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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_period_(music)&diff=5392446&oldid=4976422 | * [[Carl Maria von Weber]] ([[1786]] - [[1826]]) (Classical/Romantic bridge)
* [[Franz Schubert]] ([[1797]] - [[1828]]) (Classical/Romantic bridge)
[[Category:Musical eras]] | 20:21, 20 July 2004 | * [[Carl Maria von Weber]] ([[1786]] - [[1826]]) (Classical/Romantic bridge)
* [[Franz Schubert]] ([[1797]] - [[1828]]) (Classical/Romantic bridge)
[[Category:Music history]] | 05:03, 3 August 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Casino_game&diff=36584403&oldid=36580995 | [[Game|Games]] available in most [[casino]]s are commonly called '''casino games'''. A casino game typically provides a predictable long-term advantage to the house while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout.
Casino games often offer the player the [[illusion of control]] in which the player is given choices, but the choices do not eliminate the player's long-term disadvantage (the '''house advantage'''). This disadvantage is caused by the casino not paying the full amount that would be expected for the odds wagered. For example, if one game was played by betting what number a roll of a die would give, instead of paying 6 times the amount bet for winning (because it's a 1 in 6 chance) the casino only pays 5 times the amount bet.
==Types of casino games==
===Table Games===
* [[Slot machine]]
* [[Video poker]]
Many casino games are also available outside casinos, playable on machines that simulate them.
[[Category:Gambling]]
[[ja:世界のカジノゲーム一覧]] | 01:41, 25 January 2006 | [[Game|Games]] available in most [[casino]]s are commonly called '''casino games'''. A casino game typically provides a predictable long-term advantage to the house while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout.
Casino games often offer the player the [[illusion of control]] in which the player is given choices, but the choices do not eliminate the player's long-term disadvantage (the '''house advantage'''). This disadvantage is caused by the casino not paying the full amount that would be expected for the odds wagered. For example, if one game was played by betting what number a roll of a die would give, instead of paying 6 times the amount bet for winning (because it's a 1 in 6 chance) the casino only pays 5 times the amount bet.
Many casino games are also available outside casinos, playable on machines that simulate them.
==Types of casino games==
===Table Games===
* [[Slot machine]]
* [[Video poker]]
[[Category:Casinos]]
[[Category:Gambling]]
[[ja:世界のカジノゲーム一覧]] | 02:11, 25 January 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Casino_game&diff=88893536&oldid=82286477 | * [[Pai gow poker]]
* [[Red Dog]]
* [[Spanish 21]]
* [[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]]
* [[Three card poker]]
* [[Two-up]]
| 21:11, 18 October 2006 | * [[Pai gow poker]]
* [[Red Dog]]
* [[Spanish 21]]
* [[Texas Hold'em Poker]]
* [[Three card poker]]
* [[Two-up]]
| 23:01, 19 November 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category_of_being&diff=85345780&oldid=85345222 | Propositions are units of meaning. They should not be confused with [[declarative sentence]]s, which are just sets of words in languages; declarative sentences, ontologically speaking, are thus ideas, aproperty of substances (people), rather than a distinct ontological category. For instance, the English declarative sentence "snow is white" refers to the same proposition as the equivalent French declarative sentence "neige est blanc"; two sentences, one proposition. Similarly, one declarative sentence can refer to many propositions; for instance, "I am hungry" changes meaning (i.e. refers to different propositions) depending on the person uttering it.
===Events===
Events are that which can be said to occur. For instance, if the claim "John went to a ballgame" is true, then we must account for every entity in the sentence. "John" refers to a substance. But what does "went to a ballgame" refer to? It seems wrong to say that "went to a ballgame" is a property that instantiates John, because "went to a ballgame" does not seem to be the same ontological thing as, for instance, redness.
Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be ''[[Abstraction|abstract]],'' rather than ''[[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]].'' Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence. That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
| 22:09, 2 November 2006 | Propositions are units of meaning. They should not be confused with [[declarative sentence]]s, which are just sets of words in languages; declarative sentences, ontologically speaking, are thus ideas, aproperty of substances (people), rather than a distinct ontological category. For instance, the English declarative sentence "snow is white" refers to the same proposition as the equivalent French declarative sentence "neige est blanc"; two sentences, one proposition. Similarly, one declarative sentence can refer to many propositions; for instance, "I am hungry" changes meaning (i.e. refers to different propositions) depending on the person uttering it.
===Events===
Events are that which can be said to occur. To illustrate, consider the claim "John went to a ballgame"; if true, then we must ontologically account for every entity in the sentence. "John" refers to a substance. But what does "went to a ballgame" refer to? It seems wrong to say that "went to a ballgame" is a property that instantiates John, because "went to a ballgame" does not seem to be the same ontological king of thing as, for instance, redness. Thus, events arguably deserve their own ontological category.
Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be ''[[Abstraction|abstract]],'' rather than ''[[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]].'' Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence. That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
| 22:11, 2 November 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cladistics&diff=2472962&oldid=2472878 |
Typically, an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies''). Usually this is done by considering some ''outgroup'' of organisms we know are not too closely related to any of the organisms in question. Only apomorphies are of any use in characterising cladistic divisions.
Next, different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated. Clades are typically drawn so that they can have as many synapomorphies as possible. The idea is that a sufficiently large number of characteristics should be large enough to overwhelm any examples of [[convergent evolution]]. In other words, there are many ways in which plants and animals, etc., may evolve features that resemble each other because of environmental conditions. A well-known type of convergent evolution is insect mimicry, in which some insects that are edible come to superficially resemble other insects that are inedible, and so escape being eaten.
In practice, neutral features like exact ''ultrastructure'' (a term for extremely fine structure, microscopic or molecular composition of cellular structure) tend to do just that, to provide evidence for real relationships even when the appearance of organisms makes it otherwise difficult. When equivalent possibilities turn up, one is usually chosen based on the principle of ''parsimony'': the most compact arrangement is likely the best (a variation of [[Occam's razor]]). Another approach, particularly useful in molecular evolution, is [[maximum likelihood]], which selects the optimal cladogram that has the highest likelihood based on a specific probability model of changes.
| 22:52, 10 February 2004 |
Typically, an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies''). Usually this is done by considering some ''outgroup'' of organisms we know are not too closely related to any of the organisms in question. Only apomorphies are of any use in characterising cladistic divisions.
Next, different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated. Clades are typically drawn so that they can have as many synapomorphies as possible. The idea is that a sufficiently large number of characteristics should be large enough to overwhelm any examples of [[convergent evolution]]. In other words, there are many ways in which plants and animals, etc., may evolve features that resemble each other because of environmental conditions. A well-known type of convergent evolution is the evolution of wings. Though the wings of birds and insects may superficially resemble one another and serve the same function, both evolved independently.
In practice, neutral features like exact ''ultrastructure'' (a term for extremely fine structure, microscopic or molecular composition of cellular structure) tend to do just that, to provide evidence for real relationships even when the appearance of organisms makes it otherwise difficult. When equivalent possibilities turn up, one is usually chosen based on the principle of ''parsimony'': the most compact arrangement is likely the best (a variation of [[Occam's razor]]). Another approach, particularly useful in molecular evolution, is [[maximum likelihood]], which selects the optimal cladogram that has the highest likelihood based on a specific probability model of changes.
| 19:01, 21 February 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cladistics&diff=3450040&oldid=3444546 | ''A cladogram showing the relationship between various plant groups using intersecting diagonal lines.''
</div>
In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary (two-way). The two taxa either side of a split are called ''sister taxa'' or ''sister groups''. Each branch, whether it only contains one item or a hundred thousand, is called a ''clade''. A correct cladogram should have all the organisms contained in any one clade share a unique ancestor for that clade, one which they do not share with any other organisms on the diagram. Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the other forms it diverged from. These identifying characteristics of a clade are called ''synapomorphies'' (shared, derived characters). For instance, hardened front [[wing]]s are a synapomorphy of [[beetle]]s, while [[Vernation|circinate vernation]], or the unrolling of new fronds, is a synapomorphy of [[fern]]s.
==Cladistic methods==
==Cladistic classification==
A recent trend in biology since the [[1960s]], called '''cladism''' or '''cladistic taxonomy''', is to require taxa (named groups in a [[taxonomy]]) to be clades. In other words, cladists argue the classification system should be reformed to eliminate all non-clades (paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups). In fact, some cladists have argued for entirely abandoning the [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnaean]] system of ranked taxa in favor of clades. A formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature, the [[PhyloCode]] [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/], is currently under development for a cladistic taxonomy that abandons the Linnaean structure.
A true clade is considered to be ''monophyletic'', or containing one (and only one) complete evolutionary grouping deriving from one common ancestor. When a named group is found to contain more than one evolutionary line, it is termed ''polyphyletic''. For example, the once-recognized group Pachydermata was found to be polyphyletic because an [[elephant]] and a [[rhinoceros]] were each found to be more closely related to non-pachyderms than either to each other. Biologists consider groups that turn out to be polyphyletic to be errors in classification, often occurring because [[convergent evolution|convergence]] or other [[homoplasy]] was misinterpreted as [[homology (biology)|homology]].
| 05:16, 9 April 2004 | ''A cladogram showing the relationship between various plant groups using intersecting diagonal lines.''
</div>
In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary (two-way). The two [[taxon|taxa]] either side of a split are called ''sister taxa'' or ''sister groups''. Each branch, whether it only contains one item or a hundred thousand, is called a ''clade''. A correct cladogram should have all the organisms contained in any one clade share a unique ancestor for that clade, one which they do not share with any other organisms on the diagram. Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the other forms it diverged from. These identifying characteristics of a clade are called ''synapomorphies'' (shared, derived characters). For instance, hardened front [[wing]]s are a synapomorphy of [[beetle]]s, while [[Vernation|circinate vernation]], or the unrolling of new fronds, is a synapomorphy of [[fern]]s.
==Cladistic methods==
==Cladistic classification==
A recent trend in biology since the [[1960s]], called '''cladism''' or '''cladistic taxonomy''', is to require taxa to be clades. In other words, cladists argue the classification system should be reformed to eliminate all non-clades (paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups). In fact, some cladists have argued for entirely abandoning the [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnaean]] system of ranked taxa in favor of clades. A formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature, the [[PhyloCode]] [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/], is currently under development for a cladistic taxonomy that abandons the Linnaean structure.
A true clade is considered to be ''monophyletic'', or containing one (and only one) complete evolutionary grouping deriving from one common ancestor. When a named group is found to contain more than one evolutionary line, it is termed ''polyphyletic''. For example, the once-recognized group Pachydermata was found to be polyphyletic because an [[elephant]] and a [[rhinoceros]] were each found to be more closely related to non-pachyderms than either to each other. Biologists consider groups that turn out to be polyphyletic to be errors in classification, often occurring because [[convergent evolution|convergence]] or other [[homoplasy]] was misinterpreted as [[homology (biology)|homology]].
| 13:02, 4 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cladistics&diff=5097603&oldid=4948501 |
==Introduction==
Based on a wide variety of information, which includes genetic analysis, biochemical analysis, and analysis of morphology, treelike relationship-diagrams called "cladograms" are drawn up to show different possibilities.
[[image:cladogram-example2.png|framed|A vertical orientation yields a cladogram reminiscent of a tree. All plants in this diagram descend from ferns.]]
In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary (two-way). The two [[taxon|taxa]] either side of a split are called ''sister taxa'' or ''sister groups''. Each branch, whether it only contains one item or a hundred thousand, is called a ''clade''. A correct cladogram should have all the organisms contained in any one clade share a unique ancestor for that clade, one which they do not share with any other organisms on the diagram. Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the other forms it diverged from. These identifying characteristics of a clade are called ''synapomorphies'' (shared, derived characters). For instance, hardened front [[wing]]s are a synapomorphy of [[beetle]]s, while [[Vernation|circinate vernation]], or the unrolling of new fronds, is a synapomorphy of [[fern]]s.
==Cladistic methods==
| 07:19, 30 July 2004 |
==Introduction==
Based on a wide variety of information, which includes genetic analysis, biochemical analysis, and analysis of morphology, [[Tree_(graph_theory)|tree]]like relationship-diagrams called "cladograms" are drawn up to show different possibilities.
[[image:cladogram-example2.png|framed|A vertical orientation yields a cladogram reminiscent of a [[Tree_(graph_theory)|tree]]. All plants in this diagram descend from ferns.]]
In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the leaves, and each inner node is ideally binary (two-way). The two [[taxon|taxa]] either side of a split are called ''sister taxa'' or ''sister groups''. Each subtree, whether it only contains one item or a hundred thousand, is called a ''clade''. A correct cladogram should have all the organisms contained in any one clade share a unique ancestor for that clade, one which they do not share with any other organisms on the diagram. Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the other forms it diverged from. These identifying characteristics of a clade are called ''synapomorphies'' (shared, derived characters). For instance, hardened front [[wing]]s are a synapomorphy of [[beetle]]s, while [[Vernation|circinate vernation]], or the unrolling of new fronds, is a synapomorphy of [[fern]]s.
==Cladistic methods==
| 14:07, 1 August 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cladistics&diff=6466930&oldid=6466907 | [[image:cladogram-example1.png|framed|This cladogram shows the relationship among various insect groups. In some cladograms, the length of the horizontal lines indicates time elapsed since the last common ancestor.]]
'''Cladistics''' (or '''phylogenetic systematics''') is a branch of [[biology]] that seeks to erect classification groups for all organisms, based solely on their evolutionary relationships. Cladistics differs from [[phenetics]], which groups organisms based on ''overall'' similarity (morphological approach), and from more traditional approaches based on "key characters". In cladistics, key characters or overall similarity are seen as useful only insofar as they point toward the correct evolutionary history, whatever that may be. Thus subjective criteria — such as the relative "importance" for classification of various types of characters — are discarded in favor of a single objective (but inferred) historical criterion: the shared-derived character (or synapomorphy). Thus, cladistic groups must contain a common ancestor and ''all'' of its descendants, regardless of the evolutionary changes they have undergone. For example, if birds are descended from dinosaurian reptiles, then order Dinosauria must include all birds. If the class Reptilia excludes birds, then it is rejected as an artificially constructed group because it does not reflect natural (evolutionary) history. The term Sauria, which includes both Reptilia and the birds, is preferred. [[Willi Hennig]] is widely regarded as the founder of cladistics.
==Introduction==
==Cladistic classification==
A recent trend in biology since the [[1960s]], called '''cladism''' or '''cladistic taxonomy''', is to require taxa to be clades. In other words, cladists argue the classification system should be reformed to eliminate all non-clades (paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups). In fact, some cladists have argued for entirely abandoning the [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnaean]] system of ranked taxa in favor of clades. A formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature, the [[PhyloCode]] [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/], is currently under development for a cladistic taxonomy that abandons the Linnaean structure.
A true clade is considered to be ''monophyletic'', or containing one (and only one) complete evolutionary grouping deriving from one common ancestor. When a named group is found to contain more than one evolutionary line, it is termed ''polyphyletic''. For example, the once-recognized group Pachydermata was found to be polyphyletic because an [[elephant]] and a [[rhinoceros]] were each found to be more closely related to non-pachyderms than either to each other. Biologists consider groups that turn out to be polyphyletic to be errors in classification, often occurring because [[convergent evolution|convergence]] or other [[homoplasy]] was misinterpreted as [[homology (biology)|homology]].
If a named group is found to include some but not all of the descendants of the ancestor on which the group is based, it is termed [[paraphyletic]]. Paraphyletic groups are usually created when organisms are groups on the basis of plesiomorphies instead of apomorphies. Classic examples of paraphyly include Pisces (fishes), whose descendants include [[tetrapod]]s (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals), and Reptilia, whose descendants include birds; however, neither tetrapods nor birds are included in the groups named Pisces and Reptilia, respectively. Most paraphyletics groups, however, were erected at the genus level, because species were grouped on overall similarity prior to a cladistic analysis.
The denial of recognition to paraphyletic groups has been very controversial in biology and remains so among a number of more traditional [[evolutionary taxonomy|evolutionary taxonomists]]. They feel that abandonment of paraphyly leads to loss of information in the classification system about significant changes in organisms' morphology, ecology, or life history. Accordingly, they argue that the notions of clade and taxon should be kept distinct, and that paraphyletic taxa are necessary if every group is going to be broken down completely into subgroups. In fact, evolutionary taxomonists such as Peter Ashlock include paraphyly under the term ''monophyletic'', reserving the term ''holophyletic'' for the strict sense of ''monophyletic.''
Cladists counter that "significant changes" recognized by evolutionary taxonomists are often too subjective to be a basis for classification
== Cladistic parsimony ==
| 11:15, 2 October 2004 | [[image:cladogram-example1.png|framed|This cladogram shows the relationship among various insect groups. In some cladograms, the length of the horizontal lines indicates time elapsed since the last common ancestor.]]
'''Cladistics''' or '''phylogenetic systematics''' is a branch of [[biology]] that determines the [[evolution]]ary relationships of living things based on derived similarities. It forms the basis for most modern systems of classification, which seek to group organisms by evolutionary relationships. In contrast, [[phenetics]] groups organisms based on their ''overall'' similarity, while more traditional approaches tend to rely on key characters. [[Willi Hennig]] is widely regarded as the founder of cladistics.
==Introduction==
==Cladistic classification==
A recent trend in biology since the 1960s, called '''cladism''' or '''cladistic taxonomy''', has been to require taxa to be clades. In other words cladists argue that the classification system should be reformed to eliminate all non-clades. In contrast, other evolutionary taxonomists insist that groups reflect phylogenies and often make use of cladistic techniques, but allow both monophyletic and paraphyletic groups as taxa.
A ''[[monophyletic]]'' group is a clade, comprising an ancestral form and all of its descendants, and so forming one (and only one) evolutionary group. A ''[[paraphyletic]]'' group is similar, but excludes some of the descendants that have undergone significant changes. For instance, the traditional class Reptilia excludes birds even though they developed from the ancestral reptile.
A group with members from separate evolutionary lines is called ''[[polyphyletic]]''. For instance, the once-recognized Pachydermata was found to be polyphyletic because elephants and rhinoceroses arose separately from non-pachyderms. Evolutionary taxonomists consider polyphyletic groups to be errors in classification, often occurring because because [[convergent evolution|convergence]] or other [[homoplasy]] was misinterpreted as [[homology (biology)|homology]].
Whether or not paraphyletic groups are valid taxa remains controversial. Cladists argue that deciding the relative importance for classification of various types of characters is inherently subjective and so not a valid basis for taxonomy, and that it should be replaced with a single objective (though inferred) criterion, the presence of synapomorphies. Some cladists have also argued that ranks are too subjective to present meaningful information, and so have moved away from Linnaean taxonomy towards a simple hierarchy of clades. A formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature, the [[Phylocode]], is currently under development for such cladistic taxonomy.
Other evolutionary taxonomists argue that all taxa are inherently subjective, even when they reflect objective relationships. For instance, at some point ''Homo sapiens'' must have had an ancestor that was a different species, although any such separation is artificial and immediately renders the ancestral species paraphyletic. Thus it is impossible to create a complete taxonomy including ancestors without using paraphyletic taxa. They also argue that paraphyletic taxa provide information about significant changes in organisms' morphology, ecology, or life history. Many use the term ''monophyly'' in its older sense, where it includes paraphyly, and use the alternate term ''holophyletic'' to describe clades.
== Cladistic parsimony ==
| 09:48, 10 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Commelinales&diff=331965842&oldid=327001664 | {{Expand Spanish|Commelinales|topic=sci}}
{{Taxobox
|name = Commelinales
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|80}}[[Late Cretaceous]] - Recent
| 21:53, 20 November 2009 | {{Expand Spanish|Commelinales|topic=sci|date=December 2009}}
{{Taxobox
|name = Commelinales
|fossil_range = {{fossil range|80}}[[Late Cretaceous]] - Recent
| 05:35, 16 December 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Khmer_architecture&diff=13167789&oldid=13167373 |
==Features==
The architecture of the Angkor period used certain specific structural features and styles which (along with inscriptions) are one of the main methods used to date the temples.
===Corbelling===
Rather than a true [[arch]], the Khmers used [[corbel]] arches. These were constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side, with each layer projecting further towards the centre. This method, while adequate, made the temples particularly prone to collapse once the buildings were no longer maintained.
