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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Complexity_theory&diff=39118392&oldid=36089500 | '''Complexity theory''' can refer to more than one thing:
* '''[[Computational complexity theory]]''': a field in [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem.
* The theoretical treatment of '''descriptive complexity''' (or '''Kolmogorov complexity''') of a [[string (computer science)|string]] is studied in [[algorithmic information theory]] by identifying the length of the shortest binary program which can output that string.
* '''[[Systems theory]]''' (or ''systemics'' or ''general systems theory''): an [[interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field including [[engineering]], [[biology]] and [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems.
* '''Complexity theory''' is sometimes used as a broad term addressing the study of '''[[complex system]]s''', including subjects such as [[chaos theory]], [[artificial life]], and [[genetic algorithm]]s.
| 14:36, 21 January 2006 | '''Complexity theory''' can refer to more than one thing:
* '''[[Computational complexity theory]]''': a field in [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem.
* The theoretical treatment of '''[[Kolmogorov complexity]]''' of a [[string (computer science)|string]] is studied in [[algorithmic information theory]] by identifying the length of the shortest binary program which can output that string.
* '''[[Systems theory]]''' (or ''systemics'' or ''general systems theory''): an [[interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field including [[engineering]], [[biology]] and [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems.
* '''Complexity theory''' is sometimes used as a broad term addressing the study of '''[[complex system]]s''', including subjects such as [[chaos theory]], [[artificial life]], and [[genetic algorithm]]s.
| 21:02, 10 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Complexity_theory&diff=444123596&oldid=434997308 | '''Complexity theory''' may refer to:
*[[Computational complexity theory]], a field in theoretical computer science and mathematics
*The study of [[complex systems]]
:*[[Complexity theory and organizations]], the application of complexity theory to strategy
:*[[Complexity economics]], the application of complexity theory to economics
==See also==
* [[Systems theory]]
| 21:59, 18 June 2011 | '''Complexity theory''' may refer to:
* The study of [[complex systems]]
:* [[Complexity theory and organizations]], the application of complexity theory to strategy
:* [[Complexity economics]], the application of complexity theory to economics
* [[Chaos theory]]
* [[Computational complexity theory]], a field in theoretical computer science and mathematics
==See also==
* [[Systems theory]]
| 19:49, 10 August 2011 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Civilization_(video_game)&diff=243189&oldid=389313067 | null | 18:04, 8 November 2001 | <b>Civilization</b> is a [[computer game]] created by [[Sid Meier]], in which the player is the ruler of a civilization of her choice, starting the game with nothing but an explorer and building an [[empire]] according to her wishes. The game requires a fair amount of [[micromanagement]] (though less than any of the [[Sim games]]), requiring the player to choose which improvements or units to put in each [[city]], as well as where to build new cities, and allowing transformation of the [[landscape]] in later years. The player's [[town]]s are harassed periodically by "[[barbarians]]"; the game can be won either by destroying all other civilizations or by being the first civilization to colonize [[space]]. The game [[Alpha Centauri]] is also by Sid Meier and is in the same genre.
This game has been one of the most popular [[strategy game]]s of all time, and has a loyal following of fans. This high level of interest has even spawned a [[Free software | free]] version of the game called [[freeciv]].
Civilization 3 has been released recently. With some modification to the way diplomacy and resources are handled it has set a new standard for turn-based strategy games on the PC.
Links:
* [http://www.apolyton.net/ Apolyton] - site about most games in the Civilization genre.
* [http://www.freeciv.org/ freeciv]
| 01:59, 25 November 2001 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Civilization_(video_game)&diff=1290174&oldid=1183353 |
The scope of the game is huge - larger than most if not all other computer games.
When the game begins, the player controls one unit, a Settler, which can found new cities and also alter terrain and build improvements such as mines and roads and, later, railroads.
The time at the beginning is [[4000 BC]], and, if you manage to last so long, the game forces you to retire in the year 2100 AD.
As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way the game changes and grows.
Players choose from, at the beginning, advances such as [[Pottery]], the [[Wheel]], and the [[Alphabet]] to, at the close of the game, [[Nuclear weapons]] and aspects of [[Space exploration]].
Players gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn the secrets of flight, for example.
| 13:44, 20 June 2003 |
The scope of the game is huge - larger than most if not all other computer games.
When the game begins, the player controls one unit, a Settler, which can found new cities and also alter terrain and build improvements such as mines and roads and, later, railroads.
The time at the beginning is [[4000 BC]], and, if you manage to last so long, the game forces you to retire in the year 2050 AD.
As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way the game changes and grows.
Players choose from, at the beginning, advances such as [[Pottery]], the [[Wheel]], and the [[Alphabet]] to, at the close of the game, [[Nuclear weapons]] and aspects of [[Space exploration]].
Players gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn the secrets of flight, for example.
| 04:36, 23 July 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Civilization_(video_game)&diff=4801339&oldid=4786313 |
[[Image:Civ2.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Civilization II]]
The scope of the game is huge—larger than most other computer games. When the game begins, the player controls one or two Settler units, which can found new cities and also alter terrain and build improvements such as mines and roads and, later, railroads. The time at the beginning is [[4000 BC]], and, if you manage to last so long, the game forces you to retire in the year AD 2050.
As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way the game changes and grows. Players choose from, at the beginning, advances such as [[Pottery]], the [[Wheel]], and the [[Alphabet]] to, at the close of the game, [[Nuclear fission]] and [[Space flight]]. Players gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology, the secrets of flight, for example. Each advance gives access to new units, city improvements or derivative technologies: for example, the [[Chariot]] unit becomes available after the Wheel development, and the Granary building becomes available for building after the Pottery development. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the [[Technology tree]], or simply the Tech tree, a concept adopted in many other strategy games.
Players can also build Wonders of the world in all the epochs in the game. From [[Pyramids]], [[Great Wall of China]] in Ancient age, to the [[Statue of Liberty]] in Industrial Age, up to [[Apollo Program]], the [[United Nations]] and [[Manhattan Project]] in modern era. Each of these wonders can only be built by one civilization and takes up a lot of resources to build (far larger than other city upgrades or units). However, each of these wonders provides unique benefits that can be gained by no other methods. Wonders can also be made obselete by technological advance.
The game can be won either by destroying all other civilizations or by being the first civilization to succeed at [[space colonization]], in this case reaching the star system of [[Alpha Centauri]]. In the latest version, ''Civ3'', other ways to win have been added.
| 22:25, 20 July 2004 |
[[Image:Civ2.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Civilization II]]
The scope of the game is huge—larger than most other computer games. When the game begins, the player controls one or two Settler units, which can found new cities and also alter terrain and build improvements such as mines and roads and, later, railroads. The time at the beginning is [[4000 BC]], and, if you manage to last so long, the game forces you to retire in [[21st century]].
As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way the game changes and grows. Players choose from, at the beginning, advances such as [[Pottery]], the [[Wheel]], and the [[Alphabet]] to, at the close of the game, [[Nuclear fission]] and [[Space flight]]. Players gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology, the secrets of flight, for example. Each advance gives access to new units, city improvements or derivative technologies: for example, the [[Chariot]] unit becomes available after the Wheel development, and the Granary building becomes available for building after the Pottery development. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the [[Technology tree]], or simply the Tech tree, a concept adopted in many other strategy games.
Players can also build Wonders of the world in all the epochs in the game. These wonders are often impoerant human achievements of society, science and culture in human history. From [[Pyramids]], [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] in Ancient age, to the [[Statue of Liberty]] in Industrial Age, up to [[Apollo Program]], the [[United Nations]] and [[Manhattan Project]] in modern era. Each of these wonders can only be built by one civilization and takes up a lot of resources to build (far larger than other city upgrades or units). However, each of these wonders provides unique benefits that can be gained by no other methods. Wonders can also be made obselete by technological advance.
The game can be won either by destroying all other civilizations or by being the first civilization to succeed at [[space colonization]], in this case reaching the star system of [[Alpha Centauri]]. In the latest version, ''Civ3'', other ways to win have been added.
| 17:38, 22 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Civilization_(video_game)&diff=6715564&oldid=6552522 |
Along with the larger tasks of exploration, war and diplomacy, the player has to make decisions about which improvements or units to build in each city, where to build new cities, and how to transform the land surrounding the cities for maximum benefit. From time to time the player's towns may be harassed by "[[barbarians]]", units with no specific nationality or leader. These threats disappear later in the game when no unclaimed land is available for the marauding barbarians to settle.
Before the game begins, the player chooses which historical civilization to play. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, which only really affect the very beginning of the game: some civilizations start with the Pottery advancement and some don't, for example. When played by the computer though, certain traits of specific civilizations do come through. The [[Aztecs]] are fiercely expansionistic, for example. Other possible civilizations include the [[United States|Americans]], the [[Mongolia|Mongols]], and the [[Rome|Romans]]. Each civilization is led by a historical figure.
[[Image:Civ2.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Civilization II]]
| 21:02, 3 October 2004 |
Along with the larger tasks of exploration, war and diplomacy, the player has to make decisions about which improvements or units to build in each city, where to build new cities, and how to transform the land surrounding the cities for maximum benefit. From time to time the player's towns may be harassed by "[[barbarians]]", units with no specific nationality or leader. These threats disappear later in the game when no unclaimed land is available for the marauding barbarians to settle.
Before the game begins, the player chooses which historical civilization to play. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, which only affect the very beginning play in earlier versions, starting with different advancements or more settlers, for example, but has agreater effect on overall gameplay in Civ III, affecting the speed of workers and the unit types available. As opponents, certain traits of specific civilizations do come through. The [[Aztecs]] are fiercely expansionistic, for example. Other possible civilizations include the [[United States|Americans]], the [[Mongolia|Mongols]], and the [[Rome|Romans]]. Each civilization is led by a historical figure.
[[Image:Civ2.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Civilization II]]
| 16:27, 13 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Civilization_(video_game)&diff=6727812&oldid=6715564 |
This game has been one of the most popular [[strategy game]]s of all time, and has a loyal following of fans. This high level of interest has even spawned a number of [[Free software|free]] versions, such as ''[[Freeciv]]'' and ''[[C-evo!]]''. There have been many rip-offs of the basic idea by other developers as well.
''[[Civilization II]]'' was released in [[1996]] and eventually spawned two expansion packs. A Multiplayer Gold Edition was released in [[1999]]. ''[[Civilization III]]'' was released in [[2001]], along with two expansion packs of its own which add multiplayer capability.
Sid Meier admits to "borrowing" many of the technology tree ideas from a [[board game]] originally designed by Francis Tresham, published in Britain in 1980 by Hartland Trefoil (later by Gibson Games), and in the US in 1981 by [[Avalon Hill]] also called ''[[Civilization board game|Civilization]]''. In an ironic twist, there is now a board game based on the computer game version of ''Civilization''.
The game ''[[Alpha Centauri computer game|Alpha Centauri]]'' is also by Sid Meier and is in the same genre, but with a futuristic/space theme. Many of the interface and gameplay innovations in this game eventually made their way into ''Civilization III''. According to Firaxis ''Civilization IV'' is in the works [[as of 2004]].
Between ''Civilization II'' and ''III'', [[Activision]] released a knock-off game ''[[Civilization: Call To Power]]''. They acquired the rights to the name for a time and took advantage of it by releasing the game using the property in its title.
==Civilization's introduction==
| 16:27, 13 October 2004 |
This game has been one of the most popular [[strategy game]]s of all time, and has a loyal following of fans. This high level of interest has even spawned a number of [[Free software|free]] versions, such as ''[[Freeciv]]'' and ''[[C-evo!]]''. There have been many rip-offs of the basic idea by other developers as well.
''[[Civilization II]]'' was released in [[1996]] and eventually spawned two expansion packs. A Multiplayer Gold Edition was released in [[1999]].
''[[Civilization III]]'' was released in [[2001]], along with two expansion packs of its own which add multiplayer capability.
Sid Meier admits to "borrowing" many of the technology tree ideas from a [[board game]] originally designed by Francis Tresham, published in Britain in 1980 by Hartland Trefoil (later by Gibson Games), and in the US in 1981 by [[Avalon Hill]] also called ''[[Civilization board game|Civilization]]''. In an ironic twist, there is now a board game based on the computer game version of ''Civilization''.
In [[1994]] Sid Meier produced a similar game called [[Colonization (game)|Colonization]].
Between ''Civilization II'' and ''III'', [[Activision]] released a knock-off game ''[[Civilization: Call To Power]]''. They acquired the rights to the name for a time and took advantage of it by releasing the game using the property in its title.
The game ''[[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri|Alpha Centauri]]'' is also by Sid Meier and is in the same genre, but with a futuristic/space theme. Many of the interface and gameplay innovations in this game eventually made their way into ''Civilization III''. According to Firaxis ''Civilization IV'' is in the works [[as of 2004]].
==Civilization's introduction==
| 23:32, 19 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_element&diff=160310&oldid=40139 |
One classic diagram is to place a two squares on top of each other with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties.
These elements were used by [[Galen]] in describing the human body with an association with the [[four humours]]: [[phlegm]], [[yellow bile]], [[black bile]], and [[blood as one of the four humours|blood]].
Some cosmologies include a fifth element, [[aether]], and some chinese cosmologies include [[Classical_element/Metal|metal]] and [[Classical_element/Wood|wood]] but exclude air.
| 06:53, 29 March 2002 |
One classic diagram is to place a two squares on top of each other with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties.
These elements were used by [[Hippocrates]] in describing the human body with an association with the [[four humours]]: [[phlegm]], [[yellow bile]], [[black bile]], and [[blood as one of the four humours|blood]].
Some cosmologies include a fifth element, [[aether]], and some chinese cosmologies include [[Classical_element/Metal|metal]] and [[Classical_element/Wood|wood]] but exclude air.
| 07:00, 29 March 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_element&diff=9509932&oldid=9308478 |
Beginning with Aries the first sign which is a Fire sign, the next in line Taurus is Earth, then to Gemini which is Air, and finally to Cancer which is Water -- in Western astrology the sequence is always Fire, Earth, Air, & Water in that exact order. This [[cycle]] continues on twice more and ends with the twelth and final [[astrological sign]], Pisces. The following list should allow one to visualize this cycle better:
* [[1]] - [[Aries]] (''Cardinal'' '''Fire'''): assertively, impulsively, selfishly.
* [[2]] - [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] (''Fixed'' '''Earth'''): resourcefully, thoroughly, indulgently.
* [[3]] - [[Gemini]] (''Mutable'' '''Air'''): logically, inquisitively, superficially.
* [[4]] - [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] (''Cardinal'' '''Water'''): tenaciously, sensitively, clingingly.
* [[5]] - [[Leo]] (''Fixed'' '''Fire'''): generously, proudly, theatrically.
* [[6]] - [[Virgo]] (''Mutable'' '''Earth'''): practically, efficiently, critically.
* [[7]] - [[Libra]] (''Cardinal'' '''Air'''): co-operatively, fairly, lazily.
* [[8]] - [[Scorpius|Scorpio]] (''Fixed'' '''Water'''): passionately, sensitively, anxiously.
* [[9]] - [[Sagittarius]] (''Mutable'' '''Fire'''): freely, straightforwardly, carelessly.
* [[10]] - [[Capricornus|Capricorn]] (''Cardinal'' '''Earth'''): prudently, cautiously, suspiciously.
* [[11]] - [[Aquarius]] (''Fixed'' '''Air'''): democratically, unconventionally, detachedly.
* [[12]] - [[Pisces]] (''Mutable'' '''Water'''): imaginatively, sensitively, distractedly.
==Chinese classical elements==
''Main article: [[Five Elements]]''
| 09:06, 12 January 2005 |
Beginning with Aries the first sign which is a Fire sign, the next in line Taurus is Earth, then to Gemini which is Air, and finally to Cancer which is Water -- in Western astrology the sequence is always Fire, Earth, Air, & Water in that exact order. This [[cycle]] continues on twice more and ends with the twelth and final [[astrological sign]], Pisces. The following list should allow one to visualize this cycle better:
* [[1 (number)|1]] -- [[Aries]] - (''Cardinal'' '''Fire'''): assertively, impulsively, selfishly.
* [[2 (number)|2]] -- [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] - (''Fixed'' '''Earth'''): resourcefully, thoroughly, indulgently.
* [[3 (number)|3]] -- [[Gemini]] - (''Mutable'' '''Air'''): logically, inquisitively, superficially.
* [[4 (number)|4]] -- [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] - (''Cardinal'' '''Water'''): tenaciously, sensitively, clingingly.
* [[5 (number)|5]] -- [[Leo]] - (''Fixed'' '''Fire'''): generously, proudly, theatrically.
* [[6 (number)|6]] -- [[Virgo]] - (''Mutable'' '''Earth'''): practically, efficiently, critically.
* [[7 (number)|7]] -- [[Libra]] - (''Cardinal'' '''Air'''): co-operatively, fairly, lazily.
* [[8 (number)|8]] -- [[Scorpius|Scorpio]] - (''Fixed'' '''Water'''): passionately, sensitively, anxiously.
* [[9 (number)|9]] -- [[Sagittarius]] - (''Mutable'' '''Fire'''): freely, straightforwardly, carelessly.
* [[10 (number)|10]] -- [[Capricornus|Capricorn]] - (''Cardinal'' '''Earth'''): prudently, cautiously, suspiciously.
* [[11 (number)|11]] -- [[Aquarius]] - (''Fixed'' '''Air'''): democratically, unconventionally, detachedly.
* [[12 (number)|12]] -- [[Pisces]] - (''Mutable'' '''Water'''): imaginatively, sensitively, distractedly.
==Chinese classical elements==
''Main article: [[Five Elements]]''
| 09:14, 12 January 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Classical_element&diff=11347585&oldid=11233564 |
The modern scientific [[periodic table of the elements]] and the understanding of [[combustion]] (fire) can be considered successors to such early models.
Interestingly, if one associates the modern term '[[Plasma]]' with Fire, the other three elements correspond with the modern concept of 'states of [[matter]]', this is to say '[[Solid]]' corresponds to Earth, '[[Liquid]]' to Water and '[[Gas]]' to Air.
==See also==
* [[Astrology]]
| 02:50, 14 March 2005 |
The modern scientific [[periodic table of the elements]] and the understanding of [[combustion]] (fire) can be considered successors to such early models.
Interestingly, if one associates the modern term '[[plasma]]' with Fire -- a fairly accurate mapping, as [[flame]]s are in fact a visible plasma -- the four elements correspond to the modern '[[Phase (matter)|states of matter]]' -- [[solid]] mapping to Earth, [[liquid]] to Water, and [[gas]] to Air. However, as the ancient Greeks had no experience with other states of matter -- such as [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s -- it is understandable that these are not represented in the classical system.
==See also==
* [[Astrology]]
| 02:47, 18 March 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Convention_of_Kanagawa&diff=793825&oldid=793800 | In [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of [[Japan]] to the West.
See [[Japan/History | History of Japan]] | 23:13, 8 March 2003 | On [[April 1]], [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States|American]] trade.
See [[History of Japan]] | 03:09, 1 April 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Convention_of_Kanagawa&diff=794974&oldid=793825 | On [[April 1]], [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States|American]] trade.
See [[History of Japan]] | 03:09, 1 April 2003 | On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States|American]] trade.
