classical Style (1730-1760)===
At first the new style took over baroque forms - the ternary "aria da capo" and the "sinfonia" and "concerto" - and simply composed with simpler parts and more emphatic sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together - the basic layouts changed. (See [[Sonata Form]]). Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisional ornament, and focused on the points of [[modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he created the ability for powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. He used instrumentation, melody and changes in mode to highlight these moments. Among the most successful composer, [[Gluck]] spawned many emulators, for example [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility was hugely successful in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios and chorouses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance, and hence produced the highest public estimation for success.
| 15:52, 16 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=4673544&oldid=4673528 |
Baroque music started to virtually die off about 1760.
===The Middle Classical Style (1760-1790)===
By the late 1750's there are flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim and Paris, dozens of symphonies are composed, and there are "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera and vocal music is the feature of most musical events, with concerti and symphonies acting as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and even church services. The norms of a body of strings supplemented by winds, and of movements of particular rhytmic character are established by the late 1750's in Vienna. But the length and weight of pieces is still set with some baroque characteristics: individual movements still focus on one affect, their length is not significantly greater than baroque movements and there is not, yet, a theory of how to compose in the new style which is clearly ennunciated. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.
The composer who is thought by some to have made this breakthrough, and integrated the various stylistic pressures first and most successfully was [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750's he began composing symphonies, and by 1761, and composed a tryptich "Morning", "Noon" and "Evening" which were solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a "vice-kapellemeister" and later "kapellemeister", his output expanded, he would compose over 40 symphonies alone in the decade. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.
While overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it is difficult to over state Haydn's centrality to the new style, and the future of Western concert music, at the time, before Mozart and Beethoven, with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] known primarily to connisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music which set him above all other composers except perhaps [[George Friedrich Handel]]. Occupying a place equivalent to perhaps the Beatles in the history of Rock and Roll. It was he who, more than any other single individual, realized that the new style which had evolved, needed to be written according to new ideas and principles. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned - earning him the nicknames "father of the [[symphony]]" and father of the [[string quartet]]. One might truly say that he was the father of the [[sonata form]] - which, in its classical incarnation, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody against harmony, rhythm and involving the audience in the playing out of the dramatic structure of a work the cardinal virtues of the new style.
| 15:52, 16 July 2004 |
Baroque music started to virtually die off about 1760.
===The Early/Middle Classical Style (1760-1790)===
By the late 1750's there are flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim and Paris, dozens of symphonies are composed, and there are "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera and vocal music is the feature of most musical events, with concerti and symphonies acting as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and even church services. The norms of a body of strings supplemented by winds, and of movements of particular rhytmic character are established by the late 1750's in Vienna. But the length and weight of pieces is still set with some baroque characteristics: individual movements still focus on one affect, their length is not significantly greater than baroque movements and there is not, yet, a theory of how to compose in the new style which is clearly ennunciated. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.
Many attribute this breakthrough to be made by C.P.E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. In addition, C.P.E. Bach and Gluck are often considered to be founders of the classical style.
The composer who was the first great master of the style was [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750's he began composing symphonies, and by 1761, and composed a tryptich "Morning", "Noon" and "Evening" which were solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a "vice-kapellemeister" and later "kapellemeister", his output expanded, he would compose over 40 symphonies alone in the decade. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.
While overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it is difficult to over state Haydn's centrality to the new style, and the future of Western concert music, at the time, before Mozart and Beethoven, with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] known primarily to connisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music which set him above all other composers except perhaps [[George Friedrich Handel]]. Occupying a place equivalent to perhaps the Beatles in the history of Rock and Roll. It was he who, more than any other single individual, realized that the new style which had evolved, needed to be written according to new ideas and principles. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned - earning him the nicknames "father of the [[symphony]]" and father of the [[string quartet]]. One might truly say that he was the father of the [[sonata form]] - which, in its classical incarnation, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody against harmony, rhythm and involving the audience in the playing out of the dramatic structure of a work the cardinal virtues of the new style.
| 15:59, 16 July 2004 | 1 |
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