===Colonettes===
[[Colonette]]s were used as decoration on either side of doorways.
===Blind doors and windows===
[[Blind door]]s were typically used to balance true doorways. Shrines frequently opened only towards one direction: the other three sides therefore featured blind doors to maintain symmetry. [[Blind window]]s were often used along otherwise blank walls.
===Gopura===
A gopura was an entrance building. Each enclosure of a temple usually had a gopura at each of the four [[cardinal point]]s. In plan they were most often cross-shaped, elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; where the wall had a gallery, this could be connected to the arms of the gopura. Many gopuras had a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments were often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) were often placed or carved on either side of the doorways.
===Gallery===
The gallery was a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. The form evolved during the [[10th century]] from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary. During the later [[Angkor Wat]] period, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to [[buttress]] the structure of the temple.
===Library===
The library is one of the most common features of Khmer temple architecture, but it is still not certain what they were used for. Most likely they were shrines rather than actual libraries. Free-standing buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
===Hall of Dancers===
The Hall of Dancers is a structure found at [[Ta Prohm]], [[Preah Khan]], [[Banteay Kdei]] and [[Banteay Chhmar]]. In each case it is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis; and divided into four courtyards by galleries. The roofs were made of perishable materials and have disappeared. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with dancing apsaras, hence the presumption that the buildings were used for dancing.
===Srahs and barays===
| 06:11, 3 May 2005 |
==Features==
[[Image:Blinddoortaprohm.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door at [[Ta Prohm]].]]The architecture of the Angkor period used certain specific structural features and styles which (along with inscriptions) are one of the main methods used to date the temples.
===Blind doors and windows===
[[Blind door]]s were typically used to balance true doorways. Shrines frequently opened only towards one direction: the other three sides therefore featured blind doors to maintain symmetry. [[Blind window]]s were often used along otherwise blank walls.
===Colonettes===
[[Colonette]]s were used as decoration on either side of doorways.
===Corbelling===
[[Image:Corbelangkorthomsouth.JPG|thumb|100px|Corbel arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom.]]Rather than a true [[arch]], the Khmers used [[corbel]] arches. These were constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side, with each layer projecting further towards the centre. This method, while adequate, made the temples particularly prone to collapse once the buildings were no longer maintained.
===Gallery===
[[Image:Cruciformgalleryangkorwat.JPG|thumb|100px|left|Cruciform gallery at Angkor Wat.]]The gallery was a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. The form evolved during the [[10th century]] from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary. During the later [[Angkor Wat]] period, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to [[buttress]] the structure of the temple.
===Gopura===
[[Image:Gopurataprohm.JPG|thumb|Gopura at [[Ta Prohm]].]]A gopura was an entrance building. Each enclosure of a temple usually had a gopura at each of the four [[cardinal point]]s. In plan they were most often cross-shaped, elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; where the wall had a gallery, this could be connected to the arms of the gopura. Many gopuras had a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments were often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) were often placed or carved on either side of the doorways.
===Hall of Dancers===
The Hall of Dancers is a structure found at [[Ta Prohm]], [[Preah Khan]], [[Banteay Kdei]] and [[Banteay Chhmar]]. In each case it is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis; and divided into four courtyards by galleries. The roofs were made of perishable materials and have disappeared. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with dancing apsaras, hence the presumption that the buildings were used for dancing.
===Library===
[[Image:Libraryangkorwat.JPG|thumb|Library at Angkor Wat; unusually, the libraries here open both east and west.]]The library is one of the most common features of Khmer temple architecture, but it is still not certain what they were used for. Most likely they were shrines rather than actual libraries. Free-standing buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
===Srahs and barays===
| 06:54, 3 May 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Khmer_architecture&diff=13168027&oldid=13167789 |
==Features==
[[Image:Blinddoortaprohm.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door at [[Ta Prohm]].]]The architecture of the Angkor period used certain specific structural features and styles which (along with inscriptions) are one of the main methods used to date the temples.
===Blind doors and windows===
| 06:54, 3 May 2005 |
==Features==
[[Image:Colonettesbanteaysrei.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door with colonettes at [[Banteay Srei]].]]The architecture of the Angkor period used certain specific structural features and styles which (along with inscriptions) are one of the main methods used to date the temples.
===Blind doors and windows===
| 07:09, 3 May 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Khmer_architecture&diff=51473372&oldid=51317258 | __NOTOC__
{{Regional-arch}}
The '''Architecture of Cambodia''' developed in a series of stages under the Khmer empire: the approximate date of a structure can be determined from the elements and styles used. Hardly any secular architecture remains from this time, as only religious buildings were made of stone.
[[Image:Angkor wat.jpg|frame|left|Angkor Wat]]
<br clear="all" />
==Features==
| 04:45, 3 May 2006 | __NOTOC__
{{Regional-arch}}
The '''Architecture of Cambodia''' developed in a series of stages under the Khmer empire: the approximate date of a structure can be determined from the elements and styles used. Hardly any secular architecture remains from this time, as only religious buildings were made of stone.
[[Image:Angkor wat.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Angkor Wat]]
<br clear="all" />
==Features==
| 03:39, 4 May 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Khmer_architecture&diff=149254505&oldid=149250552 |
===Apsaras and devatas===
[[Apsaras]], divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the [[Ocean of Milk]], or [[samudra manthan]], found in the great epic [[Mahabharata]]. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a [[Khmer people|Khmer]] innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorean temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing about rather than dancing are more commonly called "[[devatas]]." Both apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at [[Angkor]]. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at [[Preah Khan]] and in the famous bas-relief of [[Angkor Wat]] depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at [[Angkor Wat]], where they appear individually and in groups.<ref>See Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.37.</ref>
===Blind doors and windows===
[[Image:Colonettesbanteaysrei.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door with colonettes at [[Banteay Srei]].]] Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the East. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls.<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.40.</ref>
| 01:01, 5 August 2007 |
===Apsaras and devatas===
[[Apsaras]], divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the [[Ocean of Milk]], or [[samudra manthan]], found in the great epic [[Mahabharata]]. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a [[Khmer people|Khmer]] innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorean temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing about rather than dancing are more commonly called "[[devatas]]." Both apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at [[Angkor]]. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at [[Preah Khan]] and in the famous bas-relief of [[Angkor Wat]] depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at [[Angkor Wat]], where they appear individually and in groups.<ref>See Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.37.</ref>
===Bas-reliefs===
[[Bas-reliefs]] are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century A.D., the Khmer limited their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the [[tympana]] above doorways. The most famous such bas-reliefs are those at the 10th century temple of [[Banteay Srei]], depicting scenes from [[Hindu mythology]]. By the 12th century, however, the Khmer were beginning to cover entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At [[Angkor Wat]], the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the [[Bayon]] contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King [[Jayavarman VII]]. The [[Terrace of the Elephants]] and the [[Terrace of the Leper King]] are likewise known for their bas-reliefs.<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.36.</ref>
===Blind doors and windows===
[[Image:Colonettesbanteaysrei.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door with colonettes at [[Banteay Srei]].]] Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the East. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls.<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.40.</ref>
| 01:30, 5 August 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Capricornus&diff=2432479&oldid=2308679 | <tr><td>'''[[Declination]]'''</td><td>-20°</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Visible to latitude'''</td><td>Between 60° and -90°</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Best visible'''</td><td>[[September]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Area'''<br> - Total</td><td>[[List of constellations by area|Ranked 15th]]<br>867 sq. deg.</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Number of stars with'''<br>'''[[apparent magnitude]] < 3'''</td><td>1</td>
<tr><td>'''Brightest star'''<br> - Apparent magnitude</td><td>[[Deneb Algedi]] (δ Cap)<br>3.0</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[Meteor shower]]s'''</td><td>
| 17:03, 11 January 2004 | <tr><td>'''[[Declination]]'''</td><td>-20°</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Visible to latitude'''</td><td>Between 60° and -90°</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Best visible'''</td><td>[[September]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Area'''<br> - Total</td><td>[[List of constellations by area|Ranked 40th]]<br>414 sq. deg.</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''Number of stars with'''<br>'''[[apparent magnitude]] < 3'''</td><td>1</td>
<tr><td>'''Brightest star'''<br> - Apparent magnitude</td><td>[[Deneb Algedi]] (δ Cap)<br>3.0</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[Meteor shower]]s'''</td><td>
| 12:23, 5 February 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Capricornus&diff=5109012&oldid=4440470 | In some cosmologies, Capricorn is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], and thus called an Earth Sign (with Taurus and Virgo). Its polar opposite is Cancer.
{{Zodiac}}
[[de:Steinbock (Sternbild)]] [[fr:Constellation du Capricorne]] [[ja:やぎ座]] [[nl:Capricornus]]
[[Category:Constellations]] | 03:09, 6 June 2004 | In some cosmologies, Capricorn is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], and thus called an Earth Sign (with Taurus and Virgo). Its polar opposite is Cancer.
{{Zodiac}}
[[de:Steinbock (Sternbild)]]
[[fr:Constellation du Capricorne]]
[[ja:やぎ座]]
[[nl:Capricornus]]
[[pt:Capricornus]]
[[Category:Constellations]] | 18:19, 4 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Capricornus&diff=8976158&oldid=7800056 | [[es:Capricornus]]
[[eo:Kaprikorno]]
[[fr:Capricorne (constellation)]]
[[it:Capricorno (astronomia)]]
[[la:Capricornus]]
[[nl:Capricornus]]
| 19:46, 2 November 2004 | [[es:Capricornus]]
[[eo:Kaprikorno]]
[[fr:Capricorne (constellation)]]
[[id:Capricornus]]
[[it:Capricorno (astronomia)]]
[[la:Capricornus]]
[[nl:Capricornus]]
| 02:13, 24 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Capricornus&diff=12712084&oldid=12661993 |
[[ca:Capricornus]]
[[de:Steinbock (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Capricornus]]
[[eo:Kaprikorno]]
[[fr:Capricorne (constellation)]]
[[id:Capricornus]]
[[it:Capricorno (astronomia)]]
[[la:Capricornus]]
[[nl:Capricornus]]
[[ja:やぎ座]]
[[pt:Capricornus]]
[[ru:Козерог (созвездие)]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแพะทะเล]] | 23:15, 21 April 2005 |
[[ca:Capricornus]]
[[de:Steinbock (Sternbild)]]
[[eo:Kaprikorno]]
[[es:Capricornus]]
[[fr:Capricorne (constellation)]]
[[id:Capricornus]]
[[it:Capricorno (astronomia)]]
[[ja:やぎ座]]
[[ka:თხის რქა]]
[[la:Capricornus]]
[[nl:Capricornus]]
[[pt:Capricornus]]
[[ru:Козерог (созвездие)]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแพะทะเล]] | 14:22, 22 April 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Capricornus&diff=14567168&oldid=14567138 | '''Capricornus''' (♑), a name meaning "[[Horn]]ed [[Goat]]" or "That which has horns like a goat's" in [[Latin]], is one of the [[constellation|constellations]] of the [[zodiac]]. It is commonly called '''Capricorn''', especially in [[astrology]]. It is commonly called the sea-goat, as it is in an area of the sky known as the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]]. Capricornus is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]]. Under its modern boundaries it is bordered by [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], [[Sagittarius]], [[Microscopium]], [[Piscis Austrinus]] and [[Aquarius]].
== Notable features ==
This constellation is the dimmest in the zodiac besides [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]. Its brighter stars are found on a triangle whose vertices are Giedi (α), Deneb Algedi (δ), and ω Capricorni.
== History ==
This constellation is one of the oldest to have been identified, possibly the oldest, despite its dimness. Since it falls in an area of the sky known as the sea, it became considered a sea-goat (in the same sense as a [[mermaid|sea-maiden]]). Depictions of a goat or goat-fish have been found on [[Babylon]]ian tablets dating back three thousand years. The constellation may owe its antiquity to the fact that at that time, the northern hemisphere's [[Winter Solstice]] occurred while the sun was in Capricorn. The concern for the sun's rebirth might have rendered astronomical and astrological observation of this region of space very important.
| 04:59, 2 June 2005 | '''Capricornus''' (♑), a name meaning "[[Horn]]ed [[Goat]]" or "That which has horns like a goat's" in [[Latin]], is one of the [[constellation|constellations]] of the [[zodiac]]. It is commonly called '''Capricorn''', especially in [[astrology]]. It is commonly called the sea-goat, as it is in an area of the sky known as the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]]. Capricornus is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]]. Under its modern boundaries it is bordered by [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], [[Sagittarius]], [[Microscopium]], [[Piscis Austrinus]] and [[Aquarius]].
== Notable features ==
This constellation is the dimmest in the zodiac besides [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]. Its brighter stars are found on a triangle whose vertices are Giedi (α), Deneb Algedi (δ), and ω Capricorni. people born under this sign tend to fart alot and get laid on a daily basis
== History ==
This constellation is one of the oldest to have been identified, possibly the oldest, despite its dimness. Since it falls in an area of the sky known as the sea, it became considered a sea-goat (in the same sense as a [[mermaid|sea-maiden]]). Depictions of a goat or goat-fish have been found on [[Babylon]]ian tablets dating back three thousand years. The constellation may owe its antiquity to the fact that at that time, the northern hemisphere's [[Winter Solstice]] occurred while the sun was in Capricorn. The concern for the sun's rebirth might have rendered astronomical and astrological observation of this region of space very important.
| 05:03, 2 June 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Geography_of_Cameroon&diff=59787721&oldid=54897686 |
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
475,440 km²
<br>''land:''
469,440 km²
<br>''water:''
6,000 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[California]]
3% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
210 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
| 15:01, 24 May 2006 |
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
475,440 km²
<br>''land:''
469,440 km²
<br>''water:''
6,000 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[California]]
3% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
210 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
| 10:11, 21 June 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Geography_of_Cameroon&diff=268634952&oldid=268634872 |
The low [[South Cameroon Plateau]], rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 [[foot (length)|feet]] (450–600 m). It is less humid than the coast.
[[Image:Mount Cameroon craters.jpg|thumb|left|Mount Cameroon craters]]
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extend from Mt. Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region enjoys a pleasant climate, particularly in the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands]]. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon.
| 05:32, 5 February 2009 |
The low [[South Cameroon Plateau]], rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 [[foot (length)|feet]] (450–600 m). It is less humid than the coast.
[[Image:Mount Cameroon craters.jpg|thumb|center|Mount Cameroon craters]]
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extend from Mt. Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region enjoys a pleasant climate, particularly in the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands]]. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon.
| 05:33, 5 February 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Geography_of_Cameroon&diff=309174097&oldid=298222813 | <br>''total:''
475,440 km²
<br>''land:''
469,440 km²
<br>''water:''
6,000 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[California]]
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Fako]](aka. Mt. Cameroon) 4,095 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
13%
<br>''permanent crops:''
2%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
4%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
78%
<br>''other:''
3% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
210 km² (1993 est.)
[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Far North Province]].]]
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
[[Nuclear Test Ban]]
'''Geography - note:'''
sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== See also ==
{{commonscat|Geography of Cameroon}}
* [[Cameroon]]
{{Cameroon topics}}
{{Geography of Africa}}
| 23:03, 23 June 2009 | <br>''total:''
475,440 km²
<br>''land:''
472,710 km²
<br>''water:''
2,730 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[California]]
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Fako]](on. [[Mt. Cameroon]]) 4,095 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
12.54%
<br>''permanent crops:''
2.52%
<br>''other:''
84.94% (2005)
'''Irrigated land:'''
260 km² (2003)
[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Far North Province]].]]
'''Total renewable water resources:''
285.5 cu km (2003)
'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):''
<br>''total:''
0.99 cu km/yr (18%/8%/74%)
<br>''per capita:''
61 cu m/yr (2000)
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
[[Nuclear Test Ban]]
'''Geography - note:'''
sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa; throughout the country there are areas of thermal springs and indications of current or prior volcanic activity; Mount Cameroon, the highest mountain in Sub-Saharan west Africa, is an active volcano
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==See also==
{{commonscat|Geography of Cameroon}}
* [[Cameroon]]
==References==
{{CIA World Factbook}}
{{Cameroon topics}}
{{Geography of Africa}}
| 01:53, 21 August 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Geography_of_Cameroon&diff=313886242&oldid=313690962 | ==Natural regions==
[[Image:Cameroon Topography.png|thumb|Topography of Cameroon]]
{{MapLibrary|Cameroon_sat.png|Cameroon}}
Cameroon's coastal plain extends {{convert|10|to|50|mi|km|abbr=off}} inland from the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of [[Mount Cameroon]] reaches almost to the sea. Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, Debundscha, at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has an average annual rainfall of {{convert|405|in|mm|abbr=off|lk=off}}.<ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes]. Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]]. August 9, 2004. Last accessed November 7, 2006.</ref> The plain is densely forested.
The low [[South Cameroon Plateau]], rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 [[foot (length)|feet]] (450–600 m). It is less humid than the coast.
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extend from Mt. Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region enjoys a pleasant climate, particularly in the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands]]. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon.
From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamaoua highlands|Adamaoua]] (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is {{convert|3400|ft|m|abbr=off|lk=off}}, and its climate is reasonably pleasant.
The northern [[savanna|savanna plain]] extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is a region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.
| 00:11, 14 September 2009 | ==Natural regions==
[[Image:Cameroon Topography.png|thumb|Topography of Cameroon]]
{{MapLibrary|Cameroon_sat.png|Cameroon}}
Cameroon's coastal plain extends {{convert|10|to|50|mi|km|1}} inland from the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of [[Mount Cameroon]] reaches almost to the sea. Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, Debundscha, at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has an average annual rainfall of {{convert|405|in|mm|0}}.<ref>[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes]. Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]]. August 9, 2004. Last accessed November 7, 2006.</ref> The plain is densely forested.
The low [[South Cameroon Plateau]], rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of {{convert|1500|to|2000|ft|m|0|lk=in}}. It is less humid than the coast.
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extend from Mt. Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region enjoys a pleasant climate, particularly in the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands]]. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon.
From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamaoua highlands|Adamaoua]] (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is {{convert|3400|ft|m|0}}, and its climate is reasonably pleasant.
The northern [[savanna|savanna plain]] extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is a region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.
| 16:11, 14 September 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Geography_of_Cameroon&diff=313889002&oldid=313886242 |
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''territorial sea:''
50 nm
'''Climate:'''
varies with terrain, from tropical along the coast to semiarid and hot in the north
[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Far North Province]].]]
'''Total renewable water resources:'''
285.5 cu km (2003)
'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''
<br>''total:''
0.99 cu km/yr (18%/8%/74%)
<br>''per capita:''
61 cu m/yr (2000)
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
| 16:11, 14 September 2009 |
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''territorial sea:''
{{convert|50|nmi|km|abbr=on|lk=in}}
'''Climate:'''
varies with terrain, from tropical along the coast to semiarid and hot in the north
[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Far North Province]].]]
'''Total renewable water resources:'''
285.5 km³ (2003)
'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''
<br>''total:''
0.99 km³/yr (18%/8%/74%)
<br>''per capita:''
61 m³/yr (2000)
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
| 16:19, 14 September 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Cameroon&diff=23172442&oldid=15903658 |
While the president, the minister of justice, and the president's judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and [[probate law]]. [[Tribal law]]s and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government.
The government adopted legislation in [[1990]] to authorize the formation of multiple [[political party|political parties]] and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private [[newspaper]]s. Cameroon' s first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in [[1992]] followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in [[1997]]. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October [[1977]] presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, [[Bello Bouba Maigari]] of the [[NUDP]], subsequently joined the government.
Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. [[Censorship]] was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests [[journalist]]s. Although a 1990 law authorizes private [[radio]] and [[television]] stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998.
| 18:05, 18 May 2005 |
While the president, the minister of justice, and the president's judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and [[probate law]]. [[Tribal law]]s and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government.
The government adopted legislation in [[1990]] to authorize the formation of multiple [[political party|political parties]] and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private [[newspaper]]s. Cameroon' s first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in [[1992]] followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in [[1997]]. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October [[1997]] presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, [[Bello Bouba Maigari]] of the [[NUDP]], subsequently joined the government.
Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. [[Censorship]] was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests [[journalist]]s. Although a 1990 law authorizes private [[radio]] and [[television]] stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998.
| 16:55, 13 September 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Cameroon&diff=29937422&oldid=26571426 | {{election cameroon}}
== Government ==
The [[1972]] [[constitution]] as modified by [[1996]] reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The [[Presidents of Cameroon|president]] is empowered to name and dismiss [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] members, [[judge]]s, [[general]]s, provincial [[governor]]s, [[prefect]]s, [[sub-prefect]]s, and heads of Cameroon's [[parastatal]] (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or [[veto]] regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The [[Supreme Court]] may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.
<br />''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
<br />''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held [[12 October]] [[1997]] (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
<br />''election results:''
President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 92.6%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless
'''[[Legislative branch]]:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
<br />''elections:''
last held [[11 May]] [[1997]] (next to be held NA 2002)
<br />''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - results from 7 contested seats were cancelled by the Supreme Court and have yet to be filled
<br />''note:''
the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
| 23:35, 26 October 2005 | {{election cameroon}}
== Government ==
The [[1972]] [[constitution]] of the '''Republic of Cameroon''' as modified by [[1996]] reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The [[Presidents of Cameroon|president]] is empowered to name and dismiss [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] members, [[judge]]s, [[general]]s, provincial [[governor]]s, [[prefect]]s, [[sub-prefect]]s, and heads of Cameroon's [[parastatal]] (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or [[veto]] regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The [[Supreme Court]] may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.
<br />''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
<br />''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held [[11 October]] [[2004]] (next to be held NA October 2011); prime minister appointed by the president
<br />''election results:''
President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul Biya 70.8%; Ni John Fro Ndi 17.4%; Adamou Ndam Njoya 4.4%; Garga Haman Adji 3.7%
'''[[Legislative branch]]:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
<br />''elections:''
last held [[30 June]] and [[15 September]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA)
<br />''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 149, SDF 22, UDC 5, UPC 3, UNDP 1
<br />''note:''
the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
| 19:09, 2 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Cameroon&diff=342824945&oldid=312186676 | {{Politics of Cameroon}}
'''Politics of Cameroon''' takes place in a framework of a [[unitary republic|unitary]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Cameroon]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National Assembly of Cameroon]]
| 14:04, 6 September 2009 | {{refimprove|date=February 2010}}
{{Politics of Cameroon}}
'''Politics of Cameroon''' takes place in a framework of a [[unitary republic|unitary]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Cameroon]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National Assembly of Cameroon]]
| 01:18, 9 February 2010 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=17979347&oldid=15903704 |
'''Army.''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Juan Emilio Cheyre. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.
'''Navy.''' Adm. Miguel Angel Vergara Villalobos directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
'''Air Force.''' Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago,_Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
| 16:51, 17 June 2005 |
'''Army.''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Juan Emilio Cheyre. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.
'''Navy.''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
'''Air Force.''' Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago,_Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
| 21:53, 1 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=27060734&oldid=25303637 | [[Chile]]'s [[armed forces]] are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense.
'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
| 21:00, 11 October 2005 | [[Chile]]'s [[armed forces]] are subject to [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense.
'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
| 10:21, 1 November 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=45951149&oldid=45879446 | <br>''note:''
normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military
'''Army.''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Juan Emilio Cheyre. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.The army operates leopard 1v as main battle tank. In the next months the purchase of 92 second hand leopard 2a4 from the german army is going to be announced.
'''Navy.''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
The navy is to receive three second-hand, but modern, [[Royal Navy|British]] [[Type 23 frigate|Type 23]] [[frigate]]s in 2008.
'''Air Force.''' Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
The Chilean police are comprised of a national, uniformed force (Carabineros) and a smaller, plainclothes investigations force. After the military [[coup]] in September [[1973]], the Chilean national police were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Alberto Cienfuegos, who directs the national police force of 30,000, is responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
| 17:39, 28 March 2006 | <br>''note:''
normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military
'''Army.''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Óscar Izurieta Ferrer. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.The army operates leopard 1v as main battle tank. In the next months the purchase of 92 second hand leopard 2a4 from the german army is going to be announced.
'''Navy.''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
The navy is to receive three second-hand, but modern, [[Royal Navy|British]] [[Type 23 frigate|Type 23]] [[frigate]]s in 2008.
'''Air Force.''' Gen. Osvaldo Saravia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
The Chilean police are comprised of a national, uniformed force (Carabineros) and a smaller, plainclothes investigations force. After the military [[coup]] in September [[1973]], the Chilean national police were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Alberto Cienfuegos, who directs the national police force of 30,000, is responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
| 02:52, 29 March 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=59858339&oldid=59858178 |
'''[[Chilean Army]]''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Óscar Izurieta Ferrer. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.The army operates Leopard 1V as main battle tank. In the next months the purchase of 92 second hand Leopard 2A4 from the German army is going to be announced.
'''[[Chilean Navy]]''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
'''[[Chilean Air Force]]''' Gen. Osvaldo Saravia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
| 18:59, 21 June 2006 |
'''[[Chilean Army]]''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Óscar Izurieta Ferrer. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.The army operates Leopard 1V as main battle tank. In the next months the purchase of 92 second hand Leopard 2A4 from the German army is going to be announced.
'''[[Chilean Navy]]''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].
'''[[Chilean Air Force]]''' Gen. Osvaldo Saravia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
| 19:00, 21 June 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=68921220&oldid=65941883 |
'''[[Chilean Air Force]]''' Gen. Osvaldo Saravia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
[[Carabineros de Chile|The Chilean police]] are comprised of a national, uniformed force, the '''Carabiniers''', in Spanish '''''Carabineros''''', and a smaller, plainclothes investigations force, called '''''Investigaciones de Chile'''''. After the military [[coup]] in September [[1973]], the Chilean national police were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. José Bernales, who directs the national police force of 30,000, is responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
== Manpower ==
| 11:30, 26 July 2006 |
'''[[Chilean Air Force]]''' Gen. Osvaldo Saravia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].
[[Carabineros de Chile|The Chilean police]] are comprised of a national, uniformed force, the '''Carabiniers''', in Spanish '''''Carabineros''''', and a smaller, plainclothes investigations force, called '''''Investigaciones de Chile'''''. After the military [[coup]] in September [[1973]], the Chilean national police were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. José Bernales, who directs the national police force of 40,000, is responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
== Manpower ==
| 00:03, 11 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=70903782&oldid=70903680 | Since year [[2000]], the Military of Chile is undergoing several major reequipment programs that put them undoubtly as the strongest armed forces of [[Latin America]]
* 2 [[Karel Doorman class frigate|Class M frigates]] ex [[Dutch Navy]]
* 2 [[Class L (Jacob van Heemskerck) frigates]] ex Dutch Navy
* 3 [[Type 23 frigate|Type 23]] frigates ex Royal Navy
* 2 New built [[Scorpène class submarine|Scorpene]] class submarines
* 10 New built Lockheed Martin [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16D]] Block 50 Fighting Falcon (Peace Puma Program)
| 05:14, 21 August 2006 | Since year [[2000]], the Military of Chile is undergoing several major reequipment programs that put them undoubtly as the strongest armed forces of [[Latin America]]
* 2 [[Karel Doorman class frigate|Class M frigates]] ex [[Dutch Navy]]
* 2 Class L (Jacob van Heemskerck) frigates ex Dutch Navy
* 3 [[Type 23 frigate|Type 23]] frigates ex Royal Navy
* 2 New built [[Scorpène class submarine|Scorpene]] class submarines
* 10 New built Lockheed Martin [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16D]] Block 50 Fighting Falcon (Peace Puma Program)
| 05:15, 21 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=71111257&oldid=71111179 | 150,084 (2005 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.42 billion (2004)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.8% (2004)
| 05:20, 22 August 2006 | 150,084 (2005 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.62 billion (2004)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.8% (2004)
| 05:21, 22 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Military_of_Chile&diff=71111295&oldid=71111257 | 150,084 (2005 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.62 billion (2004)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.8% (2004)
'' To put this number in perspective, this includes the expenditures of Carabineros and Investigaciones, the only police forces in the country but not includes the revenues of copper mines, that by the Chilean Law, are used to support the Chilean military. ''
== Major reequipment programs ==
| 05:21, 22 August 2006 | 150,084 (2005 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.62 billion (2005)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.9% (2005)
'' To put this number in perspective, this includes the expenditures of Carabineros and Investigaciones, the only police forces in the country but not includes the revenues of copper mines, that by the Chilean Law, are used to support the Chilean military. ''
== Major reequipment programs ==
| 05:21, 22 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=National_Anthem_of_Chile&diff=6461791&oldid=6439354 |
==External links==
*[http://www.presidencia.gob.cl/archivos/himno_nacional.mp3 Sang anthem from Chilean presidency web site] (MP3, 1.9 MB)
*[http://www.midi4u.com/anthems/ MIDI File]
[[fr:Hymne national du Chili]]
| 23:59, 8 October 2004 |
==External links==
*[http://www.presidencia.gob.cl/archivos/himno_nacional.mp3 Sang anthem at Chile's Presidency site] (MP3, 1.9 MB)
*[http://www.midi4u.com/anthems/ MIDI File]
[[fr:Hymne national du Chili]]
| 00:00, 9 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=National_Anthem_of_Chile&diff=12367993&oldid=12097172 | Years later, in 1847, the Chilean Government el Gobierno de Chile entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spanish poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus ("Dulce patria, recibe los votos...).
==Full version lyrics==
:'''Verse I'''
:Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta;
:Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor;
:De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta
:Combatiendo en el campo de honor.
:El que ayer doblegábase esclavo
:Libre al fin y triunfante se ve;
:Libertad es la herencia del bravo,
:La Victoria se humilla a sus pies.
:'''Chorus'''
:Dulce Patria, recibe los votos
:Con que Chile en tus aras juró
:Que o la tumba serás de los libres
:O el asilo contra la opresión.
:'''Verse II'''
:Alza, Chile, sin mancha la frente;
:Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid;
:Siempre noble, constante y valiente
:Te encontraron los hijos del Cid.
:Que tus libres tranquilos coronen
:A las artes, la industria y la paz,
:Y de triunfos cantares entonen
:Que amedrenten al déspota audaz. ('''Chorus''')
:'''Verse III'''
:Vuestros nombres, valientes soldados,
:Que habéis sido de Chile el sostén,
:Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados;
:Los sabrán nuestros hijos también.
:Sean ellos el grito de muerte
:Que lancemos marchando a lidiar,
:Y sonando en la boca del fuerte
:Hagan siempre al tirano temblar. ('''Chorus''')
:'''Verse IV'''
:Si pretende el cañón extranjero
:Nuestros pueblos osado invadir;
:Desnudemos al punto el acero
:Y sepamos vencer o morir.
:Con su sangre el altivo araucano
:Nos legó por herencia el valor;
:Y no tiembla la espada en la mano
:Defendiendo de Chile el honor. ('''Chorus''')
:'''Verse V'''
:Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado,
:Puras brisas te cruzan también,
:Y tu campo de flores bordado
:Es la copia feliz del Edén.
:Majestuosa es la blanca montaña
:Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,
:Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña
:Te promete futuro esplendor. ('''Chorus''')
:'''Verse VI'''
:Esas galas, ¡oh, Patria!, esas flores
:Que tapizan tu suelo feraz,
:No las pisen jamás invasores;
:Con tu sombra las cubra la paz.
:Nuestros pechos serán tu baluarte,
:Con tu nombre sabremos vencer,
:O tu noble, glorioso estandarte,
:Nos verá combatiendo caer. ('''Chorus''')
==Official version lyrics==
Below are the lyrics of the version most often played; it corrresponds to Verse V of the full version and the chorus:
| 23:20, 9 April 2005 | Years later, in 1847, the Chilean Government el Gobierno de Chile entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spanish poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus ("Dulce patria, recibe los votos...).
==Full version lyrics==
<table width=100%><tr><td width=50% align=left valign=top>
'''Verse I'''<br>
Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta;<br>
Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor;<br>
De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta<br>
Combatiendo en el campo de honor.<br>
El que ayer doblegábase esclavo<br>
Libre al fin y triunfante se ve;<br>
Libertad es la herencia del bravo,<br>
La Victoria se humilla a sus pies.<br>
:'''Chorus'''
:Dulce Patria, recibe los votos
:Con que Chile en tus aras juró
:Que o la tumba serás de los libres
:O el asilo contra la opresión.<br>
'''Verse II'''<br>
Alza, Chile, sin mancha la frente;<br>
Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid;<br>
Siempre noble, constante y valiente<br>
Te encontraron los hijos del Cid.<br>
Que tus libres tranquilos coronen<br>
A las artes, la industria y la paz,<br>
Y de triunfos cantares entonen<br>
Que amedrenten al déspota audaz. ('''Chorus''')<br>
'''Verse III'''<br>
Vuestros nombres, valientes soldados,<br>
Que habéis sido de Chile el sostén,<br>
Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados;<br>
Los sabrán nuestros hijos también.<br>
Sean ellos el grito de muerte<br>
Que lancemos marchando a lidiar,<br>
Y sonando en la boca del fuerte<br>
Hagan siempre al tirano temblar. ('''Chorus''')
</td><td width=50% align=left valign=top>
'''Verse IV'''<br>
Si pretende el cañón extranjero<br>
Nuestros pueblos osado invadir;<br>
Desnudemos al punto el acero<br>
Y sepamos vencer o morir.<br>
Con su sangre el altivo araucano<br>
Nos legó por herencia el valor;<br>
Y no tiembla la espada en la mano<br>
Defendiendo de Chile el honor. ('''Chorus''')<br>
'''Verse V'''<br>
Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado,<br>
Puras brisas te cruzan también,<br>
Y tu campo de flores bordado<br>
Es la copia feliz del Edén.<br>
Majestuosa es la blanca montaña<br>
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,<br>
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña<br>
Te promete futuro esplendor. ('''Chorus''')<br>
'''Verse VI'''<br>
Esas galas, ¡oh, Patria!, esas flores<br>
Que tapizan tu suelo feraz,<br>
No las pisen jamás invasores;<br>
Con tu sombra las cubra la paz.<br>
Nuestros pechos serán tu baluarte,<br>
Con tu nombre sabremos vencer,<br>
O tu noble, glorioso estandarte,<br>
Nos verá combatiendo caer. ('''Chorus''')
</td></tr></table>
==Official version lyrics==
Below are the lyrics of the version most often played; it corrresponds to Verse V of the full version and the chorus:
| 23:25, 9 April 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Geography_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=18018038&oldid=15903767 | [[Image:Côte d'Ivoire map.png|right|]]
'''Côte d'Ivoire''' (the '''Ivory Coast''') is a [[Sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan]] nation in southern [[West Africa]] located at 8 00°N, 5 00°W. The country is shaped like a [[Square (geometry)|square]] and borders the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south (515km of coastline) and five other [[Africa]]n nations on the other three sides, with a total of 3,110km of [[border]]s: [[Liberia]] to the southwest (716km), [[Guinea]] to the northwest (610km), [[Mali]] to the north-northeast (532km), and [[Ghana]] to the east (668km). In total, Côte d'Ivoire comprises 322,460km², of which 318,000km² is land and 4,460km² is water, which makes the country slightly larger than the [[U.S. state]] of [[New Mexico]] and about the size of [[Germany]].
Côte d'Ivoire's [[terrain]] can generally be described as a large [[plateau]] rising gradually from [[sea level]] in the south to almost 500m [[elevation]] in the north. The nation's natural resources have made it into a comparatively prosperous nation in [[Economy of Africa|Africa's economy]]. Côte d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national [[cash crop]]; [[coffee]] is also grown.
The southeastern region of Côte d'Ivoire is marked by coastal inland [[lagoon]]s that starts at the Ghanaian border and stretch 300km (190 miles) along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is densely [[forest]]ed and moist, and is categorized as [[Eastern Guinean forests|eastern Guinean forest]]. The northern region is a [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|savanna]]-and-[[scrubland]] zone of lateritic or sandy [[soil]]s, with [[vegetation]] decreasing from south to north within the region, categorized as [[Guinean montane forests|Guinean montane forest]]. The terrain is mostly flat to undulating [[plain]]s, with [[mountain]]s in the northwest. The lowest elevation in Côte d'Ivoire is at sea level on the coasts. The highest elevation is [[Mont Nimba]], at 1,752m in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia.
Côte d'Ivoire's also has a large [[timber]] industry to due its large [[forest]] coverage. The nation's [[hardwood]] exports match that of [[Brazil]]. In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of [[deforestation]]. [[Rainforest]]s are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world. The only forest left completely untouched in Côte d'Ivoire is [[Taï National Park]] (''Parc National de Taï''), a 3600km² (1400 square mile) area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species and many other [[endangered species]] such as the [[Pygmy Hippopotamus]] and 11 species of [[monkey]]s.
The [[climate]] of Côte d'Ivoire is generally warm and humid, ranging from [[Equator|equatorial]] in the southern coasts to [[Tropics|tropical]] in the middle and semiarid in the far north. There are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October). Temperatures average between 25°C and 30°C and range from 10°C to 40°C.
Côte d'Ivoire makes maritime claims of 200 [[nautical mile]]s as an [[exclusive economic zone]], 12 nautical miles of territorial sea, and a 200-nautical mile [[continental shelf]].
Other natural resources include [[petroleum]], [[diamond]]s, [[manganese]], [[iron]] ore, [[cobalt]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], and [[hydropower]]. [[Natural hazard]]s include the heavy surf and the lack of [[natural harbor]]s on the coast; during the rainy season torrential [[flooding]] is a danger.
| 10:00, 9 June 2005 | [[Image:Côte d'Ivoire map.png|right|]]
'''Côte d'Ivoire''' (the '''Ivory Coast''') is a [[Sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan]] nation in southern [[West Africa]] located at 8 00°N, 5 00°W. The country is shaped like a [[Square (geometry)|square]] and borders the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south (515 km of coastline) and five other [[Africa]]n nations on the other three sides, with a total of 3,110 km of [[border]]s: [[Liberia]] to the southwest (716 km), [[Guinea]] to the northwest (610 km), [[Mali]] to the north-northeast (532 km), and [[Ghana]] to the east (668 km). In total, Côte d'Ivoire comprises 322,460 km², of which 318,000 km² is land and 4,460 km² is water, which makes the country slightly larger than the [[U.S. state]] of [[New Mexico]] and about the size of [[Germany]].
Côte d'Ivoire's [[terrain]] can generally be described as a large [[plateau]] rising gradually from [[sea level]] in the south to almost 500 m [[elevation]] in the north. The nation's natural resources have made it into a comparatively prosperous nation in [[Economy of Africa|Africa's economy]]. Côte d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national [[cash crop]]; [[coffee]] is also grown.
The southeastern region of Côte d'Ivoire is marked by coastal inland [[lagoon]]s that starts at the Ghanaian border and stretch 300 km (190 miles) along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is densely [[forest]]ed and moist, and is categorized as [[Eastern Guinean forests|eastern Guinean forest]]. The northern region is a [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|savanna]]-and-[[scrubland]] zone of lateritic or sandy [[soil]]s, with [[vegetation]] decreasing from south to north within the region, categorized as [[Guinean montane forests|Guinean montane forest]]. The terrain is mostly flat to undulating [[plain]]s, with [[mountain]]s in the northwest. The lowest elevation in Côte d'Ivoire is at sea level on the coasts. The highest elevation is [[Mont Nimba]], at 1,752 m in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia.
Côte d'Ivoire's also has a large [[timber]] industry to due its large [[forest]] coverage. The nation's [[hardwood]] exports match that of [[Brazil]]. In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of [[deforestation]]. [[Rainforest]]s are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world. The only forest left completely untouched in Côte d'Ivoire is [[Taï National Park]] (''Parc National de Taï''), a 3600km² (1400 square mile) area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species and many other [[endangered species]] such as the [[Pygmy Hippopotamus]] and 11 species of [[monkey]]s.
The [[climate]] of Côte d'Ivoire is generally warm and humid, ranging from [[Equator|equatorial]] in the southern coasts to [[Tropics|tropical]] in the middle and semiarid in the far north. There are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October). Temperatures average between 25 and 30 °C and range from 10 to 40 °C.