See [[History of Japan]] | 03:17, 1 April 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Convention_of_Kanagawa&diff=45103783&oldid=37081124 | [[Image:PerryBustShimoda.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda]]
On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 神奈川条約, Kanagawa Jōyaku, or 日米和親条約, Nichibei Washin Jōyaku) was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of the [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States|American]] trade and ended Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion ([[Sakoku]]). It also guaranteed safety of shipwrecked American whalers and established a permanent American consul. Though he refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State, Perry did not realize that he had only spoken with representatives of the [[Tokugawa_shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[Shogun]] and not the [[Emperor]]. However, the [[Shogun]] was the de-facto ruler of Japan at that time. For the Emperor to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question.
After the '''Treaty of Kanagawa''' was concluded, similar treaties were negotiated by the [[Russians]] and the [[British Empire|British]].
This treaty was followed by the 1858 "unequal" [[U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] allowing the establishment of foreign concessions, extra-territoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods.
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty]]
*[[History of Japan]]
==External links==
* [http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob58.html The Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the United States and Japan, 1858 (The Harris Treaty)] (full text)
[[Category:Japan history of foreign relations]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]
| 14:31, 28 January 2006 | [[Image:PerryBustShimoda.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda]]
On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the {{Nihongo|'''Convention of Kanagawa'''|日米和親条約|Nichibei Washin Jōyaku}} or {{Nihongo|'''Kanagawa Treaty'''|神奈川条約|Kanagawa Jōyaku}} was concluded between [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] and [[Japan]]. The treaty forced open the [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States]] trade, guaranteed the safety of shipwrecked U.S. sailors and established a permanent consul. This would effectively end Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion ([[Sakoku]]).
Perry initially refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State. At the time, [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Ieyoshi]] was the de-facto ruler of Japan; for the [[Emperor]] to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. In the end Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the [[Shogun]] and not the Emperor.
The Kanagawa treaty was followed by the "unequal" [[United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] of [[1858]], which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extra-territoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods.
Similar treaties were subsequently negotiated by the [[Russians]], the [[French]], and the [[British Empire|British]].
==See also==
*[[United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce]]
*[[Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty]]
*[[History of Japan]]
==External links==
* [http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/jobrien/reference/ob25.html The Convention of Kanagawa, 1854 (full text)]
[[Category:Japan history of foreign relations]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]
| 13:55, 23 March 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Convention_of_Kanagawa&diff=184853388&oldid=184666668 | [[Image:PerryBustShimoda.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda]]
On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the {{Nihongo|'''Convention of Kanagawa'''|日米和親条約|Nichibei Washin Jōyaku}} or {{Nihongo|'''Kanagawa Treaty'''|神奈川条約|Kanagawa Jōyaku}} was concluded between [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] and the [[Empire of Japan]]. The treaty opened the Japanese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States]] trade, guaranteed the safety of shipwrecked U.S. sailors and established a permanent consul. This would effectively end Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion ([[Sakoku]]). The treaty is widely considered to have been unfair to Japanese interests, as Perry's presence in Japan was a result of [[gunboat diplomacy]] on the part of the United States.
Perry initially refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State. At the time, [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Ieyoshi]] was the de-facto ruler of Japan; for the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. In the end Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the [[Shogun]] and not the Emperor.
| 05:21, 16 January 2008 | [[Image:PerryBustShimoda.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda]]
On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the {{Nihongo|'''Convention of Kanagawa'''|日米和親条約|Nichibei Washin Jōyaku}} or {{Nihongo|'''Kanagawa Treaty'''|神奈川条約|Kanagawa Jōyaku}} was concluded between [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] and the [[Empire of Japan]]. The treaty opened the Japanese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States]] trade, guaranteed the safety of shipwrecked U.S. sailors and established a permanent consul. This would effectively end Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion ([[Sakoku]]). The treaty is widely considered to have been unfair to Japanese interests, as Perry's presence in Japan was aided by conspicuous displays of military power.
Perry initially refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State. At the time, [[Shogun]] [[Tokugawa Ieyoshi]] was the de-facto ruler of Japan; for the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. In the end Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the [[Shogun]] and not the Emperor.
| 23:45, 16 January 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_Farrar_Browne&diff=295843521&oldid=289508364 | :''See also [[Artemas Ward (disambiguation)]]''
'''Charles Farrar Browne''', ([[April 26]], [[1834]] - [[March 6]], [[1867]]) was a [[United States]] [[humor]] writer, better known under his ''[[pen name|nom de plume]]'', '''Artemus Ward'''. At birth, his surname was "Brown." He added the "e" after he became famous.<ref name="MAGDE">{{cite book |last= Maine League of Historical Societies and Museums |editor=Doris A. Isaacson |title=Maine: A Guide 'Down East' |year=1970 |publisher=Courier-Gazette, Inc. |location=Rockland, Me | pages = 400–401 }}</ref>
[[Image:ArtemusWard.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Artemus Ward]]
Browne was born in [[Waterford, Maine]]. He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858, he published in the [[Cleveland Plain Dealer|Cleveland ''Plain Dealer'']] the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which, in a collected form, achieved great popularity in both America and [[England]]. In 1860, he became editor of ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine, historical)|Vanity Fair]]'', a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer and, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences.
Ward is also said to have inspired [[Mark Twain]] when Ward performed in [[Virginia City]], [[Nevada]]. Legend has it that, following Ward's stage performance, he, Mark Twain, and [[Dan De Quille]] were taking a drunken rooftop tour of Virginia City until a town constable threatened to blast all three of them with a [[shotgun]] loaded with [[rock salt]].
In 1866, Ward visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both as a lecturer and as a contributor to ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''. In the spring of the following year, Ward's health gave way and he died of [[tuberculosis]] at Southampton on [[March 6]], [[1867]].
After initial deposit at Kensal Green Cemetery, Ward's remains were removed to America on 20 May 1868.
==Stories==
* A Visit to [[Brigham Young]]
| 17:50, 12 May 2009 | :''See also [[Artemas Ward (disambiguation)]]''
'''Charles Farrar Browne''', (April 26, 1834{{ndash}}March 6, 1867) was a [[United States]] [[humor]] writer, better known under his ''[[pen name|nom de plume]]'', '''Artemus Ward'''. At birth, his surname was "Brown." He added the "e" after he became famous.<ref name="MAGDE">{{cite book |last= Maine League of Historical Societies and Museums |editor=Doris A. Isaacson |title=Maine: A Guide 'Down East' |year=1970 |publisher=Courier-Gazette, Inc. |location=Rockland, Me | pages = 400–401 }}</ref>
[[Image:ArtemusWard.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Artemus Ward]]
Browne was born in [[Waterford, Maine]]. He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858, he published in the [[Cleveland Plain Dealer|Cleveland ''Plain Dealer'']] the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which, in a collected form, achieved great popularity in both America and [[England]]. In 1860, he became editor of ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine, historical)|Vanity Fair]]'', a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer and, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences.
Ward is also said to have inspired [[Mark Twain]] when Ward performed in [[Virginia City]], [[Nevada]]. Legend has it that, following Ward's stage performance, he, Mark Twain, and [[Dan De Quille]] were taking a drunken rooftop tour of Virginia City until a town constable threatened to blast all three of them with a [[shotgun]] loaded with [[rock salt]].
In 1866, Ward visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both as a lecturer and as a contributor to ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''. In the spring of the following year, Ward's health gave way and he died of [[tuberculosis]] at Southampton on March 6, 1867.
After initial deposit at Kensal Green Cemetery, Ward's remains were removed to America on May 20, 1868.
==Stories==
* A Visit to [[Brigham Young]]
| 20:04, 11 June 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_Farrar_Browne&diff=311437071&oldid=301825885 | :''See also [[Artemas Ward (disambiguation)]]''
'''Charles Farrar Browne''', (April 26, 1834{{ndash}}March 6, 1867) was a [[United States]] [[humor]] writer, better known under his ''[[pen name|nom de plume]]'', '''Artemus Ward'''. At birth, his surname was "Brown." He added the "e" after he became famous.<ref name="MAGDE">{{cite book |last= Maine League of Historical Societies and Museums |editor=Doris A. Isaacson |title=Maine: A Guide 'Down East' |year=1970 |publisher=Courier-Gazette, Inc. |location=Rockland, Me | pages = 400–401 }}</ref>
[[Image:ArtemusWard.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Artemus Ward]]
Browne was born in [[Waterford, Maine]]. He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858, he published in the [[Cleveland Plain Dealer|Cleveland ''Plain Dealer'']] the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which, in a collected form, achieved great popularity in both America and [[England]]. In 1860, he became editor of ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine, historical)|Vanity Fair]]'', a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer and, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences.
| 08:16, 13 July 2009 | :''See also [[Artemas Ward (disambiguation)]]''
'''Charles Farrar Browne''' (April 26, 1834 – March 6, 1867) was a [[United States]] [[humor]] writer, better known under his ''[[pen name|nom de plume]]'', '''Artemus Ward'''. At birth, his surname was "Brown." He added the "e" after he became famous.<ref name="MAGDE">{{cite book |last= Maine League of Historical Societies and Museums |editor=Doris A. Isaacson |title=Maine: A Guide 'Down East' |year=1970 |publisher=Courier-Gazette, Inc. |location=Rockland, Me | pages = 400–401 }}</ref>
[[Image:ArtemusWard.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Artemus Ward]]
Browne was born in [[Waterford, Maine]]. He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858, he published in the [[Cleveland Plain Dealer|Cleveland ''Plain Dealer'']] the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which, in a collected form, achieved great popularity in both America and [[England]]. In 1860, he became editor of ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine, historical)|Vanity Fair]]'', a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer and, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences.
| 08:56, 2 September 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Columbanus&diff=74538223&oldid=74538135 |
==Biography==
Columbanus was born in [[Leinster]], Ireland, in the year [[Saint Benedict]] died, and from childhood well instructed. He was handsome and prepossessing in appearance, and this exposed him to the shameless temptations of several of his countrywomen. He also had to struggle with his own temptations. At last he betook himself to a religious woman, who advised him thus: "Twelve years ago I fled from the world, and shut myself up in this cell. Hast thou forgotten Samson, David and Solomon, all led astray by the love of women? There is no safety for thee, young man, except in flight."
He thereupon decided to act on this advice and retire from the world. He encountered opposition, especially from his mother, who strove to detain him by casting herself before him on the threshold of the door. But conquering the feelings of natures he passed over the prostrate form and left his home forever. His first master was Sinell, Abbot of [[Cluaninis]] in [[Lough Erne]]. Under his tuition he composed a commentary on the [[Psalms]].
He then betook himself to the celebrated monastery of [[Bangor, County Down|Bangor]] on the coast of Down, which at that time had for its abbot [[St. Comgall]]. There he embraced the monastic state, and for many years led a life conspicuous for fervour, regularity and learning. At about the age of forty he seemed to hear incessantly the voice of God bidding him preach the Gospel in foreign lands. At first his abbot declined to let him go, but at length he consented.
| 15:25, 8 September 2006 |
==Biography==
Columbanus was born in [[Leinster]], Ireland, in the year [[Saint Benedict]] died, and from childhood well instructed. He was handsome and prepossessing in appearance, and this exposed him to the shameless temptations of several of his countrywomen. He also had to struggle with his own temptations. At last he betook himself to a religious woman, who advised him thus: "Twelve years ago I fled from the world, and shut myself up in this cell. Hast thou forgotten Samson, David and Solomon, all led astray by the love of women? There is no safety for thee, young man, except in flight."
He thereupon decided to act on this advice and retire from the world.
He encountered opposition, especially from his mother, who strove to detain him by casting herself before him on the threshold of the door. But conquering the feelings of natures he passed over the prostrate form and left his home forever. His first master was Sinell, Abbot of [[Cluaninis]] in [[Lough Erne]]. Under his tuition he composed a commentary on the [[Psalms]].
He then betook himself to the celebrated monastery of [[Bangor, County Down|Bangor]] on the coast of Down, which at that time had for its abbot [[St. Comgall]]. There he embraced the monastic state, and for many years led a life conspicuous for fervour, regularity and learning. At about the age of forty he seemed to hear incessantly the voice of God bidding him preach the Gospel in foreign lands. At first his abbot declined to let him go, but at length he consented.
| 15:26, 8 September 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Client–server_model&diff=2538878&oldid=2508870 | [[de:Client-Server System]]
[[fr:Client-serveur]]
[[sv:Klient-server]]
A '''client-server''' [[computer network]] application is one in which a client, [[thin client]] or [[fat client]], which instantiates the [[user interface]] of the application, connects with an [[application server]] or [[database]] system.
When a client connects directly to a database system, or to a monolithic application server, the architecture of the application
is a '''2-tier architecture'''.
== Also see ==
* [[peer-to-peer]]
* [[servent]] | 12:25, 9 February 2004 | A '''client-server''' [[computer network]] application is one in which a client, [[thin client]] or [[fat client]], which instantiates the [[user interface]] of the application, connects with an [[application server]] or [[database]] system.
When a client connects directly to a database system, or to a monolithic application server, the architecture of the application
is a '''2-tier architecture'''.
== Also see ==
* [[peer-to-peer]]
* [[servent]]
[[de:Client-Server-System]]
[[fr:Client-serveur]]
[[sv:Klient-server]] | 10:07, 24 February 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Coprime_integers&diff=18152069&oldid=18151956 |
If the ideals ''A'' and ''B'' of ''R'' are coprime, then ''AB'' = ''A''∩''B''; furthermore, if ''C'' is a third ideal such that ''A'' contains ''BC'', then ''A'' contains ''C''. The [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]] is an important statement about coprime ideals.
The concept of being ''relatively prime'' can also be extended any [[finite]] [[set]] of integers (''S'' = {''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, .... ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>}) to mean that the [[greatest common divisor]] of the elements of the set is 1. If there does not exist any relatively prime pair of integers in the set, then the set is called ''pairwise relatively prime''. Every pairwise relatively prime set is relative prime; however, the converse is not true: {6, 10, 15} is relatively prime, but not pairwise relative prime.
==See also==
| 21:36, 4 July 2005 |
If the ideals ''A'' and ''B'' of ''R'' are coprime, then ''AB'' = ''A''∩''B''; furthermore, if ''C'' is a third ideal such that ''A'' contains ''BC'', then ''A'' contains ''C''. The [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]] is an important statement about coprime ideals.
The concept of being ''relatively prime'' can also be extended any [[finite]] [[set]] of integers ''S'' = {''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, .... ''a''<sub>''n''</sub>} to mean that the [[greatest common divisor]] of the elements of the set is 1. If every ''pair'' of integers in the set is relatively prime, then the set is called ''pairwise relatively prime''.
Every pairwise relatively prime set is relative prime; however, the converse is not true: {6, 10, 15} is relatively prime, but not pairwise relative prime.
==See also==
| 21:39, 4 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations&diff=9734142&oldid=9732826 | The more extensive forms of Commonwealth English and even some of those less used have their own separate, recognised dictionaries. The ''Dictionary of Canadian English: The Senior Dictionary'' was first published by the Canadian textbook publisher Gage Learning in [[1967]] and updated versions have appeared regularly, the most recent being the ''Gage Canadian Dictionary'' in [[1997]]. For South Africa there was Charles Pettman's ''Africanderisms'', a glossary of South African colloquial words and phrases published in [[1913]]. Philip Branford's ''A Dictionary of South African English'' was published in [[1978]] and the most recent edition in [[1991]]. Australian English has had the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] since [[1981]]. In [[1996]] [[Oxford University Press]] published the ''Concise Ulster Dictionary''. In [[1998]] they went farther afield by releasing ''A Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles'', ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', and ''The Dictionary of New Zealand English''. In [[2000]] they published ''The Australian Oxford Dictionary''. All these use previous Oxford English dictionaries as a base, but modify or replace text according to research on other varities of English. Carribean English has Frederic G. Cassidy and Robert B. Le Page's ''Dictionary of Jamaican English'' and John A. Holm and Alison W. Shlling's ''Dictionary of Bahamian English''.
==Limited use==
''Commonwealth English'' is not a clear and distinctive dialect, although it becomes far closer to being one if Canadian English is not considered. [[Microsoft]] ''[[Encarta]]'' appears in four English versions, an American English version, a British English version, a Canadian English version, and an Australian English version, indicating that Microsoft did not feel that one Commonwealth English version would serve to balance the American English version, though there are likely to be few differences between the British English version and the Australian English version. A fifth version could be have been introduced as well: British English with ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' spelling ([[IANA]] value '''en-GB-oed'''). Also increasingly spell checkers are supporting more finely grained systems of spelling, not attempting to make Brtish English, renamed as Commonwealth English, to do for all.
==References and external links==
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
| 15:56, 31 December 2004 | The more extensive forms of Commonwealth English and even some of those less used have their own separate, recognised dictionaries. The ''Dictionary of Canadian English: The Senior Dictionary'' was first published by the Canadian textbook publisher Gage Learning in [[1967]] and updated versions have appeared regularly, the most recent being the ''Gage Canadian Dictionary'' in [[1997]]. For South Africa there was Charles Pettman's ''Africanderisms'', a glossary of South African colloquial words and phrases published in [[1913]]. Philip Branford's ''A Dictionary of South African English'' was published in [[1978]] and the most recent edition in [[1991]]. Australian English has had the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] since [[1981]]. In [[1996]] [[Oxford University Press]] published the ''Concise Ulster Dictionary''. In [[1998]] they went farther afield by releasing ''A Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles'', ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', and ''The Dictionary of New Zealand English''. In [[2000]] they published ''The Australian Oxford Dictionary''. All these use previous Oxford English dictionaries as a base, but modify or replace text according to research on other varities of English. Carribean English has Frederic G. Cassidy and Robert B. Le Page's ''Dictionary of Jamaican English'' and John A. Holm and Alison W. Shlling's ''Dictionary of Bahamian English''.
==Limited use==
''Commonwealth English'' is not a clear and distinctive dialect, although it becomes far closer to being one if Canadian English is not considered. [[Microsoft]] ''[[Encarta]]'' appears in four English versions, an American English version, a British English version, a Canadian English version, and an Australian English version, indicating that Microsoft did not feel that one Commonwealth English version would serve to balance the American English version, though there are likely to be few differences between the British English version and the Australian English version. A fifth version could be have been introduced as well: British English with ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' spelling ([[IANA]] value '''en-GB-oed'''). Also increasingly spell checkers are supporting more finely grained systems of spelling, not attempting to make British English, renamed as Commonwealth English, to do for all.
==References and external links==
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
| 11:57, 28 January 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations&diff=14870471&oldid=14869689 | That being said, regional differences also exist within the country. An [[Ontario|Ontarian]] will be more likely to write ''colour'', while an [[Alberta|Albertan]] will probably tend to write ''color'', for example.
==Australian borrowings==
Australian English also borrows from both British and American spellings. Though some American spellings are favoured by newspapers, British spelling tends to dominate.
==Internal spelling differences==
Within British English and its Commonwealth variants there is disagreement as to proper spelling of words such as ''organise'' / ''organize''. Both ''-ise'' and ''-ize'' are generally accepted as correct. The ''-ise'' forms are ''very'' rarely used in Canada, but they are the choice of the majority in Britain (even though most British dictionaries prefer the ''-ize'' forms). See '''[[British English]]''' for more details. According to Pam Peters (1994: '''-ise/-ize'''), based on British National Corpus data, in Britain:
| 04:15, 24 May 2005 | That being said, regional differences also exist within the country. An [[Ontario|Ontarian]] will be more likely to write ''colour'', while an [[Alberta|Albertan]] will probably tend to write ''color'', for example.