Côte d'Ivoire makes maritime claims of 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) as an [[exclusive economic zone]], 12 nautical miles (22 km) of territorial sea, and a 200 nautical mile (370 km) [[continental shelf]].
Other natural resources include [[petroleum]], [[diamond]]s, [[manganese]], [[iron]] ore, [[cobalt]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], and [[hydropower]]. [[Natural hazard]]s include the heavy surf and the lack of [[natural harbor]]s on the coast; during the rainy season torrential [[flooding]] is a danger.
| 16:11, 2 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=4069242&oldid=2967492 | * over 20 smaller parties
<b>International organization participation:</b>
[[ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[Entente]], [[FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[IOM]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[MONUC]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WADB]] (regional), [[WAEMU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
<b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
<br><i>chief of mission:</i>
| 19:36, 28 February 2004 | * over 20 smaller parties
<b>International organization participation:</b>
[[ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[Conseil de l'Entente|Entente]], [[FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[IOM]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[MONUC]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WADB]] (regional), [[WAEMU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]
<b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
<br><i>chief of mission:</i>
| 14:47, 29 March 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=5127078&oldid=5034160 |
==Political Conditions==
In a region whose political systems have otherwise been noted for lack of stability, Côte d'Ivoire has shown remarkable political stability since its independence from France in [[1960]]. Its relations with the [[United States]] are excellent. When many other countries in the region were undergoing repeated [[military coup]]s, experimenting with [[Marxism]], and developing ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and the People's Republic of China, Côte d'Ivoire - under [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], president from independence until his death in December 1993 - maintained a close political allegiance to [[the West]]. President Bédié is very familiar with the United States, having served as Côte d'Ivoire's first [[ambassador]] to this country.
Looking toward the country's future, the fundamental issue is whether its political system will maintain the stability which is the sine qua non for investor confidence and further economic development. Côte d'Ivoire evolved, with relatively little violence or dislocation, from a single-party state, beginning in [[1990]]. Opposition parties, independent [[newspaper]]s, and independent [[trade union]]s were made legal at that time. Since those major changes occurred, the country's pace of political change has been slow. Whether further [[democracy|democratic]] reform will take place, adequate to meet future challenges, is unknown. As is generally true in the region, the business environment is one in which personal contact and connections remain important, where rule of law does not prevail with assurance, and where the legislative and judicial branches of the government remain weak. The political system remains highly centralized with the president dominating both the ruling party and the legislature and judiciary. Côte d'Ivoire's efforts to break down central state control of the economy are undermined by the state's continued central control of the political system.
| 05:31, 6 August 2004 |
==Political Conditions==
In a region whose political systems have otherwise been noted for lack of stability, Côte d'Ivoire has shown remarkable political stability since its independence from France in [[1960]]. Its relations with the [[United States]] are excellent. When many other countries in the region were undergoing repeated [[military coup]]s, experimenting with [[Marxism]], and developing ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and the People's Republic of China, Côte d'Ivoire - under [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], president from independence until his death in December 1993 - maintained a close political allegiance to [[the West]]. President Bédié is very familiar with the United States, having served as Côte d'Ivoire's first [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to this country.
Looking toward the country's future, the fundamental issue is whether its political system will maintain the stability which is the sine qua non for investor confidence and further economic development. Côte d'Ivoire evolved, with relatively little violence or dislocation, from a single-party state, beginning in [[1990]]. Opposition parties, independent [[newspaper]]s, and independent [[trade union]]s were made legal at that time. Since those major changes occurred, the country's pace of political change has been slow. Whether further [[democracy|democratic]] reform will take place, adequate to meet future challenges, is unknown. As is generally true in the region, the business environment is one in which personal contact and connections remain important, where rule of law does not prevail with assurance, and where the legislative and judicial branches of the government remain weak. The political system remains highly centralized with the president dominating both the ruling party and the legislature and judiciary. Côte d'Ivoire's efforts to break down central state control of the economy are undermined by the state's continued central control of the political system.
| 08:32, 6 August 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=7229913&oldid=6863711 |
For administrative purposes, Côte d'Ivoire is divided into 58 [[department]]s, each headed by a [[prefect]] appointed by the central government. There are 196 [[commune]]s, each headed by an elected [[mayor]], plus the city of [[Abidjan]] with 10 mayors.
The 58 departments (''départements'', singular - ''département'') are: [[Abengourou]], [[Abidjan]], [[Aboisso]], [[Adiake]], [[Adzope]], [[Agboville]], [[Agnibilekrou]], [[Alepe]], [[Bocanda]], [[Bangolo]], [[Beoumi]], [[Biankouma]], [[Bondoukou]], [[Bongouanou]], [[Bouafle]], [[Bouake]], [[Bouna]], [[Boundiali]], [[Dabakala]], [[Dabou]], [[Daloa]], [[Danane]], [[Daoukro]], [[Dimbokro]], [[Divo]], [[Duekoue]], [[Ferkessedougou]], [[Gagnoa]], [[Grand-Bassam]], [[Grand-Lahou]], [[Guiglo]], [[Issia]], [[Jacqueville]], [[Katiola]], [[Korhogo]], [[Lakota]], [[Man]], [[Mankono]], [[Mbahiakro]], [[Odienne]], [[Oume]], [[Sakassou]], [[San-Pedro]], [[Sassandra]], [[Seguela]], [[Sinfra]], [[Soubre]], [[Tabou]], [[Tanda]], [[Tiebissou]], [[Tingrela]], [[Tiassale]], [[Touba]], [[Toulepleu]], [[Toumodi]], [[Vavoua]], [[Yamoussoukro]], [[Zuenoula]]
==Constitution==
| 17:46, 12 September 2004 |
For administrative purposes, Côte d'Ivoire is divided into 58 [[department]]s, each headed by a [[prefect]] appointed by the central government. There are 196 [[commune]]s, each headed by an elected [[mayor]], plus the city of [[Abidjan]] with 10 mayors.
The 58 departments (''départements'', singular - ''département'') are: [[Abengourou]], [[Abidjan]], [[Aboisso]], [[Adiake]], [[Adzope]], [[Agboville]], [[Agnibilekrou]], [[Alepe]], [[Bocanda]], [[Bangolo]], [[Beoumi]], [[Biankouma]], [[Bondoukou]], [[Bongouanou]], [[Bouafle]], [[Bouake]], [[Bouna]], [[Boundiali]], [[Dabakala]], [[Dabou]], [[Daloa]], [[Danane]], [[Daoukro]], [[Dimbokro]], [[Divo, Côte d'Ivoire|Divo]], [[Duekoue]], [[Ferkessedougou]], [[Gagnoa]], [[Grand-Bassam]], [[Grand-Lahou]], [[Guiglo]], [[Issia]], [[Jacqueville]], [[Katiola]], [[Korhogo]], [[Lakota]], [[Man, Côte d'Ivoire|Man]], [[Mankono]], [[Mbahiakro]], [[Odienne]], [[Oume]], [[Sakassou]], [[San-Pedro]], [[Sassandra]], [[Seguela]], [[Sinfra]], [[Soubre]], [[Tabou]], [[Tanda]], [[Tiebissou]], [[Tingrela]], [[Tiassale]], [[Touba]], [[Toulepleu]], [[Toumodi]], [[Vavoua]], [[Yamoussoukro]], [[Zuenoula]]
==Constitution==
| 00:46, 26 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=109518952&oldid=98937012 | The official capital since 1983 is [[Yamoussoukro]]; however, [[Abidjan]] remains the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan, although some (including the United Kingdom) have closed their missions because of the continuing violence and attacks on Europeans. The population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war. International human rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production. Since the incident on [[September 19]], [[2002]] (see [[History of Côte d'Ivoire]], a '''civil war''' broke out, and the north part of the country has been seized by the rebels, the ''New Forces'' (FN). A new presidential election was expected to be held in October, 2005. However, this new election could not be held on time due to delay in preparation and has been postponed to October 2006 after an agreement was reached amongst the rival parties.
==Civil war==
In the early hours of [[September 19]], [[2002]] troops, who were mainly originally from the north of the country, mutinied. They launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Ivory Coast (and so who can stand for election as President), voting rights and their representation in government in [[Abidjan]]. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship.
Forces involved in the conflict include:
* Official government forces, the National Army (FANCI), also called ''loyalists'', formed and equipped essentially since 2003
* The ''Young Patriots'': [[nationalist]] groups aligned with president [[Laurent Gbagbo]]
| 20:28, 6 January 2007 | The official capital since 1983 is [[Yamoussoukro]]; however, [[Abidjan]] remains the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan, although some (including the United Kingdom) have closed their missions because of the continuing violence and attacks on Europeans. The population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war. International human rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production. Since the incident on [[September 19]], [[2002]] (see [[History of Côte d'Ivoire]], a '''civil war''' broke out, and the north part of the country has been seized by the rebels, the ''New Forces'' (FN). A new presidential election was expected to be held in October, 2005. However, this new election could not be held on time due to delay in preparation and has been postponed to October 2006 after an agreement was reached amongst the rival parties.
==Civil war==
In the early hours of [[September 19]], [[2002]] troops, who were mainly originally from the north of the country, mutinied. They launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Côte d'Ivoire (and so who can stand for election as President), voting rights and their representation in government in [[Abidjan]]. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship.
Forces involved in the conflict include:
* Official government forces, the National Army (FANCI), also called ''loyalists'', formed and equipped essentially since 2003
* The ''Young Patriots'': [[nationalist]] groups aligned with president [[Laurent Gbagbo]]
| 09:26, 20 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=120437292&oldid=120112931 | |[[President of Côte d'Ivoire|President]]
|[[Laurent Gbagbo]]
|[[Ivorian Popular Front|FPI]]
|[[October 26]] [[2000]]
|-
|[[Heads of government of Côte d'Ivoire|Prime Minister]]
|[[Charles Konan Banny]]
|
|December 2005
|}
[[Côte d'Ivoire]]'s 1959 [[constitution]] provides for strong presidency within the framework of a [[separation of powers]]. The executive is personified in the [[President of Côte d'Ivoire|president]], elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the [[armed forces]], may negotiate and ratify certain [[treaty|treaties]], and may submit a bill to a national [[referendum]] or to the [[National Assembly]]. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the [[senate]] interim successor to the president.
| 00:38, 4 April 2007 | |[[President of Côte d'Ivoire|President]]
|[[Laurent Gbagbo]]
|[[Ivorian Popular Front|FPI]]
|[[26 October]] [[2000]]
|-
|[[Heads of government of Côte d'Ivoire|Prime Minister]]
|[[Guillaume Soro]]
|
|[[4 April]] [[2007]]
|}
[[Côte d'Ivoire]]'s 1959 [[constitution]] provides for strong presidency within the framework of a [[separation of powers]]. The executive is personified in the [[President of Côte d'Ivoire|president]], elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the [[armed forces]], may negotiate and ratify certain [[treaty|treaties]], and may submit a bill to a national [[referendum]] or to the [[National Assembly]]. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the [[senate]] interim successor to the president.
| 08:12, 5 April 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Politics_of_Ivory_Coast&diff=137513417&oldid=137473899 | {{Politics of Côte d'Ivoire}}
The '''Politics of Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Côte d'Ivoire]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament.
The official capital since 1983 is [[Yamoussoukro]]; however, [[Abidjan]] remains the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan, although some (including the United Kingdom) have closed their missions because of the continuing violence and attacks on Europeans. The population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war. International human rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production. Since the incident on [[September 19]], [[2002]] (see [[History of Côte d'Ivoire]], a '''civil war''' broke out, and the north part of the country has been seized by the rebels, the [[Forces Nouvelles|''New Forces'' (FN)]]. A new presidential election was expected to be held in October, 2005. However, this new election could not be held on time due to delay in preparation and has been postponed to October 2006 after an agreement was reached amongst the rival parties.
==Civil war==
In the early hours of [[September 19]], [[2002]] troops, who were mainly originally from the north of the country, mutinied. They launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Côte d'Ivoire (and so who can stand for election as President), voting rights and their representation in government in [[Abidjan]]. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship.
| 16:02, 11 June 2007 | {{Politics of Côte d'Ivoire}}
The '''Politics of Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Côte d'Ivoire]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament.
The official capital since 1983 is [[Yamoussoukro]]; however, [[Abidjan]] remains the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan, although some (including the United Kingdom) have closed their missions because of the continuing violence and attacks on Europeans. The population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war. International human rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production. Since the incident on [[September 19]], [[2002]] (see [[History of Côte d'Ivoire]], a '''civil war''' broke out, and the north part of the country has been seized by the rebels, the [[Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire|''New Forces'' (FN)]]. A new presidential election was expected to be held in October, 2005. However, this new election could not be held on time due to delay in preparation and has been postponed to October 2006 after an agreement was reached amongst the rival parties.
==Civil war==
In the early hours of [[September 19]], [[2002]] troops, who were mainly originally from the north of the country, mutinied. They launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Côte d'Ivoire (and so who can stand for election as President), voting rights and their representation in government in [[Abidjan]]. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship.
| 19:23, 11 June 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=1383558&oldid=1382460 |
Before the dissolution of [[Yugoslavia]], the Republic of Croatia, after [[Slovenia]], was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian war of independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991-92.
In 1999, GDP growth has slowed after a period of expansion, and Croatia is facing a recession. This is due mainly to weak consumer demand and a decrease in industrial production.
Croatia faces considerable economic problems stemming from: the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy; damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses; the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian; and the disruption of economic ties. Inflation and unemployment are rising, and the kuna has fallen, prompting the national bank to tighten fiscal policy. A new banking law passed in December 1998 will give the central bank more control over Croatia's 53 remaining commercial banks. Croatia is dependent on international debt to finance the deficit. A recently issued EURO-denominated bond was well received, selling $300 million, which will help offset economic losses from the Kosovo crisis. Despite the successful value-added tax program, planned privatization of state controlled businesses, and a revised budget with a 7% across that board cut in spending, the government still projects a $200 million deficit for 1999. Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, would help restore the economy. The government has been successful in some reform efforts - partially macroeconomic stabilization policies - and it has normalized relations with its creditors.
The recession that began at the end of [[1998]] continued through most of [[1999]], and GDP growth for the year was flat. [[Economics/Inflation|Inflation]] remained in check and the kuna was stable. Structural reform has been lagging, however, and problems of payment arrears and a lack of banking supervision continue. The upcoming elections may take HDZ focus off of economic policy. The party has promised two salary increases to public-sector employees before the end of the year which will increase the fiscal deficit.
The death of President [[Tudjman|TUDJMAN]] in December 1999, and the defeat of his ruling Coatian Democratic Union or HDZ party in parliamentary and presidential elections in January 2000 has ushered in a new government committed to economic reform but faced with the challenge of halting the economic decline.
<b>[[GDP]]:</b>
purchasing power parity - $23.9 billion (1999 est.)
| 07:51, 24 May 2003 |
Before the dissolution of [[Yugoslavia]], the Republic of Croatia, after [[Slovenia]], was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian war of independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991-92.
Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from:
* the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy;
* damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses;
* the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian; and
* the disruption of economic ties.
Inflation and unemployment rose and the kuna fell, prompting the national bank to tighten [[fiscal policy]]. A new banking law passed in December 1998 gave the central bank more control over Croatia's 53 remaining commercial banks. Croatia is dependent on international debt to finance the deficit. A recently issued [[Euro]]-denominated bond was well received, selling $300 million, which helped offset economic losses from the Kosovo crisis.
Despite the successful value-added tax program, planned privatization of state controlled businesses, and a revised budget with a 7% across that board cut in spending, the government still projects a $200 million deficit for 1999.
Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, is helping restore the economy. The government has been successful in some reform efforts - partially macroeconomic stabilization policies - and it has normalized relations with its creditors.
The [[recession]] that began at the end of [[1998]] continued through most of [[1999]], and GDP growth for 1999 was flat. [[Economics/Inflation|Inflation]] remained in check and the kuna was stable. However, consumer demand was weak and a industrial production decreased. Structural reform lagged and problems of payment arrears and a lack of banking supervision continued.
Due to the upcoming elections, the HDZ government promised two salary increases to public-sector employees before the end of the year which increased the fiscal deficit.
The death of President [[Franjo Tudjman|Tuđman]] in December 1999, and the defeat of his ruling Coatian Democratic Union or HDZ party in parliamentary and presidential elections in January 2000 ushered in a new government committed to economic reform and halting the economic decline.
The [[Ivica Racan|Račan]] government carried out a large number of structural reforms and with tourism as the main factor, the country emerged from recession in 2000. Due to overall increase in stability, the economic rating of the country improved and [[interest rate]]s dropped. As a result of [[coalition]] politics and resistance from the unions and the public, many reforms are still overdue, esp. in the legal system.
Unemployment reached a peak of circa 22% in late [[2002]] due to many overdue bankruptcies. It has since been steadily decreasing, powered by growing industrial production and rising [[GDP]] rather than only seasonal changes (tourism).
Most economic indicators are currently positive (2003), except for the external [[debt]]. The national bank is taking steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks (commonly the same foreign banks that own the local ones).
The country has applied for membership in the [[European Union]]. During the accession, it is expected that agricultural policy will be the biggest stumbling block, as with other recent applicant countries.
''The remaining information is still verbatim from the old CIA World Factbook entry and is likely very much out of date.''
<b>[[GDP]]:</b>
purchasing power parity - $23.9 billion (1999 est.)
| 18:17, 2 September 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=1461650&oldid=1383558 | <b>Economy - overview:</b>
In an economy traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the Croatian population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants. Rapid [[industrialization]] and diversification occurred after World War II. [[Decentralization]] came in 1965, allowing growth of certain sectors, like the [[tourism|tourist industry]]. Profits from Croatian industry were used to develop poorer regions in the former Yugoslavia. This, coupled with [[austerity program]]s and [[hyperinflation]] in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia that fueled the independence movement.
Before the dissolution of [[Yugoslavia]], the Republic of Croatia, after [[Slovenia]], was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian war of independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991-92.
The country has applied for membership in the [[European Union]]. During the accession, it is expected that agricultural policy will be the biggest stumbling block, as with other recent applicant countries.
''The remaining information is still verbatim from the old CIA World Factbook entry and is likely very much out of date.''
<b>[[GDP]]:</b>
purchasing power parity - $23.9 billion (1999 est.)
<p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
0% (1999 est.)
<p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
purchasing power parity - $5,100 (1999 est.)
<p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
<br><i>agriculture:</i>
10%
<br><i>industry:</i>
24%
<br><i>services:</i>
66% (1996 est.)
<p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
NA%
<p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
<br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
NA%
<br><i>highest 10%:</i>
NA%
<p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
4.4% (1999)
<p><b>Labor force:</b>
1.65 million (1999)
<p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
<p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
20% (1999 est.)
<p><b>Budget:</b>
<br><i>revenues:</i>
$6 billion
<br><i>expenditures:</i>
$4.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
<p><b>Industries:</b>
[[chemical industry|chemical]]s and [[plastic]]s, machine tools, fabricated [[metal]], electronics, [[pig iron]] and rolled [[steel]] products, [[aluminium]], [[paper]], [[wood]] products, construction materials, [[textiles]], shipbuilding, [[petroleum]] and petroleum refining, [[food]] and beverages; [[tourism]]
<p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
-2% (1999 est.)
<p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
9.515 billion kWh (1998)
<p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
<br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
42.72%
<br><i>hydro:</i>
57.28%
<br><i>nuclear:</i>
0%
<br><i>other:</i>
0% (1998)
<p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
12.949 billion kWh (1998)
<p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
900 million kWh (1998)
<p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
5 billion kWh (1998)
<p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
[[wheat]], [[maize]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[grape]]s, [[vegetable]]s; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
<p><b>Exports:</b>
$4.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
<p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
[[textiles]], [[chemicals]], foodstuffs, fuels
<p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
[[Italy]] 21%, [[Germany]] 18%, [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 15%, [[Slovenia]] 12% (1997)
<p><b>Imports:</b>
$8.4 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
<p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs
<p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
Germany 20%, Italy 19%, Slovenia 8%, [[Austria]] 8% (1997)
<p><b>Debt - external:</b>
$8.1 billion (October 1999)
<p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
$NA
<p><b>Currency:</b>
1 [[Croatian kuna]] (HRK) = 100 lipas
<p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
Croatian kuna per US$1 - 7.591 (January 2000), 7.112 (1999), 6.362 (1998), 6.157 (1997), 5.434 (1996), 5.230 (1995)
<p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
calendar year
:''See also :'' [[Croatia]] | 18:17, 2 September 2003 | == History ==
In an economy traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the Croatian population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants. Rapid [[industrialization]] and diversification occurred after World War II. [[Decentralization]] came in 1965, allowing growth of certain sectors, like the [[tourism|tourist industry]]. Profits from Croatian industry were used to develop poorer regions in the former Yugoslavia. This, coupled with [[austerity program]]s and [[hyperinflation]] in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia that fueled the independence movement.