==Australian borrowings==
Australian English also borrows from both British and American spellings. Though some American spellings are favoured by some newspapers, British spelling tends to dominate.
==Internal spelling differences==
Within British English and its Commonwealth variants there is disagreement as to proper spelling of words such as ''organise'' / ''organize''. Both ''-ise'' and ''-ize'' are generally accepted as correct. The ''-ise'' forms are ''very'' rarely used in Canada, but they are the choice of the majority in Britain (even though most British dictionaries prefer the ''-ize'' forms). See '''[[British English]]''' for more details. According to Pam Peters (1994: '''-ise/-ize'''), based on British National Corpus data, in Britain:
| 10:16, 8 June 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations&diff=22087980&oldid=22036473 |
==Canadian English's unique position==
===Words and idioms===
Canada, the Commonwealth country with the largest native-born English-speaking population outside of Britain, is unique in that its standard vocabulary, idiom, and accent tend to coincide with that of neighbouring speakers in the United States far more than with those of Britain or the rest of the Commonwealth. Most of the distinctive terms Britons identify as ''[[American English]]'' are used by Canadians as well, such as ''[[diaper]]'', ''[[gasoline]]'', ''[[elevator]]'', and ''[[apartment]]''. See also [[North American English]].
===Canadian spelling===
There is no universally accepted standard of Canadian spelling, and standards differ from one area of English-speaking Canada to another.
| 16:41, 28 August 2005 |
==Canadian English's unique position==
===Words and idioms===
Canada, the Commonwealth country with the largest native-born native-English-speaking population outside of Britain, is unique in that its standard vocabulary, idiom, and accent tend to coincide with that of neighbouring speakers in the United States far more than with those of Britain or the rest of the Commonwealth. Most of the distinctive terms Britons identify as ''[[American English]]'' are used by Canadians as well, such as ''[[diaper]]'', ''[[gasoline]]'', ''[[elevator]]'', and ''[[apartment]]''. See also [[North American English]].
===Canadian spelling===
There is no universally accepted standard of Canadian spelling, and standards differ from one area of English-speaking Canada to another.
| 09:11, 29 August 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations&diff=24333898&oldid=22087980 | ==Notes==
# There are a number of other Commonwealth nations which are not listed here but also have English as either the primary or an official, language. Examples include [[Malta]], [[Singapore]] and [[Mozambique]], which is a Commonwealth member but uses [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as its main language of communication.
# Although Hiberno-English (Irish English) is listed as Commonwealth English, the [[Republic of Ireland]] is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but [[Northern Ireland]] is (as part of the [[United Kingdom]]).
# Although Hong Kong English is listed as Commonwealth English, [[Hong Kong]] is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but a [[Special Administrative Region]] of [[People's Republic of China|China]]
==References and external links==
* Peters, Pam (2004). {{googleprint|id=UA5syoe1kc0C|name=''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''}}. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
| 09:11, 29 August 2005 | ==Notes==
# There are a number of other Commonwealth nations which are not listed here but also have English as either the primary or an official, language. Examples include [[Malta]], [[Singapore]] and [[Mozambique]], which is a Commonwealth member but uses [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as its main language of communication.
# Although Hiberno-English (Irish English) is listed as Commonwealth English, the [[Republic of Ireland]] is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but [[Northern Ireland]] is (as part of the [[United Kingdom]]).
# Although Hong Kong English is listed as Commonwealth English, since [[1997]] [[Hong Kong]] is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but a [[Special Administrative Region]] of [[People's Republic of China|China]].
==References and external links==
* Peters, Pam (2004). {{googleprint|id=UA5syoe1kc0C|name=''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''}}. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
| 17:56, 29 September 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_McCarry&diff=37463140&oldid=37462829 | *''Miernek Dossier'' - (1973)
*''Tears of Autumn'' - (1974)
*''Secret Lovers'' - (1977)
*''Better Angels''
*''Last Supper'' - (1983)
*''The Bride of the Wilderness''
*''Second Sight'' - (1991)
*''Shelley's Heart'' - (1995)
*''Lucky Bastard'' - (1998)
| 03:42, 31 January 2006 | *''Miernek Dossier'' - (1973)
*''Tears of Autumn'' - (1974)
*''Secret Lovers'' - (1977)
*''Better Angels'' - (1979)
*''Last Supper'' - (1983)
*''The Bride of the Wilderness'' - (1989)
*''Second Sight'' - (1991)
*''Shelley's Heart'' - (1995)
*''Lucky Bastard'' - (1998)
| 03:44, 31 January 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_McCarry&diff=113664308&oldid=113661409 |
==Life==
{{sources}}
McCarry served in the U.S. Army, where he was a correspondent for ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'', has been a small-town newspaperman, and was a speechwriter in the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration. From 1958 to 1967 he worked for the [[CIA]], under deep cover in Europe, Asia, and Africa. However, his cover was not as a writer or journalist. He is married with four grown sons. His family is from [[The Berkshires]] area of western [[Massachusetts]], where he currently lives.
His novels, which are highly regarded for their expertise and literary quality, are currently being reprinted by Overlook Press, starting with ''Tears of Autumn'', republished in 2005. [[Charles N. Brown]], the publisher of [[Locus (magazine)|Locus]], which primarily addresses the science-fiction publishing world, wrote in the July 2006 issue: "Two Charles McCarry hardcover reprints from Overlook... aren't really SF or fantasy, but they are two of the best spy thrillers ever written and form a secret or alternate history of the 20th century. The other volumes in the history of the Christopher family, all excellent, range from the 17th Century (''Bride of the Wilderness'') to the near future (''The Better Angels,'' ''Shelley's Heart'')."
He is an admirer of the work of [[W.Somerset Maugham]], especially the [[Ashendon]] stories. He was also an admirer of [[Richard Condon]], author of [[The Manchurian Candidate]], [[Prizzi's Honor]] and numerous other novels.
McCarry was editor-at-large for ''[[National Geographic]]'' and has contributed pieces to ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'', and other national publications.
| 20:58, 8 March 2007 |
==Life==
{{sources}}
McCarry served in the U.S. Army, where he was a correspondent for ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'', has been a small-town newspaperman, and was a speechwriter in the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration. From 1958 to 1967 he worked for the [[CIA]], under deep cover in Europe, Asia, and Africa. However, his cover was not as a writer or journalist.[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php] He is married with four grown sons.[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php] His family is from [[The Berkshires]] area of western [[Massachusetts]], where he currently lives.[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php]
His novels, which are highly regarded for their expertise and literary quality, are currently being reprinted by Overlook Press, starting with ''Tears of Autumn'', republished in 2005. [[Charles N. Brown]], the publisher of [[Locus (magazine)|Locus]], which primarily addresses the science-fiction publishing world, wrote in the July 2006 issue: "Two Charles McCarry hardcover reprints from Overlook... aren't really SF or fantasy, but they are two of the best spy thrillers ever written and form a secret or alternate history of the 20th century. The other volumes in the history of the Christopher family, all excellent, range from the 17th Century (''Bride of the Wilderness'') to the near future (''The Better Angels,'' ''Shelley's Heart'')."
He is an admirer of the work of [[W.Somerset Maugham]], especially the [[Ashendon]] stories.[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php] He was also an admirer of [[Richard Condon]], author of [[The Manchurian Candidate]], [[Prizzi's Honor]] and numerous other novels.[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php]
McCarry was editor-at-large for ''[[National Geographic]]'' and has contributed pieces to ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'', and other national publications.
| 21:10, 8 March 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_McCarry&diff=242751055&oldid=242749552 | ==Books==
===Novels featuring Paul Christopher or his family===
[[Image:TheMiernikDossier.jpg|right|thumb|''The Miernik Dossier'' <br/>Coronet edition, 1975]]
*''The Miernik Dossier'' (1973; Hutchinson, 1974; Coronet Books, London, 1975, ISBN 0 340 19942 3)
*''The Tears of Autumn'' (1974)
*''The Secret Lovers'' (1977) (The events in this novel precede those in ''The Tears of Autumn'')
*''The Better Angels'' (1979) (Christopher's cousins steal a Presidential election)
*''The Last Supper'' (Hutchinson Publ. Group, 1983; Arrow paperback edition, 1984; ISBN 0 09 934660 5)
*''The Bride of the Wilderness'' (1988) (historical novel concerning 17th century Christopher ancestors)
*''Second Sight'' (1991)
*''Shelley's Heart'' (1995) (sequel to "The Better Angels:" Christopher's cousins cause a Presidential impeachment)
*''Old Boys'' (2004)
*''Christopher's Ghosts'' (2007)
===Non-Christopher family novel===
*''Lucky Bastard'' (1999) (A JFK-like politician is really a Soviet spy)
| 14:14, 3 October 2008 | ==Books==
===Novels featuring Paul Christopher or his family===
[[Image:TheMiernikDossier.jpg|right|thumb|''The Miernik Dossier'' <br/>Coronet edition, 1975]]
*''The Miernik Dossier'' (1973) Christopher investigates a possible Soviet spy in Geneva
*''The Tears of Autumn'' (1974) Christopher investigates the JFK Assassination
*''The Secret Lovers'' (1977) Christopher discovers a secret plot within the CIA
*''The Better Angels'' (1979) Christopher's cousins steal a Presidential election
*''The Last Supper'' Introduction to Christopher's parents in pre-WWII Germany; Christopher is imprisoned in China
*''The Bride of the Wilderness'' (1988) Historical novel concerning 17th century Christopher ancestors
*''Second Sight'' (1991) Released from a Chinese prison, Christopher meets a daughter he didn't know he had
*''Shelley's Heart'' (1995) Sequel to "The Better Angels:" Christopher's cousins cause a Presidential impeachment
*''Old Boys'' (2004) Christopher's old associates discover a plot involving terrorists and the fate of Christopher's mother
*''Christopher's Ghosts'' (2007) The story of Christopher's first love in pre-WWII Germany
===Non-Christopher family novel===
*''Lucky Bastard'' (1999) (A JFK-like politician is really a Soviet spy)
| 14:22, 3 October 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Charles_McCarry&diff=364668545&oldid=336810550 | *''Christopher's Ghosts'' (2007) The story of Christopher's first love in pre-WWII Germany
===Non-Christopher family novel===
*''Lucky Bastard'' (1999) A Bill Clinton-like politician is really a Soviet spy
===Non-Fiction===
*''Citizen Nader'' (1972)
| 15:37, 9 January 2010 | *''Christopher's Ghosts'' (2007) The story of Christopher's first love in pre-WWII Germany
===Non-Christopher family novel===
*''Lucky Bastard'' (1999) A Bill Clinton-like politician is controlled by a female eastern-bloc agent.
===Non-Fiction===
*''Citizen Nader'' (1972)
| 14:22, 28 May 2010 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chaldea&diff=7335416&oldid=7259481 |
[[Category:Torah places]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh places]]
[[Category:Former countries]] | 11:42, 20 October 2004 |
[[Category:Torah places]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh places]]
[[Category:Former countries]]
[[pt:Caldéia]] | 15:09, 9 November 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chaldea&diff=32314604&oldid=32272059 | {{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Chaldea''' was a [[kingdom]] in the southern portion of [[Babylonia]] lying chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. The name was commonly used to refer to the whole of the Mesopotamian plain. The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name is כשדים (Kasdim).
==Geography==
Chaldea was a vast plain formed by the deposits of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]], extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.
==People==
The '''Chaldeans''' settled in southern Mesopotamia in the early part of the first millennium BC. Their language was [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and settled much further to the south than the [[Arameans]], whom settled in northern Mesopotamia and [[Aramea|Aram]]. They were one of the later tribes to leave the [[Arabian Peninsula|"Arabian" Peninsula]] and to settle in the [[Fertile Crescent]].
==Politics==
The Chaldean influence was felt in Babylonian politics. Several 9th and 8th century BC Babylonian kings were of Chaldean origin. The Chaldeans formed some of the strongest resistance to Assyrian rule. King [[Marduk-apal-iddina II]] resisted the Assyrians in the times of [[Sargon II]] and the early years of [[Sennacherib]]. King [[Mushezib-Marduk]] was king just before Sennacherib's sack of Bayblon in [[689 BC]].
When Babylonia finally reestablished its independence, it was under the [[Chaldean Dynasty]] of king [[Nabopolassar]]. After the conquest of Babylonia by the [[Persians]], the Chaldeans disappear as an independent nation.
==Title of Nobility==
Roman and later authors used the name Chaldeans in particular for [[astrology|astrologers]] and [[mathematics|mathematicians]] from Babylonia.
In modern times, roughly one million [[Iraq|Iraqi]] [[Christians]] refer to themselves [[Chaldeans]].
| 20:05, 21 December 2005 | {{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Chaldea''', "the [[Chaldees]]" of the [[King James Version]] of the [[Old Testament]], was a [[Hellenistic]] designation for a part of [[Babylonia]]. One early such reference is to the impending sack of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] ([[Book_of_Habakkuk|Hab]] 1:6).
The 11th dynasty of the [[Kings of Babylon]] ([[6th century BC]]) is conventionally known to historians as the [[Chaldean Dynasty]]. Their kingdom in the southern portion of [[Babylonia]] lay chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of Mesopotamia, Chaldea proper was the vast plain in the south formed by the deposits of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]], extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name is כשדים (Kasdim).
==People==
The '''Chaldeans''' settled in southern Mesopotamia in the early part of the first millennium BC. Their language was [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and theysettled much further to the south than the [[Arameans]], who settled in northern Mesopotamia and [[Aramea|Aram]]. They were one of the later tribes to leave the [[Arabian Peninsula|"Arabian" Peninsula]] and to settle in the [[Fertile Crescent]].
==Politics==
The Chaldean influence was felt in Babylonian politics. Several 9th and 8th century BC Babylonian kings were of Chaldean origin. The Chaldeans formed some of the strongest resistance to Assyrian rule. King [[Marduk-apal-iddina II]] resisted the Assyrians in the times of [[Sargon II]] and the early years of [[Sennacherib]]. King [[Mushezib-Marduk]] was king just before Sennacherib's sack of Bayblon in [[689 BC]].
When Babylonia finally reestablished its independence, it was under the [[Chaldean Dynasty]] of king [[Nabopolassar]]. After the conquest of Babylonia by the [[Persians]], the Chaldeans disappear as an independent nation.
=="Chaldean" astrologers and magicians==
Roman and later authors used the name Chaldeans in particular for [[astrology|astrologers]] and [[mathematics|mathematicians]] from Babylonia.
In modern times, roughly one million [[Iraq|Iraqi]] [[Christians]] refer to themselves [[Chaldeans]].
| 02:40, 22 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chinese_checkers&diff=25900110&oldid=22830909 | [[Image:Chinese_checkers_start.png|thumb|right|200px|Chinese checkers]]
'''Chinese checkers''' is a [[board game]] that can be played by five to six people. The object of the game is to place one's pieces in the corner opposite their starting position by moving them through jumps over other pieces. The game does not actually originate from [[China]] (nor is it a variation on [[checkers]] or [[Chinese chess]]), but was given that name in the [[United States]] to make it sound more exotic. When it was first released in [[Germany]], it was called Stern-Halma, as it is exactly like the older game of [[Halma]] except that the board is star (''stern'') shaped.
The Chinese checkers board is laid out in a six-pointed star like the [[Star of David]]. (The game is unrelated to [[Judaism]].) The game pieces are usually six sets of colored [[marbles]], ten of each color. The ten marbles are arranged as a triangle in the starting position in one of the corners of the star.
There are basically two games played on the game set. Each of the games has an original and a fast-paced variant.
| 08:56, 8 September 2005 | [[Image:Chinese_checkers_start.png|thumb|right|200px|Chinese checkers]]
'''Chinese checkers''' is a [[board game]] that can be played by two to six people. The object of the game is to place one's pieces in the corner opposite their starting position by moving them through jumps over other pieces. The game does not actually originate from [[China]] (nor is it a variation on [[checkers]] or [[Chinese chess]]), but was given that name in the [[United States]] to make it sound more exotic. When it was first released in [[Germany]], it was called Stern-Halma, as it is exactly like the older game of [[Halma]] except that the board is star (''stern'') shaped.
The Chinese checkers board is laid out in a six-pointed star like the [[Star of David]]. (The game is unrelated to [[Judaism]].) The game pieces are usually six sets of colored [[marbles]], ten of each color. The ten marbles are arranged as a triangle in the starting position in one of the corners of the star.
There are basically two games played on the game set. Each of the games has an original and a fast-paced variant.
| 07:13, 19 October 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chinese_checkers&diff=30789657&oldid=30789570 | [[de:Halma]]
[[es:damas chinas]]
[[nl:Halma]]
{{commons}}
[[Category:Abstract strategy games]] | 03:58, 10 December 2005 | [[de:Halma]]
[[es:damas chinas]]
[[nl:Halma]]
{{commons|Chinese checkers}}
[[Category:Abstract strategy games]] | 03:59, 10 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Curling&diff=6650526&oldid=6650480 | *[[List of World Curling Men's Champions]]
*[[Ford Worlds]]
*[[Scott Tournament of Hearts]]
*[[Nokia Brier]]
*[[Canadian Curling Association]]
*[[World Curling Federation]]
| 17:57, 2 October 2004 | *[[List of World Curling Men's Champions]]
*[[Ford Worlds]]
*[[Scott Tournament of Hearts]]
*[[Tim Hortons Brier]]
*[[Canadian Curling Association]]
*[[World Curling Federation]]
| 14:48, 17 October 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Camel_case&diff=891289&oldid=891268 | Link: http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?CamelCase
== Camel Case and Wikipedia ==
[[Wikipedia]] started using CamelCase at first, but then converted to free links - by putting <nowiki>[[square brackets]]</nowiki> around phrases to be linked. See also: [[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|How to edit a page]].
The CamelCase convention used to cause some difficulty in Wikipedia, as words which were CamelCased but were not intended to be links automatically became links.
But the current Wikipedia software does not have this problem, as it no longer automatically makes CamelCase words into links.
CamelCase can still be found in the non-encyclopedia parts of Wikipedia, such as Talk pages, where the links have not been updated. Many Wikipedians have CamelCased user names, either as a leftover from the early days, or carried over from other wikis. | 03:25, 23 April 2003 | Link: http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?CamelCase
== Camel Case and Wikipedia ==
[[Wikipedia]] started using CamelCase at first, but then converted to free links - by putting <nowiki>[[square brackets]]</nowiki> around phrases to be linked. On January 27, 2001, [[Clifford Adams]], author of the original [[UseMod]] software used for Wikipedia, posted the following to the Wikipedia mailing list:
I've done a lot of thinking about WikiLinking recently, and I'm not sure
that the WikiName (capital letters) convention is a good fit for the
encyclopedia. The AccidentalLinking is a nice feature, but it has a price in
harder-to-read links and confusing conventions.
For instance, when I recently wanted to link to "democracy", I first did a
search to see if someone else had linked the name (I thought someone might
have already used "DemoCracy"). I found that nobody else had linked that
name, so I made the link "DemocracY" (to follow the new convention of
last-letter-capitalized). In short, it took me far more time to make that
link than it would have to just type <nowiki>[[democracy]]</nowiki>. Someone unfamiliar with
the local wiki conventions might guess otherwise on another page and link to a
separate "DemoCracy" or even "DeMocracy". Ick.