Before the dissolution of [[Yugoslavia]], the Republic of Croatia, after [[Slovenia]], was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian war of independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991-92.
The country has applied for membership in the [[European Union]]. During the accession, it is expected that agricultural policy will be the biggest stumbling block, as with other recent applicant countries.
== Economic indicators ==
From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.
<b>[[GDP]]:</b>
purchasing power parity - $38.9 billion (2002 est.)
<b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
5.2% (2002 est.)
<b>GDP - per capita:</b>
purchasing power parity - $8,800 (2002 est.)
<b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
<br><i>agriculture:</i>
9%
<br><i>industry:</i>
33%
<br><i>services:</i>
58% (2002 est.)
<b>Population below poverty line:</b>
NA%
<b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
<br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
3.7%
<br><i>highest 10%:</i>
23.3%
(1998)
<b>Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:</b>
29 (1998)
<b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
2.2% (2002)
<b>Labor force:</b>
1.7 million (2001)
<b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
<b>Unemployment rate:</b>
21.7% (2002 est.)
<b>Budget:</b>
<br><i>revenues:</i>
$8.6 billion
<br><i>expenditures:</i>
$9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2001 est.)
<b>Industries:</b>
[[chemical industry|chemical]]s and [[plastic]]s, machine tools, fabricated [[metal]], electronics, [[pig iron]] and rolled [[steel]] products, [[aluminium]], [[paper]], [[wood]] products, construction materials, [[textiles]], shipbuilding, [[petroleum]] and petroleum refining, [[food]] and beverages; [[tourism]]
<b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
2.8% (2002 est.)
<b>Electricity - production:</b>
12.12 billion kWh (2001)
<b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
<br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
33.6%
<br><i>hydro:</i>
66%
<br><i>nuclear:</i>
0%
<br><i>other:</i>
0.4% (2001)
<b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
14.27 billion kWh (1998)
<b>Electricity - exports:</b>
386 million kWh (1998)
<b>Electricity - imports:</b>
3.386 billion kWh (1998)
<b>Oil - production:</b>
29,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
<b>Oil - consumption:</b>
89,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
<b>Oil - proved reserves:</b>
93.6 million bbl (January 2002 est.)
<b>Natural gas - proved reserves:</b>
34.36 billion cu m (January 2002 est.)
<b>Agriculture - products:</b>
[[wheat]], [[maize]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
<b>Exports:</b>
$4.9 billion (f.o.b., 2002)
<b>Exports - commodities:</b>
transport equipment, [[textiles]], [[chemicals]], foodstuffs, fuels
<b>Exports - partners:</b>
[[Italy]] 19.6%,
[[Germany]] 14.7%,
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 13%,
[[Slovenia]] 8.8%,
[[Austria]] 11.5%,
[[France]] 3.7%
(2001 est.)
<b>Imports:</b>
$10.7 billion (c.i.f., 2002)
<b>Imports - commodities:</b>
machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs
<b>Imports - partners:</b>
Germany 16.1%,
Italy 14.5%,
Slovenia 6.9%,
Austria 6.3%,
France 5.6%,
Russia 3.3%
(2001 est.)
<b>Debt - external:</b>
$16.5 billion (2001)
<b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
ODA $66 million (2000)
<b>Currency:</b>
[[kuna]] (HRK)
<b>Exchange rates:</b>
kuna per US$1 -
7.8687 (2002),
8.34 (2001),
8.2766 (2000),
7.112 (1999),
6.362 (1998),
6.157 (1997),
5.434 (1996),
5.230 (1995)
<b>Fiscal year:</b>
calendar year
:''See also :'' [[Croatia]] | 23:33, 2 September 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=1461688&oldid=1461650 | 2.2% (2002)
<b>Labor force:</b>
1.7 million (2001)
<b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
<b>Unemployment rate:</b>
21.7% (2002 est.)
| 23:33, 2 September 2003 | 2.2% (2002)
<b>Labor force:</b>
1,748,756 (2002)
<b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
agriculture 7.8%, industry 30.7%, services 61.3% (2002)
<b>Unemployment rate:</b>
21.7% (2002 est.)
| 11:03, 21 September 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=2014197&oldid=1640160 | 58% (2002 est.)
<b>Population below poverty line:</b>
NA%
<b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
<br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
| 11:12, 21 September 2003 | 58% (2002 est.)
<b>Population below poverty line:</b>
<br><i>national absolute:</i>
10%
<br><i>internationally comparable:</i>
4.8%
(2003 est.)
<b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
<br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
| 21:50, 28 October 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=5475887&oldid=5035840 | 0.4% (2001)
<b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
14.27 billion kWh (1998)
<b>Electricity - exports:</b>
386 million kWh (1998)
<b>Electricity - imports:</b>
3.386 billion kWh (1998)
<b>Oil - production:</b>
29,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
<b>Oil - consumption:</b>
89,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
<b>Oil - proved reserves:</b>
93.6 million bbl (January 2002 est.)
<b>Natural gas - production:</b>
1.76 billion cu m (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - consumption:</b>
2.84 billion cu m (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - exports:</b>
0 cu m (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - imports:</b>
1.08 billion cu m (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - proved reserves:</b>
34.36 billion cu m (January 2002 est.)
<b>Agriculture - products:</b>
[[wheat]], [[maize]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
| 23:33, 22 May 2004 | 0.4% (2001)
<b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
14,270 GWh (1998)
<b>Electricity - exports:</b>
386 GWh (1998)
<b>Electricity - imports:</b>
3,386 GWh (1998)
<b>Oil - production:</b>
29,000 barrel/day (4,600 m³/d) 2001
<b>Oil - consumption:</b>
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) 2001
<b>Oil - proved reserves:</b>
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) January 2002
<b>Natural gas - production:</b>
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - consumption:</b>
2.84 km³ (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - exports:</b>
0 m³ (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - imports:</b>
1.08 km³ (2001 est.)
<b>Natural gas - proved reserves:</b>
34.36 km³ (January 2002 est.)
<b>Agriculture - products:</b>
[[wheat]], [[maize]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
| 11:58, 6 August 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=21472919&oldid=19822927 | By early [[2005]], the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the [[Croatian National Bank|national bank]].
== Economic indicators ==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $43.12 billion (2002 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.2% (2002 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $9,800 (2002 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br />''agriculture:''
9%
<br />''industry:''
33%
<br />''services:''
58% (2002 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
<br />''national absolute:''
10%
<br />''internationally comparable:''
4.8%
(2003 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br />''lowest 10%:''
3.7%
<br />''highest 10%:''
23.3%
(1998)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
29 (1998)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.2% (2002)
'''Labor force:'''
1,748,756 (2002)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 7.8%, industry 30.7%, services 61.3% (2002)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
21.7% (2002 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br />''revenues:''
$8.6 billion
<br />''expenditures:''
$9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2001 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[chemical industry|chemical]]s and [[plastic]]s, machine tools, fabricated [[metal]], electronics, [[pig iron]] and rolled [[steel]] products, [[aluminium]], [[paper]], [[wood]] products, construction materials, [[textiles]], shipbuilding, [[petroleum]] and petroleum refining, [[food]] and beverages; [[tourism]]
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.8% (2002 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
12,120 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br />''fossil fuel:''
0.4% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
14,270 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
386 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
3,386 GWh (1998)
'''Oil - production:'''
29,000 barrel/day (4,600 m³/d) 2001
'''Oil - consumption:'''
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) 2001
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) January 2002
'''Natural gas - production:'''
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
34.36 km³ (January 2002 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[wheat]], [[maize]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
'''Exports:'''
$4.9 billion (f.o.b., 2002)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
transport equipment, [[textiles]], [[chemicals]], foodstuffs, fuels
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Italy]] 22.4%,
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 14.4%,
[[Germany]] 12.5%,
[[Slovenia]] 8%,
[[Austria]] 7.3%,
(2002)
'''Imports:'''
$10.7 billion (c.i.f., 2002)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs
'''Imports - partners:'''
Italy 16.8%,
Germany 16.4%,
Slovenia 7.8%,
[[Russia]] 6.8%
Austria 6.7%,
[[France]] 5.2%,
(2001 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$16.5 billion (yearend 2002 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $66 million (2000)
'''Currency:'''
[[kuna (currency)|kuna]] ([[HRK]])
'''Exchange rates:'''
kuna per US$1 -
7.8687 (2002),
8.34 (2001),
8.2766 (2000),
| 01:11, 29 July 2005 | By early [[2005]], the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the [[Croatian National Bank|national bank]].
== Economic indicators ==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $50.33 billion (2004 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.7% (2004 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $11,200 (2004 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br />''agriculture:''
8.2%
<br />''industry:''
30.1%
<br />''services:''
61.7% (2004 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
1.71 million (2004 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 2.7%, industry 32.8%, services 64.5% (2004)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
13.8% (2004 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
<br />''national absolute:''
11%
<br />''internationally comparable:''
4.8%
(2003 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br />''lowest 10%:''
3.4%
<br />''highest 10%:''
24.5%
(2003 est.)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
29 (1998)
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.5% (2004 est.)
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
28.6% of GDP (2004 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br />''revenues:''
$14.14 billion
<br />''expenditures:''
$15.65 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.)
'''Public debt:'''
41.7% of GDP (2004 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[grape]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
'''Industries:'''
[[chemical industry|chemical]]s and [[plastic]]s, machine tools, fabricated [[metal]], electronics, [[pig iron]] and rolled [[steel]] products, [[aluminium]], [[paper]], [[wood]] products, construction materials, [[textiles]], shipbuilding, [[petroleum]] and petroleum refining, [[food]] and beverages; [[tourism]]
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.7% (2004 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
12.51 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br />''fossil fuel:''
0.4% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
15.2 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
406 GWh (2002)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
3,966 GWh (2002)
'''Oil - production:'''
21,000 barrel/day (3,338 m³/d) (2004 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) (2001 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) (1 January 2002)
'''Natural gas - production:'''
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
34.36 km³ (January 2002 est.)
'''Current account balance:'''
$-1.925 billion (2004 est.)
'''Exports:'''
$7.845 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
transport equipment, [[textiles]], [[chemicals]], foodstuffs, fuels
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Italy]] 23.1%,
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 14.7%,
[[Germany]] 11.5%,
[[Austria]] 9.6%,
[[Slovenia]] 7.7%,
(2004)
'''Imports:'''
$16.7 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs
'''Imports - partners:'''
Italy 17.3%,
Germany 15.7%,
Slovenia 7.1%,
Austria 7.1%,
[[Russia]] 7%
[[France]] 4.3%,
(2004)
'''Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:'''
$8.563 billion (2004 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$26.4 billion (2004 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $166.5 million (2002)
'''Currency:'''
[[kuna (currency)|kuna]] ([[HRK]])
'''Exchange rates:'''
kuna per US$1 -
6.0358 (2004),
6.7035 (2003),
7.8687 (2002),
8.34 (2001),
8.2766 (2000),
| 02:44, 21 August 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=40856143&oldid=40284194 | __FORCETOC__
== History ==
In an [[economics|economy]] traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the [[Croatia]]n population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants.
By early [[2005]], the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the [[Croatian National Bank|national bank]].
== Economic indicators ==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) (2001 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) (1 January 2002)
'''Natural gas - production:'''
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)
| 14:34, 19 February 2006 | __FORCETOC__
==History==
In an [[economics|economy]] traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the [[Croatia]]n population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants.
By early [[2005]], the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the [[Croatian National Bank|national bank]].
==Economic indicators==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) (2001 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
'''Natural gas - production:'''
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)
| 13:16, 23 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=54733157&oldid=54732290 | $8.563 billion (2004 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$33.2 billion (2006 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $166.5 million (2002)
| 16:35, 23 May 2006 | $8.563 billion (2004 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$26.4 billion (2004 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $166.5 million (2002)
| 16:41, 23 May 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=82190624&oldid=80257304 | |-
!colspan=2|County || Number of citizens || GDP/Billion of Euros || GDP/Euros per capita
|-
|'''1'''|| [[Zagreb]]||775 424||8,257||10 586
|-
|'''2'''|| [[Istria county]]||205 825||1,694||8 122
|-
| 18:55, 8 October 2006 | |-
!colspan=2|County || Number of citizens || GDP/Billion of Euros || GDP/Euros per capita
|-
|'''1'''|| [[Zagreb]]||779 145||8,257||10 586
|-
|'''2'''|| [[Istria county]]||205 825||1,694||8 122
|-
| 11:42, 18 October 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=95922502&oldid=95905210 | {{references}}
__FORCETOC__
==History==
In an [[economics|economy]] traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the [[Croatia]]n population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants.
| 11:08, 22 December 2006 | {{Unreferenced|date=December 2006}}
__FORCETOC__
==History==
In an [[economics|economy]] traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the [[Croatia]]n population until after [[World War II]]. Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants.
| 14:11, 22 December 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=108095534&oldid=97597504 |
Most economic indicators remained positive in this period, except for the external [[debt]]. The [[Croatian National Bank]] had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks (commonly the same foreign banks that own the local ones). The dollar debt figure is quite adversely affected by the [[Euro|EUR]]/[[USD]] ratio — over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes.
[[Tourism]] is a notable source of income during the summer. With over 8,5 million foreign tourists a year, Croatia is ranked as the 18th major tourist destination in the world.<ref>http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/highlights_06_eng_lr.pdf</ref>
Any negative trends in the large EU economies such as [[Economy of Germany|Germany]] or [[Economy of Italy|Italy]] also have a negative impact on Croatia as they are its biggest trade partners.
| 20:24, 31 December 2006 |
Most economic indicators remained positive in this period, except for the external [[debt]]. The [[Croatian National Bank]] had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks (commonly the same foreign banks that own the local ones). The dollar debt figure is quite adversely affected by the [[Euro|EUR]]/[[USD]] ratio — over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes.
[[Tourism]] is a notable source of income during the summer. With over 10 million foreign tourists a year (as of 2006), Croatia is ranked as the 18th major tourist destination in the world.<ref>http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/highlights_06_eng_lr.pdf</ref>
Any negative trends in the large EU economies such as [[Economy of Germany|Germany]] or [[Economy of Italy|Italy]] also have a negative impact on Croatia as they are its biggest trade partners.
| 16:04, 14 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=108095974&oldid=108095785 | purchasing power parity - $55.76 billion (2005 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4.3% (2005 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $12,400 (2005 est.)
| 16:05, 14 February 2007 | purchasing power parity - $55.76 billion (2005 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4.8% (2007 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $12,400 (2005 est.)
| 16:06, 14 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Economy_of_Croatia&diff=111062282&oldid=108095974 | ''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2006.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $55.76 billion (2005 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4.8% (2007 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $12,400 (2005 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br />''agriculture:''
7.0%
<br />''industry:''
30.8%
<br />''services:''
62.2% (2005 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
1.71 million (2005 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 2.7%, industry 32.8%, services 64.5% (2004)
$19.35 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2005 est.)
'''Public debt:'''
49.7% of GDP (2005 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[grape]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
0.4% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
15.81 billion kWh (2003)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
550 million kWh (2003)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
5.99 billion kWh (2003)
'''Oil - production:'''
20,500 barrel/day (3,338 m³/d) (2005 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
90,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) (2003 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
| 16:06, 14 February 2007 | ''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2006.''
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $59.41 billion (2006 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4.8% (2007 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $13,200 (2006 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
agriculture: 6.8%
industry: 30.9%
services: 62.3% (2006 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
1.72 million (2006 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 2.7%, industry 32.8%, services 64.5% (2004)
$19.35 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2005 est.)
'''Public debt:'''
56.2% of GDP (2006 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[grape]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]
0.4% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
16.53 billion kWh (2004)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
600 million kWh (2004)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
5.086 billion kWh (2004)
'''Oil - production:'''
20,500 bbl/day (2005 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
93,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])
| 12:19, 26 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CFA_franc&diff=1271669&oldid=976358 |
Both versions of the CFAF have the same value: since January 1, [[1999]], they are pegged to the [[euro]] at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro.
They have the ISO 4217 [[currency codes]] XOF and XAF, respectively. | 13:02, 22 April 2003 |
Both versions of the CFAF have the same value: since January 1, [[1999]], they are pegged to the [[euro]] at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro.
They have the [[ISO 4217|ISO 4217 currency codes]] XOF and XAF, respectively. | 20:12, 29 May 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CFA_franc&diff=5978986&oldid=5978720 |
== Institutions ==
Stricly speaking, there actually exists two different currencies called CFA franc: the West African CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency code XOF), and the Central Africa CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency codes XAF). They are distinguished in French by the meaning of the abbreviation CFA. These two CFA francs have the same exchange rate with the euro (1 euro = 655.957 XOF = 655.957 XAF), and they are both guaranteed by the [[European Central Bank]], but the West African CFA franc cannot be used in Central Africa contries, and the Central Africa CFA franc cannot be used in West African countries.
*The West African CFA franc (XOF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Communauté financière d'Afrique'' ("Financial Community of Africa"). It is issued by the BCEAO (''Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest'', i.e. "Central Bank of the West African States"), located in [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]], for the 8 countries of the UEMOA (''Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine'', i.e. "[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]]"):
**[[Benin]]
**[[Niger]]
**[[Senegal]]
**[[Togo]]
**The Central Africa CFA franc (XAF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale'' ("Financial Cooperation in Central Africa"). It is issued by the BEAC (''Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale'', i.e. "Bank of the Central Africa States"), located in [[Yaounde]], [[Cameroon]], for the 6 countries of the CEMAC (''Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine'', i.e. "[[Central African Economic and Monetary Community]]"):
**[[Cameroon]]
**[[Central African Republic]]
**[[Chad]]
**[[Republic of the Congo]]
**[[Equatorial Guinea]]
**[[Gabon]]
They have the [[ISO 4217]] currency codes XOF and XAF, respectively.
== Extern Links: ==
* [http://www.usenghor-francophonie.org/textintegral/conferences/messmer/titre.htm Passé et Avenir du Franc C.F.A.]
| 00:49, 19 September 2004 |
== Institutions ==
Stricly speaking, there actually exist two different currencies called CFA franc: the West African CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency code XOF), and the Central Africa CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency codes XAF). They are distinguished in French by the meaning of the abbreviation CFA. These two CFA francs have the same exchange rate with the euro (1 euro = 655.957 XOF = 655.957 XAF), and they are both guaranteed by the [[European Central Bank]], but the West African CFA franc cannot be used in Central African contries, and the Central Africa CFA franc cannot be used in West African countries.
*The West African CFA franc (XOF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Communauté financière d'Afrique'' ("Financial Community of Africa"). It is issued by the BCEAO (''Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest'', i.e. "Central Bank of the West African States"), located in [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]], for the 8 countries of the UEMOA (''Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine'', i.e. "[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]]"):
**[[Benin]]
**[[Niger]]
**[[Senegal]]
**[[Togo]]
These 8 countries have a total population of 75.5 million inhabitants ([[2003]]) and a combined GDP of 36.96 billion USD in [[2003]]. This is about the same population and GDP as [[Vietnam]].
The other countries of West Africa such as [[Ghana]] or [[Nigeria]] are due to join the countries of the UEMOA in [[2006]] to establish a single currency for the whole of West Africa. However, the sheer size of Nigeria makes this project very hazardous.