To make a longish story short, I added code (about 150 new lines of Perl)
to my development copy to allow (site-optional) "Free" linking within [[double
brackets]]. You can use spaces, numbers, commas, dashes, and the period
character in these kinds of links. Valid link names include [[George W.
Bush]], <nowiki>[[China-Soviet Relations]], [[Physics]], [[music]], and [[Year 2000</nowiki>
bug]]. User names can also use these new links. Internally and within URLs
the spaces are replaced with _ (underline) characters, which are translated
back to spaces for display purposes.
CamelCase can still be found in the non-encyclopedia parts of Wikipedia, such as Talk pages, where the links have not been updated. Many Wikipedians have CamelCased user names, either as a leftover from the early days, or carried over from other wikis. | 04:26, 5 May 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Camel_case&diff=4009939&oldid=4009647 | '''Bicapitalization''' or '''camel case''' (frequently written '''CamelCase''') is the practice of writing [[compound noun and adjective|compound word]]s or phrases where the terms are joined without [[whitespace|space]]s, and every term is [[capitalization|capitalized]]. The name comes from a supposed resemblance between the bumpy outline of the compound word and the humps of a [[camel]].
CamelCase synonyms include:
* '''CapWords''' (in [[Python programming language|Python]] [http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0008.html]).
* '''PascalCase''' (used by Microsoft)
CamelCase apparently originated as an [[identifier naming convention]] for [[programming language]]s, in the [[1970s]] or [[1980s]], but eventually spread outside that community and is now often used in [[marketing]] for naming corporations and products. One early commercial example of CamelCase is the [[1950s]] [[CinemaScope]] film projection system.
==Origins==
===Programmers' choice===
It has been claimed that CamelCase originated within the culture of [[C programming language|C programmers]] and [[hacker]]s. In programs of any significant size there is a need for descriptive (hence multi-word) [[identifier]]s, like "<tt>previous balance</tt>" or "<tt>end of file</tt>". Allowing spaces within identifiers would cause problems for compilers, and just writing the words together as in "<tt>endoffile</tt>" would make the programs unreadable. One early language, [[Fortran|FORTRAN]], did allow spaces to be embedded into identifiers, and that did result in allowing a few ambiguous syntactical expressions.
[[COBOL]], the first major programming language to support compound names, used [[hyphen]] "<tt>-</tt>" between terms, e.g. "<tt>END-OF-FILE</tt>. It should be noted that the common [[punched card]] character sets of the time had no lower-case letters and no other special character that could be used for the purpose. The later "algebraic" languages (such as C), which needed the hyphen for the minus operator, adopted the [[underscore]] character "<tt>_</tt>" (which was mandated by the new ASCII standard) as word joiner. Underscore-separated compounds like "<tt>end_of_file</tt>" are still prevalent in C programs and libraries.
However, in most keyboards the underscore key is inconveniently placed, and must be typed with the help of the <tt>SHIFT</tt> key; moreover, in many fonts the underscore character is easily confused with a blank space or with a minus sign. And in the [[1970s]], small display size and compiler limits on identifier length worked together to encourage brevity. So — according to this theory — many programmers choose to use CamelCase instead, because it yielded legible compound names with fewer keystrokes in less space.
===The Alto keyboard===
Another theory is that CamelCase actually started at [[Xerox PARC]] around 1978, with the [[Mesa programming language]] developed for the [[Xerox Alto]] computer. This machine lacked an underscore key, so the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system had to be coded all in CamelCase. The [[Smalltalk programming language]], which was also developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early [[1980s]], may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Another boost was provided by [[Niklaus Wirth]] — the inventor of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] — who acquired the taste for CamelCase during a sabbatical at PARC, and used it in [[Modula programming language|Modula]], his next programming language.
==The spread of CamelCase==
Be that as it may, CamelCase eventually spread via [[hacker culture]] into mainstream use and became [[fashion]]able for corporate [[trade name]]s during the popularization of the [[personal computer]] in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. Here are some examples:
* [[usenet|UseNet]]
* [[VisiCalc]]
* [[WorldCom]]
CamelCase is now the official convention for file names and identifiers in the [[Java programming language]], and the file name convention on [[Amiga]] computers.
==Variations on CamelCase==
In '''upper CamelCase''' style, the first letter of every word is written in upper case, as in "TheColourOfTheBar". In '''lower CamelCase''' the first word is left uncapitalized, as in "theColourOfTheBar".
[[Coding standard]]s based on CamelCase (like the pioneering [[Mesa programming language|Mesa]] style, or the modern [[Java programming language|Java]] style) typically specify which of these variants should be used for specific kinds of entities — [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s, [[field (computer science)|record fields]],[[method (computer science)|method]]s, [[procedure (computer science)|procedures]], [[type (computer science)|types]], etc.. The [[Microsoft .NET]] Guidelines define '''CamelCase''' as lower CamelCase, and refer to upper CamelCase as '''Pascal case'''.
==See also==
*[[CamelCase and Wiki]]
*[[CamelCase and Wikipedia]]
==External link==
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpgenref/html/cpconcapitalizationstyles.asp .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles]
[[de:CamelCase]] | 22:37, 9 June 2004 | '''Bicapitalization''' or '''camel case''' (frequently written '''CamelCase''') is the practice of writing [[compound noun and adjective|compound word]]s or phrases where the terms are joined without [[whitespace|space]]s, and every term is [[capitalization|capitalized]].companies. The name comes from a supposed resemblance between the bumpy outline of the compound word and the humps of a [[camel]].
CamelCase is a standard [[identifier naming convention]] for several [[programming language]]s, and has became fashionable in [[marketing]] for names of products and companies.
CamelCase synonyms include:
* '''CapWords''' (in [[Python programming language|Python]] [http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0008.html]).
* '''PascalCase''' (used by Microsoft)
==Origins of CamelCase==
CamelCase has been sporadically used in [[marketing]] for naming corporations and products, at least since the introduction of the [[CinemaScope]] [[cinema|movie]] projection system in the [[1950s]]. However its use became widespread only in the [[1970s]] or [[1980s]], when it was adopted as a standard or alternative [[identifier naming convention|naming convention]] for multi-word [[identifier]]s in several [[programming language]]s. There are two theories as to why and where that custom started.
===Multiword identifiers===
In programs of any significant size there is a need for descriptive (hence multi-word) [[identifier]]s, like "<tt>previous balance</tt>" or "<tt>end of file</tt>". Writing the words together as in "<tt>endoffile</tt>" is not satisfactory since the names often became unreadable. Therefore the pioneer prgramming language [[COBOL]] allowed [[hyphen]] "<tt>-</tt>" to be used between words of compount identifiers, as in "<tt>END-OF-FILE</tt>. The contemporary "algebraic" language [[Fortran|FORTRAN]] preempted the hyphen for the minus operator, but allowed spaces to be arbitrarily embedded into identifiers; so that <tt>TOTAMP</tt> could be written <tt>TOT AMP</tt> — or <tt>TO TAMP</tt>. However this feature was largely useless because most FORTRAN compilers did not allow identifiers longer than six letters.
It should be noted that the common [[punched card]] character sets of the time had no lower-case letters and no other special character that could be used for the purpose. But by the late [[1960]]s, the [[ASCII]] character set standard was already established, and so the designers of the C language adopted the [[underscore]] character "<tt>_</tt>" as word joiner. Underscore-separated compounds like "<tt>end_of_file</tt>" are still prevalent in C programs and libraries.
===The "Lazy Programmer" theory===
One theory on the origins of CamelCase in [[computing]] claims that the style originated within the culture of [[C programming language|C programmers]] and [[hacker]]s, who found it more convenient than the standard underscore-based style.
Indeed, in most keyboards the underscore key is inconveniently placed, and must be typed with the help of the <tt>SHIFT</tt> key. Also, in many fonts the underscore character is easily confused with a blank space or with a minus sign. Moreover, compiler limits on identifier length and the small [[computer display]]s available the [[1970s]] worked together to encourage brevity. So — according to this theory — many programmers choose to use CamelCase instead, because it yielded legible compound names with fewer keystrokes and fewer characters.
===The "Alto Keyboard" theory===
Another theory is that CamelCase actually started at [[Xerox PARC]] around 1978, with the [[Mesa programming language]] developed for the [[Xerox Alto]] computer. This machine lacked an underscore key, so the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system had to be coded all in CamelCase. The [[Smalltalk programming language]], which was also developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early [[1980s]], may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Another boost was provided by [[Niklaus Wirth]] — the inventor of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] — who acquired the taste for CamelCase during a sabbatical at PARC, and used it in [[Modula programming language|Modula]], his next programming language.
==The spread of CamelCase==
Be that as it may, CamelCase eventually spread via [[hacker culture]] into mainstream use, probably because of the popularization of the [[personal computer]] in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], and became [[fashion]]able for corporate [[trade name]]s. Here are some examples:
* [[usenet|UseNet]]
* [[VisiCalc]]
* [[WorldCom]]
CamelCase is now the official convention for file names and identifiers in the [[Java programming language]], and the file name convention on [[Amiga]] computers.
==Variations on CamelCase==
In '''upper CamelCase''' style, the first letter of every word is written in upper case, as in "TheColourOfTheBar". In '''lower CamelCase''' the first word is left uncapitalized, as in "theColourOfTheBar".
[[Coding standard]]s based on CamelCase (like the pioneering [[Mesa programming language|Mesa]] style, or the modern [[Java programming language|Java]] style) typically specify which of these variants should be used for specific kinds of entities — [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s, [[field (computer science)|record fields]],[[method (computer science)|method]]s, [[procedure (computer science)|procedures]], [[type (computer science)|types]], etc.. The [[Microsoft .NET]] Guidelines define '''CamelCase''' as lower CamelCase, and refer to upper CamelCase as '''Pascal case'''.
==See also==
*[[CamelCase and Wiki]]
*[[CamelCase and Wikipedia]]
==External link==
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpgenref/html/cpconcapitalizationstyles.asp .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles]
[[de:CamelCase]] | 02:27, 10 June 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Camel_case&diff=4009979&oldid=4009939 | * [[WorldCom]]
* [[DaimlerChrysler]]
CamelCase is now the official convention for file names and identifiers in the [[Java programming language]], and the file name convention on [[Amiga]] computers.
==Variations on CamelCase==
In '''upper CamelCase''' style, the first letter of every word is written in upper case, as in "TheColourOfTheBar". In '''lower CamelCase''' the first word is left uncapitalized, as in "theColourOfTheBar".
[[Coding standard]]s based on CamelCase (like the pioneering [[Mesa programming language|Mesa]] style, or the modern [[Java programming language|Java]] style) typically specify which of these variants should be used for specific kinds of entities — [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s, [[field (computer science)|record fields]],[[method (computer science)|method]]s, [[procedure (computer science)|procedures]], [[type (computer science)|types]], etc.. The [[Microsoft .NET]] Guidelines define '''CamelCase''' as lower CamelCase, and refer to upper CamelCase as '''Pascal case'''.
==See also==
| 02:27, 10 June 2004 | * [[WorldCom]]
* [[DaimlerChrysler]]
==CamelCase and coding standards==
CamelCase is now recommended or enforced by many computer systems, and mandated by the [[coding standard]]s of many programming languages — such as [[Mesa programming language|Mesa]], the [[systems programming language]] of the [[Xerox Alto]], or the modern language [[Java programming language|Java]]. It is also the official convention for file names in Java and of the [[Amiga]] personal computers.<!--Are these upper or lower CamelCase?-->
Actually, coding standards often distinguish two important variations of the style. In the so-called '''upper CamelCase''', the first letter of every word is written in upper case, as in "TheColourOfTheBar". In '''lower CamelCase''' the first word is left uncapitalized, as in "theColourOfTheBar". Coding standards typically specify which of these variants should be used for specific kinds of entities — [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s, [[field (computer science)|record fields]],[[method (computer science)|method]]s, [[procedure (computer science)|procedures]], [[type (computer science)|types]], etc..
In the ''[[Microsoft .NET]] Guidelines'', '''CamelCase''' is defined as lower CamelCase, while upper CamelCase is called '''Pascal case'''.
==See also==
| 02:44, 10 June 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Constantius_II&diff=210352&oldid=187761 | '''Constantius II''' was the most gifted of the three sons of [[Constantine I|Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Illyricum]] and named [[Caesar]] (Junior [[Emperor]]). When his father died in [[337]] AD he was the leading individual in the massacre of family members. He ruled the Eastern section of the Empire but when [[Constantine II]] died trying to overthrow [[Constans]] in [[Italy]] he turned his attention to the West.
| 04:02, 25 August 2002 | '''Constantius II''' was the most gifted of the three sons of [[Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Illyricum]] and named [[Caesar]] (Junior [[Emperor]]). When his father died in [[337]] AD he was the leading individual in the massacre of family members. He ruled the Eastern section of the Empire but when [[Constantine II]] died trying to overthrow [[Constans]] in [[Italy]] he turned his attention to the West.
| 04:10, 1 September 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Constantius_II&diff=1077087&oldid=586700 | '''Constantius II''' was the middle of the three sons of [[Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Illyricum]] and named [[Caesar]] or Junior [[Emperor]]. When his father died in AD [[337]], he led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of [[Constantius I Chlorus]] and [[Theodora]], leaving himself, his older brother [[Constantine II]], and his younger brother [[Constans]] as the surviving adult males related to Constantius, and they divided the [[Roman Empire]] between them. Constantine II received [[Britain]], [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]; Constans ruled [[Italy]], [[Africa]], and the [[Illyria|Illyrian provinces]]; and Constantius ruled [[Constantinople]] and the East.
This division changed when Constantine II died in [[340]], trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in [[350]] when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Until this time Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the [[Sassanid|Persian Empire]], and he was forced to elevate his cousin [[Gallus]] to Caesar to assist him while he turned his attention to this usurper.
| 22:26, 5 January 2003 | '''Constantius II''' was the middle of the three sons of [[Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Illyricum]] and named [[Caesar]] or Junior [[Emperor]]. When his father died in AD [[337]], he led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of [[Constantius I Chlorus]] and [[Theodora]], leaving himself, his older brother [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]], and his younger brother [[Constans]] as the surviving adult males related to Constantius, and they divided the [[Roman Empire]] between them. Constantine II received [[Britain]], [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]; Constans ruled [[Italy]], [[Africa]], and the [[Illyria|Illyrian provinces]]; and Constantius ruled [[Constantinople]] and the East.
This division changed when Constantine II died in [[340]], trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in [[350]] when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Until this time Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the [[Sassanid|Persian Empire]], and he was forced to elevate his cousin [[Gallus]] to Caesar to assist him while he turned his attention to this usurper.
| 19:16, 14 January 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Constantius_II&diff=33830088&oldid=33720970 | [[Image:Constantius_II_337_361.jpg|thumb|right|emperor Constantius II]]
'''Constantius II''', [[Roman Emperor]] ([[7 August]], [[317]] - [[3 November]], [[361]], reigned [[337]] - [[361]]), was the middle of the three sons of [[Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Sirmium]] (city in [[Illyricum]]) and named [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] or Junior [[Emperor]]. When his father died in 337, he led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of [[Constantius I Chlorus]] and [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora|Theodora]], leaving himself, his older brother [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]], his younger brother [[Constans]] and two cousins (Julian "the Apostate" and his brother Gallus) as the only surviving adult males related to Constantine the Great. The three brothers divided the [[Roman Empire]] between them according to their father's will. Constantine II received [[Britain]], [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]; Constans ruled [[Italy]], [[Africa]], and the [[Illyria|Illyrian provinces]]; and Constantius ruled [[Constantinople]] and the East.
This division changed when Constantine II died in [[340]], trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in [[350]] when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Until this time Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persian Empire]], and he was forced to elevate his cousin [[Gallus Caesar|Gallus]] to Caesar to assist him while he turned his attention to this usurper.
| 12:32, 3 January 2006 | [[Image:Constantius_II_337_361.jpg|thumb|right|emperor Constantius II]]
'''Constantius II''', [[Byzantine Emperor]] ([[7 August]], [[317]] - [[3 November]], [[361]], reigned [[337]] - [[361]]), was the middle of the three sons of [[Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]].
He was born in [[Sirmium]] (city in [[Illyricum]]) and named [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] or Junior [[Emperor]]. When his father died in 337, he led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of [[Constantius I Chlorus]] and [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora|Theodora]], leaving himself, his older brother [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]], his younger brother [[Constans]] and two cousins (Julian "the Apostate" and his brother Gallus) as the only surviving adult males related to Constantine the Great. The three brothers divided the [[Byzantine Empire]] between them according to their father's will. Constantine II received [[Britain]], [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]; Constans ruled [[Italy]], [[Africa]], and the [[Illyria|Illyrian provinces]]; and Constantius ruled [[Constantinople]] and the East.
This division changed when Constantine II died in [[340]], trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in [[350]] when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Until this time Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persian Empire]], and he was forced to elevate his cousin [[Gallus Caesar|Gallus]] to Caesar to assist him while he turned his attention to this usurper.
| 10:19, 4 January 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Constantius_II&diff=80743079&oldid=80742754 | Jones also notes that Constantius "appears in the pages of [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]] as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage."<ref>Jones, ''Later Roman Empire'', p. 116.</ref>
===Anti-Jewish persecution===
The laws of Constantius, (337CE-361CE),forbid intermarriage between [[Jewish]] men and Christian women. A generation later, in 388 CE, all marriages between [[Jews]] and Christians were forbidden. Constantius also did away with the right of Jews to possess slaves. This prohibition to trade in and to keep slaves at a time when slave labor was common was not merely an attempt to arrest conversion to [[Judaism]]; it was also a blow at the economic life of the Jew. It put Jews at a disadvantage with Christian competitors with whom this economic privilege was assured.
== Notes ==
<references/>
| 02:48, 11 October 2006 | Jones also notes that Constantius "appears in the pages of [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]] as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage."<ref>Jones, ''Later Roman Empire'', p. 116.</ref>
===Anti-Jewish persecution===
The laws of Constantius, (October 18, 315, and August 13, 339), forbid intermarriage between [[Jewish]] men and Christian women. A generation later, in 388 CE, all marriages between [[Jews]] and Christians were forbidden. Constantius also did away with the right of Jews to possess slaves. This prohibition to trade in and to keep slaves at a time when slave labor was common was not merely an attempt to arrest conversion to [[Judaism]]; it was also a blow at the economic life of the Jew. It put Jews at a disadvantage with Christian competitors with whom this economic privilege was assured.
== Notes ==
<references/>
| 02:50, 11 October 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Couscous&diff=170555133&oldid=170554599 |
== Pronunciation – whoops ==
I mean, it rhymes with "suit" and not "soot". The article gives the IPA so that it rhymes with soot but this is wrong. <small>—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/86.153.11.148|86.153.11.148]] ([[User talk:86.153.11.148|talk]]) 15:25, 10 November 2007 (UTC)</small><!-- Template:UnsignedIP --> <!--Autosigned by SineBot--> | 15:27, 10 November 2007 |
== Pronunciation – whoops ==
I mean, it rhymes with "suit" and not "soot". The article gives the IPA so that it rhymes with soot but this is wrong.