*The Central Africa CFA franc (XAF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale'' ("Financial Cooperation in Central Africa"). It is issued by the BEAC (''Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale'', i.e. "Bank of the Central African States"), located in [[Yaounde]], [[Cameroon]], for the 6 countries of the CEMAC (''Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale'', i.e. "[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]]"):
**[[Cameroon]]
**[[Central African Republic]]
**[[Chad]]
**[[Republic of the Congo]]
**[[Equatorial Guinea]]
**[[Gabon]]
These 8 countries have a total population of 34.15 million inhabitants ([[2003]]) and a combined GDP of 28.3 billion USD in [[2003]]. This is about the same population as [[Tanzania]], and the same GDP as [[Kazakhstan]].
== Extern Links: ==
* [http://www.usenghor-francophonie.org/textintegral/conferences/messmer/titre.htm Passé et Avenir du Franc C.F.A.]
| 01:34, 19 September 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CFA_franc&diff=22924255&oldid=22918594 | *1 Franc
*5 Francs
*10 Francs
*50 Francs
*100 Francs
*250 Francs
*500 Francs
[[Banknote]]s in circulation
*1,000 Francs
*2,500 Francs
*5,000 Francs
*10,000 Francs
| 16:52, 9 September 2005 | *1 Franc
*5 Francs
*10 Francs
*25 Francs
*50 Francs
*100 Francs
*200 Francs
*250 Francs
*500 Francs
[[Banknote]]s in circulation
*1,000 Francs
*2,000 Francs
*5,000 Francs
*10,000 Francs
| 18:33, 9 September 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Collectivism&diff=6939083&oldid=6939013 | ==Politics==
Some political systems are based on a form of collectivism known as [[corporatism]] - [[fascism]] in particular. [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality. [[Marxism]] regards people with reference to their economic class.
Some political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the [[individual]]'s interests and characteristics are in fact tied up with the interests and characteristics of his or her group. In this line of thought, differences between groups are considered significant, while differences between [[individual]]s within groups, to the extent that they are acknowledged at all, are considered unimportant.
| 20:24, 28 October 2004 | ==Politics==
Some political systems are based on a form of collectivism known as [[corporatism]] - [[fascism]] in particular. [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality. [[Marxism]] regards people with reference to their economic class.
Collectivism in the [[Marxist]] [[point of view]] could be considered [[anti-capitalist]]ic, with emphasis on worker [[welfare]] over [[profit]] motive. Kinds of collectivism run the gamut of strict abolition of all [[personal property]] to much more [[moderate]] views, such as those in [[Israeli]] [[kibbutzes]], where land is the collective propety. [[Socialized medicine]] could also be considered collectivism, the expense of health care and it's administration decided by [[democratic]] [[vote]] instead of [[private ownership]].
Some political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the [[individual]]'s interests and characteristics are in fact tied up with the interests and characteristics of his or her group. In this line of thought, differences between groups are considered significant, while differences between [[individual]]s within groups, to the extent that they are acknowledged at all, are considered unimportant.
| 20:26, 28 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Compiler&diff=5078266&oldid=5077749 | Hmmm, how is it that the [[Dragon Book]] uses ''pass'' rather than ''parse'' in the relevant context? I would like to believe that Aho, Sethi, and Ullman knew what they were writing about. Strange, or what, [[User:VampWillow|VampWillow]]? --[[User:Wernher|Wernher]] 21:15, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
:Ah well, these 'Johnny come lately's do get things wrong occasionally, but as I was taight how to write compilers (and the rest) back in the mid-70s, and *the* book on the subject was the 1971 '''Compiler Construction for Digital Computers''' by David Gries which uses 'parse' then, I think, I rest my case!
:It is, however, a ''very'' common mistake, as with newer compilers repeating their transit through the source code then the original usage of ''parsing the lexical strings to create the output streams/code/etc'' rather than being well-written and just going through the once, then the original spelling got lost somewhat (and some youngsters like to think they invented computer languages! ;-) --[[User:VampWillow|[[User:VampWillow|Vamp]][[User talk:VampWillow|Willow]]]] 21:40, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC) | 10:11, 8 August 2004 | Hmmm, how is it that the [[Dragon Book]] uses ''pass'' rather than ''parse'' in the relevant context? I would like to believe that Aho, Sethi, and Ullman knew what they were writing about. Strange, or what, [[User:VampWillow|VampWillow]]? --[[User:Wernher|Wernher]] 21:15, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
:Ah well, these 'Johnny come lately's do get things wrong occasionally, but as I was taight how to write compilers (and the rest) back in the mid-70s, and *the* book on the subject was the 1971 '''Compiler Construction for Digital Computers''' by David Gries which uses 'parse' then, I think, I rest my case!
:It is, however, a ''very'' common mistake, as with newer compilers repeating their transit through the source code then the original usage of ''parsing the lexical strings to create the output streams/code/etc'' rather than being well-written and just going through the once, then the original spelling got lost somewhat (and some youngsters like to think they invented computer languages! ;-) --[[User:VampWillow|[[User:VampWillow|Vamp]][[User talk:VampWillow|Willow]]]] 21:40, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
::: May be somewere it is misstake, but not here. [[User:Kenny sh|Kenny]] 10:19, 2004 Aug 8 (UTC) | 10:19, 8 August 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Computer_program&diff=5466396&oldid=5466371 |
In most computers, an [[operating system]], such as Windows, loads and executes programs. In this context, a computer program refers to the individual [[executable]] image rather than all the programming currently running on the computer.
==The Von Neumann architecture==
In a computer with the most common [[Von Neumann architecture]] or [[Harvard architecture]] the program is loaded from a peripheral device of some kind, often a [[hard drive]]. In a machine following the Von Neumann architecture, the program is loaded into main memory. The instruction sequence are then executed in order until a jump or branch instruction is executed or an interrupt occurs. These instructions change the [[program counter]].
A computer program consists of a set of instructions that the computer understands. A computer of this architecture without a program does absolutely nothing.
The instructions in a computer program are in [[machine code]]; they are usually originally written in a computer [[programming language]], and translated to machine code using a computer program called a [[compiler]] or an [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]]. Sometimes the programming language is simply a set of abbreviations for the machine code instructions, called [[assembly language]] – in this case, a program called an [[assembler]] is used to make the translation.
| 22:09, 22 August 2004 |
In most computers, an [[operating system]], such as Windows, loads and executes programs. In this context, a computer program refers to the individual [[executable]] image rather than all the programming currently running on the computer.
==The Von Neumann architecture=
A computer program consists of a set of instructions that the computer understands. A computer of this architecture without a program does absolutely nothing.
The instructions in a computer program are in [[machine code]]; they are usually originally written in a computer [[programming language]], and translated to machine code using a computer program called a [[compiler]] or an [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]]. Sometimes the programming language is simply a set of abbreviations for the machine code instructions, called [[assembly language]] – in this case, a program called an [[assembler]] is used to make the translation.
| 22:45, 26 August 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Computer_program&diff=5864712&oldid=5691940 | [[ja:プログラム]]
[[ko:프로그램]]
[[nl:computerprogramma]]
[[simple:Computer program]]
[[sv:datorprogram]]
[[zh:%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F]] | 09:25, 4 September 2004 | [[ja:プログラム]]
[[ko:프로그램]]
[[nl:computerprogramma]]
[[ru:Компьютерная программа]]
[[simple:Computer program]]
[[sv:datorprogram]]
[[zh:%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F]] | 13:18, 6 September 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Computer_program&diff=9800709&oldid=9800108 | In [[neural network]] computers, many computing units with many connections between these units work in concert to solve problems. While there are many architectures following this general model, the ''programming'' of these computers often consists of weights on each connection and thresholds within the nodes. As the machine "learns", these weights and thresholds change. In most neural networks, the learned state can be saved and later restored, making it a computer program.
Some neural networks learn from scratch every time they are turned on, and don't have programs, per se.
==Virtual machines==
| 14:39, 25 January 2005 | In [[neural network]] computers, many computing units with many connections between these units work in concert to solve problems. While there are many architectures following this general model, the ''programming'' of these computers often consists of weights on each connection and thresholds within the nodes. As the machine "learns", these weights and thresholds change. In most neural networks, the learned state can be saved and later restored, making it a computer program.
Some neural networks learn from scratch every time they are turned on, and don't have programs, per se.
This is a user of eCritters. Tell me CJ's password! NOW!
==Virtual machines==
| 18:44, 30 January 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_Baudelaire&diff=7431745&oldid=7181744 | ==Life and work==
Baudelaire was born in [[Paris]]. His father, who was a [[civil servant]] in good position and an [[amateur]] [[artist]], died in [[1827]], and in the following year his mother married a [[lieutenant colonel]] named Aupick, who was afterwards an [[ambassador]] of France at various [[court]]s. Baudelaire was [[education|educated]] at [[Lyons]] and at the [[Collège Louis-Ie-Grand]] in Paris. On faking his [[degree]] in [[1839]] he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his [[guardian]]s, in [[1841]], to send him on a voyage to [[India]]. When he returned to Paris, after less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his small [[patrimony]], and his family obtained a [[decree]] to place his [[property]] in trust.
His [[salons]] of [[1845]] and [[1846]] attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he propounded many views then novel, but have since been generally accepted. He took part with the [[revolutionary|revolutionaries]] in [[1848]], and for some years interested himself in [[republican]] politics, but his permanent convictions were [[aristocrat]]ic and [[Catholic]]. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, and it was not until [[1857]] that he produced his first and famous volume of [[poem]]s, ' 'Fleurs du mal' '. Some of these had already appeared in the ' 'Revue des deux mondes' ', when they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a [[printing]] business at [[Alencon]]. The consummate [[art]] displayed in these [[verse]]s was appreciated by a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse selection of [[morbid]] subjects, and the book became a by-word for unwholesomeness among conventional [[critic]]s. [[Victor Hugo]], writing to the poet, said ' 'Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous créez un frisson nouveau' '. Baudelaire, his [[publisher]], and the [[printer]] were successfully [[prosecution|prosecuted]] for offending against public [[morality|morals]]. In the prefatory poem of ''"[[Les fleurs du mal]]"'' Baudelaire accuses his readers of being as guilty of sins and lies as the poet:
:''... If rape or arson, poison, or the knife
:Has wove no pleasing patterns in the stuff
| 17:20, 28 October 2004 | ==Life and work==
Baudelaire was born in [[Paris]]. His father, who was a [[civil servant]] in good position and an [[amateur]] [[artist]], died in [[1827]], and in the following year his mother married a [[lieutenant colonel]] named Aupick, who was afterwards an [[ambassador]] of France at various [[court]]s. Baudelaire was [[education|educated]] at [[Lyons]] and at the [[Collège Louis-Ie-Grand]] in Paris. On faking his [[degree]] in [[1839]] he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next two years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his [[guardian]]s, in [[1841]], to send him on a voyage to [[India]]. When he returned to Paris, after less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his small [[patrimony]], and his family obtained a [[decree]] to place his [[property]] in trust.
His [[salons]] of [[1845]] and [[1846]] attracted immediate attention by the boldness with which he propounded many views then novel, but have since been generally accepted. He took part with the [[revolutionary|revolutionaries]] in [[1848]], and for some years interested himself in [[Republicanism|republican]] politics, but his permanent convictions were [[aristocrat]]ic and [[Catholic]]. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, and it was not until [[1857]] that he produced his first and famous volume of [[poem]]s, ' 'Fleurs du mal' '. Some of these had already appeared in the ' 'Revue des deux mondes' ', when they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a [[printing]] business at [[Alencon]]. The consummate [[art]] displayed in these [[verse]]s was appreciated by a limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse selection of [[morbid]] subjects, and the book became a by-word for unwholesomeness among conventional [[critic]]s. [[Victor Hugo]], writing to the poet, said ' 'Vous dotez le ciel de l'art d'un rayon macabre, vous créez un frisson nouveau' '. Baudelaire, his [[publisher]], and the [[printer]] were successfully [[prosecution|prosecuted]] for offending against public [[morality|morals]]. In the prefatory poem of ''"[[Les fleurs du mal]]"'' Baudelaire accuses his readers of being as guilty of sins and lies as the poet:
:''... If rape or arson, poison, or the knife
:Has wove no pleasing patterns in the stuff
| 08:30, 7 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_Baudelaire&diff=14696117&oldid=14598938 | *[http://www.fleursdumal.org/ Les Fleurs du Mal full text online with Translations]
==External links==
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/baudelai.htm An overview]
*[http://www.veinotte.com/baudelaire/ A large site in English]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/ A comprehensive website in French]
*[http://www.todayinliterature.com/biography/charles.baudelaire.asp Today in Literature - page on Baudelaire]
*[http://www.poetes.com/baud/index.php Poetes.com]
{{1911}}
[[Category:1821 births|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:1867 deaths|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:French poets|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[cy:Charles Baudelaire]]
| 03:39, 29 May 2005 | *[http://www.fleursdumal.org/ Les Fleurs du Mal full text online with Translations]
==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Baudelaire|name=Charles Baudelaire}}
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/baudelai.htm An overview]
*[http://www.veinotte.com/baudelaire/ A large site in English]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/ A comprehensive website in French]
*[http://www.todayinliterature.com/biography/charles.baudelaire.asp Today in Literature - page on Baudelaire]
*[http://www.poetes.com/baud/index.php Poetes.com]
{{1911}}
[[Category:1821 births|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:1867 deaths|Baudelaire, Charles]] [[Category:French poets|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[cy:Charles Baudelaire]]
| 19:29, 2 June 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chinese_dominoes&diff=64131243&oldid=64125192 |
Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is made up of the outcome of a throw of two six-sided [[dice]]. There are therefore 21 unique patterns. A tile set consists of 32 tiles in two "suits" or groups called "military" and "civilian". There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group.
The tile set contains two each of eleven civilian suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2). Each civilian tile also has a Chinese name (and common rough translation to English): The 6-6 is ''tin'' (天 heaven), 1-1 is ''dei'' (地 earth), 4-4 is ''yan'' (人 man), 1-3 is ''ngo'' (鵝 goose or 和 harmony), 5-5 is ''mui'' (梅 plum flower), 3-3 is ''cheung'' (長 long), 2-2 is ''ban'' (板 board), 5-6 is ''fu'' (斧 hatchet), 4-6 is ''ping'' (屏 partition), 1-6 is ''tsat'' (七) (long leg seven), and 1-5 is ''luk'' (六) (big head six).
The civilian tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized. For example, heaven ranks higher than earth; earth ranks higher than man etc. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them.
The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total points on the tiles. For example, the "nines" (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the "eights" (2-6 and 3-5).
| 15:28, 16 July 2006 |
Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is made up of the outcome of a throw of two six-sided [[dice]]. There are therefore 21 unique patterns. A tile set consists of 32 tiles in two "suits" or groups called "military" and "civilian". There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group.
The tile set contains two each of eleven civilian suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2). Each civilian tile also has a Chinese name (and common rough translation to English): The 6-6 is ''tin'' (天 heaven), 1-1 is ''dei'' (地 earth), 4-4 is ''yan'' (人 man), 1-3 is ''ngo'' (鵝 goose or 和 harmony), 5-5 is ''mui'' (梅 ''[[ume|mei]]'' flower), 3-3 is ''cheung'' (長 long), 2-2 is ''ban'' (板 board), 5-6 is ''fu'' (斧 hatchet), 4-6 is ''ping'' (屏 partition), 1-6 is ''tsat'' (七) (long leg seven), and 1-5 is ''luk'' (六) (big head six).
The civilian tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized. For example, heaven ranks higher than earth; earth ranks higher than man etc. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them.
The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total points on the tiles. For example, the "nines" (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the "eights" (2-6 and 3-5).
| 16:18, 16 July 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=History_of_Colombia&diff=708550&oldid=596461 |
The [[Spain|Spanish]] sailed along the north coast of Colombia as early as [[1500]], but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, was not made until [[1525]]. In [[1549]], the area was established as a Spanish colony with the capital at Santa fe de Bogota. In [[1717]], Bogota became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which included what is now [[Venezuela]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Panama]]. The city became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] and [[Mexico City]]. In August [[2000]] the capital's name was officially changed from "Santa Fe de Bogota" to the more usual "Bogota."
On [[July 20]], [[1810]], the citizens of Bogota created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority. Full independence was proclaimed in [[1813]], and in [[1819]] the Republic of Greater Colombia was formed.
'''The Republic'''
| 14:26, 3 January 2003 |
The [[Spain|Spanish]] sailed along the north coast of Colombia as early as [[1500]], but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, was not made until [[1525]]. In [[1549]], the area was established as a Spanish colony with the capital at Santa fe de Bogota. In [[1717]], Bogota became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which included what is now [[Venezuela]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Panama]]. The city became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] and [[Mexico City]]. In August [[2000]] the capital's name was officially changed from "Santa Fe de Bogota" to the more usual "Bogota."
On [[July 20]], [[1810]], the citizens of Bogota created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority. Full independence was proclaimed in [[1813]], and on [[January 17]], [[1819]] the Republic of Greater Colombia was formed.
'''The Republic'''
| 11:22, 18 January 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=History_of_Colombia&diff=3922011&oldid=3727906 |
Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, and narcotics traffickers. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] was elected in 1990. Since the death of [[Medellín]] cartel leader [[Pablo Escobar]] in a police shootout during December [[1993]], indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the "cartels" have broken up into multiple, smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest against government policies, including extradition.
President [[Ernesto Samper]] assumed office in August [[1994]]. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda.
On [[August 7]], [[1998]], [[Andres Pastrana]] was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turn-out and little political unrest. The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs.
While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerilla attacks by the FARC and ELN, and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production and the spread of similarly violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia ([[AUC]]) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems.
The main objectives of Plan Colombia are to promote peace, combat the narcotics industry, revive the Colombian economy, improve respect for human rights, and strengthen the democratic and social institutions of the country. Colombia plans to finance $4 billion of the estimated $7.5 billion overall cost. The United States approved a $1.3 billion assistance package, and the Colombian Government is seeking additional support from the IFIs, the [[European Union]], and other countries.
In May 2002, the conservative politician [[Alvaro Uribe]], whose father had been killed by left-wing guerillas, was sworn in as Colombian president. He immediately began taking action to crush the FARC, ELN, and AUC, including the employment of citizen informants to help the police and armed forces track down suspected members in all three armed groups.
:''See also:'' [[New Granada]] - [[Gran Colombia]] - [[Colombia]] | 07:37, 12 May 2004 |
Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, and narcotics traffickers. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] was elected in 1990. Since the death of [[Medellín]] cartel leader [[Pablo Escobar]] in a police shootout during December [[1993]], indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the "cartels" have broken up into multiple, smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest against government policies, including extradition.
President [[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] assumed office in August [[1994]]. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda.
On [[August 7]], [[1998]], [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]] was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turn-out and little political unrest. The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs.
While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerilla attacks by the FARC and ELN, and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production and the spread of similarly violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia ([[AUC]]) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems.
The main objectives of Plan Colombia are to promote peace, combat the narcotics industry, revive the Colombian economy, improve respect for human rights, and strengthen the democratic and social institutions of the country. Colombia plans to finance $4 billion of the estimated $7.5 billion overall cost. The United States approved a $1.3 billion assistance package, and the Colombian Government is seeking additional support from the IFIs, the [[European Union]], and other countries.
In May 2002, the conservative politician [[Álvaro Uribe Vélez]], whose father had been killed by left-wing guerillas, was sworn in as Colombian president. He immediately began taking action to crush the FARC, ELN, and AUC, including the employment of citizen informants to help the police and armed forces track down suspected members in all three armed groups.
:''See also:'' [[New Granada]] - [[Gran Colombia]] - [[Colombia]] | 19:14, 25 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=History_of_Colombia&diff=11926123&oldid=11810638 |
==Struggle for independence==
On [[July 20]], [[1810]], the citizens of [[Bogotá]] created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority, with full independence being proclaimed in [[1813]]. A long Independency War, led mainly by [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] in New Granada ended after the [[Battle of Boyaca]], on [[August 7]], [[1819]]. That year, the [[Congress of Angostura]] established the Republic of [[Greater Colombia]], which included all territories under jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. ''For more information, see [[Bolivar's War]]''
==The Republic==
| 20:07, 29 March 2005 |
==Struggle for independence==
On [[July 20]], [[1810]], the citizens of [[Bogotá]] created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority, with full independence being proclaimed in [[1810]]. A long Independency War, led mainly by [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] in New Granada ended after the [[Battle of Boyaca]], on [[August 7]], [[1819]]. That year, the [[Congress of Angostura]] established the Republic of [[Greater Colombia]], which included all territories under jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. ''For more information, see [[Bolivar's War]]''
==The Republic==
| 22:04, 2 April 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=History_of_Colombia&diff=13506450&oldid=13479607 |
The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, especially after what was apparently later confirmed as the supposedly fraudulent election of [[Misael Pastrana Borrero]] in [[1970]], which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. The [[M-19]] guerrilla movement, "Movimiento 19 de Abril" (19th of April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event.
Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by [[1978]], the [[1886]] Colombian constitution--in effect until [[1991]]--required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties.
==Post-National Front years==
| 17:49, 9 May 2005 |
The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, especially after what was apparently later confirmed as the supposedly fraudulent election of [[Misael Pastrana Borrero]] in [[1970]], which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. The [[M-19]] guerrilla movement, "Movimiento 19 de Abril" (19th of April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event.
Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by [[1974]], the [[1886]] Colombian constitution--in effect until [[1991]]--required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties.
==Post-National Front years==
| 18:12, 9 May 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Transport_in_the_Czech_Republic&diff=220892185&oldid=220779579 | {{cleanup}}
'''Railways:'''
<br>''total:''
| 15:18, 21 June 2008 | {{Cleanup|date=June 2008}}
'''Railways:'''
<br>''total:''
| 02:48, 22 June 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Transport_in_the_Czech_Republic&diff=228273045&oldid=220892185 | 94 km 0.760-m narrow gauge (1998)
* [[České dráhy]] (ČD) (English: ''Czech Railways'') is the major Czech railway company.
*City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Prague]] (see the [[Prague Metro]] article)
*Cities with trams: [[Brno]], [[Liberec]], [[Most]], [[Olomouc]], [[Ostrava]], [[Plzeň]], [[Prague]]
| 02:48, 22 June 2008 | 94 km 0.760-m narrow gauge (1998)
* [[České dráhy]] (ČD) (English: ''Czech Railways'') is the major Czech railway company.
*City with [[rapid transit|underground]] railway system: [[Prague]] (see the [[Prague Metro]] article)
*Cities with trams: [[Brno]], [[Liberec]], [[Most]], [[Olomouc]], [[Ostrava]], [[Plzeň]], [[Prague]]
| 22:47, 27 July 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Transport_in_the_Czech_Republic&diff=433935110&oldid=432910346 |
=== Rail links to adjacent countries ===
* Same gauge
** {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Transport in Austria|Austria]] — voltage change 3 kV DC/15 kV AC
** {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Transport in Germany|Germany]] — voltage change 3 kV DC/15 kV AC
** {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Transport in Poland|Poland]] — same voltage [[List of current systems for electric rail traction|3 kV DC]]
** {{flagicon|Slovakia}} [[Transport in Slovakia|Slovakia]] — same voltage 3 kV DC (north) and 25 kV AC (south)
| 20:39, 6 June 2011 |
=== Rail links to adjacent countries ===
* Same gauge
** {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Transport in Austria|Austria]] — voltage change 25 kV AC/15 kV AC
** {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Transport in Germany|Germany]] — voltage change 3 kV DC/15 kV AC
** {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Transport in Poland|Poland]] — same voltage [[List of current systems for electric rail traction|3 kV DC]]
** {{flagicon|Slovakia}} [[Transport in Slovakia|Slovakia]] — same voltage 3 kV DC (north) and 25 kV AC (south)
| 20:17, 12 June 2011 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Customs_union&diff=18607185&oldid=15904053 | *[[Southern African Customs Union]]
*[[1925]] French Customs Union over occupied [[Saarland]]
*The former [[Zollverein]]
*[[United States of America]]
==References==
| 13:19, 23 June 2005 | *[[Southern African Customs Union]]
*[[1925]] French Customs Union over occupied [[Saarland]]
*The former [[Zollverein]]
==References==
| 16:17, 11 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Customs_union&diff=53840053&oldid=47540654 | == List of Customs Unions ==
''Every [[Common market]] and [[Economic and monetary union]] has also a '''Customs Union'''''
*[[Southern African Customs Union]]
*[[East African Community]]
*[[Gulf Cooperation Council]]
*[[MERCOSUR]]
*[[EU-Turkey Customs Union|EU - Turkey Customs Union]] (since 1996)
*[[Third country relationships with the EU#Customs Union|EU - Andorra Customs Union]]
*[[Third country relationships with the EU#Customs Union|EU - San Marino Customs Union]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]] (CEMAC)
*[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]] (UEMOA)
*[[Andean Community]] (CAN)
*[[Israel]] - [[Palestinian territories]] (since [[1994]])
*[[Switzerland]] - [[Liechtenstein]] (since [[1924]])
===Proposed===
*Customs Union of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), due in 2007
| 11:22, 8 April 2006 | == List of Customs Unions ==
''Every [[Common market]] and [[Economic and monetary union]] has also a '''Customs Union'''''
*[[Southern African [[1924]])
===Proposed===
*Customs Union of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), due in 2007
| 10:59, 18 May 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Customs_union&diff=145397331&oldid=137746903 | [[es:Unión aduanera]]
[[eo:Doganunio]]
[[fr:Union douanière]]
[[lb:Zollunioun]]
[[hu:Vámunió]]
[[nl:Douane-unie]]
| 20:19, 12 June 2007 | [[es:Unión aduanera]]
[[eo:Doganunio]]
[[fr:Union douanière]]
[[ko:관세 동맹]]
[[lb:Zollunioun]]
[[hu:Vámunió]]
[[nl:Douane-unie]]
| 07:55, 18 July 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=3465399&oldid=3464325 |
<font size=-2>
<table align="right" style="float:right; margin:1em;">
<caption>Relative weight of votes from different countries according to the [[Treaty of Nice]]:</caption>
<tr valign=top><th align=left>Country<th>Population<br>(millons)<th>Votes<th>Citizens<br>per vote<th>Relative<br>influence
<tr><td colspan=5><hr>
<tr align=right><td align=left>[[Malta]]<td>0,4<td>3<td>133333<td>21.20
The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is the Foreign Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is a civil servant, the head of the Council Secretariat. The Secretary-General also serves as the High Representative for the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP).
The countries of the EU hold different numbers of votes in the Council. The number of votes depends on the size of their population, but growth of votes is weaker than growth of population. This concept is aimed at balancing the voice of big countries with the voice of small countries (see table).
[[de:Rat der Europäischen Union]]
[[it:Consiglio dell'Unione Europea]]
| 10:25, 1 May 2004 |
<font size=-2>
<table align="right" style="float:right; margin:1em;">
<caption>Relative weight of votes from different countries according to the [[Treaty of Nice]], the relevant change to the [[Treaty on European Union|Maastricht treaty]] will take effect on November 1st 2004:</caption>
<tr valign=top><th align=left>Country<th>Population<br>(millons)<th>Votes<th>Citizens<br>per vote<th>Relative<br>influence
<tr><td colspan=5><hr>
<tr align=right><td align=left>[[Malta]]<td>0,4<td>3<td>133333<td>21.20
The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is the Foreign Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is a civil servant, the head of the Council Secretariat. The Secretary-General also serves as the High Representative for the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP).
The countries of the EU hold different numbers of votes in the Council. The number of votes depends on the size of their population, but the multiplier
is weaker for big countries. This concept is aimed at balancing the voice of big countries with the voice of small countries (see table).
== Voting ==
The Council meetings vote either by unanimity or by
[[Qualified Majority Voting|qualified majority]].
''see also:'' [[Enlargement of the European Union]]
[[de:Rat der Europäischen Union]]
[[it:Consiglio dell'Unione Europea]]
| 21:35, 5 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=3532548&oldid=3504073 | It will try to decide by unamity whenever it can(abstentions do not break it).
On November 1st 2004, a change in the Treaty which was adoped by the
[[Treaty of Nice]] comes into effect which replaces the current voting weights with a scheme called [[double majority voting]].
''see also:'' [[Enlargement of the European Union]], [[European Constitution]]
[[de:Rat der Europäischen Union]]
[[it:Consiglio dell'Unione Europea]]
==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union website]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3562405.stm BBC article with good background on voting weights discussion]
*Analyis and history of voting weights in the Council ([http://www.clingendael.nl/cli/publ/occ.pdf/smaller_states.pdf pdf]) | 20:41, 8 May 2004 | It will try to decide by unamity whenever it can(abstentions do not break it).
On November 1st 2004, a change in the Treaty which was adoped by the
[[Treaty of Nice]] comes into effect(has been rescheduled from January 1st 2005 by the [[Treaty of Accesson 2003]]) which gives new voting numbers and offers
a possibility to require the agreement of member states which represent at 62% of the population(called double majority).
''see also:'' [[Qualified Majority Voting]], [[Enlargement of the European Union]], [[European Constitution]]
[[de:Rat der Europäischen Union]]
[[it:Consiglio dell'Unione Europea]]
==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union website]
*SCADplus glossary: [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/cig/g4000c.htm#c33 Council of the European Union] | 23:46, 8 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=6705907&oldid=6365194 | [[fr: Conseil de l'Union européenne]]
[[image:Justus_Lipsius.jpg|thumb|Justus Lipsius, the sculpture in front of the Council of the European Union office in Brussels]]
The '''Council of the European Union''' forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). It contains ministers of the governments of each of the member-states of the EU.
| 21:23, 28 September 2004 | [[fr: Conseil de l'Union européenne]]
[[image:Justus_Lipsius.jpg|thumb|The Justus Lipsius building, Council of the European Union office in Brussels]]
The '''Council of the European Union''' forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). It contains ministers of the governments of each of the member-states of the EU.
| 21:53, 5 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=7027449&oldid=6956476 |
On [[November 1]] [[2004]], modified voting weights from the [[Treaty of Nice]] will come into effect (this date was revised by the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] from the original intention of [[January 1]], [[2005]]). This Treaty also provides for qualified majority votes to require a 'double majority' of both population and number of countries.
Further revisions to voting weights are proposed in the draft [[European Constitution|constitutional treaty]] which is currently under negotiation.
==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union] [http://ue.eu.int/cms3_fo/showPage.asp?lang=en&id=242 about itself] (includes info on voting weights)
| 13:00, 24 October 2004 |
On [[November 1]] [[2004]], modified voting weights from the [[Treaty of Nice]] will come into effect (this date was revised by the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] from the original intention of [[January 1]], [[2005]]). This Treaty also provides for qualified majority votes to require a 'double majority' of both population and number of countries.
Further revisions to voting weights are made in the proposed [[European Constitution|constitutional treaty]] which was signed in [[October 29]], [[2004]].
==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union] [http://ue.eu.int/cms3_fo/showPage.asp?lang=en&id=242 about itself] (includes info on voting weights)
| 12:42, 29 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=10531007&oldid=10530952 | {{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''Council of the European Union''' forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). It contains ministers of the governments of each of the member-states of the EU. The Council of the European Union is sometimes referred to in official European Union documents simply as the Council, and it is often informally referred to as the '''Council of Ministers'''.
It is to be distinguished from the [[Council of Europe]], which is a completely separate [[international organizations|international organization]]. It should also be distinguished from the [[European Council]], which is a separate but closely related institution, composed of the heads of state or government of the member states in the European Union, and the President of the [[European Commission]].
[[image:Justus_Lipsius.jpg|thumb|The Justus Lipsius building, Council of the European Union office in Brussels]]
The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is the Foreign Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is a civil servant, the head of the Council Secretariat. The Secretary-General also serves as the [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] ([[Common Foreign and Security Policy|CFSP]]).
The Council is assisted by [[COREPER]], which consists of representatives of the member-state at the level of diplomats or high-level civil servants. COREPER generally prepares the Council agenda, and negotiates minor and non-controversial matters, leaving controversial issues for discussion by the Council.
== Formations of the Council ==
Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity, but it is in practice divided into several different councils, each dealing with a different functional area. Each council contains a different type of ministers.
There are currently nine formations:
# '''General Affairs''' and '''External Relations''' (or '''GAERC'''): The most important of the formations, it is composed of Foreign Ministers and meets once a month. Since [[June 2002]] it holds separate meetings on General Affairs and External Relations.
#* The General Affairs Council also coordinates preparation for and follow-up to meetings of the [[European Council]].
Countries of the EU hold different numbers of votes in the Council. The number of votes held by each country is based indirectly on the size of the country's population, but with proportionally heavier weighting towards smaller countries. This concept is aimed at balancing the voice of big countries with the voice of small countries.
On [[November 1]] [[2004]], modified voting weights from the [[Treaty of Nice]] came into effect (this date was revised by the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] from the original intention of [[January 1]], [[2005]]). This Treaty also provides for qualified majority votes to require a 'double majority' of both population and number of countries.
Further revisions to voting weights are made in the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] which was signed in [[October 29]], [[2004]].
==See also==
* [[Institutions of the European Union]]
==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union] [http://ue.eu.int/cms3_fo/showPage.asp?lang=en&id=242 about itself] (includes info on voting weights)
| 16:26, 18 February 2005 | {{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''Council of the European Union''' forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). It contains ministers of the governments of each of the member-states of the EU. The Council of the European Union is sometimes referred to in official European Union documents simply as the Council, and it is often informally referred to as the '''Council of Ministers'''.
The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is the Foreign Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is a civil servant, the head of the Council Secretariat. The Secretary-General also serves as the [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] ([[Common Foreign and Security Policy|CFSP]]). The Council is assisted by [[COREPER]], which consists of representatives of the member-state at the level of diplomats or high-level civil servants. COREPER generally prepares the Council agenda, and negotiates minor and non-controversial matters, leaving controversial issues for discussion by the Council.
The Council of the European Union is to be distinguished from the [[Council of Europe]], also sometimes referred to as the 'European summit', which is a completely separate [[international organizations|international organisation]]. It should also be distinguished from the [[European Council]], which is a separate but closely related institution.
== Formations of the Council ==
[[image:Justus_Lipsius.jpg|thumb|225px|The Justus Lipsius building, the Council of the European Union office in Brussels]]
Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity, but it is in practice divided into several different councils, each dealing with a different functional area. Each council contains a different type of ministers. There are currently nine formations:
# '''General Affairs''' and '''External Relations''' (or '''GAERC'''): The most important of the formations, it is composed of Foreign Ministers and meets once a month. Since [[June 2002]] it holds separate meetings on General Affairs and External Relations.
#* The General Affairs Council also coordinates preparation for and follow-up to meetings of the [[European Council]].
Countries of the EU hold different numbers of votes in the Council. The number of votes held by each country is based indirectly on the size of the country's population, but with proportionally heavier weighting towards smaller countries. This concept is aimed at balancing the voice of big countries with the voice of small countries.
On [[November 1]] [[2004]], modified voting weights from the [[Treaty of Nice]] came into effect (this date was revised by the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] from the original intention of [[January 1]], [[2005]]). This Treaty also provides for qualified majority votes to require a 'double majority' of both population and number of countries. Further revisions to voting weights are made in the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] which was signed in [[October 29]], [[2004]].
==Political parties==
''Main article: [[Parties in the Council of the European Union]]''
[[Image:Party affiliations in the Council of the EU (2004-March 2005).png|thumb|200px|right|EU member states by the European parliamentary affiliations of their leaders.]]
Almost all of the leaders and ministers of each member state belong to political parties at the national level. Many of these national parties belong to formal political groupings in the European Parliament. However there are no formal political groups or alliances in the Council, and countries led by similar political parties are often not in agreement on questions that come before the body. Nonetheless the table below describes the current breakdown of party affiliations in the Council, in terms of the European parliamentary alliances with which the leader of each member state is indirectly associated.
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=50%
|'''Parliamentary group'''
|'''No. of states'''
|[[European People's Party - European Democrats]]
|11
|[[Party of European Socialists]]
|8
|[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]]
|4
|[[Union for a Europe of Nations]]
|1
|}
==See also==
*[[List of European Union-related topics|List of EU related topics]]
==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union] [http://ue.eu.int/cms3_fo/showPage.asp?lang=en&id=242 about itself] (includes info on voting weights)
| 03:21, 24 February 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=10542530&oldid=10531936 | |'''No. of states'''
|[[European People's Party - European Democrats]]
|11
|[[Party of European Socialists]]
|8
| 03:23, 24 February 2005 | |'''No. of states'''
|[[European People's Party - European Democrats]]
|12
|[[Party of European Socialists]]
|8
| 04:02, 24 February 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Council_of_the_European_Union&diff=15904055&oldid=14856400 | {{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''Council of the European Union''' forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). It contains ministers of the governments of each of the [[European Union member states|member-states]]. The Council of the European Union is sometimes referred to in official European Union documents simply as the Council, and it is often informally referred to as the '''Council of Ministers''' (which will become its official name if the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] is adopted).
The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is a Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is a civil servant, the head of the Council Secretariat. The Secretary-General also serves as the [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] ([[Common Foreign and Security Policy|CFSP]]). The Council is assisted by [[COREPER]], which consists of the ambassadors (Coreper II) or their deputies (Coreper I) from the diplomatic representations of the Member States to the European Communities. COREPER generally prepares the Council agenda, and negotiates minor and non-controversial matters, leaving controversial issues for discussion, and other issues for formal agreement, by the Council. Below COREPER, civil servants from the member states negotiate in Council Working Groups, often reaching de facto agreement which is formalised through COREPER and the Council of Ministers.
The Council of the European Union is to be distinguished from the [[Council of Europe]] which is a completely separate [[international organizations|international organisation]]. It should also be distinguished from the [[European Council]], sometimes referred to as the 'European Summit', which is a separate but closely related institution.
| 16:21, 22 May 2005 | {{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''Council of the European Union''' forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). It contains ministers of the governments of each of the [[European Union member states|member-states]]. The Council of the European Union is sometimes referred to in official European Union documents simply as the Council, and it is often informally referred to as the '''Council of Ministers''' (which will become its official name if the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] is adopted).
The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is a Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is a civil servant, the head of the Council Secretariat. The Secretary-General also serves as the [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] ([[Common Foreign and Security Policy|CFSP]]). The Council is assisted by Committee of Permanent Representatives（[[COREPER]]）, which consists of the ambassadors or their deputies from the diplomatic representations of the Member States to the European Communities. COREPER generally prepares the Council agenda, and negotiates minor and non-controversial matters, leaving controversial issues for discussion, and other issues for formal agreement, by the Council. Below COREPER, civil servants from the member states negotiate in Council Working Groups, often reaching de facto agreement which is formalised through COREPER and the Council of Ministers.
The Council of the European Union is to be distinguished from the [[Council of Europe]] which is a completely separate [[international organizations|international organisation]]. It should also be distinguished from the [[European Council]], sometimes referred to as the 'European Summit', which is a separate but closely related institution.
| 02:31, 8 June 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cyanide&diff=1643765&oldid=1625463 | *[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Alan Turing]]
*[[Peoples Temple]] [[Jonestown mass suicide|mass suicide]]
Poisoning by cyanide also figures prominently in [[crime fiction]], for example [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]''; cyanide is the probable instrument of one murder in ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' by [[Raymond Chandler]].
Cyanides were stockpiled in both the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and the [[United States]] [[chemical weapon]]s arsenals in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. During the [[Cold War]], the [[Soviet Union]] was thought to be planning to use hydrogen cyanide as a "[[blitzkrieg]]" weapon to clear a path through the opposing front line, knowing that the harmful gas itself would evaporate and allow unprotected access to the captured zone.
| 00:02, 23 October 2003 | *[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Alan Turing]]
*[[Peoples Temple]] [[Jonestown mass suicide|mass suicide]]
Poisoning by cyanide also figures prominently in [[crime fiction]], for example [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]''; cyanide is the instrument of one murder in ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' by [[Raymond Chandler]].