:OED has /kʊskʊs/. I have heard American say ku:shu:s but always assumed this was ignorance... may be I was the ignorant one? Do you have a source? [[User:Drmaik|Drmaik]] 15:31, 10 November 2007 (UTC) | 15:31, 10 November 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ciprofloxacin&diff=13174284&oldid=10969605 | * ''[[Neisseria menigitidis]]''
* ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis]]''
* ''[[Brucella]]''
* ''[[Mycoplasma]]''
* ''[[Campylobacter]]''
* ''[[Mycobacterium intracellulare]]''
* ''[[Legionella]]'' sp.
* ''[[Bacteroides]]''
* ''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]''
* ''[[Enterococcus faecium]]''
* and others
The major [[adverse effect]] seen with use of is [[gastrointestinal irritation]], common with many [[antibiotics]]. Because of its general safety, potency and [[broad spectrum]] activity, ciprofloxacin was initially reserved as a 'last-resort' drug for use on difficult and [[drug-resistant infections]]. As with any [[antibiotic]], however, increasing time and usage has led to an increase in ciprofloxacin-resistant infections, mainly in the [[hospital]] setting. Also implicated in the rise of [[resistant bacteria]] is the use of lower-cost, less potent [[fluoroquinolones]], and the widespread addition of ciprofloxacin and other antibiotics to the feed of [[farm animals]], which leads to greater and more rapid weight gain, for reasons which are not clear.
"''Cipro''" became a household word during the [[anthrax]] mail attacks after the destruction of the [[World Trade Center]]. Unfortunately, [[Bayer]] not only took a severe financial blow from the costs involved in rapidly increasing production of the drug to be sold to the government at far below market price, but ironically was then portrayed in the press as 'War Profiteers', rather than contributors to the safety of the public in the "[[War on Terror]]".
[[category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics]]
[[it:ciprofloxacina]] | 21:14, 9 March 2005 | * ''[[Neisseria menigitidis]]''
* ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis]]''
* ''[[Brucella]]''
* ''[[Campylobacter]]''
* ''[[Mycobacterium intracellulare]]''
* ''[[Legionella]]'' sp.
* ''[[Bacteroides]]''
* ''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]''
* ''[[Enterococcus faecium]]''
* ''[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]''
* and others
The major [[adverse effect]] seen with use of is [[gastrointestinal irritation]], common with many [[antibiotics]]. Because of its general safety, potency and [[broad spectrum]] activity, ciprofloxacin was initially reserved as a 'last-resort' drug for use on difficult and [[drug-resistant infections]]. As with any [[antibiotic]], however, increasing time and usage has led to an increase in ciprofloxacin-resistant infections, mainly in the [[hospital]] setting. Also implicated in the rise of [[resistant bacteria]] is the use of lower-cost, less potent [[fluoroquinolones]], and the widespread addition of ciprofloxacin and other antibiotics to the feed of [[farm animals]], which leads to greater and more rapid weight gain, for reasons which are not clear.
"''Cipro''" became a household word during the [[anthrax]] mail attacks after the destruction of the [[World Trade Center]]. Unfortunately, [[Bayer]] not only took a severe financial blow from the costs involved in rapidly increasing production of the drug to be sold to the government at far below market price, but ironically was then portrayed in the press as 'War Profiteers', rather than contributors to the safety of the public in the "[[War on Terror]]".
[[category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics]]
[[it:Ciprofloxacina]] | 21:31, 9 March 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ciprofloxacin&diff=29359135&oldid=29358926 | ==Links==
* [http://www.drugs.com/cons/Cipro_I_V_.html Data sheet for Cipro]
* [http://www.fqresearch.org/ Fluoroquinolone Toxicity Research Foundation] querying the overall safety of fluoroquinolones
* [http://www.emedmag.com/html/pre/fea/features/011501.asp]A review of ciprofloxacin in relation to other fluoroquinolones
[[Category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics]]
[[de:Ciprofloxacin]]
| 07:07, 27 November 2005 | ==Links==
* [http://www.drugs.com/cons/Cipro_I_V_.html Data sheet for Cipro]
* [http://www.fqresearch.org/ Fluoroquinolone Toxicity Research Foundation] querying the overall safety of fluoroquinolones
* [http://www.emedmag.com/html/pre/fea/features/011501.asp Emergency Medicine Magzine] a review of ciprofloxacin in relation to other fluoroquinolones
[[Category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics]]
[[de:Ciprofloxacin]]
| 07:11, 27 November 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cytosol&diff=107748732&oldid=107274665 | ==Details==
Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% [[protein]].
Normal human cytosolic [[pH]] is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the [[pH]] of the [[extracellular fluid]] is 7.4.
==References==
''Life: The Science of Biology''. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0-7167-9856-5 (ILM USA)
| 08:00, 11 February 2007 | ==Details==
Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% [[protein]].
Normal human cytosolic [[pH]] is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the [[pH]] of the [[extracellular fluid]] is 7.6.
==References==
''Life: The Science of Biology''. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0-7167-9856-5 (ILM USA)
| 04:37, 13 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cytosol&diff=124783330&oldid=119456883 | ==Details==
Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% [[protein]].
Normal human cytosolic [[pH]] is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the [[pH]] of the [[extracellular fluid]] is 7.6.
==References==
''Life: The Science of Biology''. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0-7167-9856-5 (ILM USA)
| 09:45, 1 April 2007 | ==Details==
Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% [[protein]].
Normal human cytosolic [[pH]] is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the [[pH]] of the [[extracellular fluid]] is 7.4.
==References==
''Life: The Science of Biology''. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0-7167-9856-5 (ILM USA)
| 04:05, 22 April 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet&diff=23780909&oldid=22586427 | {{featured}}
{{FAOL|Japanese|ja:彗星}}
| 01:31, 5 September 2005 | {{featured}}
{{mainpage date|May 18|2004}}
{{FAOL|Japanese|ja:彗星}}
| 21:16, 22 September 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet&diff=39337746&oldid=39337623 |
Do we really need to have it in the opening sentence? it hardly seems important enough, many users will see it just as a question mark, and I'm not even sure it's very commonly used anyway - I've never seen it myself before, in the literature or elsewhere. I'm sure it could be included lower down though. [[User:Worldtraveller|Worldtraveller]] 12:59, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
:I'd agree with that. There seems to be a tendency to use the lead as a bin for anything miscellaneous, which is roughly the opposite of what it should be. It's also very misleading, since I would read it as saying that the symbol in question ''is'' a question mark- we need some cunning way of saying otherwise. [[User:Markalexander100|Mark]][[User talk:Markalexander100|<sup>your words</sup>]] 13:10, 12 February 2006 (UTC) | 13:10, 12 February 2006 |
Do we really need to have it in the opening sentence? it hardly seems important enough, many users will see it just as a question mark, and I'm not even sure it's very commonly used anyway - I've never seen it myself before, in the literature or elsewhere. I'm sure it could be included lower down though. [[User:Worldtraveller|Worldtraveller]] 12:59, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
:I'd agree with that. There seems to be a tendency to use the lead as a bin for anything miscellaneous, which is roughly the opposite of what it should be. It's also very misleading, since I would read it as saying that the symbol in question ''is'' a question mark- we need some cunning way of saying otherwise. [[User:Markalexander100|Mark]][[User talk:Markalexander100|<sup>your words</sup>]] 13:10, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
::Yes, put it into the last section of the intro paragraph. I would have done that already, but I just see a question mark, so I can not tell if I mess things up moving the text. [[User:Awolf002|Awolf002]] 13:12, 12 February 2006 (UTC) | 13:12, 12 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet&diff=39376269&oldid=39373712 |
:I'd agree with that. There seems to be a tendency to use the lead as a bin for anything miscellaneous, which is roughly the opposite of what it should be. It's also very misleading, since I would read it as saying that the symbol in question ''is'' a question mark- we need some cunning way of saying otherwise. [[User:Markalexander100|Mark]][[User talk:Markalexander100|<sup>your words</sup>]] 13:10, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
::Yes, put it into the last section of the intro paragraph. I would have done that already, but I just see a question mark, so I can not tell if I mess things up moving the text. [[User:Awolf002|Awolf002]] 13:12, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
To help editors, at least, we could replace the character with its HTML unicode entity: ☄ (&#x2604;). [[User:Bryan Derksen|Bryan]] 19:14, 12 February 2006 (UTC) | 19:14, 12 February 2006 |
:I'd agree with that. There seems to be a tendency to use the lead as a bin for anything miscellaneous, which is roughly the opposite of what it should be. It's also very misleading, since I would read it as saying that the symbol in question ''is'' a question mark- we need some cunning way of saying otherwise. [[User:Markalexander100|Mark]][[User talk:Markalexander100|<sup>your words</sup>]] 13:10, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
::Yes, put it into the last section of the intro paragraph. I would have done that already, but I just see a question mark, so I can not tell if I mess things up moving the text. [[User:Awolf002|Awolf002]] 13:12, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
::I suggest '''keep''', the symbol is widely known, and for users read it as a question mark, it's their own problem, they should configure their computer properly first. — [[User:Yaohua2000|Yaohua2000]] 19:34, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
To help editors, at least, we could replace the character with its HTML unicode entity: ☄ (&#x2604;). [[User:Bryan Derksen|Bryan]] 19:14, 12 February 2006 (UTC) | 19:34, 12 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet&diff=89126126&oldid=89125588 |
So if a really bright comet suddenly came, we would only get notice a month or so notice before it's visible? Or how long before it comes is it usually predictable?--[[User:Sonjaaa|Sonjaaa]] 04:25, 21 August 2006 (UTC)
It depends on how early the comet is detected and the comet's orbit. A number of automated telescopes, that are used for NEO searches, sometimes discover long period comets when they are very faint. Comet C/2002 T7 LINEAR was discovered when it was 17th magnitude and astronomers had almost two years before it reached perihelion. ~ [[User:LawfulGoodThief]] 06:03, 26 August 2006 (UTC) | 00:38, 21 November 2006 |
So if a really bright comet suddenly came, we would only get notice a month or so notice before it's visible? Or how long before it comes is it usually predictable?--[[User:Sonjaaa|Sonjaaa]] 04:25, 21 August 2006 (UTC)
It depends on how early the comet is detected and the comet's orbit. A number of automated telescopes, that are used for NEO searches, sometimes discover long period comets when they are very faint. Comet C/2002 T7 LINEAR was discovered when it was 17th magnitude and astronomers had almost two years before it reached perihelion. ~ [[User:LawfulGoodThief]] 06:03, 26 August 2006 (UTC)
I think the current visible comets section needs to be frequently updated. It is now November, not October. [[User:AstroHurricane001|AstroHurricane001]] 00:41, 21 November 2006 (UTC) | 00:41, 21 November 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet&diff=110876538&oldid=110464511 |
:This proposed version puts way too much emphasis on the issue of water detection, especially considering that the general consensus in the scientific community is pretty clear. Deep Impact was only a month ago, that's not enough time to claim that comets are now commonly called "snowy dirtballs" rather than "dirty snowballs" (a phrase that goes back decades). In general, there are too many weasel-words being used here. I think Sasquatch's version cleared up all these problems nicely. [[User:Bryan Derksen|Bryan]] 06:27, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
::I'm going to move some stuff over from my talk page that demonstrates again and again astronomers changing their views about specific comets being made primarily of ices or volatiles. [[User:Plautus satire|Plautus satire]] 14:33, 29 July 2005 (UTC)
== Creationism section ==
| 00:29, 24 February 2007 |
:This proposed version puts way too much emphasis on the issue of water detection, especially considering that the general consensus in the scientific community is pretty clear. Deep Impact was only a month ago, that's not enough time to claim that comets are now commonly called "snowy dirtballs" rather than "dirty snowballs" (a phrase that goes back decades). In general, there are too many weasel-words being used here. I think Sasquatch's version cleared up all these problems nicely. [[User:Bryan Derksen|Bryan]] 06:27, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
::I'm going to move some stuff over from my talk page that demonstrates again and again astronomers changing their views about specific comets being made primarily of ices or volatiles. [[User:Plautus satire|Plautus satire]] 14:33, 29 July 2005 (UTC)
:In the picture (which is now on the Article page) of Comet Borrelly, what do the colors represent? I assume temperature, but the picture needs a scale. [[User:Mcswell|Mcswell]] 18:51, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
== Creationism section ==
| 18:51, 25 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CDC&diff=6892608&oldid=4832206 | * [[Council for Disabled Children]]
* [[Career Development Course]]
{{disambig}} | 10:49, 7 July 2004 | * [[Council for Disabled Children]]
* [[Career Development Course]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:TLAs]] | 07:03, 25 July 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Carl_Sagan&diff=7283&oldid=7276 | During the [[Gulf War]], Sagan predicted that smoke resulting from U.S. bombing of Iraqi oil and refining facilities would result in a condition similar to nuclear winter. In a Nightline debate, [[Fred Singer]] predicted that on the contrary winds would dissipate the smoke within a few days.
He wrote and narrated the television series <i>Cosmos</i>; he wrote also books to popularise science (<i>Broca's Brain</i>, <i>The Dragons of Eden</i>, etc.) and a novel, <i>Contact</i>, that became a best-seller and was adapted to a film starring [[Jodie Foster]]. The film won the 1998 [[Hugo award]]. Some of the history that Sagan presents in <i>Cosmos</i> most
such as his description of [[Hypatia of Alexandria]] and the burning of the [[Library of Alexandria]] has been criticized. From <i>Cosmos</i> Sagan became associated with the
catchphrase "billions and billions" which he never used in the television series.
After a long and difficult fight with [[myelodysplasia]], Sagan passed away at the age of 62, on Dec. 20th 1996.
| 17:59, 8 February 2002 | During the [[Gulf War]], Sagan predicted that smoke resulting from U.S. bombing of Iraqi oil and refining facilities would result in a condition similar to nuclear winter. In a Nightline debate, [[Fred Singer]] predicted that on the contrary winds would dissipate the smoke within a few days.
He wrote and narrated the television series <i>Cosmos</i>; he wrote also books to popularise science (<i>Broca's Brain</i>, <i>The Dragons of Eden</i>, etc.) and a novel, <i>Contact</i>, that became a best-seller and was adapted to a film starring [[Jodie Foster]]. The film won the 1998 [[Hugo award]]. Some of the history that Sagan presents in <i>Cosmos</i> most
such as his description of [[Hypatia of Alexandria]] and the burning of the [[Library of Alexandria]] has been criticized as historically muddled. From <i>Cosmos</i> Sagan became associated with the
catchphrase "billions and billions" which he never used in the television series.
After a long and difficult fight with [[myelodysplasia]], Sagan passed away at the age of 62, on Dec. 20th 1996.
| 18:16, 8 February 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Carl_Sagan&diff=184261&oldid=78949 | American [[astronomer]] ([[1936]]-[[1996]]) who pioneered [[exobiology]] and promoted Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence ([[SETI]]) and science in general. He is less well known for his [[skepticism]].
Carl Sagan was a professor and lab director at [[Cornell University]]. He contributed to most of the [[unmanned space missions]] that explored our [[solar system]]. His idea was to add an unalterable and universal message on the spacecraft that could be understood by an extraterrestrial intelligence. He was also well known as a coauthor of the paper that warned of the dangers of [[nuclear winter]].
| 15:51, 25 February 2002 | American [[astronomer]] ([[1934]]-[[1996]]) who pioneered [[exobiology]] and promoted Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence ([[SETI]]) and science in general. He is less well known for his [[skepticism]].
Carl Sagan was a professor and lab director at [[Cornell University]]. He contributed to most of the [[unmanned space missions]] that explored our [[solar system]]. His idea was to add an unalterable and universal message on the spacecraft that could be understood by an extraterrestrial intelligence. He was also well known as a coauthor of the paper that warned of the dangers of [[nuclear winter]].
| 18:20, 26 May 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Carl_Sagan&diff=408043&oldid=407807 |
He was also well known as a coauthor of the paper that warned of the dangers of [[nuclear winter]]. He also perceived [[global warming]] as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot life-hostile planet through greenhouse gases.
He wrote and narrated the highly popular twelve part PBS television series <i>[[Cosmos]]</i>; he wrote also books to popularise science (<i>Broca's Brain</i>, <i>The Dragons of Eden</i>, etc.) and a novel, <i>Contact</i>, that became a best-seller and was adapted to a film starring [[Jodie Foster]]. The film won the 1998 [[Hugo award]]. From <i>Cosmos</i> Sagan became associated with the catchphrase "billions and billions" which he never used in the television series.
After a long and difficult fight with [[myelodysplasia]], Sagan passed away at the age of 62, on Dec. 20th 1996.
| 11:34, 5 November 2002 |
He was also well known as a coauthor of the paper that warned of the dangers of [[nuclear winter]]. He also perceived [[global warming]] as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot life-hostile planet through greenhouse gases.
He wrote and narrated the highly popular thirteen part PBS television series <i>[[Cosmos]]</i>; he wrote also books to popularise science (<i>Broca's Brain</i>, <i>The Dragons of Eden</i>, etc.) and a novel, <i>Contact</i>, that became a best-seller and was adapted to a film starring [[Jodie Foster]]. The film won the 1998 [[Hugo award]]. From <i>Cosmos</i> Sagan became associated with the catchphrase "billions and billions" which he never used in the television series.
After a long and difficult fight with [[myelodysplasia]], Sagan passed away at the age of 62, on Dec. 20th 1996.
| 14:49, 6 November 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Carl_Sagan&diff=1219106&oldid=1218592 |
He was well known as a coauthor of the paper that warned of the dangers of [[nuclear winter]]. He also perceived [[global warming]] as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] into a hot life-hostile planet through [[greenhouse gas]]es. His interest in these topics was in large part motivated by his interpretation of the [[Drake equation]] and the [[Fermi paradox]]. He believed that the Drake Equation suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations suggests that technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This stimulated his interest in identifying ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such destruction and eventually becoming a space-faring species.
He wrote (with [[Ann Druyan]], whom he later married) and narrated the highly popular thirteen part [[PBS]] television series ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''; he also wrote books to popularize science (''The Dragons of Eden'' (which won a [[Pulitzer Prize]]), ''Broca's Brain'', etc.) and a novel, ''[[Contact (novel)|Contact]]'', that was a best-seller and had a [[Contact (movie)|film adaptation]] starring [[Jodie Foster]] in [[1997]]. The film won the [[1998]] [[Hugo award]]. From ''Cosmos'' Sagan became associated with the catchphrase "billions and billions" which he never actually used in the television series. (He simply often used the word "billions.") Late in his life, Sagan's books developed his skeptical/atheist view of the world, including ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark'' and ''Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium'', which includes Ann Druyan's account of Sagan's death as a non-believer.
Sagan caused mixed reactions among other professional scientists. On the one hand, there was general support for his popularization of science, his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public, and his positions in favor of [[skepticism]] and against [[pseudoscience]]. On the other hand, there was some unease that the public would misunderstand some of the personal positions and interests that Sagan took as being part of the scientific consensus rather than his own personal views, and there was some unease, which some believe to have been motivated in part by professional jealousy, that scientific views contrary to those that Sagan took (such as on the severity of nuclear winter) were not being sufficiently presented to the public.
| 14:34, 11 July 2003 |
He was well known as a coauthor of the paper that warned of the dangers of [[nuclear winter]]. He also perceived [[global warming]] as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] into a hot life-hostile planet through [[greenhouse gas]]es. His interest in these topics was in large part motivated by his interpretation of the [[Drake equation]] and the [[Fermi paradox]]. He believed that the Drake Equation suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations suggests that technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This stimulated his interest in identifying ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such destruction and eventually becoming a space-faring species.
He wrote (with [[Ann Druyan]], whom he later married) and narrated the highly popular thirteen part [[PBS]] television series ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''; he also wrote books to popularize science (''The Dragons of Eden'' (which won a [[Pulitzer Prize]]), ''Broca's Brain'', etc.) and a novel, ''[[Contact (novel)|Contact]]'', that was a best-seller and had a [[Contact (movie)|film adaptation]] starring [[Jodie Foster]] in [[1997]]. The film won the [[1998]] [[Hugo award]]. From ''Cosmos'' Sagan became associated with the catchphrase "billions and billions" which he never actually used in the television series. (He simply often used the word "billions.") Late in his life, Sagan's books developed his skeptical/atheist view of the world, including ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark'' and ''Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium'', which includes Ann Druyan's account of Sagan's death as a non-believer.
He also wrote '''Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space''',
which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times.
He cofounded the '''Planetary Society''', a society created to
do major research in radio communication with extraterrestrial life,
robotic exploration on [[Mars]], the investigation of asteroids near the
[[Earth]].
Sagan caused mixed reactions among other professional scientists. On the one hand, there was general support for his popularization of science, his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public, and his positions in favor of [[skepticism]] and against [[pseudoscience]]. On the other hand, there was some unease that the public would misunderstand some of the personal positions and interests that Sagan took as being part of the scientific consensus rather than his own personal views, and there was some unease, which some believe to have been motivated in part by professional jealousy, that scientific views contrary to those that Sagan took (such as on the severity of nuclear winter) were not being sufficiently presented to the public.
| 16:44, 30 July 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Carl_Sagan&diff=1247238&oldid=1247216 | == External Links ==
* [http://www.skeptic.com/04.4.sagan-tribute.html In Memory of Carl Sagan]
* [http://www.carlsagan.com/ Carl Sagan . Com]
* [http://usenet.net.nz/apod/ap961226.html APOD: Carl Sagan]
* [http://www.news.cornell.edu/general/Dec96/saganobit.ltb.html Cornell press release of Sagan's death]
| 00:44, 6 August 2003 | == External Links ==
* [http://www.skeptic.com/04.4.sagan-tribute.html In Memory of Carl Sagan]
* [http://www.carlsagan.com/ Carl Sagan . Com]
* [http://www.marijuana-uses.com/examples/Mr_X.htm Mr. X writing]
* [http://usenet.net.nz/apod/ap961226.html APOD: Carl Sagan]
* [http://www.news.cornell.edu/general/Dec96/saganobit.ltb.html Cornell press release of Sagan's death]
| 00:46, 6 August 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Context-free_language&diff=107866273&oldid=107626244 | * the [[homomorphism]] φ(L) of ''L''
* the [[concatenation]] <math>L \circ P</math> of ''L'' and ''P''
* the [[union (set theory)|union]] <math>L \cup P</math> of ''L'' and ''P''
* the [[intersection]] (with a Regular Language) <math>L \cap D</math> of ''L'' and ''D''
Context-Free Languages are not closed under [[complement (complexity)|complement]], [[intersection]], or [[difference]].
==See also==
There is a [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages that gives a necessary condition for a language to be context-free.
| 19:27, 12 February 2007 | * the [[homomorphism]] φ(L) of ''L''
* the [[concatenation]] <math>L \circ P</math> of ''L'' and ''P''
* the [[union (set theory)|union]] <math>L \cup P</math> of ''L'' and ''P''
* the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] (with a Regular Language) <math>L \cap D</math> of ''L'' and ''D''
Context-Free Languages are not closed under [[complement (complexity)|complement]], [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]], or [[difference]].
==See also==
There is a [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages that gives a necessary condition for a language to be context-free.
| 18:08, 13 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Context-free_language&diff=226949316&oldid=226706576 | [[he:שפה חופשית הקשר]]
[[ja:文脈自由言語]]
[[pl:Język bezkontekstowy]]
[[ro:Limbaje independente de context]]
[[fi:Yhteydetön kieli]]
[[zh:上下文无关语言]] | 22:55, 19 July 2008 | [[he:שפה חופשית הקשר]]
[[ja:文脈自由言語]]
[[pl:Język bezkontekstowy]]
[[pt:Linguagem livre de contexto]]
[[ro:Limbaje independente de context]]
[[fi:Yhteydetön kieli]]
[[zh:上下文无关语言]] | 07:14, 21 July 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Context-free_language&diff=317929887&oldid=312885219 | {{context}}
In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free language''' is a [[formal language|language]] generated by some [[context-free grammar]]. The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by [[pushdown automaton|pushdown automata]].
== References ==
* {{cite book| author = [[Seymour Ginsburg]] | title = The Mathematical Theory of Context-Free Languages | year = 1966 | publisher = McGraw-Hill, Inc. | location = New York, NY, USA}}
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | isbn = 0-534-94728-X}} Chapter 2: Context-Free Languages, pp.91–122.
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
| 00:29, 10 September 2009 | {{Context|date=October 2009}}
In [[formal language theory]], a '''context-free language''' is a [[formal language|language]] generated by some [[context-free grammar]]. The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages accepted by [[pushdown automaton|pushdown automata]].
== References ==
* {{cite book| author = [[Seymour Ginsburg]] | title = The Mathematical Theory of Context-Free Languages | year = 1966 | publisher = McGraw-Hill, Inc. | location = New York, NY, USA}}
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | isbn = 0-534-94728-X}} Chapter 2: Context-Free Languages, pp. 91–122.
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
| 23:07, 4 October 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cecilia_Beaux&diff=41219522&oldid=40742408 | '''Cecilia Beaux''' ([[1855]]–-[[September 7]],[[1942]]) was an [[United States|American]] society [[portraitist]], in the nature of [[John Singer Sargent]].
She was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], she received the bulk of her art training at the Academie Julien in [[Paris]]. During her time in Paris she studied under painters [[Tony Robert-Fleury]] and [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]].
| 18:48, 22 February 2006 | '''Cecilia Beaux''' ([[May 1]], [[1855]]–-[[September 7]],[[1942]]) was an [[United States|American]] society [[portraitist]], in the nature of [[John Singer Sargent]].
She was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], she received the bulk of her art training at the Academie Julien in [[Paris]]. During her time in Paris she studied under painters [[Tony Robert-Fleury]] and [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]].
| 21:43, 25 February 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cecilia_Beaux&diff=242027311&oldid=242027189 | | imagesize =
| caption =
| birthname =
| birthdate =
| location =
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| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| field = [[Portrait painting]]
| 16:15, 30 September 2008 | | imagesize =
| caption =
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date |1855|5|1|}}
| location =
| deathdate = 1942
| deathplace =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| field = [[Portrait painting]]
| 16:16, 30 September 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cecilia_Beaux&diff=242027407&oldid=242027311 | | caption =
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date |1855|5|1|}}
| location =
| deathdate = 1942
| deathplace =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| 16:16, 30 September 2008 | | caption =
| birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date |1855|5|1|}}
| location = [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
| deathdate = 1942
| deathplace =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| 16:17, 30 September 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cecilia_Beaux&diff=262044306&oldid=258111654 | | birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date |1855|5|1|}}
| location = [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
| deathdate = {{death date |1942|9|7|}}
| deathplace = Green Alley, Pennsylvania
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| field = [[Portrait painting]]
| 13:07, 15 December 2008 | | birthname =
| birthdate = {{birth date |1855|5|1|}}
| location = [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
| deathdate = {{Death date and age|1942|9|7|1855|5|1|}}
| deathplace = Green Alley, Pennsylvania
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| field = [[Portrait painting]]
| 05:58, 5 January 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cellulose&diff=1931152&oldid=1909159 | (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>n</sub>
is a long-chain [[polymer]] of [[glucose|beta-glucose]].
Cellulose is the common material of plant [[cell wall]]s and was first noted as such in 1838. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in [[cotton]] fibre and in combination with [[lignin]] and any [[hemicellulose]], it is found in all plant material - wood, leaves, stalks etc. Cellulose, especially [[cotton linters]], is used in the manufacture of [[nitrocellulose]], the major component of [[smokeless gunpowder]]
Cellulose [[monomer]]s (beta-glucose) are linked together through 1,4 [[glycosidic bond]]s. Cellulose is a straight chain--no coiling occurs. In ''microfibrils'', the multiple hydroxide groups [[hydrogen bond]] with each other, holding the chains firmly together and contributing to their high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed in to a carbohydrate ''matrix'', which helps to keep plants rigid.
| 01:50, 9 December 2003 | (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>n</sub>
is a long-chain [[polymer]] of [[glucose|beta-glucose]].
Cellulose is the common material of plant [[cell wall]]s and was first noted as such in 1838. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in [[cotton]] fibre and in combination with [[lignin]] and any [[hemicellulose]], it is found in all plant material - wood, leaves, stalks etc. Cellulose, especially [[cotton linters]], is used in the manufacture of [[nitrocellulose]], used historically in [[smokeless gunpowder]]
Cellulose [[monomer]]s (beta-glucose) are linked together through 1,4 [[glycosidic bond]]s. Cellulose is a straight chain--no coiling occurs. In ''microfibrils'', the multiple hydroxide groups [[hydrogen bond]] with each other, holding the chains firmly together and contributing to their high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed in to a carbohydrate ''matrix'', which helps to keep plants rigid.
| 01:54, 9 December 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cellulose&diff=1983652&oldid=1977680 | [[pl:Celuloza]] [[da:Cellulose]][[de:Zellulose]][[ja:セルロース]][[nl:Cellulose]]
'''Cellulose'''
(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>6</sub>)<sub>n</sub>
is a long-chain [[polymer]] of [[glucose|beta-glucose]].
Cellulose is the common material of plant [[cell wall]]s and was first noted as such in 1838. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in [[cotton]] fibre and in combination with [[lignin]] and any [[hemicellulose]], it is found in all plant material - wood, leaves, stalks etc. Cellulose, especially [[cotton linters]], is used in the manufacture of [[nitrocellulose]], used historically in [[smokeless gunpowder]]
Cellulose [[monomer]]s (beta-glucose) are linked together through 1,4 [[glycosidic bond]]s. Cellulose is a straight chain--no coiling occurs. In ''microfibrils'', the multiple hydroxide groups [[hydrogen bond]] with each other, holding the chains firmly together and contributing to their high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed in to a carbohydrate ''matrix'', which helps to keep plants rigid.
| 13:10, 11 December 2003 | [[pl:Celuloza]] [[da:Cellulose]][[de:Zellulose]][[ja:セルロース]][[nl:Cellulose]]
'''Cellulose'''
(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>n</sub>
is a long-chain [[polymer]] of [[glucose|beta-glucose]].
Cellulose is the common material of plant [[cell wall]]s and was first noted as such in 1838. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in [[cotton]] fibre and in combination with [[lignin]] and any [[hemicellulose]], it is found in all plant material - wood, leaves, stalks etc. Cellulose is the most abundant form of living terrestrial biomass (Crawford, R. L. (1981). Lignin biodegradation and transformation, John Wiley and Sons, New York.) Cellulose, especially [[cotton linters]], is used in the manufacture of [[nitrocellulose]], used historically in [[smokeless gunpowder]]
Cellulose [[monomer]]s (beta-glucose) are linked together through 1,4 [[glycosidic bond]]s. Cellulose is a straight chain--no coiling occurs. In ''microfibrils'', the multiple hydroxide groups [[hydrogen bond]] with each other, holding the chains firmly together and contributing to their high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed in to a carbohydrate ''matrix'', which helps to keep plants rigid.
| 21:34, 16 December 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=630999&oldid=630986 | The <b>condition number</b> associated with a mathematical structure is a measure of that quantity's amenability to digital computation. For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation ''Ax = b'' controls how accurate the solution ''x'' will be after numerical solution. Condition number also amplifies the error present in ''b''. The extent of this amplification can render a low condition number system (normally a good thing) inaccurate and a high condition number system (normally a bad thing) accurate, depending on how well the data in ''b'' are known. For this problem, the condition number is defined by ||A^{-1}||.||A||, in any consistent [[norm]].
Condition numbers for [[singular value decomposition]]s, polynomial root finding,
[[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined. | 05:44, 30 July 2002 | The <b>condition number</b> associated with a numerical problem is a measure of
that quantity's amenability to digital computation, that is, how
[[well-posed problem|well-posed]] the problem is.
For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation
<math>Ax = b</math> gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution <math>x</math> will be after numerical solution.
The condition number also amplifies the error present in <math>b</math>. The extent of this amplification can render a low condition number system (normally a good thing) inaccurate and a high condition number system (normally a bad thing) accurate, depending on how well the data in <math>b</math> are known. For this problem, the condition number is defined by
<math>||A^{-1}||.||A||</math>,
in any consistent [[norm]].
Condition numbers for [[singular value decomposition]]s, polynomial root finding,
[[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined. | 10:09, 30 January 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=67108300&oldid=66509150 | Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function <math>f</math> mapping its data, which is an <math>m</math>-tuple
of real numbers <math>x</math>, into its solution, an <math>n</math>-tuple of
real numbers <math>y</math>.
Its condition number is then defined to be the maximum value of the ratio
of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data,
| 11:16, 29 July 2006 | Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function <math>f</math> mapping its data, which is an <math>m</math>-tuple
of real numbers <math>x</math>, into its solution, an <math>n</math>-tuple of
real numbers <math>f(x)</math>.
Its condition number is then defined to be the maximum value of the ratio
of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data,
| 20:39, 1 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=180713011&oldid=177277565 |
==The condition number in other contexts==
Condition numbers for [[singular-value decomposition]]s, polynomial root finding, [[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined.
Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function <math>f</math> mapping its data, which is an <math>m</math>-tuple
| 20:12, 11 December 2007 |
==The condition number in other contexts==
Condition numbers for [[singular-value decomposition]]s, [[polynomial root finding]], [[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined.
Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function <math>f</math> mapping its data, which is an <math>m</math>-tuple
| 00:43, 29 December 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=188424482&oldid=188410600 | of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data,
over the problem domain:
:<math>\max \left\{ \left| \fra(x) - f(x^*)}{f(x)} \right| \left/ \left| \frac{x - x^*}{x} \right| \right. : |x - x^*| < \epsilon \right\}</math>
where <math>\epsilon</math> is some reasonably small value in the variation
of data for the problem.
| 17:23, 1 February 2008 | of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data,
over the problem domain:
:<math>\max \left\{ \left| \frac{f(x) - f(x^*)}{f(x)} \right| \left/ \left| \frac{x - x^*}{x} \right| \right. : |x - x^*| < \epsilon \right\}</math>
where <math>\epsilon</math> is some reasonably small value in the variation
of data for the problem.
| 18:32, 1 February 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=272944126&oldid=272850506 |
:<math>\left| \frac{ f'(x) }{ f(x) } \right| \cdot \left| x \right|. </math>
And the condition number of the inverse of <math>f</math> is approximately
:<math>\left| \frac{ f(x) }{ f'(x) } \right| \cdot \left| \frac{1}{x} \right|. </math>
| 00:47, 24 February 2009 |
:<math>\left| \frac{ f'(x) }{ f(x) } \right| \cdot \left| x \right|. </math>
And the condition number of the inverse of <math>f</math> at <math>f(x)</math> is approximately
:<math>\left| \frac{ f(x) }{ f'(x) } \right| \cdot \left| \frac{1}{x} \right|. </math>
| 11:50, 24 February 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=331051674&oldid=330112761 |
==The condition number of a matrix==<!-- This section is linked from [[Invertible matrix]] -->
For example, the condition number associated with the [[linear equation]]
''Ax'' = ''b'' gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution ''x'' will be after approximate solution. Note that this is before the effects of [[round-off error]] are taken into account; conditioning is a property of the matrix, not the [[algorithm]] or [[floating point]] accuracy of the computer used to solve the corresponding system. In particular, one should think of the condition number as being (very roughly) the rate at which the solution, ''x'', will change with respect to a change in ''b''. Thus, if the condition number is large, even a small error in ''b'' may cause a large error in ''x''. On the other hand, if the condition number is small then the error in ''x'' will not be much bigger than the error in ''b''.
The condition number is defined more precisely to be the maximum ratio of the [[relative error]] in ''x'' divided by the relative error in ''b''.
| 20:22, 6 December 2009 |
==The condition number of a matrix==<!-- This section is linked from [[Invertible matrix]] -->
LLL For example, the condition number associated with the [[linear equation]]
''Ax'' = ''b'' gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution ''x'' will be after approximate solution. Note that this is before the effects of [[round-off error]] are taken into account; conditioning is a property of the matrix, not the [[algorithm]] or [[floating point]] accuracy of the computer used to solve the corresponding system. In particular, one should think of the condition number as being (very roughly) the rate at which the solution, ''x'', will change with respect to a change in ''b''. Thus, if the condition number is large, even a small error in ''b'' may cause a large error in ''x''. On the other hand, if the condition number is small then the error in ''x'' will not be much bigger than the error in ''b''.
The condition number is defined more precisely to be the maximum ratio of the [[relative error]] in ''x'' divided by the relative error in ''b''.
| 08:13, 11 December 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Condition_number&diff=378400239&oldid=371755137 |
==Other contexts==
Condition numbers for [[singular-value decomposition]]s, [[polynomial]] [[root finding]], [[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined.
Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function ''ƒ'' mapping its data, which is an ''m''-tuple of real numbers ''x'', into its solution, an ''n''-tuple of real numbers ''ƒ''(''x'').
Its condition number is then defined to be the maximum value of the ratio
of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data, over the problem domain:
:<math>\max \left\{ \left| \frac{f(x) - f(x^*)}{f(x)} \right| \left/ \left| \frac{x - x^*}{x} \right| \right. : |x - x^*| < \varepsilon \right\}</math>
where ''ε'' is some reasonably small value in the variation of data for the problem.
If ''ƒ'' is also differentiable, this is approximately
:<math>\left| \frac{ f'(x) }{ f(x) } \right| \cdot \left| x \right|. </math>
And the condition number of the inverse of ''ƒ'' at ''ƒ''(''x'') is approximately
:<math>\left| \frac{ f(x) }{ f'(x) } \right| \cdot \left| \frac{1}{x} \right|. </math>
==External links==
| 20:52, 4 July 2010 |
==Other contexts==
Condition numbers can be defined for any function ''ƒ'' mapping its data from some [[function domain|domain]] (e.g. an ''m''-tuple of real numbers ''x'') into some [[codomain]] [e.g. an ''n''-tuple of real numbers ''ƒ''(''x'')], where both the domain and codomain are [[Banach space]]s. They express how sensitive that function is to small changes (or small errors) in its arguments. This is crucial in assessing the sensitivity and potential accuracy difficulties of numerous computational problems, for example [[polynomial]] [[root finding]] or computing [[eigenvalue]]s.