Cyanides were stockpiled in both the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and the [[United States]] [[chemical weapon]]s arsenals in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. During the [[Cold War]], the [[Soviet Union]] was thought to be planning to use hydrogen cyanide as a "[[blitzkrieg]]" weapon to clear a path through the opposing front line, knowing that the harmful gas itself would evaporate and allow unprotected access to the captured zone.
| 22:56, 25 October 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CRT&diff=10238329&oldid=4832390 | * In [[U.S.]] [[school]]s, the '''[[Criterion-Referenced Test]]'''
* In [[mathematics]], the '''[[Chinese remainder theorem]]'''
{{disambig}} | 00:54, 4 June 2004 | * In [[U.S.]] [[school]]s, the '''[[Criterion-Referenced Test]]'''
* In [[mathematics]], the '''[[Chinese remainder theorem]]'''
{{disambig}}
[[Category:TLAs]] | 07:12, 25 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CRT&diff=269825198&oldid=264443718 | [[ja:CRT]]
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[[zh:CRT]] | 11:20, 16 January 2009 | [[ja:CRT]]
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[[zh:CRT]] | 19:12, 10 February 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CN_Tower&diff=2013760&oldid=2011336 | <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cntower2.jpg|Mueller chairlift]]</div>
At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[meter]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is one of the world's tallest land structures, dwarfed primarily but not exclusively by the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]], which stands at 628 meters (2,063 feet) tall. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
It was built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) who wanted to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry by building a [[tower]] taller than any other in the world. The tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.
| 00:58, 21 December 2003 | <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cntower2.jpg|Mueller chairlift]]</div>
At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[meter]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is the world's tallest free standing land structure. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
It was built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) who wanted to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry by building a [[tower]] taller than any other in the world. The tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.
| 03:51, 21 December 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CN_Tower&diff=2096074&oldid=2095375 | <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cntower2.jpg|Mueller chairlift]]</div>
At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[meter]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is the world's tallest free standing land structure. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
It was built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) who wanted to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry by building a [[tower]] taller than any other in the world. The tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.
| 12:36, 21 December 2003 | <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cntower2.jpg|Mueller chairlift]]</div>
At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[meter]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is one of the world's tallest land structures, dwarfed primarily but not exclusively by the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]], which stands at 628 meters (2,063 feet) tall. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
It was built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) who wanted to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry by building a [[tower]] taller than any other in the world. The tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.
| 03:21, 6 January 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CN_Tower&diff=2096206&oldid=2096074 | <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cntower2.jpg|Mueller chairlift]]</div>
At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[meter]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is one of the world's tallest land structures, dwarfed primarily but not exclusively by the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]], which stands at 628 meters (2,063 feet) tall. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
It was built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) who wanted to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry by building a [[tower]] taller than any other in the world. The tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.
| 03:21, 6 January 2004 | <div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">[[image:Cntower2.jpg|Mueller chairlift]]</div>
At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[meter]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is the world's tallest free-standing land structure, dwarfed primarily but not exclusively by the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]], which stands at 628 meters (2,063 feet) tall. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
It was built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) who wanted to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry by building a [[tower]] taller than any other in the world. The tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.
| 05:54, 6 January 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CN_Tower&diff=3611242&oldid=3527586 |
The CN Tower has been declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. It also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
There are many guyed towers taller than the CN Tower, the current tallest being the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]] at 628 meters (2,063 feet) tall (see [[List of masts]]), but these are guy-wire supported structures and not classified as free-standing. The [[Petronius Compliant Tower]] (an [[oil platform]]) at 2116 ft (645 m), is a taller free-standing structure, but all but its top is under water. See [[Worlds tallest structures|World's tallest structures]] for further analysis of the tallest man-made structures.
==More images of the CN Tower==
[[Image:Toronto-Canada-skyline-day.jpg|thumb|280px|Toronto Skyline during the day]]
| 20:18, 10 May 2004 |
The CN Tower has been declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. It also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
There are many guyed towers taller than the CN Tower, the current tallest being the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]] at 628 m (2,063 feet) tall (see [[List of masts]]), but these are guy-wire supported structures and not classified as free-standing. The [[Petronius Compliant Tower]] (an [[oil platform]]) at 645 m (2116 feet), is a taller free-standing structure, but all but its top is under water. See [[Worlds tallest structures|World's tallest structures]] for further analysis of the tallest man-made structures.
==More images of the CN Tower==
[[Image:Toronto-Canada-skyline-day.jpg|thumb|280px|Toronto Skyline during the day]]
| 20:19, 10 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CN_Tower&diff=3765922&oldid=3613905 | At [[1 E2 m|553]] [[metre]]s the '''Canadian National Tower''' is the world's tallest free-standing land structure. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
[[Image:Cntower2.jpg|thumb|210px|Picture of CN Tower from lake]]
The CN Tower has been declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. It also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
There are many guyed towers taller than the CN Tower, the current tallest being the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]] at 628 m tall (see [[List of masts]]), but these are guy-wire supported structures and not classified as free-standing. The [[Petronius Compliant Tower]] (an [[oil platform]]) at 645 m is a taller free-standing structure, but all but its top is under water. See [[Worlds tallest structures|World's tallest structures]] for further analysis of the tallest man-made structures.
==More images of the CN Tower==
[[Image:Toronto-Canada-skyline-day.jpg|thumb|280px|Toronto Skyline during the day]]
| 00:46, 17 May 2004 | At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[metre]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is the world's tallest free-standing land structure. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
[[Image:Cntower2.jpg|thumb|210px|Picture of CN Tower from lake]]
The CN Tower has been declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. It also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
There are many guyed towers taller than the CN Tower, the current tallest being the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV]] tower in [[North Dakota]] at 628 m (2,063 feet) tall (see [[List of masts]]), but these are guy-wire supported structures and not classified as free-standing. The [[Petronius Compliant Tower]] (an [[oil platform]]) at 645 m (2116 feet), is a taller free-standing structure, but all but its top is under water. See [[Worlds tallest structures|World's tallest structures]] for further analysis of the tallest man-made structures.
==More images of the CN Tower==
[[Image:Toronto-Canada-skyline-day.jpg|thumb|280px|Toronto Skyline during the day]]
| 05:36, 17 May 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CN_Tower&diff=6178292&oldid=6145678 | At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[metre]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canadian National Tower''' is the world's tallest free-standing land structure. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
[[Image:Cntower2.jpg|thumb|210px|Picture of CN Tower from Lake Ontario]]
Built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry, the tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower. Metal staircases with 1769 steps reach the Observation Deck.
At 342 m is the Glass Floor and Outdoor Observation Deck, at 346 m are Horizons Cafe and the Indoor Observation Deck, and at 351 m is the 360 Restaurant, which rotates once every 72 minutes. The restaurant has a minimum purchase requirement and a relatively expensive menu.
| 10:00, 13 September 2004 | At [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[metre]]s (1,815.39 feet), the '''Canada's National Tower''' is the world's tallest free-standing land structure. The CN Tower is located in the city of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and is considered the signature icon of the city.
[[Image:Cntower2.jpg|thumb|210px|Picture of CN Tower from Lake Ontario]]
Built in [[1976]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] (CN) to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry, the tower was originally designed as a radio and television transmitting [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]. There are microwave receivers for distant signals at about 305 meters, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower. Metal staircases with 1769 steps reach the Observation Deck.
Originally called the Canadian National Tower, but was later rename to Canada's National Tower because Canadian National Railway no longer owns the CN Tower, however the citizen of Toronto wants to keep the name of CN Tower, therefore it is now called "Canada's National Tower".
At 342 m is the Glass Floor and Outdoor Observation Deck, at 346 m are Horizons Cafe and the Indoor Observation Deck, and at 351 m is the 360 Restaurant, which rotates once every 72 minutes. The restaurant has a minimum purchase requirement and a relatively expensive menu.
| 16:10, 25 September 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=P_versus_NP_problem&diff=242927&oldid=242926 |
No one knows whether polynomial-time algorithms exist for NP-complete problems. But if such algorithms do exist, we already know some of them! For example, the following algorithm correctly solves an NP-complete problem, but no one knows how long it takes in general. This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if P=NP.
<pre>
// Algorithm that solves the NP-complete problem SUBSET-SUM.
//
// This algorithm yields positive answers in polynomial time
// if and only if P=NP.
//
| 06:37, 18 December 2001 |
No one knows whether provably polynomial-time algorithms exist for NP-complete languages. But if such algorithms do exist, we already know some of them! For example, the following algorithm correctly accepts an NP-complete language, but no one knows how long it takes in general. This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if a polynomial-time algorithm for this language exists.
<pre>
// Algorithm that accepts the NP-complete language SUBSET-SUM.
//
// If any algorithm exists that provably does this in polynomial time,
// then this algorithm does too.
//
| 01:01, 21 December 2001 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=P_versus_NP_problem&diff=5024&oldid=5017 |
The '''P''' = '''NP''' question has also been addressed using [[Oracle machine|oracles]].
Although we don't know whether '''P'''='''NP''', we do know of problems outside '''P'''. For example, the problem of deciding the truth of a statement in [[Presburger arithmetic]] is not solvable in polynomial time, so it is outside of '''P'''. It isn't even solvable in exponential time, so it is outside of '''NP'''. Fischer and Rabin proved in 1974 that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least 2^(2^(''cn'')) for some constant ''c''. Here, ''n'' is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem is one of the few that provably need more than polynomial run time. Another example of a problem outside both '''P''' and '''NP''' is any undecidable problem, such as the [[halting problem]].
All of the above discussion has assumed that '''P''' means "easy" and "not in '''P'''" means "hard". While this is a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, it is not always true in practice, for several reasons:
*It ignores constant factors. A problem that takes time 10<sup>1000</sup>''n'' is '''P''' (in fact, it's linear time), but is completely intractable in practice. A problem that takes time 10<sup>-10000</sup>2<sup>''n''</sup> is not '''P''' (in fact, it's exponential time), but is very tractable for values of ''n'' up into the thousands.
'''See also:'''
* A $1,000,000 offer from the Clay Mathematics Institute for a solution of the '''P''' versus '''NP''' question: http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems/index.htm
[[talk:Complexity_classes_P_and_NP|Talk]]
| 22:48, 4 February 2002 |
The '''P''' = '''NP''' question has also been addressed using [[Oracle machine|oracles]].
Although we don't know whether '''P'''='''NP''', we do know of problems outside '''P'''. The problem of finding the best move in [[Chess]] or [[Go]] (on an ''n''x''n'' board) is [[EXPTIME-Complete]]. This means it requires exponential time, and so is outside '''P'''. The problem of deciding the truth of a statement in [[Presburger arithmetic]] is also not solvable in polynomial time, so it is outside of '''P'''. It isn't even solvable in exponential time, so it is outside of '''NP'''. Fischer and Rabin proved in 1974 that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least 2^(2^(''cn'')) for some constant ''c''. Here, ''n'' is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem provably needs more than polynomial run time. Another example of a problem outside both '''P''' and '''NP''' is any undecidable problem, such as the [[halting problem]].
All of the above discussion has assumed that '''P''' means "easy" and "not in '''P'''" means "hard". While this is a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, it is not always true in practice, for several reasons:
*It ignores constant factors. A problem that takes time 10<sup>1000</sup>''n'' is '''P''' (in fact, it's linear time), but is completely intractable in practice. A problem that takes time 10<sup>-10000</sup>2<sup>''n''</sup> is not '''P''' (in fact, it's exponential time), but is very tractable for values of ''n'' up into the thousands.
'''See also:'''
* A $1,000,000 offer from the Clay Mathematics Institute for a solution of the '''P''' versus '''NP''' question: http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems/index.htm
* A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
* E. Berlekamp and D. Wolfe, Mathematical Go: Chilling Gets the Last Point, A. K. Peters, 1994. D. Wolfe, Go endgames are hard, MSRI Combinatorial Game Theory Research Worksh., 2000.
* [http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/cgt/hard.html Computational Complexity of Games and Puzzles]
| 23:03, 4 February 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=P_versus_NP_problem&diff=13026&oldid=5024 |
The '''P''' = '''NP''' question has also been addressed using [[Oracle machine|oracles]].
Although we don't know whether '''P'''='''NP''', we do know of problems outside '''P'''. The problem of finding the best move in [[Chess]] or [[Go]] (on an ''n''x''n'' board) is [[EXPTIME-Complete]]. This means it requires exponential time, and so is outside '''P'''. The problem of deciding the truth of a statement in [[Presburger arithmetic]] is also not solvable in polynomial time, so it is outside of '''P'''. It isn't even solvable in exponential time, so it is outside of '''NP'''. Fischer and Rabin proved in 1974 that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least 2^(2^(''cn'')) for some constant ''c''. Here, ''n'' is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem provably needs more than polynomial run time. Another example of a problem outside both '''P''' and '''NP''' is any undecidable problem, such as the [[halting problem]].
All of the above discussion has assumed that '''P''' means "easy" and "not in '''P'''" means "hard". While this is a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, it is not always true in practice, for several reasons:
*It ignores constant factors. A problem that takes time 10<sup>1000</sup>''n'' is '''P''' (in fact, it's linear time), but is completely intractable in practice. A problem that takes time 10<sup>-10000</sup>2<sup>''n''</sup> is not '''P''' (in fact, it's exponential time), but is very tractable for values of ''n'' up into the thousands.
| 23:03, 4 February 2002 |
The '''P''' = '''NP''' question has also been addressed using [[Oracle machine|oracles]].
Although we don't know whether '''P'''='''NP''', we do know of problems outside both '''P''' and '''NP'''. The problem of finding the best move in [[Chess]] or [[Go]] (on an ''n'' by ''n'' board) is [[EXPTIME-Complete]]. This means it requires exponential time, and so is outside '''P''' and '''NP'''. The problem of deciding the truth of a statement in [[Presburger arithmetic]] is even harder. Fischer and Rabin proved in 1974 that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least 2^(2^(''cn'')) for some constant ''c''. Here, ''n'' is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem provably needs more than expontial run time. Even more difficult are the undecidable problems, such as the [[halting problem]]. They cannot be solved in general given any amount of time.
All of the above discussion has assumed that '''P''' means "easy" and "not in '''P'''" means "hard". While this is a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, it is not always true in practice, for several reasons:
*It ignores constant factors. A problem that takes time 10<sup>1000</sup>''n'' is '''P''' (in fact, it's linear time), but is completely intractable in practice. A problem that takes time 10<sup>-10000</sup>2<sup>''n''</sup> is not '''P''' (in fact, it's exponential time), but is very tractable for values of ''n'' up into the thousands.
| 20:11, 17 February 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=P_versus_NP_problem&diff=80739&oldid=80504 | Most people think that the answer is probably "no"; some people believe the question may be undecidable from the currently accepted axioms. A [[Millennium Prize Problems|$1,000,000 prize]] has been offered for a correct solution.
In essence, the '''P''' = '''NP''' question asks: if positive solutions to a YES/NO problem can be ''verified'' quickly, can the answers also be ''computed'' quickly? Here is an example to get a feeling for
the question. The [[integer factorization]] problem is this: given two [[natural number]]s ''x'' and ''y'', with ''n'' digits each, decide whether ''x'' can be evenly divided by an integer between 1 and ''y''. No fast algorithms are known for this problem, where "fast" means "finishing in a number of steps that is at most a fixed power of ''n''". However, positive answers can be verified quickly ''given the right information'': it is easy to check whether 69799 has any factors less than 300 if given its [[prime number|prime]] factors 69799 = 223 * 313. That is much easier than finding the factorization of 69799 in the first place. The information needed to verify a positive answer is also called a ''certificate''. So we conclude that given the right certificates, positive answers to our problem can be verified quickly (i.e. in polynomial time) and that's why this problem is in '''NP'''. It is not known whether the problem is in '''P'''.
We will now define the two classes formally.
OUTPUT "YES" (or "NO" if that was proved) and HALT
'''See also:'''
* A $1,000,000 offer from the Clay Mathematics Institute for a solution of the '''P''' versus '''NP''' question: http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems/index.htm
* A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
| 19:09, 18 May 2002 | Most people think that the answer is probably "no"; some people believe the question may be undecidable from the currently accepted axioms. A [[Millennium Prize Problems|$1,000,000 prize]] has been offered for a correct solution.
In essence, the '''P''' = '''NP''' question asks: if positive solutions to a YES/NO problem can be ''verified'' quickly, can the answers also be ''computed'' quickly? Here is an example to get a feeling for
the question. The [[integer factorization]] problem is this: given two [[natural number]]s <var>x</var> and <var>y</var>, with <var>n</var> digits each, decide whether <var>x</var> can be evenly divided by an integer between 1 and <var>y</var>.
(Taking <var>y</var> = floor(&radic(<var>x</var>)), this decision problem is equivalent to asking whether <var>x</var> is a composite number.)
No fast algorithms are known for this problem, where "fast" means "finishing in a number of steps that is at most a fixed power of ''n''". However, positive answers can be verified quickly ''given the right information'': it is easy to check whether 69799 has any factors less than 300 if given its [[prime number|prime]] factors 69799 = 223 * 313. That is much easier than finding the factorization of 69799 in the first place. The information needed to verify a positive answer is also called a ''certificate''. So we conclude that given the right certificates, positive answers to our problem can be verified quickly (i.e. in polynomial time) and that's why this problem is in '''NP'''. It is not known whether the problem is in '''P'''.
We will now define the two classes formally.
OUTPUT "YES" (or "NO" if that was proved) and HALT
'''See also:'''
* A $1,000,000 offer from the Clay Mathematics Institute for a solution of the '''P''' versus '''NP''' question: http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems/index.htm
* A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
| 09:26, 28 May 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=P_versus_NP_problem&diff=159247&oldid=159228 | * A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
* E. Berlekamp and D. Wolfe, Mathematical Go: Chilling Gets the Last Point, A. K. Peters, 1994. D. Wolfe, Go endgames are hard, MSRI Combinatorial Game Theory Research Worksh., 2000.
* [http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/cgt/hard.html Computational Complexity of Games and Puzzles]
* M. Agrawal, N. Kayal, N. Saxena: ''PRIMES is in P'', preprint August 6, 2002, available from http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/news/primality.html. Claims to prove that composite testing can be done in polynomial time. | 10:55, 15 August 2002 | * A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
* E. Berlekamp and D. Wolfe, Mathematical Go: Chilling Gets the Last Point, A. K. Peters, 1994. D. Wolfe, Go endgames are hard, MSRI Combinatorial Game Theory Research Worksh., 2000.
* [http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/cgt/hard.html Computational Complexity of Games and Puzzles]
*Manindra Agarwal, Nitin Saxena, Neeraj Kayal, "PRIMES is in P", Preprint, August 6, 2002, http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/news/primality.html
* The "PRIMES is in P" FAQ [http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html] | 18:54, 16 August 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Complexity_theory&diff=101422&oldid=101417 | See:
* [[Computational complexity theory]] (or '''complexity theory'''): a field in the [[theory of computation]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem
* [[Systemics]] (or '''general systems theory''' or '''complexity theory'''): a field in [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems
''This is a [[wikipedia:disambiguation|disambiguation]] page; that is, one that just points to other pages that might otherwise have the same name. If you followed a link here, you might want to go back and fix that link to point to the appropriate specific page.''
| 08:32, 21 June 2002 | See:
* [[Computational complexity theory]] (or '''complexity theory'''): a field in the [[theory of computation]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem
* [[Systemics]] (or '''general systems science''' or '''complexity theory'''): a field in [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems
''This is a [[wikipedia:disambiguation|disambiguation]] page; that is, one that just points to other pages that might otherwise have the same name. If you followed a link here, you might want to go back and fix that link to point to the appropriate specific page.''
| 08:34, 21 June 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Complexity_theory&diff=101576&oldid=101422 | See:
* [[Computational complexity theory]] (or '''complexity theory'''): a field in the [[theory of computation]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem
* [[Systemics]] (or '''general systems science''' or '''complexity theory'''): a field in [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems
''This is a [[wikipedia:disambiguation|disambiguation]] page; that is, one that just points to other pages that might otherwise have the same name. If you followed a link here, you might want to go back and fix that link to point to the appropriate specific page.''
| 08:34, 21 June 2002 | See:
* [[Computational complexity theory]] (or '''complexity theory'''): a field in [[computation|theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem
* [[Systemics]] (or '''general systems science''' or '''complexity theory'''): a field in [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems
''This is a [[wikipedia:disambiguation|disambiguation]] page; that is, one that just points to other pages that might otherwise have the same name. If you followed a link here, you might want to go back and fix that link to point to the appropriate specific page.''
| 08:40, 21 June 2002 | 1 |
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