The condition number of ''ƒ'' at a point ''x'' (specifically, its '''relative condition number'''<ref name=TrefethenBau/>) is then defined to be the maximum ratio of the fractional change in ''ƒ''(''x'') to any fractional change in ''x'', in the limit where the change δ''x'' in ''x'' becomes infinitesimally small:<ref name=TrefethenBau>L. N. Trefethen and D. Bau, ''Numerical Linear Algebra'' (SIAM, 1997).</ref>
:<math>\lim_{\varepsilon \to 0^+} \sup_{\Vert \delta x \Vert \leq \varepsilon}
\left[ \frac{\left\Vert f(x + \delta x) - f(x)\right\Vert}{\Vert f(x) \Vert}
\left/ \frac{\Vert \delta x \Vert }{\Vert x \Vert} \right .
\right]</math>
where <math>\Vert \cdots \Vert</math> is a [[Norm (mathematics)|norm]] on the domain/codomain of ''ƒ''(''x'').
If ''ƒ'' is differentiable, this is equivalent to:<ref name=TrefethenBau/>
:<math>\frac{\Vert J \Vert}{ \Vert f(x) \Vert / \Vert x \Vert}, </math>
where ''J'' denotes the [[Jacobian matrix]] of [[partial derivative]]s of ''ƒ'' and <math>\Vert J \Vert</math> is the [[induced norm]] on the matrix.
==External links==
| 18:15, 11 August 2010 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chalcedonian_Definition&diff=256924346&oldid=256924271 | ==External links==
*[http://www.earlychurchtexts.com/main/chalcedon/chalcedonian_definition.shtml The Chalcedonian Creed in Greek and English at www.earlychurchtexts.com.]
[[Category:4th century Christian texts]]
[[Category:Christian confessions, creeds and statements of faith]]
[[Category:Christology]]
| 22:35, 9 December 2008 | ==External links==
*[http://www.earlychurchtexts.com/main/chalcedon/chalcedonian_definition.shtml The Chalcedonian Creed in Greek and English at www.earlychurchtexts.com.]
[[Category:5th century Christian texts]]
[[Category:Christian confessions, creeds and statements of faith]]
[[Category:Christology]]
| 22:35, 9 December 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chalcedonian_Definition&diff=275570839&oldid=269231488 | The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures". This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often known as "[[Monophysitism]]", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the "[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]" churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
==English translation==
:''We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach men to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;''<br>
:''truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body;''<br>
:''consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood;''<br>
:''in all things like unto us, without sin;''<br>
| 00:37, 8 February 2009 | The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures". This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often known as "[[Monophysitism]]", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the "[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]" churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
==English translation==
:''We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;''<br>
:''truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body;''<br>
:''consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood;''<br>
:''in all things like unto us, without sin;''<br>
| 09:01, 7 March 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chalcedonian_Definition&diff=313242674&oldid=308862670 | The '''Confession of Chalcedon''' (also '''Definition''' or '''Creed of Chalcedon'''), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
===Oriental Orthodox dissent===
The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the [[Bishop of Rome]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not.
The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures".
| 11:31, 19 August 2009 | The '''Confession of Chalcedon''' (also '''Definition''' or '''Creed of Chalcedon'''), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
===Oriental Orthodox dissent===
The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not.
The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures".
| 19:40, 11 September 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chalcedonian_Definition&diff=346425093&oldid=345833623 | The '''Confession of Chalcedon''' (also '''Definition''' or '''Creed of Chalcedon'''), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" {{fact}} or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
===Oriental Orthodox dissent===
The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not.
The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures".
This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often known as "[[Monophysitism]]", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the "[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]" churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
==English translation==
:''We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;''<br>
| 07:31, 23 February 2010 | The '''Confession of Chalcedon''' (also '''Definition''' or '''Creed of Chalcedon'''), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" {{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
===Oriental Orthodox dissent===
The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not.
The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures".
This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often known as "[[Monophysitism]]", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the "[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]" churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}
==English translation==
:''We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;''<br>
| 02:51, 26 February 2010 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chalcedonian_Definition&diff=347068939&oldid=346677165 | The '''Confession of Chalcedon''' (also '''Definition''' or '''Creed of Chalcedon'''), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" {{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
===Oriental Orthodox dissent===
The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not.{{cn}}
The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures".{{cn}}
This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often known as "[[Monophysitism]]", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the "[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]" churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}
| 13:10, 27 February 2010 | The '''Confession of Chalcedon''' (also '''Definition''' or '''Creed of Chalcedon'''), also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" {{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} or the "Two-Nature Doctrine", was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches. It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.
===Oriental Orthodox dissent===
The Chalcedonian creed was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged "'''from''' two natures" rather than "'''in''' two natures".{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often known as "[[Monophysitism]]", formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the "[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]" churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a mere restatement of orthodox belief by [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}
| 10:50, 1 March 2010 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chipmunk&diff=1797145&oldid=1797141 | *''T. umbrinus'' (Uinta chipmunk)
==Pop Culture References==
In the [[1950s]] a record of a sped-up Christmas song was released. The result was high-pitched cartoony voices, released as [[The Chipmunk Song]], which went on to win multiple [[Grammy Award|Grammys]].
This sparked a cartoon show [[Alvin and the Chipmunks]].
The characters substaintially regained popularity in the early to mid-[[1990s]], with a new TV series and many [[direct-to-video]] movie releases.
In Disney's animated movie [[The Emperor's New Groove]], character Krunk regularly converses with chipmunks, in their language of squeaks.
The [[De Havilland Chipmunk]] is a military training aircraft. | 04:08, 16 November 2003 | *''T. umbrinus'' (Uinta chipmunk)
==Pop Culture References==
In [[1958]] [[Ross Bagdasarian]] (using the stage name [[David Seville]], named after [[Seville, Spain]]) released "The Chipmunk Song" ("Christmas, Don't Be Late"), a sped-up recording of himself performing three-part harmony. The resulting high-pitched cartoony voices were named "Alvin", "Simon", and "Theodore" after executives at the record company which published the record. "The Chimpunk Song" went on to win two [[Grammy Award]]s and in [[1961]] lead to an [[animation|animated]] [[television series]], ''The Alvin Show''. The characters substaintially regained popularity in the early [[1980s]] with a new series, ''[[Alvin & The Chipmunks]]'', and several [[direct-to-video]] releases in the [[1990s]], with [[Ross Bagdasarian Jr.]] providing the voices of Dave, Alvin, and Simon, and [[Janice Karmen]] as Theodore.
In [[Disney]]'s animated movie ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'', character Krunk regularly converses with chipmunks, in their language of squeaks.
The [[De Havilland Chipmunk]] is a military training aircraf | 02:22, 23 November 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chipmunk&diff=33218878&oldid=33218575 | (based on a newspaper article freely rewritten and translated to english)
Norwegian newspapers URL http://www.dagbladet.no/nyheter/2005/12/29/453358.html
In Russia, December 2005, there has been reported a large group of chipmunks( not sure about the species , but they are said to be black, bigger than the usual chipmunk species and more agressive) has attacked and killed a straydog in a park . The attack lasted about 1 minute before passersby shued them away but it was to late for the dog who died. They reported seeing some chipmunks running away with chunks of meat from the dog .
The reason why they attacked the dog could be that the forests in Russia or that forest in particular is almost totally free for pinecones and what the chipmunks usually eat. According to russian scientists its highly unlikely that the chipmunks killed a dog, but there has also been rumours about chipmunks terrorizing cats in that aera before.
==Pop Culture References==
| 05:48, 30 December 2005 | (based on a newspaper article freely rewritten and translated to english)
Norwegian newspapers URL http://www.dagbladet.no/nyheter/2005/12/29/453358.html
In Russia, December 2005, there has been reported a large group of squirrels ( not sure about the species , but they are said to be black, bigger than the usual chipmunk/squirrel species and more agressive) has attacked and killed a straydog in a park . The attack lasted about 1 minute before passersby shued them away but it was to late for the dog who died. They reported seeing some squirrels running away with chunks of meat from the dog .
The reason why they attacked the dog could be that the forests in Russia or that forest in particular is almost totally free for pinecones and what the chipmunks usually eat. According to russian scientists its highly unlikely that the chipmunks killed a dog, but there has also been rumours about chipmunks/squirrels terrorizing cats in that aera before.
==Pop Culture References==
| 05:52, 30 December 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_companies_of_Canada&diff=1287512&oldid=1176171 | *[[Celestica]]
*[[CIBC]] (formerly Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce)
*[[CTV]] (Canadian Television Network)
*[[Daimler Chrysler Canada]]
*[[EnCana]]
*[[Ford Canada]]
*[[General Electric Canada]]
| 17:44, 21 July 2003 | *[[Celestica]]
*[[CIBC]] (formerly Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce)
*[[CTV]] (Canadian Television Network)
*[[DaimlerChrysler|DaimlerChrysler Canada]]
*[[EnCana]]
*[[Ford Canada]]
*[[General Electric Canada]]
| 18:10, 21 July 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_companies_of_Canada&diff=1774868&oldid=1774849 | *[[Bank of Montreal]]
*[[Bank of Nova Scotia]]
*[[Bata Shoes]] (world's largest shoe company)
*[[BCE]] (Bell Canada Something)
*[[Beckers Milk|Becker's Milk]]
*[[Bell Canada]]
*[[Bombardier]] (transportation)
| 04:29, 20 November 2003 | *[[Bank of Montreal]]
*[[Bank of Nova Scotia]]
*[[Bata Shoes]] (world's largest shoe company)
*[[BCE]] (Bell Canada Enterprises)
*[[Beckers Milk|Becker's Milk]]
*[[Bell Canada]]
*[[Bombardier]] (transportation)
| 04:32, 20 November 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_companies_of_Canada&diff=2923341&oldid=2774742 | *[[Roots (company)|Roots]]
*[[Royal Bank of Canada]]
*[[SNC-Lavalin]] (engineering)
*[[Seagram]] (spirits & wine)
*[[Bank of Nova Scotia|ScotiaBank]]
*[[Scott Paper Limited]]
*[[Shaw Cable]]
*[[Sobeys]]
*[[Swiss Chalet]]
*[[Sun Life Assurance]]
*[[TD-Canada Trust]]
*[[Videotron]] (now owned by [[Quebecor]])
*[[WestJet]] (airline)
==Former companies, including acquired and merged ones==
*[[Future Shop]], acquired by [[Best Buy]]
*[[Gulf Canada Resources]], acquired by [[Conoco]]
*[[Seagram]] (spirits & wine)
*[[WardAir]], acquired by [[Canadian Airlines]]
*[[Westcoast Energy]], acquired by [[Duke Energy]]
| 10:04, 15 March 2004 | *[[Roots (company)|Roots]]
*[[Royal Bank of Canada]]
*[[SNC-Lavalin]] (engineering)
*[[Bank of Nova Scotia|ScotiaBank]]
*[[Scott Paper Limited]]
*[[Shaw Cable]]
*[[Sobeys]]
*[[Swiss Chalet]]
*[[Sun Life Assurance]]
*[[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[WestJet]] (airline)
==Former companies, including acquired and merged ones==
*[[Future Shop]], acquired by [[Best Buy]]
*[[Gulf Canada Resources]], acquired by [[Conoco]]
*[[Seagram]] (spirits & wine)
*[[Videotron]] (now owned by [[Quebecor]])
*[[WardAir]], acquired by [[Canadian Airlines]]
*[[Westcoast Energy]], acquired by [[Duke Energy]]
| 10:07, 15 March 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=List_of_companies_of_Canada&diff=4509009&oldid=4259286 | *[[Sobeys]]
*[[Swiss Chalet]]
*[[Sun Life Assurance]]
*[[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[VIA Rail]] (government-owned passenger train service)
*[[WestJet]] (airline)
| 11:18, 18 June 2004 | *[[Sobeys]]
*[[Swiss Chalet]]
*[[Sun Life Assurance]]
* [[Tembec]]
*[[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[VIA Rail]] (government-owned passenger train service)
*[[WestJet]] (airline)
| 16:46, 24 June 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Chernobyl&diff=2627648&oldid=2627638 | : Actually it means [[Mugwort]], but they are both ''Artemisia''. Mugworth is ''Artemisia vulgaris L'' and wormwood is ''Artemisia absinthium''. // [[User:Liftarn|Liftarn]]
'', but may very well be a combination of ''cherneej'' (black) and ''beel'' (a species of grass) so Chernoby may mean "black grass", hinting the burning of land before cultivation. ''
Actually, ''byl'' (not beel) Ukrainian и matches Russian ы sound, hence the transliteration is like in [[Kyiv]]) here is a collective noun for Bylina, which is grass blade or stalk, and the term is literally "black stalk". This grass is absolutely everywhere in Ukrainian steppes and has certain poetic associations in folklore, and no wonder the city was named so. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 18:20, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)
This article needs to be organized better, and it requires an NPOV treatment of the strongly varying estimates of deaths that can be attributed to the accident so far:
| 18:20, 4 March 2004 | : Actually it means [[Mugwort]], but they are both ''Artemisia''. Mugworth is ''Artemisia vulgaris L'' and wormwood is ''Artemisia absinthium''. // [[User:Liftarn|Liftarn]]
'', but may very well be a combination of ''cherneej'' (black) and ''beel'' (a species of grass) so Chernoby may mean "black grass", hinting the burning of land before cultivation. ''
Actually, ''byl'' (not beel) Ukrainian и matches Russian ы sound, hence the transliteration is like in [[Kyiv]]) here is a collective noun for Bylina, which is grass blade or stalk, and the term is literally "black stalk". This grass is absolutely everywhere in Ukrainian steppes and has certain poetic associations in folklore, and no wonder the city was named so. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 18:21, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)
This article needs to be organized better, and it requires an NPOV treatment of the strongly varying estimates of deaths that can be attributed to the accident so far:
| 18:21, 4 March 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Chernobyl&diff=6356718&oldid=5976423 |
Should be moved to [[Chernobyl]]
:This has been discussed above, and the article staes the official Ukra[i]nian name. But as it relates to English, people call it Chernobyl, and probably will for a long time because of the accident. The Russian letter which looks like "ë" is transliterated "e" here not "o", even if it is pronounced "yo".--[[User:Henrygb|Henrygb]] 01:09, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
== Distance between Chernobyl and the power plant. ==
| 15:26, 18 September 2004 |
Should be moved to [[Chernobyl]]
:This has been discussed above, and the article states the official Ukrainian name. But as it relates to English, people call it Chernobyl, and probably will for a long time because of the accident. The Russian letter which looks like "ë" is transliterated "e" here not "o", even if it is pronounced "yo".--[[User:Henrygb|Henrygb]] 01:09, 7 Aug 2004 (UTC)
:Unlike Gorbachev, there is no Russian letter or sound "ë" in this word. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]] 23:36, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)
== Distance between Chernobyl and the power plant. ==
| 23:36, 18 September 2004 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Chernobyl&diff=9707480&oldid=9596431 |
kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] “and the name of the star is called wormwood”.
Which clearly says that it was Artemisia Absinthium.
The kook talk is over. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]]
Oh, almost forgotten: the german text I was talking about: „und der Name des Sterns heißt Wermut“.
| 23:21, 23 January 2005 |
kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos [καὶ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ ἀστέρος λέγεται ὁ Ἄψινθος] “and the name of the star is called wormwood”.
Which clearly says that it was Artemisia Absinthium. "Chornobyl" is not "Apsinthos".
The kook talk is over. [[User:Mikkalai|Mikkalai]]
Oh, almost forgotten: the german text I was talking about: „und der Name des Sterns heißt Wermut“.
| 23:23, 23 January 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Chernobyl&diff=15196691&oldid=11627855 | ==Disambiguation Page==
I've decided to make this a disambiguation page, because this name can refer to Chornobyl or the CIH Virus, both of which are infamous. NOTE: On second thought, I changed it back. X_X. I did mention the virus in the Chornobyl article tho - [[User:WhisperToMe|Whisper]]
I removed this comment from the article, this page is a more appropriate place:
| 10:57, 2 February 2005 | ==Disambiguation Page==
I've decided to make this a disambiguation page, because this name can refer to Chornobyl or the CIH Virus, both of which are infamous. NOTE: On second thought, I changed it back. X_X. I did mention the virus in the Chornobyl article tho - [[User:WhisperToMe|Whisper]]
:* I couldn't find a mention of the CIH virus, so I'm going to add a note at the top of the article. Unless I missed something? [[User:Phoenix-forgotten|Phoenix-forgotten]] 00:12, 2005 Mar 29 (UTC)
I removed this comment from the article, this page is a more appropriate place:
| 00:12, 29 March 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CID&diff=18145637&oldid=15905169 | * The [[Committee of Imperial Defence]] which was formed in [[1904]] and responsible for directing British [[military strategy]].
* NASA's [[Controlled Impact Demonstration]].
* The [[International Dance Council|Counseil International de la Dance]] (english: International Dance Council)
* The [[Criminal Investigation Department]] within the [[British]] police force.
* Cubic-inch [[engine displacement|displacement]] in [[automobiles]].
'''CID''' can also refer to:
| 12:16, 21 June 2005 | * The [[Committee of Imperial Defence]] which was formed in [[1904]] and responsible for directing British [[military strategy]].
* NASA's [[Controlled Impact Demonstration]].
* The [[International Dance Council|Counseil International de la Dance]] (english: International Dance Council)
* The [[Criminal Investigation Department]] within [[United Kingdom]] police forces.
* Cubic-inch [[engine displacement|displacement]] in [[automobiles]].
'''CID''' can also refer to:
| 19:39, 4 July 2005 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=CID&diff=73091216&oldid=68294282 | As an acronym '''CID''' can refer to (in alphabetical order):
* Telephone [[Caller ID]].
* [http://dc.ipc.org/education/eduhome.htm Cirtified Interconnect Designer]
* [[CVV2|Card Identification Number]], a security feature on [[American Express]] credit cards.
* A [[charge-injection device]] which is a light-sensor based on [[photodiode]]s.
* [[CID fonts]].
| 23:49, 7 August 2006 | As an acronym '''CID''' can refer to (in alphabetical order):
* Telephone [[Caller ID]].
* [[C.I.D.+|Certified Interconnect Designer]]
* [[CVV2|Card Identification Number]], a security feature on [[American Express]] credit cards.
* A [[charge-injection device]] which is a light-sensor based on [[photodiode]]s.
* [[CID fonts]].
| 20:33, 31 August 2006 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:Complete_list_of_language_wikis_available&diff=84374&oldid=84350 |
<hr>
02/06/2002 In the list [[Complete list of non-English Wikipedias available]] is the entry <i>Belorussian language - Belorussian language wiki: be </i>. So the Language Code is <b>be</b><br>
But if you look at the list of codes http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm you see <b>be</b> is the code of the Breton language. Belorussian is not on this list. So what now ? [[giskart]] | 10:27, 2 June 2002 |
<hr>
02/06/2002 In the list [[Complete list of non-English Wikipedias available]] is the entry <i>Belorussian language - Belorussian language wiki: be </i>. So the Language Code is <b>be</b><br>
But if you look at the list of codes http://www.w3.org/WAI/ER/IG/ert/iso639.htm you see <b>be</b> is the code of the Breton language. Belorussian is not on this list. So what now ? [[giskart]]
:The correct 2-letter code for Breton is <code>br</code>, the above list is wrong. If you want a Breton wikipedia, ask Jimbo to set one up. [[user:Brion VIBBER|Brion VIBBER]] | 11:55, 2 June 2002 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:Complete_list_of_language_wikis_available&diff=648923&oldid=647836 |
I would like to create a wikipedia in [[Low Saxon]], which is spoken by more than 1 million people but is not listed with a code in iso-639. Would it be possible to set up a Low Saxon version?
:Why does Volapuk have a code and can have its own version when there are like 30 people who speak it and things like [[Low Saxon]] and [[Pennsylvania German]] don't have codes and can't have a Wikipedia? Doesn't make sense to me. Of course it's not Wikipedia's fault it doensn't have an ISO code. | 01:30, 7 February 2003 |
I would like to create a wikipedia in [[Low Saxon]], which is spoken by more than 1 million people but is not listed with a code in iso-639. Would it be possible to set up a Low Saxon version?
:Why does Volapuk have a code and can have its own version when there are like 30 people who speak it and things like [[Low Saxon]] and [[Pennsylvania German]] don't have codes and can't have a Wikipedia? Doesn't make sense to me. Of course it's not Wikipedia's fault it doensn't have an ISO code.
:: The projects' goal is roughly the creation of an authoritative general compedium of the sum human knowledge in all languages, Nobel Goal. Nothing stops you from choosing the lingustically correct title. I think in my retirement I might create syllabaries of languages that don't yet have a written form. But nothing changes the convention established about the naming of entries based on search engine results expected by average users. I think that linguistic project to examine the teaching possibilities of Esperanto would have untold side effects for this GNU DocL project. Please leave me a message 132, I am Heartfelt when I say that I always wanted an esperanto freind. [[Two16]] | 01:33, 7 February 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:Complete_list_of_language_wikis_available&diff=1430027&oldid=1429767 | Is it possible to start a mapuche wikipedia?
:And what about an [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]] wikipedia and an [[Asturian language|Asturian]] wikipedia?
| 19:08, 6 August 2003 | Is it possible to start a mapuche wikipedia?
:And what about an [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]] wikipedia and an [[Asturian language|Asturian]] wikipedia?
== it.wikipedia.com offline ==
''Moved from [[Wikipedia:Village pump]] on [[Saturday]], [[September 13]]th, 0[[2003]].''
http://it.wikipedia.com/ gives "The page you are looking for is currently unavailable." Where is the best place to report something like this? Thanks, [[User:Fantasy|Fantasy]] 14:19, 7 Sep 2003 (UTC)
:The server hosting all the *.wikipedia.com wikis is offline at the moment. :( It's being looked into, hopefully should be back up within a day. (Apparently it won't come up on a remote reboot, so Jason the tech guy has to go in to the colocation center and bang on it in person.) --[[User:Brion VIBBER|Brion]] 16:45, 7 Sep 2003 (UTC) | 00:05, 14 September 2003 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Christiaan_Barnard&diff=291119721&oldid=280457784 | }}
{{AfricaProject|class=C|importance=high|South Africa=yes}}
{{WPMED|class=C|importance=Low}}
== Id references ==
| 17:51, 29 March 2009 | }}
{{AfricaProject|class=C|importance=high|South Africa=yes}}
{{WPMED|class=C|importance=Low}}
{{OnThisDay|date1=2007-12-03|oldid1=175567414|date2=2008-12-03|oldid2=255597356}}
== Id references ==
| 06:05, 20 May 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Christiaan_Barnard&diff=329569366&oldid=324244329 | {{WPBiography|living=no|class=B|priority=|listas=Barnard, Christiaan}}
{{AfricaProject|class=C|importance=high|South Africa=yes|South Africa-importance=High}}
{{WPMED|class=C|importance=Low}}
}}{{OnThisDay|date1=2007-12-03|oldid1=175567414|date2=2008-12-03|oldid2=255597356}}
== Id references ==
| 08:55, 6 November 2009 | {{WPBiography|living=no|class=B|priority=|listas=Barnard, Christiaan}}
{{AfricaProject|class=C|importance=high|South Africa=yes|South Africa-importance=High}}
{{WPMED|class=C|importance=Low}}
}}{{OnThisDay|date1=2007-12-03|oldid1=175567414|date2=2008-12-03|oldid2=255597356|date3=2009-12-03|oldid3=329399159}}
== Id references ==
| 00:02, 4 December 2009 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Christiaan_Barnard&diff=584446704&oldid=582948013 | {{WikiProject Biography|living=no|class=B|listas=Barnard, Christiaan}}
{{WikiProject South Africa|class=C |importance=High }}
{{WikiProject Medicine|class=C|importance=Mid}}
}}{{On this day|date1=2007-12-03|oldid1=175567414|date2=2008-12-03|oldid2=255597356|date3=2009-12-03|oldid3=329399159|date4=2010-12-03|oldid4=400336668}}
==Message from 2001==
Christiaan Barnard died whilst on holiday in Paphos, Cyprus. Early reports claimed that he had died of a heart attack, although an autopsy showed that he died as the result of an acute asthma attack. <small><span class="autosigned">— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Robert Brook|Robert Brook]] ([[User talk:Robert Brook|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Robert Brook|contribs]]) 14:56, 20 November 2001 (UTC)</span></small><!-- Template:Unsigned -->
| 12:51, 23 November 2013 | {{WikiProject Biography|living=no|class=B|listas=Barnard, Christiaan}}
{{WikiProject South Africa|class=C |importance=High }}
{{WikiProject Medicine|class=C|importance=Mid}}
}}{{On this day|date1=2007-12-03|oldid1=175567414|date2=2008-12-03|oldid2=255597356|date3=2009-12-03|oldid3=329399159|date4=2010-12-03|oldid4=400336668|date5=2013-12-03|oldid5=584231433}}
==Message from 2001==
Christiaan Barnard died whilst on holiday in Paphos, Cyprus. Early reports claimed that he had died of a heart attack, although an autopsy showed that he died as the result of an acute asthma attack. <small><span class="autosigned">— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Robert Brook|Robert Brook]] ([[User talk:Robert Brook|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Robert Brook|contribs]]) 14:56, 20 November 2001 (UTC)</span></small><!-- Template:Unsigned -->
| 00:03, 4 December 2013 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Christiaan_Barnard&diff=754886399&oldid=754641008 |
::This is a pretty substantial achievement which should be included in our article, and frankly pretty scary. [[User:FriendlyRiverOtter|FriendlyRiverOtter]] ([[User talk:FriendlyRiverOtter|talk]]) 03:36, 7 December 2016 (UTC)
[http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/5020/4123 Transplantation of the heart: An overview of 40 years’ clinical and research experience at Groote Schuur Hospital and the University of Cape Town], ''South African Medical Journal'', "Part I. Surgical experience and clinical studies." J Hassoulas, Vol. 102, No. 6 (2012).
::This is another good article. [[User:FriendlyRiverOtter|FriendlyRiverOtter]] ([[User talk:FriendlyRiverOtter|talk]]) 04:36, 7 December 2016 (UTC)
== Barnard came up with slightly different technique while drowsily listening to music afternoon before first transplant? ==
''Every Second Counts: The Race to Transplant the First Human Heart'', Donald McRae, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2Fv9dRT9TC4C&pg=PT162&lpg=PT162&dq=%22Barnard+eventually+became+drowsy+and+he+drifted+in+and+out+of+sleep%22&source=bl&ots=0sfC-nP083&sig=xGL_NszJxgKT5LeGYIbA5FZiREI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiIjOGE7vHQAhXmrVQKHdWDBkkQ6AEIGjAA#v=onepage&q=%22Barnard%20eventually%20became%20drowsy%20and%20he%20drifted%20in%20and%20out%20of%20sleep%22&f=false page 187]:
| 19:06, 13 December 2016 |
::This is a pretty substantial achievement which should be included in our article, and frankly pretty scary. [[User:FriendlyRiverOtter|FriendlyRiverOtter]] ([[User talk:FriendlyRiverOtter|talk]]) 03:36, 7 December 2016 (UTC)
[http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/view/5020/4123 Transplantation of the heart: An overview of 40 years’ clinical and research experience at Groote Schuur Hospital and the University of Cape Town], ''South African Medical Journal'', "Part I. Surgical experience and clinical studies." J Hassoulas, Vol. 102, No. 6 (2012).
::This is another good article. [[User:FriendlyRiverOtter|FriendlyRiverOtter]] ([[User talk:FriendlyRiverOtter|talk]]) 04:36, 7 December 2016 (UTC)
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1470356.stm Christiaan Barnard: Single-minded surgeon], BBC, Sunday Sept. 2, 2001.
" . . . These included double transplants, joining a healthy heart to the patient's to create a "double pump", designing artificial heart valves and using monkeys' hearts to keep alive desperately ill people. . . "
::And this BBC obituary has other good information as well. [[User:FriendlyRiverOtter|FriendlyRiverOtter]] ([[User talk:FriendlyRiverOtter|talk]]) 01:23, 15 December 2016 (UTC)
== Barnard came up with slightly different technique while drowsily listening to music afternoon before first transplant? ==
''Every Second Counts: The Race to Transplant the First Human Heart'', Donald McRae, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2Fv9dRT9TC4C&pg=PT162&lpg=PT162&dq=%22Barnard+eventually+became+drowsy+and+he+drifted+in+and+out+of+sleep%22&source=bl&ots=0sfC-nP083&sig=xGL_NszJxgKT5LeGYIbA5FZiREI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiIjOGE7vHQAhXmrVQKHdWDBkkQ6AEIGjAA#v=onepage&q=%22Barnard%20eventually%20became%20drowsy%20and%20he%20drifted%20in%20and%20out%20of%20sleep%22&f=false page 187]:
| 01:23, 15 December 2016 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cross-examination&diff=235303170&oldid=235193332 | {{unreferenced}}{{EvidenceLaw}}
:''See [[Structure of policy debate]] for cross-examination in [[policy debate]].''
In [[law]], '''cross-examination''' is the interrogation of a [[witness]] called by one's opponent. It is preceded by [[direct examination]] (in [[England]], [[Australia]] and [[Canada]] known as [[examination-in-chief]]) and may be followed by a [[Redirect examination|redirect]] ([[re-examination]] in England, Australia, and Canada).
In the [[United States]], the cross-examining [[lawyer|attorney]] is typically not permitted to ask questions which do not pertain to the facts revealed in direct examination. This is called going beyond the scope of the direct examination. This does not apply in England, Australia, and Canada, where once a witness is called the opponent's lawyer can ask any question relevant to the issues in the trial.
Unlike in direct examinations, however, [[leading question]]s are typically permitted in a cross-examination, since the witness is presumed to be unsympathetic to the opposing side{{cn}}.
The main purposes of cross-examination are to elicit favorable facts from the witness, or to impeach the credibility of the testifying witness to lessen the weight of unfavourable testimony.
Cross-examination frequently produces critical evidence in [[trial]]s, especially if a witness contradicts previous testimony. The advocate [[Edward Marshall-Hall]] built his career on cross-examination which often involved histrionic outbursts designed to sway [[jurors]].
* [[Testimony]]
* [[Witness impeachment]]
[[Category:Criminal procedure]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[de:Kreuzverhör]]
[[sv:Korsförhör]]
==External links==
* [http://www.trialtheater.com/wordpress/2008/cross-examination/video-leading/ "The Secret to Successful Cross-Examination"] Video - The Secret to Successful Cross-Examination
{{law-term-stub}}
{{Speech-and-debate-stub}} | 15:09, 30 August 2008 | {{Unreferenced|date=August 2008}}{{EvidenceLaw}}
:''See [[Structure of policy debate]] for cross-examination in [[policy debate]].''
In [[law]], '''cross-examination''' is the interrogation of a [[witness]] called by one's opponent. It is preceded by [[direct examination]] (in [[England]], [[Australia]] and [[Canada]] known as [[examination-in-chief]]) and may be followed by a [[Redirect examination|redirect]] ([[re-examination]] in England, Australia, and Canada).
In the [[United States]], the cross-examining [[lawyer|attorney]] is typically not permitted to ask questions which do not pertain to the facts revealed in direct examination. This is called going beyond the scope of the direct examination. This does not apply in England, Australia, and Canada, where once a witness is called the opponent's lawyer can ask any question relevant to the issues in the trial.
Unlike in direct examinations, however, [[leading question]]s are typically permitted in a cross-examination, since the witness is presumed to be unsympathetic to the opposing side{{Fact|date=August 2008}}.
The main purposes of cross-examination are to elicit favorable facts from the witness, or to impeach the credibility of the testifying witness to lessen the weight of unfavourable testimony.
Cross-examination frequently produces critical evidence in [[trial]]s, especially if a witness contradicts previous testimony. The advocate [[Edward Marshall-Hall]] built his career on cross-examination which often involved histrionic outbursts designed to sway [[jurors]].
* [[Testimony]]
* [[Witness impeachment]]
==External links==
* [http://www.trialtheater.com/wordpress/2008/cross-examination/video-leading/ "The Secret to Successful Cross-Examination"] Video - The Secret to Successful Cross-Examination
[[Category:Criminal procedure]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
{{law-term-stub}}
{{Speech-and-debate-stub}}
[[de:Kreuzverhör]]
[[sv:Korsförhör]] | 02:31, 31 August 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chemical_affinity&diff=255074476&oldid=236303021 | The present [[IUPAC]] definition of chemical [[affinity]] is: '''Negative partial derivative of Gibbs energy with respect to extent of reaction at constant pressure and temperature. It is positive for spontaneous reactions'''.<ref> [http://www.IUPAC.org IUPAC Green Book and Gold Book in .pdf]</ref>
== History ==
"Chemical affinity", historically, refers to the "[[electromagnetic force|force]]" that causes [[chemical reaction]]s.<ref>[[Thomas Thomson]]. (1831). ''A System of Chemistry'', vol. 1. p.31 (chemical affinity is described as an "unknown force"). 7th ed., 2 vols.</ref> A broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition.<ref name="Levere" >{{cite book | last = Levere | first = Trevor, H. | title = Affinity and Matter – Elements of Chemical Philosophy 1800-1865 | publisher = Gordon and Breach Science Publishers | year = 1971 | id = ISBN 2881245838}}</ref> In current use, it
The following statement, made by [[Ilya Prigogine]], summarizes the concept of affinity:
| 19:57, 4 September 2008 | The present [[IUPAC]] definition of chemical [[affinity]] is: '''Negative partial derivative of Gibbs energy with respect to extent of reaction at constant pressure and temperature. It is positive for spontaneous reactions'''.<ref> [http://www.IUPAC.org IUPAC Green Book and Gold Book in .pdf]</ref>
== History ==
"Chemical affinity", historically, refers to the "[[electromagnetic force|force]]" that causes [[chemical reaction]]s.<ref>[[Thomas Thomson]]. (1831). ''A System of Chemistry'', vol. 1. p.31 (chemical affinity is described as an "unknown force"). 7th ed., 2 vols.</ref> A broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition.<ref name="Levere" >{{cite book | last = Levere | first = Trevor, H. | title = Affinity and Matter – Elements of Chemical Philosophy 1800-1865 | publisher = Gordon and Breach Science Publishers | year = 1971 | isbn = 2881245838}}</ref> In current use, it
The following statement, made by [[Ilya Prigogine]], summarizes the concept of affinity:
| 22:20, 30 November 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet_Hale–Bopp&diff=107854872&oldid=100022045 | {{skiptotoctalk}}
{{featured}}
{{WPCD}}
{{v0.5|class=FA|category=Natsci}}
{{FAOL|Spanish|es:Cometa Hale-Bopp}}
{{Mainpage date|March 10|2005}}
4200 years or 2300 years before it comes back? --rmhermen
:Just to note this is now answered in the article - its period was 4200 years but is now 2380 due to gravitational interaction with Jupiter. [[User:Worldtraveller|Worldtraveller]] 16:39, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC)
:: I assume from reading the article and the above comment that this means its return will be 2380 years from 1997? Article altered accordingly to remove time-sensitive reference. --[[User:RobertG|RobertG]] ♬ [[User talk:RobertG|talk]] 6 July 2005 10:12 (UTC)
| 17:16, 11 January 2007 | {{skiptotoctalk}}
{{ArticleHistory
|action1=FAC
|action1date=00:32, 1 Mar 2005
|action1link=Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Comet Hale-Bopp
|action1result=promoted
|action1oldid=10873080
|maindate=March 10, 2005
|currentstatus=FA
}}
{{WPCD}}
{{v0.5|class=FA|category=Natsci}}
{{FAOL|Spanish|es:Cometa Hale-Bopp}}
4200 years or 2300 years before it comes back? --rmhermen
:Just to note this is now answered in the article - its period was 4200 years but is now 2380 due to gravitational interaction with Jupiter. [[User:Worldtraveller|Worldtraveller]] 16:39, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC)
:: I assume from reading the article and the above comment that this means its return will be 2380 years from 1997? Article altered accordingly to remove time-sensitive reference. --[[User:RobertG|RobertG]] ♬ [[User talk:RobertG|talk]] 6 July 2005 10:12 (UTC)
| 17:15, 13 February 2007 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Talk:Comet_Hale–Bopp&diff=214675357&oldid=187991785 | |maindate=March 10, 2005
|currentstatus=FA
}}
{{WPSS|class=FA}}
{{WPCD|small=yes}}
{{v0.5|class=FA|category=Natsci|small=yes}}
==older entries==
| 20:30, 30 January 2008 | |maindate=March 10, 2005
|currentstatus=FA
}}
{{WPSpace|astro_object=yes|solar_system=yes|class=FA}}
{{WPCD|small=yes}}
{{v0.5|class=FA|category=Natsci|small=yes}}
==older entries==
| 18:57, 24 May 2008 | 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=Cholistan_Desert&diff=154791090&oldid=152915327 | The word Cholistan is derived from ''Cholna'' which means "moving". The people of Cholistan lead a semi-nomadic life, moving from one place to another in search of water and fodder for their animals. The dry bed of the [[Hakra River]] runs through the area, along which many settlements of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] have been found. <!--Dubitable: The Hakra River is believed to be the remnant of ancient Sarasvati River.-->
==History==
Cholistan has changed amazingly over the history. The desert was under perennial regular irrigated cultivation till 1200 B C and under seasonal regular irrigated cultivation till about 600 B C. The area turned into arid and desolate desert with drying up of River Hakra. These days again, the desert is undergoing a process of profound change because of canal system originating from the River Sutlaj. But one can still find people living in houses made of mud and straw almost as they might have been living 200 years ago.
==External links==
* [http://www.pakbanners.com/pakistan/Cholistan.html About Cholistan, Pakistan]
| 13:24, 22 August 2007 | The word Cholistan is derived from ''Cholna'' which means "moving". The people of Cholistan lead a semi-nomadic life, moving from one place to another in search of water and fodder for their animals. The dry bed of the [[Hakra River]] runs through the area, along which many settlements of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] have been found. <!--Dubitable: The Hakra River is believed to be the remnant of ancient Sarasvati River.-->
==History==
Cholistan has changed amazingly over the history. The desert was under perennial regular irrigated cultivation till 1200 BCE and under seasonal regular irrigated cultivation till about 600 BCE {{facts}}. The area turned into arid and desolate desert with drying up of River Hakra. These days again, the desert is undergoing a process of profound change because of canal system originating from the River Sutlaj. But one can still find people living in houses made of mud and straw almost as they might have been living 200 years ago.
==External links==
* [http://www.pakbanners.com/pakistan/Cholistan.html About Cholistan, Pakistan]
| 11:54, 31 August 2007 | 1 |
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